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IMPROVING DONKEY (EQU US ASINUS) WELFARE THROUGH ENHANCED
MANAGEMENT, TRAINING AND EDUCATION
WITH EMPHASIS IN MALI, WEST AFRICA

By

Amy K. McLean

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Animal Science

2010

ABSTRACT

IMPROVING DONKEY (EQUUS ASINUS) WELFARE THROUGH ENHANCED
MANAGEMENT, TRAINING AND EDUCATION WITH EMPHASIS IN MALI,
WEST AFRICA

By

Amy K. McLean

Mankind has depended on donkeys (Equus asinus) for thousands of years. Donkeys have
helped farming communities cultivate land, harvest crops, and transport goods to the
markets. To the present day, the “beast of burden” is still being relied upon as a major
source of traction in many developing countries such as Mali, West Africa. These
animals are able to live and work in regions of the world where food and water are often
scarce. The welfare and management of donkeys in both industrialized nations and
developing countries is often ignored. Donkeys in countries such as the United States are
often faced with obesity and little physical exercise, while donkeys in places like Mali are
faced with low body conditions and are overloaded and overworked. Problems
encountered in either scenario could be addressed with pro-active management
techniques. For example, training methods used to train donkeys to drive are often too
harsh, leading to lesions and decreased longevity. Gentler training methods are available

and can be equally, if not more, effective and will enhance donkey welfare.

A survey conducted by Diarra et a1. (2007) indicated that most donkeys in Mali were

subjected to poor working conditions. The productive life expectancy of a donkey in

Mali is on average about 2 years. Since a donkey can be purchased for $100-150
USD, a Malian must pay this amount every two years to replace his donkey, and this
is approximately 1/3 of a smallholder farmer’s annual income. The survey
conducted in Mali, indicated a need for education and training on better husbandry
and management practices, including proper harnessing and cart usage to reduce

injuries and increase the productive life of donkeys in Mali.

This research has taken an instructional approach to studying improved training,
harnessing, and nutritional management for donkeys in both the United States and
in Mali. The management tools and techniques were shared with other
professionals such as veterinarians, technicians and secondary and college students
at agricultural institutions in Mali, so that they can eventually transfer this
knowledge to donkey owners in the field. Informative articles and seminars have
also been published in the United States on donkey behavior, metabolic conditions,

' and improved training and management techniques.

This dissertation is dedicated

To all the donkeys and mules that have to work for a living, to the people who try

to make a difference in their lives and to all the longears that I have known!

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to express sincere appreciation and gratitude to Dr.
Amadou Doumbia (an example of a true hero), Chief Executive, Society of
Protecting Animals Aboard, SPANA staff, Professor Boubacar Demebele (who
helped me work with the donkey owners of Mali), Dr. Tex Taylor (a person that I
admire greatly and who was instrumental in teaching me many important things
about donkey medicine, behavior and training), Bryan, Texas, Dr. Nora Matthews
(for helping me with donkey questions), the Texas Veterinary Medical Center,
College Station, TX, Dr. David Pugh (for his generosity, encouragement, and
donations for all of my studies), Auburn, AL, Fort Dodge Animal Health,
Overland Park, KS, and Waltham Centre for Pet Nutrition, Melton Mowbray,
United Kingdom, Michigan Horse Council, my major professor- Dr. Mel
Yokoyama (sticking through all the highs and lows of my graduate career and
being very supportive), Dr. Camie Heleski (who I think of as a great mentor), and
my committee who inspired me to learn more about donkey welfare, Dr. Janice
Siegford, Dr. Judy Marteniuk, and Dr. Carla Carleton. Crossroads donkey rescue,
Fran, Rudy, Teri, and all the members, and all the donkeys that participated in the
driving study. This research could not have been possible without the endless
encouragement and help of Brandon Blevins, my parents- my dad who first
introduced me to PJ the donkey when I was 6 months old, my mom who has
always encouraged me to follow my dreams, inspired me to travel, and loves

donkeys as much as I do, my dear mule friends Tina Varga, and Dianne Smith.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables .............................................................................. viii

List of Figures ................................................................................ x

List of Abbreviations ..................................................................... xiv

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 1
CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Working Donkey Management ......................................... 14

2.2. Donkey Physiological Characteristics ................................. 15

2.2.2. Hematocrit, Temperature, Respiration, and Heart Rate... 16

2.2.3. Heat Dissipation ................................................. 17

2.2.4. Hydration ......................................................... 18

2.2.5. Nutrition .......................................................... 20

2.3. Donkey Behavior ......................................................... 24

2.3.2. Natural and Social Behavior ................................... 25

2.3.3. Ingestive Behavior .............................................. 29

2.4. Management .............................................................. 30

2.5. How Donkeys Serve Mankind .......................................... 31

2.6. Economic Impact of Donkeys .......................................... 34

2.7. DonkeysandGenderEquity..........................., ................ 37

2.8. Challenges Facing Working Donkeys ................................. 39

2.9. Conclusion ................................................................ 41

References ................................................................ 42

CHAPTER III. NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT FOR DONKEYS (EQU US

ASIN US)
Introduction ........................................................................ 50
3.1. Introduction Study IA. Insulin Resistance in Standard Donkeys
(Equus asinus) of three body conditions-thin, moderate, and obese ....... 52
3.1.2. Materials and Methods .......................................... 54
3.1.3. Results ............................................................ 57
3.1.4. Discussion ........................................................ 58
References ................................................................. 63
3.2. Introduction Study 1B. Compositional Analysis of Feedstuffs

Commonly fed to Working Donkeys in Mali, West Africa.........66

3.2.2. Materials and Methods .......................................... 67
3.2.3. Results ............................................................ 71
3.2.4. Discussion ........................................................ 72
3.2.5. Future Studies ................................................... 74
References ................................................................. 79

vi

CHAPTER IV. EVALUATING LEARNING THEORY IN DONKEYS (EQU US
ASIN US) WHILE MEASURING HEART RATE VARIABLITY AND
BEHAVIOR WHEN TEACHING DONKEYS TO DRIVE TO A CART

4.1. Introduction ................................................................... 81
4.2. Materials and Method ....................................................... 84
4.3. Results .......................................................................... 90
4.4. Discussion ..................................................................... 92
4.5. Conclusion .................................................................... 98
References ........................................................................ 1 06

CHAPTER V. IMPROVING WORKING DONKEY (EQU US ASIN US)
WELFARE AND MANAGEMENT IN MALI, WEST AFRICA

5.1 . Introduction .................................................................. l 10
5.2. Materials and Methods .................................................... 113
5.3. Results ........................................................................ 1 18
5.4. Discussion ................................................................... 121
5.5. Conclusion .................................................................. 128
5.6. Future Implications ......................................................... 129
References ........................................................................ 145
CHAPTER Vl. CONCLUSION ........................................................ 150
APPENDIX Donkey Husbandry Manual ............................................. 154
vii

 

Table 3.1.1.

Table 3.1.2.

Table 3.2.1.

Table 3.2.2.

Table 3.2.3.

Table 3.2.4.

Table 4.1.

Table 4.2.

Table 4.3.

Table 4.4.

Table 5.1.

Table 5.2.

Table 5.3.

LIST OF TABLES

Glucose effectiveness (Sg), insulin sensitivity (Si), acute insulin
response to glucose (AIRg), disposition index (DI), basal glucose
(Gb) and basal insulin (1b) in male and female donkeys ........... 61

Glucose effectiveness (Sg), insulin sensitivity (Si), acute insulin
response to glucose (AIRg), disposition index (DI), basal glucose
(Gb) and basal insulin (lb) in donkeys of various

body condition ............................................................ 62
Dry Matter results for each feedstuff sample commonly fed to
donkeys in Mali ........................................................... 75
NDF values for each feedstuff sample commonly fed to donkeys

in Mali ..................................................................... 76
ADF and ADL values for each feedstuff sample commonly fed

to donkeys in Mali ....................................................... 77
Percent nitrogen and percent crude protein measurements for
feedstuffs samples commonly fed to donkeys in Mali ............... 78
Driving Test Procedures (NASMA, 2007-8) ........................ 100
Driving Test Scoring System .......................................... 101

Observer Reliability for observer 1, 2, and first author’s Behavioral
Response Scores on Day 1 ............................................. 102

Heart rate and heart rate variability responses for Group A
(always HTM, Treatment 1) and Group B (TSM, Treatment 2)
over time ................................................................. 103

Behavioural Response Group A (HM) and Group B
(SM) in Malian donkeys at the SPANA clinic in
Bamako, Mali ............................................................ 130

Heart rate variability (HRV) responses for donkeys in HM group
or SM group on test day at the SPANA clinic in
Bamako, Mali ............................................................ 131

Comparing average intensity of Fuji pressure film when testing

viii

harness and cart type, cart with/without added weight (400 kg),
and extra saddle padding over the withers with Malian donkeys
at the SPANA clinic in Bamako, Mali .............................. 132

 

g

Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.4.

Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.8.

Figure 5.9.

Figure 5.10.

Figure 5.11.

LIST OF FIGURES

“Images in this dissertation are presented in color”

Treatment] , Halter Training Method (HTM) ..................... 104

Treatment], Halter Training Method (HTM) ..................... 104

Treatment 2, Traditional Stick Training Method (TSM) ......... 105
Treatment 2, Traditional Stick Training Method (TSM) ......... 105
Halter Method ........................................................... 133
Stick Method ............................................................ 134
Donkey Motivator Method ............................................ 135

Extreme Low Pressure 4 LW Fuji Film showing low
intensity results ......................................................... 136

Extreme Low Pressure 4 LW Fuji Film showing higher
intensity results ......................................................... 137

Wither lesion caused by unsatisfactory harness and

padding ................................................................... I38
Donkey welfare assessment in Segou ................................ 139
Donkey welfare assessment in Segou ................................ 139

E.S.A.P. student class that participated and completed the
donkey husbandry and welfare teaching seminar .................. 140

Students from E.S.A.P. participating in the teaching workshop
lecture session ........................................................... 141

Students from E.S.A.P. in Segou participating in the teaching

 

workshop practical demonstration ............................................. 142

Figure 5.12.

Figure 5.13.

Figure 5.14.

Figure 5.15.

Figure 1A.

Figure 2A.

Figure 3A.

Figure 4A.
Figure 5A.

Figure 6A.

Figure 7A.
Figure 8A.

Figure 9A.

Figure 10A.
Figure 11A.
Figure 12A.
Figure 13A.

Figure 14A.

Students from I.S.F.R.A. in Bamako participating in teaching
workshop lecture session ............................................. 143

Students from I.S.F.R.A. participating in teaching workshop
lecture session ........................................................... 143

Students from I.S.F.R.A. participating in the practical
demonstration ............................................................ 144

Students from I.S.F.R.A. participating in the practical
demonstration ............................................................ l 44

L’eau stagnante peut étre une source de maladie ................... 160

Les fines qui travaillent ont besoin de nourriture en quantite'
suffisante pour étre en mesure de bien travailler .................. 161

Les zines doivent manger leur nourriture en grain, divisée en deux

ou trois refections, distribuées a intervale re'gulier ................ 162
115 ont besoin de fourrage .............................................. 163
115 out besoin de fourrage .............................................. 163

Le sel (en bloc, en vrac ou en pierre) est encore plus important

pendant les mois d’année ou l’ane transpire beaucoup ............ 164
Corps Condition Scoring #1: Fin .................................... 165
Corps Condition Scoring #2: Modérée ...................................... 166
Corps Condition Scoring #3= Ideal .................................. 167
Corps Condition Scoring #4= Graisse ........................................ 168
Corps Condition Scoring #5= Obeses ........................................ 169
Nourriture : cet fine est en bon état ................................... 170
Nourriture cet fine est trop maigre .................................... 171
Age par dents ............................................................ I72

xi

 

Figure 15A.

Figure 16A.

Figure 17A.

Figure 18A.

Figure 19A.

Figure 20A.

Figure 21A.

Figure 22A.

Figures 23A.

Figure 24A.

Figure 25A.

Figure 26A.

Figure 27A.

Figure 28A.

Les produits a base d'Ivermectin sont les me’dicaments les plus
utilises contre les vers dans le monde ................................ 173

Les zines doivent étre vaccine’s contre plusieurs maladies
graves ..................................................................... 174

Les zines doivent étre vaccine’s contre plusieurs maladies
graves ..................................................................... 174

Le ve'térinaire peut vacciner l’ane contre le tétanos pour un bas
prix ........................................................................ 175

Un harnais en mauvais état et non adapté peut provoquer des
le'sions sur l’ane... c'est pareil que si vous portiez des chaussures en
mauvais état et pas a votre taille ...................................... 176

Un harnais en mauvais état et non adapté peut provoquer des
lésions sur l'ane... c'est pareil que si vous portiez des chaussures en

mauvais état et pas a votre taille ...................................... 176

Quand les anes sont battus avec un baton, ils souffrent souvent des

lesions 51 l'endroit ou le baton les a frappe ........................... 177
Brulure de corde ......................................................... 178
Résultats de cruauté .................................................... 179
Ne surchargez pas votre zine .......................................... 180

Les fardeaux doivent étre équilibrés, les brancards ne doivent pas
étre trop hauts et ni trop bas (ils doivent étre a la hauteur de la
pointe de l'épaule de l'ane) et sous la bande supérieure du harnais
on doit mettre un protecteur de dos proper ......................... 181

Les fardeaux doivent étre équilibre’s, les brancards ne doivent pas
étre trop hauts et ni trop bas (ils doivent étre a la hauteur de la
pointe de l'épaule de l'ane) et sous la bande supérieure du harnais
on doit mettre un protecteur de dos proper .......................... 182

Une sangle (peut-étre avec une protection) qui passe sous le ventre
de l'ane aidera a pre’venir les lesions de harnais .................... 182

Une pierre dans le sabot peut provoquer des boiteries tres
douloureuses ............................................................ l 83

xii

 

Figure 29A.

Figure 30A.

Figure 31A.

Figure 32A.

Figure 33A.

Figure 34A.

Nature de l'fine .......................................................... 184

Cette photo montre un exemple On apprend a la plupart des fines a
étre conduit 51 gauche ................................................... 185

Soyez patients quand vous essayez d'enseigner quelque chose de
nouveau a un fine ........................................................ 186

Il est parfait d’étre ami avec votre fine, aussi longtemps qu'il vous
respecte .................................................................. 187

C'est une bonne ide'e de brosser son fine chaque jour avant son
travail ..................................................................... 188

Les jeunes fines (moins de 2 ans d’fige) exigent un soin special, une
nourriture spéciale (il faut un complement de proteine) ........... 189

xiii

ADL

AIRg
BCS
bpm
BW

' CP
DE
DI
DM
ESAP
F A0
FSIGT

IPR/IFRA
ISFRA

LF

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Acid detergent lignin

Acid detergent fiber

Acute Insulin Response to Glucose

Body condition scores

Beats per minute

Body weight

Crude protein

Digestible energy

Disposition index (DI),

Dry matter

Ecole Secondaire Agro Pastorale, in Segou
Food and Agricultural Organization
Frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test
Basal glucose 1

High frequency, parasympathetic tone
Halter method

Halter training method

Heart Rate

Heart rate variability

Basal insulin

Rural Polytechnic Institute for Training and Applied Research,
University of Mali, in Katibougou

Higher Institute of Training and Applied Research, University of
Mali in Bamako

Low frequency, sympathetic tone

Neutral detergent fiber

xiv

rMSSD

SDRR
Sg

Si

SM
SPANA
TSM
US
USD
zwn

Mean heart rate
Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy

Square root of the standard deviation of interval to interval-in heart
beat

Standard deviation from interval to interval-in heart beat
Glucose effectiveness

Insulin sensitivity

Stick method

Society for Protecting Animals Abroad

Traditional stick training method

United States

United States Dollar

Zimbabwe dollar

XV

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION
Improving Donkey (Equus asinus) Welfare through Enhanced Management

The donkey (Equus asinus) is believed to be the first member of the Equidae family that
was domesticated (Rossel et al., 2008). Recent archeological findings in Egypt have
dated donkey skeletons that were buried in tombs with pharaohs to be over 6,000 years
old. They have proven to be descendents of the modern day African Wild Ass (Equus
africanus) (Rossel et al., 2008). Domestication of the donkey could largely be credited
with changing society from a pastoral society to a contemporary urbanism. The beast of
burden could carry large loads of goods on their back or pull carts while thriving on
minimal nutrition, thus making transportation and trade possible between communities
that were far apart. The donkey has even been attributed with making trade possible
between Africa and Western Asia (Blench, 1994). Thousands of years later, donkeys are
still used in agrarian societies and developing countries as a primary source of
transportation for getting goods to markets, performing daily household chores, and
cultivating crops (Pritchard et al., 2005). Even though these animals make major
economic contributions for some of the poorest members of society and are often
subjected to poor working conditions, their welfare has been largely ignored (Blench,

1994,.Pritchard et al., 2005).

In industrialized nations, e.g. the United States, the value of donkeys and mules (the

offspring of a male donkey and female horse) has increased and in some cases even

surpassed that of horses (Bumham, 2002). The increase in value and change of owners’
attitudes has in some regard changed the perception of donkeys as no longer being an
inferior equine (e. g. beast of burden) (Bumham, 2002). The first donkeys imported into
the US. were gifts to George Washington from the King of Spain (Haur, 2005). One
jack was named Royal Gift and the other was the Knight of Malta (Haur, 2005). The
prized animals were given to the country’s new leader in hopes of producing superior
mules for draft purposes, which would help develop the country (Haur, 2005). However,
over the centuries as technology advanced, the use of donkeys and mules declined in the
United States. They were eventually replaced with tractors and trucks until present day
when their popularity has once again grown; this time with a recreational purpose as

saddle animals (Taylor and Ray, 2005).

When looking at the world population of donkeys and mules, there are close to 54
million, which roughly equals that of the world horse population (FAO, 2003).
Approximately 6,000 years after domestication, most donkeys and mules are still kept for
draft purposes in developing parts of the world. The desirable traits of donkeys and mules
(e. g. being able to work and tolerate hot and humid climates, enhanced disease resistance,
and their ability to survive on minimal feed inputs) make them just as important in the

economic fabric of civilization today as they were thousands of years ago (Fedorski, '

2004).

When comparing the typical use of donkeys and mules in industrial countries versus
developing areas of the world, it has evolved in industrial countries from draft animals to
show and companion purposes. The demand for donkeys has risen in such countries. In
addition, the need for knowledge pertaining to how to properly manage these animals
such as nutrition, veterinary care, and training has also increased (Taylor and Ray, 2005).
In developing countries, some animal welfare groups have focused their efforts on trying
to identify welfare indicators to improve current management situations with donkeys.
These groups are interested in changing the behavior of the donkey owners in order to
improve management practices thus leading to improved welfare (Aluja, 1998, Pritchard

et al., 2005).

In Mexico, reports of working equids confirm that they are often abused, insufficiently
fed and overall neglected (Aluja, 1998). A working donkey in a country like Mexico or _
Mali is often fed only corn stover (traditionally a poor source of nutrition). In contrast, a
donkey in the United States is often allowed to graze lush pastures for endless hours and
required to perform no daily tasks. These two situations both present poor welfare where
a Malian donkey is expected to work while emaciated and fed a poor source of nutrition,
and a US donkey is faced with obesity and no exercise. Both issues could possibly be
improved through management. Unfortunately, little research has been dedicated to
improving the welfare of the donkey, but some organizations, such as the Society for
Protecting Animals Abroad (SPANA) and the Brooke Animal Hospital, are highly

' concerned about their well being. These organizations are beginning to focus on holding

welfare workshops for owners while providing free veterinary care for donkeys and

mules. However, treating the donkeys after they have been injured or poorly cared for is
not the complete answer to improving their circumstances. Instead, ways of encouraging
owners to prevent aversive handling and poor working conditions should be further

examined.

In a donkey’s natural habitat, which is a semi-arid environment like that of Mali, a
donkey will often browse on sparse, fibrous vegetation, while wandering long distances,
as well as going for long periods of time without drinking water (Mueller et al., 1998).
These animals have adapted to living in harsh environments where both food and water
can be scarce and seasonal changes impact food availability (e. g. feast or famine) and the
condition of the donkey. Many donkeys that are used for draft purposes in developing
countries are faced with this dilemma, foraging for limited food and water sources while
performing many hours of work (Pearson, 2005). In contrast, donkeys that are kept in
developed countries are often exposed to a more abundant food supply and little exercise
(Crane, 2007). Donkeys kept for showing and companion purposes in such countries are
often faced with health issues such as obesity, laminitis, and potential risks for metabolic

disease (6. g. insulin resistance or Equine Metabolic Syndrome) (Svendsen, 1997).

In generaltdonkeys are thought to beable to survive on less feed and poorer quality feed .
than a horse, while still maintaining body weight and even performing work (Pearson,
2005). Donkeys, when compared to horses, have been observed consuming and being fed
more mature, less digestible, woodier plant material of poorer quality and still

maintaining body condition. These forages tend to be high in fiber such as cellulose,

lignin, and hemicellulose and low in protein (Aganga et al., 2000). Donkeys in
developing countries are often fed such a diet (Aganga et al., 2000). However, donkeys in
industrialized countries are faced with the opposite dilemma; many donkey owners tend
to over-feed them — especially with diets high in cereal grains, and provide little exercise
(Pearson, 2005; Burnham, 2002). In horses, such high starch rations have previously
been shown to promote insulin resistance, which often leads to laminitis and Cushing’s

Syndrome (Hoffman et al., 2003).

Some have assumed that donkeys and some breeds of horses and ponies are genetically
predisposed to conditions such as insulin resistance (Jenkins et al., 1987). Insulin
resistance has been described as an adaptive response when energy is limited because the
animal then uses the excess fat it has stored as a source of energy (e. g. the donkey’s
ability to survive during a famine period) (Kronfeld et al., 2005; Taylor and Ray, 2005).
The donkeys in Mali are regularly faced with feast and famine due to the growing
seasons; 3 dry season and a wet season. During the dry season (October through May)
very little food or forages are available for the donkeys to consume, but during the wet
season (June through September) more sources of nutrients are found. During the wet
season the donkey will store much of its energy as fat, which is stored along the crest of
the neck and the tail head. During the dry season, or famine situation, the donkey’s body
will utilize the fat as a source of energy when food is limited. Thus, when a donkey is
placed in an environment with an abundant supply of lush forages, they easily gain
weight and can potentially be at risk for certain metabolic conditions. Insulin resistance

can be controlled by avoiding diets high in nonstructural carbohydrates and cereal grains

(Jenkins et al, 1987). Collecting and analyzing feedstuffs and forages consumed by
donkeys in Mali may improve our understanding about diets consumed by donkeys that
are faced with feast and famine. Learning more about what donkeys in Mali eat could
also help prevent U.S. donkeys from becoming obese and similar diets could be
prescribed. In both cases, nutritional challenges including metabolic diseases such as

insulin resistance could be managed by proper diets.

Other management options for donkeys in developing countries include improving
current working conditions. Common practices such as using a stick to guide and/or beat
donkeys or overloading their carts are problems that could be changed through enhanced
management. Improving current driving training practices may be addressed with pilot
studies in the US. Currently little is known in regards to applying learning theory when
training donkeys (Heleski et al., 2008). Learning theory can be defined as a use of
meaningful and consistent cues, reinforcing behavior fairly and quickly (e. g. the donkey
moving forward when guided with a stick, refer to Appendix A for additional information
on types of reinforcement, stimulus and actions). One study conducted by Heleski et al.
(2008) focused on comparing negative reinforcement and luring methods to get donkeys
to complete a novel task; in this case crossing a tarpaulin. The study indicated there was
no difference in using negative reinforcement (applying pressure on the lead rope until
the donkey moved forward and pressure was released) compared to luring (food was
placed in front of the donkey throughout the trial). However, it was physically less

demanding on the donkey handler to use the luring method. Further studies should

examine alternative training methods for teaching donkeys new tasks, such as driving to a

cart.

It is essential to learn more about training donkeys to perform daily tasks such as pulling
carts. The data from such a training study may offer beneficial information that could be
used to improve donkey welfare by reducing the incidence of beatings. The donkey is a
vital part of the Malian people’s daily lives and work. The donkeys in Mali can be seen
performing endless daily tasks and chores, from hauling water and charcoal, to pulling
threshing machinery, hauling commodities to markets and even serving as a taxi for
people. The intensity of the donkey’s work can change throughout the year, as well as its
access to food and water. The beginning of the growing season is when the donkey’s
workload is the greatest and nutrients are most scarce. The combination can create
decreased body conditions when they are faced with expending more calories than they

are consuming.

The FAO estimated in 2003 that approximately 600,000 donkeys were in Mali. However,
Dr. Amadou Doumbia, a veterinarian who has worked in Mali for over a decade with
SPANA as its Director, estimates there are approximately 2 million donkeys (personal
communications, January 2008). In 2007, a survey conducted in Mali by Diarra et al.
(2007) with SPANA examined the current working conditions in over 2,600 donkeys in
two locations: Segou and Niono. The variables and indicators which were analyzed

included: the number of donkeys per owner, the intended use of the donkey, the quality

of the harness, the daily distance traveled by the donkey, the nature and mass of the
transport, hours worked per day, how often the donkey was fed, how often it was watered
during the day, where the donkey was kept when not working, health problems treated by
the owner, severity of medical problems, length of medical condition, how the owner
treated the problem, conditions causing the donkey to not work, and length of time the
donkey could not work. The results of this survey indicated that 76% of the harnesses
were in bad condition, 79% of the donkeys traveled greater than 20 km in a day, 50% of
the donkeys carried over 500 kg of goods per day, and 67% of the donkeys worked
longer than 6 hours per day. The combination of poor quality harnesses along with large
loads and traveling long distances could be associated with the numerous lesions seen on
the donkeys’ withers, shoulders, and under their tails, as well as the donkeys’ inability to
perform work in some cases. Furthermore, the survey reported that most donkeys were
not always fed appropriately (daily or an adequate amount) and medical follow up

(treatment or check-up on a current medical problem) was not seen in most cases (72%).

