LIBRARY Michigan State grin/ersity This is to certify that the dissertation entitled RETHINKING CODE-SWITCHING TYPES AND THEIR EFFECTIVENESS IN PRINT ADS: THE INFLUENCE OF WORD DIFFICULTY ON THE PROCESSING OF CODE- SWITCHING TYPES presented by Jungsun Ahn has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree in Communication Arts and Sciences — Media and Information Studies Major Professor’s Signature MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 5/08 ICIProj/Aoc8Pres/CIRC/DateDueJndd RETHIN KING CODE-SWITCHING TYPES AND THEIR EFFECTIVENESS IN PRINT ADS: THE INFLUENCE OF WORD DIFFICULTY ON THE PROCESSING OF CODE-SWITCHING TYPES By J ungsun Ahn A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Communication Arts and Sciences - Media and Information Studies 2010 ABSTRACT RETHINKING CODE-SWITCHING TYPES AND THEIR EFFECTIVENESS IN PRINT ADS: THE INFLUENCE OF WORD DIFFICULTY ON THE PROCESSING OF CODE-SWITCHING TYPES By J ungsun Ahn Code-switching is a mixed-language approach where linguistic elements of one language are inserted into another language. This tactic is often used to target bilingual consumers. Most of the previous studies on the code-switching effects in advertising have focused on code-switching between languages having a common writing system. This dissertation re-conceptualized written code-switching by focusing on code- switching between two different alphabetic languages: the Korean language (using Hangeul alphabets) and the English language (using Roman alphabets). It was theorized that code-switching between two different alphabetic languages can introduce a new type of code-switching (transliterated code-switching) due to the alphabetic languages’ ability to transcribe other languages into their own. The author proposed that three practical code-switching types can be identified when code-switching is made between the Korean language and the English language: English-Korean (EK) code-switching (inserting a Korean word into an English slogan), Korean—English (KE) code-switching (inserting an English word into a Korean slogan), and Transliterated Korean-English (TL-KB) code- switching (inserting a transliterated English word into a Korean slogan). Two studies were conducted to examine the process and effect of the three code- switching types in a Korean advertising context from the Markedness Model perspective. The Markedness Model explains the underlying mechanism of how code-switching can deliver social meanings of a certain language and how those meanings can be associated with an ad and an advertised product. Study I examined the effect of the newly introduced code-switching (TL-KE code—switching) in relation to the two existing code-switching types. The results indicated that the TL-KE slogan was found more effective than the EK slogan as hypothesized, but no significant difference was found between the TL-KE code-switching and the KB code- switching. The author argued that the unexpected finding was due to the perceived easiness of the embedded English words used in both TL-KE and KB slogans. Thus, based on the Revised Hierarchical Model which can explain how Koreans perceive and process easy versus difficult English words, Study 2 was undertaken to further investigate whether perceived difficulty level of English words moderates the effect of code-switching types on product evaluation. The findings showed that there was no significant difference between the TL-KE and the KB slogans when easy English words were embedded whereas the KB slogan was found more effective than the TL-KE slogan when the embedded English words were perceived difficult by bilingual Koreans. . This dissertation expands earlier code-switching studies in several ways. First, it introduced transliterated code-switching and explored its effectiveness in relation to pre- identified code-switching types. In doing so, it shed light on the processes involved in creating written code-switching. Second, it identified perceived difficulty level of English words as a moderating variable between code-switching type and produce evaluation. The results also provide helpful guidelines for advertisers targeting young bilingual Koreans as well as for advertisers planning to mix two languages in their ads. Copyright by Jungsun Ahn 2010 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I owe everlasting gratefulness to many people who have helped, supported, and encouraged me during the completion of this dissertation. First and foremost, I am heartily thankful to my mentor, Dr. Carrie La Ferle. Without her inspiration, guidance, and unlimited support, this dissertation would not have been possible. She was my initial dissertation committee chair and left to Southern Methodist University after my dissertation proposal defense. Even though she was not obligated, she has continuously guided me and helped me completing this dissertation. I really cannot thank her enough for this. I have known her for ten years and she has been not only a great teacher who is dedicated to train me in researching and teaching, but also a friend who sincerely cares about my happiness and success. I can hardly believe how much I have learned from her and my words cannot express how much I thank her. My gratitude also goes to Dr. Keith Adler, my current dissertation committee chair. I truly appreciate him for being considerate and supportive and for providing me helpful advice. I would like to acknowledge the support and cooperation from my dissertation committee members through various means. Dr. Bonnie Reece has been incredibly positive and encouraging and I will always remember and appreciate her kindness and excellent advice. I appreciate Dr. Tom Page for his prompt feedback and for giving me insightful and constructive comments. I want to thank Dr. Bruce Vanden Bergh for being generous and supportive. I also want to express my gratitude to Dr. Steve Edwards and Dr. Teresa Mastin, who were very helpful and supportive in the early stage of my dissertation. I have many people to thank for helping me in various ways. I am grateful to Dr. Federicco De Gregorio for professional editing of my manuscript and his friendship. I would like to thank Dr. Jenghoon Lee, Dr. Pumsoon Park, Dr. Sunghae Kim, Dr. Byoungkwan Lee, and Kwonjoon Yoo for helping me recruiting subjects in data collection. I am grateful to Eunsun Lee and Jounghwa Choi for helping me in data collection and for their wonderful friendship over the years. I also appreciate Mikyoung Kim for her sincere friendship and for submitting this dissertation to the Graduate School for me as I am currently residing in Alabama. Even though I cannot name all the individuals because there are so many, I extend many thanks to my colleagues and professors at MSU and my friends in both Korea and the United States for their friendship and support during my doctoral program. I would like to express my greatest gratitude to my parents, Byung-Il Ahn and J ung-J a Lee, for their unconditional love, encouragement, support, and trust in me. Their love and belief in my abilities made me strong especially during tough times. I owe special thanks to my sisters, Minjung Ahn and J ungyoun Ahn for their constant love and support and for helping me creating stimulus ads. My niece, Soomin Yoo, deserves my thanks for loving and being proud of me. My special gratitude also goes to my parents-in-law, Hak-Nae Lee and Jung-Sock Shin for loving me and providing me unlimited support. I cannot forget my American- mom, Ruth Lundy, for being always there for me during both good and tough times. vi I dedicate this dissertation to my husband, Doohwang Lee, and my two-years-old daughter, Lissa Seoyeong Lee. Throughout this journey, Doohwang has given me unconditional love, unlimited support, and countless help and advice. He is always positive, encouraging, and resourceful and he has been the major source of my strength. I want to express my special thanks to him for dedicating his time to take care of our daughter as I was finishing up this dissertation. Without his help and sacrifice, this dissertation would never have been possible. My daughter, Seoyeong, deserves my appreciation for being the fuel of my life. She has taught me the joy of loving and brought lots of laughs and happiness into my life and my family. Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me in any respect during the completion of my degree and this dissertation. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................. x LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................. xi INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER 1 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 6 Languages in Korean Culture ..................................................................... 6 Korean Language in Korean Culture .................................................... 7 Hangeul in Korean Culture ...................................................... 8 Koreans’ Perception and Attitude toward the Korean Language ........... 9 English Language in Korean Culture ................................................... ll Significance of English in Today’s World .................................... 11 Influence of English in Contemporary Korean Society ..................... 12 Koreans’ Perception and Attitude toward the English Language ......... 13 Summary ................................................................................... 14 Code-Switching .................................................................................... 14 Previous Research on Code-Switching in Advertising .............................. 14 Previous Research on the Usage of Code-Switching ........................ 15 Previous Research on the Effects of Code-Switching ...................... 17 Code-Switching Between Languages Using a Common Writing System vs. Code-Switching Between Languages Using Different Writing Systems ......... 2O Processes Involved in Creating Code-Switching ............................ 21 Types of Code-Switching ...................................................... 22 Exploratory Analysis of Code-Switching Types in Korean Ads ................... 26 The Markedness Model & Language Schemas ................................................ 28 The Markedness Model .................................................................. 28 Markedness and Language Schemas .......................................... 32 Attitude toward Language & Language Schemas in an Advertising Context 33 Schema Activation and Thought Elicitation ........................................... 35 CHAPTER 2 STUDY 1: THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TL-KE CODE-SWITCHING IN RELATION TO CONVENTIONAL CODE-SWITCHING TYPES ........................ 38 Hypotheses ................................................................................. 38 Method ..................................................................................... 41 Design of the Study .............................................................. 41 Participants ........................................................................ 41 Stimuli ............................................................................. 42 Procedure ......................................................................... 44 Measures .......................................................................... 45 viii Results ...................................................................................... 47 Attitude toward the Language .................................................. 48 Hypothesis Testing ............................................................... 48 Thought Elicitation .............................................................. 50 Discussion ................................................................................. 52 CHAPTER 3 THE REVISED HIERARCHICAL MODEL AND WORD DIFFICULTY ............... 61 The Revised Hierarchical Model ....................................................... 61 Word Difficulty & Language Schemas ................................................. 63 CHAPTER 4 STUDY 2: THE ROLE OF PERCEIVED DIFFICULTY LEVEL OF ENGLISH WORDS AS A MODERATING FACTOR .................................................... 68 Hypotheses ................................................................................. 68 Method ..................................................................................... 69 Design of the Study .............................................................. 69 Pretest .............................................................................. 69 Pretest Results .................................................................... 72 Stimuli ............................................................................. 74 Main Study ........................................................................ 74 Measures .......................................................................... 76 Results ...................................................................................... 78 Hypothesis Testing ............................................................... 79 Thought Elicitation .............................................................. 81 Discussion .................................................................................. 84 CHAPTER 5 . GENERAL DISCUSSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH ................................... 87 General Discussion ....................................................................... 87 Future Research ........................................................................... 91 APPENDICES ..................................................................................... 94 Appendix A: Examples of Two Types of Code-Switching Between English and Spanish ....................................................................... 94 Appendix B: Examples of Four Types of Code-Switching Between Korean and English ....................................................................... 95 REFERENCES .................................................................. v ................. 104 ix LIST OF TABLES Table 1: ANOVA Results for Slogan Attitude and Product Evaluation for Study 1 49 Table 2: ANOVA Results for Thoughts Elicitation ........................................... 52 Table 3: ANOVA Results for Slogan Attitude and Product Evaluation for Study 2 ...... 81 Table 4: Results of Simple Effect Tests on Thought Elicitation ............................ 84 LIST OF FIGURES Figure l-A: Stimulus Ad for Study 1: EK Code-Switching .................................. 96 Figure l-B: Stimulus Ad for Study 1: TL—KE Code-Switching ............................ 97 Figure l-C: Stimulus Ad for Study 1: KB Code-Switching .................................. 98 Figure 2: Visual Explanation of the Revised Hierarchical Model ........................... 99 Figure 3-A: Stimulus Ad for Study 2: Easy KE Code-Switching .......................... 100 Figure 3-B: Stimulus Ad for Study 2: Easy TL-KE Code-Switching ................... 101 Figure 3-C: Stimulus Ad for Study 2: Difficult KE Code-Switching .................... 102 Figure 3-D: Stimulus Ad for Study 2: Difficult TL-KE Code-Switching .............. 103 xi INTRODUCTION As the practice of using foreign languages in advertisements becomes popular throughout the world (Crystal 1997; Cutler, Javalgi, and White 1995; Domzal, Hunt, and Kernan 1995; Hancock 1999; Mueller 1996; Neelankavil et a1. 1995; Ray, Ryder, and Scott 1991; Wang et a1. 1997), a growing number of empirical studies have assessed the effectiveness of using both foreign and local languages in advertisements (Caruana, Albert, and Monica Abdilla 2005; Koslow, Shamdasani, and Touchstone 1994; Luna, Lerman, and Peracchio 2005; Luna and Peracchio 2001; 2002; 2005a; 2005b; Taylor and Miracle 1996; Ueltschy and Ryans 1997; Zhang and Schmitt 2004). As one of the mixed-language approaches, “code-switching” is often used to target bilingual consumers. According to Grosjean (1982), code-switching refers to the insertion of linguistic elements (i.e., words, phrases, clauses or sentences) of one language into another language (cited in Luna and Perrachio 2005b). Inserting a Spanish word in an English sentence is an example of code-switching that results in a mixed language message. Sometimes this practice is also called “code-mixing”, although some scholars make distinctions between these two language tactics. When a distinction is made, code-mixing refers to linguistic elements from both languages being mixed within speech, whereas code-switching entails a complete switch of language in different social situations (Clachar 2000; Torres 1992). However, in practice, these two terms are used interchangeably and “code-switching” seems to be used more frequently. Therefore, this study uses the term “code-switching”. Research in this area is important for advertisers because the number of bilinguals in the US. and throughout the world is ever increasing. First, approximately 20% of people living in the US. are bilinguals based on the 2000 US. Census (Luna and Peracchio 2005a). This number is expected to increase as the number of non-native English speakers coming to the US. continuously grows (W allraff 2000). Indeed, advertisers are making efforts to specifically target different sub-cultural groups within multicultural countries (Coltrane and Messineo 2000) and code-switching appears to be a useful technique to target language minorities (e. g., Hispanics living in the US.) (Luna and Peracchio 2005b). With respect to the size of bilinguals in the world, Wallraff (2000) reported an estimation that roughly two thirds of children in the world grow up in bilingual environments and become competent in two languages. Therefore, it is valuable to examine the effect of code-switching strategies in advertising as a means to attract language majorities who are bilingual (e. g., Koreans who are competent in English). As the popularity of using code-switching strategies in advertising increases, a growing number of scholars have examined the impact of these code-switched messages from linguistic, psycholinguistic, and sociolinguistic perspectives. Several studies have focused on the impact of code-switched ad messages on slogan evaluations, attitudes toward advertising, attitudes toward slogans, and product evaluations. These studies have further identified moderating variables such as attitude toward the language (Luna and Peracchio 2005a), attitude toward code-switching (Luna and Peracchio 2005b), context in which code-switched ads are inserted (Luna and Peracchio 2005b), and type of processing (Luna, Lerman, and Peracchio 2005). In spite of notable contributions of the previous research on understanding various aspects of code-switching issues in advertising, most of these studies have focused on code-switching between languages having a common writing system such as the Roman alphabet (e.g., code-switching between English and Spanish languages) (Luna and Peracchio 2005a; Luna and Peracchio 2005b; and Luna, Lerman, and Peracchio 2005). Thus, it is worthwhile to examine the effect of code-switching between two languages using different writing systems and see whether the findings of previous research can be generalized in a different context. To achieve this, this study focuses on code-switching between the Korean language and the English language. Korean and English languages are two different alphabetic languagesl, where the English language is written using the Roman alphabet and the Korean language is written using the Hangeul alphabet. Alphabetic languages have a unique attribute that they can phonetically transcribe known and unknown words of other languages into their language (Zhang, Schmitt, and Haley n.d.). The current dissertation proposes that this unique attribute can add a new aspect to previous code-switching research by investigating the effect of new code-switching types. In summary, the purposes of this research are two-fold. First, it re-conceptualizes written code-switching by theorizing the influence of alphabetic languages’ ability to transcribe other languages into their own in developing code-switching types. Another goal is to examine the effect of different types of code-switching between the Korean language and the English language in a Korean advertising context. ' An alphabet is the complete, ordered, standardized set of letters that is used to write or print a written language. Each letter represents one or more phonemes (i.e., the fundamental sounds of a spoken language) and/or is used in combination with other letters to represent a phoneme (Characters: A Brief Introduction 2004). The Korean market, especially the youth market, is suitable for code-switching studies. Young Koreans are often considered as Korean—English bilinguals primarily due to a strong emphasis on English education in schools and society (Lee 2006; Report World 2005). The prominence of English in Korean society has been reflected in its advertising. English has become one of the most popular foreign languages in Korean advertising (Cutler, J avalgi, and White 1995; Lee 2006; Taylor and Miracle 1996). Cutler, Javalgi, and White (1995) reported that 55% of Korean ads contained at least one Western word, which was most frequently in English, and Taylor and Miracle (1996) found that approximately 38% of the Korean commercials presented a brand name written using the English alphabet. A more recent study analyzed a total of 720 commercials aired in Korea and revealed that only 117 commercials (16.25%) used the Korean language exclusively while the remaining 603 commercials (83.75%) included elements from the English language (English mixed commercials) (Lee 2006). This dissertation consists of five chapters. CHAPTER 1 covers relevant literature on languages