THE ORGANIZATION AND: ECONOMICSOF ’ *

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH IN THEWEST- INDIES: f E

STRATEGY IMPLICATIONS FOR THE 1970's .- '

Thesis for the Degree eI Ph. D."
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY. ,
TCARLTON GEORGE DAVIS 'x

' 1970".“_ ‘

 

 

 

ESIS

 

This is to certifg that the

thesis entitled

THE ORGANIZATION AND ECONOMICS OF AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH IN THE WEST INDIES: STRATEGY
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE 1970's

presented bg
Carlton George Davis
has been accepted towards fulfillment

of the requirements for

Ph.D. degree in Agricultural Economics

Malzpj‘asor

Date

 

0-169

I
’0‘
r
t»

 

 

v""‘J‘—.AA.
“ T" "e" maze,

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII I f? e I.

3 1293 1 vlt;¢-1-iJ€£’dC€ .
mUi‘TéversiW l W
A I Emma?“ 2N mg
i

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

AB

:5 Immm AND
WAKE IS THE "‘
mum 10:

Carltr’

e...

   

m A.

‘. ‘ n:v~‘" ~
IV. V" I. ‘
‘1 ‘ v. y‘u.‘-- ~ I

..
“H..."

t.
_R““.-fl :ezeraze:

 

 

 

-
‘ a ,. ,‘.-.
“y - «‘g.
-- mm"
. n.

 

\..
\.:_ t e
u

~E:‘ M.
.. .: :T-z‘ ‘
. «“1

   

 

 

ABSTRACT
THE ORGANIZATION AND ECONOMICS OF AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH IN THE WEST INDIES: STRATEGY
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE l970'S
BY

Carlton George Davis

The West Indies, like many less developed areas, is
seddmg ways of capturing the benefits of increased agricul—
Umalpmoductivity generated by recent agriculture research
mm mamlopment. The region, however, faces major problems
inthearea of building indigenous agricultural research
syfi3ms,since (l) the inputs generated by the ”green revo—
lflfiom'are not adaptable to the lowland, humid tropics,
(2)domestic research on root crops and starch vegetables
lasbeaigenerally unproductive to date, (3) the future of
thetraditional agricultural exports (particularly sugar and
bmmnas)is extremely uncertain, since the region now faces
thepotmnfial loss of the protected United Kingdom market if
Bfitanienters the European Economic Community, (4) the ex-~
pmflence of the region over the last two decades demonstrated
Umtit is possible to have a relatively rapid rate of growth

OfGDP without Significant transformation of the structure

 

fieeazrg, IS‘I balance

5'1qu {nod ilports and (
35 M the chronic pro):
W Will be alleviate
32.331 tourist sectors.

fne Study (a) descr;

limp. ,

m. If research

:p.;
\1 P 5-“!
N II
.. u. c 3»;
' “Va
u~
c .A‘_
‘ H".
w .
"s. Q y .
.-...‘_ ~_:e

 

 

 

‘h ‘\‘
:~:;
\ “
' ‘trfiz‘
‘HIQ \
' \, an
I\‘~
"i
l" it»
\\ ~
. ‘¥ET~ ‘:

 

Carlton George Davis

of the economy, (5) balance of payments problems as a result
of rising food imports and (6) realization that it is un-
likely that the chronic problems of unemployment and under—
employment will be alleviated by growth in the manufacturing,
mining, and tourist sectors.

The study (a) describes the present agricultural re—
search system, (b) analyzes the performance of the peasant
research system, and (c) makes recommendations to improve the
administration of research and determining research prior-
ities in the 1970's. Data used in assessing the organiza—
tional and input structure of agricultural research were
collected in the West Indies in 1968—69. Data for crop fer—
tilizer response were obtained from experimental records of
the various research organizations.

Only 7 percent of the research organizations covered
in the survey were engaged in fundamental research. Existing
fundamental research is confined to two export crops——sugar
cane and cocoa. About half of the research organizations
were engaged in research on a single export crop (sugar cane,
bananas, citrus, coconut, and cocoa). The remaining 50 per—
cent were engaged in research on hundreds of root crops,
grain legumes, cereals, and vegetables. The West Indies was

Spending 1.6 percent of the value of its agricultural output

Tim igfiwnural resei
fluent 12 qmstioned
3w. (Elastic agricul
3—; research activities
rides for undertaking d

aperirental researc
Ca released 23-. expat:

33ml: yield differem

7"“: “‘ 5‘ n !‘
<-~..".lllza.-.C.., \I

~=..=_; ~ ' ‘ .
as greases. penis,

\v- . ‘ I u
‘5 ‘ Ham. fin , A
\ w ‘Mhrfi ‘11 .63....“

Cu ' u
\ \ “w- 9.
~. n.

we bes: avazla

‘ I v
\I a” r s
Amt .23: results

\-'= u"
e \ ‘~ ~y A;-' u
“N: ~~a«;~lCT‘.3L :

Lie Tarieties X331

n .
~..‘¢" Q» ~ ~
‘* «Three Cc" I

‘

£3“? .1. -
.‘ue ine :ac.
\- ..
'~ 13 CM;
~ i‘ v- . '
\4\.\‘ «eaglre..e
\S m
«I. M‘
l «: a‘wn ‘_
« H(e ex .
\-k
\-
\K“
x. u; ‘
”(H n
\r-
“M. Q r
. ‘n an?
«t
r~€$
{:y;
u;
\xu‘ ‘C'cavw
“ \« i 3‘ ‘
‘ \ .
~
‘5‘.
“3»
W“

 

Carlton George Davis

in 1968 on agricultural research. However, this rate of ex—
penditure must be questioned in light of the poor perform—
ance of the domestic agriculture sector, lack of emphasis on
domestic research activities, and the shortage of physical
facilities for undertaking domestic agricultural research.
Experimental research results indicate that (l) crop
varieties released by experimental stations displayed rela—
tively small yield differential under N—P—K treatment as
against no fertilization, (2) although some recommended crOp
varieties increased yields, it was unprofitable for many
farmers to adopt the recommended practices, (3) experimental
results for the best available technology were not signifi—

cantly better than results attained by the better peasant

 

farmers using traditional technology and (4) the only crop
varieties that appear to represent improved inputs are the
hybrid maize varieties X304 and X306 develOped by the pri—
vate Pioneer Hi—Bred Corn Company in Jamaica.

DeSpite the fact that the West Indies imports 40 per—
cent of its food requirements, domestic effective demand for
food is low, relative to the cost of producing local foods.
Rising food imports represent an expansion in consumption of
Cheaper food imports as a result of price differentials

rather than expansion in per capita effective demand.

 

r- a 12:7. of effective
:‘11910'5 if agriculture
:5. Technological innova
crusts to levels bel<
:31 ill! izpcrted food
as Asia effective

33:519. had: C5 2.

“u-

n—n

. .
"~ 23:: 5:5:

 

“N ‘ .
N ,1 ~-..,.,

1-£A-r
.u“‘

 

\L
\1-‘:-‘ ‘
“»~~ \
“- :“c ~«_--
I “ y \ vg.
.. _ u-
\.'.,._
.-..
‘ “n 2.: ~.,.
‘ n on .~
u-‘\.
-\
.

 

Nx
~\. “I
\ v...
L"\e.l_?':
-e

 

 

 

Carlton George Davis

Hmmver,a.lack of effective demand will not be a constraint
inthe 1970's if agricultural researdh reduces production
amts. Technological innovations that reduce domestic pro—
mmtflx1costs to levels below imports can (1) redirect con—
mmpthx1from imported food to domestic food items and (2)
emnndfmr capita effective demand by placing productive
remnuces in the hands of a large segment of the pOpulation.
Two major strategies are recommended for improving
amflcultural research in the West Indies in the 1970's.
Stmmegy]_research would concentrate generating a stream of
bkmhaflcal innovations that would substitute for land. This
smmtegy is based on the observation that domestic agricul—
UHe flums a land constraint. Under Strategy 1 we advocate
high priority be given to (l) livestock research, (2) cereal
refimrch,(3) fruits and vegetables, and (4) root crops.
Strategy 2 suggests that research activities in ex—
POflzagriculture concentrate on generating a stream of bio—
Hedmnical innovations over the 1970's. This type of inno—
vahbn is needed to reduce the high labor cost of export ag—
rimflture to enable export agriculture to become competitive
onthe world market. Under Strategy 2 we suggest that high
prkmity be given to (l) a sugar cane research system, and

(2)a banana research system.

 

 

mommnox MI
RESEARCH IS THE

L‘EPLICAT I'

W I“
#\\i
As
Jena
\VQV‘k
. \. em-
- x
. c
x

 

 

 

THE ORGANIZATION AND ECONOMICS OF AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH IN THE WEST INDIES: STRATEGY

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE 1970's

By

Carlton George Davis

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Agricultural Economics

1970

 

 

 

ACK!

Igntefully acknot

5..

mashed me in my doc

"""I' w
.

an ~:- Special acknc

isn‘t-z sewed as P" m

”I
-

-~‘1!. Els oatience, k:

7'” 5m- -. ‘

‘ ‘ A v
w are “cl: : “are
“n-‘ a s ‘
-' “”7'1 Iva. n. ..
N' ‘r ‘ ' awaken» T.‘
~-
~::"'

\.,:~ 5- ' ‘ .
~ .;6 1:5.3": ‘.
u-.. -.
R. .
a. " w- e.“ . .‘
‘ ‘~e..ce L_ 5

-\.. ‘_

m‘: .' ~ .
.... 3...: 3‘3""3' ..
““~ .

K

  

~~ :..,.
W. ‘ H~ .
a.“ «nu L: .

..
"is \‘
\~ ~“v.
‘~~Q._"au. A; ‘
‘ my“; \. ~~y-.
‘ u.
-.
\‘I‘i‘ m
I~..\‘Ndu R; “h
‘ u k‘ -
gm: ‘.
u 2.5: ‘V\‘~‘ ' ‘
Emacs; -
I .
TENTH“.
"a,
«same ~ u-
. ... “
In;
"\
\‘Nfi‘ X
.. . .n
R.Ly~i\\ “h
. r
I ...:
2:; .-
‘ r
\. \L ‘
. A .
‘ m". 3:». Q
- -‘_
.“n. K~q“
\ .
‘-.~ A: e
e -
. ..
“ ~..e M,
~.._ .1
I-

We; " ’7 _ OW

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge the many persons who
have assisted me in my doctoral program at Michigan State
University. Special acknowledgment goes to Dr. Glenn L.
Johnson who served as my major professor and thesis
advisor. His patience, kindness, and intellectual stim-
ulus has done much to develop my professional career.
Special acknowledgment must also go to Dr. Carl Eicher
who served as a member of my thesis committee and pro—
vided valuable insights into many problem areas.

Dr. Lawrence L. Boger, Dean of the College of
Agriculture and Natural Resources provided financial
assistance during that period when he served as Chairman
of the Department of Agricultural Economics. Dr. Dale E.
Hathaway, Chairman of the Department of Agricultural
Economics also provided financial support for my program.

Acknowledgment is extended to the Ford Foundation
(Caribbean Program), the Institute of International Agri—
culture of Michigan State University, and the Faculty of
Agriculture of the University of the West Indies for

ii

 

 

3.113; Wong financii
um.

special acknwledg
27:1. Edwards, Head, De
1: ad Par: mragerent

'4" n - u '
«a. TC smen'isee 2‘

h I
o

  

.ez mice. In a:

‘t' M C. u .' v
..e tan: gnaate

u... .4.

'u\ r ”WNW“. .
In“ ,

' ‘w ecu/c.3e \

"‘ ‘
L.‘~.. _ . . .
-~:.._e';-~~ ~.. .......
~_~-— -.. .\.,_
- :‘1...
\"“::-5.
hi": " ' .
- -.., 552a?” '-

 

_ v“;
... Ry- ~ -
at: nun. .
.... ..
\a..\: a“

(1.

 

providing generous financial and logistic support for
field work.

Special acknowledgment must go to Professor
David T. Edwards, Head, Department of Agricultural Eco—
nomics and Farm Management of the University of the West
Indies, who supervised my research while I was located
in the West Indies. In addition, special recognition is
given to the many private and government officials in the
West Indies who cooperated in the study.

Mrs. Nita Campbell and Mrs. Jeannette Barbour
Were most helpful in typing and editing earlier drafts
of this thesis.

My wife, Sarah, however, was the necessary condi—

tion for undertaking and completing my doctoral program.

 

 

 

 

f

TABLE

pressure 5

u».

39 Gehaval

. ‘ - ~ : ‘
x: e" l'\es C‘ \-
R ‘ ~ -
{-ccleza- ‘ t
s. _ .. ~
'2. _ -
u... 0‘ 33.x .
mns~‘~—..~ _ ~ '
. . ' ..‘ A
“Warn it: I
Tamer“ The...
\~-. .M‘ KN.“ ‘ d
L ‘
...e P:\S«Ca
\.

h‘\
I“‘\ N

...‘ :- :-..
“.ut .ecwre
\
‘NAH
~\\.u::“: C‘“

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
ACMNWEEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X
IJST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
PART I
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEMATIC SITUATION. . . . . . . . . . l
The General Situation . . 1
The General West Indian Situation With
ReSpect to Agricultural Technology
and Research. . . . . . . . . 7
Objectives of the Study Relative to the
Problematic Situation. . . . . . . . . . 15
Plan of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
II. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WEST INDIAN ECONOMY . 20
General Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Physical Setting. . . . . . . , 20
The General Economic Structure. . . . , 23
Unique Features of the General Economy . . 38
Economic Growth Without Development . . 38

iv

 

 

 

swarms (cont.)