The donkey is a valuable resource to the Malian people in that it assists in generating
extra income and in performing daily household chores, such as obtaining water for the
family. When donkeys are unavailable to work, the women and children must assume
additional chores. The death of a donkey can mean life or death for the family it serves.
The average daily income for a Malian is about $1 US and the cost to purchase a donkey
is approximately $150 US (2008, personal communication Dr. Amadou Doumbia). Even
though the cost of donkeys continues to rise as people realize the advantages of owning a

donkey, very little is being done to improve their overall well being in terms of support

from the government (e. g. animal welfare policies) or research institutions. A healthy
donkey enhances the well being of the family it serves and increases their opportunity to

obtain many resources, as well as generate income by hauling goods to local markets.

REFERENCES

Aganga, A.A., M. Letso, and AD. Aganga. 2000. Feeding donkeys. Livest. Res. Rural
Dev. 12:1-7.

Aluja, AS. 1998. The welfare of working equids in Mexico. Appld. Anim. Beh. Sci.
59:19-29.

Blench, R. 1994. The history and spread of donkeys in Africa. Donkeys, people and
development. Starkey, P. and Fielding, D. Eds. http://www.antnesa.org. 22-30.

Boston, R.C., P.J. Stefanovski, A.E. Moate, R.N. Sumner, R.M. Watanabe, and RN.
Bergman. 2003. MINMOD Millennium: A computer program to calculate
glucose effectiveness and insulin sensitivity from the frequently sampled
intravenous glucose tolerance test. Diabete Technol. Ther. 5: 1003—1015.

Bumham, S. 2002. Anatomical differences of the donkey and mule. Proceedings
American Association Equine Practitioners 2002;48:102-109.

Burns, C.C., T.L. Dennison, J.C. Pritchard, and HR. Whay. 2008. Downcast donkeys
and haggard horses: behavioural field indicators of poor welfare in working
equids. Proc. ISAE Annual Mtg. (42). pp 9.

Clutton-Brock, J. 1992. Horse Power. Harvard University Press, Harvard, USA.

Crane, M. 2007. Hoof disorders of the donkey. 10th Geneva Congress of Equine
Medicine and Surgery. Ithaca, NY. wwwivisorg. 153-56.

De Cocq, P., H.M. Clayton, K. Terada, M. Muller, and IL. van Leeuwen. 2008.
Usability of normal force distribution measurements to evaluate asymmetrical
loading of the back of the horse and different rider positions on a standing horse.
Vet. Jml. (article in press). doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2008.03.002

Diarra, M.M., A. Doumbia, and AK. McLean. 2007. Survey of working conditions and
management of donkeys in Niono and Segou, Mali. Proc. ASAS Annual Mtg.
(85):1. 139.

Ellis, V., R. Ellis, and J. Claxton. 1980. Donkey Driving. J.A. Allen and Co. LTD,
London, pp 115.

FAQ, 2003. FAO Statistical Database Website. Food and Agriculture Organisation,
Rome, Italy (FAOSTAT: http://apps.fao.ogr).

Fedorski, J. 2004. Donkeys and mules. Wiadomosci Zootecnicnze. 42:4. 17-20.

Goering, H.K. and P.J. Van Soest. 1970. Forage Fiber Analyses (Apparatus, Reagents,
Procedures, and Some Applications). Agricultural Handbook (no. 379).
Agricultural Research Service, USDA.

Hauer, J. 2005. The Natural Superiority of the Mules. Lyons Press, Guilford, CT. pp.
1-15.

Hausberger, M., H. Roche, S. Henry, and BK. Visser. 2008. A review of the human-
horse relationship. Appld. Anim. Beh. Sci. 109: 1-24.

Heleski, OR, A. McLean, and L. Bauson. 2008. Donkeys and bribes maybe more
than just a cartoon! Proc. Int. Appld. Ethology Mtg. Procd. Eth. Mtg. 72.

ll

Hoffman, R.M., R.C. Boston, D. Stefanovski, D.S. Kronfeld, and RA. Harris. 2003.
Obesity and diet affect glucose dynamics and insulin sensitivity in Thoroughbred
geldings. J Anim. Sci. 81:2333-2335.

Jenkins, D.J., T.M. Wolever, G.R. Collier, A. Ocana , A.V. Rao, G. Buckley, Y. Lam, A.,
Mayer, and L.U. Thompson. 1987. Metabolic effects of a low-glycemic index
diet. Am J Clin Nur 1987;46:968-975.

Kronfeld, D.S., K.H. Treiber, T.M. Hess, and RC. Boston. 2005. Insulin resistance in
the horse: definition, detection, and dietetics. J Anim. Sci 83(E. Suppl.):E22-23.

Matthews, N.S., T.S. Taylor, and GD. Potter. 1998. Physiologic responses during an
exhaustive driving test in donkeys: effects of conditioning. Appld. Anim. Beh.
Sci. 59:31-38.

McGreevy, P. 2004. Equine Behavior, a Guide for Veterinarians and Equine Scientists.
Saunders, London.

Mueller, P.J., P. Protos, K.A. Houpt, and P. Van Soest. 1998. Chewing behaviour in the
domestic donkey (Equus asinus) fed fibrous forage. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
60:241-251.

NASMA. 2007-8. North American Saddle Mule Association Rules and Guidelines. Pp
72.

I Pearson, RA. 2005. Nutrition and Feeding of Donkeys. In: Veterinary Care of
Donkeys, Mathews NS, Taylor TS (Eds), doi:2912.0805/ivis.2005.0818

Pearson, RA, and M. Ouassat. 2000. A Guide to Live Weight Estimation and Body
Condition Scoring in Donkeys. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press.

Pritchard, J .C., A.C. Linberg, D.C.J. Main, and HR. Whay. 2005. Assessment of the
welfare of working horses, mules, and donkeys, using health and behaviour
parameters. Prevent. Vet. Med. 69:265-283.

Rossel, S. F. Marshall, J .Peters, T. Pilgram, M.D. Adams, and D. O'Connor. 2008.
Domestication of the donkey: Timing, processes, and indicators. Proc. Nat.
Academ. Soc. of Sci. US. 105:10, 3715-3720. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0709692105.

Sevilla, HQ, and A. Cruz Leon. 2007. Harnesses and equipment commonly used by
donkeys (Equus asinus) in Mexico. In: Veterinary Care of Donkeys,
Matthews N .S. and Taylor T.S. (Eds). International Veterinary Information
Service, Ithaca NY (www.ivis.org); doi: A2907.0207

Svendson, ED. 1997. The Professional Handbook of the Donkey. 3rd Ed. Suffolk:
Whitt Books Limited.

Taylor, TS, and A.M. Ray. 2005. American Mammoth J ackstock. In: Veterinary Care
of Donkeys, Matthews NS, Taylor TS (Eds), doi:A29l4.0905/ivis.2005.09.28.

von Borell, E., J. Langbein, G. Despres, S. Hansen, C. Leterier, J. Mardchant- Forde, M.
Minero, E. Mohr, A. Prunier, D. Valance, I. Veissier. 2007. Heart rate variability
as a measure of autonomic regulation of cardiac activity for assessing stress and
disease. Sci. Anm. 266; 104-113.

http://www.novel.de/old/nav2/nav_215.htm

httpz/lwww.aebc.com.au/ Definitions

13

CHAPTER II.
LITERATURE REVIEW

Through out time the donkey, Equus asinus, a member of the Equidae family, has
played a pivotal role in civilization especially in regards to development. According
to the Food and Agriculture Organization, in 2002 there were over 44 million
donkeys worldwide, 13.3 million mules and hinnies, and 52 million horses. Most of
the world’s donkey population is located in remote or developing countries.
Industrialized nations such as the United States and Europe have far fewer donkeys
than horses (Bumham, 2002). Due to increased interest and popularity ofthe mule
(a hybrid cross, a male donkey mated to a female horse), and hinny (reciprocal
hybrid cross, a male horse and a female donkey) as trail mounts or show animals,
donkeys have made a strong comeback in the United States (Hauer, 2005). The
donkey's popularity has also grown internationally. This is especially true
throughout Africa where the donkey has often replaced oxen as a draft animal due
to extended periods of drought, deforestation, and increased human population
(Blench, 1999; Pearson et al., 1999). Despite the valuable contributions donkeys
make towards society, particularly in developing areas of the world, very little is
known about the proper care and management ofthis species and their welfare is

often neglected (Blakeway, 1994).
2.1. Working Donkey Management

Donkeys are considered by most farmers to be hardier than a horse, can survive on

fewer resources and can adapt to harsher environments. Furthermore, they are

highly heat and dehydration tolerant, making them suitable for semi-arid climates
(Wold et al., 1999; NRC, 2007). Most donkeys in developing countries are not
individually fed; rather they are turned loose to forage on their own. Veterinarians
are generally not called in to treat sick or injured donkeys in developing countries
unless free veterinary services, such as the Society for the Protection of Animals
Abroad (SPANA) are available (ltepu, 1999). Other management problems include
primitive and ill fitting harnesses that are often described as cruel because they
cause galling and sores (Diarra et al., 2007; ltepu, 1999). It has been hypothesized
that increased support, both in financial and educational terms, to small holder
farmers who own or work donkeys in developing countries could possibly increase
the well being and longevity ofthe donkey (Diarra et al., 2007). The average life of
a donkey in Ethiopia or Mali is S to7 years and in the US. 28 years. The longer a
donkey lives, the longer the donkey could provide economic opportunities for
smallholder farmers (Diarra et al., 2007). The use of the donkey is a very practical
approach to energy-limited transportation and farming in developing countries, but
more knowledge on the care of these animals and methods of harnessing and
hitching needs to be provided to owners (Kidanmariam, 1999; Pearson et al., 1999;

Wold et al., 1999)
2.2.1. Donkey Physiological Characteristics

Donkeys adapt to harsh and extreme environmental conditions and have less
demanding feeding requirements than horses (Fedorski, 2004) but why they are

able to adapt so well and thrive in such conditions is not fully understood (NRC,

2007). The donkey has been interesting as a scientific curiosity, but unfortunately
little research has been devoted to better understanding their superior ability to
adapt and survive in harsh, resource-poor environments (Burnham, 2002). Yousef
et al. (1970) reported that donkeys are able to maintain an appetite, body weight
and to conserve blood volume even in water deprived circumstances. These factors
may contribute to the donkey’s ability to work in desert type climates such as Death

Valley, Nevada.
2.2.2. Hematocrit, Temperature, Respiration, and Heart Rate

Some researchers have observed that there is no difference in blood variables of
donkeys from baseline to 36 hours post-water deprivation (Mueller and Houpt,
1991). When comparing blood variables, such as packed cell volume, between
donkeys (n = 4) and ponies (n = 4), the donkeys' value were higher than that of the
ponies, 0.43 g/l (donkey) compared to 0.38 g/l (pony) (Mueller and Houpt, 1991).
Mueller and Houpt (1991) also compared plasma protein-osmolality ratio, and there
are species differences for these parameters, 78 g/l (donkey) compared to 82 g/l
(pony). The lower plasma protein-osmolality in the donkey suggested there is a
lower amount ofsodium, glucose and urea in their blood plasma when compared to

a pony. Typically, osmolality will increase as an animal becomes more dehydrated.

Other physiological differences ofvalue to identify include the resting heart rate,
which has been reported by Svendsen (2005) to be 60-80 beats/min (donkey)

compared to 36-40 beats/min (pony) and respiration rates 28-48 breaths/min

(donkey) and 10-14 breaths/min (pony). On the other hand, Mueller et al. (1994)
reported the resting heart rate of donkeys to be 44.6 bpm and at maximal exercise
levels it is 223 bpm. Escudero et al. (2009) has examined the difference in heart
rate among male and female donkeys and concluded that different donkey breeds,
environment (e.g. temperature and humidity), and stress could play a role in the
resting heart rate. Matthews and Taylor (2004) found the resting heart rate to be
42 bpm similar to Mueller et al. (1994) and Montes et al. (1986) (42-52 bpm). Other
variations that can affect temperature, respiration and heart rate include diurnal
variations (Ayo et al., 2008; Minka and Ayo, 2007). Lemma and Moges (2009) found
that the donkey's age could affect the resting heart rate, temperature, and
respiration. Younger donkeys (less than 4 years old) would have an average
temperature of 37.4°C, heart rate 42.6 bpm, respiration 21.8 breathes/min and
older donkeys (10 years or greater) would have an average body temperature of

37.4°C, heart rate 43.2 bpm, and respiration 20.5 breathes/min (Lemma and Moges,

2009)
2.2.3. Heat Dissipation

Donkeys unlike horses have very large ears similar to those of various species of
cattle that live in desert like climates (Bumham, 2002). Their large ears aid in heat
dissipation as well as having a thicker epithelia and a coarser hair coat than horses
that prevents overheating or sun burn (Bumham, 2002; Taylor and Matthews,
2002a). Male donkeys tend to have large blood vessels and arteries in their scrotum

and ears that aid in heat regulation (Taylor and Matthews, 2002a). Typically a

donkey’s body temperature is 389°C, which is almost two degrees higher than a

horse, 37.8°C (Svendsen, 1997).

2.2.4. Hydration

Donkeys also require less water than most mammals of comparable size, but the
water requirements of the hinny and mule are not well defined (Maloiy, 1973).
When donkeys are deprived of water or dehydrated, some physiological changes
occur in the large intestine such as enhanced gut mucosa and fluid retention that is
associated with increased fermentation in the cecum and ventral colon (Maloiy,
1970; Sneddon et al., 2006). Enhanced fermentation capacity and absorption
capacity in the dorsal colon along with retained fluid to help maintain appetite are
all essential adaptive qualities of donkeys working in semi-arid conditions (Sneddon
et al., 2006). Their ability to conserve blood volume makes it possible for the
donkey to maintain circulation along with heat dissipation and either increased or
maintained salivary flow (Y ousef et al., 1970). Furthermore, when donkeys are
exposed to environmental conditions that could cause heat stress, they sweat very
little (Yousef et al., 1970 and personal observations). In producing drier fecal
matter and absorbing less sodium in the intestine, donkeys can also conserve body
water (Maloiy, 1973). Maloiy (1973) has compared the cecum ofthe donkey to that
ofthe rumen ofthe cow in terms ofacting as a water reservoir. Dill et al. (1980)
suggested that donkeys might store water in their gastrointestinal tract, which leads
to decreased water intake. Water intakes in donkeys have been reported from 8.4

L/D (resting donkey) to 13.25 L/D (working donkey) i 0.6 L/d in 28 to 32° C

temperatures and relative humidity of 64-70 percent (Ram et al., 2004). Depending
on temperature, workload, and humidity these factors may affect the amount of
water consumed by donkeys (Mueller et al. 1994b). Cuddeford et al. (1995) has
reported donkeys (1.93 L/kg DM) to have lower water intakes when compared to
Shetland ponies (2.4 L/kg DM) and Thoroughbreds (3.87 L/ kg DM). In general,
donkeys are thought to consume up to 9% of their body weight in water when

temperatures range from 25-37° C and humidity is high (Mueller et al. 1994b).

When donkeys are deprived ofwater or water is scarce, the donkey will fully
rehydrate at the rate of 17-20% of their body weight when offered water. In general
donkeys are thought to have a lower water requirement when compared to other
mammals with the exception of the camel (Agnaga et al., 2000). Some researchers
have found that water consumption in donkeys depends on the type of forage they
are consuming (Muller and Houpt, 1991). The two donkeys used by Yousef et al.
(1970) drank enough water in 5-10 minutes to restore 95-98% ofwhat they had
lost when deprived ofwater. When measuring the fecal matter ofthese two
donkeys who defecated immediately after drinking, the feces contained 66% water
content, which is only 5% less than when the donkeys were hydrated (71%) (Yousef
et al., 1970). Donkeys can maintain their appetite and body weight when being
dehydrated and continue to consume feed or forages even ofpoor quality (Dill et al.,
1980; Yousefet al., 1970). The donkey's ability to still provide enough saliva for
mastication is essential for its ability to consume food after being dehydrated

(Yousef et al., 1970). Often times the donkey will consume hay before drinking

water, even when dehydrated, to maintain feed and energy intake (Yousef et al.,
1970). The donkey is a special animal that can adapt to the harsh conditions of
desert heat and it can be 20% dehydrated without being exhausted and still perform
work (Y ousef et al., 1970). The donkey has been compared to other desert animals
such as the camel due to its ability to rehydrate quickly, regulate plasma volume
along with its ability to reduce water and energy turnover rates (Schmidt-Nielsen,
1964; Yousef et al., 1970). These traits make it possible for donkeys to live and
survive in places such as Death Valley in the US. or the Sub-Saharan regions of

Africa (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1964; Yousef et al., 1970).

2.2.5. Nutrition

Other adaptive qualities of the donkey include its ability as a herbivore to consume
poor quality forages and maintain weight even when dehydrated. This adaptive
feature is common to other desert animals, especially ruminants such as goats or
camels (Izraely et al., 1989b). Donkeys can consume poor quality forages, and still
maintain body weight due to increasing dry matter intake and efficiently recycling
urea (lzraely et al., 1989a). lzraely et al. (1989a) reported that donkeys were able to
maintain body weight on wheat straw that was 3% crude protein. Donkeys, like
ruminants, can efficiently recycle urea and can actually recycle more urea than
found in the food source and reabsorb 82% ofthe urea filtered by the kidney when

fed poor quality forage, e.g. wheat-straw (lzraely al., 1989a).

However, when the donkeys were fed a diet consisting ofhigh quality forage, such

20

as alfalfa, the donkeys only recycled and utilized 48% of the urea that was filtered
through the kidney (lzraely et al., 1989a). Mules and hinnies have similar
capabilities in terms of using of poorer quality forages and require less maintenance
than a horse of the same size, but exactly how much less has yet to be determined by
research (Pearson et al., 2005 and personal observations). In general, mules and
hinnies consume less grain than horses of the same size but donkeys have a higher
consumption rate when fed poor quality forages when compared to ponies and
goats (Bumham, 2002; Brosh et al., 1987; lzraely et al., 1989a). In general donkeys
have been reported to have a slower rate of passage of poor quality forages than
ponies, depending on the source of forage, either alfalfa, wheat straw, or barely
straw. The rate of passage of a wheat straw based diet was 36.4 i3.2 hours (lzraely
et. al., 1989a). Some researchers have indicated that donkeys may be more efficient
in digesting poorer quality diets than horses due to enhanced microbial digestion in
the donkey’s cecum (Suhartanto et al., 1992). Volatile fatty acid production was
reported in this same study to be higher in donkeys (47.0-67.1 mmol/l vs. 33.6-41.9
mmol/l) when compared to ponies when fed wheat straw mixed with or without a
concentrate (Suhartanto et al., 1992). It has been proposed that the donkey is more
effective in microbial digestion than other equines, but more research in this area
and the effects ofmineral intake on digestion should be furtherresearched

(Suhartanto et al., 1992).

Energy requirements for donkeys have been compared to horses by using the same

formula designed by Pagan and Hintz in 1989 for recommendations in the National

21

Research Council feeding guidelines. The formula that is traditionally used for
estimated digestible energy (DE) in horses, DE (Mcal/day) = 1.4 + 0.03 x Body
Weight (BW), indicates that a small standard donkey weighing between 110 kg to
150 kg (common size found in most developing countries) would require
approximately 5.9 Mcal/d depending on the quality of forage (McCarthy, 1986;
Mueller et al., 1994a; NRC, 2007). The donkey’s energy needs would be increased if
work was performed and as work increased, the amount of energy needed would
increase (Mueller et al., 1994a; NRC, 2007). However, the original equation used to
estimate the dietary needs of donkeys has since been adjusted due to many who felt
that the original equation overestimated the donkey’s needs (McCarthy, 1986;
Mueller et al., 1994a). The adjusted equation for donkeys’ has been made for
dietary energy is now Mcal/day=0.61 + 0.03BW. However, when calculating other
essential dietary needs, such as protein requirements, this should be taken with
caution especially when considering the donkey’s ability to recycle urea because the
current equation may still overestimate the nutritional needs of the donkey (N RC,

2007)

Due to variations in management practices it is important to evaluate the intake of
donkeys and record consumption. Donkeys consuming diets oflow quality forage
have been reported to consume as much as 3% oftheir body weight and when being
fed high quality forages they have consumed as much as 2.5% oftheir body weight
which can then lead to risks ofobesity (Mueller et al., 1994b). The donkey's ability

to increase intake when poor quality forage is fed is an adaptation feature that

22

makes the donkey able to survive on poorer quality forages than a horse (Mueller et
al., 1994b). Generally, a mature horse can consume approximately 1.5 to 2% of its
body weight and 0.5% or less in the form of concentrates. Some have proposed that
a donkey's intake can be limited by consuming such low quality sources of feed due
to gastrointestinal fill (Van Soest, 1994). However, if given the choice, donkeys will
consume larger quantities of better quality forages (Van Soest, 1994). There are still
many factors that can affect the donkey’s ability to consume food. Measurement of
intake of various feed ingredients and forage types can better estimate the dietary

needs ofthe donkey.

One method that has been utilized in calculating dietary intake of the donkey is
near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (N IRS) (Kidane, et al., 2007). Manure was
collected from donkeys that were fed 100 different diet combinations of forage and
concentrates in order to predict the dry matter intake and the organic matter intake
of donkeys using NIRS. This study showed that NlRS could be successfully used for
predicting the intake ofdonkeys but no work has yet been done on the intake ofdry
matter and organic matter for mules and hinnies (Kidane, et al., 2007). Studies have
also indicated that donkeys from different parts ofthe world, such as donkeys from
the United Statescompared to donkeys from Africa, have shown differences in
terms ofintake and ability to consume poorer quality forages and maintain weight

(Mueller et al., 1994b; lzraely, et al., 1989b).

23

Vaux et al. (1998) identified a species-specific gram-positive bacterium, Entercoccus
asini in the cecum of the donkey. The new strain of bacteria that has only been
isolated in the donkey's cecum has some unusual characteristics when compared to
other microflora; e.g. since, they only produce acid from d-xylose. This group of
strains with a genetic sequence holomogy of 97% to other Entercocci species can be
differentiated by: no growth on 6.5% NaCL, no acid from mannitol, sorbitol, sorbose,
sucrose, raffinose, ribose and tagatose; acid production from xylose, utilize
pyruvate, and negative reaction to arginine. The name Enterococcus asini sp. Nov is
proposed, and the type strain is ASZT. Enhanced fermentation causes an increase in
mucosal absorptive capacity even with limited food intake of poor quality as well as
restricted water intake and aides the donkey in its ability to survive in such harsh
conditions (Vaux, et al., 1998; Sneddon et al., 2006). The donkey’s motivational
state and behavior may also play an important role in the animal's efficiency (Yousef
et al., 1972). Nengomasha et al. (1999) recorded that donkeys maintain their
appetite throughout dehydration, which aids its ability to survive in areas that lack
in water and nutrients. Other researchers have observed donkeys using their
narrower lips to browse and select higher quality nutrients as compared to a horse

(Van Soest, 1994).

2.3.1. Donkey Behavior

There are many misconceptions about donkeys and often fallacies are associated with
their seemingly peculiar ways, such as mistaking caution for stubbomness (Bumham,

2002; Miller, 2007). In general. donkeys and mules are considered to be unique creatures

24

with special qualities and they should not be treated like horses with long ears (Bumham,
2002). Unfortunately, their behavior has often been misunderstood and in some cases
animals may have been treated more harshly than they should have been. In general, most
owners have acquired a great sense of patience in dealing with donkeys and mules
(Bumham, 2002; Miller, 2007). A new owner should be aware of the peculiar ways of
both donkeys compared to horses and learn how to work with these behavioral
differences and not against them (Bumham, 2002; Miller, 2007; Taylor and Matthews,
20023). For example, mules and donkeys are creatures of habit and especially do not like
their daily routine changed (Bumham, 2002; Taylor and Matthews, 2002a). If the donkey
is used to being fed at a certain time of the day, a change in schedule can upset the animal
and create abnormal behavior (Bumham, 2002)..An unfamiliar person may prevent a very
gentle and friendly mule or donkey from being caught until the stranger leaves (Bumham,
2002; McGreevy, 2004). Both animals tend to bond with their owner once trust has been
gained, which can often be done by using treats as rewards.

2.3.2. Natural and Social Behavior

Some researchers have stated that traditional rules for horse management are detrimental
to the donkey (Bumham, 2002). Often times training or even routine procedures require
more patience and effort than when working with a horse (Miller, 2007). When a
dangerous situation arises, a horse, which originally developed in a plains region, is likely
to bolt and run due to the strong flight mechanism, but a donkey is less likely to run away
from danger as it evolved more in hilly areas with cliffs (Miller, 1998; Miller, 2007).
Donkeys are described to have a “fight” behavior meaning they will not expend the
energy in running away but instead will hold their ground and fight off the predator

(Miller, 1998). Donkeys are commonly used as guard animals for cattle, sheep. goats,

25

and at horse breeding facilities to protect newborn foals (Bumham, 2002). In general
donkeys do not like dogs or coyotes and can be quite aggressive toward them (Bumham,

2002; Miller, 2007).