in Korean culture, code-switching, and the Markedness Model. First, it provides an overview of the prevalence and influence of the Korean and English languages in contemporary Korean culture. Next, code-switching is re-conceptualized and code-switching types are re-identified. At the end of this section, an exploratory analysis of a Korean magazine is undertaken to validate the assumptions about code- switching types in the Korean advertising context. Finally, this chapter overviews the Markedness Model that explains the underlying mechanism of how code-switching can deliver social meanings of a certain language and how those meanings can be associated with an ad and an advertised product. From the Markedness Model perspective, Studyl is developed in CHAPTER 2 to examine the process and effect of a newly introduced code-switching type in relation to existing code-switching types. CHAPTER 3 introduces the Revised Hierarchical Model as a theoretical framework explaining how people perceive and process difficult versus easy English words. Based on the Revised Hierarchical Model, CHAPTER 4 proposes Study 2 that investigates whether the perceived difficulty level of code-switched English words moderates the effects of different code-switching types. CHAPTER 5 provides general discussion of the two studies presented in this dissertation and the areas of future research. CHAPTER 1 LITERATURE REVIEW Languages in Korean Culture Language and culture are closely related to each other; language is influenced by culture, and at the same time language influences culture (de Mooij 1998; Kramsch 2003; Mueller 1996; Santiago 1999). Language expresses cultural reality in that the words people use are a shared experience. Words “express facts, ideas or events that are communicable because they refer to a stock of knowledge about the world that other people share” (Kramsch 2003, p.3). Words also reflect common attitudes, beliefs, and values that are shared by users of the language (Kramsch 2003). Thus, when a message sender and a receiver have a shared experience or culture, the words they use to communicate deliver not only the literal meanings but also the emotional meanings of the words (de Mooij 1998; Ray, Ryder, and Scott 1991). At the same time, language can also embody cultural reality in a sense that peeple of a culture can create experience through language. The way people use language to communicate with one another itself creates cultural meanings that people in that culture can understand (Kramsch 2003). The reciprocal and inseparable relationship between language and culture suggests that language has cultural or symbolic meaning that is created by the association between the language and the culture. Therefore, the following section overviews the significance of Korean language to Korean culture and Koreans’ perception of and attitude toward the Korean language in a context of culture. Korean Language in Korean Culture Korean is the native and official language of Korea and Hangeul is the national written language (The National Institute of the Korean Language 2008). The Korean language is a principal means whereby Korean people communicate with each other and define their identity. As an important part of culture, language acts as a device that helps a person to define his/her identity as well as the identity of others (Stafford, Jenckes, and Santos 1997). This is because people assign a cultural value to their own language and view it as a symbol of their identity. Thus, when people are prohibited from using their own language, they perceive it as a rejection of their social group and their culture (Kramsch 2003). The role of the Korean language as an identity factor can be attributed to two major reasons. First, the majority of Korean language users are Koreans (both South and North). There are over 70 million Korean speakers in the world who have Korean as their official language and most of them live on the Korean peninsula (The National Institute of the Korean Language 2008). A small number of Korean speakers can be found in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in China where a large number of ethnic Koreans live. Therefore, due to the ethnic homogeneity among Korean speakers’, the Korean language is often considered as a symbol of the individual Korean’s self-identity, but also a symbol of national and cultural identity. The meaning and influence of Hangeul, the Korean written language, on Korean culture and the Korean people is another reason. The invention of Hangeul was a striking historical event and has significant meanings to Korean culture. Thus, the following section provides the details of the invention of Hangeul and its meaning. Hangeul in Korean Culture There are spoken languages and written languages. Usually, a written language is created based on a spoken language so that it reflects the spoken language. Before Hangeul was invented in the mid-fifteenth century, Koreans had their own language (Korean) but did not have their own writing system, using Chinese characters instead. However, it was very difficult to dictate the Korean language with Chinese letters because the languages are very different and Chinese letters were made specifically for the Chinese language. Because of the large gap between the two languages, Koreans had to make a lot of effort to learn the Chinese writing and still could not fully express themselves in writing (The National Institute of the Korean Language 2008). The separation between spoken and written languages resulted in difficulty and inconvenience in written communications, but it allowed the ruling class to maintain their power as they were the only people permitted to learn Chinese writing and to take the test to become government officials (The National Institute of the Korean Language 2008). King Sejong, the 4th king of the Joseon Dynasty, was concerned that ordinary people could not learn written Chinese. Thus, he created the Korean alphabet in 1443 to contribute to a better life for the sake of ordinary people. When Hangeul was invented, King Sejong called this Korean alphabet Hunmin Jeongeum (Proper Sounds to Instruct the People). Hunmin Jeongeum had 28 letters, 17 consonants and 11 vowels (The National Institute of the Korean Language 2008). At King Sejong’s command, a 33-page book was published in Chinese in which the Korean alphabet was promulgated. The book includes the reason for the invention of the alphabet and a thorough explanation of each of the letters and the combining of the letters with examples. This explanatory volume was also called Hunmin Jeongeum. The book Hunmin J eongeum was designated as National Treasure No. 70 and was acknowledged and registered in UNESCO’s Memory of the World in 1997 (UNESCO & Heritages 2009). The name Hangeul was first used in early 20‘h century and has been the official name of the alphabet since then (The National Institute of the Korean Language 2008). Hangeul originally had 28 letters but 4 letters (3 consonants and 1 vowel) were dropped due to phonological changes over the centuries. The four letters disappeared at different times: three letters disappeared by the end of l6Lh century and one became out of use in early 20th century. Currently, Hangeul is composed of 14 consonants and 10 vowels (UNESCO & Heritages 2009). Under the rule of Japanese imperialism, between August 1910 and August 1945, Japan prohibited Koreans from using the Korean language, including Hangeul. Thus, Korea faced the crisis of losing the Korean language (The National Institute of the Korean Language 2008). However, Koreans’ determined and dangerous efforts to keep their language going in the face of imperialistic threat made the spoken Korean language and Hangeul survived the Japanese imperial period. Considering that Hangeul was invented and maintained in the Korean culture, for Koreans Hangeul is not only a written communication method but also an important part of their culture containing an important part of the nation’s history and spirit (The National Institute of the Korean Language 2008). Koreans ’ Perception and Attitude toward the Korean Language According to Stafford, Jenckes, and Santos (1997), the more a language makes people identify with themselves, the more people have a positive attitude toward the language and its users. The ethnic homogeneity of Korean language users and the significant cultural meaning and influence of Hangeul on Korean culture make Korean people strongly identify themselves with the Korean language. In turn, the strong identification reinforces Korean people to have positive attitudes toward the Korean language and Hangeul in general. Hangeul is considered as a very scientific phonetic language and one of the most advanced and unique writing systems compared to other written languages for several reasons (The National Institute of the Korean Language 2008). First, Hangeul is a national written language that was created by identifiable people at a specific time. Second, Hangeul was invented independently without being directly influenced by any existing writing system. Third, Hangeul is the only writing system that has ever been promulgated in an explanatory volume (Korea Tourism Organization 2009). These facts make Koreans proud of Hangeul and themselves and possibly contribute to Koreans’ positive attitude toward their own language. On the other hand, just as most people usually do not explicitly recognize the existence and importance of air, Koreans may not consciously think about the value of the Korean language and the Hangeul alphabet enough even though the spoken and written Korean language is throughout their daily life. This point can be supported with the fact that the usage of English as a global language has been increasing and the ‘ importance of the English language has been emphasized in and outside of Korea. The 10 influence of the English language on Korean society and people’s attitude toward the language are discussed in the following section. English Language in Korean Culture Significance of English in Today’s World English has largely become a “nonnational” language (Piller 2001). English has achieved a global status, particularly in the following six areas: transnational business, Internet communication, scientific research, youth culture, international goods and services, and news and entertainment media (Mandel, Updike, Katz, and Johnston 1996; Power 2005; Seaton 1997). English became the dominant language in these areas because of the economic, scientific, technological, political, and historical environments of English speaking countries, particularly the US. and the UK. which were thought to be more developed than many other countries (Crystal 1997; Gerritsen, Korzilius, Meurs, and Gijsbers 2000; Seaton 1997; Wallraff 2000). In other words, English speaking countries became the major players in these areas and English thus became an influential language within these areas. This global status has brought a prestigious image to the English language (U stinova 2006). According to Stafford, Jenckes, and Santos (1997), there is a positive relationship between the dominance of a language and people’s perceptions of its prestige. Since English is used dominantly in various areas worldwide, it is often perceived as prestigious. Americanism also contributes to the prestigious image of the English language. People in non-English speaking countries often associate the English language with the US. and American culture. American culture is often associated with young, dynamic, ll modern, and international lifestyle images (Domzal, Hunt, and Kernan 1995; Gerritsen, Korzilius, Meurs, and Gijsbers 2000; Watson 1999). Also, the US. is often admired for its “power, efficiency, political might, guarantee of personal freedom, technological achievements, innovation, ability to produce hi gh-quality products, and popular culture” (Avraham and First 2003, p.285). The cultural meaning of English carries prestige because American culture has often been considered to be an exciting culture to emulate (Cutler, Javalgi, and White 1995; Domzal, Hunt, and Kernan 1995; Mueller 1992; Ray, Ryder, and Scott 1991; Wang, Jaw, Pinkleton, and Morton 1997). In sum, English has become the language of globalization, modernity, and progress and has a prestigious image (2003). Influence of English in Contemporary Korean Society As English is highly valued and has become an important language in a contemporary globalized world, people in non-English speaking countries are stimulated to accept, learn, and use English in their lives. In fact, today many social institutions in Korea, such as education and business, place great emphasis and value on the English language. For example, English is one of the most important subjects, and its importance has been progressively increasing, in the Korean education system. As a result, English education has expanded greatly over the years. English was taught in the seventh grade upward until 1997, when it started being taught from the third grade level (Lee 2006). Currently, English class is offered one to two hours a week in elementary school level (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology 2010). To support the implementation of early English language education, the Korean government has made targeted efforts to recruit qualified native speakers of English from one of the six major English-speaking 12 countries: the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the UK, and Ireland (cited in Lee 2006). Their major roles are teaching English in either elementary or secondary schools, training Korean English teachers, and assisting provincial education officers. In addition, the government has made a concerted effort to establish sister-school relations between Korean universities and US. universities (cited in Lee 2006). Schools are not the only institutions that have shown robust interest in English. The private sector and government agencies also have keen interest in English. According to Lee (2006), more than 700 major Korean companies require English knowledge on their new-hire recruiting exams. After these employees are hired, the companies encourage them to improve their English skills by making English ability a criterion for promotion and overseas training opportunities. Some companies provide monetary bonuses and/or add extra points to job performance reviews for those who earn high scores on the TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication). In short, the English language has become an integral part of several Korean institutions, influencing the everyday lives of young Koreans. Koreans ’ Perception and Attitude toward the English Language Regarding the robust presence of English in various areas of Korean society, Shim (1994, R225) argued that English is “an essential tool for education, power, and success” in contemporary Korean society and better English ability is often associated with higher social status. According to Myers-Scotton (1993), an individual’s language choice is a key aspect of his/her social identity and perceptions of belonging to a certain social group. Therefore, in contemporary Korean society the use of English and high proficiency in the English language can signal an individual’s social identity as being a 13 member of a high social class. Others who are familiar with Korean culture and social atmosphere are likely to interpret this one in the same way. KOREAN people’s perception of English as being global and prestigious and Korean society’s robust emphasis on English make the English language socially meaningful and associated with higher social status. Such positive perceptions of English contribute to the formation of positive attitude toward the English language among young Koreans. Summary Korean and English are the two most prominent and significant languages in modern Korean society. It seems that Koreans have a positive attitude toward the Korean language in general since it is an effective communication method, a cultural heritage to be proud of, and a device helping Koreans to define their self- and national- identity. A the same time, the English language has also become an integral part of contemporary Korean culture and is often associated with positive perceptions such as practical importance, global status, prestigious image, and high social status. Therefore, young Koreans’ attitude toward the English language is expected to be even more positive than their attitude toward the Korean language. Code-Switching Previous Research on Code-Switching in Advertising There are two streams of research on code-switching in advertising. One stream focuses on the usage of code-switching strategy in advertising. Studies in this stream 14 typically analyze the code-switching phenomenon in terms of what languages are mixed, the extent to which this language mixing strategy is used in a given advertising context, and in what element of an ad a code-switching occurs. Such research often employs content analysis of existing ads. On the other hand, the second stream is based on examining the effects of code-switching. These studies empirically test the effect of code- switching in relation to advertising effectiveness and identify moderators of code- switching effects. Each of the two types of code-switching research is overviewed in the following sections highlighting the major findings. Previous Research on the Usage of Code-Switching Several researchers have examined language use in advertising. They analyzed what languages are used and how they are used in advertising. In doing so, they identified code-switching instances and provided details about the usage of this mixed-language approach in a given advertising context. In these studies, code-switching included both between-element code-switching and within-element code-switching. Between-element code-switching can be made between elements of an ad. Thus, writing a brand name using English letters while using a slogan in Korean is an example of between-element code-switching. On the other hand, within-element code-switching occurs when mixing two languages within an ad element. An example is inserting an English word in a Korean slogan. This section summarizes three studies that well indicate the current status of the use of code-switching in advertising. Even though most of the findings and discussions of these studies are related to code-switching between different elements of ads, the authors acknowledged and discussed within-element code-switching as well. 15 Ustinova (2006) analyzed 425 TV commercials aired in Russia and reported that 320 ads (75%) were multilingual (using two or more language systems) while 102 ads (24%) used exclusively Russian. Among the 320 multilingual commercials, the majority (320) employed code-switching between English and Russian. The study showed that English or an English-Russian rrrix were used most often for the product name followed by the wrapper or label, company name or logo, body copy, slogan, closing line or attention-getter, contact information, country (producer of goods), and availability of the advertised product or service in rank order. The author argued that the prominence of English used alone or mixed with the Russian language in Russian advertising can be attributed to both utilitarian and social reasons: Western companies use English for their brand names and logos when going internationally and English is often associated with novelty, prestige, and high quality products. The increasing usage of language mixing in advertising has been observed not only in Russia, but also in other countries such as France and Germany. English was used in many different components of French advertisments such as product names, slogans, jingles, product labels, and body copy and mixed with French for various reasons such as to reflect origins of the brand, to create bilingual puns, or to evoke humor (Martin 2005). Despite the French government’s efforts to discourage the use of foreign languages while encouraging the use of French in advertising, there is increasing usage of English-French language mixing in creative ways. In Germany, approximately 32% of all ads aired on various television networks and printed in two national newspapers in 1999 were multilingual ads that incorporated both German and another language, with English as the most frequently used foreign 16 language (Piller 2001). The author noted that English was often used for the most important parts of the ads and for delivering symbolic meaning while German was employed to convey straightforward factual information for the purpose of better comprehension of the message. For example, English was often used for voice-overs and visual copy in TV commercials and was frequently used in slogans and headlines for both commercials and print ads. On the other hand, German was used to communicate things such as venue, contact information, and legal restrictions. As seen above, many studies in this research stream reveal that code-switching is a commonly used advertising strategy in many countries. These findings not only shed light on the recent phenomenon of code-switching in advertising, but also provide a justification for the research on code-switching effects: If code-switching is rarely used in advertising, the results of studies examining code-switching effect will be impractical and irrelevant to advertisers. Previous Research on the Efi‘ects of Code-Switching In spite of the prevalence of code-switching in advertising, the effects of this linguistic tactic are under-researched. There are just a few studies examining the effect of code-switching in relation to advertising and identifying moderating variables of code- switching effects. Significant findings of these studies are overviewed here. One of the seminal studies of the effects of different types of code-switching in an advertising context was done by Luna and Peracchio (2005a). They found that attitude toward the language influenced the code-switching effect: slogans switched from a less favorable language to a more favorable language resulted in more positive product evaluation than slogans switched from a more favorable language to a less favorable 17 language. For instance, when people had a more positive attitude toward English than Spanish, slogans switched from Spanish to English led to more positive product evaluations than slogans switched from English to Spanish. When people had a more positive attitude toward Spanish than English, the effect was reversed. In another study, Luna and Peracchio (2005b) found that attitude toward code- switching and the context in which code-switched ads are inserted are two moderating factors influencing the effect of code-switching on ad responses. Specifically, negative, neutral, and positive attitudes toward code-switching resulted in similar product evaluations when slogans were switched from a more favorable language (English) to a less favorable language (Spanish). On the other hand, when slogans were switched from Spanish to English, negative attitudes toward code-switching led to lower product evaluations than neutral attitudes toward code-switching while there was no significant difference between neutral attitudes toward code-switching and positive attitudes toward code-switching in terms of product evaluation. With respect to context, the authors argued that when people consider a certain type of code-switching as the norm, their reaction to it tends to be more positive than a code-switching type that is not commonly used. In a media context where code-switching from Spanish to English was used often, people reacted more favorably to ad slogans that were code-switched from Spanish to English than ad slogans that were code-switched English to Spanish. However, in a media context where code-switching from English to Spanish was the norm, slogans code-switched from English to Spanish resulted in higher product evaluation than slogans code-switched from Spanish to English. 