’:-:r
s...

the 11de of
on Develop

Unique Features
Economy. . . .

Iand Tenure a
Plantation--
Coexisten: c

Sher: ge a:
Sheltered 51:.

" Pillar

nSCE AX}; C

‘R 7 q.-
:eRrC’CL. cRI-KL S:

I
“Areas -. .
‘- MA. ~V fi:c
,.
We .
na-,
“we: MC“
‘ I“ (-
U \
““3 n”'~...‘_

~~-~\‘I “V:

"“~\-
r... ‘
-“-~.._;:u. -,
CA

- .

“A ‘
L..I:,\’S‘~;A“
:.

«.fi
”tSPK: -C

.

.N
e New»
“N ~-_ 1
“M.
. .
..
.1
aw

TANEIOF CONTENTS (cont.)
Chapter

The Impact of Enclaves and Openness
on Development. . . . . . . . . . . .

Unique Features of the Agricultural
Economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Land Tenure and Land Use Patterns . . .
Plantation——Peasant Dichotomy . . . . .
Coexistence of Agricultural Labor
Shortage With Overall Unemployment. .
Sheltered High Cost Export Agriculture.

Summary and Implications for
Agricultural Research. . . . . . . . . .
PART II
III. PERFORMANCE AND COMPOSITION OF THE
AGRICULTURAL SECTOR. . . . . . . . . . . .

Approach to Assessing Performance and

Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Agricultural Sector in General . . . .
Evolution of the Sector . . . . . . .

Composition and Contribution of the
Sector to Output. . . . . . . . . . .

Contribution of the Sector to Economic
Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Contribution of the Sector to Employment
and Income Distribution. . . . . . . . .

Contribution of Agriculture to Food
Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . .

 

The Agricultural Sub-sectors . . . . . . .

The Export Sector: Changes in Compo—
Sition and Relative Contribution. . .

Page

51

59

59
62

67
71

73

77

77
78
78

81

87

88

95

97

97

 

 

Eel

I

4'.

m mstic
msition
Contributio

sunrymn

summer. RESm

EST IDES. 193
9133531055 .

Seed fer Assess:
bta Colleczict‘.

he Organ; a: :c:
Classificaucr
Longevzty. .
he Crientatmr.

‘ ‘
~v. ... a."-
Ag.1yul-u-a$

AL. ~>
.....
vu'eceiuts C
.. N; 1
‘7 — I.
insane" .3 ;

5:99;. .

......-. Per:

L‘s-A

«.
.aLSL‘ece .
.

.
"VI 5 I n
kc..S.l‘d-.". .5

Research F

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)

Chapter

IV.

Page
The Domestic Sector: Changes in
Composition and Relative
Contribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE
WEST INDIES, 1930—1968: EMPIRICAL
DIMENSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Need for Assessment of the Infrastructure. 118

Data Collection, Scope, and Limitations. . 120
The Organization of Agricultural Research:
Classification, Concentration and
Longevity. . . . . . . . . . . 124
The Orientation and Subject Matter of
Agricultural Research. . . . . . . . . . 139
Objectives of Research. . . . . . . . . 139
Fundamental and Adaptive Research . . . 142
Benefit Perception: Retrospect and
Prospect. . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Constraints on Implementation of
Research Results. . . . . . . . . . , 153

The Input Volume of Agricultural Research. 157

The Manpower Component of Research. . . 157
Research Scientists . . . . . . . 158
Research Technicians and Supporting
Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Expenditure Component of Research . . . 170
Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . 177
V. THE PERFORMANCE OF WEST INDIAN AGRICUL—
TURAL RESEARCH SYSTEMS: EMPIRICAL
DIMENSIONS OF FIRST GENERATION PROBLEMS. . 184
General Background to First Generation
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

vi

 

 

EEO? cows (cont.)
'vrm

mined Dinens
Productivity G
aperience . .

technical Asp
Experience .
Economic Aspe
Experience.

Fertilizer Re sp:
Domestic :ri:
31156228

The Nature 2

.
D 'v w.
”PCT-Se C.r.-:-s
:kpermenza;
‘I‘,~ -
...9 Jara;ca—
"v- H .
lt-".aac

‘ ML :7 ._
-‘-\
4A,.
..- M
“t »t
a;
4i, n,‘
u~t

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)
dmpter Page
Empirical Dimensions of Agricultural
Productivity Gains: The International

Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Technical Aspects of the International

Experience. . . . . . . . . . 194
Economic Aspects of the International
Experience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

Fertilizer Response Curves in West Indian
Domestic Agriculture: The Empirical

Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
The Nature of Yields in the Region. . . 212
Response Curves for Local Food Crops in
Experimental Research. . . . . . . . . . 215
The Jamaican Situation. . . . . . . . 216
The Trinidad and Tobago Situation . . . 223
The Eastern Caribbean Situation . . . . 235
General Conclusion on Domestic Agriculture
Research Response Curves . . . . . . . . 238
Fertilizer Response Curves in West Indian
Export Agriculture: The Empirical
Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

The Nature of Yields in the Region:
The Case of Sugar Cane and Bananas. . 241
Response Curves for Sugar Cane and

Bananas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
PART III
VI. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH PRIORITIES AND STRAT—
EGIES IN THE 1970's: POTENTIAL SECOND
AND THIRD GENERATION PROBLEMS. . . . . . . 261

vii

namms (amt)

 

#3

Introduction . .
Strategies and P
and Import 59!
fitter . . . .

Subject Matte
Cumdity Res
Strategies

Consequences of

. . _,.
Second ans 1::

a. F..-

Pu. "Hal 331
an " n o '
u. :chl’. I
.. .

VH1 r "o ‘
\IuUEL Cara

’1AH «u “
nuns I-‘_"“

.

Pcteztal De

.
\-\
.M‘An.
.' n . .
\i
~. ‘~\
“‘3“ \

[J .(J

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)
Chapter Page
1" Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Strategies and Priorities for Domestic
and Export Agriculture Research Subject—

Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Subject Matter Strategies . . . . . . . 284
Commodity Research Systems Under
Strategies 1 and 2. . . . . . . . . . 288
Consequences of Strategies 1 and 2 for
Second and Third Generation Problems . . 292

Potential Demand and Income Situation

in Export Agriculture Over the 1970's

Under Strategy 2: Some Considera—

tions with Respect to Sugar and

Bananas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Potential Demand and Income Situation

in Domestic Agriculture Over the

1970's Under Strategy 1: Some

Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Potential Changes in Employment and

Nutrition Situation Under Strategies

1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

Summary. . . . . . . . . 315

VII. TOWARDS A PROGRAM FOR IMPROVING THE
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF WEST
INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH IN THE
1970's . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

Current Bottlenecks in West Indian Re—
search Organization and Administration . 325
Improving the Regional Organization and

Management of Agricultural Research. . . 335
Steps in Improving the Administration
of Agricultural Research. . . . . 340
Improving the Administration of
Domestic—EXport Research Programs . . 341
Proposed Regional Administrative
Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

viii

 

memos (cont.)

J
r:

Suzy .....
E. m1, CWCLUSIO

Smry and Conc

Remndaticns.
REES. . . , ,

 

VIII.

 

Summary.

NTENTS (cont.)

Summary and Conclusions.
Recommendations.

APPENDICES .

BIBLIOGRAITEK .

ix

    
  

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

Page
357
360
360
379
394

473

 

 

LIS

 

Listed Panzer;
‘ V
:::s, Selectec I

A . , 1 a
.n... :-......~ r,“
“4 mg: 5-4.“...3- r- \-

 

 

Arrgal Ra:

 

‘ \

.. v. ,

- ' than: n

‘-~~ . \ AF57
7C usher kt“..-

1......
,.
mug“

 

 

Table

22

2.4

L7

2.8

2.9

2.10

2.11

LIST OF TABLES

Estimated Rainfall and Irrigation Require—
ments, Selected West Indian Countries

Gross National Product Per Capita (1969),
POpulation, and Average Annual Rates
(1961—67) for Selected Western Hemisphere
Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Average Annual Rate of Growth in GDP for
the West Indies For Selected Time Periods

Proportional Contribution to GDP by
Industrial Origin, West Indies 1961

Distribution of Population Between Urban
and Rural Areas, West Indies, 1960.

Area, Population and Population Density,
West Indies, 1960 . . .
GDP of the Manufacturing Sector, Jamaica,
1963 (Current Dollars).

. .

GDP of the Manufacturing Sector, Trinidad

and Tobago, 1957 to 1962 (Current Dollars).

Cost Coefficients of Input Structures,
Trinidad and Tobago, 1962 . . . .

Relative Openness of West Indian Economies,
1961 (Current Prices) .

Disposition of Capital Formation as Reflec—
tion of Degree of Openness of West Indian
Economies

Page

21

27

3l

33

36

39

44

45

49

53

55

ESE TALES (cont.)

112 nisposition of 631’.
Per Capita, West

L13 Prwortion of Total
Size Category, We
1961. . . . . . .

'.'. Use of Pan: land ’2:
Sizes, West Indy
".5 limitation cf ”in
1'. Cremation cf gr
Mics, 1961.

o

”I “ .
. u r-r; m... N

’ \
-~u.-\,h C: “C
-. ..
“‘ -.-. 5
“We .c can,

Vb-L‘

:16 Sam/w, ‘ 3;:

 

.M
~ ~
«we: ‘. . ‘
- * ~44 Cave}.
. e-¥_._
: - v .
"‘5; “-n ‘
“MES 1:
I «1
n
‘ Kn
2““: Q" 4: ..
'\
x ..
1 n4.
‘ A ve“
4“ . _
‘he ‘ fi-‘L‘
‘ I ‘\~:
.
.\‘ A
“ U‘ ..
.Cps "ES
\
a.
\e- _
K e. 5 ~
‘ ‘ \‘ -\\,‘
‘ ‘\\\4 a.
#e’v.‘ .
‘~ ‘V‘v
\L\. .
“1 fie:-
\
‘\
an“,
«.33: \_ 5
.‘ ~\
‘ .‘— \\
. ‘ \‘52c.
u a \
.N _
~ n“
‘:~ts

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLES (cont.)

Table

2.12

Page

Disposition of GNP, GDP, and National Income
Per Capita, West Indies, 1960—1962. . . . . 57

Proportion of Total Number of Farms in Each
Size Category, West Indies, 1957—58 and
1961. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Use of Farm Land by Farms of Different
Sizes, West Indies, 1956 and 1961 . . . . . 63

Distribution of Unemployment, Jamaica, 1960 . 68

Composition of Agricultural Output, West
Indies, 1961. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Contribution of Agriculture, Forestry, and
Fishing to GDP, and the Rate of Growth of
the Sector, 1955—1965 . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Employment and Production by Sector, Trin—
idad and Tobago, 1955 and 1966. . . . . . . 9O

Contribution of Major Agricultural Exports
to Total Agricultural Exports and Total
Exports, West Indies 1955 and 1962. . . . . 98

Relative Rates of Growth of the Agricultural
Sector and The Export Agriculture Sub—
sector, West Indies, 1955—1965. . . . . . . 101

Changes in Cereal and Root Crop Acreage,
West Indies, 1946—1961. . . . . . . . . . . 104

Proportion of Various Cereal and Root CrOp'S
Acreage to Total Acreage of Cereal and

Root Crops, West Indies, 1946—1961. . . . . 107

Import of Food and Animal Products by
Territory, West Indies, 1966. . . . . . . , 113

Ranking of Research Objectives by Organiza—
tional Types, West Indies, 1968 . . . . . . 140

xi

 

 

33g TABLES (cont.)

I} W of Rational
W15, Organiz
Indies, 1968. . -

Ll Ranking of Major C‘
of Research Findi
ParnLevels by 01
Indies, 1968. .

:1 Disposition of Man}

Ctzzcdity Crzent.‘
: 21.1.51 and Recurr
Research, West I

I 3“‘
- name-T. of Prcnc
Lanai fined“
. -.
“.96 ‘ n' ACES
~“ . ‘
“23.12:, ‘19:!" 13
-.
$5,: ‘a
.... usmzse .1
. .

:~ — .
Mk»: C: :Fe 5
~._ ‘1‘ p 1
““ha Rs.
- . c.
’. K
. . ,3.
..-. «1.. .
“5M: ~~ v“.