However, donkeys become accustomed to animals that live on the same grounds or
property as them. Donkeys have been known to stomp predators to death with their rapid
stomping abilities in the forehand. The donkey will also pick up the predator by the nap
of its neck and shake it vigorously, sometimes until its death. Typically, gelding donkeys
(or cut jacks) and jennets are used as guard donkeys. Intact males, (e. g. jacks), are often
more aggressive and have been reported to harm newborn calves, lambs, and kids (baby

goats).

The hind legs are also used for defense. Donkeys are very agile and can kick all the way
in front of their shoulders (Bumham, 2002). Even in times when the donkey or mule is
restrained, by having a front leg tied up, the animal can still balance on two legs and kick
with a hind (Taylor and Matthews, 2002a). The fight mechanism also makes both of

donkeys and mules perfect trail mounts because they are less likely to run from danger

(Miller, 2007).

Donkeys were domesticated around 6,000 years ago but some wild herds of donkeys
remain today. Some believe the success of the donkey is due to its flexible social
structure (Svendson, 1997), which primarily depends on the available resources such as

food or water (French, 2000). The numbers of wild Asses are few but they still exist

26

including, the Somalian Wild Ass in Ethiopia and the Asiatic Wild Ass of Russia.
Somalian Wild Asses have been observed grazing in large groups during the day, but if
grazing is limited the donkeys will separate into smaller groups. During the evenings,
Klingel (1998) observed the herds breaking up into even smaller groups of only jennies
and foals together or groups of immature or young jacks, jennies with foals, or a
dominant male with a group of jennies that may be in estrus or close to coming into
estrus (McDonnell, 1998). There are also populations of feral donkeys found around the
world living in a wide range of environments that are either sparse in forages or abundant
in resources. These animals are able to survive in harsh semi-arid climates where water
is often limited. The donkey survives on high fiber diets and spends much of its time

walking in search of food.

In areas where the food is abundant, a so-called lush environment, two groupings of
donkeys have been observed by French (2001) that are not seen in semi-arid
environments: 1) a dominant male controlling a territory with a group of jennies and
their offspring and 2) a bachelor group of males. It is not uncommon to see donkey
breeders keeping a group of young jacks together similar to that in the wild (personal
observation). The jacks will live in peace as long as there is no female (horse or donkey)
in sight or across the fence. In developing countries, it is not uncommon to see jacks as
well as jennies turned loose and grazing together with signs of little conflict (personal
observations, 2008 and 2009). It would be interesting to determine whether this would

still be the case if these working donkeys were less exhausted and had access to more

ICSOUICCS.

The type of social group a donkey forms is dependent upon the environment in which it
lives but typically it belongs to a territorial social system instead of a harem system. The
harem system is more commonly seen in feral horses and some breeds of zebras. In the
harem system, a dominant stallion will control a group of females and herd them
everywhere (McDonnell, 1998; Klingel, 1977). Donkeys may form various social groups
consisting of either a small or large group with both females and males, and immature
jacks may be found either living alone or in small groups with other young jacks
(Klingel, 1998). Donkeys living in arid type climates form a territorial social system
meaning a dominant male (jack) will fight other donkeys coming into a specific area or
trying to enter the herd (Klingel, 1998). If the donkeys are living in an environment
where resources are plentiful the social system can be referred to as a natal band system
or birth band (e. g. group of donkeys that are family and born into the group) (McGreevy,
2004). Typically, in wild herds there will not be a dominant jack that maintains a harem
as in horses but instead he will maintain a territory for breeding purposes called a lek
(McGreevy, 2004). More commonly jennies in the wild unlike mare horses are seen
separating from herds with their foals, which later leads to a lack of social interaction or
play (French, 2004) However, this is not the case in domestic donkey foals that are raised
with other donkey foals (French, 2004). Play and socialization are important in domestic
donkeys because it establishes a social hierarchy as well as aids in development of
dominating strategies such as learning to fight, biting in key locations such as the throat

latch, and knees (French, 2004; Svendson, 1997).

28

Donkeys often seem to become very attached to a mate or another equine (Bumham,
2000; Svendson, 1997). Donkeys have been observed showing signs of depression or
distress when their mate is taken away or dies (McGreevy, 2004; Svendson, 2007).
However, even in times of missing a pasture mate or companion when the donkey may
bray and walk the fence line, these behaviors typically do not later develop into
stereotypic behavior as is sometimes seen in horses (McGreevy, 2004). In addition, the
gentle nature of the donkey and the characteristic flexibility of its social structure make it
an ideal equine companion animal for other horses, foals, goats, and cattle (French, 2004;
Svendson, 1997). Donkeys are often seen accompanying newly weaned foals or serving
as traveling partners for high dollar performance horses to reduce stress related to
transportation and competition(s) (personal observations, 2005, 2008). Donkeys,
especially jennies and geldings, rarely show aggression towards humans, which make
them ideal pets for young children as well as guard animals for other livestock
(Svendson, 1997). Jacks may show aggression towards other equines and livestock and
are often recommended to be gelded if not being kept for breeding purposes (Bumham,
2002; Svendson, 1997).

2.3.3. Ingestive Behavior

Another common belief is a donkey will not overeat like a horse. In some cases this is
true. More importantly one should realize that a donkey or a mule should not be fed the
same ration as a horse (Bumham, 2002). Their weight should be monitored closely even
if the animal is only consuming forage. Many donkeys and mules can survive on
pasture alone due to their grazing skills and relatively low nutritional demands. Donkeys

are considered to be both browsers, as well as grazers, and in general are “easy keepers.”

29

An animal that is a browser will sort out species of plants that are most appealing to its
appetite instead of eating everything in sight (Mueller et al., 1998). The narrow muzzle
and prehensile type lips that a donkey and mule have are believed to make them able to
be more selective when grazing as well (Mueller et al., 1998). Often times they will
consume plants that are not eaten by horses such as plants that have briars or even
thistles. They will often consume plants that are high in tannins, which produce a bitter

taste, and which most livestock avoid (Mueller et al., 1998).

When consuming forage, the donkey will chew a bite of food about 10 times before

5 wallowing (Mueller et al., 1998). They do not particularly chew faster than a horse but
they are able to consume more fiber at a faster rate than most ruminants their size due to a
more efficient tooth and jaw apparatus that allows them to swallow larger feed particles
(Mueller et al., 1998). Even though the donkey can swallow large particles of feed, one
may think this would predispose the animal to esophageal obstruction, however choking
in donkeys is rarely seen (Mueller et al., 1998; Taylor and Matthews, 2002a).

2.4- Management

M anagement schemes vary according to location and use ofthe animal. Donkeys in
developing countries are often faced with over work and poor nutrition but donkeys
in i ndustrialized nations are typically exposed to little or no work and abundant
SOurces of nutrients (Pearson et al., 2005). A major problem in the United States is
obesity in donkeys. These animals become extremely obese due to over feeding, yet
thew owners may be feeding far less amounts than to a horse ofthe same size

(Pearson et al., 2005). These animals are also predisposed to developing fatty liver

30

or hyperlipemia. (Pearson et al., 2005). This condition is more common in
miniature and standard donkeys and mules that are of draft breeding. It is unknown
if this is a problem in hinnies. Rarely will donkeys, mules, and hinnies over eat
which can lead to colic and founder but donkeys can develop laminitis and colic
(Bumham, 2002). Laminitis can occur in all four feet of donkeys or sometimes only
in the rear (Taylor and Matthews, 2002a). Often a donkey will not show behavioural
signs of colic until it is past the point of survival due to their high level of pain
tolerance (Taylor and Matthews, 2002b). It is assumed that donkeys that go off feed
for several days may be suffering from colic, hyperlipemia, or hyperlipidemia
(Taylor and Matthews, 2002a). In general, donkeys when compared to horses are
considered to be more resistant to disease such as African Sleeping Sickness and
have less lamanitic issues. These animals can live longer (average 27 years) than a
horse if properly maintained (Pearson, 2005). Donkeys are subject to hosting

lungworms and sarcoid tumors (Taylor and Matthews, 2002a).
2.5. How Donkeys Serve Mankind

A majority of donkeys and their hybrid offspring, mules and hinnies, are still used
today as beasts of burden in developing countries for traction and agricultural
purposes such as tilling soil, harvesting crops, and transporting commodities to
markets (Pearson et al., 1999).. Owning a donkey or mule is an important asset for
small shareholder farmers (Pearson et al., 1999). In terms ofinitial purchase prices,
donkeys typically cost less than oxen or mules and hinnies. Mules and hinnies are

typically highly valued and often three times the price ofa donkey and twice the

31

price of oxen (Howe and Garb, 1999). Recently, the price of donkeys has increased
in many markets due to their increased use (Pearson et al., 1999). In Zimbabwe a
donkey cost 80$ZWD or $0.21 US in 1990 and in 1995 the price had risen to 600
$ZWD or $1.59 US (Pearson et al., 1999). Donkeys in Mali sell on average for $150
US. Donkeys are considered one of the cheapest forms of labor other than human

power (Pearson et al., 1999).

The smallish size ofa donkey would seem to limit the amount ofwork that can be
performed (Pearson et al., 1999). However, a well-managed donkey can often
perform the same amount ofwork as an ox (Pearson et al., 1999). Given the smaller
amount of resources (e.g. food and water) required by a donkey, the donkey can be a
more efficient labor tool than an ox. Certainly the reduced amount of resources
required by donkeys makes them a more appropriate traction animal for many
parts of the world. A study in Zimbabwe indicated that well managed (properly fed
and harnessed donkeys) and well trained donkeys when worked as a team of four,
could pull a draft force ofover 1kN (a measure of force, 1kN = 1000 N = 100 kg) for
a 4-hour period (Nenogomasha et al., 1995). The draft power indicates how well the
donkeys can pull in heavy soil but often times donkeys are not well managed which

limits their work output or longevity (Nenogomasha et al., 1995).

Another alternative to donkey power is the use ofmules and hinnies. They are often

stronger than both the donkey and horse parents and can withstand different

32

climates and terrains when compared to donkeys and horses. The use of mules and
hinnies is often favored in more mountainous and humid type climates such as in
Columbia or the Kaffecho Zone of Ethiopia where they are favored to haul large
amounts of “black gold” or coffee. The mule and hinny have proven to be a more
appropriate or productive animal for draught purposes in high altitudes that are
often wetter and more humid type climates (Howe and Garb, 1999). The mule is
also more suitable for carrying larger loads of goods when compared to the donkey,
and they are more agile and faster than an ox on tight mountain trails (Howe and
Garb, 1999). By using draught animals such as donkeys, mules and oxen, some
claim that 20 billion gallons of petroleum are saved annually (Ramaswamy, 1998).
When comparing the cost ofdraught animals to tractor usage, by using draught
animals for farming versus tractors approximately 10 billion US dollars are saved

annually (Ramaswamy, 1998).

In the past 30 years, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the
use of donkeys and mules has increased by 10 fold each year. In countries such as
Mexico and India, the poorer farmers cannot afford mules so they solely depend on
donkeys (Gebreab et al., 1999). Some farmers in developing countries do not own a
donkey or mule and these farmers are considered investment-poor because they are
forced to borrow a donkey and trade part oftheir crop for its use. There is even a
joke in Ethiopia “ifyou do not own a donkey then you are a donkey" because your
workload is increased to the amount ofwhat a donkey would work. When

comparing a man and donkey's level ofwork on the busiest day of trade, (e.g.

33

Friday), at the market, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, there are over 1,100 donkeys each
carrying approximately 100 kg of goods compared to about 450 men each carrying
approximately 10 kg of goods to the market (Zenebe and Fekade, 1999). The
average donkey in Ethiopia weighs approximately 250 kg and in some countries
such as Mali most of the donkeys pack or transport approximately 500 kg or more

(Gabreab et al., 1999).
2.6. Economic Impact of Donkeys

Many researchers state that the donkey has made a major contribution to the lives
ofpeople in developing countries (Marshall and Ali, 1999; Pearson et al., 1999;
Sieber, 1999; Wells et al., 1999). For example, the excise duty for a donkey hauling
rock salt from Mekele, Ethiopia is 0.75 birr ($0.06 US), in 197 0 the annual revenue
collected from donkeys hauling rock salt averaged at 60, 680 Birrs ($4,551 US) and
mules averaged 172,093 Birrs ($12,906.98 US) (Zenebe and Fekade, 1999). In total
donkeys have contributed to over 50% of the excise duty (Zenebe and Fekade,
1999). Donkeys are seen carrying as many as 15 commodities to market in Addis
Ababa and during the dry season the donkey owners use the animals for packing
goods such as salt (Zenebe and Fekade, 1999). The donkey can be used for many
other diverse jobs to generate income. Households that own donkeys are

considered to be more economically prosperous than those who do not (Sieber,

1999)

A major constraint is the initial purchase price ofa donkey and many smallholder

34

farmers do not have any extra income available (Sieber, 1999 ; Wells et al., 1999).
One study conducted in Makette, Tanzania indicated that donkeys were both
efficient for transportation and could contribute a great deal economically to the
owners of the donkeys (Sieber, 1999). Moreover, when comparing the initial
purchase price of oxen to a donkey, the donkey is much more affordable (Marshall
and Ali, 1999). The oxen are used for only a short period (tilling) throughout the
year but the donkey can be used all year (Marshall and Ali, 1999). Overall, the
income opportunities provided by owning a donkey have begun to change attitudes

toward owning and working donkeys (Marshall and Ali, 1999).

Many donkeys are used in Tanzania, Africa. The annual household income in
Makette, a city in Tanzania, was estimated to be $120 US (Sieber, 1999). In
Tanzania, on an annual basis, households that owned donkeys have saved time and
money (Sieber, 1999). In terms of labor, a donkey will make on average 93 trips,
which will take 133 hours and save approximately $10 annually (Sieber, 1999).
Total annual benefits of households who owned donkeys in this region were
estimated to range between $55-124 US per household (Sieber, 1999). Even though
the donkeys proved to be an important tool for transport in this part ofthe world,
many households could not afford the initial purchase price ofa donkey at $88 US
(Sieber, 1999). Some households were able to make the big investment that lived

closer to large markets such as the one found in Matamba, Tanzania (Sieber, 1999).

Those households that could not make the initial investment could rely on a
government subsidy to purchase a donkey. The subsidy promoted the adoption of
donkeys but once the subsidy program was over very few low-income households
could purchase these animals in Makette, Tanzania (Sieber, 1999). If credit were
made available, the increased use and adoption of donkeys would probably increase,
according to households who were interviewed during this project (Sieber, 1999).
Subsidies for purchasing donkeys have been made available in Sudan where the
government provided a $50 US subsidy for purchasing a donkey (personal
communication, Dr. Charles MacKenzie, 2008). According to the survey in Tanzania,
the government would more likely benefit smallholder farmers by using these funds
for credit for farmers to buy a donkey (Sieber, 1999). Providing credit to
smallholder farmers would increase the demand for donkeys as transport animals.
This survey suggested that a donkey could be economically beneficial to the
smallholder farmers by allowing them an opportunity to improve their annual
income by decreasing the amount of hours spent working and increase the amount
of commodities taken to the road (Sieber, 1999). If more credit was made available
for smallholder farmers to purchase a donkey, it is likely that in most developing

countries the adoption would be even greater by the investment-poor farmers.

Many researchers have conducted surveys on the use of donkeys in developing

countries and the promotion oftraction animals (Pearson et al., 2000; Starkey and
Starkey, 2000). Some research has indicated after looking at profitability analyses
in three regions of Ethiopia (North Welo, Kobo, and Oromiya) that a donkey and a

donkey cart are very important tools for generating income (Kidanmariam, 1999).

36

For example, the price of a donkey in Ethiopia is around 240 Birrs ($18 US), a pack
saddle for the donkey is 15 Birrs ($2 US) or a cart is 1144 Birrs ($181.59 US)
estimated labor costs are 450 Birr/year ($71.43 US), feeding costs 730 Birrs
($115.87 US), maintenance costs of the cart 180 Birrs ($ 28.57 US) and wages
working 150 days a year for the daily income of 30 Birrs/day ($4.76 US) for an
annual income of 4500 Birr/year ($714.29 US) (including depreciation of the cart
and donkey) (Kidanmariam, 1999). During the off-season the donkey could be used
for domestic chores such as hauling water, charcoal, and building materials

(Marshall and Ali, 1999; Pearson et al., 1999).
2.7. Donkeys and Gender Equity

Another important aspect to examine with working donkeys is gender equity. The
donkey is labor saving for women and children, who often are responsible for such
jobs as carrying water or charcoal (Marshall and Ali, 1999). In the Eastern Shewa
and Eastern Hardedge regions of Ethiopia, donkeys are mainly used for carrying
water, a task that entails six hours out of each day (Marshall and All, 1999). Sieber
(1999) reported that 16% ofa donkey's work in Makette, Tanzania, is helping with
domestic chores. The donkey saves time for the women and children since a donkey
can carry a load three times that ofa human and reduce the annual transport
burden by 93 trips, which equals 133 hours per year (Sieber, 1999). Therefore,
women who have access to donkeys can decrease their daily labor or choose to
invest those hours in alternative activities, such as marketing goods and education

(Marshall and Ali, 1999;Sieber,1999).

37

Even though there are many attributes to using donkeys, they are not widely
adopted in all areas such as Namibia, Africa (ltepu, 1999). In Kavanga, Namibia
oxen are predominately used for tilling and are occasionally worked by women
(ltepu, 1999). Itepu (1999) reported that women surveyed would prefer to use
donkeys because they are easier to work and are considered friendlier. For
households in Namibia, the initial cost and daily maintenance cost of a donkey is
cheaper than that of an ox but some households fear that owning a donkey sends a
cultural message that they are poor (ltepu, 1999). Another important difference
when comparing donkeys to oxen is ownership. Women in Ethiopia have reported
that owning a donkey is a great asset because they can be engaged in income-
generating activities as well as decreasing their domestic chores (Marshal and Ali,
1999). Due to cultural and religious norms, many women are not allowed to work
or own oxen because they are considered a man's animal, but they are allowed to
work and own donkeys (ltepu, 1999; Marshall and Ali, 1999; Sieber, 1999).

Ownership can depend on the head of the household.

Despite their social image, donkeys can prove to be very useful for women. For
example, donkeys are important to women who are pregnant by serving as an
ambulatory service (Pearson et al., 1999). The expecting women are loaded on the
backs ofdonkeys, and the donkey carries them to the medical care clinics Some
studies have suggested that women who utilize a donkey and a cart to carry goods
can increase the amount transported and the women’s transport efficiency by 20

fold (Taha, 1999). Donkeys can also provide additional income for women. In some

38

countries, such as Chile, China, and Belgium, women have begun milking donkeys
for the purpose of milk consumption, medicinal purposes, and to make skin care
items (e.g. anti-aging lotions and soaps). This could be another source of income

that could be generated by women from the donkey.
2.8. Challenges Facing Working Donkeys

Changing owner attitudes toward working donkeys is a major problem in terms of
how they are treated and managed (ltepu, 1999; Kidanmariam, 1999; Pritchard et
al., 2005; Pearson et al., 1999). The donkey is often associated with poverty and
thought of as a poor man's beast. Due to their low monetary value, donkeys until
recently, have been essentially ignored by scientists, extension workers and farmers
in terms of how to properly manage and care for them (Pearson et al., 1999).
Pearson et al. (1999) states that overcoming prejudices toward donkeys offers a
challenge to all involved with donkeys. Other challenges that plague working
donkeys include, but are not limited to poor nutrition, lack of treatment from
owners (e.g. treating harness sores), overloading, using poorly designed implements
(e.g. unbalanced carts) and crude harnessing methods (ltepu, 1999; Pearson et al.,

1999}

Development of feeding recommendations for donkeys when working in different
seasons is greatly needed by most farmers (Marshall and Ali, 1999; Pearson et al.,
1999). In most cases donkeys are left to forage for themselves and no supplemental

grain is given (Gebreab et al., 1999; Wold et al.,1999). Though this may not be a

39

problem during the wet season, during the dry season most donkeys' body
condition scores drop; unfortunately this coincides with when the greatest amount
of work output from donkeys is expected (Feseha and Aweke, 1995; Gebreab et al.,
1999; Wold et al., 1999). In terms of health and disease issues described by
researchers, most originate from poorly constructed and ill fitting harnesses
(Gebreab et al., 1999; Wold et al., 1999). Gebreab et al. (1999) reported that 680
donkeys (n: 2020, 33.7%) had saddle/harness sores. Diarra et al. (2007) reported
834 (n=1256, 66.6%) donkeys had wounds from poor harness and Wells et al.
(1999) also reported that 52% ofthe conditions present in donkeys in Eastern Cape,
South Africa were harness sores. Diarra et al. (2007) reported that most owners did
not know they could treat donkeys for health conditions (e.g. for harness sores) and
most owners did not medically follow up on the treatment (72%). Diarra et al.
(2007) reported that most donkeys were exposed to carrying heavy loads (greater
than 500 kg) for over 6 hours per day for long distances (greater than 20 km) while
being fitted with poor quality harness (76.4%). Another issue facing donkeys is the
type and design ofthe implement they are hitched to (Gebreab et al., 1999; ltepu,
1999; Pearson et al., 1999). Many ofthe plows and carts were originally designed
for oxen and are too large for the smaller donkey and often lead to decreased work
output (Gebreab et al., 1999; ltepu, 1999; Pearson et al., 1999). In some cases
donkeys have even been seen yoked to carts and plows; yoking is a common
harnessing method but should only be used with oxen (ltepu, 1999). So, a major
challenge is reaching extension officers, veterinarians, and engineers and educating

them on the proper design and modification needed for harness and implements so

40

donkeys can successfully work (Gebreab et al., 1999; Howe and Garb, 1999;

Kidanmariam, 1999; Pearson et al., 1999).

2.9. Conclusion

There are many answers yet to be found but the donkey can continue to serve as an
important draught animal by decreasing labor for women and children in
developing countries (e.g. Mali) and helping generate additional income. If donkeys
are properly managed and harnessed, they have the potential to increase economic
opportunities for smallholder farmers across the world. However, more research
and educational tools are needed on how to properly care, feed, manage, harness
and work donkeys in both developing and industrialized countries (ltepu, 1999;

Sieber, 1999; Wells et al., 1999).

41

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279.

Nenogomasha, E.M., Pearson, R.A., Wold, A.G., 1999. Empowering people through
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traction. Kaumbutho, P.G., Pearson, R.A., Simalenga, T.E. (eds). Proced. Anim.
Traction Network for Eastern and South Africa. Sept. 1999. 22-31.

46

Neves, E.S., Chiarini-Gracia, H., Franca, LR, 2002. Comparative testis morphometry
and seminierous epithelium cycle length in donkeys and mules. Bio. Repro. 67:

247-255.

Oliveira, J .V., Alvarenga, M.A., Melo, C.M., Macedo, L.M., Dell’Aqua Jr., J .A., Papa,
F .O., 2006. Effect of cyroprotectant on donkey semen freezability and fertility.
Anim. Repro. Sci. 94:82-84.

Pearson, RA. 2005. Nutrition and Feeding of Donkeys. In: Veterinary Care of
Donkeys, Mathews NS, Taylor TS (Eds), doi:29l2.0805/ivis.2005.0818

Ramswamy, N .S., 1998. Draught animal welfare. Appld. Anim. Beh. Sci. 59: 73-84.

Ram, J.J., Padalkar, R.D., Anuraja, B., Hallikeri, R.C., Deshmanya, J .B., Neelkanthayya,
Sagar, V. 2004. Nutritional requirements of adult donkeys (Equus asinus) during
work and rest. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 362407-12.

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Sieber, N., 1996. Rural transport and regional development, the case of Makete
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Sieber, N., 1999. The economic impact ofpack donkeys in Makete, Tanzania.
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Sneddon, J.C., E. Boomker, and CV. Howard. 2006. Mucosal surface area and
fermentation activity in the hindgut of hydrated and chronically dehydrated
working donkeys. J. Anim. Sci. 84:119-124.

47

Suhartanto, B., julian, V. Faurie, F, Tisserand, ].L., 1992. Comparison of microbial
activity in the cecum of ponies and donkeys. Conference on Nutrition and
feeding herbivores, Paris (France), March 25-26.

Svendson, ED. 1997. The Professional Handbook of the Donkey. 3rd Ed. Suffolk:
Whitt Books Limited.

Taha, O., 1992. A note on women and animal traction technology in Ethiopia.
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Taylor, T.S., Matthews, N.S. 20023. Donkey and Mule Scenarios: When to stop, think,
read or call. Amer. Assoc. Equine Pract. Proceedings. 48: 1 15-1 16.

Taylor, T.S., Matthews, N.S., 2002b. Anesthesia of donkeys and mules: how they differ
from horses. Amer. Assoc. Equine Pract. Proceedings. 48:110-112.

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Vaux, A., Laguerre, G., Divies, C., Prevost, H., 1998. Enterococcus asini sp. Nov.
isolated from the cecum of donkeys (Equus asinus). Int. jrnl. Systemic
Bacteriology. 48:383-7.

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donkeys in N orth-West and Eastern Cape Provinces, South Africa. In Donkeys,
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48

Wilson, RT. The Donkey, In: An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics.
W.J.A. Payne. Longman. 581-603.

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Ethiopia. In Donkeys,people, and develcgment, Starkey P and Fielding, D (eds).
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market of Addis Ababa. Donkeys, peoplgfiand development, Starkey P and
Fielding, D (eds). Wageinge, the Netherlands.