18 Another important code-switching study focused on the linguistic aspects of code- switching (Luna, Lerman, and Peracchio 2005). The authors examined linguistic rules governing the use of code—switching and identified type of processing as a moderating factor influencing the effect of structural constraints on ad evaluations. Their studies showed that when people engaged in a highly data-driven mode (vocalizing slogans that contain rhyme), code-switching grammaticality influenced persuasiveness of code- switched slogans - grammatical slogans resulted in higher slogan evaluations than ungrammatical slogans. On the other hand, when people processed slogans in a conceptually-driven mode (imagining the scenario described in the slogan), code- switching grammaticality did not influence slogan evaluations. These previous studies have contributed to a better understanding of various aspects of code-switching used in advertising and consumer behavior research. However, the code-switching effects were exarrrined in only one language context. These studies focused on code-switching between languages having a common writing system: code- switching between English and Spanish languages where both languages use the Roman alphabet. Therefore, testing the authors’ theorization about the code-switching effects in different language contexts will be interesting and worthwhile. Ahn and La Ferle (2008) examined code-switching effects in a different language context from the previous code-switching effect studies. They used Korean and English languages whereby the two languages use two different alphabets (Roman alphabet and Hangeul alphabet). In the study, they used the two languages for brand names and body copy and explored how the two languages influence recall and recognition of those brand names and body copy messages. They concluded that when targeting the Korean youth 19 market, using the English language for a brand name and the Korean language for body copy is more effective than mixing the two languages reversely or using either Korean or English exclusively for both elements. However, there are major differences between Ahn and La Ferle’s study (2008) and previous code-switching effect studies. Ahn and La Ferle (2008) explored the effects of between-element code-switching (using Korean and English for brand name and body copy), whereas other code-switching research examined the effects of within-element code-switching (mixing Spanish and English in a slogan). In addition, Ahn and La Ferle (2008) measured the effectiveness of code-switching in terms of memorability of brand name and body copy messages. On the other hand, the earlier studies measured the code- switching effect in terms of product and slogan evaluations. Even though Ahn and La Ferle’s study itself is meaningful, it does not contribute to extending the previous findings of code-switching effects to a different language context because of these differences. This means that the influence of within—element code-switching between two languages using two different alphabets on slogan and product evaluation is still unclear and needs to be investigated. Therefore, conceptualizing code-switching as language rrrixing within a sentence, the rest of this chapter sheds light on similarities and differences between code-switching between languages using a common writing system and code-switching between languages using different writing systems. Code-Switching Between Languages Using a Common Writing System vs. Code- Switehing Between Languages Using Different Writing Systems 20 Processes Involved in Creating Code-Switching Code-switching is created by mixing two languages in such a way that linguistic elements (i.e., words or phrases) of a base language (i.e., local language) are translated into another language (i.e., foreign language) and then replaced with the translation equivalents. For instance, “In my cocina, I would never make coffee with any other coffeemaker” is an example of code-switching (Luna and Peracchio 2005b). This code- switching is developed by translating the English word kitchen into the Spanish language cocina and inserting the Spanish word into the original English slogan. As in the above example, when two languages have a common writing system (i.e., English and Spanish both use Roman alphabetic script), the embedded word (cocina) is distinguished from the base language (the English language) in terms of the origin of the linguistic elements (Spanish vs. English). The same process is required when code-switching occurs between two different alphabetic languages, such as code-switching between the Korean language (using Hangeul alphabets) and the English language (using Roman alphabets). “Find your own color” is an English sentence. This sentence can be code-switched by translating the English word color into the Korean language (41,") and embedding the Korean word into the original English sentence (“Find your own M"). Interestingly, the embedded wordél/ is distinguished from the rest of the sentence in two ways: the origin of the word (the Korean language) is different from that of the base sentence (the English language) and it is written in the Hangeul alphabets instead of the Roman alphabets. Therefore, an embedded word in a code-switched sentence can contrast with the base language in terms of 1) the origin of the linguistic units (i.e., Korean] English 21 language) and 2) the written representation of the units (writing system such as Roman alphabetic script or Hangeul alphabetic script). When two languages have a common writing system (e.g., English and Spanish both use Roman alphabetic script), the switched word is distinguished from the base language in terms of the origin of the linguistic elements (e.g., English vs. Spanish), but not of the written representation (both use Roman alphabets). On the other hand, when two different alphabetic languages are code-switched, an embedded word contrasts with the base language in terms of both the origin (e. g., Korean vs. English) and the written representation of the word (e. g., Hangeul alphabets vs. Roman alphabets). Further, the author argues that each contrasting aspect (the origin or the written representation) enables certain types of code-switching to be created. . Types of Code-Switching Most of the previous studies examining code-switching effects in advertising have focused on English and Spanish languages and identified two types of code-switching (Luna and Peracchio 2005a: Luna and Peracchio 2005b; Luna, Lerman, and Peracchio 2005). For instance, code-switching between the English language and the Spanish language includes 1) ‘English-Spanish code-switching’ where a Spanish word is embedded in an English sentence (e. g., “In my cocina, I would never make coffee with any other coffeemaker”) and 2) ‘Spanish-English code-switching’ in which an English word is presented in a Spanish language sentence (e.g., “En mi kitchen, nunca harr’a cafe’ con ninguna otra cafeteria”) (Luna and Peracchio 2005b). Considering that code- switching between the Spanish and the English languages results in a contrast only in terms of the word origin, it is argued that when code-switching is made between 22 languages having a common alphabetic script, two types of code-switching can be developed based on the code-switching direction. Since the origin of the inserted term in a code-switch between two different alphabetic languages is distinguished from the origin of the base sentence, the two existing code-switching types can be made using these languages. For example, two types of code-switching can be created using the Korean language and the English language based on the code-switching direction: 1) ‘English-Korean code-switching’ where a Korean word is embedded in an English sentence (e. g., “Find your own 4’2) and 2) ‘Korean-English code-switching’ where an English word is embedded in a Korean sentence (e.g., “@193in color; ngflfl”). The present study proposes that code-switching between two different alphabetic languages can introduce new code-switching types in addition to the two pre-identified ones due to the representational contrast between the embedded language and the base language. Both Korean and English are alphabetic languages and alphabetic languages have an ability to transliterate (Zhang, Schrrritt, and Haley n.d.), where transliteration refers to the ability to “represent or spell in the characters of another alphabet” (Merriam- Webster 2010). In this dissertation, the author argues that the new code-switching types emerge through transliteration (or phonetic transcription) of the embedded word by mapping the letters of the embedded language to letters pronounced similarly in the base language. For instance, “gitl Riel color;— ¥2A1|9” is Korean-English code-switching (which means “Find your own color”). A new code-switching type can be made by 2 Its English sentence would be “Find your own color”. 44' is the Korean word for color. 23 phonetically transcribing the “sound” of the English word (color = [kllarD into the Hangeul alphabetic script (£370 and inserting the transliterated form into the base Korean sentence (“E343 'E'JBI a; figxflfl”). This newly identified code-switching type is termed as ‘transliterated (TL) code-switching’. Thus, considering the code-switching direction, “5m 9194 age ¥2A1|R” is termed as ‘TL Korean-English code-switching’. Similarly, TL English-Korean code-switching can be created by transliterating the embedded Korean word in an English-Korean code-switch into the Roman alphabet. In an English-Korean code-switching “Find your own 41’”, ét’ is a Korean word for the English word color. A TL English-Korean code-switch can be made by transliteratingél/ into the base language. In other words, the “sound” of the Korean word for color (44/) is written in the Roman alphabet (Saek) and embedded into the English sentence (“Find your own Saek”). This paper introduces transliterated (TL) code-switching for the first time. Code- switching between languages using different alphabets results in a representational difference between the embedded language and the base language and in turn allows for TL code-switching that involves both translation and transliteration processes. In the TL code-switching types, the origin of the embedded word contrasts with the base language whereas the written representation of it is not different from the base language. TL code- switching satisfies the definition of code-switching: the insertion of linguistic elements of one language into another language (Grosjean 1982, cited in Luna and Perrachio 2005b). In short, the above illustrations suggest that code-switching between languages having a common alphabetic script can be developed in two pre-existing forms (see 24 Appendix A for a visual example). When two different alphabetic languages are code- switched, there are potentially four different ways to implement the code-switch: the two pre-identified types and the two TL code-switching types (see Appendix B for an example). It is important to note that TL code-switching seems to be influenced by the code- switching direction. Transliterating a local word (e.g. a Korean word) into a foreign language (e. g. the Roman alphabet) as in TL English-Korean code-switching (e. g., “Find your own Saek”) to convey its meaning (as in a slogan or body copy) is perceived as unrealistic. In addition, this type of code-switching might hinder individuals from identifying the word and therefore comprehension of the intended message would be difficult. In fact, this type of transliteration is almost never used in daily life and in advertising, except for representing proper nouns in the Korean market. For instance, the TL English-Korean code-switching of “Find your own Saek” (Saek is a transliterated form of 4? which is the Korean word for color) is feasible to create, but it is unnatural and impractical to use in reality. In short, TL code-switching seems only relevant to code-switching from a local language (or first language) to a foreign language (or second language) as in TL Korean- English code-switching (i.e., “EM 1321 E; QEAflfl”), and not for the reverse direction. At least this appears to be the case within a Korean market context. In sum, the author proposes that when written code-switching occurs between the Korean language and the English language, three practical code-switching types can be identified: English-Korean code-switching (EK code-switching), Korean-English code- 25 switching (KE code-switching), and TL Korean-English code-switching (TL-KE code- switching). Exploratory Analysis of Code-Switching Types in Korean Ads In order to validate the author’s assumption about code-switching types in the Korean advertising context, an exploratory analysis of code-switching in a Korean magazine is undertaken. The author analyzed the February 2007 issue of CeCi, one of the most popular Korean fashion magazines among people in their 208. The unit of analysis was one full page ad and a total of 87 ads were assessed. For each ad, slogans and body copy were analyzed. Two coders independently coded the magazine. Differences between coders were resolved through discussion. Scott’s Pi was calculated for brand name and body copy because Scott’s Pi is used frequently for evaluating the inter-coder reliability of categorical variables (Riffe, Lacy, and Fico 1998). The Scott’s Pi was .98 and .95 for brand name and body copy respectively. The findings show that sixty-five out of eighty-seven ads included a slogan. Among these 65 ads, 22 ads (34%) used a Korean slogan (either a phrase or a sentence) written in entirely in the Hangeul alphabet while 32 ads (49%) included an English slogan written in entirely in the Roman alphabet. Except for one slogan which was an English slogan accompanied with a Korean subtitle, the remaining 10 slogans (15%) used code-switching. The 10 code-switched slogans consisted of 8 using TL Korean-English code-switching (English words were phonetically transcribed in the Hangeul script), 1 using Korean-English code-switching (words were written in the Roman alphabet), and 1 using Korean-Chinese code—switching. 26 Body copy messages were included in forty-six ads (53%) out of the 87 total ads. Ten ads (22%) featured body copy messages written entirely in the Korean language whereas six ads (13%) had body copy written entirely in the English language. The rest of the ads (30 out of 46) featured mixed-language body copy. Specifically, Korean- English code-switching appeared in 8 ads and TL Korean-English code-switching was present in 26 ads. Some body copy contained both code-switching types. English-Korean code-switching was found in three ads and all of the embedded Korean words were written in Hangeul. In addition, there were two Korean-Chinese code-switched body copy ads. In sum, the findings of this exploratory analysis of a popular Korean magazines how the prevalent use of English and the frequent appearance of code-switching in contemporary Korean ads. The most interesting and important finding is in regards to TL Korean-English code-switching where an English word is phonetically transcribed into the Hangeul alphabetic script and inserted into a Korean sentence. In fact, TL Korean- English code-switching was used most often followed by the regular Korean-English code-switching form (an English word is written in the Roman alphabet) and English- Korean code-switching (a Korean word is written in Hangeul). Another notable finding is that none of the ads included TL English-Korean code-switching where the embedded Korean words were transliterated into the Roman alphabet. In sum, this exploratory analysis of a Korean magazine identified that three types of code-switching exist within a Korean market: English-Korean (EK) code-switching, Korean-English (KE) code-switching, and TL English-Korean (TL-KE) code-switching. 27 The next chapter overviews the Markedness Model, an underlying theory explaining how code-switching can convey social meanings of a certain language and how the meanings can be associated with an advertised product. The Markedness Model & Language Schemas The Markedness Model The Markedness Model is a linguistics theory explaining socio-psychological motivations for code-switching (Myers-Scotton 1993). Within this model, people are engaged in code-switching because they want to convey specific social meanings. Making language choice is ultimately a negotiation of RO (right —and-obligations) sets which are based on situational factors (the speaker and addressee, the topic, the setting, etc). In other words, code choice (including code-switching) allows the speaker to index a particular social identity (his perceptions of self) in relation to the addressee in the conversation at hand, where the ‘identity’ the speaker attempts to present is intended (Myers-Scotton 1993). According to Scotton (1972), when people make a code choice decision, they weigh the costs and rewards between alternatives and choose the one that minimizes costs while maximizing rewards (cited in Myers-Scotton 1993). Situational factors play a crucial role in this calculation because each linguistic variety has more than one attribute and the degree of salience of each attribute depends on the situation (Scotton 1976). Speakers make code choice decisions by matching salient attributes of the language to the salient features of a particular circumstance (Myers-Scotton 1993). The underlying assumption of the Markedness Model is that speakers have a ‘markedness metric’ that is an internalized set of community norms regarding code choice. Since speakers have a ‘script’ or ‘schema’ for what language is to be employed in which context, they can interpret all code choices as more or less ‘unmarked’ or ‘marked’ (Myers-Scotton 1993). ‘Unmarked’ choices refer to an expected or usual code choice for a given communication context, determined by the markedness metric. In contrast, ‘marked’ choices are unexpected or unusual code choices (Myers-Scotton 1993). Speakers generally make unmarked choices since they are safer without causing any surprises. However, if a marked choice can produce a more positive outcome than an unmarked choice in a given communication context, a speaker is likely to make a marked choice (Myers-Scotton 1993). With respect to code-switching as a marked choice, the Markedness Model suggests that if a speaker perceives that a marked code-switching technique enables him to convey socio—pragmatic meanings and enhance his position, he will employ a marked code-switching strategy (Myers-Scotton 1993). For example, Myers-Scotton (1993) identified a variety of motivations for code-switching in Nairobi. These motivations included: increasing social distance; demonstrating superior educational status; excluding out-group members, delivering social messages about the code-switching itself; adding a ‘stylistic effect’ (‘something different’); and calling attention to oneself by being structurally flagged. When a marked code-switching is made in a conversation, the addressee who shares the markedness metric will easily recognize the embedded language elements and then interpret its social meanings due to the perceptual salience of the embedded 29 language units (Fiske and Taylor 1984; Luna and Peracchio 2005a; 2005b; Myers- Scotton 1993). When a part of a stimulus is unusual, prominent, or distinctive from the background or from the perceiver’s expectation, it is considered salient (or marked) and attracts the perceiver’s attention (Domzal, Hunt, and Kernan 1995; Johnston et a1. 