:‘e- c.
R kegs Pep

“n. ,.
Nut-E" L. n .
‘ . _—5v;~
«.R “-H
.33:
‘ o
.
.
.
.
E
a-
“Q. 1: ~: ..
. u k3. V
.. A
Jr ..
‘ y

 

 

LIST OF TABLES (cont.)
Table Page

4.2 Ranking of Rationale for Current Research
Emphasis, Organizational Types, West
Indies, 1968. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

4.3 Ranking of Major Constraints to Application
of Research Findings at the Industry and
Farm Levels by Organizational Types, West
Indies, 1968. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

4.4 DiSposition of Manpower According to
Commodity Orientation, West Indies, 1968. . 169

 

4.5 Capital and Recurrent Expenditure on
Research, West Indies, 1968 . . . . . . . . 173

5.1 Breakdown of Proposed Major Annual Average
Capital Expenditure in Agriculture for
Three Major Long—Term Development Plans,
Jamaica, 1947-1968. . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

5.2 Yield Response to Nitrogen Input by Rice
Varieties, East Pakistan and Japan. . . . . 199

5.3 Estimates of the Social Rates of Return in
Agricultural Research . . . . . . . . . . . 208

5.4 Breakdown of Mechanized Maize (X304) Produc—
tion Costs Per Acre in Irrigated Lands,
Pioneer Hi—Bred Corn Company, Jamaica,
1968. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

5.5 Results of X304 Maize Experiments, Jamaica,
1967. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

5.6 Comparative Yield of L0ca1 and Imported Corn
Varieties Under varying Soil Type, Trinidad
1967. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

5.7 Experiments with Maize (X304), Trinidad and
Tobago, 1967. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

 

 

 

gums (cont.)
die

:1 mime! 3859035“
W on Resea
1967-68 . . . . .

a hire Yield Respons
Soils in Barbadc!
[x304 Variety).

1.. Saran Yields if: S1
in; Countries .
Fecilizer-Irriaa:
Carercial Cane
:azaica. 1966-6‘

l' a .
. 1W. 1r; ‘
amnion an: C:

3 . ..

run A ‘

..-...o5. 52c Tc:

7)- J

v A: ‘.-.
‘W .33» a.

 

 

LIST OF TABLES (cont.)
Tflfle . Page

5.8 Fertilizer Response for Various Root Crops
Produced on Research Stations, Trinidad,
1967—68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

5.9 Maize Yield Response to Fertilizers on Some
Soils in Barbados and the Windward Islands
(X304 Variety). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

5.10 Banana Yields in Some Important Net Export—
ing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

ill Fertilizer—Irrigation Response Curve for
Commercial Cane Varieties on Research Site,
Jamaica, 1966—67. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

6.1 Composition and Consumer Goods Imports
Trinidad and Tobago, 1951 and 1965 and
Jamaica, 1950 and 1965. . . . . . . . . . . 267

6.2 Comparison of Aggregates, Jamaica and
Trinidad, Selected Years. . . . . . . . . . 269

6.3 Total and Per Capita Food Imports and All
Imports, West Indies, 1953—1964 . . . . . . 276

X111

 

 

 

 

 

~-u

LIST '

15: of the Carib

A
u

more: Stuaie

.. .

.::.... ~~ ~
_-. A.

ua.3.--.u.-... 3

 

..::: v".

........c.. I

C)

 

 

,_ .-x..‘
“13:- ~:‘ "
.. ...-..._ I

..-.\.,.y.4 ‘
~.. A
«.75-.. .5»

 

 

 

 

 

Illus.

4d

52

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Map of the Caribbean Area Showing the

Region Studied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Classification Scheme for Agricultural

Research Organizations in the West

Indies, 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Research Organizations Falling Under Final

Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Hypothetical Fertilizer Response Curves for

Unimproved and Improved Crop Varieties . . 201
Fertilizer Response Histogram for Locally

Developed Hybrid Maize (X304) at various

Research Sites in Jamaica, 1967. . . . . . 222

 

 

 

 

TEE PRO

 

 

 

" ..
= "v" earn-4...
“-—..u y.“

"til:

 

.; ‘1: ..

"1,; ...F
m... ..e
3'95»; .
. t-~..1:‘5 C.“ l'Z‘.‘

 

 

 

. a—1‘.
~u.~.. :1 “5““:
f~kc¥
23‘5“
\“.\"\-
w.“ 5.. 3w;-‘
‘ ‘1‘:.:
.t.\.
. . ._‘~
‘-. \ v“
“5." ‘~
‘Nt: a. a
.. x
. 1. ‘
.\ S “
- 4 a
mm- ‘1
21‘“
:51.
R... ‘.
‘. ~\ I.
‘N. P
§~eu
..._
.~ ‘~.
“-\.‘ \
_‘\

 

 

- PART I

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEMATIC SITUATION

The General Situation

During the 1950's and the 1960's, a virtual flood
Of books, articles and conferences dealt with the problem
of stimulating economic development in the less developed
areas of the world. When it became quite obvious that the
earlier emphasis on industrial development contained major
shortcomings, the discussions turned to the question of
agricultural development as an integral part of overall
development. Recognizing the importance of the agricul—
tural sector was a significant step toward understanding
the developmental process. The relatively heavy emphasis
on extension and diffusion of information in the early
1960's illustrates an early, unsure venture into the un—
known_ It is significant that very little thought was
given then to the "sources" of the new information and to
the economic incentives necessary to stimulate application

1

 

ids new mum.
thole ill Clarifying
ziables in the 39mm“:
5m to increased prod:
Culture.1

There has never 3
ageneral theory Cf ‘
:ziies all the requi
:1 azicnal econch .
:3: decades appear
“a forefront. This

Lu. I

..\

~ Aguirre ‘1"

 

x“
\Q: N. ‘
U1. ”'1
.. . " I
..e CLELIE'V
*~.\ '1: W
. -"~ “3 ECS‘ 2

a \4

T". '
‘le ‘I‘por

 

 

of the new information. Economists had been playing a
major role in clarifying and identifying the strategic
variables in the agricultural sector, as far as these
relate to increased productivity and income in traditional
agriculture . 1

There has never been, however, a single, accept—
able, general theory of the developmental process which
identifies all the requirements for agricultural expansion
in a national economy. Nevertheless, discussions of the
last two decades appear to have projected a major variable
to the forefront. This variable is technological innova—
tion in agriculture through research and development.
Admittedly, this variable is not generally accepted as a
panacea for agricultural problems in less developed coun—
tries. On the contrary, the general feeling is that it
probably has its most dynamic potential only in connection
with other factors.

The importance of research in development was
first recognized in early cereals research. Today, the

results of such research are widely known and generally

 

lSchultz, T. W., Transforming Traditional Agricul—
ture, Yale University Press, 1964; and Schultz, T. W.,

Economic Crises in World Agriculture, University of Mich—
lgan Press, Ann Arbor, 1965.

 

 

ml to as the 'green
nlrtim has not been '
“equal, there is lit
armed and accentua
iievelopental process

Today, many less
anal long-run gains

3'3: easier bv procr

m. '
5.».-
~n.s,_ Cr”

35212321025,

“Eilcarle eve:

a and

were

»..1ler-Fcrd Fe;

tn.
\._ 11 .
the P‘lllccy
..
\: 2:435: 3'“

 

 

referred to as the "green revolution." This so—called
revolution has not been without problems but, other things
being equal, there is little doubt that it has effectively
demonstrated and accentuated the key role of research in
the developmental process.2

Today, many less developed countries recognize the
potential long—run gains from agricultural research by
indigenous organizations. These efforts have been made
somewhat easier by programs of international agricultural
research organizations, many of whose findings appear to
be applicable over a wide geographical area. For example,
the Rockefeller—Ford Foundation research projects in
Mexico and the Philippines have heralded a new era in
technological advances for agriculture beyond the limits

of these tw0 states. They thus demonstrate that technical

 

2For review of the "green revolution," see: Review
of the New Cereal Varieties, USAID Spring Review, May 12—
15, 1969, Washington, D.C., and USDA—Economic Research
Service, The Impact of the New Grain Varieties in Asia,
ERS-Foreign 275, July 1969. For a discussion of some of
the problems stemming from the "revolution," see: Wharton,
Clifton R., "The Green Revolution: Cornucopia or Pandora's
Box?," Foreign Affairs: American Quarterly Review, April
1969. pp. 464—476. Also, Hardin, L. s., Later Generation
Agricultural Development Problems (Ford Foundation). Paper
presented at conference on Agricultural Development, Bel—
lagio, Italy, April 23—25, 1969.

 

 

 

”1m resend! fin
gifit' mm, agr
and and nae-eat“ ‘
anal and 99°9raphic

The international
:rzly increases the 5‘

:‘rssibly pecuniary)

1.... '. ‘
an .be seen

"0‘

or can
311 by indigenous r
I '31:

Le increased

:4... .... -
\, assemble :c

"p ... ‘
x. if“

.. ClICiIIZSLETICEE

 

 

agricultural research findings are not inherently “location
specific.“ Moreover, agricultural research can be so or—
ganized and implemented that its findings can have wide
ecological and geographical adaptability.3

The international exchange of research findings
not only increases the scope of international technological
(and possibly pecuniary) external economies, but also in-
creases the need for careful, purposeful developmental
planning by indigenous research institutions. The need
stems from the increased probability of the new inputs
becoming susceptible to local forms of diseases and pests.
Under such circumstances, the inputs could suddenly become
"obsolete" and approach zero utility. Thus, increased
transfers of agricultural research findings have tended
to accentuate the demand for effective indigenous research

institutions and systems in the less developed countries

 

3The new improved cereals (rice and corn) from
these two research organizations have demonstrated the
ability to double and triple crop yields over a wide eco—
logical zone in South East Asia and the Middle East. Ef—
forts are now well underway to develop similar organiza—
tions in Columbia (Center for Tropical Agriculture) and
Nigeria (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture)
to work primarily on crops of the lowland humid tropics.
The British pioneered in the develOpment of regional re—
search organizations. Excellent regional research facil—
ities were developed in Africa to research rubber, cocoa
and palm, long before the Rockefeller and Ford ventures
were conceived.

 

 

 

a
‘01

. “
“litandecreasmc‘: .,

’ 61
H
M '-Q 1' .‘j‘.cb
-" in: fir ' -u -
u Ah. 3. ‘
“I .

“v-
“A“

A l|--§-' O" 3.
fl

' O

‘ O

" “Innate

. o. 5-V..‘
.

 

 

 

 

 

. -
.. ‘
N‘ 'D-‘ HF; v.-
.. ‘ \ ..
-.-...’." - .-‘ ‘..‘
. ~ I
s... -~. A: ‘
~‘9-'“-~‘.- b
-
-.
P. Qt ‘hu‘v-a. 2v.“
- -
0.,v \g‘..-.-..\l in...“
. .
-‘V§,. ~II-\-Au—_-\ a
.‘n- -\-- ‘ ‘ .- \ ‘.
‘§ .5.. ~I~“' ‘
.
.__ . ‘ ‘ .
.‘_ ~
. ‘V‘A —'-‘~ -‘
.1. -_\‘ ~ ~ _ -‘
‘5‘ fl.i~—_\.»U \- v
.
‘ -
v;:“_“ F! ‘ ‘-\.-
‘ ‘ 0-
-~\\.-s§~‘~ -“
.l- .__ : “ ‘
a
I“ ‘ ~ " p‘ ‘ - '
.. ~. '.‘
.-. -.._ '\ .
~ .
.‘1 ~- ‘ ‘ .
.. -
“\,. v; ‘ ‘ n
. \‘ I. .
“'“H~-‘
~ ‘
v‘ ‘
-..~ ~ ““"
\ k
. ».“‘ ' ‘
._‘
~‘\\‘
‘\ 4". ‘K
I \
‘..¥I.. ‘ “.
‘.A “V\.
‘.
‘ .
h“
h‘ ~ ‘_“~‘
\\I.\( ~ ‘ "i-
‘x. ‘

 

 

 

 

rather than decreasing the demand for local research sys—
tems. The primary function of such systems is two—fold:
(l) to provide "maintenance" research to ensure continuity

of utility from the transferred inputs, and (2) to develop

 

and firmly establish local research infrastructure as stra-
tegic focal points for incorporating locally adaptive char—
acteristics into the transplanted inputs, as well as to ‘ _‘
improve the biological characteristics of the new inputs.
The planning and development of indigenous agricul—
tural research systems and institutions pose major problems
to the less developed countries. In a wide range of
factors responsible for the problems encountered, we con—

sider the following to be significant:

1. Lack of reliable information and guidelines regard—
ing relative economic and social payoffs from in-
vestment in agricultural research, over against

. . 4
alternat1ve investments .

M—
4It is only within the last decade that there has

been major attempts to estimate the returns from agricul—
tural research, and to compare such returns with alterna—

tive investment opportunities. For discussion of some of
these attempts, see: (1) Barletta, N. Ardito, Costs and

Social Returns of Agricultural Research in Mexico, Univer—
sity of Chicago, Office of Agricultural Economics Research,
Paper No. 65040, February 11, 1965. (2) Evenson, Robert,

"The Contribution of Agricultural Research to Production,"

l. he acute shorta‘i

in hith the socie
enoes. 3 “1°: (
he, the inabili‘
to plan and impl'
ten. agricultura

are available So

:. he instituticnd

research svste’e

:9: w '
~... 1516 11‘5"!

-o—k
:ra‘i'

Ltional exp:

antral :

esear
crops. Such s“
1: ezot

. 45515 CI

"e~ .
n. a L.
vu.‘ "
~x. acr~~n
.“\u

 

 

 

2. The acute shortage of highly qualified personnel
in both the social sciences and the technical sci—
ences. A major consequence of this shortage has
been the inability of the less developed countries
to plan and implement effective, relevant, long—
term agricultural research systems, even when funds

are available for such projects.