49

CHAPTER III.

NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT

FOR DONKEYS (EQ U US ASIN US)

INTRODUCTION

The word donkey is a common name used for members of the Equus asinus family.
Descendants of the first domesticated donkeys are believed to be related to two wild
species of donkeys, the Equus africanus, nubian and somalian subspecies (Groves,

1974). Descendents of Equus africanus somalian can be found in the United States
wandering the desert regions. These donkeys are often referred to as burros. Burro is a
Spanish word for donkey (Bumham, 2002). In Mali, West Africa a donkey in Bambara is
called a feli. These populations of wild donkeys, as well as many donkeys maintained as
draft animals in developing countries, are known to be highly adaptable feeders that will
consume a variety of grasses in arid climates. The diets of the feral burros are quite

similar to that of wild donkeys in Africa.

When considering nutritional requirements, it has been suggested that donkeys should not
be considered a small form of a horse because of differences in the ways in which a
donkey will select, consume, and digest feeds (Tisserand and Pearson, 2003). In general,
donkeys are thought to be able to survive on less digestible feeds than a horse. Donkeys
in developing countries are still able to survive and even perform work while eating diets

high in fiber and low in nitrogen (Pearson, 2005; Svendsen, 1997).

50

Sneddon et a1. (1997) and Sunvold et al. (1995) reported that the gastrointestinal transit
time is slower in the donkey when compared to other monogastric animals, allowing for
maximal fermentation and digestion of forages. A slower gastrointestinal transit time is
also found in other desert mammals and could possibly increase short-chained fatty acid
production, which would yield more energy and make it possible for them to thrive in
these arid conditions (Izraely et al., 1989; Sneddon and Argenzio, 1997; Sunvold et al.,
1995). The decreased rate of passage enhances fermentation and digestion of poorer
quality forages (Pearson and Merrit, I991; Mueller et al., 1994) as well as improves
recycling of urea (Tisserand et al., 1991). The fiber source and type selected by the
donkey is assumed to be improved in its nutritive value by remaining for a longer period
of time in the cecum and ventral colon, as well as enhancing the water reservoir
properties of the hind gut when the donkey is foraging for food for long distances without
water (Sneddon and Argenzio, 1997). They can reach high levels of dehydration and still
perform work while maintaining an appetite (Izraely et al., 1989; Yousef, 1991). When a
donkey reaches a level of chronic or severe dehydration, morphological changes occur in
the hindgut, specifically in the cecum and ventral colon, which enhance fluid retention
and fermentation activity (Sneddon et al., 2006). Similar adaptations have been noted in
other desert mammals such as camels that are also adapted to poor quality and high fiber
diets (Buret et al., 1993; Svendsen, 1997). During times of dehydration, the donkey will
maintain an appetite as well as consume its solid food before drinking water (Yousef et
al., 1970). It will then consume a large quantity of water all at once - unlike the horse

that will take several smaller drinks (Houpt, 1993; Yousef et al., 1972).

51

STUDY 1A.
INSULIN RESISTANCE IN STANDARD DONKEYS (EQUUS ASIN US) OF

THREE BODY CONDITIONS- THIN, MODERATE, AND OBESE

3.1. INTRODUCTION

Donkeys and their hybrid offspring, mules and hinnies, have been used for thousands of
years as draft animals. The domestication of draft animals has been key to the
development of mankind and industrialization. Donkeys were first brought to the United
States to produce mules for agriculture purposes but the population began to decline after
World War II and the introduction of the tractor (Taylor and Ray, 2005). However, the
donkey population in the United States has made a comeback. Donkeys have grown in
popularity for riding animals, for show purposes and for producing mules. The value of
these animals has increased significantly and in some cases it has equaled or surpassed
that of horses (Bumham, 2002). The increased growth in popularity of donkeys has
created a demand from the donkey and mule industry, as well as the veterinarian and
science communities, for increased knowledge with respect to the management and care
of these animals.l Often the donkey has been considered as a smaller version of the horse
but this is not necessarily true. For example, it has been reported that when donkeys are
fed the same ration as a horse, a donkey will often become obese and increase the risk of
laminitis (Bumham, 2002). The donkey, in fact, has been shown to differ in several ways
in its general anatomy, physiology, pharmacokinetics, behavior, and nutrient
requirements compared to its evolutionary relative the horse (Taylor and Ray, 2005;

Bumham, 2002; Crane, 2007). Donkeys, like many ponies and certain types of horses,

52

are often described as being “easy keepers,” being able to maintain or even put on weight
when grazing relatively moderate pastures. Regional deposition of fat together with
obesity, have been linked with an increased risk of insulin resistance in horses and ponies

(Frank, 2007).

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates there are approximately 44
million donkeys and 10 million mules and hinnies worldwide and 95% of them live in
developing countries (FAO, 2003). Many of the donkeys living in developing nations are
faced with harsh environments where both food and water availability are scarce. In a
donkey’s evolutionary habitat, which is a semi-arid environment (e. g. deserts in Africa),
it will often browse over long distances on sparse, fibrous vegetation, and is capable of
going for long periods of time without drinking water (Pearson, 2005). However, many
donkey owners in industrialized nations tend to over-feed them — especially with diets
high in nonstructural carbohydrates (e. g. lush pasture or cereal grains) (Bumham, 2002;
Hoffman et al., 2003). In horses, high starch rations have been shown to promote insulin

resistance (Hoffman et al., 2003).

Overall, donkeys are thought to be able to survive on less feed and poorer quality feed
(e. g. higher fiber and lower energy) than a horse while still maintaining body weight and
even performing work (Pearson, 2005). Insulin resistance has been described as an
adaptive response when energy is limited (Frank, 2007; Kronfeld et al., 2005; Jenkins et
al., 1987). Donkeys, together with some breeds of horses and ponies, may have an

adaptive ability to conserve energy, especially glucose, in times of negative energy

53

balances due to expression of a “thrifty genotype” (Kronfeld et al., 2005; Jenkins et al.,
1987; Nell, 1962). Diet and management may influence the extent of this insulin
resistance (Hoffman etal., 2003; Kronfeld et al., 2005; Jenkins et al., 1987). The
hypothesis for this work was: 1) that all donkeys, regardless of their body condition score
(BCS), would be more insulin resistant than horses due to having lower nutrient
requirements and a higher metabolic efficiency and 2) that BC would have a significant
influence on the level of insulin resistance.

3.1.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Animals

Twelve standard donkeys (height at the withers from 101.6 to 142.2 cm) (Taylor and
Ray, 2005) were chosen according to BCS based on specific guidelines for body
condition scoring donkeys (Pearson and Ouassat, 2000). Four donkeys were assigned to
each of the three groups (thin, moderate, and obese) according to their initial BC: thin
(T) BC 2.0 -3.0, moderate (M) BCS 4.0 -5.0, and obese (O) 6.5 -8.5. Each group
consisted of two jennies (females) and two jacks (intact males). All donkeys on day 0
were vaccinated for Influenza, Eastern/Western Encephalomyelitis, Tetanus Toxoid
(Fluvac Innovator® 4, Fort Dodge Animal Health, Overland Park, KS) and dewormed
with moxidectin (Quest® 2% Equine Gel, Fort Dodge Animal Health, Overland Park,
KS). Donkeys were weighed with an electronic scale (Tru-Test, San Antonio, TX) on
day 21. All donkeys were aged and measured. for height on day 1. The donkeys were
acclimated to a forage-based diet (pasture and hay only) in Madison, GA at Sowhatchet
Mule Farm Inc. , for a three—week period before a frequently sampled intravenous

glucose-insulin tolerance test (FSIGT) was performed. The donkeys were removed from

54

pasture 14 to 16 hours prior to testing and individually placed in stalls. During testing,
donkeys were offered ad libitum access to grass hay and water to avoid a fasting state and
in order to better mimic grazing state on pasture (where they would have unlimited access
to food and avoid a period where no food was available) (Hoffman et al., 2003). The
study was approved by Michigan State University Institutional Animal Care and Use

Committee.

F SIGT Sampling Protocol

Glucose and insulin dynamics were assessed via minimal model analysis. All donkeys
were equipped with a jugular catheter 1 h prior to taking the first baseline sample at —60
min (Hoffman et al., 2003). During the 5-h duration of FSIGT, 35 venous samples were
collected. Baseline heparinized samples were collected at -60, -45, 0 min, then 300
mg/kg BW glucose (Dextrose Solution 50%, Butler Animal Health Supply Co., Dublin,
OH) was given I.V. within two min, and blood was sampled at l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10,
12, 14, 16, and 19 min post delivery (Hoffman et al., 2003; Treiber et al., 2005). At 20
min, 0.8 mIU kg/BW of insulin (Humulin® R, Eli Lilly and Co., Indianapolis, IN) was
rapidly administered I.V. within 30 see through the catheter followed by blood sampling
at 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 150, 180, 210, and 240 min.
Ten mL of blood was taken per sample. Samples were transferred immediately after
collection to heparinized tubes (Vacutainer, Fisher Health Care, Chicago, IL). After each
blood sample was collected, the catheter was flushed with 10 mL of heparin isotonic
saline. Samples were placed in a refrigerator until centrifugation (3,000 x g for 10 min)

within 20 to 30 min of collection. Plasma was removed immediately after samples were

55

centrifuged and frozen at -4° C. The plasma samples were later used for subsequent
analysis for glucose and insulin. Throughout the procedure, blood glucose was
monitored using a hand-held glucometer (MediSense Precision Xtra; Abott Laboratories,
Alameda, CA). Plasma glucose was analyzed by enzymatic assay (Autokit Glucose;
Wako Diagnostics, Richmond, VA). Insulin was determined using a radioimmunoassay

kit (RIA) (Coat-A-Count Insulin; Diagnostic Products Corp., Los Angeles, CA).

Minimal Model Analyses and Calculations

The basal resting insulin and glucose concentrations were used to calculate proxies of
insulin sensitivity and B-cell responsiveness for comparison with the values obtained
using the minimal model (Treiber et al., 2005). The following parameters were
calculated using MinMod Millennium and WinSAAM software (Bergman etal., 1997;
Boston et al., 2003): insulin sensitivity (Si), glucose effectiveness (Sg), acute insulin
response to glucose (AIRg), disposition index (DI), basal glucose (Gb), and basal insulin
(lb). The following equation was used to determine glucose and insulin curves by using
the MinMod Millennium software program and solving for three unknown parameters

described below (Sg, p2, and p3): G’(t)=-G(t) x [Sg + X(t)] + Sg x Gb.”

G’(t) was the net rate (mg dL" min") of the change in plasma glucose concentration
(mg/dL) at time (t or G(t)). S g was described by one component of the plasma disposal
rate (min'), which was the capacity of the cells to take up glucose without insulin
mediation (this parameter was unknown). The parameter p3 described the delivery of

insulin to the interstitium. The parameter p2 described the disposal of insulin from the

56

interstitial fluid. X(t) was defined as the rate of change of the insulin action. X’(t) was
the insulin action and it represented the insulin mediated component (min'l) of the plasma
glucose disposal rate via the acceleration of glucose uptake in response to an increment
change in the insulin concentration by using this equation: X’(t) = p3 x [I(t) — Ib] — p; x
X(t). The responsiveness of B-cells to glucose was described by the acute response of
insulin to glucose (AIRg, mIU/[L min]), which stood for the increase in plasma insulin
above the basal concentration integrated from 0 to +10 min after the glucose bolus was
administered.14 The deposition index (DI) was determined from the product of Ale and
SI. This indicated the B-cell response relative to the degree of insulin resistance in the

tissue.

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analyses (SAS 9.0, SAS Inst., Inc., Cary, NC) were conducted using a 2-way
ANOVA evaluating BC group, sex, and their interactions on AIRg, DI, Si, Sg, Gb, Ib,
BW, BC, and age. Normality of the residuals was tested using Shapiro-Wilk test and by
examining the normal probability plot. P-values less than 0.05 were considered to be
significant.

3.1.3. RESULTS

The mean BW were 76.8, 192.5, and 213.3 : 11.3 kg, the mean BCS were 3.6, 5.3, and
' 8.0 i 0.3, height 116.4, 120.0, and 109.9 x 10.0 cm. and the mean ages were 9’, 4, and 7 i
3 yr for T, M, and 0, respectively. During the FSIGT, donkeys did not become
hypoglycemic, meaning the donkeys did not exhibit any physical signs of seizures or

comas nor did their blood glucose levels monitored by the hand-held glucometer drop

57

below basal levels (84 i 22) at any point. However, some donkeys did exhibit signs of
increased respiration after the glucose bolus (administered at 0 min) and the insulin bolus
(administered at 20 min). No significant effect of BC or sex was found on S g, AIRg, DI,
Gb, or lb, and no effect of BC on Si. Mean values for Si for BC groups were: T = 4.9 x
10'4 L-mU" min" «.- 0.8, M = 1.8 x 10'4 L-mU'l min" i 0.8, o = 1.5 x 10“4 L-mU" min"
t 0.8 (see Table 3.1.1.). Despite the lack of differences between treatment groups, Si was
lower (p = 0.03) in females versus males (1.19 x 10'4 L-mU 'l-min '1 i 0.7; 4.3 x 10‘4
L-mU 'l-min " i 0.7) (see Table 3.1.2.).

3.1.4. DISCUSSION

These initial results suggest that Si values for moderate and obese donkeys are within the
range found in moderate and obese horses (1.28 to 3.32 x 10'4 L-mU'l - min") (Hoffman
et al., 2003; Treiber et al., 2005). However, no literature was found to compare values
for thin horses to the values found for the thin donkeys. Further work using more
donkeys is required to confirm or refute the trend that obese donkeys are more insulin
resistant than their leaner cohorts. Interestingly, in this study, gender had a significant
effect with females having a lower Si and a higher AIRg, suggesting that they may be
more prone to becoming insulin resistant. In addition, diet may affect the insulin
sensitivity and glucose effectiveness when comparing this study to others where donkeys

were fasted or fed grain when testing glucose tolerance (Forehead et al., 1997; June et al.,

1992).

In general, donkeys are assumed to have a lower incidence of over-eating grain due to

differences in glucose metabolism when compared to horses and ponies (June et al.,

58

1992). During hypoglycemia or a negative energy balance in donkeys, the tissue is often
reduced in insulin sensitivity (Forehead et al., 1997). The reduction in insulin sensitivity
is likely to be a homeostatic mechanism that is responsible for maintenance of
normoglycemia during a famine or fasting period (Forehead et al., 1997). One study
reported that donkeys, when compared to horses and ponies, fed a diet consisting of hay
and sweet feed had higher plasma glucose levels (114 mg/dL) for a longer period of time
(June et al., 1992). In contrast, donkeys in this study were not fed grain but only forage.
The results for this study reported basal glucose (Gb) values closer to the horses and
ponies in the study (87 and 82 mg/dL) (June et al., 1992). Glucose rapidly declined in the
donkeys over time. However, the insulin concentration, unlike previous reports in horses,
peaked twice for all BC groups of donkeys (Hoffman et al., 2003; Treiber et al., 2005).
Insulin aids in glucose transport activity by stimulating glucose transport proteins.
However, when a donkey is in a famine state, the tissue becomes less sensitive to insulin
and glucose is preserved for energy for vital organs and tissues. The dose of insulin used
for this study was determined in pre-trial testing using two doses of insulin (0.4 mIU
kg/BW versus 0.8 mIU kg/BW) on 2 donkeys. The objective was to use a dose of insulin
that would provide a physiological dose and not a pharmacological dose that could
induce hypoglycemia. A previous study had used a higher dose of bovine insulin (0.4 [U
kg/BW) on fasted donkeys but some donkeys did become hypoglycemic (Forehead et al.,
1997). Others had recommended 20 mIU kg/BW of human rDNA insulin for horses;
however, no recommendations were found for donkeys (Treiber et al., 2005). In
conclusion, all donkeys, regardless of body condition, may have an adaptive ability to

conserve energy when compared to horses. Donkey owners should consider the

59

nutritional value and quantity of diets being fed to donkeys, especially female donkeys, to
avoid obesity and metabolic conditions that could lead to adverse conditions such as

hyperlipemia or laminitis (Bumham, 2002; June et al., 1992).

60

Table 3.1.1. Glucose effectiveness (8 g), insulin sensitivity (Si), acute insulin response to
glucose (AIRg), diSposition index (DI), basal glucose (Gb) and basal insulin (Ib) reported
as arithmetic means (i SEM) in donkeys of various body condition.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable Thin Moderate Obese

Sg, x 107mm" 0.013 i 0.002 0.011 :1: 0.002 0.017 i 0.002

s1, x 10“ L-mU‘T'"""WZ.9?08' " ‘ " 1.8 e 0.8 ' 1.5 i 0.8 W

-min'l 7
”AIRg, mfi/"LTiolfiio" 125:5’3’W 193 i 53 ""3121"; 53 W
l DI, x 104 i 652 i- 239 W 182 i 239 W510 «.- 239WWWW
forays. 389:9“;8’5 ‘ 82:8“:3 “ 9721185
115771-671. " '1 ‘ 3.3 $672" 86:6 2" ” W 178262 I

 

61

 

 

 

Table 3.1.2. Glucose effectiveness (S g), insulin sensitivity (Si), acute insulin response to
glucose (AIRg), disposition index (DI), basal glucose (Gb) and basal insulin (Ib) reported
as arithmetic means (i SEM) in male and female donkeys.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable Males Females
337 X 103 min.’ 0.01 :t 0.002 0017 ,_, 0.002 '“""“"'-~~--7-7
Si, x 1041mm“I as: 1.19 :07 W " " 43:0'W" "‘ M "‘
AIRg, mU/L-lO min 176 :43 W "‘ ‘ 245 + 43 "~-~-~7---~-~-~---~-
D1»X104 246 i 195 i ' ““"‘”““‘3“‘6““5‘5';193 “- - ~~ - -
iell-“(3b, mg/dLWW 3 87.2 .._. 69 ' " 1928; 9 - - -—- «3
__._....,_ 7.8.5151 I 113:5 1 l

i. not

——.-.... -.-_—...__. ._, - “t. _.

62

REFERENCES

Bergman, R.N., 1997. The minimal model: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. pp 3-50 in
the Minimal Model Approach and Determinants of Glucose Tolerance. RN
Bergman and J C LOvejoy, ed. Louisiana State Univ Press, Baton Rouge, LA.

Boston, R.C., Stefanovski, D., Moate, P.J., Sumner, A.E., Watanabe, R.M., Bergman,
RN, 2003. MINMOD Millennium: A computer program to calculate glucose
effectiveness and insulin sensitivity from the frequently sampled intravenous
glucose tolerance test. Diabete. Techno. Ther. 5, 1003-1015.

Bumham, S., 2002. Anatomical differences of the donkey and mule. In Depth: Mule and
Donkey Medicine and Surgery. Proceedings American Association of Equine
Practitioners. 48, 102-109.

Crane, M., 2007. Hoof disorders of the donkey. In: 10‘h Geneva Congress of Equine
Medicine and Surgery. International Veterinary Information Service
(HYPERLINK "http://www.ivis.org" www.ivis.org), Ithaca, NY, 153-56.

FAO, 2003. FAO Statistical Database Website. Food and Agriculture Organization,
Rome, Italy (FAOST AT: HYPERLINK "http://apps.fao.org" http://apps.fao.org)

Forehead, A.J., Dobson, H., 1997. Plasma glucose and cortisol responses to exogenous
insulin in fasted donkeys. Vet. Sci. 62, 239-245.

Frank, N., 2007. Insulin Resistance in Horses. In depth: Endocrinology. Proceedings
American Association of Equine Practitioners. 52, 51-54.

Hoffman, R.M., Boston, R.C., Stefanovski, D., Kronfeld, D.S., Harris, P.A., 2003.
Obesity and diet affect glucose dynamics and insulin sensitivity in Thoroughbred
geldings. J. Anim. Sci. 81, 2333-2335.

Jenkins, D.J., Wolever, T.M., Collier, G.R., Ocana, A., Rao, A.V., Buckley, G., Lam, Y.,
Mayer, A., Thompson, L.U., 1987. Metabolic effects of a low-glycemic index
diet. Am. J. Clin. Nur. 46, 968-975.

63

June, V., Soderholm, V., Hintz, H.F., Butler, W.R., 1992. Glucose tolerance in the horse,
pony, and donkey. Equine Vet. Sci. 12, 103-105.

Kronfeld, D.S., Treiber, K.H., Hess, T.M., Boston, R.C., 2005. Insulin resistance in the
horse: definition, detection, and dietetics. J. Anim. Sci. E. Suppl. 83, E22-23.

Nell, J.V., 1962. Diabetes mellitus: a ‘thrifty’ genotype rendered detrimental by
progress? Am. J. Hum. Genet. 14, 353-362.

Pearson, R.A., 2005. Nutrition and Feeding of Donkeys. In: Veterinary Care of
Donkeys. NS Mathews and TS Taylor, (Ed.), International Veterinary
Information Service ( HYPERLINK http://www.ivis.org).

Pearson, R.A., Ouassat, M., 2000. A guide to live weight estimation and body condition
scoring in donkeys. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, Ithaca, NY. 1-5.

Taylor, T.S, Ray, A.M., 2005. American Mammoth J ackstock. In: Veterinary Care of
Donkeys, Matthews, NS, and Taylor TS, (Ed.), International Veterinary
Information Service ( HYPERLINK www.ivis.org), Ithaca, NY. 1-15.

Treiber, K.H., Boston, R.C., Kronfeld, D.S., Staniar, W.B., Harris, P.A., 2005. Insulin
resistance and compensation in Thoroughbred weanlings adapted to high-
glycemic meals. J. Anim. Sci. 83, 2357-2364.

This study (1A) originally appeared in this same format as:

Insulin resistance in standard donkeys (Equus asinus) of three body conditions -
thin, moderate, and obese

A.K. McLean, B.D. Nielsen, M.T. Yokoyama, C.I. O’Connor-Robison, S.H.
Hengemuehle, W. Wang, R]. Geor, and PA. Harris

In the 2009 Proceedings of the Equine Science Society, Keystone, Colorado.
Addifib-naily: 35555525221355; Eiie'liie'd'Sfis'ééc't'iil'tié'rb'u'riii 6i ia'qifiié Vétéiiilii? ' ' "
Science, Vol. 29, Issue 5, May 2009, pp. 406-407.

Since its original publication, there has been some follow-up work that may suggest the
insulin levels used in this study were not sufficiently high to elicit a full insulin
sensitivity response. Certainly, more work with donkeys is needed to confirm or refute

these findings. ‘

65

STUDY 1B.
COMPOSITION AL ANALYSIS OF FEEDSTUFFS COMMONLY FED TO
WORKING DONKEYS IN MALI, WEST AFRICA

3.2.1. INTRODUCTION
Donkeys in Africa live on sparse forages, whose nutrients will vary according to rainfall
throughout the year. For example, donkeys in Botswana have been observed grazing
native species of forages such as Bosciafoetida (a native grass) and Acacia (native
shrubs) even during the dry season when the nutrient value is at its lowest (Aganga and
Tspospito, 1998). When compared to the horse, the donkey has shown itself to be more of
a browser, and it uses different feeding strategies depending on the quality of the feed
(Mueller et al., 1998). Donkeys have been observed eating bark when forages are scarce
and even pulling away the bark to reach the more succulent part of the tree. The same is
true when grazing in a pasture; the donkey will first consume the highest quality forages
and then feed on lower quality forages. Donkeys will often consume more mature, less
digestible, woodier plant material of poorer quality when compared to a horse. These
forages are typically high in fiber and low in nitrogen. In general, donkeys are thought to
be able to survive on less feed and lower quality feed than a horse, even when compared
on a pound for pound basis. Donkeys are able to survive on poor quality forages and

even perform substantial amounts of work (Pearson et al., 2005; Svendsen, 1997).
Donkeys used for draft animals in Mali, West Africa are fed a variety of feedstuffs

including: cow pea bean hay, bourgoui grass, com-sorghum stover, rice bran, rice hulls,

rice straw, and sorghum grain. Additional information about the nutrient content on each

66

feedstuff could possibly lead to improved feeding recommendations for donkey owners.
Improved feeding recommendations may help donkeys maintain a higher BCS during the
dry period or during periods of extreme work such as the beginning of the wet season
when crops must be planted. During this time period the donkeys are often in the worst
body condition and deprived of energy but are faced with planting crops. Typically, the
donkeys will not resume moderate body condition until the middle to end of the wet
season. However, additional information about feedstuffs commonly fed to donkeys
could lead to better recommendations on what to feed donkeys during this time period

(planting season and the beginning of the wet season) to avoid a negative energy balance.

Compositional analysis of forages consumed by donkeys in Mali may result in a better
understanding of nutrient content of these feedstuffs. Furthermore, increased knowledge
about what the donkeys are eating may help elucidate the development of adaptive traits
found in the donkey, such as insulin resistance, and possibly lead to a better
understanding of how donkeys can live through a feast and famine situation on such poor
nutrition. The objective of this study was to analyze feedstuffs commonly consumed by
donkeys in Mali and based on the results, develop recommendations for donkey owners
to Optimally utilize available feedstuffs.