1990; Kaufman-Scarborough 2001). Therefore, if an English word is inserted in a Korean sentence when using the Korean language is a norm (Korean-English code-switching), the English word will be prominent and salient. Likewise, if a Korean word is embedded in an English sentence, the Korean word will be a marked choice. The salience or markedness of the embedded units stimulates greater attention and deeper processing (Luna and Peracchio 2005a). Combined with the Markedness Model, the information processing literature supports the markedness concept of language choice and the process of a marked choice versus an un-marked or less marked choice. From the information processing perspective, people first have to acquire information from an external source in order to process incoming information. Information acquisition includes a process of selective perception (Deutsch and Deutsch 1963). Exposure to a stimulus does not guarantee that people will process the information because the stimulus may or may not be perceived. Instead, in order to acquire the information, people should pay attention to the stimuli by selectively allocating information-processing capacity to the incoming information (Kaufman- Scarborough 2001). Once the information is acquired, it is organized in knowledge structures called schemata and becomes a part of one’s memory (Bettman 1979; Domzal, Hunt, and Kernan 1995; Harris et al. 1986; Tybout, Calder, and Stemthal 1981). When a piece of information is acquired, a schema that is relevant to the new information is 30 activated and the information is placed into the schema. The schema becomes richer with the added information and elaborate processing involved. The more a schema is enriched, the easier the schema is retrieved when needed later. The information processing literature indicates that certain characteristics of a stimulus can make people attend more or less to the stimulus and in turn enhance the chance of the stimulus being encoded (Bettman 1979; Kaufman-Scarborough 2001; Domzal, Hunt, and Kernan 1995; Lowrey, Shrum, and Dubitsky 2003). Such characteristics include size, color, intensity, contrast, position, directionality, movement, isolation, novelty, and attractiveness of the message and its parts (Ahn and La Ferle 2008; Domzal, Hunt, and Kernan 1995; Kaufman-Scarborough 2001). Among such stimulus determinants, contrast and novelty are particularly relevant to the markedness concept. In a code-switched sentence, the embedded language unit is a novel element in the sentence and it contrasts with the rest of the sentence. As a result, the inserted word becomes marked and therefore it grabs the reader’s attention and is likely to be encoded. Since encoding takes place by organizing the new information in a corresponding schema, the language schema of the code-switched word is likely to be activated. This process makes the activated language schema richer and easily retrieved later. In short, parallel to the Markedness Model, information processing theory supports that the salience or markedness of the embedded unit in code-switching stimulates greater attention and deeper processing. One important aspect of the Markedness Model is that the markedness concept should be understood as a continuum. Although there may be a dominant unmarked choice in a given communication exchange, all code choices are more or less unmarked 31 or marked (Myers-Scotton 1993) and recognition and meaning of marked choices depend on how much they are deviant from what is expected. In terms of code-switching, this suggests that if embedded units are less distinctive and less unusual, they will be “less mark ”. From the receiver’s perspective, they are less likely to recognize the marked choice and potentially may not interpret the intended social meanings. Markedness and Language Schemas Luna and Peracchio (2005b) suggest that markedness plays a crucial role in activating language schemas. Language schemas include individuals’ perceptions about the social meanings of the language, the culture which the language is associated with, evaluations of the language, attitudes toward the language, the kind of people who speak the language, the contexts when that language can be used, the topics for which the language is appropriate, and beliefs about how others perceive the language (Luna and Peracchio 2005a; 2005b). Language schema of a particular language is activated when the language is being processed. The same language schema may be deactivated when the language is not used or another language is being processed at that time (Luna and Peracchio 2005b). In the context of code-switching where the embedded words are marked, the marked words lead to the retrieval of a schema for the language from which the marked words originated (Luna and Peracchio 2005b). For instance, when people process an English-Korean code-switching situation, their English language schema is first activated. But, as they process the sentence, the Korean word is recognized due to its salience or markedness. The markedness of the Korean word in turn stimulates the activation and elaboration of the Korean language schema while deactivating the English language 32 schema. Even when the English language schema is still activated, it would not be elaborated on as much as the Korean language schema (Johnston et al. 1990; Luna and Perrachio 2005b). In other words, the Korean language schema is dominant in the given communication context. The continuum view of the markedness concept further suggests that when code- switched words are “less marked”, the difference in the degree of elaboration between the base language schema and the embedded language schema may be smaller than when the embedded words are “more marked”. This situation occurs because one language schema may not completely overpower the other in a “less marked” code-switching context. Instead, both language schemas may experience a similar degree of elaboration. The association between markedness and language schema has important implications for the persuasiveness of code-switched advertising messages. Attitude toward Language & Language Schemas in an Advertising Context When the slogan or body copy of an ad is code-switched, readers activate language schemas for the embedded language. The activated language schema is elaborated and in turn the language attributes and valence of those attributes can influence product evaluations (Luna and Peracchio (2005a). For example, when people had a positive attitude toward the Spanish language, their product evaluations were higher in the English-Spanish code-switching conditions than in the Spanish-English code-switching conditions (Luna and Peracchio 2005a). The authors explained that Spanish words became salient in an English-Spanish code-switching situation and the Spanish language schema was activated and elaborated on. Since people had a positive 33 attitude toward the Spanish language, the associated language attributes were evaluated positively and favorably. In turn, the positive associations influenced how people evaluated the product (Luna and Peracchio 2005a). Others studies have examined the influence of language schemas on product evaluations although these studies did not directly focus on code-switching strategies (Baumgardner 2006; Harris et al. 1994; Leclerc, Schmitt, and Dube 1994; Thakor and Pacheco 1997; Ustinova and Bhatia 2005). For instance, people’s evaluation of a hedonic product was higher when a brand name was spelled or pronounced in French than in English (Leclerc, Schmitt, and Dube 1994). When people see a French-spelled brand name, they activate the French language schema which includes their perceptions about French culture. Often French culture is associated with qualities such as aesthetic sensitivity, sensory pleasure, refined taste, elegance, and sophistication. Such attributes of the French language are in fact salient attributes for a hedonic product. Therefore, the association enhances product perceptions and attitudes (Leclerc, Schmitt, and Dube 1994). Another study examined English language use in Mexican advertising. The English language has been used in Mexican advertising for the brand name, the slogan, and the body copy in various forms including code switching (Baumgardner 2006). The primary reasons for the popularity of the English language in non-native English speaking countries are due to the fact that English is perceived as an international language, and one that is prestigious and reflects modernity and technological superiority (Baumgardner 2006). English expressions in ads can catch Mexicans consumers’ attention and stimulate the activation of the English language schemas including the attributes listed above. The positive perceptions of the English language are then associated with the advertised 34 product. As a result, products advertised with English language elements are evaluated as superior in quality and more reliable compared to the products merely associated with the Mexican Spanish language (Baumgardner 2006). Similarly, other studies have suggested that a positive language schema (such as positive images of the English language as being global, exotic, and prestigious) influences people’s perceptions and evaluations of ads and advertised brands (Cutler, Javalgi, and White 1995; Crystal 1997; Mandel et a1. 1996; Mueller 1992; Ray, Ryder, and Scott 1991; Ustinova 2006; Wallraff 2000; Watson 1999). Schema Activation and Thought Elicitation Schema activation is often measured using open-ended questions with/without cues. Some researchers provide a series of word-stems and ask the respondents to form words using the given word-stems (Brown and Dittrnar 2005; Hargreaves and Tiggemann 2002). In order to assess the schema activation of a certain concept, the relation of each word to the target concept is evaluated. The higher number of words that are related to the target concept indicates stronger schema activation of the concept. For example, Hargreaves and Tiggemann (2002) aimed to test appearance schema activation. They gave twenty three-letter word-stems to the respondents to form twenty words. Each 3- letter word-stem could be completed to form either an appearance-related word or an appearance-unrelated word. For example, the stem SLE. . .. could be completed as SLEnder (an appearance-related word) or SLEep (an appearance-unrelated word). More appearance-related words were produced when a person’s appearance schema was activated than when one’s appearance schema was not activated. 3S Schema activation can also be measured by asking the respondents to express their thoughts without certain cues, such as through a thought elicitation task. Thought elicitation, or thought listing, is a technique asking the subjects to write down all the thoughts that come to mind or that are still coming to mind related to the topic or a stimulus object (Dickson and Sauer 1987). It is assumed that “the psychological significance of an individual's thoughts and feelings, as well as the underlying cognitive processes, can be examined by content analyzing the individual's reported thoughts, ideas, images, and feelings” (Cacioppo, von Hippel, and Ernst 1997, p.930). This means that comments listed by the respondents can reflect which schemas are activated at that time. Typically, when a thought elicitation task is done, the nature of the listed thoughts is rated along certain dimensions. Valence of the comments is the most commonly used dimension. In order to shed light on the nature of listed thoughts, the number of positive, negative, and neutral statements is scored (Cacioppo, von Hippel, and Ernst 1997). For instance, if the associations in the activated schema are positive in nature, the statements are likely to be positive. Previous studies have employed thought elicitation to assess the activation of language schema (Luna and Peracchio 2005a and 2005b). For example, in a study examining code-switching effect using Spanish and English, Luna and Peracchio (2005b) presented a series of code-switched ad slogans and asked the subjects to complete a thought elicitation task. Later, they coded each comment as negative, neutral, or positive for Spanish and English to assess the degree and valence of the activation of the English and the Spanish schemas. 36 The current study suggests that when people complete a thought elicitation exercise after viewing a code-switched slogan between Korean and English, each comment can be coded using nine activation articles: positive, neutral, and negative for the English language, the Korean language, and language-unrelated thoughts about the slogan. For instance, “The English word used in this slogan makes the slogan creative” is a positive comment for the English language and ”The meaning of the slogan is unclear to me because it is written in English” is a negative comment for the English language. Similarly, “I like the fact that the Korean word stands out and effectively communicates an important attribute of the advertised product” is a positive comment for the Korean language and “This slogan looks unprofessional because of the Korean word inserted in the slogan” is a negative comment for the Korean language. “This slogan contains an English (or Korean) wor ” is an example of a neutral comment for the English (or Korean) language. The language-unrelated thoughts about the slogan include comments that are not about either Korean or English languages, but about the content or form of the slogan. For example, “The slogan is not appealing to me because it is too long” is a language-unrelated negative comment and ”The slogan sounds trustworthy and I want to try the advertised product” is a language-unrelated positive comment. An example of a language-unrelated neutral statement would be “The slogan is written in black.” The language-unrelated thoughts about the slogan will provide better understanding of the influence of language schema activation on persuasiveness of different types of code- switched slogans. 37 CHAPTER 2 STUDY 1: THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TL-KE CODE-SWITCHIN G IN RELATION TO CONVENTIONAL CODE-SWITCHING TYPES Hypotheses The purpose of this study is to explore the effectiveness of a TL Korean-English code-switching slogan in relation to the slogans of the two traditional code-switching types (Korean-English code-switching and English-Korean code-switching). From the markedness perspective, English words in Korean-English code-switching and Korean words in English-Korean code-switching are marked choices (Fiske and Taylor 1984; Luna and Peracchio 2005a; 2005b; Myers-Scotton 1993). In these traditional code- switching types, the embedded words become salient and recognized as an unexpected event due to their dramatic contrast with the surrounding language (Luna and Peracchio 2005a; 2005b). The two sources that make the embedded words stand out are their foreign origin and the writing system used to represent the words. On the other hand, the embedded English words in a TL Korean-English code-switching situation are distinctive only in regards to the language origin since they are written in the script of the base language (the Hangeul alphabet). In this sense, the embedded words in pre-existing types should be considered as “more marked” than the embedded words in a TL Korean- English code-switching situation. In other words, the English words in a TL Korean- English code-switching are a mixture of the Korean language and the English language by nature, and consequently, they are likely to be perceived as a “less marked” choice. 38 The more vs. less marked choice has important implications for what language schemas are activated and to what degree elaboration occurs with the activated language schemas. In “more marked” choices, as in English-Korean code-switching and Korean- English code-switching, the schema for the embedded language is expected to be activated and elaborated whereas the schema for the base language is deactivated or suppressed (Luna and Peracchio 2005b). Consequently, the language schema for the switched words will influence people when processing the given stimulus (Luna and Peracchio 2005a). In contrast, with respect to a TL Korean-English code-switching slogan (a “less marked” choice), the Korean language schema may be still turned on and elaboration may occur even when the English words written in Hangeul are processed. The Hangeul alphabet is an attribute of the Korean language and it can effectively trigger the Korean language schema. Therefore, it is hypothesized that the presence of the Hangeul alphabet used to write English words hinders the disengagement of the Korean language schema in a TL Korean-English code-switching situation. As a result, when people process a TL Korean-English code-switching slogan, both English and Korean language schemas may be activated. Further, the valence of attributes from the activated language schema influences how people respond to the slogan and the advertised product (Luna and Peracchio 2005a). That is, when attributes of a certain language are positive and the language schema is activated at the time of processing a slogan and the ad in which the slogan is presented and evaluating a product, the positive meanings of the language are associated with the slogan, the ad, and the advertised product (Baumgardner .2006; Leclerc, Schmitt, and Dube 1994; Luna and Peracchio 2005a; Thakor and Pacheco 1997; Ustinova and Bhatia 39 2005). For example, when people have a positive attitude toward English, they will respond more positively to a slogan where the English language schema is activated than a slogan activating the Korean language schema. This suggests that a Korean-English code-switching slogan will lead to more positive attitudes toward the slogan and a higher product evaluation than with English-Korean code-switching. However, since TL Korean-English code-switching is expected to elicit both Korean and English language schemas, the positive meaning carried by the English language schema may be diluted by the simultaneous activation and elaboration of the Korean language schema. Consequently, a TL Korean-English code-switching slogan will generate more positive slogan attitudes and a more positive product evaluation than an English-Korean code- switching slogan, but a less positive evaluation than a Korean-English code-switching slogan. Similarly, when individuals have positive attitudes toward the Korean language, their product evaluations will be more positive when a product is promoted by an English-Korean code-switching slogan than a Korean-English code-switching slogan. Since a TL Korean-English code-switching slogan has both language schemas activated, its effect on product evaluations is expected to be more positive under conditions of Korean-English code-switching and less positive in response to English-Korean code- switching. Since young Koreans’ attitudes toward the English language is expected to be more positive than toward the Korean language due to the significant role and meaning of the English language in and outside of Korea, the following hypotheses are proposed. H1: A Korean-English code-switching slogan will lead to the most positive attitudes toward the slogan followed by a TL Korean-English code-switching slogan and finally an English-Korean code-switching slogan. 40 H2: A Korean-English code-switching slogan will lead to the highest product evaluations followed by a TL Korean-English code-switching slogan and finally an English-Korean code-switching slogan. Method Design of the Study A between-subject one-way ANOVA design with three levels (Types of code- switching: English-Korean code-switching vs. Korean-English code-switching vs. TL Korean-English code-switching) was used to examine the effectiveness of TL Korean- English code-switching slogans in relation to the two forms of slogans of pre-existing code-switching types. Participants One hundred thirty subjects took part in this study and received a ballpoint pen (about 50 cents worth) as an incentive to participate. All subjects were of Korean nationality and attended universities in Korea. The subjects were recruited from the universities that are similar in school ranking in order to keep the English language proficiency level as similar as possible between subjects from different schools. In order to ensure that the subjects’ first language was Korean and their second language was English, only those of Korean nationality were eligible to participate. Using college students as subjects is relevant to this study because its purpose is to examine how bilingual consumers respond to different types of code-switching messages in ads. College students are often considered as the most bilingually proficient group in Korea (Lee 2006; Report World 2005). Therefore, using college student samples allows testing of the proposed hypotheses in a more controlled environment than using people of different ages with varying levels of English proficiency. Among 130 subjects, 70 (54%) 41 were females and 60 (46%) were males. Most of the subjects (about 97%) fell under the age group of 17 to 25 years old. Approximately 96% of the subjects’ major were within a college of communication (advertising, public relations, journalism, or telecommunication) whereas only 4% of the subjects’ major was from outside of communication (economics, psychology, or sociology). The subjects reported moderate proficiency in the English language (In: 3.49 on a 7 point scale with 7 being very proficient). Their reading proficiency in English was higher (m= 4.36 on a 7 point scale) than their overall proficiency in English (In: 3.49). Since the subjects were asked to process a written stimulus, their reading proficiency in English was reported separately. None of the background variables mentioned above interacted with code-switching type. Stimuli Three experimental ads representing the three types of code-switching were developed using Photoshop software. They took the form of one-page print ads for a liquid hand soap. The subjects were moderately interested in the hand soap product category (In: 3.54 on a 7 point scale). The stimulus ads were created based on an existing print ad for Purell®. An existing ad was used so that the stimulus ads looked like those that would be found in a real magazine. The original Purell® ad was created and used in the US. and was not run in the Korean market. At the end of the study, subjects were asked to indicate whether they had seen the experimental ad before. None of the subjects indicated that they had seen the ad prior to the study. Therefore, predisposed attitude toward the original Purell® ad or Purell® brand is not a confounding variable. The original Purell® ad has a human hand image in the center and a product image in the lower right-hand side comer. The stimulus ads have three elements: an image of a hand, a product image, and a slogan. The hand image was kept as is and the 42 Purell® product image was replaced with a different bottle on which a fictitious brand name 24f/ was written. A numeric (language-neutral) brand name was used so that subjects would not associate the brand name with any particular language and with any particular country as the country of origin of the advertised product. Along with the image components, a one-sentence slogan was included in the stimulus ads. Whereas the same hand and product images were used in all three experimental ads, the slogan was modified to correspond to each of the three experimental conditions (EK code-switching vs. TL-KE code-switching vs. KE code- switching). A slogan was first created in the Korean language (2.4/7 €— Hl‘1-—% Algé‘iE 71 A z.