3. The institutionalization of export agricultural
research systems into economic and political sys—
tems. The historical ties of these countries to
traditional export crops means that existing agri—
cultural research infrastructure relates to these
crops. Such systems often strongly resist change
in emphasis or are not easily adapted to serve
domestic agriculture because of highly specialized

facilities.

 

Jmunal of Farm Economics, Vol. 49, No. 5, December, 1967,
pp.1415-1425. Also: (3) Peterson, W. L., ”Return to
Pmfltry Research in the United States,” Journal of Farm
Ecmumucs, Vol. 49, No. 3, August, 1967, pp. 656—669, and
(M Griliches, Zvi, "Research Costs and Social Returns:
inrhiCorn and Related Innovations,“ Journal of Political
Ecmmmy, Vol. 66, Oct. 1958, pp. 419—431. Reprinted in
Ehfimr, c, K. and Witt, L. W., Agriculture in Economic
Damlopment, McGraw—Hill, New York, 1964, pp. 369—386.

 

 

p
‘ ‘ ‘ o .-
the tenders} c- p

Q

. , '

'fi-‘f‘ .
:AA :NV1FY'I ‘ S;
.Ct ub-.\.u.~ «-

l

.. a
‘ fully-vi he OI-Fh.
: ==.'oy undo.»-

:pn:n- of: a n r-

‘Esbvuuu any-» 0 d
b

' ‘
.. - ._ A.
_’" :A“ rnwcn ‘ '-
“~bv‘-‘u~fi ‘.'.w.
v

 

I
noun-Ac... “HAP ‘ a
‘ ~ -

‘.\ \ \ a‘
~"""' “'1‘... a...
o
- Q
‘ D. .‘ o .
n... A
.. - " '_ ,_$“_ :p Av
...
'v..- ‘- 5““
~Ai'.- Q q
- Fa. v- "
"“o-u ‘ -
-‘...-I .b _.‘
~v—‘
A
5““Awo ‘K ‘
.."‘ 5‘ _\ ~
u..\_,_-»~ ~

In. ‘ _

h— ~ -...~ A

T ‘ ‘ ‘h‘v-

’--“ v
\. h
a
o

a. -

\_h.. 6.

~- v ~“-‘ .

‘ I
1 -y‘ ‘ i “ ‘
"~
5‘.
‘ ~~ -

‘-\~‘\\~V-- 0-- ‘

“‘5‘-‘ V“ fi
. Ҥ ..

‘i

~ 'q‘ .~.

~“ — vs.“

“ ‘- *\_ ~‘,_
“vey ...
V»
. .
" V
‘v
~\.\* n‘,“ ‘
~ ~\ ‘a‘
ku‘... ~24
y h‘c“

 

 

‘
a“... u
..
“-~~ ;«
a 4;: .
.“
I~;-.
“I ~~ c
\ .\
‘ V
a. I“ .‘ -
‘ ‘.: \‘
' \\
‘ K‘ “\
\v§\
.V‘
\ .
‘ .
“.‘ x.‘
.y \‘
u‘ \\
‘ ‘L “\ ~
0.
. ‘ ‘
-.».. \ .‘k‘
- ~ _
~\‘
.‘-._‘
‘5 \ ‘
x 1:
\ ~ ~ ,
\ .x-l
\ \ ‘
4‘ 1: ‘
.‘
Hk .

 

 

 

4. The tendency of public research organizations to
see agricultural research investments in terms of
a "service" function in which zero profits is the
accepted norm. This prevailing philosophy has
discouraged attempts to plan agricultural research

systems such as to maximize the benefit/cost ratio.

5. The general shortage of financial resources to
mount a long—run research system that would benefit
from economies of scale. Scale economies appear to
be a vital component in providing the thrust neces-
sary for major breakthroughs. This is even more
necessary for domestic—oriented research efforts
since these generally have to be launched from a

lower base than export efforts.

ThaGeneral West Indian Situation
WMfliRespect to Agricultural
Tedumlogy and Research
Like many less—developed areas, the West Indies
iSseeking ways of capitalizing on the new agricultural

tedumlogy coming from the international research organ~

izatknm as well as building an indigenous research

 

 

 

U)

,-.-=- Tl "es: 3:318

rhfl‘
-CU-UH .
4

,....a -r
.-

   

mfl "'
a

‘
' n ,- I!
~‘ R ‘
VOW IFR"-:AF’P -~ Moo“
- :~"._ nyoo\rON
to

 

 

 

.
' - abl-
..-... . a ace-Q V“‘~ "
- I \a ‘ :‘~V"‘
mo.-. nu anO-‘I -
a
I A
1““D'lflbfigfi «A-..
I ‘ ‘ five-d
*¢.-v.----yv
. a
‘n _ ‘1
.Rl Iu~§~.---~Ay-~ .
u. \ \
“e... onyu--u--\.--~ «-
.l - .
91- .....~.
..---'~-_.u D
c
. . D o
‘4':"-~ v-vuo. _ ,.
“ ‘nu. ‘
“-~ -5 a. u...
» o
u
.4 -
.2,‘ P‘*’~ n- - .-
x.--v‘ “ -- -._.
" .un l~ ~-~..
-.. .
\— ‘V: ~-'_“.
5“

 

 

“Q“;z ..-
.
s»-5_.‘ ~...
\~ :-~ ‘ ~
~11 -~.~ ._
‘_‘h’ . n
.
"Am
\-
~~
\
‘ es-
_ hu‘
~V“‘ -
~‘ k ‘
' ‘xu \ ~
‘ ~"‘« \ u
‘
~"\\‘
s‘:-\ .- ‘H . , ‘
‘s
I “ |\ '
a‘- __
‘ .
~~
'—
". Vi.“
\. \ ‘
-\‘~\ -.
\
u ‘w‘ \
"~_ h ‘x _‘ ~
_
, e ‘: \ \r-
‘“M
-.
~ ~‘
“\¥ N
"i ‘n“
.“ g ~~
\~
-\\~

 

 

 

 

system.5 The West Indies, however, faces certain problems
unique to the region. These have evolved along with the
unique socio—economic and political development of the

region. It seems reasonable to assume that such unique

 

characteristics will demand unique solutions. To plan
research institutions for the region requires recognition

of the following:

1. Benefits from the "green revolution” for the West
Indies have been minimal, relative to those for
several other underdeveloped areas. The new im—
Proved cereal varieties are not adaptable to the
lowland, humid tropics. Furthermore, although
major programs are now underway to serve these
areas, it will be some time before major results
and inputs are forthcoming. This condition is not
unique as such to the region, but it suggests that

a major Objective of regional research planning

____________‘_____

5Throuplhout this thesis the term "West Indies" re—
fers tO those territories of the Caribbean generally called
the c.0mm0rlwea1th Caribbean. The territories include:
Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada and Carriacou, An—
tiqua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Montserrat, St.
Kitts—Nevis-Anguilla, St. Vincent and St. Lucia. Three
Effiim ten territories are independent states within the
Barblgh Commonwealth (Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and' d
Stata OS): 'The remaining seven territories hold assoc1ate

ehood with the United Kingdom.

 

Est h the devei
ioal We as ‘

m. outside the

The magnitude an

gional research
plenum must 5:

Mun-s

......ed tow-rd

czrrent researc‘.
:5 :‘re relative
ticna‘. and reg;
:5»