3.2.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The following feed samples were collected and analyzed: 2 samples .cowpea bean hay
(one sample from the SPANA office in Bamako and the other from the village of Segou);
3 samples of bourgoui grass from one from Mopti, Niono, and Djenne; one sample of rice

bran, one sample of rice hulls. and one sample of rice straw from Niono; and one sample

67

of two varieties of sorghum were collected (“stay green” and regular). All samples were
collected in Mali and taken to the laboratory of Boubacar Dembele at the IPR/IFRA
campus in Katibougou. The samples were then chopped to smaller pieces and double
packed, labeled and placed in plastic bags. The samples were then brought back under
APHIS permit for importation to Michigan State University Animal Science Department
by Dr. John Staatz, Department of Agriculture Economics for analyses. These feed
samples were analyzed for dry matter (DM), acid detergent lignin (ADL), acid detergent
fiber (ADF), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and crude protein (CP) using the methods of
Goering and Van Soest (1970). Corn silage from East Lansing, MI, USA was used as a
standard for each nutrient analysis. The samples were all ground to 2 mm using a Wiley
Mill and stored in plastic sample cups for further testing. Duplicates were run on each
sample. A total of 22 samples were tested in each trial with the exception of the CP trial
where 26 samples were run.

NDF Analysis:

When testing for NDF, 0.50 grams of each feedstuff sample was placed in a 1,000 mL
beaker. The samples were treated with 4 mL of amylase solution. Each sample was also
treated with an additional 4 mL of solution consisting of 14 grams of concentrated
Teramyl (10%) plus 126 grams of distilled water. Next, 0.5 g of sodium sulfite was
added to the samples in order to assist in breaking down the di-sulfide bonds. Breaking
the di-sulfide bonds can aid in the filtration process. The samples were then treated with
an additional 2 mL of amylase solution. The feedstuff samples were rinsed with 100 mL
of neutral detergent solution and then placed on a condensing heating rack for 1h after

each sample reached the boiling point.

68

After the samples reached a boil, and if any residues were left on the sides of the beakers,
the residue was rinsed with detergent. After boiling for 1h, the beakers were removed
from the heating racks. The samples were then filtered through crucibles and treated with
2 ml of amylase solution to assist in degrading fiber. The samples left in the crucibles
were then thoroughly rinsed with hot water to wash away the neutral detergent solution.
Samples that were difficult to filter were also treated with water and acetone. When the
detergent was washed thoroughly, the crucibles were placed overnight in a drying oven.
The next day the crucibles were weighed for dry matter. Measured dried samples of ash
and crucible resulted in the neutral detergent fiber values (NDF).

ADF Analysis:

Beakers (1,000 mL) were filled with 0.50 grams of each sample and treated with acid
detergent solution. Acid detergent solution was made of sulfuric acid, reagent grade
standardized to 1 N (49.01 g/L), cetyl trimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) technical
grade (20 g/L) and sodium sulfite (anhydrous regent grade) (Goering and Van Soest,
1970). Each beaker was placed on a condensing heating rack and brought to a boil for
1h. After each sample was brought to a boil, the samples were removed from the heating
wracks. The samples were then filtered through crucibles. Each sample was washed with
acetone and hot water. The samples were then placed in a drying oven overnight. The
samples were weighed the next day to measure acid detergent fiber.

ADL Analysis:

Half a gram of each sample (0.5 grams) was weighed and placed in beakers. Samples
were placed on heating racks and brought to a boil. After samples were boiled for 1b the

samples were taken off of the heating rack. Samples were filtered through crucibles using

69

hot water and acetone. Then samples and crucibles were placed in a drying oven
overnight. Samples were weighed the next day for acid detergent lignin values.

CP Analysis:

Each sample, along with the inclusion of domestic alfalfa and timothy hay for
comparative purposes, was analyzed for crude protein content (CP). All samples were
weighed to 0.25 grams and each placed in a hock flask. A total of 4 mL of sulfuric acid
(H2304) was added to each sample and then the samples were allowed to digest
overnight. After digesting overnight, each hock flask with the sample was placed on
Dijesdahl burners (heating units) and vacuum system, which was heated to 440 degrees
Celsius for 6 minutes. At 6 minutes, 10 mL of hydrogen peroxide (50%) was added to
each hock. The hock flasks then continued to be heated until the solution turned clear
and no residue was seen. Once the solution was no longer black in color and completely
clear, each hock was removed from the burner and allowed to cool. The heating and
cooling process destroyed the carbon bonds. When the hock flasks were cool to touch
with bare hands and no gloves, distilled water was added to the meniscus line and the

flask shaken.

The samples were then left overnight. The following day each sample was filled to the
meniscus with more distilled water or diluted to 100 mL, which reaches the “state of
same volume.” Then each sample was once again shaken and transferred to a small vial.
The number on the hock flask was then written on the corresponding vial. Samples were
moved to the small vials to decrease the difficulty of pipeting. From the small vials, 0.80

mL of each sample was transferred to centrifuge tubes. Next, 0.20 mL polyvinyl alcohol

70

(PVA 0.1g/L) was added to each centrifuge tube and vortexed. The PVA added protein
to the solution to act as a carrier for the reagent and helped dilute the solution more. After
this step each sample was pipetted (0.80 mL) and placed on a plate and read by computer
analysis. The line equation and y-intercept were recorded from computer- generated data
from the plate. The information was used on a spreadsheet along with average dry matter,
sample weight, sample dry weight (average dry weight multiplied by the sample average)
information from the equation of the line to calculate crude protein and nitrogen

percentages.

3.2.3. RESULTS

When comparing the dry matter content amongst feedstuff samples from Mali, rice hulls
and rice straw from Niono, were the greatest in dry matter (95.75% and 95.88% ) (Table
3.2.1.). Dry matter was least in sorghum “stay green” varieties (92.51 and 93.78%)
(Table 3.2.1.). In terms of NDF values for each feedstuff sample, rice hulls from Niono,
Mali were the highest in neutral detergent fiber (71.04 %) (Table 3.2.2.) and sorghum
grain “stay green” variety was the lowest (15.93%) (Table 3.2.2.). Rice hulls from
Niono, Mali were also the highest in ADF and ADL values (26.71% and 8.42%) (Table
3.2.3.) when compared to the other feedstuffs and sorghum grain “stay green” variety was
the lowest in ADF and ADL (3.88% and 1.31%) (Table 3.2.3.). Cowpea bean hay was the
highest in crude protein (15.78 and 16.05%) (Table 3.2.4.) followed by sorghum grain
“stay green” variety (10.86, 11.89%) and Bourgoui grass from Mopti, Mali was the

lowest in crude protein (2.08, 2.10%, refer to table 3.2.4.).

71

3.2.4. DISCUSSION

After reviewing the commonly fed feedstuffs to donkeys in Mali, the data suggests that
the feedstuffs vary greatly according to the type of forage and location where it was
grown. The feedstuffs with the exception of bourgoui grass are all crop residues and
were collected at time of harvest (January, 2008, dry season for Mali). Although at this
time no statistical analysis has been conducted to say the results are significantly
different. It has been suggested that the amount fed and type of forage fed can influence
digestibility of forages by donkeys (Pearson et al., 2001). When looking at the NDF
(neutral detergent fiber), the method used was first developed by Van Soest in the late
1960’s and separates the neutral detergent soluble from the nutrient available fibers
(Goering and Van Soest, 1970). The NDF proportion contains cellulose, hemicellulose,
and lignin, which are the structural carbohydrates of the plants. These components
contribute to the plants being more fibrous and often times more mature. Donkeys are
often observed consuming more fibrous forages when compared to horses. In terms of
NDF values, it seems that Cowpea bean hay would be the best source of fiber for
donkeys followed by bourgoui grass from Djenne, Mali. Sorghum “stay green” variety

grain would prove to contain the least amount of fiber for the grains tested.

For future studies, it may be beneficial to also analyze the nonstructural carbohydrate or
water-soluble carbohydrate content in forages for interest in feeding donkeys with
metabolic issues such as insulin resistance or Equine Metabolic Syndrome. Some
researchers have suggested that donkeys have higher digestibility coefficients for crude

fiber, crude protein, and organic matter, as a result of more effective microbial digestion

72

in the hindgut (Tisserand et al., 1991; lzraely et. a1, 1989; Suhartanto et al., 1992). The
microbial cellulolytic activity in the cecum has been reported to be 13 percent higher in
donkeys when compared to ponies when fed a diet of alfalfa hay or wheat straw

(Suhartanto et al., 1992).

In reviewing the results for the various Malian feedstuffs, several such as cowpea bean
hay, bourgoui grass from Djenne and rice bran appear to offer a better source of nutrition
for the donkey when considering the crude fiber, crude protein and percent dry matter
content. Currently, the NRC (2007) states there is a lack of information on protein
requirements for donkeys. lzraely et al. (1989) was able to feed donkeys a diet that
contained only 3% crude protein and the donkeys were able to maintain body weight.
Also, the amount of nitrogen recycled into the blood stream exceeded the amount that
was fed. The donkey’s ability to retain and recycle urea contributes to its ability to live
off of poor quality forages in arid environments. Mueller et al. (1994) suggested that
crude protein requirements for the donkey range from 3.8 to 7.4 percent. In addition,
donkeys may be able to better survive in desert-like climates, due to their ability to store
water in their gastrointestinal tract, which may enhance water-holding capacity when
consuming high fiber diets (Dill et al., 1980). However, additional research is needed in

the area of high fiber diets and intestinal water holding capacity of the donkey to further

support this hypothesis.

It has also been suggested that donkeys that are working such as those in Mali, who

weigh on average 200 kg, should consume approximately 1.6 kg a day of poor quality

73

forage and 2.4 kg of concentrate (NRC, 2007). However, the closest feedstuff to a
concentrate that was being fed to donkeys in Mali was millet, wheat or sorghum bran,
and sorghum grain. Unfortunately, millet and bran was not collected or sampled.
Donkeys that were being rehabilitated at the SPANA donkey clinic were fed
approximately half a kilo of millet and half a kilo of wheat bran per day along with free
choice bean hay and corn stover. Other estimated nutrient intakes for adult donkeys
consuming forage-based diets suggest that a 200 kg donkey should consume 2.5 kg of dry
matter intake and receive approximately 9.43 Mcal/d (NRC, 2007). To better determine
the best source of nutrition for donkeys in Mali, a study measuring dry matter intake
(which has previously been reported to vary in donkeys from 1.75 to 3.1% body weight,
NRC, 2007), apparent digestibility of nutrients such as using a marker to measure
gastrointestinal transit time and even measuring energy needs and requirements of
working and nonworking donkeys would be beneficial. Another important factor to
consider when making feeding recommendations to Malian donkey owners is the season
of the year and forage availability at that time of the year and location.

3.2.5. FUTURE STUDIES

There is still a need for additional research in nutrition and metabolism to better provide
more information regarding nutritional needs and requirements of donkeys for owners in
Mali. Additional studies could look at these commonly fed feedstuffs at different stages
of maturity as well as feedstuffs available during the dry period. Research by Boubacar

Dembele at IPR/IFRA is undertaking this task for livestock (e.g. cattle and sheep).

74

Table 3.2.1. Dry matter content of forages commonly fed to donkeys in Mali.

 

 

 

Samples % Dry Matter
Cowpea Bean Hay 94.78
Cowpea Bean Hay SPANA 94.34
Bourgoui Djenne, Mali 94.55
Bourgoui Mopti, Mali 94.91
Bourgoui Niono, Mali 94.64
Rice Bran Niono, Mali 92.63
Rice Hulls Niono, Mali 95.75
Rice Straw Niono, Mali 95.88
Sorghum grain 93.78
Sorghum grain "stay green" 92.51
Standard (Corn Silage) 92.33

 

 

 

75

Table 3.2.2. Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) values of forages commonly fed to

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

donkeys in Mali.
Sample Name % NDF Average
% NDF

Cowpea Bean Hay 31.15 32.20
33.24

Cowpea Bean Hay

SPANA 48.19 47.85
47.50

Bourgoui Djenne,

Mali 38.46 37.26
36.05

Bourgoui Mopti, Mali 66.78 67.00
67.21

Bourgoui Niono, Mali 62.98 63.10
63.19

Rice Bran Niono, Mali 57.15 55.98
54.80

Rice Hulls Niono,

Mali 71.04 71.04
71.04

Rice Straw Niono,

Mali 67.49 67.54
67.59

Sorfltm grain 20.80 20.44
20.07

Sorghum grain "stay

green" 16.13 15.93
15.71

Standard (Corn Silage) 45.33 45.02
44.71

 

 

 

76

 

Table 3.2.3. Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) and Acid Detergent Lignin (ADL) values of
forages commonlLfed to donkeys in Mali.

 

 

 

Sample Name % ADF % ADL Average % Average %
ADF ADL
Cowpea Bean Hay 12.5 2.83 12.31
12.11 2.95 2.89
Cowpea Bean Hay 19.37 3.98 19.33
SPANA 19.29 4.19 4.09
13.35 2.62 13.31
Bourgoui Djenne, Mali 1327 238 2.5
16.94 2.57 17.28
Bourgoui Mopti, Mali 17.62 1.99 2.28
16.36 2.75 16.36
Bourgoui Niono, Mali 16.36 2.68 2.72
20.61 6.11 20.71
Rice Bran Niono, Mali 20,31 6,19 6.15
26.62 8.49 26.71
Rice Hulls Niono, Mali 26.8 8.35 8.42
20.06 2.48 20.32
Rice Straw Niono, Mali 20.58 2.94 2.71
4.96 2.25 4.63
Sorghum grain 4.3 1.58 1.92
3.75 0.94 3.88
Sorghum grain "stay 4 1.68 131
green" 12.9 1.41 12.71
12.52 1.37 1.39
Standard (Corn Silage)

 

 

 

 

 

77

 

Table 3.2.4. Percent nitrogen and percent crude protein values of forages commonly fed

to donkeys in Mali
CP Measurements

Cowpea Bean Hay
Cowpea Bean Hay SPANA
Bourgoui Djenne, Mali
Bourgoui Mopti, Mali
Bourgoui Niono, Mali
Rice Bran Niono, Mali
Rice Hulls Niono, Mali
Rice Straw N iono, Mali
Sorghum grain

Sorghum grain "stay green'

Standard (Corn Silage)

78

%N

2.53
2.57
1.39
1.38
0.53
0.53
0.33
0.34
0.52
0.58
0.73
0.73
0.58
0.69
0.47
0.45
2.02
1.96
1.74
1.90
1.28
1.29

%CP

15.78
16.05
8.66
8.63
3.33
3.33
2.08
2.10
3.25
3.64
4.55
4.54
3.60
4.32
2.91
2.79
12.62
12.24
10.86
11.89
8.02
8.03

REFERENCES

Dill, D.B., M.K. Yousef, C.R. Cox, and RB. Barton. 1980. Hunger vs. thirst in the burro
(Equus Asinus). Physiol. Behav. 24:975-978.

Goering, H.K. and P.J. Van Soest. 1970. Forage Fiber Analyses (Apparatus, Reagents,
Procedures, and Some Applications). Agricultural Handbook (no. 379).
Agricultural Research Service, USDA.

lzraely, H., I. Cochineal, C.E. Stevens, and A. Shonac. 1989. Energy digestion and
nitrogen economy of the domesticated donkey (Equus asinus) in relation to food
quality. J. Arid Environ. 17297-101.

Mueller, P.J., H.F. Hintz, R.A. Pearson, P. Lawrence, and P.J. Van Soest. 1994.
Voluntary intake of roughage diets by donkeys. Pp. 137-148 in Working Equines,
M. Bakkoury and A. Prenti, eds. Rabat, Morocco: Actes Editions.

National Research Council, 2007. Nutrient Requirements of Horses, 6‘h Ed. Animal
Nutrition Series. National Research Council of National Academies. Pp. 268-

279.

Pearson, RA. 2005. Nutrition and Feeding of Donkeys. In: Veterinary Care of
Donkeys, Mathews NS, Taylor TS (Eds), doi:2912.0805/ivis.2005.0818

Pearson, R.A., Archibald, R.F., Muirhead, RH. 2001. The effect of forage quality and
level of feeding on digestibility and gastrointestinal transit time of oat straw and
alfalfa given to ponies and donkeys. British Jml. of Nutr. 85:599-606.

Suhartanto, 8., Julian, V. Faurie, F, Tisserand, J.L., 1992. Comparison of microbial
activity in the cecum ofponies and donkeys. Conference on Nutrition and
feeding herbivores, Paris (France), March 25-26.

Svendson, ED. 1997. The Professional Handbook of the Donkey. 3lrd Ed. Suffolk:
Whitt Books Limited.

79

Tisserland, J .L. , Faurie, F., and Toure, M. 1991. A comparative study of donkey and
pony digestive physiology. In : D. Feilding and RA. Pearson (eds), Donkey,
Mules, and Horses in Tropical Agricultural Development, (CTVM, Edinburgh).
67-72.

80

CHAPTER IV.
EVALUATING LEARNING THEORY IN DONKEYS (EQUUS ASIN US) WHILE
MEASURING HEART RATE VARIABLITY AND BEHAVIOR WHEN

TEACHING DONKEYS TO DRIVE TO A CART*

4.1. INTRODUCTION

Since equines have been domesticated there has existed a need to direct and manage
them, but often the methods used to train and harness their power have been inhumane
(Sevilla and Leon, 2007). The donkey is believed to be the first member of the Equidae
family to have been domesticated around 6,000 years ago in Egypt (Ruder, 2004). There
are an estimated 44.3 million donkeys worldwide and 95% of them are kept for work in
developing countries (FAO, 2005). Many working equids are often faced with
overloading, beatings and whiplashes (Ramaswamy, 1998). Methods used to train
equines throughout the world are often reflections of a culture’s attitude toward animal
welfare (Waran et al., 2007). The term “training” can be defined as the processes where
human handlers introduce the equine to new situations and associations (Waran et al.,
2007). Many researchers consider the donkey to be the most neglected and abused
draught animal in many countries and attempts to learn more about training donkeys to
drive without the use of a whip or stick have not previously been researched (de Aluja
and Lopez, 1991; Blakeway, 1994). Donkeys and mules are considered to be unique
creatures with special qualities and different behavior when compared to horses. Some

claim they should not be treated like horses with long ears (Bumham, 2002). Many times

81

their stoic and cautious behavior has been misunderstood as being stubborn (Bumham,
2002; Taylor and Matthews, 2002). In many cases these animals have been treated more
harshly than necessary. Such treatment can be observed among many donkey owners in
both industrial and developing countries. In Mali, West Africa, veterinarians that work
for the Society for Protecting Animals Aboard (SPANA) treat many donkeys for
lacerations caused by drivers overusing sticks to encourage the donkeys to move forward.
The lacerations sometimes become infected and often become scars that are direct results

of harsh treatment (Diarra et al., 2007; Svendsen, 1997).

For thousands of years, donkeys have been used as a means of transportation (Svendsen,
1997). Some claim that their willingness to work has been badly exploited (Svendsen,
1997). Donkeys tend to make good driving animals due to being less “flighty” than most
horses (Miller, 2007; Weaver, 2008). In general, donkeys are thought to be easy to train
and willing to work (Nenogomasha et al., 2000). These characteristics make the donkey a
likely choice for many children and women to use in developing countries (Nengomasha
et al., 2000). However, little research has focused on the behavior of the donkey or its
acceptance of various training methods. Research into these areas and implementation of

findings would likely improve working conditions for donkeys throughout the world.

In a pilot study evaluating learning theory in donkeys, we evaluated how donkeys would
respond to learning a novel task, crossing a tarp, using negative reinforcement, positive

reinforcement and/or luring (Heleski et al., 2008). That study’s objectives were to

82

examine the application of learning theory to donkeys and to record their ability to
complete a novel, potentially frightening task and compare different training methods for
accomplishing this (Heleski et al., 2008). The study’s rationale was that increased
knowledge about training donkeys could improve current training techniques. The
enhanced training techniques could then be shared with donkey owners and handlers.
Post-hoc testing also provided an alternative method for motivating donkeys to cross a
novel object. Donkeys that failed to cross the tarp with positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement or luring were successfully encouraged across with an alternative method
of negative reinforcement, a “donkey motivator.” A donkey motivator was a longe whip
with a piece of plastic sheeting attached to the end. The motivator was shaken behind the

donkey when approaching the tarp but physical contact with the donkey was not made.

The current study focused on comparing two training techniques for teaching donkeys to
drive, Halter Training Method (HTM), and Traditional Stick Method (TSM). Cardiac
response of donkeys during training was measured during this study as a physiological
response to perceived stress. The objective of the study was to compare the two training
methods and then switch the treatments after ten days to measure if donkeys could be
retrained using the opposite method. It was expected that donkeys trained with HTM
would show more favorable responses to behavioral assessment measures, especially a
human approach test, have less variability in their heart rate,'and would perform the
driving test with fewer mistakes, generating a higher driving score in a shorter amount of
time when compared to the donkeys trained by the TSM. A second objective was to use

the data collected in this study to create a tool for teaching donkey owners, drivers,

students, and veterinarians in Mali, West Africa an alternative training method for

teaching donkeys to drive.1

*Submitted to Applied Animal Behaviour Science as “Evaluating learning theory in
donkeys (Equus asinus) while measuring heart rate variability and behavior when

teaching donkeys to drive to a cart,” A.K. McLean, C.H. Heleski, M.T. Yokoyama, and

W.Wang.
4.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Animals and Training Protocols. The study tested two training methods with 10
standard donkeys (measurement at the wither 101.6 to 142.2 cm tall, Taylor and Ray,
2005) from Crossroads Donkey Rescue in Clare, Michigan. The sex, age, and body
condition score were recorded for each donkey. The donkeys were all geldings and kept
at two separate farms (Farm 1 and Farm 2) 4.8 km apart. The average age for all donkeys
was 7.3 yrs; 8 yrs for HTM (ranging from 3 to 13 yrs) and 6.6 yrs for TSM (ranging from
3 to 10 yrs). The average body condition score (BCS on a scale of 1 to 9) for all donkeys
was 6. The donkeys were randomly divided into two groups, Group A, (n=5) and Group
B (n=5). Each group was assigned to an initial treatment, Treatment HTM or Treatment
TSM (see figures 4.1 and 4.2). The daily order for each training session was randomly
drawn. After day 10, all donkeys were moved to HTM due to safety reasons (i.e. with
these healthy, well-fed donkeys, the TSM donkeys showed too much inclination to run
away when hitched to the cart; from a handler perspective, it was simply unsafe to

continue with the TSM treatment).

84

Group A was initially assigned to HTM and Group B was initially assigned to TSM. Each
group of donkeys was individually worked for approximately thirty minutes for ten days
(five consecutive days in a row and then two days off, then five more consecutive days).
Both groups were worked in a round pen to complete novel ground handling tests (such
as learning to stop and move forward with voice commands, learning to longe at the walk
and trot) for the first five days. Days six through 10 the donkeys were hitched and driven
to a two-wheel cart (see figure 4.3.). Days 11 through 14 all donkeys were worked on the
ground with HTM. Days 15 through 18 the donkeys were hitched and worked to the cart

using only HTM.

Treatment 1, H TM. Donkeys in group A were equipped with a halter and a set of driving
lines (two cotton ropes attached on either side of the halter). The donkeys were guided by
gently tugging on the lines in the direction in which the driver wished to go (right line
was pulled for going to the right and left was pulled for going to the left). The voice
command “Gee” was used when turning to the right and “Haw” was used when turning to
the left. To encourage the donkey to move forward, both lines were tapped on the
donkey’s sides (approximately in the rib cage area) and the voice command “walk” was
used. When stopping the donkey, both lines were pulled back and the voice command
“Whoa” was used. The pressure was released when the donkey stopped (see Figure 4.1.

and 4.2., Treatment _1, Halter Training Method, HTM).

Treatment 2, TSM. Donkeys in group B were equipped with a halter for safety, as well as
a place to place the heart rate monitor watch, and a stick with a plastic bag tied to the end
(referred to as a donkey motivator) was used. After day 1 two driving lines were attached

to each side of the halter (for safety) and were used along with the “donkey motivator.”

85

Initially, though, the halter and lines were not used; they were simply attached in case of
an emergency. The donkey motivator was used as a guiding tool. The donkey was gently
tapped with the motivator on his hindquarters from the point of hip to the rump and
occasionally the rib cage. The donkey was encouraged to move right by shaking the
motivator on the opposite side, the left side, and the voice command “Gee” was used.
When asked to move to the left, the motivator was raised and shaken on the right side and
the voice command “Haw” was used. In order to get the donkey to move forward in a
straight line, taps were applied to the croup area to encourage the donkey to move
forward and the voice command “walk” was used. In some instances the motivator was
raised directly over the dorsal area of the donkey and shaken and contact was avoided
when possible. The voice command “whoa” was used when asking the donkey to stop
and the stick was lowered to the driver’s side (see Figure 4.3. and 4.4., Treatment 2,

Traditional Stick Training Method, TSM).
2.2 Behavioral Assessment and Heart Rate Variability Assessment.

On day 1, the following parameters were measured, recorded and videotaped for each
donkey: 1) general attitude (e. g. alert, apathetic, avoidance), 2) response to observer
approaching the donkey’s neck (6. g. no response, friendly approach, avoidance,
aggression), 3) walk around the donkey (e. g. no response, moves away, tucks tail,
aggressive), 4) ear test (e.g. allows ear to be touched, tolerates, avoids ear touch), 5)
response to unfamiliar person (e. g. approaches, no approach, spooks) (Based on previous

work by Burn et al., 2008, Hausberger et al., 2008, Pritchard et al., 2005).