‘éhfll-Zs—OI ‘21 Flo FIF large; {gig-g— agal—t— Edi-i QgLIEi). The Korean slogan was translated into the English language (“Using 24/7 hand soap is just like wearing an antibacterial clear glove”) and then back-translated into Korean (Khairullah, Tucker, and Tankersley 1996; Luna and Perrachio 2005b). Back-translation ensures accuracy of translation and was carried out by two bilinguals who are fluent in both Korean and English. The Korean slogan and the English slogan that went through the back-translation process were used to produce code-switched slogans. The Korean slogan was used as a base language for a TL-KE slogan and a KE slogan whereas the English slogan was used to make an EK code-switched slogan. The phrase #5 3153/ 5%; and its English equivalent clear glove were code—switched. Therefore, an EK slogan was made by inserting the Korean phrase into the English slogan (Using 24/7 hand soap is just like wearing an antibacterial #33 Eli) (See Figure l-A), a TL-KE slogan by embedding the 7-1 A rlr rlo transliterated English phrase into the Korean slogan (24/7 {4:- HH—S- Algfil 43 sewed 91-:— lElOl 3212—:- Eiafil-‘e Kill eel-m (See Figure l-B). and a KE slogan by inserting the English phrase into the Korean slogan (2.4/7 £— Hl #% Ill-golf- 31 Eli—1W Oll‘ 0| SBA-:5 clear glove 3 Zigfilt- Zdl'l €4ng Ci) (See Figure l-C). The code- I'IO switched words are written in bold here for illustrative purposes. Procedure A researcher went to classrooms, introduced the purpose of the study as seeking consumers’ evaluations of a print ad for a new hand soap brand, and asked for voluntary participation. A total of 130 students voluntarily agreed to participate in the study. They were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions (EK code-switching vs. KE code-switching vs. TL-KE code-switching). Forty-three subjects were assigned to the EK condition, another forty-three to the TL-KE condition, and the remaining forty—four to the KB condition. Each subject received a questionnaire along with a ballpoint pen as an incentive. Each questionnaire included a written consent form, a stimulus ad, and a series of questions. All questionnaires were written in the Korean language except for the experimental condition of the slogan in the ad. The subjects were instructed to read the consent form first and then view a print ad. After viewing the ad, they were asked to complete the thought elicitation exercise, indicate their attitude toward the slogan, and evaluate the product. These ad-related questions were followed by questions about product involvement, and attitude toward both the Korean language and the English language. The order of attitude toward the Korean language and the attitude toward the English language was reversed in half of the questionnaires. After the language attitude measure, English language comfort level was assessed and a translation task for the code-switched English words and questions about 44 perceived difficulty of the English words were given in order. The last set of questions dealt with subjects’ demographic information. After completing the questionnaire, the subjects returned the questionnaire, were debriefed, and thanked for their participation. Measures Attitude toward the slogan. Attitude toward the slogan was measured with eight items on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from “Strongly disagree”: 1 to “Strongly agree”: 7 (adapted from Chang 2004). The eight items are: convincing, likable, interesting, unpleasant, good, believable, unreasonable, and authentic (or = .90). The reversed items were recoded before data analysis. Product evaluation. Product evaluations were measured with six items on a 7- point Likert scale adapted from Luna and Perrachio (2005b). The answers range from “Strongly disagree”: 1 to “Strongly agree”: 7. The six statements include: 1) The advertised product has poor quality; 2) The advertised product is appealing; 3) I want to buy the advertised product; 4) I would recommend the advertised product to a friend; 5) The advertised product is exceptional; 6) The advertised product is very bad (a = .85). The reversed items were recoded before data analysis. Thought elicitation. Thought elicitation was used to examine schema activation to provide insights into the evaluation measures (slogan attitude and product evaluation). The subjects were asked to write down as many thoughts as they had in relation to the ad slogan they just viewed. Thoughts listed by subjects were coded using nine activation articles: positive, neutral, and negative for the English language, the Korean language, and language-unrelated thoughts about the slogan. Two bilingual coders who are fluent in both Korean and English independently coded the comments written by the subjects. 45 Differences between coders were resolved through discussion. For inter-coder reliability, Pearson’s correlation coefficient was calculated for each of the nine variables. Pearson’s correlation coefficient is appropriate since it can be used with ordinal, interval, and ratio data (Riffe, Lacy, and Fico 1998). The range of inter-coder reliabilities was .87 to .93. Attitude toward the language. Attitude toward the language was measured with five items on a 7-point Likert scale. The answers range from “Strongly disagree”: 1 to “Strongly agree”: 7. The five statements include: 1) English (Korean) language is important in the world these days; 2) English (Korean) language will help me much in getting better opportunities for further studies; 3) English (Korean) language will help my future career; 4) English (Korean) language is highly regarded in Korea; 5) It is important for Koreans to know English (Korean) language (adapted from Lai 2005) (a = .84 for the English language and a = .86 for the Korean language). English language comfort level. English language proficiency was measured with four items using a 7-point scale ranging from “Not Comfortable At All”: 1 to “Very Comfortable”: 7. The subjects were asked how comfortable they were with reading, listening, writing, and speaking in the English language (a = .82) (adapted from Ahn and La Ferle 2008). Translation task for English words. The subjects were first asked to translate the code-switched English words. Incorrect translation indicates that the individual does not understand the words. Without knowing the meaning of the words, the process of the code-switched words would not be pure and any effects could be because of miscomprehension. Therefore, if subjects could not translate both words correctly, their data were excluded from the study. 46 The two words “clear” and “glove” were given separately and the subjects had to translate each word into Korean. In order to be consistent with the slogan, these words were written in the Roman alphabet in the KB condition while these words were transliterated into Hangeul (gal 01 and gel 2) in the TL-KE condition. For the EK condition, half of the subjects translated the actual English words and the Other half of the subjects translated the transliterated words. Even though the subjects in the BK condition did not see these English words in the slogan (they saw “fight? gig” a Korean expression for “clear glove”), they were also asked to translate these words. The rationale for this is to keep the English proficiency level similar across the three conditions. Perceived difiiculty of English words. Along with the translation task, perceived difficulty of the two English words (“clear” and “glove”) was measured using a semantic differential scale with “Very Easy” (1) at one end and “Very Difficult” at the other end (7). Product involvement. Product involvement was measured utilizing the following six 7-point Likert items adapted from Cho (2003): (l) I am interested in hand soap in general, (2) Hand soap is important to me, (3) I get involved with hand soap, (4) Hand soap is not relevant to me, (5) I am going to use hand soap in the next six months, and (6) I rarely use hand soap in my daily life (a = .87). The reversed items were recoded before data analysis. Results 47 A total of 129 students’ data were used for analysis: 43 subjects in each condition. One subject was excluded from the study because he/she did not translate the English word “glove” correctly. Attitude toward the Language Prior to hypothesis testing, subjects’ language attitudes were first analyzed using a paired-sample t-test to compare the English attitude and the Korean attitude. The mean on the English attitude was 6.36 (sd = .55), and the mean on the Korean attitude was 5.08 (sd = 1.00). The subjects’ attitude toward the English languages was found to be significantly more positive than their attitude toward the Korean language (t(128) = 13.55, p < .001). Language attitudes and code-switching type did not interact. Hypothesis Testing A one-way ANOVA was computed to compare attitude toward the slogan of subjects who viewed the three different types of code-switched slogans. A significant difference was found among the code-switching types (F (2, 126) = 14.97, p < .001). A post-hoe comparison was used to determine the nature of the differences between the code-switching types. This analysis revealed that the EK code-switching resulted in a lower score (m = 3.25, sd = .88) than the TL-KE code-switching (m = 4.29, sd = 1.34) (p < .001) and the KB code-switching (m = 4.40, sd = .96) (p < .001). The attitude toward the slogan was not significantly different between the TL KE code-switching and the KB code-switching (p > .05). Since the effect of the TL—KE code-switching and the KB code- switching type was not found significantly different, H1 was partially supported. A separate one-way AN OVA was calculated to examine the effect of the three code-switching types on product evaluation. There was a significant difference among the 48 code-switching types (F (2, 126) = 16.24, p < .001). A post hoc test showed that the EK code-switching resulted a lower score (m = 3.03, sd = .82) than the TL-KE code- switching (m = 3.94, sd = .90) (p < .001) and the KB code-switching (m = 3.97, sd = .88) (p < .001 ). There was no significant difference between the TL-KE code-switching and the KB code-switching (p > .05). Parallel to the attitude toward the slogan, product evaluation was similar between the TL-KE code-switching and the KB code-switching. Thus, H2 was partially supported. ANOVA findings for H1 and H2 are summarized in Table 1. Table 1 ANOVA Results for Slogan Attitude and Product Evaluation for Study 1 EK code-switching TL-KE code-switching KE code-switching Slogan Attitude 3.25 4.29 4.40 (sd=.88) (sd =1 .34) (sd =.96) ANOVA summary: F(2,126) = 14.97, p < .001 Product Evaluation 3.03 3.94 3.97 (sd=.82) (sd =.90) (sd =.88) ANOVA summary: F(2,l26) = 16.24, p < .001 As shown in the ANOVA results above, the effect of the EK code-switching was found consistent with hypotheses: the EK slogan resulted in the lowest scores on the slogan attitude and product evaluation. However, the similar effects of the TL-KE code- switching and the KB code-switching on the slogan attitude and the product evaluation were unexpected. Thought listings were analyzed to provide insights into the evaluation 49 findings among the three code-switching types and to explain the unexpected outcomes between the TL-KE slogan and the KB slogan. Thought Elicitation A series of ANOVAs were computed to provide evidence for the evaluation measures and all of the thoughts related to the slogan listed by subjects were analyzed. Following Luna and Peracchio’s procedure (2005b), the valence of total thoughts and the negative language thoughts were first analyzed. The valence of thoughts was calculated by subtracting the number of negative thoughts from the number of positive thoughts listed by subjects. A significant difference was found among the three different code- switching types (F (2, 127) = 5.21, p < .01). Specifically, subjects who were exposed to the EK code-switching listed more negative thoughts about the slogan (m = -.42, sd = 1.24) than those who read the TL-KE slogan (m = .23, sd = 1.07) (p < .05) and the KB slogan (m = .39, sd = 1.37) (p < .05). However, the valence of total thoughts written by the subjects who viewed the TL-KE slogan was similar to that written by those who viewed the KB slogan (p > .05). The negative language thoughts measure refers to the proportion of negative thoughts about the language used in the slogan (negative comments about both Korean and English languages divided by the total thoughts about the slogan listed by subjects). Following Luna and Peracchio’s procedure (2005a), this proportion was submitted to an arcsine transformation. According to Garson (2010), when a large portion of percentages are outside the range of 30% and 70%, arcsine transformation is recommended in order to normalize percentages. The rationale is that the more observations that fall outside this range, the more normality is violated (Garson 2010). The negative language thoughts 50 measure could explain if the valence of total thoughts can be attributed to subjects’ negative elaboration on the language of the slogan (Luna and Peracchio, 2005a,b). The result of the negative language thoughts analysis echoed the valence of total thought analysis. A significant difference was found among the three code-switching types (F (2, 125) = 7.96, p < .01). The EK code-switching resulted in a greater proportion of negative thoughts about the language used in the slogan (m = .32, sd = .51) than the TL—KE code- switching (m = .07, sd = .22) (p < .05) and the KB code-switching (m = .05, sd = .20) (p < .05), while no significant difference was found between the TL KE slogan and the KB slogan (p > .05). Additional AN OVA analyses of the language schemas were performed to see if the negativity of the language thoughts is related to the degree of schema activation of the Korean and English languages. The proportion of each of the Korean and English languages was calculated by dividing the number of comments about Korean (or English) language by the total number of thoughts about the slogan and submitted to an arcsine transformation. This measure may show to what degree each code-switching type elicited Korean and English schemas that influence the degree of negativity of language thoughts. Results showed a significant difference among three code-switching types for the proportion of Korean language thoughts (F (2, 125) = 8.08, p < .01). Specifically, it was found that the EK slogan elicited a higher proportion of Korean language thoughts (m .34, sd = .52) than the TL KE slogan (m = .09, sd = .30) (p < .05) and the KB slogan (m .05, sd = .19) (p < .05). No significant difference was found between the TL KE slogan and the KB slogan (p > .05). On the other hand, no significant difference was found among the three code-switching types for the proportion of the English language thoughts 51 (F (2, 125) = 2.32, p > .05). This implies that the English language schema was activated to a similar degree among the EK slogan (m = .07, sd = .28), the TL KE slogan (m = .11, sd = .32), and the KB slogan (m = .21, sd = .33). ANOVA findings for the thought listings are summarized in Table 2. Table 2 ANOVA Results for Thoughts Elicitation EK code-switching TL-KE code-switching KE code-switching Valence of -.42 .23 .39 Total Thoughts (sd=1.24) (sd =1.07) (sd =1 .37) ANOVA summary: F(2, 127) = 5.21, p < .01 Negative Language .32 .07 .05 Thoughts (sd=.51) (sd =.22) (sd =.20) ANOVA summary: F(2, 125) = 7.96, p < .01 Korean Language .34 .09 .05 Schema (sd=.52) (sd =.30) (sd =.19) ANOVA summary: F(2, 125) = 8.08, p < .01 English Language .07 .11 .21 Schema (sd=.28) (sd =.32) (sd =.33) ANOVA summary: F(2, 125) = 2.32, p > .05 Discussion A study was undertaken in South Korea to explore the effect of code-switching types (EK vs. TL—KE vs. KE) on attitude toward the slogan and product evaluation and to investigate how the newly introduced TL-KE code-switching is different from existing 52 EK and KB code-switching. The hypotheses were partially supported. As expected, the EK slogan resulted in a more negative slogan attitude and lower product evaluation than the TL-KE and the KB slogans. However, inconsistent with the hypotheses, both slogan attitude and product evaluation were not significantly different between the TL-KE slogan and the KB slogan. The underlying mechanism of these findings could be explained by the results of the thought listing analyses. The thought listing analyses showed that the EK slogan elicited more negative elaboration on the languages of the slogan (a greater proportion of negative language thoughts) which in turn led to more negative thoughts about the slogan than the TL-KE slogan and the KB slogan. As a consequence, the more negative total thoughts evoked by the EK slogan resulted in the more negative attitude toward the slogan and product evaluation than the other slogans. The consistency between the thought measures and the attitude and the evaluation measures was also observed in comparisons between the TL- KE slogan and the KB slogan. The proportion of negative thoughts about the languages and the valence of the total thoughts did not differ significantly between the TL-KE slogan and the KB slogan. These results were reflected in the insignificant difference between the two code-switching types in persuasiveness. The results of the language schemas analyses further provide insight into the findings of the negativity of the language thoughts and shed light on the underlying cause of the unexpected findings between the TL—KE code-switching and the KB code- switching. Initially, it was hypothesized that the Korean schema would be activated dominantly (and elaborated to a great extent) in the EK condition, both Korean and English schemas would be activated simultaneously to a similar degree in the TL-KE 53 condition, and the English schema would be activated and overpower the Korean schema in the KB condition. This further suggests that the activation of the Korean language schema would be highest in the EK slogan followed by the TL-KE slogan and the KB slogan in order. In terms of the English language schema, the activation would be highest in the KB condition followed by the TL-KE condition and the EK condition in order. However, the thought listing analyses showed somewhat different outcomes. First of all, the language schema analyses revealed that the English language schema was activated to a similar degree across the three code-switching types. On the other hand, the activation of the Korean language schema was higher in the EK condition than the TL-KE and the KB conditions and no significant difference was found between the TL-KE condition and the KB condition. This means that the degree of Korean language schema activation has a major influence on the valence language thoughts, the valence of total thoughts and in turn the evaluation measures. The unexpected findings with regards to language schema activation can be explained by the degree of markedness of each code-switching type in the context of a print ad. As shown in the preliminary content analysis of the Korean magazine, EK code- switching is an infrequently used tactic in advertising. From the markedness perspective, this means that an EK slogan itself is likely to be marked. Similar to the Markedness Model, the novelty dimension within information processing would indicate that the infrequent presence of an EK slogan in advertising makes people allocate their information-processing capacity to the unusual stimulus (Kaufrnan-Scarborough 2001). In other words, the language choice of an EK slogan is likely to draw people’s attention and promote activation of corresponding language schema. When subjects first 54 encountered the EK slogan, their English language schema was activated and elaborated. Then, when they processed the embedded Korean terms, their Korean schema was activated. In addition to the novelty effect of an EK slogan itself, the contrast dimension in information processing contributes to the activation and elaboration of the Korean language schema. Contrast is a characteristic