w
a” ..
~~~a~ “

m. 6-3373

- v

 

va
v:-
u
.~.I D
resean
-c
.
“gag-win.
“the. a" O:
‘ -Li
‘ M‘
~:;...~,.
. -~.“"‘“‘
..:1 “e:
- .
1..
5:... H‘

 

 

«C
t -
2‘“.
.
-.
\‘ New
\ A
L. xer‘.“‘3
n
»
\~
.‘h
., ~ ‘ “'1‘
‘ \M 1‘
u x ‘ N V‘
~. 2 "‘k ‘
...‘ 1.; ‘1‘
\ I, h ‘ H
\ .;. H .63: x...
‘~:; and)
.h‘ in ~
“‘.~..:‘.
:1‘ no“; me...“
-..‘ :~ ‘5
~ ~Qj«\; “H
~..\S.~. H“: “‘“
1.5;. . \‘MC‘
~. “4; ~
«RES .-

 

must be the development of the area's own biolog—
ical inputs, as well as seeking to adopt those

from outside that appear to have some potential.

2. The magnitude and characteristics of existing re—
gional research is the fixed basis from which
planning must start. This research is heavily
oriented toward the traditional agricultural ex-
ports of the region. A significant portion of

current research is privately sponsored. Because

 

of the relative importance of these crops in na—
tional and regional economic systems, public re—
search efforts were also designed to complement

. 6
pr1vate research.

Recognition of these important aspects of West
Imfian agricultural research means that agricultural de—
vekpment planners cannot look to any particular country
fm:simple examples of institution building. It is more
reahstic to concentrate on extracting relevant components

M

6Throughout this thesis the terms national, inter—
Imthnml and regional are used to indicate: (1) the econ—
mm7ofihdividual countries, (2) worldwide or extra—
reghnml economic organization, and (3) the economy of the
Bhfifish West Indies, respectively.

 

...
,-..~-~ .
~ -
,...-..¢.—-

a
l
., c
. ..
g
F
I.

.-

 

 

 

10

Illustration l.1.——Map of the Caribbean Area Showing the
Region Studied.

 

 

 

 

  
  
 
  

  
  
  
    
   
    

 
 
  
 

 
 
  
  
  

 

   

    

La 1 ' \
5‘2 ~30 AH urn
(n
o 200 4011mm. “
0 700 400 Innm llh'v
- sevmudn
«.
. , , . I ( '
‘1’ IJ‘ n;- I. ‘ \ I
MEX/I '0
25 .
F I." 1 .\
1 . ~\
)
1 . j
.- *0 3°63} (
(‘ Cayman Inland. ‘- 4 43° 53:?‘1‘8 (3)1;
. 5 c 4
5 -~ ‘ 5° 0 O
“”5” l [r “MA,“ Klnplm 4 'DOMINICAN who 3 3:11)"? 7‘"
I 4’ r REPUBLIC 5 5‘ E“, N“? u ' n ‘9 a
I), I)» I l l- W‘ fiGuodaloup-
15‘ a ‘ Dominica
1 \' 5 I‘.‘ "1 4:1," Mommque“ :2"
«7-?» sum . 3
V: SLthcM. “We";
GRENADI E . a
Aruba!§ Curacao ‘ ISlANDS . 3
\ Vlanuun . 1 Grenada 3
' file: a: Margovilu v
- <9 Tvinidad and
1 Tobago

  
 
 

 

   

  

 

., f
\.—--«~-1 \ anmsu
g "‘1. GUIANA
K ,J" -) ‘r‘ (-F NCH5 \)
’ . ' - . __ y. '1' ’
I .l ( If I( ..\ Q“, r a / t SURINAM \GUIANA/
c 0 L0 M Bl A . 2 .
< k l: \ -~”“~ I ill
1. n a K. M, J. ., - .
I“ "‘\.._.."‘/‘~ V
\ r N .
”‘p. x B R A z I L 0
~. \ '\
f' \ w"
’L 1.. »_ , . “.- _‘1L1_ “f 5.5
NEG. ERS 2971-64“) ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVIQ

 

.. JfPAHMENT OF AGRICULYURE

 

 

 

It". 0
'5... ‘ . C
[H.MIH v
n

I.,.',...

V . fl.
...': u

n“..\,d‘ud-‘-
a

..
"u‘ PAga-Q.‘
- _,

“. ’vhuv'“...
u

 

 

 

"'3" ' ’“r
~ "' " -0.-.

 

c
Coca. ‘ ‘-
'—

u...‘ _

' I
"nu“.b'
.

 

 

 

 

u
‘-

za "~
\- v.0“-

:AnFHu-p
‘vuv d..-

' a-
.."A -‘yo
.—
ut..- - .
~A~¢'-'.

baa..-‘ -

I ~
L., - ’;V:
v..' Hgi‘...~“
.

..‘ ‘

~-

‘V‘. .‘ g.

o-

"' -. 2‘ “l-—“"‘-—~
. v '.~“'-~.u
.

Q A" ‘
s ”,V
“' b.. “v
.
.
~
. u.
.
' \ a- ‘
'“3? ”; we...
» 5..» :__
—
I
‘
-
~\ ‘“V-~
‘4‘ ‘\-¥
.~ ‘
'. “u- .
‘-s‘ h “
h" ~ h‘_
. .‘ ~
\-\.-. ‘ :
‘ ‘ -.\v
x
‘ a
.-~_. ‘ ‘
V‘-
“' ‘. a”
-.‘_ ~~‘_ \ ~
~u“~ “-
“"I In...
- |
‘\u_
.. ‘
u
~-~ . ‘
~ \
.
.
H “
W - h‘h
\- . ~ "V4.
. ...‘n 5‘
. \‘
L.
\ .
.:‘ 5“- .‘
. .“
~
‘\ l‘~\‘ ‘“ ‘
‘~- s.‘“
‘, ‘
-\A‘“.
s
.
.
\
3:: ‘a‘ -
‘ ~ “
u ‘u u.\
‘ ‘ A‘ \‘ k
I ‘ \-
‘

 

(I)

n
.-
V

.
.. -

a‘ i
.— .
V I

 

11

from a wide variety of experiences and then modifying such
components to suit the requirements of the area.

Agricultural development planners in the West
Indies recognize that the uniqueness of the structure must
be taken into account in the planning process. They also
recognize that the five problems generally confronting the
less deve10ped countries also exist within the region.7
Furthermore, planners see the rising population and desire
for growth as exerting pressures on government for in—
creased emphasis on agricultural research and develOpment.
They also see the scarcity of top level manpower and in—
vestment funds as forcing rationalization of agricultural
development planning so as to increase returns to a limited
research budget.8 Rational guidelines are needed to facil—
itate the planning process. The task of providing guide—

lines for West Indian research institution—building is
H—

7See the five points cited earlier in this chapter,

pp. 5—7.

8Throughout this thesis, the term "rationaliza—
tion" will be used in its economic sense when applied to
research infrastructure, agriculture or industry, i.e.,
"improved methods of an administrative nature which in—
creases efficiency." See: Sloan, H. s., and Zurcher,
A- J., A Dictionary of Economics, Barnes and Noble, Inc.,
New York (Fourth Edition, 1966), p. 280.

 

 

‘

‘ a'ed m "
n I _ ‘0 t H '
:arcoapll

-Voo -0-
'a

u .

lot-H

 

u I ‘ "
mn'fl Integrat r
. J

‘ 1"“
0;:5firu- f‘. “l:

’ .1... ’ 0..
;¢: 3:3».-n--.” u

p

a
A o

u... na-. .fi"

n \ \ F

“N'- v'n.» .u.» ..

 

.
§
"‘ _—-\

 

.
Anny-q. '-

." ‘"" byv-u-_,

q
a.
I‘ n

~
-‘ ”“A' so a... ‘
.-

I!"
\ ‘ ’
.- .. dhgsbgv,.~ v.
o
n . .
. _ A
.u .~ :~?- Au -.~‘.: v...
‘flhi “"V--bu‘u_ - v.
- r
's‘ I
.._ ‘ -‘
..- |-hq.‘7: 2~Y‘ a
-. "‘."----._ ‘.
.

 

“"‘\D‘ ‘
v-

 

 

-
‘ -:~‘\v:
~
‘I..‘- “&b»--_
, .
‘\ ‘
' ‘v. ‘
~‘ - “ ‘V. ‘
..h- V... “‘2‘
5‘.“ \
-u-gu‘ ¢5~
.
s
A~.~V§ wo‘v‘ .‘
s‘u. \ “h h -‘
vs» -‘V ‘-
it.
‘\‘\‘>‘ .‘
. ~ ‘ -
N' : *““ a .\ a- -
y¥ -‘
‘ V““' ~Myu.
u".‘ .
§ .. ‘
'.‘ ~ :s a “‘ .
‘§‘§ ‘ ~ ‘n.:
““1 cm
n“ ‘
..~\\_ ‘
‘.‘ \. ~
._ h
M“ N“‘ «9“
s\.‘“ \
5‘\_.\
'7‘.“
\‘~‘ N
.
\n‘. .3.“ “ ‘
s. N" \
k‘ 7-. ~
~‘.\’ ‘s-g
v
5“
\
\N \
H.‘I\ ~ ‘ ‘ ‘
- §‘.' \ ‘
.‘ ‘\ q
' s
. ~\
u
‘:u A“‘
“ N ‘\\
‘ I. N n
\ N‘ g “Q‘
. ¥\H\
. . q
1 my , ‘
\. K
I‘\ ‘1‘h‘
‘1‘ x" \a
“-\4 ‘..
" “‘ ..:1\
-. 1P.““ ‘
\\ \‘ ‘
‘N: ‘u ‘
.. H“ ’3‘
‘ ~ ‘ c .
V ‘ ‘ ‘\\_,
N “\
s ‘ s
\.. \y‘.\~
‘ ‘ ‘\.~ \
:3 “k ‘t:
‘~\ ‘ \
\
.x.
‘ -.
‘ “‘\,\‘ ~
. . \|\
\ - \\.~ ‘ \
‘ ‘ . ’.
‘ ‘K‘ \
~‘ ‘
I ‘ i
I‘ “W“
‘ \
\\ \‘~‘ \
A. ' ‘~ .\ a
‘n‘ \‘\t\ I
‘\ “ ‘ \ \4
~.
~.\\ “‘
K K
\\ " \ \'
~ “\ ‘
\v. ‘\‘ \‘
\‘ .
“ ~§\_\\
\
. ‘k

 

12

further complicated by the recent movement toward regional
economic integration in the form of the Caribbean Free
Trade Association (CARIFTA) .9 Economic integration sug-
gests some form of specialization in production. Special—
ization, in turn, suggests major decisions on resource
allocation and coordination. The West Indies is now faced
with major decisions on planning, develOping, and imple—
menting agricultural research priorities that will effec—
tively harmonize agricultural resources with national,
international, and regional income and demand conditions.
Several factors dictated an evaluation of the re—
gional agricultural research system. Some of the more
general factors were discussed earlier. However, there
are more specific factors operating within the region.
In the first place, there has been dramatic changes in
the demand conditions facing the traditional exports of

the area. Over the last two decades, agricultural export

 

9CARIFTA is a unique step in the direction of

sound regional economic integration. The Association
came into being on May 1, 1968. Its immediate objective
is to provide an integrated market for the CommonWealth
Caribbean territories consisting of some 4.0 million
people. Long—run objective is to include several of the
mainland territories and Caribbean Republics, in which
case the Association would cover a population of over 20
million people.

 

 

'go: o-Ob"

on. 0.0. .‘Q .

a...

H».-

 

.- nrf‘
.aau“ . u- v
dun-Uta &°' J
A
. ‘ A BF
-z-VIA'I .wqya :CCVO.
gang-d...
0- g
» m" 'M’ m";
b
~v- v.0:vu..\louv -9- v0 ‘
a
p
‘zrfi'vlv: on? 4:ch
:‘o..- fig -v- avg. ‘
a
. o
g
"' r“: FI‘;r
“""' -' ant.» Davy».
u-A -
>-
no»\
.
-V;.;V;—o-u :V“
b.\--u-~~---‘- ““‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.
Roy

 

‘
‘ \
‘ s
‘ u. e
\ s.‘ ~
~‘ s ‘\‘- «
.“~.~‘:
"\ I
hv
‘ ~-~!
.5. ‘
‘-" :
-
Z-.
‘ n
". ‘ 'V“
.-
s.“:
h
‘ .- u ‘
I .‘\ :a.' ‘
‘kx \
. \
'a‘ a
x
.: ".M
N “
‘
‘h‘.“~~_n
\~..
'«
w‘,
\ \
‘.‘\ \i
‘ I‘
V“ ~‘N‘
¥‘l\
‘
.
x N»
t .‘
H \\\‘
.‘\\
‘ k
.‘_..\
K‘ ‘
‘
,
~ ~‘\Q\
\w.‘
\
~<
‘. a
‘\‘Q\s
.n‘
‘\
~
~: ~._ .
‘~‘ ‘\ .
‘\~ \
\M 9‘
‘-
‘n
~~~\.
" "\ ~
~\‘\ \
\ V~
‘\

 

(we. ‘.

x).
(I)

I“

(I)

 

(I)

(II

(T;

 

 

l3

earnings have fluctuated dramatically and there have been
wide fluctuations in gross domestic product originating
from agriculture. Secondly, research results have not
been outstanding for export crops. Where the value of
export earnings for some export crOps has been maintained
or expanded, it has been largely as a result of acreage
expansion and higher negotiated prices per unit of output
(under preferential arrangements), rather than through
increase of efficiency in production. Thirdly, the ter—
ritories of the region have come to realize that increased
agricultural productivity is important to their growth and
development. Specifically, the region now recognizes that
it is possible to have a relatively high rate of "growth"
and very little "development" (if one defines development
as structural transformation of the social and economic
base, whereby significant and dynamic linkages are estab—
lished between different sectors). Finally, the relative
emphasis on export and domestic crop research efforts has
to be questioned, given the stated objective of attaining
a broadly based economic and social structure.
Academicians, planners and administrators have
demonstrated their concern with the basis for choice among

alternative lines of research. Edwards, in attempting

 

' Ab .

r 1

....c 4:"31- ICI’ .3"
b A

.51. vul
‘

1
.---~ .I:. 0
‘
Into Don‘t.
.

p I Q C“ C“.
“D. our”: :nn . a

I : .io-H- is.“ no.9 6.1
u

  

 

 

 

D~~n .a _'F V‘"VH"
I- Y n
_
""“ ‘V- y... s.,..- a-
, .
. -
on. F- p -u ‘-. a“ -
5 '~ 7 v- _‘
.... .nuu-‘u..---v~ _
.C
' p
.‘b. . '. fl ’. h
u " V“
.." " u-..“ _- -b
-"V~§--. A,“ ‘V‘
\ _\ ‘ ~
‘I'U.~'--..~ _‘
u-
.. ‘
9e. - ‘-
., . ' a; ‘77." -,. - -
‘~._
..I.‘.-""-».. .‘-

v-‘_ ‘
~ I. I
u. ‘~ ~ . -F‘ «A... A
vvb‘..‘.' _ :
..

n.‘

-. .. "~u._\-
h" .s. ‘ _“»,.._h‘
.
‘.“. v~~00\0 ‘
‘I
.. .
‘ .. Q
~ _\‘~ .
. ~ ‘
""-~.
s.
a. ‘
: u...“ ‘
‘~. \ “ ‘
“ ~"luv \_Hl
\»V
M.- ‘
a .Vv.‘__~ ‘
‘i _‘ ‘
8“. v“ V“ .‘
‘.““ ‘:\‘
~
.
‘. . .~
».:~ ‘2. ‘
." : ‘-_‘\“ ‘
‘u‘, t. u
“a
‘ I.
L»
\\
' §
-.‘. “\‘ ‘
u_ ~. ‘ ‘
“ \ ~-\~h
§~ ‘
\x‘ ~ 5
“
a y
.\
s
‘
.s..\ ‘
~w\““: -\
. ‘
.N . M\’
“.“ w .
u‘ I ‘
‘ h ‘
s,‘ ‘
‘H ‘\\‘
5‘ ~ ‘\
‘ 4.“ _‘
' ‘ y“,
-. \:'\\ ‘
I‘ ‘\
‘\»~ "N‘. . ‘ _
- . . ~
- 5‘ "v\
..‘
N . h ‘ - -I
‘.’ H\'
o
‘-. Qv“
“\ \ ". .
‘\ ‘s.
‘y‘
\ s

   

 

 

14

to pave the way for rational assessment of choices, sug—

gests that:

The funds and the human and physical resources

available for agricultural research will at any

time be fairly fixed. Thus, the volume and

quality of research efforts must be taken as

given for the purpose of devising a program, so

the opportunities for ChOiES are those dealing

with the kind of research.
Edwards' suggestions are indicative of the general concern
with rationalization of agricultural research efforts.
More recently, the concern was raised within the context
of the regional economic structure and its future goals
and needs.11

This study seeks to contribute some information on

which agricultural research priorities and strategies can

be based. The study has modest objectives, since the sub—

ject matter is complicated, and the time and resources

 

10Edwards, D. T., "An Economic View of Agricultural
Research in Jamaica," Social and Economic Studies, Vol. 10,
No. 3, September 1961, Institute of Social and Economic Re—
search, University of the West Indies, Jamaica, p. 332.

llBrewster, Havelock and Thomas,Clive Y., The Dy—
namics of West Indies Economic Integration. Studies in
Regional Economic Integration, Vol. 1, Institute of Social
and Economic Research, University of the West Indies,
Jamaica, 1967, p. 126. Also, the conference of the Re—
gional Technical Committee of the Faculty of Agriculture,
University of the West Indies, Trinidad, 1969.

 

o

r. “n? PF
0.. “V'l'°3

 

 

is zones 1::

 

 

 

 

 

 

Q
.
-O
..:?-:91'l~ 9:32,”.- ‘
‘Mo..'-l.‘ .vuv‘- w». it-
O
. J.
p. n‘c-A.-: p;-
v ‘1‘"--- 5‘
b O
. Q
. o:o-..~---': :Q"--.
\ o-
.— ."'-"‘“- dw‘ivyu
.
‘ .
h...
-\--"‘P :qsnouo-. ‘~
'IQ m‘
at» u..-.-'--‘. ‘
.'I. ’
I I.
., :V__ ':§n~ VA-‘v-w
~-
..—--~--_ -‘ JV
v
' u
v'h...
,.- . I ~.,. - .
""‘O. h“ ‘ A" ‘v—fl
.n.~§.~_-- ; “
",..
-"-:-.,‘_ .‘ ‘-
"'-~.. - ":.: « -
-.
V “"" » -
-.' s
. yuh
‘. ‘euv- “:~:o-.__
.‘ '
u ‘ ..~‘_“- ’
. _ .
‘ .~‘U.
t.. .‘ .__
--.5~ ‘
- bu...
-
.Q
. . ~_ .
o \ ‘ ‘
., ,~ ‘
‘ .H . ~ ‘;,“ -\
“5| ‘ n. “h-
\'»‘ o—
h». \_
s.
A.
‘
\~ :l“‘~“-\
E. 8.
§\ \
*x
H
5‘-
.IA
.
\I‘ .
\ N““
‘x ‘ ~
‘ ‘s ‘n
“ a‘
\ ,‘
~~ ~
-‘s
\
.. . ‘ ‘
Q. 'N
‘N‘ -
‘H\ .
\_ .. ‘
‘ \\ "‘
‘ \v

 

‘\
\\
"x
\ \ K ‘
_\ ~.~ ‘ \~I‘
\~\ ~“ “.
'\ “~ ‘ ‘..\ a
' ‘ - \
n .. ‘ \
\ x
‘. H‘
.\‘F x x \
‘ I‘ ‘\- Q“
“~ \ ‘\«.
I \\
N.~\‘ \‘
‘\e~\‘ ‘ s
l V‘ \“~
. . \A C
‘ \.. .‘ k_
. \‘I I‘
n ‘ L
I 'n\

 

15

mmilable for conducting the research were limited.
Hmwver,it is hoped that some insights are provided into
Hm existing research situation. We shall discuss rough
hflicators of payoffs to specific types of research, and
um institutional aspects of organizing and carrying out
remmrch activities. Our assessment of costs and benefits
is ofa realistic ”rough—and—ready” nature. We try to
asaxtain direction and rough magnitudes of the consequence
ofalternative lines of research and develOpment. The
hkely long—run negative and positive effects are explored
Unsee their likely cumulative effects on strategic var—

iables in the develOpment process.