86

The measurements were repeated on days 10, 11, and 18 with the exception of test 5)
response to unfamiliar person. Test 5 was replaced with test 6) response to a familiar
person (e. g. approaches, no approach, spooks) (Hausberger et al., 2008). During the
training session, the heart rate variability was measured for the duration of the session.
Heart rate samples were taken on days 1, 3, 7, 10, 11, 13, 15, and 18 (Matthews et al.,
1998) using a Polar Equine RS800 G3 heart rate Wearlink W.I.N.D. Transmitter (Polar
Electro Europe BV, Fleurier, Switzerland). The monitor was placed around the heart
girth of the donkey. Ultrasound transmission gel (Aquasonic 100, Parker Laboratories,
Inc., Fairfield, NY) was applied to the belly and withers of each donkey near the probe on
the heart rate wearlink. The heart rate watch receiver (Polar Watch Receiver, Polar
Electro Europe BV, F leurier, Switzerland) was attached to the left side of the halter.

Each training session lasted approximately 30 min (Matthews et al., 1998). The heart
rate data stored on the heart rate watch receiver was downloaded via a Polar Interface
(Polar Electro OY, Polar Electro Europe BV, Fleurier, Switzerland) to a laptop computer.
We elected to use the same heart rate (HR) measurements (mean heart rate-MHR,
standard deviation from beat to beat interval-SDRR, square root of the standard deviation
of the beat to beat interval- rSDRR, low frequency-LF, and high frequency-HF) that other
equine researchers have found useful (Rietmann et al., 2004, Visser et al., 2002.) Two
observers reviewed videotapes of each donkey during the behavioral response tests on
day 1. Observer 2 reviewed videotapes of each donkey for day 10 and day 1.8 during the

behavioral response tests. Inter-observer reliability was assessed via recommendations of

Martin & Bateson (1993).

87

2.3 Driving Test.

On days 10 and 18, the driving test was given to each donkey in each group (see Table
4.1. Driving Test). The donkeys were video taped and scored accordingly for their
performance using a 5-point scale (see Table 4.2. Driving Test Scoring System). During
the driving tests depending on the donkey’s training progress, some were driven with the
cart and others were hand-line driven (driven without the cart, and guided by the driving
reins attached to the sides of the halter). If it was deemed unsafe to drive the donkey
while in the cart, the subject was hand line driven. The driving tests were administered at
two different farms due to the location of the donkeys. This study was approved by the
Michigan State University Animal Care and Use Committee (#04-09-067-00), East

Lansing, Michigan.
2.4 Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was conducted using SAS V9.2. The logistic regression model,
PROC GLIMMIX, was used for statistical analysis when comparing the behaviour
parameters in relation to the treatment group, Group A (always Treatment 1, HTM) and
Group B(Treatment 2, TSM). This model was also used for comparing time (before day
11 and after day 11) for testing behaviour responses for group A (always Treatment 1,

, HTM). The Spearman rank correlation test was used when testing behaviour responses
for between-observer reliability, observer 1, observer 2 and first author’s scores for day 1,
10, and 18 were compared. A logistic regression model was used when studying the
behaviors for donkeys in Group A (HTM) before day 11 and after day 11 to test for a

time effect. ANOVA analysis was used to analyze the heart rate variability parameters

88

before day 11; mean heart rate (MI-IR), standard deviation of the average RR intervals
calculated over short periods (SDRR), square root of the mean squared difference of
successive r-r interval (rMSSD), low frequency (LF) and high frequency (HF). Time
effect, before day 11 and after day 11, was measured for the HR responses for Group A
(HTM). Time was modeled as the fixed factor in the ANOVA model for MHR, SDRR,
rMSSD, LF, and HF. Heart rate responses for all donkeys in both groups (A & B) before
and after treatment change in Group B (Treatment 2, TSM changed to Treatment 1, HTM
after day 10, Group A remained in the same treatment, HTM for all 18 days) for all test
days (1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 15, and 18) were compared using the ANOVA model. The
residuals for each model (treatment/sequences) were not normally distributed and log
transformation was used for MHR, rMSSD, LF and HF. The driving test times and test
scores were analyzed using ANOVA analysis. The treatments were fitted as a fixed
effect while farm 1 and 2 were fitted as a random effect in the ANOVA model. When
analyzing Group B donkeys driving tests on day 10 and 18 (after treatment changes),
normality assumption was met but there was an unequal variance for each treatment. A
heterogeneous variance ANOVA model was used and tested for treatment effect on the
driving times for donkeys in Group B (testing time before and after treatment change
from TSM to HTM after day 11). Test times for Group A (treatment never changed from
HTM) on day 10 and day 18 were compared using a heterogeneous variance ANOVA
model. Normality assumption was met but there was an unequal variance for treatments.
Pearson correlation was used to test the score and driving times for all donkeys. When
comparing scores for Group A and B as a fixed effect and farm as a random effect, the

logistic regression model was applied.

89

4.3. RESULTS
3.1 Observer Reliability among Recording Behavioral Responses

Observer 1 and 2’s observations were compared for each behavioral response on day 1.
A significant correlation was found for observer 1’s and 2’s scores for behavior response
to unfamiliar person (p = 0.02). When comparing observer 1’s and 2’s scores for
response to observer approaching the neck, the correlation was significant (p = 0.01). For
the behavioral response to walking around the donkey, a high correlation was found for
both observers’ scores (p = 0.01). Both observers’ scores and the first author’s scores
were compared for day 1 (see Table 4.3). Observer 2 and the first author’s scores were
compared for day 10 and 18. When comparing scores from observer two and the
researcher for response to familiar person, the scores were highly correlated (p = 0.006).
Both observer 2 and the first author had highly correlated scores for walking around the
donkey (p = 0.001). There was a low correlation for both the observers’ and researcher’s

scores when recording the ear test response (p = 0.40).
3.2 Effect of Behavioural Responses among Treatment Groups

When measuring behavioural responses for Group A (always HTM) and Group B
(initially TSM) on day 1, the results indicated that there was no significant difference in
treatment effect for all behavioural responses; response to unfamiliar person (p = 0.99), to
observer approaching neck (p = 0.88), walking around donkey (p = 0.41), and ear test (p
= 0.40). When measuring the relationship of behavioral response scores over time for

Group A (always HTM) before day 11 and after day 11, there was no significant

90

difference in response to unfamiliar person (p = 0. 30), to observer approaching neck (p =

0. 09), walking around donkey (p = 0.12), and ear test (p = 0.97).
3.3 Efifect on HR variables among Treatment Groups and Time

Heart rate variability readings were taken on day 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 15, and 18. When
comparing heart rate variability responses for both treatments before day 11 no
significant differences were found (see Table 4.4.). When comparing both groups of
donkeys for all test days, significant differences were found for rMSSD and HF (p-
value=0.01, 0.02 respectively) (see Table 4.4.). When measuring time effect for Group A
(donkeys that always remained in Treatment 1, HTM for the entire study) no significant
differences were found among HRV responses for this group before or after day 11 (see

Table 4.4.).
3.4 Driving Test Performances and Times among Treatment Groups

The driving tests were conducted at two farms, Farm 1 and Farm 2 on day 10 and day 18.
There was no significant difference in the test time for driving test 1 at farm 1 or farm 2
(p = 0.57) on day 10. When studying the treatment effect and driving test times for
donkeys in Group A, always treated with HTM (Treatment 1), there was no significant
difference between driving test time 1 or 2 (p = 0.62). When measuring the random
effect of farm 1 versus farm 2 for donkeys in Group A (always treated with Treatment 1,
HTM), there was no significant difference (p = 0.64). Driving times before and after the
treatment change for donkeys in Group B (Treatment 2, TSM from day 1 to 10, then
switched to Treatment 1, HTM from day 11 to 18) were checked and no significant

treatment effect was observed (p = 0.40). When comparing test scores for all driving

91

tests on both dates at each location there was no significant difference found (correlation
coefficient: 0.11, p = 0.63). When only testing test scores for Test 1 there was no
significant differences (p = 0.17) and no significant treatment effect found for Group B
(TSM) (p = 0.11) or Group A (always HTM) (p = 1.00) for test scores on both days

donkeys completed the driving tests.

Our most significant finding, though, was that in just ten days, 7 of our 10 initially na’r‘ve
donkeys were trained to drive to the cart. By day 18, an additional donkey (8 of the 10)
was driving. Two of our donkeys, though, still had strong fear responses to driving with
the cart. One of these two did work well in the round pen and may have made
improvements if being worked in a more controlled arena type environment. The other
donkey would have required more work and time before being able to be hitched and
safely driven with the cart. Due to our interest in testing a training theory that can be
implemented in developing parts of the world, this quick response to training for the

majority of our animals was an important finding.

4.4. DISCUSSION

This study suggests that donkeys can be taught to drive with only a halter and reins
and/or a halter with reins plus a donkey motivator in a relatively short time frame. Seven
of the ten subjects were successfully hitched and driven to the cart within the first ten
days and 8 donkeys were hitched and driven to the cart within 18 days. In general, most
donkeys after day 3 in the round pen seemed to move forward less willingly and required
more encouragement from the handler. This might be considered a habituation response.

The donkeys appeared to be desensitized from moving away or forward from the first

92

author moving towards their shoulder and encouraging forward movement from the
hindquarter. Most donkeys on day 6 were quiet to hitch for the first time and displayed
little signs of flight. The temperament of each donkey may have affected his success to
drive. Temperament is defined as an individual’s basic stance towards continuing
changes and challenges in its environment (Mason, 1984). Future studies should consider
temperament evaluations as this study noted donkeys that displayed more signs of flight
proved to be more difficult to hitch and drive safely. Furthermore, donkeys that were
exceptionally flight orientated, meaning they would often bolt and run in fear versus
stopping and refusing to go, proved to be less trainable in the short amount of time.
Temperament has also been used when attempting to place donkeys in foster homes
(French 1992). Not all donkeys will work in certain environments and situations, so
French ( 1992) designed a test to evaluate temperament before placing donkeys in their
new homes. Temperament can relate to management and the animal’s ability to achieve

a specific goal, e. g. a donkey driving to a cart (Visser, 2002).

At both farms a pasture was used for training and conducting the driving test. It is
possible that the donkeys’ training may have improved in a more controlled environment
such as an arena, however, 8 of the 10 donkeys within 18 days were pulling a cart. In
addition, the idea was to drive donkeys in Group B (TSM, Treatment 2) with no halter
and only guided by a stick as seen in Mali, West Africa. Many of the donkeys in Mali
are seen driving without halters or bridles in Mali are traveling down a straight path, e. g.
a road that they travel on a routine basis, and they are often over loaded, undemourished

and dehydrated (Diarra et al., 2007). The conditions present in Mali could not be

93

replicated in Michigan in the short period of time and within the appropriate ethical
constraints of an IACUC. The donkeys in Michigan were all in good physical condition
and well fed. Also, we did not know the length of time it takes a Malian donkey driver to
train a donkey to work with only a stick. It is not uncommon to see additional donkeys
tied with a rope around their necks to the shaft of a cart. Some claim this is a training
exercise and others claim the donkey is hitched for additional pulling power. However,

this could aid in training and teaching the donkeys to drive without a bridle or halter.

In order to measure stress associated with the treatments, both behavioral measurements
and heart rate readings were taken. This study showed a highly correlated observer
reliability score between the first author, observer 1 and 2 when measuring most
behavioral responses. Other studies have also used observer reliability tests to test
repeatability of behavior scoring (Burn et al., 2009). In this study there were some
differences between observer 2 and the researcher’s scores when scoring the ear test. The
ear test is applicable to the mule and donkey industry as often times an ear shy equine can
be dangerous to work with and the shyness is often blamed on abusive type treatment

(e. g. twitching or harshly twisting ears). However, in order to measure such a response a

stronger correlation of scoring ratings needs to be developed.

Heart rate readings were taken during the training session to attempt to measure stress
associated with the two training methods. Stress can be defined as a threat, real or
implied, to the psychological or physiological integrity of an individual (McEwen, 1999).

To accurately measure stress responses proves to be more difficult as different

94

physiological systems are involved, and it requires multiple simultaneous responses
measured at once (Heard, 1991). Heart rate variability parameters have been used when
measuring behavioral responses and to make correlations among stressors in horses
(Rietmann et al. 2004). Donkeys that drove well tended to have an increase in their heart
rate when first placed in the cross ties before being hitched. Though we often perceive an
increase in heart rate as representing a stress response, perhaps the increased heart rate
actually represented a positive anticipation response (von Borrell et al., 2007). Behavioral
responses of our donkeys would support this possibility. When the donkeys’ heart rate
would increase to well over 150 beats per minute when first placed in the cross ties, it
tended to decrease once brushing began or the harness was placed on the donkeys. Other
studies in horses support the concept that brushing tends to decrease heart rates of
nervous animals (Feh and Mazieres, 1992). No physical signs of increased respiration or
signs of fear, such as attempting to bolt, were noted. No differences in heart rate
variability parameters MHR, SDRR, LF and HF were found between the two groups with
the exception of the square root of the mean squared difference of successive beat-to-beat
interval (rMSSD, p: 0.04). Visser (et al. 2002) compared mean HR to SDDRR and
rMSSD at base line and in response to various stimuli. In this study baseline heart rate
values were not taken separately from training sessions and physical activity can create a
variation in HR and nonmotor HR (Rietmann et al., 2004). The resting heart rate in
donkeys has been reported to be similar to that of horses, approximately 41 bpm
(Matthews et al., 1998; Mueller et al., 1994; Rose et al., 1991). Rietmann et al. (2004)
has indicated that measuring LF and HF allows for a more precise measure of mental

stress at low-level exercise than relying simply on mean HR (average of the beats per

95

minute over time being tested), SDDR or rMSSD (which focus on beat to beat intervals
or the log of the beat to beat interval). rMSSD estimates the high-frequency activity of
the parasympathetic nervous system (Visser et al., 2002). The vagus nerve is a
parasympathetic nerve and if an animal is stressed, this nerve may reduce in activity
therefore, causing the animal to be less likely to cope with the stressor (Rietmann et al.,
2004). Visser (et al. 2002) has reported that horses that have a low degree of
parasympathetic nerve activity are more likely to be mentally stressed compared to those
who have high activity. Therefore, by measuring the heart rate, which measures the net
effect of the vagus and the variability between the beats, the vagal and sympathetic
activity can be measured. Since the donkeys did show a difference in rMSSD this could
suggest a difference in temperaments as well as a change in their environment that
increased stress or excitement (e. g. new person watching or donkeys moving close by, or
other donkeys being fed treats). Visser (et a1. 2004) suggested that the difference in the
rider’s response to a change in the environment could have played a role in the horses
that had a lower rMSSD. Therefore, a change in environment could have influenced the
researcher’s response and possibly played a role in the donkeys (primarily in Group B,

TSM) who had a lower rMSSD over time.

When donkeys were first handled, e. g. caught and haltered or placed in cross ties before
hitching, the handler did observe that the heart rate would increase to 60 to 180 bpm and
then after initial brushing or placing the harness on the donkey(s) the heart rate would
drop within a few seconds to 30 to 35 bpm for most donkeys. Visser (et a1. 2002)

reported in her study that horses would also show an increase in MHR due to sudden

96

excitement or fear up to 110 bpm and this was accredited to a decrease in
parasympathetic nerve activity. Donkeys that tended to exhibit signs of being tense or
that bolted with the cart or when being hand line driven (driven only with the reins
attached to the halter and not hitched to the cart) had a constant heart rate of 80 to 100
bpm throughout the grooming, harnessing, and training process. Similar findings with
horses suggest that slow alterations in heart rate are mediated by both the sympathetic
and parasympathetic nerve activity and may be associated with a prolonged fear response

(Friedman et al., 1998; Visser et al., 2002).

In order to quantify which training method HTM vs. TSM was more successful in
teaching donkeys to pull a cart, each donkey performed a driving test. The test was
administered twice to account for the change in treatment for Group B (TSM) to the
HTM after day 10. The test used to evaluate driving performance was modeled after a
driving course commonly used in donkey driving classes at donkey and mule shows in
the US. The three donkeys that scored the highest scores for the driving tests were in
Group A (always HTM). Even though the driving test scores or times were not
significantly different for the two training methods, it is still encouraging that donkeys
can be trained to pull a cart with only a halter with reins and successfully complete a
driving test. It. is not uncommon to see harsh bits and extreme methods being used when
teaching donkeys and mules to drive or ride. This study suggests that donkeys can be
taught to drive and even perform a skillful driving test without harsh bits or training

methods in a short amount of time.

97

4.5. CONCLUSION

This study suggests that na'r've donkeys can be trained in a short period of time (less than
30 days) with proper application of learning theory to pull a cart while using only a
halter and driving lines. Despite the fact that two donkeys (one in the halter group and
the other in the stick group) did need more time and training before successfully being
hitched to the cart, this could be related to these donkeys’ individual temperaments and/or
their past history with humans. Visser et al. (2002) suggests that in horses the
individual’s temperament may affect HRV and possibly suitability to be trained to
perform novel tasks such as riding, similarly, a donkey’s temperament, social system and
past interactions with humans may influence their overall ability to be trained to drive as
well as their HRV. However, considering the majority of the donkeys did learn to drive
in a short period of time, this study has the potential for application in developing
countries when teaching and training donkeys, donkey owners, and para-professionals

alternative methods for training donkeys to pull carts.

Footnote:

1Information and data collected in this study regarding donkey behavior and training was
later used in a study in Mali, West Africa examining ways to improve donkey driving and
training methods. Donkeys are still used as a primary source of draft power in Mali but
they are often subjected to harsh training techniques and working conditions.

98

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special thanks to Crossroads Donkey Rescue for supporting our research efforts and
making their donkeys available for this study! We sincerely appreciate the help and
assistance provided by Crossroad’s members, Fran D’Angelo and Rudy Quesada. This
study would not have been possible without their endless hours of help and assistance.
Thank you to the National Needs USDA Fellowship program for providing financial
support for this study. Also, thank you to the Michigan Horse Council for providing

funding.

99

TABLES

Table 4.1. Driving Test Procedures (NASMA, 2007-8). This was a standardized test
that was used as a way to assess each donkey’s driving ability and as a method to
compare driving ability among treatment groups. Each test was video taped, timed, and
scored. Times and scores were compared for each treatment group in order to establish
which method was more successful in teaching a donkey to drive.

 

Obstacles:

Directions

 

Serpentine

 

Donkey walked through 3 cones, the cones
were set 152.4 cm apart, each cone had a
tennis ball on top to ensure that when the
donkey drove around the cone, it was
steering and was responsive as per the
driver’s instructions and did not bump a
cone thereby knocking off the tennis ball

 

U-Tum

(S

 

 

 

 

Six poles in a “U” shape, one pole in the
middle, the sides were 457.2 cm and the
middle was 609.6 cm long and pole in the
middle was 243.8 cm long to be performed
at a walk, 3 tennis balls were placed on the
middle pole

 

 

Straight and
Narrow

 

 

 

 

2 parallel poles set 30.48 ems apart and 762
cm long, three tennis balls placed on each
board

 

l 00

 

Table 4.2. Driving Test Scoring System. This system was used to numerically score
each driving test and then compare test scores according to treatment groups and which
method was more successful in teaching a donkey to drive.

 

Score

Performance

Description

 

Poor

Being led by handler, not hitched to cart, relies on guidance
from handler when being driven by driver with only the
reins, and the handler must keep a tight lead on the donkey
while remaining close to its head and shoulders.

 

Fair

Being driven and guided by the driver with only the driving
lines attached to the halter, not hitched to the cart, but still
being led by handler with slack in the lead line, no guidance
from handler, handler is positioned behind shoulder or hip, or
hitched to cart but tight lead, driver not in cart

 

Average

Hitched to cart but lead line still attached, handler walking
with slack in line and behind shoulder or hip

 

Good

Hitched to cart, no one leading, but handler walking close by,
donkey turns and stops with little resistance when asked by
the driver.

 

 

 

Very Good

 

Moves out freely when hitched to cart, no assistance from
handler, no one leading, responds to voice commands, turns
and stops easily with no resistance.

 

lOl

 

Table 4.3. Observer Reliability for observer 1, 2, and first author’s Behavioral Response
Scores on Day 1 to video taped responses for unfamiliar person, observer approaching
neck, walking around the donkey, and ear test.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Behavior Response Correlation Coefficient p - Value

To unfamiliar person 064, -0.64 (1043’ 04"

To observer approaching neck 0.80, 0.91 0.0083, 0000"
Walking around donkey 0.32, 0.51 0.35, 0.12

Ear Test 0.82, 0.09 0.006“, 0.80

 

 

 

a Significant correlation (p < 0.05) for observer 1 and First Author’s behavioral response
scores

b Significant correlation (p < 0.05) for observer 2 and First Author’s behavioral response
scores

102

 

Table 4.4. Heart rate and heart rate variability responses for Group A (always HTM,
Treatment 1) and Group B (TSM, Treatment 2) before day 11, before and after day 11
with Group A, and all test days (1-18) for both Groups A and B, treatments 1, 2, and 1,1.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"me G'°"P "931mm MHR” sonn" rnsso" LFd (11.11.) HFe
(bpm) (m8) (n.u.)

Before HTM 1 97.2 272.2 178.54 13066.65 1 1627.51
Before TSM 2 66.6 298.7 194.46 14648.49 13488.42
p -Value 0.22 0.13 0.08 0.22 0.21
Before HTM 1 94.8 269.1 109.2 4561 .37 4473.31
Day 1 1

1141111» day HTM 1 72.9 210.4 93.4 4198.01 4350.53
p -Value 0.74 0.13 0.73 0.98 0.69

All days HTM 1, 2, 1, 1 83.8 239.8 101.3 4379.6 4411.9

All days TSM 1, 2, 1,1 77.5 252.4 81.1 3764.6 3764.6
p -Value 0.39 0.22 0.01' 0.06 002*

a Mean Heart Rate (MHR)

. b Standard Deviation from interval-Interval (SDRR)
c the square root of the interval to interval (rMSSD)
d

Low frequency (LF)

9 High frequency (HF)

fSignificant difference (p < 0.05) for all test days and treatments between: rMSSD and HF.

103

 

FIGURES

Figure 4.1. and 4.2. Treatmentl, Halter Training Method (HTM). The donkey is
equipped with a halter and two driving lines are attached to either side of the
halter.

 

104

Figure 4.3. and 4.4. Treatment 2, Traditional Stick Training Method (TSM). The donkey
is also equipped with a halter and two driving lines attached to the side and a
donkey motivator (a longe whip with plastic sheeting attached to the end) is being
used to help guide the donkey.

 

105

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M.A., 2004. Assessment of mental stress in warmblood horses: heart rate
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21.

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CHAPTER V.

IMPROVING WORKING DONKEY (EQU US ASIN US) WELFARE AND

MANAGEIVIENT IN MALI, WEST AFRICA*

5.1. INTRODUCTION

The Malian economy depends heavily upon agriculture and animal husbandry (Diarra et
al., 2007). Mali is considered one of the ten most resource-poor countries with the per
capita gross domestic product (GDP) averaging $420. Agriculture comprises 32.9% of
their annual GDP ($7.3 Billion) and occupies over 70% of the workforce. Small
shareholder farmers dominate the agricultural sector with subsistence farming of cereals,
sorghum, millet and maize covering over 1.4 million hectares (3.4 million acres)
(httpz/lwww.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2828.htm). The agricultural economy depends heavily
upon the donkey. Donkeys are used especially for traction (96 %) and occasionally
plowing (Diarra et al., 2007). They perform many duties from transporting commodities
and people to the market or hauling garbage to simply carrying water and fire wood
(Diarra et al., 2007). Despite their importance, donkeys have received little attention in

terms of research (Starkey, 1994).

Worldwide there are an estimated 52 million donkeys, mules, and hinnies'; this is similar
to the number of horses, which is estimated at 55 million (FAO, 2006). A majority of
these animals are found in developing areas of the world (Herbert, 2006; Starkey and

Starkey, 2000). Approximately 27 million working equids are found in Africa and nearly

110

2 million of these are Malian donkeys (Herbert, 2006; Personal communication with Dr.

Amadou Doumbia).

The donkey has increased in popularity in West Africa due to extended periods of
drought that have made it harder to feed and care for oxen. However, many of the same
implements once used with oxen are now being used with donkeys, and this has created
problems such as oversized carts and improperly fitting harnesses (Starkey, 1994).
Unfortunately, due to a myriad of problems, donkeys are often unable to work or unable
to work up to their potential. Diarra et al. (2007) reported that most donkeys receive little
medical care and problems go largely untreated (n =100; 72%). The loss of a donkey or

the time that a donkey is unable to work creates many hardships for the people it serves.

Diarra et a1. (2007) carried out a survey with over 2,500 donkeys to identify reason(s)
why donkeys are unable to work. The survey indicated that most donkeys were equipped
with poor harnesses (n=2,0330; 76%), traveled long distances (> 20 kin/day) (n=2,086;
79%), worked many hours (> 6 hrs/day, n = 1,782; 82%), carried/pulled loads over 500
kg (n=1,344; 51%), and were provided with inadequate nutrition (Diarra et al., 2007).
Pearson et al. (1999) has also indicated a need for further understanding of donkey
management and working practices (e. g. harnessing and training); furthermore, Pearson
suggests that problem areas can often be overcome through better training and education.
For example, humane training methods can be used when training donkeys to perform
novel tasks from crossing a tarp to pulling a cart (Heleski et al., 2008; McLean et al., in

preparation). A decrease in harsh and abusive type training methods plus improved

lll

nutrient management has great potential to improve the welfare and longevity of working
donkeys. The correct application of learning theory, such as appropriately using training
techniques like negative reinforcement (e. g. applying pressure on the right driving rein
and releasing the pressure when the donkey responds and turns right) that has been used
by Heleski et al. (2008) could be taught to donkey owners/drivers. Correctly using a
halter or bridle for driving may decrease the use of sticks and subsequent beating of

donkeys that is commonly observed in developing countries.