drawing people’s attention when processing incoming information (Kaufman-Scarborough 2001) and the embedded Korean words contrast with the base English language. Since EK code-switching was an unusual form of language switching and the code-switched Korean expression drastically contrasted with the rest of the slogan, participants’ Korean language schema was extensively elaborated at the same time. Due to the markedness of English as a base language, their English language schema kept being turned on and elaborated to a certain degree instead of being completely overpowered by the Korean language schema. The results of the preliminary content analysis in the previous chapter suggest that TL-KE code-switching is a more frequently employed code-switching technique than an EK code-switching in a Korean advertising context. This means that a TL-KE slogan was more expected or less marked, than an EK slogan. This implies that when people viewed a TL-KE slogan, the language choice of the base sentence (Korean language) did not attract them to pay attention to and elaborate their thoughts. As a result, activation of the base language schema, Korean language schema, was insignificant. Interestingly, when participants saw the code-switched English words, the transliterated English words were not marked and did not stimulate activation of the English language schema as much as expected. This finding needs to be addressed since this is inconsistent with the theorizing 55 that the transliterated English expression would be marked to a certain degree due to their English origin. One possible explanation for these unexpected findings is the difficulty level of the English words used in the TL-KE slogan. When people process a foreign word, they usually need to translate the word into their first language to understand its meaning. However, when people become very familiar with a foreign word, they can obtain its meaning without translation. Because the word is similar to a local word, which is directly connected to its meaning in their memory, a familiar foreign word has a direct link to its meaning in their memory (Bolt, Zarate, and Paulus 2003; Dufour and Kroll 1995; Kroll and Stewart 1994). The results of the translation task and perceived difficulty of the English words used in the TL-KE slogan (“clear” and “glove”) revealed that the subjects perceived these words as being very easy. Among 130 subjects, only one subject could not translate “glove” correctly. In addition, the score for the perceived difficulty level of the two words was very low: the mean for “clear” was 1.63 (where “1” being very easy and “7” being very difficult) and the mean for “glove” was 1.64. Therefore, it is possible that when the subjects saw these words in the slogan, they could process it without undergoing the translation process. Due to the absence of the translation process resulting from perceived easiness along with the Hangeul presentation of the English words, the subjects might not realize the fact that they were processing foreign words. In this case, the subjects did not notice the code-switching technique (TL-KE code- switching) and the embedded English expression was less marked or unmarked. Simply put, the transliterated English words could have been processed as a Korean phrase due to 56 their perceived easiness and in turn the activation and elaboration of the English language schema was less likely. Similar to the TL-KE slogan, both the base language schema (Korean language schema) and the embedded language schema (English language schema) were neither activated nor elaborated to a considerable degree in the KB code-switching condition. As in the TL-KE condition, the Korean language schema was not activated in the first place because the base language choice (the Korean language) is less marked, if not unmarked, and people are not prone to activate language schema for a less marked language choice. What is most surprising is that the English language schema was observed to a similar degree between the TL—KE slogan and the KB slogan in spite of the Roman alphabets used to write the English expression in the KB code-switching condition. This may be due to a demanding processing task for slogans in general. Some researchers argued that comprehension is the major task required in processing advertising slogans or copy messages (Ahn and La Ferle 2008; Lowrey 1998). Previous research has shown that when people process the meaning of slogans, they pay more attention to semantic features than the surface characteristics of the language (Luna, Lerman, and Peracchio 2005). It can be argued that when people can understand a given message without any mental distraction (such as translation effort), they do not pay much attention to peripheral features of the message (such as the alphabets in which the message is written). Since the subjects considered the inserted English expression (clear glove) very easy, they could have obtained the meaning without going through the translation process (Bolt, Zarate, and Paulus 2003; Dufour and Kroll 1995; Kroll and Stewart 1994). Without the translation process, activation of the English language schema was less likely and the 57 effect of the Roman alphabets was not significant enough to show greater activation and elaboration of the English language schema in the KB slogan than the TL-KE slogan. In sum, markedeness level of a slogan itself in an advertising context and markedness level of the embedded words influenced the degree of Korean and English language schema activation, which in turn influenced slogan attitude and product evaluation. Since the EK slogan is used infrequently in the real world, the slogan itself was more marked. This resulted in schema activation and elaboration not only for the embedded language (English) but also for the base language (Korean). On the other hand, the TL-KE and the KB types are relatively more common in Korean advertising. This led to low activation and elaboration of the base language schema (Korean). The low activation of the English language schema (inserted language’s schema) in both TL-KE and KB slogans can be attributed to the absence of translation efforts due to the perceived easiness of the English words. As a result, the markedeness level of the code-switched words and the slogan itself resulted in higher activation of the Korean language schema in the EK condition than the TL-KE and the KB conditions and no significant difference in the English language schema activation across the three conditions. The results of the language schema analyses were reflected in slogan attitude and product evaluation: Because people had more positive attitudes toward the English language than the Korean language, the EK slogan resulted in more negative slogan attitude and more negative product evaluation than the TL-KE and the KB slogans. Overall, the findings of this study are consistent and lend support to previous research in that when slogans are made by mixing two languages, slogans switching to a more positive language will lead to greater persuasion than slogans switching to the less 58 positive language, and vice versa (Luna and Peracchio 2005a). In the present study, as people had less positive attitudes toward the Korean language than the English language, the EK slogan led to less positive slogan attitude and more negative product evaluation than the TL-KE and the KB slogans. This finding is also parallel to the context effects suggested by Luna and Peracchio (2005b). The context effect explains that people tend to respond more positively to a code-switching type that is widely used than a code- switching type that is uncommon. In the preliminary content analyses, the EK code- switching was a less frequently used tactic than the TL-KE and the KB code-switching types. Consistent with the context effect perspective, people reacted less positively to the EK slogan than the TL-KE slogan and the KB slogan. This study theorized that there are two ways an embedded term can contrast with the base sentence in code-switching between two different alphabetic languages: origin of word and written representation. Based on this theorizing, it introduced a new type of code-switching, TL code-switching and it tested the effect of the TL code-switching in relation to existing code-switching types in a Korean advertising context. However, even though the TL-KE slogan was found more effective than the EK slogan as hypothesized, no significant difference was found between the TL-KE code-switching and the KB code- switching. This result shows that the validity of the TL code-switching as a new type of code-switching, which is different from KE code-switching, was not empirically tested. It was argued that the unexpected finding was due to the perceived easiness of the embedded English words used in both TL-KE and KB slogans. Thus, another study is conducted to further investigate the effect of TL-KE code-switching in relation to KE code-switching. Specifically, it is designed to examine whether perceived difficulty level 59 of the code-switched English words moderates language schema activation and persuasiveness between the TL-KE slogan and the KB slogan. 60 CHAPTER 3 THE REVISED HIERARCHICAL MODEL AND WORD DIFFICULTY The Revised Hierarchical Model The Revised Hierarchical Model can explain how Korean people perceive and process difficult vs. easy English words embedded in KB and TL-KE code-switching. The Revised Hierarchical Model (RHM) was originally developed to explain how a first- language (L1: local language) and a second-language (L2: foreign language) are processed and represented in a bilingual individual’s memory (Bolt, Zarate, and Paulus 2003; Dufour and Kroll 1995; Kroll and Stewart 1994) (see Figure 2 for a visual explanation). The model posits that L1 and L2 are represented in memory in two levels: the lexical and the conceptual level. Word forms of L1 and L2 are stored separately at the lexical level whereas they are linked to a shared semantic representation at the conceptual level (Bolt, Zarate, and Paulus 2003; Dufour and Kroll 1995; Kroll and Stewart 1994). For instance, “ gig.” is a Korean word that can be translated into “pencil” in the English language. The word forms, “ 9%” and “pencil”, are represented separately in a bilingual’s memory at the lexical level. However, both words are connected to the meaning of the word that is shared by both languages at the conceptual level (e. g.., a pencil is used to write with). The RHM specifies the strength of lexical links and conceptual links. Lexical links refer to the links between L1 and L2 at the lexical level, including the link from the L] word to the L2 word and the link from the L2 word to the L1 word. Conceptual links refer to the links from each language to the meaning at the conceptual level: the link 61 between the L1 word and the concept and the link between the L2 word and the concept (Bolt, Zarate, and Paulus 2003; Dufour and Kroll 1995; Kroll and Stewart 1994). In general, the conceptual link between L1 and the concept is stronger than the link between L2 and the concept because the Ll-concept link is formed prior to the L2- concept link and it is also activated more frequently. With respect to the lexical level, the link from L2 to L1 is stronger than the link from L1 to L2 due to the fact that when people learn L2 words, they relate the L2 words to the corresponding L1 words to understand their meaning (Bolt, Zarate, and Paulus 2003; Dufour and Kroll 1995; Kroll and Stewart 1994). For instance, when Koreans learn the English word “pencil”, they associate the word to the Korean equivalent“ 9%”. Since they already know the meaning of “ 27%”, this association allows them to understand what “pencil” means. The strength of conceptual links and lexical links can be modified as an individual’s proficiency in L2 improves. The more individuals become familiar with L2 words as a result of repeat associations between L2 words and their attached concepts mediated through the L1 words, the conceptual link between the L2 words and their concepts becomes stronger. This eventually facilitates a direct connection between L2 words and their meanings without referring to the L1 equivalent (Bolt, Zarate, and Paulus 2003; Dufour and Kroll 1995; Kroll and Stewart 1994). The effect of L2 proficiency on the strength of conceptual and lexical links can be parallel to an individual’s processing of difficult versus easy L2 words. That is, when processing easy L2 words, individuals can directly access the concepts whereas difficult L2 words require L1 mediation. In other words, the RHM suggests that when people process a difficult foreign word, the translation process is required whereas when people 62 process an easy foreign word, the translation process can be omitted. This means that Korean people should go through the translation process when obtaining the meaning of a difficult English word, but they can understand an easy English word without the translation process. Word Difficulty & Language Schemas The previous section explains how the difficulty level of an English word influences the process people go through to obtain its meaning: the translation process is necessary for a difficult English word, but not for an easy English word. This section illustrates the impact of English word difficulty on language schema activation in TL-KE code-switching and KB code—switching. Specifically, it focuses on how the activation of the Korean and the English language schemas is affected by whether translation is required or not in processing a T L-KE slogan or 3 KB slogan. When an easy English word is used in TL-KE code-switching, it is likely to be an unmarked choice for two reasons. First, people are unlikely to engage in the translation process due to the strong conceptual link to the English word. It is possible that they can comprehend the TL-KE slogan without much mental effort, similar to when they understand a Korean sentence. Second, since it is written in Hangeul, there is no distinction between the embedded English word and the rest of the slogan in terms of how it is written. The minimal engagement of the translation process in the encoding stage and its Hangeul representation is likely to prevent people from noticing they are processing an English word and therefore the English word will be unmarked. As a result, the English language schema is less likely to be activated. Regarding the Korean language schema, it is expected to be activated first since it is the base language schema. 63 However, considering the fact that seeing the Korean language is the norm and therefore it is an unmarked language choice, the degree of activation and elaboration of the Korean language. schema will be insignificant. When a KE slogan is created with an easy English word, the inserted English word is likely to be unmarked or less marked as in the TL-KE code-switching. Due to perceived easiness and familiarity, people can understand the meaning of the English word without translation or the aid of a Korean word. The lack of translation effort may hinder the Roman alphabet from promoting activation and elaboration of the English language schema. Previous work suggests that when people try to obtain the meaning of slogans, they pay greater attention to semantic features than surface elements of the slogans (Luna, Lerman, and Peracchio 2005). It seems to imply that when they can obtain the meaning of a slogan without distraction (such as the translation process) which can direct their attention to the non-semantic features, the surface characteristics of the slogan became less important to them. Based on this reasoning, it can be argued that if people can comprehend a code-switched English word very easily, the influence of the Roman alphabet will be minimal. In other words, the representation of the Roman alphabet is not likely to contribute to the markedness level of the English word. Therefore it will not stimulate activation and elaboration of the English language schema to a strong degree. As a result, in spite of the Roman alphabet, the English language schema is not expected to be activated significantly more in a KE slogan than in a TL-KE slogan. Similarly for TL-KE code-switching, the Korean language schema will be observed to a trivial degree due to the Korean language being an unmarked choice in general. Unlike for the easy English word, individuals will need to translate a difficult English word to gain meaning due to a weak association between the English word and its concept (Bolt, Zarate, and Paulus 2003; Dufour and Kroll 1995; Kroll and Stewart 1994). The translation process will influence activation and elaboration of language schema in both TL-KE and KB slogans. When a difficult English word is inserted in a TL-KE slogan, the slogan may not appear as code-switched at first glance since the slogan is written exclusively in Hangeul. However, when individuals cognitively process the slogan they will go through the translation process for the difficult English word (Bolt, Zarate, and Paulus 2003; Dufour and Kroll 1995; Kroll and Stewart 1994). This process will make them perceive the transliterated English word (written in Hangeul) as an English word. As pe0ple recognize the contrast between the embedded term and the base sentence in terms of language origin, the English word will become a marked choice and will elicit the English language schema. The Korean language schema, as the base language schema, will be weakly activated because the Korean language is a highly expected language choice. However, the activation and elaboration of the Korean language schema can be stimulated by the Hangeul alphabets used for the English word. Based on previous research (Luna, Lerman, and Peracchio 2005), this paper argues that when people’s semantic processing of a slogan is distracted by the translation attempt, not only the semantic features of a slogan, but also surface elements of it become salient. This reasoning suggests that when people process a difficult English word written in Hangeul, they will notice the discrepancy between the origin of the word (English) and its written language (Korean) and such 65 contrast can direct the readers’ attention to the Hangeul script. Some researchers have argued that certain characteristics of a stimulus can draw attention and one of them is contrast (Kaufman-Scarborough 2001). When a difficult English word is embedded in a TL-KE slogan, people may wonder why an English word is written in Hangeul or they may feel that the Hangeul representation of the English word makes it harder/easier to understand the word. In short, it is hypothesized that activation and elaboration of the Korean language schema will be stimulated by the Hangeul alphabets used for the embedded English word. When a KE slogan is created with a difficult English word, its English origin and Roman alphabet will make the word distinctive from the rest of the slogan and will make the word marked. The translation process will make people recognize the origin of the English word and consequently evoke the English language schema stored in their memory. As their cognitive effort is concentrated on processing the English word, the Roman alphabet may further stimulate the elaboration of the English language schema. On the other hand, Korean language activation will be trivial to start off and will remain at the same level or may be somewhat suppressed by the English language schema as a result of the strongly marked English word. In sum, when an easy English word is code-switched, no significant difference is expected to be found between TL—KE code-switching and KB code-switching in terms of how much English and Korean language schemas are activated and elaborated. On the other hand, with a difficult English word, more activation and elaboration of the Korean language schema is anticipated in the TL-KE slogan than in the KB slogan and possibly 66 more activation of the English language schema is expected in the KB slogan than the TL-KE slogan. 