Objectives of the Study Relative to the
Problematic Situation

Specific objectives of the study are:

1. To identify the characteristics of the existing

regional agricultural research structure in terms
__~_______y___________

12The author spent the 1968—69 academic year asso—
dataimflth the Department of Agricultural Economics and
Fanannagement of the University of the West Indies,
Trinidad.

 

 

 

 

 

of (a) organizat
partial assessme

i ‘JtS.

‘ . fi 9»
1'3" 3913.9 .-

7‘ as}-.. 4.:
“ ~-~-.-: ..

'w . ~ ,. _ A.
~-..E.= : ’3‘
:5 We“ 55 -,.~

L—
-..e

.., wt.
1‘ ‘3‘:.NR \ .
\ ‘~'.‘l\,‘~ a :
H“ V‘ 73: ..
. ~-.‘¥ ' -.
‘Q‘r‘."_ .
“N“ l" “V‘R
a.-.c “st.
‘an,
" ‘n-l -
' ’ q-AM .
~AIIV .
‘uu H

 

 

16

of (a) organization,(b) subject matter and (c)
partial assessment of manpower and expenditure

inputs.

To examine the characteristics of output from the
regional agricultural research system to see how
they relate to the performance of export and do—
mestic producers at the farm level, and to the

general performance of the agricultural sector.

To explore the major bottlenecks to productivity—
increasing technological change in agriculture,
as well as the scope for relevent technological

change.

To develOp a strategy of agricultural research
priorities, including measures to overcome admin—
istrative problems in research agencies for the
region, and to explore possible consequences of

following particular research strategies.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Q
9A
— -
. U
o
.~ -. I ..
a _ A
"‘ o 4"
"5 "I “M i. «nu
~u. -
.~,.-qr “V'~
- ~ ~
. ...4._-‘ - ~-_
- .
‘ 0
m»-—~ .— , ~'- __ . g
n” . ‘. _
-¥-"‘ .w‘ ."
L.'ll ..
K‘-v;.--,-: ‘A
.o. —.-,-.~ '\

o
P ‘1
: a.
.
" n
-9-
H..u
“
v-V
-a-
an...
‘0—
Iii-I.-
VA
\
Sip
.
F»-
L...-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“ n-
- \
"-. _ “‘“~A\_
.I ..v ~ ~
»..-\‘_“ .
.
. 'I
“ -
- A
v- ‘- -\
s... _ ._ \
.\‘ h“‘u‘n
‘.
-.
. ‘- . \
-
~
nus. _‘ ‘--“
>. -n, h- h _
-
.-\’ ‘yu‘\
‘.
.
a “V- ‘V .
‘04 I—n
-. " ‘;~
. ‘ Q- u‘\
x
s
n‘ ‘...
-..: -1 .
u. _
I‘Vu
\— I
.
.
‘. “ -F‘ ‘
'-.~ ~‘\-. .‘
» “~- ~ “
“
. _“u-
.‘..
~‘ n ~
-‘ ‘5 5
-‘\ ‘v-\
\ .
s s _“... N‘ ~ '
s u‘. -
-V_..
\
..
‘ §
"\
n“ x “
“.~ h.“\“‘
w .5
b‘_‘ ‘
u 8‘
. a
‘\
.
.
\
\.“‘
\~ ‘I‘
¥\.
-‘\._.
‘.
nx
x
x ‘ -‘ ‘
A‘\ ‘\. -‘
‘\.
‘ ‘ ‘
< ..
-
x
y.
~ Q
s
. ..‘
\
“: “\~‘ ‘
“s. x.
. ‘\'~‘
‘~\
\ .
,.u‘ ‘
‘. \
.‘ \‘~
‘
~\~~
‘ x
‘u : .
k
“x.
\\
~~‘
‘~ \~ .
\ \
. c .K‘
x
‘u‘ ~ ‘
‘\_ u
-
\A
x
..
\‘.‘
I x‘
-\\\V
\ \
\t \u~ ‘
u \| \
._ \
\A \\.
‘K
\ .
L \
‘ “\.
\V \.‘\
\ K
x

 

17

Plan of Work

The thesis is divided into three parts. Part I
includes Chapters I and II,- Part II includes Chapters
III, IV, and V; and Part III covers Chapters VI, VII, and
VIII. Chapter I presents the problematic situation con—
fronting policy makers and agricultural research planners
in their efforts to build indigenous research systems in
less—developed countries and in the West Indies in par—
ticular. The chapter also outlines and spells out how the
objectives of the study are related to the problematic
situation in the region studied.

Chapter II describes the West Indian economy. It
discusses the unique features of the general economy as
well as the agricultural. It further explores the rela—
tionship of the uniqueness of structure to the source of
growth and the general life styles and level of develOp—
ment of the region.

Chapter III examines the performance and composi—

 

tion of the agricultural sector in general and of the ex—
port and domestic agricultural subsectors in particular.
The major function of this chapter is to set the stage

for subsequent discussion of the performance of the re-

gional agricultural research system.

 

C
-0. ”v.8
a: .
0"” r.
t

f
o
f‘
O
. - ~ . -
. 1. 3" a, vb v
~.-.-“ I ha.
- a o J..
~01- o

 

   

.
"fi‘ 1‘"
.-

- ‘.
”V‘ 4‘“ I
q
d
Ito‘-
"M .v:-.

‘u--‘_‘-
-

.
.... ..,,\ “.V‘AA

" van _

NH" -lvv

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘-
.1
-y ‘V'Q‘-Q“" \
- ~ ~ ..' I \-
,n-.~. ..-.,..‘_-v
. a
H." ‘ *~ ~.-.~:.:
-. - - ‘ ‘\\—\ -u o
\-‘.y h..s ‘~~‘,~‘-
‘
’-
‘ ‘
a‘ -. ‘ .
.2“"y \uva~
_ _
'--‘~.'- I 5..~A.. a
o
I -
~,_~ ‘
~'~-“-‘-~ :‘fl‘;::.‘
'5-
-.<.- .5 ~¢~~‘~‘—.
.
.‘- .
. VA ‘v‘§ - ‘ ‘ ‘
\.... — ‘ -v- -~v ‘
‘V§‘F“.~ “U“V
.-. -
‘h‘.‘. ‘-
‘I" ~ ‘h-vi.“‘
A" _ _
~~ ‘A““"“~‘
~§
- ‘ ‘ I
‘. ‘
1‘... \ :‘Wx‘ ““ ‘
‘ ._
5 ~..\—\_‘“‘
.
.
‘A
‘ ‘v.‘
‘ ~‘ Cl"-
v» \-|‘~‘.‘ \
‘\
n“
.
.~ ~ ‘ ‘
Nil. ~ V‘~.. a..\.~
I V“ a
. ~u‘»““ .
.“
‘~~.‘ ‘
“ m. ‘ ~
~ N \
‘\\\~‘ V- “‘.~ ‘
~§u\‘ \~
\ ‘\
\_\
.h‘\‘ ‘
N~ \“ ‘
._ ‘
‘ -\‘\
..‘ “_‘77
‘ H::H\\ ‘
\\\‘ K
\_ ‘
< .
.‘x \‘\‘
x N“
‘\ ~\ ‘ \
.‘ \“\
\“‘. ‘
“u-‘\
m
“x
». ~-\‘\‘ ‘.\
.\\‘\ \‘-'
~ \‘ ‘ \‘
‘ \.‘\
..'w
“~
“~ \.‘ ‘
“\ “‘4‘ ‘
.. \N
\\ K ‘ “
. \‘k. :
\\\
.‘ “\‘
s‘ . H.
x‘ ‘
\ ‘_\
~ “ .
§
\‘\
i'\‘
.\ ‘\.~
\
\
\‘:\ ‘
x \ ‘\\
~.
.\ . ‘
\\‘\\ \‘
\

 

 

18

Chapter IV serves as a background for assessing
the goals and effects of technological change over the
1970's. It presents the empirical findings from the survey
of the regional agricultural research infrastructure over
the 1930—1968 period. Focus is on the classification of
various research organizations by commodity and subject
matter orientation. Research objectives and input struc—
ture are also assessed. Input variables examined are:

(1) research manpower and (2) research expenditure.

Chapter V examines the cross-country experience
in generating successful agricultural productivity gains
through relevant agricultural research systems. The
relevance of international experience to the West Indian
situation is explored, as is some of the empirical evidence
regarding the extent of the first generation problems con—
fronting agriculture. The first generation problems of
the agricultural sector are discussed within the framework
of a regional assessment of the performance of the export
and the domestic agricultural research systems.

Chapter VI examines the likely second and third
generation problems resulting from increased agricultural
productivity via relevant research systems. In addition,

it explores the basis for assigning priorities to various

 

 

 

 

o
' ' a q o r .- '-

 

O

a 0 -Ah.

DA, ups J‘s-0" .n ‘
M b.

.V. ”nab U“ '

 

.
a- A-

 

v- v“

....‘..'.’

 

H 'I.v..

 

 

 

..‘ O-vv ;‘
' Q. "
U..u~.'- ‘0- u.» o
A
~- -‘.'.A .. A ..
H.‘ \ V_ .— — ‘v-
.~'-‘u-|' “~hp:
.
I- I
~.‘ _.‘ '
..- s. -n- ~‘fl--~.‘
"D... ‘r- ._ ‘ __
-.. ...y ”-0-. be...
.-_ . . .
.. ‘9. A- v
- U Q ‘
~ Ier' -- \ ;‘
- ~... . -- ‘-
.._n.
' u. .
K --"‘—\ ‘ .
“ v.5
n.i.-. ‘ a
h -I ‘..u .
;..'
.h.
‘. - v».-‘ . .
."‘ _ ‘9‘ A“ ‘
‘~--.. n a...
-.-~.. _.~
9
.l
u. .
‘ “ IQ
...~'

 

In
{H
1
{1.

 

19

research systems over the 1970's, as well as developing a
shategy for the subject matter of research. "Rough—and—
mmdy"assessment of costs and benefits of technological
innovation are explored.

Chapter VII develOps a strategy for harmonizing
the administrative aspects of the agricultural research
system with the subject matter of agricultural research
over the 1970's. It explores the relationship among re—
gimml,rmtional, and international agricultural systems
and the route which appears most feasible for the West
Indies. Chapter VIII summarizes all the Chapters and pre—
sents conclusions and some recommendations for future

research .

—-.

 

 

unca‘gnl
mssfl- u:‘ M
‘9‘... ‘0 -L‘\-~--
co.