An earlier study conducted with ten donkeys in the US. showed that donkeys could be
trained to pull a cart using only a halter and reins or a halter, reins and a donkey
motivator (a lounge whip with a sheet of plastic tied to the end, used to encourage the
donkey to move forward by taping them or by the sound of the plastic being shok) in a
short amount of time (in less than 20 days) 2. The motivator was shown to work
effectively in previous studies to motivate the donkey to move forward without adverse
affects such as an increase in heart rate or avoidance behavior (Heleski et al., 2008,
McLean et al., in preparation). Half of the donkeys in this study were driven with a
halter, reins and donkey motivator, instead of a stick as seen in Mali (McLean et al., in
preparation). Within just ten days, most of the donkeys (70%) were pulling a cart and did
not demonstrate signs of fear or aggression towards humans (McLean et al., in

preparation).

In the current study we conducted three experiments and a welfare assessment. When

examining how to train donkeys to pull carts, it was our hypothesis that donkeys trained

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to drive with a halter and reins would exhibit less signs of behavioral and physiological
stress. Our second experiment focused on assessing another major problem plaguing
many working donkeys, inadequate and ill fitting harnesses and carts. We hypothesized
that donkeys with a good quality harness hitched to a well-balanced cart would have less
pressure applied to their withers/back and therefore be subjected to fewer lesions of the
withers/back. The third experiment focused on testing the donkey management
knowledge of students enrolled in an agricultural preparatory high school and an
agricultural college. We hypothesized that increasing education and awareness of
paraprofessionals and professionals (e. g. via “train the trainers” workshops) who work
closely with donkeys and their owners would be important to improving working donkey
welfare long term. In addition, a welfare assessment was taken in order to measure
current management practices and to assess the welfare of working donkeys in
conjunction with a SPANA monthly mobile clinic in Segou, Mali. This is an area with a

large number of donkeys on market days.

*Submitted to publication in Applied Animal Behaviour Science as “Improving working
donkey (Equus asinus) welfare and management in Mali, West Africa,” A.K. McLean,

C.H. Heleski, M.T. Yokoyama, W.Wang, A. Doumbia, and B. Dembele.

5.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

5.2.]. Assessing the driving method, halter (HM) \v'ersus stick ( SM ). related to
behavioural assessment, heart rate variability ( HR V), and pressure associated with

harness and cart quality (see Fig. 5.1 ., Fig.5. 2., and Fig. 5.3. ).

ll3

5.2.2. Animals. Ten Malian donkeys owned by two owners and driven by 10 hired
drivers were tested at the SPANA veterinarian clinic in Bamako, Mali, West Africa.
Donkeys were driven with both a halter and line(s) (HM) or only with a stick/donkey
motivator (SM). Four donkeys were driven in the HM manner and six were driven in the
SM manner. Any signs of scars, lesions, or lameness were noted. The average age for the
HM group was 8.6 years and the SM group 9.25 years. All donkeys were intact males

(jacks).

5.2.3. Materials and Methods. Before beginning the driving test, each donkey was given
a behavioural assessment test. The following parameters were measured 1) general
attitude (alert or apathetic), 2) response to observer approaching the donkey’s neck (no
response, friendly approach, avoidance, aggression), 3) response to observer walking
around the donkey (no response, moves away, tucks tail, aggression), 4) ear test (allows
ear to be touched (no hesitation or avoidance from donkey while ear is being handled),
tolerates (ear can be touched by donkey is tense), avoids ear touch), and 5) response to
unfamiliar person (approaches, no approach, spooks) (Burns et al., 2008, Hausberger et
al., 2008, Pritchard et al., 2005). After the behavioural assessment, each donkey was
fitted with a Polar Equine RS 800 G3 heart rate monitor (Polar Electro Europe BV,
Fleurier, Switzerland). Ultrasound transmission gel (Aquasonic 100, Parker Laboratories,
Inc., Fairfield, NJ) was applied to the girth and whither areas of the donkey where the
electrode strips on the heart rate monitors would contact the animal. Pressure film
(Extreme Low Pressure 4 LW Fuji Film, Tokyo, Japan), approximately 21 cm x 31 cm,
was placed over the withers of the donkey, undemeath the harness back pad. The donkeys

were then harnessed and hitched to their respective carts and driven for five minutes. The

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harness and cart were graded as satisfactory or unsatisfactory based on the following
criteria (developed by the authors along with information from Chadbom, 2008; Davis,
2008; Davis, 2006; Jones, 2008): satisfactory harnesses had soft-nonabrasive material for
the back padding and collar, unsatisfactory harnesses had abrasive material for back
padding and or collar; a satisfactory cart had balanced shafts, shafts that came to the point
of the donkey’s shoulder, inflated tires and was balanced over the axles; an unsatisfactory
cart had one or more of the following problems: uneven/unbalanced shafts, shafts that
were shorter than the point of the donkey’s shoulders, flat tires, unbalanced over axle
(placing a majority of the weight on the shafts). Some donkeys were equipped with
double padding under the saddle/backhand and this was noted. When each donkey was
finished driving, the harness was removed and the pressure film was photographed, and
labeled: right, left, and front, then removed. After returning to the US, the pressure film
was scanned (Imager Scanner II, Amersham Bioscience, Piscataway, NJ) and analyzed
for intensity of the dots by using ImageQuant TL Software (Amersham Bioscience,
Piscataway, NJ). Exposed film was photographed as a precautionary step since it was not
known how the high temperatures and humidity would affect image stability (see Figures

5.4. and 5.5.).

5.2.4. Welfare Assessment of current working conditions of donkeys in Segou, a

representative village in Mali with a large working donkey population .

Survey Protocol. A welfare assessment was conducted in Segou in conjunction with a
monthly scheduled SPANA mobile veterinary clinic at the Ecole Secondaire Agro
Pastorale (E.S.A.P.), a technical school for teen aged students studying agriculture (see

Figure 5.7. and 5.8.). The clinics are held traditionally on market day so donkey owners

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are already coming to town and SPANA can serve the most owners at once. The
assessment was taken during the clinic to record the number of donkeys that were being
driven with halters versus driven with sticks, donkeys’ body condition scores (1 to 5,
Donkey Sanctuary 2007), color, sex, age, branded or not, with or without
lesions/lacerations, severity of lesions/lacerations (superficial, subcutaneous, severe/bone
or multiple layers of tissue showing) location of lesions/lacerations, location of scarring
and lameness (0: sound, 1=irregular gait, 2: not bearing weight on limb) and hydration
status. A behavioral assessment test measured the responses to the following parameters:
1) general attitude (alert or apathetic), 2) response to observer approaching the donkey
(no response, friendly, spooks, aggressive), 3) response to observer approaching the
donkey’s neck (no response, friendly approach, avoidance, aggression), 4) response to
observer walking around the donkey (no response, moves away, tucks tail, aggression),
and 5) ear test (allows ear to be touched, avoids ear touch) (Burns et al., 2008, Pritchard
et al., 2005). The Michigan State University Animal Care and Use Committee, number

04-09-067-00, East Lansing, MI approved all experiments and testing procedures.
5.2.5. Testing Para-professional ’5 Knowledge and Skills on Donkey Husbandry

Materials and Methods. Two “train the trainer” sessions were conducted in Mali. The
first session took place in Segou at the Ecole Secondaire Agro Pastorale (E.S.A.P). Fifty-
four students (males E: 45, females = 9) were included in the study and varied in their
level of study from first year to fourth year students (see Figure 5.9. and 5.10.). Each
student was given a pre-assessment exam about donkey management and welfare. A 45
min seminar was then presented to the students and translated into French by a local

translator. Our translator, Boubacar Dembele, is an animal science professor at the Rural

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Polytechnic Institute for Training and Applied Research (I.P.R./I.F.R.A.) of Katibougou.
University of Mali. A 30 min hands on demonstration with a donkey was conducted after
the seminar (see Figure 5.11.). The students were shown how to tell the donkey’s age,
how to correctly use methods of restraint, how to identify parts of the hooves, how to
clean the hoof, importance of grooming and cleaning the area where the harness is
placed, and how to properly harness and hitch a donkey. The students were then re—tested
with the same exam. After completing the session each student was presented with a

certificate of completion.

A second instructional session was conducted in Bamako, Mali at the Higher Institute of
Training and Applied Research (I.S.F.R.A.), University of Mali, with 28 college students
(27=males, 1=female) enrolled in the Animal Science program (see Figure 5.12. and
5.13.). These students were given a longer pre-assessment exam prior to the presentation.
The presentation was written in French and verbally translated by Professor Boubacar
Dembele. A practical demonstration was conducted after the seminar. The students at
the college were shown how to age donkeys (by viewing their teeth), restraint methods,
how to pick up and clean a hoof, importance of cleaning the back and belly of the donkey
prior to harnessing, and instructions on hitching and cart design, and how to use the
donkey motivator (see Figure 5.14. and 5.15.). A driving demonstration was also
conducted while measuring the heart rate (Polar Equine RS 800 G3, Polar Electro Europe
BV, Fleurier, Switzerland) of the donkey. The students were then shown the heart rate
variability results after the driving demonstration. Lastly, the students were re-tested

with the earlier exam. These students also received certificates of completion at the end

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of the day’s sessions. At both schools, students were allowed a question and answer
period. Also, each student received a copy of the Basic Husbandry Manual for Donkeys,
written by the authors, which had been translated into French. Electronic copies of this

manual (in English or French) are available by request.

5.2.6. Statistical Analysis. The logistic regression model, PROC GLIMMIX, was used
for statistical analysis to model the relationship between various behaviors and driving
treatment (halter, HM or stick, SM). The AN OVA model was used when testing the
relationship between treatment and heart rate variability data. Normality of the residual
and equal residual variance was checked for ANOVA and logistic regression models.
The logistic regression model was used when testing the pressure data in relation to the
type of harness, cart, and weight. The average intensity was the predicted variable. The
Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used to the relationship between body condition
score and age. The logistic regression model was used to test the relationship between
body condition score and age, sex, lameness, scarring, hydration, color and lesions. Body
condition score, behavior responses, and hydration correlation were tested using PROC
GLIMMIX logistics regression model. The mean and standard deviation were obtained
for each sex and variable: age, brand, body condition score, number of lesions, and
number of scars. A generalized linear model approach (Proc GLIMMIX, SAS, V9.2)
was used to determine the effects of body condition score, age, and hydration on general
attitude, response to unfamiliar people, and ear test. Normal probability plot and
Shapiro-Wilk test were used to test normality for the exams administered at both schools.
Since the scores were not normally distributed, Wilcoxon signed rank test was used to

test the difference in scores in the two schools. The p-value for significance was 0.05.

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5.3. RESULTS
5. 3. I . Effect of behavioural responses among driving treatment groups

When measuring behavioural responses for HM group and SM group the results indicated

that there was no significant difference in treatment effect for all behaviours (see Table

5.1.).
5.3.2. Eflect on heart rate variability among driving treatment groups (HM vs. SM)

Heart rate samples were taken on the day of testing at the SPANA clinic in Bamako,
Mali. The donkeys had been either trained to drive with the halter method (HM group) or
with the stick method (SM group). There was no significant difference in HRV

parameters for either group (see Table 5.2.).

5.3.3. Testing back and wither pressure associated with harness and cart quality in

working donkeys

A significant difference was found when measuring the average intensity of pressure
placed on the donkeys’ withers when equipped with unsatisfactory quality harness and
carts with 400+ kg of weight (harness type: p = 0.02, weight: p: 0.009). Unsatisfactory
quality harness and heavier loads resulted in increased pressure as verified by the Fuji
pressure film. There was no significant difference in average pressure intensity when
testing extra back pad padding or type of cart (satisfactory vs. unsatisfactory) (extra

padding: p = 0.23, cart type: p = 0.27) (see Table 5.3., Fig. 5.4., and Fig. 5.5.).

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5.3.4. Assessment results of general condition of working donkeys in Segou

In general, most donkeys appeared alert (44 of 46), 25 approached the unfamiliar person
(9 did not and 20 spooked out of 54), and 34 allowed their ear’s to be touched during the
ear test (12 tolerated touch and 7 avoided their ears being touched out of 53). There was a
correlation between body condition score and ear test (p = 0.03). Donkeys with a higher
body condition score were more likely to tolerate or avoid ear touch compared to donkeys
with a lower BCS. However, BCS was not correlated with the other behavioral
responses. Also, when examining age in relationship to behavioral responses there was
no correlation among general attitude (p = 0.49), response to an unfamiliar person (p =

0.56) and the ear test (p = 0.60).

The mean and standard error were calculated for body condition score (BCS), age
(years), and hydration status. In general, most donkeys were considered thin (BCS 2.3i
0.70, n = 41), averaged 6.9 i 3.9 years of age (n = 53), and were considered to be
hydrated (1.29 i 0.46, n = 44, 1 = hydrated, 2: dehydrated). There was no significant
relationship between hydration status and age (p = 0.07) but there was a significant
relationship between hydration status and body condition score (p = 0.01) with donkeys
in better body condition tending to be less dehydrated than those who were thinner. It
was more likely for a donkey with BCS 1 to be dehydrated than hydrated (95%
confidence interval for the odds ratio, 0.013, 0.623, p = 0.01). When comparing the
relationship between body condition scores to age, sex, lameness, scarring, color, and

lesions there were no significant effects.

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5.3.5. Measuring current donkey management knowledge among para-professionals

The pre- and post-examination results from both schools, the Higher Institute of Training
and Applied Research (I.S.F.R.A.), in Bamako and at the Ecole Secondaire Agro
Pastorale (E.S.A.P) in Segou did not show a significant increase in test scores, even
though there was a numerical increase in each case. In Segou, the test scores were not
normally distributed and when using the Wilcox Signed Rank Test, there was no
significant improvement in test scores (p = 0.15). The distribution of tests scores was
normally distributed at the I.S.F.R.A. Annex in Bamako. When using the t-test, the
increase in average test scores at the Annex showed a tendency to increase when using
the significance level at 0.05 (p = 0.06). The average exam scores did numerically
improve (E.S.A.P. pre-exam average = 80.72, post- exam average: 84.18; I.S.F.R.A. pre-

exam average = 88.11, post-exam average = 92.70).
5.4. DISCUSSION
5. 4. I . Eflect of behavioural responses among treatment groups

We had expected to see greater differences in behavioral responses between donkeys
driven with the halter method versus donkeys driven with the stick method. However, it
should be noted that only two individuals owned the donkeys used in this training study
(n=10) and these owners hired drivers for each donkey. These donkeys were in good
physical condition, as compared to the general Bamako population, and no lesions or
scarring were observed. It is possible that this population was above average in care and
physical condition and subsequently indicated less signs of behavioural stress associated

with either treatment.

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5.4.2. Eflect on HRV among driving treatment groups HM vs. SM

Some researchers have claimed that monitoring and identifying stress in equine can be
difficult to assess (Herd, 1991, Miller, 2001). The difficulties arise in measuring the
response in several physiological systems, e. g. neuroendocrine and cardiovascular
systems, along with behavioural responses. Stress can be defined as a threat, real or
implied, to the psychological or physiological integrity of an animal (McEwen, 1991).
Animals dealing with stressors exert behaviors known as “coping” but when an animal
can no longer cope with the stressor, then stress-related behaviors and problems are often
exhibited (Stauffacher, 1992). If an animal is stressed for a long period of time, then the
sympathetic nervous system along with chronically elevated or depressed adrenocortical
functions can become harmful to the animal (Kelling and Jensen, 2002). Heart rate
variability can provide more information of both individual stress and the magnitude of
an actual stress response versus just measuring heart rate (Porges, 1995). Our study
suggested that no significant differences were found in heart rate variability when looking
at mean heart rate, standard deviation from beat to beat interval (SDRR), the square root
of interval to interval (rMSSD), high frequency (HF, parasympathetic tone) or low
frequency (LF, sympathetic tone) when comparing two different training methods, HM
versus SM. Several studies have shown a decrease in heart rate variability in horses
during exercise on a treadmill (Thayer et al., 1997; Physick-Sheard et al., 2000; Voss et
al., 2002). Since our study was measuring heart rate during exercise this could have
reduced the HRV between donkeys. Also, it is possible a difference may have been
noticed in these parameters if taken over multiple sampling periods or when taken at rest.

Researchers have shown that heart rate can vary according to diurnal variations (morning

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versus afternoon), environmental conditions (e.g. ambient temperature, relative humidity,
and wind speed), physical conditions of the donkey (e. g. age, breed, nutrition status), and
fatigue (Ayo et al., 2008; Matthews et al., 1998; Minka and Ayo, 2007; Yousef and Dill,
1969). Ayo et al. (2008) indicated that donkeys in Nigeria during the rainy season had a
mean resting heart rate of 36 to 72 bpm over a ten—hour period. The peak in heart rate
was noted around 15:00 hrs (Ayo et al., 2008). Ayo et a1. (2008) reported the
temperature varied from 34.7 to 387°C and the relative humidity was 76.0% at 15:00
hours. The conditions in the Ayo et a1. (2008) study were similar to the conditions in this
study, 14:00 hrs, 327°C and 89 % humidity with the exception of measuring the heart
rate while donkeys were exercising. Minka and Ayo (2007) reported the mean heart rates
for donkeys (n = 10) after packing 93.9 i 1.5 kg for 19.1 i 0.6 km to be 71.0 i 3.4 bpm.

Our study recorded similar mean heart rates for donkeys exercising at 14:00 hrs, 73 i

4.04 (HM group) and 71.75 i 9.87 (SM group) bpm.

Another factor when comparing the different driving treatments (HM vs. SM) with HRV
was that donkeys used for this test were in good physical condition as compared to many
of the other working donkeys we observed in Mali. More variations in HRV may have
been seen in the SM group if application of the stick was used differently such as more
harshly which is traditionally seen. Traditionally, it is not uncommon to see drivers
hitting the donkeys with the stick repeatedly, which often leads to lesions. However, what
we observed with our SM group was the drivers often waved the stick over the

hindquarter of the donkey to encourage him to move forward and contact was avoided

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similar to the application and use of a donkey motivator. Though several possibilities
exist, it is likely that the drivers did not want to actually hit the donkeys while we, the
researchers, were watching. It is possible that testing more donkeys from a broader
background over several sampling periods may have shown more differences in heart rate
variability. Further studies looking at HRV as an indicator of stress should consider the
donkey’s conditioning history as well as monitoring fatigue. Matthews et al. (1998)
examined the physiological response of donkeys driving in a hot (29 to 34°C) and humid
climate and the effect of conditioning. They found that the heart rate while working after
a month of conditioning was lower. Also, the resting heart rate values decreased

significantly after donkeys had been conditioned.
5.4.3. Pressure response of harness and cart quality on the withers of working donkeys

Harness development and design have long been a problem for working equids in
developing parts of the world (Connan, 2008; Davis, 2008b; Herbert, 2006). It is widely
accepted that most debilitating injuries are due to poor harnesses (Davis, 2008b). Many
researchers have reported a high proportion of poor harnesses, which cause lesions and
scarring, found amongst donkeys working in Africa (Chadbom, 2008; Diarra et al., 2007;
Herbert, 2006, Pearson et al., 1999; Starkey, 1994). Veterinarians may treat as many as
60% of their total caseload for injuries that have been caused by ill-fitting or poorly
constructed harnesses (Davis, 2008a). Veterinarians are then left to make hfiamess
recommendations, and many claim that they lack the knowledge to properly do so (Davis,
2008b). Davis (2008a) claims that work production can be increased 20-25% with a
properly fitted harness. Other work related problems include the design of the cart and

weight of the load being carried by the donkey.

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This study suggested that pressure is associated with the type of harness and weight
carried by the donkey. Part of the mission of many organizations and researchers is to
educate owners and drivers on how to properly harness working equids. During this
study, the owners and drivers were shown the pressure film after each driving test as
evidence of the pressure response to harness and cart type (see Figs. 5.4., 5.5., 5.6.). In
addition, this information was shared with students at both schools. Improving
harnessing methods, such as padding used under the saddle of the harness, has the
potential to decrease pressure applied on the withers and back and increase the longevity
of a working donkey. In addition, it was tested that not overloading donkeys and
maintaining the carts, such as by keeping the tires inflated, can also decrease pressure
placed on the withers. Many researchers have engaged in harness making workshops
throughout Africa to show owners how to make affordable harnesses (Davis, 2008a;
Connan, 2008; Chadbom, 2008; Jones, 2008b). Teaching veterinarians and
paraprofessionals how to build low cost harnesses as well as well-balanced and well-
maintained carts has tremendous potential for enhancing the welfare of working equids.
Part of this study examined the current knowledge of paraprofessionals and professionals
in Mali on donkey management including how to prOperly harness, train and work
donkeys. Future workshops and research should focus on these key individuals who can

share the knowledge with many owners for years to come.
5.4.4. Welfare assessment of working donkeys in Segou

The assessment provided some insight into current management conditions of donkeys in
the Segou area of Mali. When SPANA first began working in Mali, the average work life

for a donkey was 2 years (personal communication, Dr. Amadou Doumbia, 2008). The

125

mean age for donkeys in the Segou area during this study was 6.9 i 3.99 years.
Therefore, it appears that through the efforts of SPANA’s treatment and education
programs that the longevity of the donkey has increased. Diarra et al. (2007) found only
9.9% (n = 73 of 736) of the Malian donkeys to show signs of lesions, but this survey
indicated 39.5% (n: 19 of 48) of the donkeys had lesions. In terms of lameness, this
survey indicated that 15% (n: 8 of 52) of the donkeys exhibited an irregularity in gait and
1.9% (n=1 of 52) showed signs of not being able to bear any weight on a limb. Diarra et
al. (2007) had found 43% (n = 320 of 736) of the donkeys to be lame. The survey
suggests that lameness has possibly decreased and the number of lesions has increased.
This study also provided some insight into current donkey welfare indicating that lower
body condition scores were often associated with donkeys that were dehydrated. Body
condition score also had a significant affect on the behavioral test, car touch. The
donkeys with a BCS of 2 and mostly 3 avoided having their ears touched where donkeys
that scored a I allowed touch. It is possible that the donkeys with the lower BCS were
more apathetic, more dehydrated and older and more tolerant of human interaction due to

being in overall poorer condition.
5.4.5. Measuring current donkey management knowledge among para-professionals

Starkey (1994) has reported an increase in the use of donkeys in sub-Saharan Africa in
'the last ten years. However, Starkey (1994) reports there is a shortage of information
relating to donkeys in this area. Diarra et al. (2007) also reported that many owners were
unaware that donkeys could be treated for injuries or disease, or at least were unaware of
the free treatment options at local SPANA clinics. To our knowledge, there is just one

donkey science course taught at I.S.F.R.A. in Bamako, Mali by Dr. Amadou Doumbia,

126

Director of SPANA, and this may be the only course taught throughout Mali, despite the
prevalence of donkeys throughout the region. Dr. Doumbia and his SPANA team work
on a monthly basis with E.S.A.P., a secondary school in Segou, Mali. Thus both
populations of students we worked with and tested were more likely to be exposed to
donkey husbandry knowledge than the average student enrolled in an institution in most
developing countries (or elsewhere in Mali). Many groups advocate training owners on
how to properly harness their donkeys as well as care for them. However, we believe
reaching those who will continue to work as professionals and para-professionals has
tremendous potential to reach even more owners versus concentrating efforts on only
training owners. Based on the starting test scores of the two groups of students tested in
this study, their baseline donkey knowledge appeared to be fairly high and therefore
significant increases in test score averages were not seen. Nonetheless, students were
enthusiastic about attending the seminars and the hands-on workshops and followed up
with many excellent questions on the material. It is important to point out that very few
women were enrolled in either school and yet women often work the donkeys. There was
only one-woman student (out of 28) in the I.S.F.R.A. training session and nine (out of 54)
at E.S.A.P. in Segou. The females at both schools had less practical knowledge than the
male students; for example, the females could not tie a common knot referred to as a slip
or safety knot, yet all of the male students knew how to do this. Therefore, reaching
more women and children who are often responsible for working donkeys would likely

be tremendously beneficial.

127

5.5. CONCLUSION

This multi-part study examined several key areas that have the potential to improve
overall working donkey welfare in developing parts of the world: 1) testing donkey
driving methods and their relationship to donkey stress, 2) measuring pressure associated
with harness, carts, and cart load 3) surveying current conditions and assessing welfare of
working donkeys in Segou, Mali, and 4) implementing donkey management and welfare
education in colleges and secondary schools in an effort to test the efficacy of “train-the-
trainer” workshops. Improved training methods were explored and the adoption of the
donkey motivator was well received by the SPANA veterinarians, drivers, and students at
the two schools. Follow up work to assess whether the motivator is continuing to be used
will be important. The study suggested increased use of the halter for driving donkeys
could potentially improve donkey-owner interaction. This study, as with previous studies

with working equids, showed that improved harnesses are greatly needed.

The welfare assessment provided more insight about general donkey management and
conditions in the Segou area. The enthusiasm displayed by all involved indicated a keen
interest in donkey management and welfare. Many of the students were impressed with
the introduction of the donkey motivator as well as with learning how to properly handle
and restrain donkeys. Many nutrition and management questions were asked at both
workshops. Knowing in advance the current level of knowledge when designing the tests

would have been beneficial. However, continuing to train those who will live and work

128

in developing countries about working equids is vital to the well being of working equids.