67 CHAPTER 4 STUDY 2: THE ROLE OF PERCEIVED DIFFICULTY LEVEL OF ENGLISH WORDS AS A MODERATING FACTOR Hypotheses Study 1 introduced a new code-switching type, TL-KB code-switching, and explored its effect in relation to existing code- switching types, KB and EK code- switching. The effectiveness between the TL-KE code-switching and the EK code- switching was consistent with hypotheses. However, no significant difference was found between the TL-KE code-switching and the KB code-switching, possibly due to the perceived easiness of the inserted English words. Therefore, this study focuses on the TL- KB code-switching and the KB code-switching and will investigate whether perceived difficulty level of the embedded English words moderates language schema activation and the outcomes of attitude toward the slogan and product evaluation between the TL- KB slogan and the KB slogan. The previous chapter suggested that when easy English words are code-switched, the activation and elaboration of both Korean and English language schemas will be similar between the TL-KE and the KB slogans. On the other hand, when difficult English words are embedded, the TL-KE slogan will stimulate activation and elaboration of the Korean language schema to a greater degree than the KB slogan and may result in less activation of the English language schema than the KB slogan. Considering the fact that young Korean bilinguals have more positive attitudes toward the English language than the Korean language and attitude toward the language 68 will influence people’s evaluation of the slogan and advertised produce, the following hypotheses are developed. H3: When easy English words are embedded in a Korean slogan, attitude toward the slogan will be similar between the Korean-English code-switching slogan and the TL Korean-English code-switching slogan. However, when difficult English words are inserted into a Korean slogan, Korean-English code-switching slogan will lead to more positive attitudes toward the slogan than TL Korean-English code-switching slogan. H4: When easy English words are embedded in a Korean slogan, product evaluation will be similar between the Korean-English code-switching slogan and the TL Korean-English code-switching slogan. However, when difficult English words are inserted into a Korean slogan, Korean-English code-switching slogan will lead to higher product evaluations than TL Korean-English code-switching slogan. Method Design of the Study A 2 (Types of code-switching: KB code-switching vs. TL-KE code-switching) X 2 (Perceived difficulty of the embedded English word: difficult vs. easy) between-subject factorial design was employed. Pretest A pretest was conducted to select easy and difficult English words, which would be inserted into a Korean slogan to make a TL-KB slogan and a KE slogan. Here, the difficulty level (easy vs. difficult) would be determined by people’s perceived difficulty of a given English word. In order to test the effect of the difficulty level of the embedded English words, everything should be the same between the easy slogan and the difficult slogan except for the difficulty level of the embedded English words. This means that the easy and difficult words should be synonyms. Since the purpose of this pretest was to 69 find two synonyms that differ in difficulty level, testing difficulty level of randomly selected (or unrelated) English words were meaningless. Instead, the word choice for the pretest should be more focused and the following procedure was used. As the first step, a product and a brand name were selected. Liquid hand soap and 24/7 were chosen as the product and the brand name, based on the findings of Study 1 in which hand soap was found to be a moderately interesting product among college students and 24/7 was considered as a language-free brand name. After the product and brand name selection, the researcher came up with four potential slogans. Since the base language of KB and TL-KE slogans is the Korean language, the potential slogans were developed in the Korean language. The four slogans are listed below and their English versions are written in parentheses for readers who do not understand the Korean language. The words in bold indicate code-switched words. The four potential slogans were: 241/? e Hit—é Algele Zd-S— seal-am 91% we Bit-S Haiti—i:— 311i eel—II} (Using 24/7 hand soap is just like wearing an antibacterial clear glove); 24/7 €- ape—g. Arena at at new are are we steels arm aaucr (Using 24/7 hand soap I'IO is just like wearing an antibacterial thin glove); 24/7 3&- HI-‘r—E HIE—g— 7121 $121 6l71| 3712i 5,5 9.1ng Ci (24/7 hand soap can almost completely remove bacteria); 24/7 3 gut-gm $15 ‘5i-‘.:- .3. tn; 2} L] E} (2.4/7 is a hand soap that doctors recommend). Next, the author took a word or a phrase from each Korean slogan and translated it into English. Thus, ‘ggg 73;“ from the first slogan was replaced with the English phrase ‘clear glove’, ‘33- 73?; from the second slogan with ‘thin glove’, ‘X1|71‘ from the 70 third slogan with ‘remove’, and ‘-’F-E’ from the last slogan with ‘recommend’. The author, who is fluent in both Korean and English languages, assessed the difficulty level of each English word and searched synonyms that are opposite in difficulty level. For instance, ‘clear’ was evaluated as an easy word and ‘transparent’ was considered as a difficult synonym. For some words, the author found more than one synonym. Therefore, a total of 11 English words were selected to be tested for their difficulty level. The pair (an easy word and its difficult synonym) having the greatest score difference would be used as the manipulation for this study. The eleven words included: clear, transparent, glove, thin, sheer, remove, eradicate, destroy, recommend, advocate, and endorse. Seventy Korean college students participated in the pretest and received a 50-cent value ballpoint pen as an incentive for their participation. All subjects had Korean as their first language and English as their second language. Among seventy subjects, 37 students (52.9%) were females and 33 (47.1%) students were males. The subjects were moderately comfortable with the English language (m: 3.532, d= 1.111). Their reading comfort level with English (m: 4.17, d: 1.351) was higher than their overall comfort level with English (m: 3.532). The reading comfort level was reported here in addition to the overall comfort level with English because the subjects evaluated written English words. Subjects received a written consent form, a questionnaire, and a pen. There were two versions of the questionnaire: one with the English words written in Roman alphabet and the other with the English words transliterated into Hangeul. Subjects were randomly given one of the two versions of the questionnaire. Difficulty of selected English words was measured in two ways. First, subjects were asked to translate the English words into 71 Korean. The eleven English words were listed along with a blank line for the respondents to write a Korean word for each English word. For every word, a box option was provided for those who did not know the meaning of the word. The translation task was utilized because the number of correct translations is a direct indication of how difficult or easy an English word is for the subjects to understand. This measure will provide a general understanding of the difficulty level of each word. However, the findings of the translation task cannot show the perceived difficulty level of the translated words. It is possible that one can translate two English words, but consider one word as more difficult than the other. Therefore, below the translation task, perceived difficulty was measured. Subjects were asked to evaluate each of the eleven English words by indicating how easy/difficult each word was for them to understand. The perceived difficulty of a word was measured using a semantic differential scale with “Very Easy” at one end and “Very Difficult” at the other end. The order of the eleven words was varied. Translation task and perceived difficulty together would be used to determine which pair of English words to be used as manipulation. Pretest Results In order to determine difficulty level of each word, the number of correct translations for each word was counted. The number of people who correctly translated each word was 68 (97.1%) for clear, 29 (41.4%) for transparent, 67 (95.7%) for glove, 64 (91.4%) for thin, 3 (4.3%) for sheer, 49 (51.%) for remove, 4 (5.7%) for eradicate, 55 (78.6%) for destroy, 46 (65.7%) for recommend, 6 (8.6%) for advocate, and 6 (8.6%) for endorse. 72 For the perceived difficulty, the mean of each word was calculated. The three most easy words were ‘clear’ (m= 1.47, sd= .696), ‘thin’ (m= 1.91, sd= 1.10), and ‘glove’ (m= 2.17, sd= 1.191) in order. The three most difficult words were ‘eradicate’ (m= 5.91, sd= 1.033), ‘endorse’ (m= 5.61, sd= 1.203), and ‘transparent’ (m= 5.09, sd= 1.191) in order. The mean difference of each pair (an easy word and its difficult synonym) was also examined. The pair showing the greatest score difference was clear/transparent (mmspmm - mam: 3.62, d: 1.417). Considering both translation task and perceived difficulty, ‘clear’ is perceived to be the easiest English word among the eleven words. The word ‘transparent’ is one of the most difficult words and is a difficult synonym of ‘clear’, resulting in the greatest score difference between synonyms. Therefore, the pair, clear/transparent, was selected for the manipulation. In developing easy and difficult KB and TL-KE slogans, ‘clear glove’ and ‘transparent glove’ were used instead of ‘clear’ and ‘transparent’ in order to make the code-switched slogan sound more natural. Although ‘glove’ is perceived as an easy word (95.7% on correct translation and m= 2.17, d= 1.191 for perceived difficulty), the difference between ‘clear glove’ and ‘transparent glove’ in perceived difficulty is expected to be similar to the difference between ‘clear’ and ‘transparent’ in the same aspect. Since both ‘clear’ and ‘glove’ are perceived to be easy, a phrase ‘clear glove’ will be perceived as easy also. Even though ‘glove’ alone is an easy word, ‘transparent glove’ together is likely to be perceived as a difficult phrase to process because if people consider ‘transparent’ a difficult English word, it will be difficult for them to obtain the meaning of the phrase ‘transparent glove’. 73 Therefore, ‘clear glove’ and ‘transparent glove’ were inserted into the Korean slogan, “24/7 it HI-‘F—E llI‘SEI-E Zd-E- SENS-0| 9.15 TEE Ell-3 ne‘er—:— Z1311 £ng Ci” (Its English version is “Using 24/7 hand soap is just like wearing an antibacterial clear glove”). The four slogans developed for the main study were: 24/7 14:- HI-t-EZ- “SEE 31% EEWEOI 5217‘:- clear glove 3 38:35 Bill-l Eel-Lilli (easy KB slogan). 24/7 e— tile-S Algole 3&8 gamed are IEIOI ielaé Eigei-t-z— 313i QeLIEi (easy TL-KE slogan). 24/7 e- Hlkrs- #8615 71—2- gram-gm 9.1% transparent 24 rlo glove-:- name an gal—In (difficult KE slogan). and 24/7 at HI-‘r—é Areal I'll' Sit. 7|%0| 91% Efléllfifi iElE-S- iii-851% 3131 @314 Ct (difficult TL-KE slogan). Stimuli Based on the pretest results, four ads were created using Photoshop software. The ads are for 24/7 hand soap and the format of the ads is the same as that of the ads in the Study 1. The ads are one-page print ads consisting of an image of a hand, a product image, and a slogan. While keeping the hand image and the product image consistent across the four ads, the slogan was altered to reflect the four conditions: easy KB (See Figure 3-A), easy TL-KE (See Figure 3-B), difficult KB (See Figure 3-C), and difficult TL-KE (See Figure 3-D). Main Study A total of 320 students voluntarily agreed to participate in the study and they were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions: easy KB code-switching, easy TL-KE code-switching, difficult KE code-switching, and difficult TL-KE code-switching. A 74 large number of subjects were recruited because those who could not translate the English words used in this study (clear/glove/transparent) could not be used in the analysis. An incorrect translation indicates that the individual does not understand the given English word, and therefore cannot semantically process it. This means that their evaluation measures and thought listing may not be influenced by the difficulty of the embedded English word. Instead, they may be influenced by miscomprehension of the word or frustration of processing it. The procedure of this study was identical to that of the Study 1. A researcher visited classrooms in Korean universities and asked students to participate in a study where the researcher wants to know how consumers evaluate a print ad for 24/7, a new hand soap brand. Each of the 320 participants received a written consent form, a questionnaire, and a ballpoint pen as incentive for participation in this study. Subjects were asked to read the written consent form first. Then they were instructed to view the ad and answer questions about the ad including their attitude toward the slogan and product evaluation, and thought listing for the slogan. Following the ad-related questions, product involvement, attitude toward the Korean and the English languages, and English language proficiency were measured. Perceived difficulty of the embedded English words and ability to translate the words in Korean were also asked along with demographic questions. For the perceived difficulty and translation task, the code-switched English words were written as they appeared in the slogan. For example, when a subject read a KB slogan, the English words were listed in the Roman alphabets and when a subject was exposed to a TL-KE slogan, the English words were transliterated and written in the Hangeul alphabets. 75 After answering all of the questions, subjects returned their questionnaire and the researcher explained the real purpose of the study and thanked them for their participation. Measures Attitude toward the slogan. Attitude toward the slogan was measured with eight items on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from “Strongly disagree”: 1 to “Strongly agree”: 7 (adapted from Chang 2004). The eight items are: convincing, likable, interesting, unpleasant, good, believable, unreasonable, and authentic (or = .86). The reversed items were recoded before data analysis. Product evaluation. Product evaluations were measured with six items on a 7- point Likert scale adapted from Luna and Perrachio (2005b). The response options range from “Strongly disagree”: 1 to “Strongly agree”: 7. The six statements include: 1) The advertised product has poor quality; 2) The advertised product is appealing; 3) I want to buy the advertised product; 4) I would recommend the advertised product to a friend; 5) The advertised product is exceptional; 6) The advertised product is very bad (a = .84). The reversed items were recoded before data analysis. Thought elicitation. Thought elicitation was conducted by asking subjects to write down as many thoughts as they had in relation to the ad slogan they just viewed. Thoughts listed by subjects were coded using nine activation articles: positive, neutral, and negative for the English language, the Korean language, and language-unrelated thoughts about the slogan. Two bilingual coders who are fluent in both Korean and English independently coded the comments written by the subjects. Differences between 76 coders were resolved through discussion. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was calculated for each of the nine variables. The range of inter-coder reliabilities was .87 to .94. Attitude toward the language. Attitude toward the language was measured with five items on a 7-point Likert scale. The answers range from “Strongly disagree”: 1 to “Strongly agree”: 7. The five statements include: 1) English (Korean) language is important in the world these days; 2) English (Korean) language will help me much in getting better opportunities for further studies; 3) English (Korean) language will help my future career; 4) English (Korean) language is highly regarded in Korea; 5) It is important for Koreans to know English (Korean) language (adapted from Lai 2005) (a = .83 for the English language and a = .84 for the Korean language). English language comfort level. English language proficiency was measured with four items using a 7-point scale ranging from “Not Comfortable At All”: 1 to “Very Comfortable”: 7. The subjects were asked how comfortable they were with reading, listening, writing, and speaking in the English language (a = .86) (adapted from Ahn and La Ferle 2008). Translation task for English words. As in Study 1, the subjects were first asked to translate the embedded English words into Korean in order to rule out the effect of miscomprehension on dependent variables. All subjects were asked to translate three English words (clear, glove, transparent) that were written in the alphabet that was used in the slogan. Thus, the words were written in the Roman alphabet (clear, glove, transparent) in the KB conditions and they were written in the Hangeul alphabet (at El 01, 72212, Eifllfiflfl $5) in the TL-KE conditions. Those who translated all three English words correctly were included for data 77 analysis. The rationale for asking subjects to translate all three English words is to make ensure similar English proficiency level across the four conditions. Perceived difficulty of English words. Along with the translation task, perceived difficulty of the three English words (clear, glove, transparent) was measured using a semantic differential scale with “Very Easy” at one end (1) and “Very Difficult” at the other end (7). Product involvement. Product involvement was measured utilizing the following six 7-point Likert items adapted from Cho 2003: (1) I am interested in hand soap in general, (2) Hand soap is important to me, (3) I get involved with hand soap, (4) Hand soap is not relevant to me, (5) I am going to use hand soap in the next six months, and (6) I rarely use hand soap in my daily life (a = .88). The reversed items were recoded before data analysis. Results The individuals who couldn’t translate the embedded English words were excluded from the analysis. A total of 192 subjects, out of 320, were used for analysis. The number of valid subjects was 48 for the easy KB condition, 47 for the easy TL-KE condition, 49 for the difficult KE condition, and 48 for the difficult TL-KE condition. All 192 subjects were Koreans, having Korean as their first language and English as their second language. Among 192 subjects, 109 subjects (57%) were females and 83 subjects (43%) were males. The majority of the subjects (93%) fell into the age group of 17 years old to 25 years old. They were all college students and approximately 85% of them were majoring in communication-related subjects (such as advertising, public 78 relations, journalism, or telecommunication). In order to ensure their English comfort level to be as similar as possible, students were recruited from two universities that were similar in school ranking. They are moderately comfortable with the English language (m = 3.67, sd = 1.27 on a 7 point scale with 7 being very proficient). Compared to the overall English language comfort level, subjects showed a higher comfort level in reading in English (m = 4.39, sd = 1.46). The result of a paired-sample t-test showed that subjects had more positive attitudes toward the English language (m = 6.28, sd = .64) than the Korean language (m = 5.14, sd = .92) (t( 191) = 15.24, p < .001). None of the background variables mentioned above interacted with either the code-switching type or the difficulty of code-switched English words. Hypothesis Testing A 2 (code-switching type) X 2 (perceived difficulty of code-switched English words) between-subjects factorial AN OVA was calculated comparing attitude toward the slogan for subjects who were exposed to either a TL-KE slogan or a KE slogan and who were exposed to either easy English words or difficult English words. A significant two- way interaction was found between code-switching type and difficulty of code-switched English words (F (1 ,188) = 4.16, p < .05). In order to explore the nature of the interaction, simple effects tests were followed. The simple effect of code-switching type within the easy English word condition was tested and it was found insignificant (F (1, 188) = .57, p > .10). On the other hand, the simple effect of code-switching type within the difficult English words condition was found significant (F (1, 188) = 13.29, p < .001). In other words, when easy English words were code-switched and embedded in the Korean slogan, there was no significant difference in attitude toward the slogan between the TL-KE 79 condition (m = 4.32, sd = .86) and the KB condition (m = 4.47, sd = .94). However, when difficult English words were code-switched, the KB slogan lead to more positive attitude toward the slogan (m = 4.59, sd = 1.09) than the TL-KE slogan (m = 3.86, sd = .98). Therefore, H3 was supported. A separate AN OVA was performed to examine the effects of code-switching type and difficult of the code-switched English words on product evaluation and a significant two-way interaction was found (F (1,188) = 4.40, p < .05). The ANOVA was followed by simple effect tests to discover the nature of the interaction effect. Consistent with attitude toward the slogan, the simple effect of the code-switching type within the easy English words condition was found insignificant (F (1, 188) = 2.85, p > .10), whereas the simple effect of the code-switching type within the difficult English words condition was found significant (F(1, 188) = 21.89, p < .001). This means that when easy English words were inserted in the slogan, people who viewed the TL-KB slogan evaluated the advertised product (m = 3.81, sd = 1.01) similar to those who viewed the KB slogan (m = 4.12, sd = .84). However, when difficult English words were used, those who were exposed to the KB slogan evaluated the advertised product more positively (m = 4.31, sd = .85) than those who read the TL—KE condition (m = 3.45, sd = .91). These simple effect tests support H4. The results of the AN OVA and simple effect tests for both slogan attitude and product evaluation are summarized in Table3. 80 Table 3 ANOVA Results for Slogan Attitude and Product Evaluation for Study 2 Slogan Attitude TL-KE CS KE CS Total Easy Words 4.32 (sd=.86) 4.47 (sd =.94) 4.40 (sd =.90) Difficult Words 3.86 (sd =.98) 4.59 (sd =1 .09) 4.23 (sd =1.09) Total 4.09 (sd =.95) 4.53 (sd =1.01) ANOVA summary: F(l,188) = 4.16,p < .05 Product Evaluation TL-KE CS KB CS Total Easy Words 3.81 (sd= 1.01) 4.12 (sd :84) 3.97 (sd =.94) Difficult Words 3.45 (sd =.9l) 4.31 (sd =.85) 3.88 (sd =.98) Total 3.63 (sd =.97) 4.22 (sd =.85) ANOVA summary: F(l,l88) = 4.40, p < .05 Thought Elicitation In order to get further insight into the insignificant findings between the TL-KE code-switching and the KB code-switching in the easy words condition and the significant findings between the two code-switching types in the difficult words condition, thought listings were analyzed. As in Study 1, valence of total thoughts, negative language thoughts, Korean language schema, and English language schema were examined. Before analysis, the scores of negative language thoughts, Korean language schema, and English language schema were submitted to an arcsine transformation. For each thought listing variable, the simple effect of code-switching type within the easy English words condition and the difficult words condition were tested. 