 

.
I. '1‘~‘ “n. c.
.U: :3... Quu-s.
1
.n .qn nus 5‘ ~~A~*:F
‘ ~ I ‘- h “ uh
-- Iv\.»“-“- “V‘ -
a i .
.l . . ‘ ‘
.. ~- -
1 ~ '-‘~ "‘v-.u ~ '-
. s..._‘-‘

5s”--. .4

 

 

 

s ‘ K“
\ l.“ ‘vfifl‘.
‘~"‘~ ".. fi—bu
u» .H‘ “
\.Z .2 h. ‘ ‘h :A‘
.
~§ s .r.“‘\._ “y-
do .
. .. ‘
‘:~.‘\\-. \V-~\‘.
" ~‘ “~I\ .. \b
» s~‘~" ‘
-
.
'~.
‘~‘ Q ~
I --
._ ‘ A‘
.~‘-: ‘C'h "\ -‘\
b—
\-
‘ b~u4 M““
Hl‘
.
. . ‘ -

\ “‘ ‘
‘s. ‘ ~~ K‘ ~“ H“
“V‘ \ \s..

s \\“ A"
‘.
‘u
..‘
. -\~ ‘1‘” ‘
.~" 3 ‘h‘
-r._\ ~
' “-»
- a
“ ‘5. ‘
“ :~ .
..‘..\ K.“‘~‘ “
\ ‘.
““wt
“\-
':~
..‘ 1“
. K.
A “ ‘
-\\\ ‘g" I ‘h ~
§‘ “ h
..\ \
\a““ ‘
. n ‘ ~“k
.‘ h .‘
. \
b..‘\ ‘
Ls.
.\‘
> ‘
\~.: .\‘W“
. “
,..-:. “In.“
‘
‘ .
M ..‘\
. k‘h“ ‘
“‘ \ \\ ‘
\ “‘\
K‘ \F‘ “ \\
a. H ‘
‘\\‘ \
~‘ .~
\
‘ M

 

 

CHAPTER II

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WEST INDIAN ECONOMY

General Overview

The Physical Setting

The West Indies covers a widely diverse, physical,
amiecological geographical area. Its cultural, social,
amiethnic configuration is extremely heterogenous. The
reghnlcovers an area of some 7,733 square miles, a little
Imder five million acres, or the somewhat less than the
mate of New Jersey. The region is not one land mass, but
anmists of ten different, small land units scattered over
axmst area of sea bounded by latitude range from 58° to
78°West. Thus, the capital cities of the two larger
tmnitories (Kingston, Jamaica, and Port of Spain, Trin—
idad)are over a thousand miles apart. Temperature is
flfirly constant throughout the region. However, the
mmrage annual rainfall varies from less than 30 inches
hiparts of Jamaica and the Leeward Islands to over 300
hmhes in parts of the Windward Islands. Even where the

20

_‘

 

 

and rainfall would a
m occur when plan
rarity of the dry 56
dated number of mo:
imml plant growtl

’V uh

-....cted territory

:i-lris‘l“ ted am
is: Lie” to
§

.
arm '

 

 

‘T‘
y .
h
: N t k‘lree t
M)‘ -
‘kl “a .
a Aw I‘
\ s
«is “\E\.

 

21

annual rainfall would appear adequate, periods of intense
drought occur when plant growth virtually ceases. The
intensity of the dry season can be illustrated by the
estimated number of months irrigation would be required
for normal plant growth. Table 2.1 gives such estimates

for selected territories of the region.1

TABLE 2.l.—-Estimated Rainfall and Irrigation Requirements, Selected
West Indian Countries.

 

I Mean Annual Rainfall I Estimated Period of
Country .

 

. Over the Region'31 I Required Irrigationb
Inches Months
Jamaica 30-160 4
Antigua 37—52 8
St. Kitts-Nevis—Anguilla 43-59 7
Montserrat 41—75 5
St. Lucia 50-115 2
Barbados 44—85 7
Trinidad and Tobago 49—130 5

 

a~Represents 20—30 year averages.

Calculations are based on "months of irrigation need“; which is de-
fined as that period in which the chances of rainfall being insuffi-
cient for plant needs are 60 percent or more over more than half of
the region.

Source: Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research and Its
Organization in the West Indies. University of the West
Indies, Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad,
January 1962, p. 2.

 

 

1The three terms "territories," "countries," and
"units" will be used interchangeably, unless specified
otherwise.

 

 

o C . 3
Tels uncer.a$

 

 

ezuirere:

~
I'_:. unfllr 1yyq q)... fl: ‘
- ‘ -“"“--v
""‘ 'Ovu -- .
. Q -" . z
‘-
"i"::: ~:--, n- . . ”a.
lk--b.. 5‘~-'_-
.
u Q “‘
ans A Av “A: :‘
I. .‘ . ~ ‘~‘."
5... "‘ ‘- v- Us-
.
. . |
.f"- "A ‘K—NA .- - Al‘s
"“ ~ ~l
up... I": ovuu‘ " y

‘ .
.ig. ‘ - “v
u‘qv_ Iqa.‘ 3‘- av
‘ "v.1-.““

 

 

Hy . ~
~.
-~‘.— «a ."‘“.—,‘~_‘
NI-.‘.. \ ~ _
. “‘ ‘~ ‘-..~I..»\—u
.I v
1-., _ ‘
.. “Kat-Av ".
‘~“ \—
--
. b ‘55-‘. “‘ -
I“
. .‘_
\y‘ ‘
x7. ‘- ‘
.‘-..: -\ “N‘; Q~F
».
-.
‘~:o¥‘\“‘ ~“ ‘
.‘ \
..v.su~ ty‘
‘
‘
.
‘ ‘ ~
. 5‘ ~
H. ~ “-~ sq.
~.~‘»‘ \
“\u \\‘
‘A
l‘-‘
‘~‘.r. ‘
“‘ h ‘V‘x‘
“ a ....\ .\
‘M‘\ C
._ \
‘. 1. “"
“‘ 2“\ ‘
§\‘I‘ “ .‘
-‘~."
‘_.
1'-
:~. .
‘. R‘ ‘
‘ - ~._
. n‘
‘1‘ b \ :H“
M~\
._“
.‘,
r 'I
‘\\‘k
\ ~ “
~\ A ‘
~‘ 1‘
“\ _\
\‘\\ .
“\
'. n‘
‘ u
. k . ‘
"“‘ “ ‘ ‘ ‘
.‘ A N‘
\‘ ~ \‘
‘ ~¥ use
\

 

\
\
K \
‘
r . ‘._ V‘ “N“ ‘ .
‘ “M\ K“
~‘ ‘\
\‘o “ ‘
‘U \
\~ ‘ \
\ h‘
\ \\. ~
0‘ \. k” ‘x‘
‘ x ‘ "\- ‘
.‘ a _-“
s N‘-‘ ‘
“I \"~
\ “‘-. ‘N‘.~ \
i. “V \. ~
r“ .‘ I‘
.n M‘ \

 

22

In spite of the demonstrated need for irrigation,
very little is undertaken. In most cases, the relatively
high capital requirements, relative to product prices, pre—
clude such irrigation investments being financed out of
business capital. This is even more so with reSpect to
small—scale or peasant agriculture, where capital is
scarce and tends to be rationed. Even within the more . 1
commercialized enterprises (largely export oriented) in—
vestment in irrigation facilities is low. Undertaken
irrigation is financed mainly by large capital outlay from
the public sector in long—term improvement loans with min-
imal interest rate schedules.2

Numerous soil surveys indicate no substantial areas
of unutilized good soils in the West Indies. However,
there are areas where "undeveloped" land could be brought
into cultivation. In such cases, the capital requirement
tends to be substantial and far beyond the means of many
Of the territories. For many years to come, agricultural
production will be dependent on ability to maintain and

improve the quality of existing crops and land resources.

M

2 . . .

In Chapter V we briefly touch on the empirical
evidence of internal and external capital rationing in
West Indian agriculture, as exemplified by the Jamaican
case.

 

 

Q!

.aition to poor 501

  

- «awn :—
' .1 '
"(:1 tims “a.“ u at

' ' or”
“9*" :N.‘ "ariafhgnf
LL"; um. In- -a.
‘ 0 e
' “'RAFO (\- o-flo ocrv‘
-vt..:..u u- at.» -v-- .

 

 

o . w
l ' > HA
I u u. 1 “3'52.“
v»-\,v..»
.

    

"- a..- I
o

 

"' “,2 "P!" in “A-
v- u... u. “-v .. vs. .
-. .'
" «a-
- ...\ u-A~ :-
o.-' new- -‘Iu“
3‘ .
‘.. A
F'.‘
'- \ ~ FA . ~ '- ..
”v.” ‘..I“ hr.-
' O ..V- ~D. U
.
'Il. ‘. ~ ‘
A .~
‘ A
.. . ~v‘.: .._V_
".'."‘\-.-a

 

 

 

‘ ‘0. ~
.‘H‘
._~~ I
s~| ‘AY .
a.‘ _
.
.~".-~. .
w ‘
u _
‘._‘~ ‘v‘5w: .- ~.
' V-‘g. 0-.
\-
. 5V-
‘r
... ‘
‘ -._‘
.
'~.~~ ‘ .
. ~ .. "n‘
g.
“.l "-»
3‘“: ‘-
.. ‘
“‘l \:“‘
“"\: ~ ‘\‘\.
b
5- x
Vs“ ‘ ‘
s‘ ¥ ‘r‘.-‘
‘
‘5 q._‘ 2 \~
‘-
‘s.
. \‘
.. ~: ‘
.\“

 

 

v. \
* \
‘\“ -
.‘ a
\ 2“
H x ‘
‘~ "\\
‘\ .‘
"H .
‘ .
r
.\~\..
‘\ ~.
~
~ \
‘ ‘Rk‘
. a\ ‘ ‘
\ CK
‘\‘\ ‘
‘\\
‘\

 

23

In addition to poor soils, there is also a wide variation
in soil types within and among the units. In many areas,
extreme soil variations occur over a small range and over
70 percent of the territory has slopes of greater than 20°
with only 5 percent below 5° . Thus, soil type and topog—
raphy limit effective mechanization and the range of crops
which can be grown commercially.

The West Indies probably has the greatest diversity
of crOps anywhere in the world. Practically every tropical
crop of commercial importance was tried at one time or the
other. However, for a host of reasons, many have failed.
The range of crops tends to be narrow on the export side
and quite wide on the domestic or "subsistence" side. In
general, domestic crops or food crOps usually include
cereals (rice and corn), root crops, vegetables, and grain—
legumes. Inter-cropping is wideSpread in subsistence pro—

duction .

The General Economic Structure

Regional Economic Growth in Perspective.——The West

 

Indian economy cannot be described in the sense of a con-
ventional ”national economy." This concept is more appro—

Priately applied to economies which have relatively

 

 

 

 

‘ in! ‘lr'a
ecra-ted p..,s-.

 

Q ‘1
A
%.
U
. I
I-

 

 

' 0
“F“
‘F u
A ‘-
3“ '»

 

 

 

 

 

 

' I ~ -0- a...»
""0 rev...”
. "o.
..\u.. up‘A'- -’~
‘ \d- ' w..u-
.. I...” - b.-
.
Q
' . ~0-
t‘w! :I“ 0-;- ,‘.~: ‘
h '-
. .u-An‘ U"“’-\.-o_
Q
Q c ‘
nil-ta ”an ~‘.~h d
_ — ‘ u
U...““‘ “~..
.
m . ~ .
‘K I ‘.~ -F.
“ " .2 _
.— hony--A~h\, b.“
. . .
Ns§~ n-A‘ A.'A.“
~~ F A-— .
n..~ ..~‘I ..~ . ‘
s
A ‘A ‘
v.” '- 2
‘5U“..“ \-
-
I.l .
‘
~ a
-.-..~: ‘Iq :1‘“ A-
.! “nu -\‘-\
‘-
. “
....~ ~Fv.¥~‘_‘ “ ‘“
~ “. h.‘ ‘
“\““ “.-
‘ Q
-h: ..~~ ‘ a.
‘ \
..n‘.~‘: \
.
. ._
. “
‘ ‘v .. ‘
. .‘ ~
...: :0 "“3...
y “-H“
L-_
\ ,“
u \~\s~ ‘. ‘
~s.‘~ N :“N “_
\ 5“.“ \~t
‘ Q
~ ‘ ‘
‘ v. N.‘ ‘
—\\:‘ ~‘\\"_‘ ‘I
\- v.
x \‘ h
. “
n.‘
. . K“
‘n. ~V‘u‘ ‘ ‘
»-§\ ~n‘ “-\‘
. ‘ “'\‘ ‘-
‘\_‘
‘\
~ \
. ‘~. -
. ‘ ‘
‘§u ‘ ‘H‘
\
a s \..t Q\l‘-
5“
‘
\
y
\

 

 

 

24

well—integrated physical, political, and economic struc—
tures, as is the case in the older federal systems such
as the United States and Great Britain. The formation of

CARIFTA might well be the basis for evolution of a na—

 

tional economy in the conventional sense.3 However, it

is quite evident that the current heterogeneity of eco—

nomic and political structure, as well as economic poten— y .
tials, preclude such a concept at the present time.

To exclude the conventional "national economy"
model does not, however, preclude general analysis of an
aggregated regional economy. Many important physical,
political, and socio-economic features are common to all
of the territories and present a natural basis for an
aggregated analysis of the region. It is safe to say that
the units are “underdeveloped," unskilled labor is abun—
dant, sectoral and per—man productivity is low (relative
to developed economies), capital is deficient and per
capita output and real incomes are low. In addition, the

majority of the territories are mainly agricultural.

M

3A brief outline of the objectives of CARIFTA was
given in Chapter I. For further information on the working
Of the Association, see: Government of Trinidad and To—
bago, CARIFTA and the Caribbean Economic Community, Port—
of—Spain, July, 1968.

 

Wm is one Of t
msignificant 9109‘
5:}; territories.
Aseemingll' ec<
mes is the high
armies coexisting W
interize :nderdeve

:: countries are r

Liz-4:1 . . .
-rrar standard

: H .
\. :-" Ar

1.“. soxe A

-. than
. ‘hyi‘

-- C: the or:

“b
"He: eerwmm'

v.4 ’
tumr

“. ‘5
u

* a
.~ £31" '
_ .a l“ -
“CC.

;e\‘e15 C:

 

ifi

Agriculture is one of the largest employers and accounts

25

for a significant proportion of the gross domestic product
of the territories.