These individuals have the potential to reach many donkey owners for many years,

5.6. FUTURE IMPLICATIONS

It is likely that donkeys will continue to be very important resources in developing parts
of the world. Enhancing their welfare subsequently improves the well being of the
families that the donkeys provide for and should be emphasized. There is a severe lack of
information on how best to implement proactive strategies for enhancing working equid
welfare. New strategies and sharing of information can all be implemented with minimal
or no cost increases to resource-poor donkey owners and drivers. Future
nongovernmental organizations and research institutions should focus on training
individuals who will continue to live and work in these developing countries. Adding
curricula to secondary schools, agricultural colleges and veterinary institutions on donkey

husbandry and management could have a major impact on donkey welfare.

Footnotes

I Hinnies- a hybrid cross between a male horse (stallion) and female donkey (jenny).

2 Donkey Motivator- a longe whip or driving stick with plastic sheeting or a plastic bag
attached to the end used to encourage the donkey to move.

129

TABLES

Table 5.1. Behavioural Response Group A (HM, n = 6) and Group B (SM, n = 4) in
Malian donkeys at the SPANA clinic in Bamako, Mali.

 

Behavioural Response p -Value

 

To unfamiliar person 0.94

 

General Attitude 0.97

 

To observer approaching 0.97
neck

 

 

Ear Test 0.97

 

 

 

130

Table 5.2. Heart rate variability (HRV) responses for donkeys (n=10) in HM group or
SM group on test day at the SPANA clinic in Bamako, Mali, West Africa (significant at
p-Value < 0.05).

 

 

 

 

 

MHR (bpm)a song MS?) LFd (n.u.) HFe(n.u.)
(m) (M)

HM 73 i 4.04 176.41 i 60.43 i 2078.14 1- 1377.14 i
group 42.50 32.82 1476.88 1568.50
(11 = 6)
SM 71.75 i987 198.4 i 63.52 i 7.74 1420.92 i 1019.04 i
group 86.03 958.18 515.91
(11 =4)
p-Value 0.81 0.64 0.49 0.45 0.84

 

 

 

 

 

 

a . . .
Mean heart rate in beats per minute (MHR, bpm). The average beat to beat per minute

over a period of time reflecting both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve
activity/responses (von Borrell et al., 2007, Rietmann et al., 2004, Visser et al., 2002).

b Standard deviation from beat interval to interval (SDRR) is used to quantify the overall
heart rate variability (von Borrell et al., 2007, Rietmann et al., 2004, Visser et al., 2002).

C Square root of mean beat interval to interval (rMSSD). rMSSD reflects short term

variations in heart rate related to parasympathetic nervous responses, e. g. breathing,
physical activity (von Borrell etal., 2007, Rietmann et al., 2004, Visser et al., 2002).

d Low frequency in normalised units (LF, n.u.) measures the sympathetic nerve
response/tone (2007, Rietmann et al.,2004, Visser et al., 2002)

e . . . . . . .
High frequency in norrnalrsed units (HF, n.u.) measures vagal actrvrty (parasympathetic

activity) such as breathing or stress. A positive emotion can increase HF or negative

emotion can decrease HF (von Borrell et al., 2007, Rietmann et al., 2004, Visser et al.,

2002).

131

 

Table 5.3. Comparing average intensity of Fuji pressure film when testing harness and
cart type, cart with/without added weight (400 kg), and extra saddle padding over the
withers with Malian donkeys at the SPANA clinic in Bamako, Mali.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variable n = Satisfactory n = p-Value
Unsatisfactory
Harness type 4 1 0.02“
Cart type 9 6 0.27
n = no weight n = weight
Cart with Weight 3 2 0009a
11 = no extra 11 = extra
padding padding
Extra-saddle padding 6 4 0.23

 

 

 

 

a significant at p-Value < 0.05

132

 

FIGURES

Figure 5.1. Donkey is being driven with the halter method (HM). The halter is the rope
device placed around the donkey’s head and nose. This is being used as a method to
control and guide the donkey when pulling the cart.

 

133

Figure 5.2. Donkey is being guided and driven with the stick method (TSM). The donkey
moves away from the contact made by the stick.

 

134

Figure 5.3. Donkey is being driven with no halter and the donkey motivator. The donkey
motivator is a stick with a plastic bag tied to the end. It is a low cost implement that can
replace the stick. The donkey responds to the sound of the motivator and moves away
versus moving away from the contact made by the traditional stick method.

 

135

Figure 5.4. Extreme Low Pressure 4 LW Fuji Film showing low intensity results. This
film was used with a good cart and harness. The film shows very little pink coloring. The
pink color is a response to pressure placed on the film. The less pink indicates less
pressure placed on the withers and back of the donkey. This film sample is from a donkey
equipped with good harness and a good cart.

 

136

Figure 5.5. Extreme Low Pressure 4 LW Fuji Film showing higher intensity results.
This film was used with a cart with 400 kg of maize (corn) loaded on it. The film shows
pink concentrated in the front, near the withers.

 

I37

Figure 5.6. Wither lesion caused by unsatisfactory harness and padding.

 

I38

Figure 5.7. and Figure 5.8. Donkey owners participating in welfare assessment in
Segou, Mali prior to receiving free care from the SPANA mobile veterinary clinic.

 

139

Figure 5.9. E.S.A.P. student class that participated and completed the donkey husbandry
and welfare teaching seminar and demonstration.

 

Figure 5.10. Students from E.S.A.P. in Segou participating in the teaching workshop
lecture session.

 

141

Figure 5.11. Students from E.S.A.P. in Segou participating in the teaching workshop
hands on demonstration.

 

142

Figure 5.12. and Figure 5.13. The students are from I.S.F.R.A. participating in the in
classroom lecture on donkey husbandry and management

 

143

Figure 5.14. and Figure 5.15. Students from I.S.F.R.A. in Bamako participating in the
practical demonstration.

 

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149

CHAPTER VI.
CONCLUSION

Improving donkey welfare through enhanced management such as nutrition, alternative
training methods and education may improve the overall wellbeing of donkeys in
developing and industrial countries. The nutrient management study focused on insulin
resistance, and suggested that female donkeys are more likely to be sensitive to insulin
resistance, which may depend on reproduction status. However, if all donkeys are insulin
resistant regardless of sex or body condition score due to an adaptive trait or “thrifty”
genotype this has yet to be determined. We do know that donkeys in developing
countries such as Mali are able to survive and work on sources of feedstuffs that are high
in fiber and low in protein content. This may suggest that these donkeys do have the
ability to readily store energy as adipose tissue and later use this as a source of nutrients
when they are scarce, such as during the dry season. The second nutrition study, the
forage analysis, confirmed that many common sources of feedstuffs fed to donkeys in
Mali are high in fiber and low in protein. Donkeys in the US. and other industrialized
countries are typically exposed to diets richer in carbohydrates and proteins and receive
little to no exercise, which often lead to obesity issues and possibly metabolic syndromes
like insulin resistance. Donkeys that are 'worked on a daily basis are able to survive on
high fiber diets but are not always able to maintain a moderate body condition score. It
still could be possible that donkeys are genetically predisposed to such conditions as
insulin resistance especially when considering how easily they become obese on grass

diets alone. Fat deposition is generally located in key areas such as the crest of the neck

150

and the tail head, which is common to horses with metabolic syndromes (e. g. insulin
resistance). More testing with donkeys in developing countries throughout the growing
season may reveal additional information about this condition. Proper nutrient
management of donkeys in both developing and industrialized countries can contribute to
improved welfare for these animals such as supplying additional forage to donkeys in
developing countries to maintain body condition or less grazing time to donkeys in
industrialized countries. Careful nutritional management and providing proper nutrients

are part of the key to a healthy donkey and improved donkey welfare.

In addition to over and under feeding donkeys, the well being of donkeys is often
jeopardized when donkeys are being trained. Traditional methods of overusing harsh
techniques can be altered. The training study in Michigan showed that donkeys could be
trained in a short amount of time to pull a cart with only a halter and driving lines.
Donkeys can also be driven and guided with this technique plus the donkey motivator.
The donkey motivator is an economical and effective training tool that can be utilized by
donkey owners and drivers in industrial and developing countries instead of the stick or
riding crop. Even though the studies did not suggest one training method was more or
less stressful, a difference in heart rate variability over time was noticed in the donkeys
originally trained to drive with a donkey motivator and halter with driving lines. These
donkeys did show a difference in parasympathetic activity after changing from the
donkey motivator method to the halter training method. The parasympathetic activity
measured by High Frequency (HF) was decreased after training methods changed and

over the period of 18 days. This suggests the donkey becomes less stressed with the

151

halter training method versus the donkey motivator method over time. However, when
we tested the ten donkeys in Mali, no difference was seen when comparing the halter
method to the traditional stick method. It may have proven beneficial to have tested the
same group of Malian donkeys over a period of time to detect differences in the driving
methods as heart rate variability measurements are often more reliable when tested more

than once.

In terms of enhancing donkey welfare, it is also important to consider the harness,
harnessing method and the implement (e. g. cart) that the donkey is being driven to. If a
donkey is not properly harnessed or hitched to a cart, this can affect its ability to pull the
cart as well as potential harm it can cause the donkey. The amount of weight a donkey is
pulling along with the condition of the cart (e. g. inflated tires) can also affect the
donkey’s ability to pull the load. This study indicated that poor quality harness and
excessive loading of the cart could all negatively affect the donkey’s welfare by
increasing pressure placed on the withers of the donkey. Increased pressure and improper
harness and weight can then lead to severe lesions that increase the difficulty of the
donkey’s ability to work. Last but not least the Malian study suggested that it is
important to educate those who work with or around donkeys. For example, the welfare
assessment suggested that many donkeys that were dehydrated were often in poorer body
condition. In addition, donkeys that were in good body condition (body condition score 2
or 2.5 on a 1 to 5 point scale) were more likely to be hydrated and more likely to resist
having their ear’s touched. Even though reactive care was provided to these donkeys via

SPANA clinics, little proactive information was provided to the owners or drivers on how

152

to prevent the ailments or improve the condition of their animals. The study found that
most paraprofessionals had some basic knowledge on donkey husbandry but we did not
have the opportunity to find out what the base level of knowledge was for the
owners/drivers of the donkeys. Providing educational opportunities on donkey welfare
for donkey owners and drivers would likely prove beneficial in long-term donkey well
being. One example would be designing similar donkey husbandry manuals to those

used in this but developed for lower literacy rates.

Due to the limited research that has been done on donkey husbandry and behavior, these
studies contribute important information to the areas of donkey husbandry, behavior and
welfare. Remembering that there are approximately 44 million donkeys in the world,

with most of them providing work in developing countries, it is clear that more research

in this area is needed.

153

APPENDIX

DONKEY HUSBANDRY MANUAL

 

154

Nourriture : l’importanee d’eau

La plus grande partie du corps de [fine est composée d’eau. 11 a besoin d’eau pour
rester en bon sante’. Un fine assoiffe’ ne peut pas travailler aussi bien qu' un fine
boit a sa soif.

L’eau doit provenir d’une source d'eau courante et non pas d’une source d’eau
stagnante. Les seaux doivent toujours étre propres.

A la maison, 1’fine a toujours besoin d’un seau d’eau propre. Quand l’fine travaille
on dois lui offrir un seau d’eau propre toutes les deux ou trois heures, surtout
quand le temps est chaud(see Figure l.)

Nourriture

Les fines qui travaillent ont besoin de nourriture en quantité suffisante pour étre
en mesure de bien travailler . lls ont besoin de fourrage (comme l'herbe, le foin, la
paille de riz ...) et, idealement d'une nourriture en grain (comme 1e mais, 1‘orge, 1e
millet ou un autre type de ce’réale) (See Figure 2A).

Dans la nature, les fines mangent de l’herbe presque toute la joumée. 11 est
important qu’ils aient acces a de 1' herbe (ou autre fourrage) quand ils sont au
repos. Les fines doivent manger leur nourriture en grain, divisee en deux ou trois
refections, distribuées fi intervale régulier (See Figure 3A and 4A).

’ Nourriture — l’importance du sel

On ne se rend pas toujours compte que les fines ont besoin de sel pour rester en
bonne santé, et le meilleur sel est le sel mine'ral.

Le sel (en bloc, en vrac ou en pierre) est encore plus important pendant les mois
d’année ou l’fine transpire beaucoup. Parfois on ne remarque pas que l’fine
transpire, car la sueur s’e'vapore tres rapidement.

Corps Condition Scoring (Figure 7A-10A)
Nourriture : cet fine est en bon état

Un fine qui recoit des quantite’s suffisantes d'aliments et d'eau sera en bon état,
comme l’fine sur la photo.

Ces cétes sont invisibles et sa chair couvre ses hanches. Remarquez que, comme
il est en bonne santé et qu' il est bien traité, son poil est lisse et sa peau est en
bon e'tat (see Figure 1 1A).

Nourriture : cet fine est trop maigre

Cet fine est trop maigre : i1 ne recoit pas une quantite’ suffisante de nourriture. Ses
cétes, ses hanches et son e'pine dorsale sont visibles.

Son cou est aussi tres maigre. Quand il est aussi maigre, l'fine ne peut pas
travailler tres dur, i1 se fatiguera plus rapidement, il tombera malade plus
facilement e il se blessera aux endroit ou le harnais touche son corps (see Figure
12A).

155

Age par Dents (Figure 13A)
Soins : Les parasites
° Les parasites peuvent endommager votre fine. Les parasites peuvent se trouver

dans l'fine (parasite inteme) ou sur la peau de 1' fine (parasite exteme). Les
parasites intemes (les vers) s'alimentent de la nourriture ingére'e par l'fine. Le
verrnifuge peut détruire les vers qu'on ne voit pas et qui sont a l'interieur de l'fine.
Le vennifuge doit étre employé tous les trois a six mois. Une maniere de réduire
les vers est de toujours retirer 1e crotin de l'endroit on mange et vit l'fine.

° Si vous pensez que votre fine a beaucoup de vers, i1 ne faut lui donner, la premiere
fois, qu'une dose partielle de vennifuge.

Soins : Les maladies
0 Les fines doivent étre vaccine’s contre plusieurs maladies graves (Figure 15A and
16A). Le vaccin le plus important est le vaccin antite'tanique (1e te'tanos est une
maladie extremement grfive des muscles qui peut affecter egalement les humains
et qui, dans beaucoup de cas, est mortelle) . Le vétérinaire peut vacciner l'fine
contre le te'tanos pour un bas prix (Figure 17A).

' Comparé au prix de soigner un fine atteint du tetanos ou de le voir mourrir et
devoir le remplacer , le vaccin est une bonne affaire.

° D'autres vaccins fi discuter avec le vétérinaire sont la rage, la maladie du sommeil
et la grippe (l'influenza).

Parfois les sources d’eau sont infectées avec la leptospirose et l'fine peut tomber
malade quand il boit cette eau. Le traitement contre la leptospirose se fait fi l'aide
d'un antibiotique approprié.

ll existe d'autres maladies que les fines peuvent attraper. C'est une tres bonne ide’e
de discuter de la santé preventive, pour votre fine, avec le ve’térinaire local.

Soins : Les lésions
0 Un harnais en mauvais étfit et non adapte' peut provoquer des lésions sur l'fine...
c'est pareil que si vous portiez des chaussures en mauvais étfit et pas fi votre taille.
Imaginez maintenant a quel point il serait pe'nible de marcher des kilometres avec
ces chaussures (See Figure 18 and 19A)!

0 Un fine qui n'est pas trop maigre, qui porte un harnais qui lui va correctement et
qui est soigne’ (nettoyé) apres son travail, développera certainement moins de
lesions dues au harnais.

' Il est aussi recommande’ d'enlever le harnais de l'fine pendant les pauses de travail.
Cela aide la peau "fi respirer" et re’duit les risques de lesions.

Quand les fines sont battus avec un bfiton, ils souffrent souvent des lesions 21
l'endroit ou le baton les a frappe (See Figure 20A).

0 Parfois ces lésions s'infectent.

156

Non seulement ces blessures sont trés douloureuses pour l'fine mais c'est
egalement long et difficile fi soigner pour le proprie'taire.

Si votre fine est blessé, il est tres important de nettoyer la blessure avec de l'eau
savonneuse, de bien rincer et d'appliquer une creme antibiotique (par exemple,

F uracin). Ide’alement, un Veterinaire devrait regarder la blessure. (Soyez aussi sfir
que l'fine est fi jour avec sa vaccination de anti-tétanique.)

Soins : Brulure de corde
°Etre attache fi une corde peut étre dangereux pour un fine. Pourtant, il est parfois
nécessaire de permettre fi l'fine de manger de l'herbe ou autre fourrage (Figure 21 A).
Soyez tres prudents en attachant pour la premiere fois un fine - i1 lui faudra du temps
pour apprendre fi étre attache sans paniquer et provoquer une brulure de corde brfilent
comme celle lfi.
0“ est important de traiter une blessure comme celle lfi avec une cre'me antibiotique
afin déviter une infection et aider fi réduire la cicatrice.

Soins : Résultats de cruauté

Ne punissez pas votre fine de facon inapropriee! Les fines sont comme nous - ils
sentent aussi la douleur (Figure 22A).

Votre fine travaillera beaucoup mieux s'il n'a pas peur de vous.
Les meilleurs proprie'taires ne se fachent pas ou ne battent pas leurs fines.

lls ne leurs jettent rien dessus et ne les fouettent pas excessivement. F rapper ou
fouetter votre fine ne signifie pas que vous le contrélez.

En fait, cela signifie juste que vous avez d0 recourir fi une mauvaise méthode afin
qu’il vous obeisse.

Ne surchargez pas votre fine!

Les fines sont forts pour leur taille, mais ils ont des limites.
Quand vous surchargez votre fine, c'est cruel et injuste.

Cela l'empechera de travailler correctement et reduira son temps de vie (Figure
23A).

Hamais

Quand vous mettez un harnais sur votre fine pour la premiere fois, soyez sfirs
d'avoir un dresseur d'fine expérimenté qui vous enseigne a le faire correctement.

Les fardeaux doivent étre équilibrés, les brancards ne doivent pas étre trop hauts
et ni trop bas (ils doivent étre a la hauteur de la pointe de l'e'paule de l'fine) et sous
la bande supérieure du harnais on doit mettre un protecteur de dos proper (Figure
24A and 25A).

Si le harnais n’est pas tout fi fait juste pour votre fine, vous pouvez rajouter de la
bourre aux parties qui sont en contact avec l'fine.

157

Une sangle (peut-étre avec une protection) qui passe sous le ventre de l'fine aidera
fi prévenir les lesions de harnais (Figure 26A).

Soin des sabots

Vous devez toujours verifier qu'il n'y a pas de pierres dans les sabots (les pieds)
de l'fine, avant et apres chaque séance de travail.

Une pierre dans le sabot peut provoquer des boiteries tres douloureuses.
Evidement un fine boiteux doit étre mis au repos, il ne peut pas travailler.

Vous devez faire faire une evaluation par un maréchal ferrant sur la forme et la
condition des sabots de votre fine toutes les 6-8 semaines (See Figure 27A).

Nature de l'fine

Si votre fine vivait toujours dans la nature, il devrait se mefier des predateurs
essayant de le manger (Figure 28A).

Grfice fi cela, les fines ont une tres bonne audition et se previennent du danger.

L'inconvénient est que les fines peuvent avoir peur de quelque chose auquel vous
ne penseriez pas. Par exemple, votre fine pourrait étre ef’frayé par un morceau de
plastique claquant dans le vent.

Les fines ont la reputation d'étre entétés, mais ce n'est pas vraiment juste.

Normalement cet « entétement » signifie que l'fine est troublé ou effrayé par
quelque chose et qu'il essaye de comprendre ce qui passe.

La Nature de l‘fine - Son champ visuel

L'fine voit tres bien sur les cétés, mais pas bien devant lui ou derriére lui.

Pour cela, il est trés important de pas passer derriere un fine, ni se précipeter
directement devant un fine.

Perrnettez toujours fi 1 fine de savoir que vous vous approchez de lui, en lui
parlant.

Traitements

Il existe beaucoup de types de licols et de cordes.

Cette photo montre un exemple On apprend a la plupart des fines fi étre conduit 21
gauche (Figure 29A).

Le plus sfir est de se posicionner directement fi cfité de son encolure. (Ne jamais
enrouler lacorde autour de votre main. . .vous pourriez vous faire trainer par
terre).

Si vous travaillez avec votre fine sans chaussures, rappelez-vous qu'il pourrait
vous faire mal s'il vous marche sur le pied.

Votre fine n'est pas ne' en sachant comment travailler pour les hommes.

158

Soins

Nous devons leurs enseigner comment étre conduits, comment tirer un chariot et
comment rester calmes devant des distractions.

Cela prend du temps pour apprendre ces choses!

Soyez patients quand vous essayez d'enseigner quelque chose de nouveau fi un
fine (Figure 30A).

11 faut toujours se souvenir que méme des fines gentils et calmes peuvent, sauter,
faire tomber ou vous marcher dessus — surtout si un bruit soudain ou un
mouvement brusque leur fait peur.

Il est parfait d'étre ami avec votre fine, aussi longtemps qu'il vous respecte (Figure
31A).

Si vous donnez a votre fine une friandise, une recompense, assurez vous que votre
main est tenue ouverte et horizontale afin qu'il ne confonde pas vos doigts avec la
friandise.

Si votre fine revient couvert de sueur du travail, lavez 1e ou passez lui une e'ponge
mouillée quand son travail est terminé (ceci ne le rendra pas malade).

C'est une bonne idée de brosser son fine chaque jour avant son travail (Figure
32A).

11 est juste et conseille' de permetrre a votre fine d'étre fi l'ombre pendant les
pauses de travail.

Soin des jeunes fines

FIN!

Les jeunes fines (moins de 2 ans d'fige) exigent un soin special, une nourriture
spéciale (il faut un complement de proteine) et un entrainement prudent (Figure
33A).

Appréciez votre fine! Traitez bien votre fine, cela améliorera 1e travail qu’il
peut faire pour vous et le fera vivre beaucoup plus longtemps.

Ce manuel a été prépare' par : Camie Heleski et Amy McLean du département de
la science animale fi l'universite’ d'Etat du Michigan, Etats-Unis.

Les photographies ont foumi par : Mel Yokoyama, Amy McLean et Camie
Heleski, département de la science animale, université d'Etat du Michigan, Etats-
Unis. Traduction par Nicole Rombach, Equinergy, Ltd.

159

Figure 1A. L’eau stagrrante peut étre une source de maladie.

:r ; .- 1‘
1.4-1v ,3:-
-..1; a .,

 

160

Figure 2A. Les fines qui travaillent ont besoin de nourriture en quantité suffisante pour
étre en mesure de bien travailler.

 

161

Figure 3A. Les fines doivent manger leur nourriture en grain. divise’e en deux ou trois
refections, distribuées fi intervale re’gulier.

 

162

 

de fourra e.
163

in
..., a— rib" .

.1 .
.e..‘

»“.-‘t_-3, ,3

3" «7",.

Figure 4A and 5A. 113 ont beso

Figure 6A. Le sel (en bloc, en vrac ou en pierre) est encore plus important pendant les
mois d’année ou l’fine transire beaucou.

 

164

 

165

 

166

Co s Condition Scorin_ #3= Idea]
0: a Q

Fi_ re 9A.

   

3'

 

167

 

re 10A. Co s Condrtlon Scorrn

1 #4= Graisse

 

168

Fi ure 11A. Co 5 Condition Scorin_ #5= Obeses

 

   

169

Fi_ure 12A. Nourriture et fine est en bon e'tat .
. . 3 ._ w. 3

s. . {"

       

170

 

171

A

e
A
A.
M

 

Figure

172

Figure 15A. Les produits a base d'Ivermectin sont les médicaments les plus utilise's
contre les yers, dans le. monde. ..

 

I73

adies grfives.

. wt
\ '.s .

 

F iure 16A and 17A. Les fines doivent étre vaccines contre lusieurs ma

174

Figure 18A. Le Veterinaire eut vacciner l'fine contre le tétanos pour un bas prix.

 

175

Figure 19A and 20A. Un harnais en mauvais étfit et non adapté peut
provoquer des le’sions sur l'fine... c'est pareil que si vous portiez des
chaussures en mauvaisbétfit et_pas fi‘votre taille.

 

176

Figure 21A. Quand les fines sont battus avec un bfiton, ils souffrent souvent des le'sions fi

 

177

 

I78

 

179

 

180

Figure 25A and 26A. Les fardeaux doivent étre équilibrés, les brancards ne doivent pas
étre trop hauts et ni trop bas (ils doivent étre a la hauteur de la pointe de l'épaule de l'fine)
et sous la bande suoérieure du harnais on doit mettre un rotecteur de dos uropre.

 

181

Figure 27A. Une sangle (peut-étre avec une protection) qui passe sous le ventre de l'fine
aidera fi orévenir les lésions de harnais.

 

I82

 

183

 

184

Figure 30A. Cette photo montre un exemple On apprend 2‘: la plupart des fines fi étre
conduit 21 _auche.

 

185

Figure 31A. Soyez patients quand vous essayez d'enseigner quelque chose de nouveau a
un fine.

 

186

 

I87

est une bonne ide’e de brosser son fine Icha: ue our avant son travail.

W ‘N‘w-W‘ .
. 1 ‘ . ‘

Fi_ ure 33A. C‘

    
  

188

Figure 34A. Les jeunes fines (moins de 2 ans d'fige) exigent un soin spécial, une
nourriture s e'ciale (il faut un com le'ment de roteine .
1 ' ' 7

       

189