81 Analysis of simple effects indicated that the valence of total thought was insignificant in the easy English words condition (F (l, 188) = .28, p > .10), but significant in the difficult English words condition (F (l, 188) = 8.42, p < .01). In other words, the valence of total thought was similar between the TL-KE code-switching (m = .23, sd = 1.16) and the KB code-switching (m = .35, sd = .93) in the easy words condition, whereas the KB code-switching yielded more positive valence of total thought (m = .49, sd = 1.06) than the TL-KE code-switching (m = -.17, sd = 1.26) in the difficult words condition. Results of the simple effect tests for the negative language thoughts showed an insignificant finding for the two slogans in the easy words condition (F (1, 178) = .02, p > .10) and a significant finding in the difficult words condition (F (1, 178) = 8.64, p < .01). The proportion of negative thoughts about the language used in the slogan was similar between the TL-KE slogan (m = 07, sd = .29) and the KB slogan (m = .07, sd = .28) in the easy English words condition. On the other hand, the KB slogan led a greater proportion of negative thoughts about the language used in the slogan (m = .31, sd = .50) than the TL-KE slogan (m = .09, sd = .33) in the difficult words condition. An analysis of the simple effects of code-switching type within easy and difficult words conditions for Korean language schema showed a similar pattern to the valence of thoughts and negative language thoughts: an insignificant effect in the easy words condition (F (l, 178) = .17, p > .10) and a significant effect in the difficult words condition (F (1, 178) = 11.86, p < .01). Specifically, when easy English words were code- switched, Korean language schema was activated to a similar proportion between the TL- KE condition (m = .08, sd = .35) and the KB condition (m = .05, sd = .26). However, 82 when difficult English words were embedded into the Korean slogan, people who viewed the TL-KE slogan activated a greater proportion of the Korean language schema (m = .30, sd = .53) than those who processed the KB slogan (m = .05, sd = .25). The simple effect tests for the English language schema revealed an inconsistent result from the other thought listing measures. The analysis indicated that the activation of the English language schema was insignificant in both the easy words condition (F (1 , 178) = .57, p > .05) and the difficult words condition (F (1, 178) = .21, p > .05). This means that the activation level of the English language schema was similar between the TL-KE slogan and the KB slogan in both the easy words condition (mmxg = .15, mm = .23) and difficult words condition ("111,103 = .32, mm; = .36). To understand the effect of code-switching type and difficulty of the code-switched English words on the English language schema, the result of the ANOVA was examined. A significant main effect was found for the difficulty of the English words (F ( 1, 178) = 5.06, p < .05). This result indicated that the difficult English words led a greater activation of the English language schema (m = .34, sd = .49) than the easy English words (m = .19, sd = .41). No other effect was found significant. The results of the simple effect tests on thought listings are summarized in Table 4. 83 Table 4 Results of Simple Effect Tests on Thought Elicitation Valence of Total Thoughts TL-KE CS KB CS Total Easy Words .23 (sd=1.16) .35 (sd =.93) .29 (sd =1.05) Difficult Words -.17 (sd =1 .26) .49 (sd =1.06) .16 (sd =1 .20) Total .03 (sd =1 .22) .42 (sd =1.00) Negative Language Thoughts TL-KE CS KE CS Total Easy Words .07 (sd= .29) .07 (sd =.28) .07 (sd =.28) Difficult Words .31 (sd =.50) .09 (sd =.33) .20 (sd =.43) Total .20 (sd =.43) .08 (sd =.31) Korean Language Schema TL-KE CS KB CS Total Easy Words .08 (sd=.35) .05 (sd =.26) .06 (sd =.30) Difficult Words .30 (sd =.53) .05 (sd =.25) .17 (sd =.43) Total .20 (sd =.46) .05 (sd =.25) English Language Schema TL-KE CS KB CS Total Easy Words .15 (sd=.39) .23 (sd =.42) .19 (sd =.4l) Difficult Words .32 (sd =.40) .36 (sd =.S7) .34 (sd =.49) Total .24 (sd =.40) .30 (sd =.51) Discussion Study 2 was undertaken to explore if perceived difficulty level of the code- switched English words moderates effectiveness between the TL-KE slogan and the KB slogan. Overall, the findings support the role of the perceived difficulty of the code- 84 switched English words as a moderating variable: the effectiveness was not significantly different between the TL-KE and the KB slogans when easy English words are embedded whereas the KB slogan was found more persuasive than the TL-KE slogan when the embedded English words are perceived difficult among bilingual Koreans. In addition, based on the findings of this study, TL-KE code-switching can be identified as a new code-switching type that can result in different effects from the existing KB code- switching. The result of the easy English word condition replicated the effect of the TL-KE slogan and the KB slogan found in Study 1: Both Korean and English language schemas were activated to a similar degree between the two slogans. The similarity in the language schema activation consequently resulted in similarities in the proportion of negative thoughts about the language used in the slogan and the valence of total thought between the two code-switching types. In turn, the persuasiveness between the two slogans was not found to be significantly different. The analyses of the thoughts listing also help explain the product evaluation findings in the difficult word condition. In both TL-KB and KB code-switching, the embedded English expression was marked and drew the readers’ attention to the language term and stimulated the activation and elaboration of corresponding language schema(s). The TL-KE slogan led a greater activation of the Korean language schema than the KB slogan while both slogans caused a sirrrilar level of activation of the English language schema. The result regarding the English language schema suggests that when subjects in both code-switching conditions perceived and processed the inserted English words as English words, the Roman alphabet itself in the KB slogan may not play a significant role 85 in further enhancing the English language schema stimulated due to the origin of the words. This indicates that the English language schema is not affected by the written representation of the English word, but the origin of it. On the other hand, the Hangeul script used for the English terms in the TL-KE slogan elicited the Korean language schema significantly more than the English words in their original form in the KB slogan due to the discrepancy between the origin of the word (English) and its written language (Korean). The difference in the Korean language schema seemed to influence the proportion of negative thoughts about the language used in the slogan. Considering that the subjects had less positive attitude toward the Korean language than the English language, the greater activation of the Korean language schema in the TL-KE slogan led the more negative thoughts about the slogan language and in turn the more negative overall thoughts than the KB slogan. 86 CHAPTER 5 GENERAL DISCUSSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH General Discussion This dissertation examined the effect of bilingual code-switching and explained the underlying process from the Markedness Model perspective. This framework suggests that the markedness level of a language choice influences the likelihood of the language term being processed. This in turn has an impact on the degree of activation and elaboration of the terrn’s language schema, such as attitude toward the language or social meanings of the language Gum and Peracchio 2005a; 2005b). Overall, the studies 1 and 2 found that different code-switching types result in varying degree of markedness for the base language and the embedded language and consequently a varying degree of activation of elaboration of Korean and English language schemas which in turn influences persuasiveness of each code-switching type. The results of Study 1 revealed that an EK slogan was less persuasive than TL-KE and a KE slogans, as young bilingual Koreans have more positive attitude toward the English language than the Korean language. The analyses of thought measures provided the underlying reason: the English language schema was activated similarly among the three code-switching types while the activation of the Korean language schema was greater in the BK context than the other two conditions. The difference in the Korean language schema activation influenced the valence of thoughts about the language used in the slogan and the valence of total thoughts. 87 The effect of existing code-switching types (BK vs. KE) was consistent with the findings of previous research (Luna and Peracchio 2005a; 2005b) in that slogans switching from less favorable language to more favorable language led to higher product evaluation than slogans switching from more favorable language to less favorable language. This code-switching direction effect was also found between an EK slogan and a TL-KE slogan. In addition, the difference between the EK slogan and the KB slogan regarding the activation of Korean and English language schemas was echoed in the comparison between the EK slogan and the TL-KE slogan. However, a KE code-switching and a TL-KE code—switching were not different in terms of how each was processed and what impact each type had on product evaluation measures. In other words, the author theorized the conceptual distinction between TL-KE code-switching and KB code-switching, but the theorizing was not supported by empirical findings. The similar result between these two code-switching types may be due to the commonality they share: both code-switching types were made with the same English words. However, it is still surprising that the representational difference (the Roman alphabets in the KB slogan and the Hangeul alphabets in the TL-KE slogan) did not have a significant effect. It was argued that the perceived easiness of the English words might have suppressed the effect of the Roman alphabets used for the inserted English terms in the KB slogan. Considering the perceived difficulty level of the code-switched English expression as a potential moderating variable, Study 2 was conducted to investigate the validity of TL-KE code-switching as a new code-switching that is independent from existing KE code-switching. Thus, it focused on TL-KE code-switching and KB code- 88 switching. The results supported the theorizing that the perceived difficulty of the embedded English words moderates the effect of TL-KE and KB code-switching. The results of the easy condition replicated that of Study 1. On the other hand, the KB slogan led to more positive slogan attitude and product evaluation than the TL-KE slogan in the difficult word condition due to the greater activation of the Korean language schema in the TL-KE slogan. This dissertation makes theoretical contributions to bilingual consumer research as well as proposes practical implications for advertisers targeting bilingual consumers. In terms of theoretical contributions, the present research expands earlier code-switching studies in several ways. The most important contribution is re-categorization of code- switching types in a written communication context. This dissertation introduced a new code-switching type (TL code-switching) for the first time and explored its effectiveness in relation to pre—identified code-switching types. In doing so, it shed light on the processes involved in creating written code-switching and explained how they are similar and different between code-switching between languages using a common writing system and code-Witching between two different alphabetic languages. The former requires translation process only whereas the latter requires both translation and transliteration processes. In addition, Study 2 identified the perceived difficulty level of embedded English words as a moderating factor influencing the impact of TL-KE and KB code-switching types on slogan and product evaluations. Another theoretical contribution is that the two studies in this dissertation tested Luna and Peracchio’s (2005 a,b) theorizing (explaining the’effects of code-switching 89 from the Markedness Model perspective) in other language context and lend support to this important but under-researched area. The earlier researchers had focused on code- switching between languages having a common writing system (Spanish and English). The current studies applied their theory to the code—switching between two different alphabetic languages (Korean and English languages) and obtained consistent findings. In addition, by analyzing Korean and English schemas separately, this dissertation helps understand the underlying process of code-switching effect in more detail. The results of this dissertation suggest practical implications for advertisers targeting bilingual consumers. First of all, this research provides helpful guidelines for advertisers targeting young bilingual Koreans. In general, considering the more positive attitude toward the English language‘than the Korean language among young Koreans, a TL—KE slogan or a KE slogan appears to be a better choice than an EK slogan. Further, a KB slogan seems more effective than a TL-KE slogan when using a difficult (but not too challenging) English expression while the two code-switching types yield a similar effect when inserting an easy English expression. The findings of this research would be relevant for code-switching between any two different alphabetic languages such as English (and variants of the Roman alphabet such as Spanish, Finnish, Dutch, etc), Korean, Arabic, Thai, Hebrew, Armenian, Hindi, Cyrillic, Mongolian, Amharic, Tamil, etc (Characters: A Brief Introduction 2004; The KryssTal Web Site 2002). As the majority of written languages in today’s world are alphabetic languages (Characters: A Brief Introduction 2004), the results of the current studies can help many countries and multinational marketers when developing code- switched messages for their bilingual consumers. 9O The findings of this paper can also provide general guidelines for advertisers planning to mix two languages in their ads. They first need to understand the target market’s attitude toward the two languages and perceived difficulty of the terms they plan to use. Then they need to develop messages using a code-switching type that makes the more favorable language marked or salient (i.e., having the more favorable language as a code-switched language rather than a base language). This strategy can stimulate the schema of the more favorable language and perhaps suppress the schema of the less favorable language. In selecting easy versus difficult words, advertisers need to take their target market’s proficiency of the languages they plan to use into consideration because the same foreign word can be perceived as easy or difficult depending on how proficient individuals are in the foreign language. Future Research The purpose of this research was to examine the persuasiveness of three different code-switching types among bilinguals. Thus, the author focused on college students who reported moderate proficiency in English and were able to comprehend the English words employed in this research. Considering that college students are thought to‘be the most proficient bilinguals in Korean society (Lee 2006; Report World 2005), it will be worthwhile to examine how people of different ages with varying levels of English proficiency respond to the three code-switching types tested in the current studies. Previous studies argued that if people perceive foreign language messages as too challenging, they can misunderstand the messages or disengage from processing the messages altogether (Ahn and La Ferle 2008; Domzal, Hunt, and Kernan 1995; Genitsen 91 et a1. 2000). This suggests that if people cannot comprehend the embedded English words in TL-KE and KB slogans, they may evaluate the messages and the advertised product negatively even though their attitude toward the English language is positive in general. In addition, there are people who understand an English word when it is spoken but do not recognize it easily when it is written. In other words, some people are unfamiliar with English spelling. They may perceive a TL-KB slogan as easy to understand but consider a KB slogan with the same English word too challenging. Therefore, future research is needed to examine the moderating effect of the varying levels of English ability on the effectiveness of different code-switching types. In order to use different languages within ads effectively in the Korean market, it would be interesting to explore the effect of code-switching between the Korean language and a foreign language which Koreans have a different attitude toward and proficiency level from the English language. For instance, considering that Chinese is a part of the Korean education system as an elective course (Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education 2009), the impact of code-switching between Korean and Chinese could be examined. In investigating language effects in advertising, the present studies have concentrated on an interesting but under-researched area, code-switching tactics. However, neither the studies in this paper nor previous studies have examined the effects of code—switched slogans in relation to single-language slogans such as a Korean-only slogan or an English-only slogan. For example, if a target market has more positive attitude toward the English language than the Korean language, it will be interesting to see whether an English-only slogan is more effective than a TL-KB slogan or a KB 92 slogan. In short, additional research is called for to shed light on the language effect by taking both code-switching and single-language slogans into consideration. Finally, testing the effectiveness of the newly introduced code-switching type, TL code-switching, within other alphabetic languages (i.e., Thai-English code-switching) would be advantageous in terms of validating the new code-switching type and generalizing the findings of the current studies. Considering the growing market size of bilingual consumers throughout the world and the proportion of alphabetic languages existing in today’s world, the continued examination of the influence of code-switching strategy on advertising effectiveness is necessary. 93 Appendix A Examples of Two Types of Code-Switching Between English and Spanish Code-switching refers to the insertion of linguistic elements (i.e., words, phrases, clauses or sentences) of one language into another language. The following examples demonstrate two types of code-switching between languages having a common alphabetic script, using the English language and the Spanish language. They were created by Luna and Peracchio (2005a). 1) ‘English-Spanish code-switching’ where a Spanish word is embedded in an English sentence i.e., “In my cocina I would never make coffee with any other coffeemaker” 2) ‘Spanish—English code-switching’ in which an English word is presented in a Spanish language sentence i.e., “En mi kitchen nunca han’a cafe’ con ninguna otra cafeteria” 94 Appendix B Examples of Four Types of Code-Switching Between Korean and English In this dissertation, it is theorized that four types of code-switching can be conceptually identified when code-switching is made between two different alphabetic languages. The following shows the four code-switching types using the English language and the Korean language. 1) 2) 3) 4) ‘English-Korean code-switching’ where a Korean word is inserted into an English sentence and the inserted Korean word is written in Hangeul alphabet i.e., “Find your own 4;" ( 49’ is a Korean word for color) ‘Korean-English code-switching’ where an English word is embedded in a Korean sentence and the embedded English word is written in the Roman alphabet i.e., “Eltl 9194 color S- QEMIQ.” ‘TL Korean-English code-switching’ where an English word is embedded in a Korean sentence and the embedded English word is transliterated into the Hangeul alphabet i.e., “Eli! BEE; JFEMIH” ‘TL English-Korean code-switching’ where a Korean word is inserted in an English sentence and the inserted Korean word is transliterated into the Roman alphabet i.e., “Find your own Saek” 95 Figure l-A Stimulus Ad for Study 1: EK Code-Switching Note: The slogan in this ad is “Using 24/7 hand soap is just like wearing an antibacterial VSE’ El?” 96 Figure l-B Stimulus Ad for Study 1: TL-KE Code-Switching Note: The slogan in this ad is “24/7 it Hl-‘r—g Jug-elf 31% grim-gm 911'? ia|01 iEiEE 348-515 3131i QELIEF’ 97 Figure l-C Stimulus Ad for Study 1: KE Code-Switching Note: The slogan in this ad is “24/7 {2 him—g Aigolf 7,11% Elfin—3m ‘21—:— clear glove 2 51-8511:- Zifll gaunt"- - 98 Figure 2 Visual Explanation of the Revised Hierarchical Model lexical links L1 4 L2 (local I __________________ . (foreign language) language) ,7 conceptual ’ conceptual links links concepts Note: This figure is adapted from Kroll and Stewart, 1994. 99 Figure 3-A Stimulus Ad for Study 2: Easy KE Code-Switching Note: The slogan in this ad is “24/7 {a} Hlir-E #8615 31% §fl7l30| 0 E clear glove 5 angel—:— ZdP—l QfiLIEI" Figure 3-B Stimulus Ad for Study 2: Easy TL-KE Code-Switching Note: The slogan in this ad is “24/7 e tile-E Algoh‘: 71—S— sewed 91% iElol iEIEE JSIB-315 3131 Eat-111i” 101 Figure 3-C Stimulus Ad for Study 2: Difficult KE Code-Switching Note: The slogan in this ad is “24/7 {- HI-Lf-g 86H: 31,—?- glimgm 21E transparent glove a sane 7131i gaunt" Figure 3-D Stimulus Ad for Study 2: Diffith TL-KE Code-Switching Note: The slogan in this ad is “124/? 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