A seemingly economic paradox of the West Indian
economies is the high degree of "monetization" of the
economies coexisting with those factors that generally
characterize underdevelopment. The cash economies of all
of the countries are highly advanced, and the non—market
sector is relatively small in comparison with countries
with similar standards of living. It is estimated that
the non-market sector varies from 12 percent of the gross
domestic product in the Windward Islands to 2 percent in
Trinidad and Tobago. In comparison, it is estimated that
this sector in some African states may reach as high as
65 percent of the gross domestic product.4

When economic development is measured in terms of
real per capita incomes, significant gaps are found between

the income levels of the islands and those of the developed

 

economies. It must be kept in mind, however, that in terms
NM

4 . . .
United States Department of Agriculture (Foreign
Regional Analysis Division—ERS) , Jamaica, Trinidad and

Toba o, the Leeward Islands, the Windward Islands, Barbados

and British Guiana: Projected Levels of Demand, Supply,
Wof Agricultural Products to 1975 (1964), p. 5.

 

 

 

 

~u."- np-c'gvog
:...:.: bvdu-I- o»

   

O
"a: 2
“I Nu.-\.d, .o

o .
.1...

ad ”a: ‘O.Ru—:
|" -‘-\vuu-.\.

".O.

 

“0u\ ‘-
A V‘ :-
wi“. ."v
ow.‘.~. .
.. —\ Ar Q
\.....~ .'. v

.
“an
3.1..

‘ v
D A
'r‘ .._
A.” ...U

Q
“P“! n
a
M..\A s,
.
-
a A. F.
\
‘ \-— u
-
u
A N -R
.— a." .—
”-yfivv

 

 

 

 

 

26

of the relative position on the global income scale, the
West Indies places quite favorably among Western Hemi-
sphere countries and is substantially above countries of
Asia, Africa, and the Near East. Table 2.2 shows the
relative income and population positions (as well as aver—
age annual rates of growth) for selected Western Hemisphere
countries for selected time periods. In terms of per
capita GNP, population growth rate, and per capita income
growth rate, the region compares favorably with other
Western Hemisphere countries. Specifically, World Bank
estimates indicate that the average annual rate of growth
in per capita income was around 2.5 percent between 1961
and 1967. Over the same time period, the average annual
rate of growth in population was approximately 1.8 percent.
The 1961—67 regional figures disguise some important var—
iation among the territories. In general, the larger ter—
ritories of Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, and Barbados
have a per capita income which, to a great extent, re—
flects aspects of the economic base of the individual
islands. The figures also indicate that there have been
Significant changes in the individual economies over the
past two decades. There is not a strong correlation be—

tWeen the level of per capita income of the individual

 

 

 

 

 

 

27

\..._

5??:s

:x.
2:...

 

 

 

 

m-...\-.s\v

 

 

. .u.

 

 

 

- I :.
?.v .. :_\ ta;:; if
avo- ..~.- .wae: \ . Walnflxnfksoix
. c _ 1. _ .._ .s -s~ \l...\.\~‘... “its
.. H" aux H“ Mum‘s... ~.~._~— \ ..\ T... -.s..:x-
m.H N.m 00m HmH.WH MHQEOHOU
m.H H.m OHM th.v wamfimflwsm
©.¢ m.H OHM Hm mDmHumfl
m.OI v.N 0mm mmoew MQSU
m.N H.m 0mm mwm.NH Dumm
B.H m.m Ode amm.a moflm mpwoo
©.N o.H 0mg mam mononumm
m.a o.m owe onm.a MUHmamh
m.m m.m one nma.m oaflnu
m.N v.m Omw Aboumv OOHxQE
mva Op 00mm
m.¢ m.m 0mm mmmua mfimqom
m.a s.m ooh oao.a omunos our ouoaeflns
m.a ©.H oom mmm.mm waspsomnd
H.H m.m owm mmm.m mHoDNmso>
N.® m.H OHN.H mm@.m ocem Opuosm
00m.aw 0# comm
m.m m.H owm.m Hv¢.om momsmu
m.m ¢.H Oh©.m mHH.mmH monopm pouHsD
oooimm H®>O
uuuuuuuuuuuuu nqoonomuiuunu- mumaaoo .m.o oauusore muuHHoo .m.s
MUHQMU Mom mzw H Gospmasmom H H H m
. H spammo Mom mzw H sowpoadmoa u mspssou . whooopmo
ovum apaoaw Hoossm H H u u oEoosH

 

 

mogmm QHBOMQ

Hmssqm omouo>¢ paw .coflpmHsmom .Ahwmav opammu Mom pooposm Hmsoapmz wmonwrl

.moaupqsoo oumrmmasom quorum: empowamm now .ieolaomav

.N.m Mdm49

 

28

Mom .moapoasmom

 

.moma .nonfioomom ..U.o .soumcflflmmz .mopmm gusouw paw nonposm muflmmo

"mmapm qum cHHOB .usofimoao>oo pom cofluOSHumsooom How Mamm HosOHpmsMoucH ”wousom

 

NFQ‘NQLfir—IOV‘NV‘
MOHHHHTl—{q'l—lm
l

MLONOQ‘n—lhfl‘mowfi‘
OWNMMMHMNI—iv—i

on

OhH

OHN
OHN
OHN

OVN
0mm
0mm
O®N
Ohm

meiv

spare

mH>HHom
usoosfl> .pm

 

mausa .pm

Howmsom

mammmmm

mmsmmumm

mohdocom

HHNon

mmmmmmmm

OHHQDmmm GMOflnHEOQ

 

oaaadoamlma>ozlmuuax .um

 

ooaw corp mmoq

mmNW 0“ OOHW

 

 

 

’ r
‘ "a ..
cries and r...

~ .
.dfll'.

 

.
* rr
'0 ya
..- urn-On: “5-: .‘.i
"' Onion—9-

 

 

. i H
g
‘I
». u..fl_“ - ‘
“u. "O\I\.- . ‘ : .
.. _ ~ u
I... v-...”_' b..-»

. .
..... s a ‘ ~“_‘
. ‘ .—~‘ 1‘“ ~
tun-C i. “.|.‘ \‘ "’u
a» .-_. ‘ . -
.§~;- a. :“5 “u

.
.. v... ~;~. ‘..‘ ‘4‘
h a
.‘u‘ ‘
up v‘.:: .‘ ‘ h v.
. "5\ -‘ -H~‘
W., . ‘
~~ _ A
'x_. ‘ v N “5"a‘,‘
“‘ \ ~ 5‘
s . 1‘ “'y‘ \~
.
-
~
.
~
._~ .‘
I» ‘:. ‘¥‘.
.““‘ fi-
‘ i . I “ I
-
--‘K O
\
...; - m. ‘lfi‘
.N 5. ~ ~
v‘u.-‘.-‘» .
\
“‘\“
~. “‘H~ ‘
‘¥»‘
- . ““‘V ‘.I
M
.‘ \‘~"
.I ‘ \ u ‘
. ‘ ‘
\h» \»I‘ ; y; :‘ ‘
I ‘~\\.‘ “
I-‘L ‘
i ‘V._.‘
I .‘h
‘.H: QC“.
. .. ~\ “
..
~-“ ‘
.\..~ ~"». ‘\‘
.\ N.” \ \0:‘ \
._M '
“‘~:

 

 

 

29

countries and the rate of growth in income. During the
1950's and early 1960’s, it was quite plain that the -
countries with the most rapid rate of growth in per cap—
ita incomes were those countries with the highest level
of per capita income. During the 1950's and early 1960's,
the region experienced some of the highest average annual
rates of growth in per capita income in the world. To a
great extent, this unprecedented growth was largely attri—
buted to Jamaica and Trinidad and Tabago. For example,
between 1953 and 1959, these two countries registered
annual rates of increase in per capita gross domestic
product of 9.8 percent and 9.5 percent, respectively (cur—
rent prices).5 Very few countries came near to approaching
this performance.

Beginning in the mid—1950's, the region started
registering a relative decline in its rate of economic
growth. Bryden estimated that between 1956 and 1964 the

average annual rate of growth in GNP of the region was

m

5See Table l—Appendix A for comparative growth rate
Of other countries over similar periods. Adapted from
Rempersad, Frank, Growth and Structural Change in the Econ—
omy of Trinidad and Tobago, 1951—61, Institute of Social
and Economic Research, University of the West Indies,
Jamaica, December, 1964, p. 4.

 

 

 

u
. '0‘
to cynic. a

u 1..
v

 

 

 

 

 

h.fi3.

 

RJ
8
{—5

. C
-r.“‘~-~
:v“§: :v-n “.8...“
.
.sc-.¢ ‘N. .--
.
u. . ”I‘.
“.5" r .~ "v. H
.. an \ ~- '“h
n._ ecu, . ‘
'3‘:
-"»
~ Q
. .“ p
- “A“ ~
.. my»--”" ‘—
‘.-' ug.’ ”
. .
. .: " .9! “CV
N '0.‘ ‘1'. ‘2 ~--‘
.
h . ~
n," H ‘
In B'\‘ ‘~‘
u‘ .‘ ~ ‘ ~\\
5. I turn. ‘~~~
_
|;-‘ ~\l~ Q R U
"r .F ‘ ' ‘1‘ .
I .“ ~ \
In.» —.' ~."
‘ I
&‘ ..
a “-
.\- §sug l‘::~
.'v ‘
‘ ib- ._ .5
"“ VA. ‘
§. \
. ~-
~
..
. ‘: ‘:~.. ‘
\Q
‘ ‘\\-‘ \
.
..
.l
«. ~D :“‘ ‘
N ‘
.-. ‘-.. figsk‘r“ .‘
Hy ‘: \‘
. -\"‘\4
.“ ‘- ‘
"- \ \‘\‘ ‘
h ‘ ‘ s. .‘
.~~\ \ ‘vfi
‘ “\
I“.
‘u v‘
\~._\ \..“
V .‘:2 K“‘
‘ ‘M. \

 

 

 

30

about 7 percent. Adjusting for population growth over the
period (about 2 percent), he estimated that the actual rate
of growth was about 5 percent.6 The general slowing down
in rate of growth is reflected also in the growth rates of
Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago in the late 1950's and
early 1960's. Bryden's figures show that between 1956 and
1964 Jamaica's rate of growth in GDP had fallen to 4.8
percent (a decline of 5 percent from the 1953—59 period).
Over the 1956—64 period, Trinidad's growth also declined
relatively, but less dramatically (from 9.5 to 8.2 per—
cent). Table 2.3 shows the estimated annual rate of growth
in GDP for the West Indian territories over the mid—1950's
and early 1960's.

Comparison of World Banks figures with those of
Bryden and Rempersad shows a significant decline in the
region's rate of growth over the last decade.7 This raises

serious questions as to the region's ability to cope with

M

6Bryden, John M., The Contribution of Agriculture
to Economic Growth in the Former Federation of the West
Indies, 1955-65. Department of Agricultural Economics and
Farm Management, University of the West Indies, Occasional

Series No. 3, Trinidad, 1968, p. 3.

7Rempersad's figures refer to figures quoted in
earlier parts of this chapter for Jamaica and Trinidad.
See Table l—Appendix A.

 

 

 

-
Anyone,
Vic—Ink
a

2m»
v. dub

 

. l
e... ‘
u, 1‘ -
'Mzo}.

 

 

 

 

 

‘

0.. -

. .

-\.‘~.
1":

 

 

 

 

‘:“‘
\' ‘ .
\.- \‘;‘.“~ ‘
.. \-\
‘~‘
n. N
\\~
‘ I
~"‘
‘\.\ h
‘- a .
"
~\~ ;‘
Q“..,
s
.
. N
'- ~N.‘
\
“s
e \
~.: -\
.‘\
E
.“
u
.\.. .
‘-.\:\ ‘
x \
M" Q\\ \
‘~ ~V\\
.._
“NM
\
i. ‘~
.‘:\: ‘
.
~ \iv.
‘\ ‘~.
\‘\ Q
‘\
.‘u‘.
:“ .
N \
\ \ \ ‘ ‘
\ x
M ‘ . h~ \
.\. N
\
x
.s‘
. \
‘ ‘\‘i W
'. R‘
‘ ‘.‘\ \
“ “\y\
W N K
‘ \

.‘N‘M
., ‘
Q's-
\A\
.

\‘.
‘\
,N“\
a. g

“x.

‘h.

\

\

H
‘\
i .
H D
‘x.

I]:

 

31

TABLE 2.3.—-Average Annual Rate of Growth in GDP for the West Indies
for Selected Time Periods.

 

 

 

 

. . Growth Rate
Country/Group I Period Compared I (Factor Cost,
I 3 Current Prices)
XEEE Percent
Ba$ados 1956/57 - 1964/65 5.5
Grenada 1957/58 — 1963 3.2
St. Vincent 1961 - 1963 3.4 ‘
St.Imcia 1961 - 1964 6.5
Dmfinica 1961 - 1964 4.5
Mtigua 1957/58 — 1964/65 5.7
Momwerrat 1957/58 — 1964/65 7.3
St. Kitts, Nevis, Anguilla 1956/57 - 1964/65 3.8
Average for "Eight" 1956/57 — 1964/65 4.9
Windward Islands 1956/57 - 1964/65 4.0
Leeward Islands 1956/57 - 1964/65, 5.5
Emmados 1956/57 - 1964/65 5.5
Jamaicaa 1956/57 — 1963/64 4.8
Trhfidad 1956/57 — 1963/64 8.2
Average "West Indies" 1956/57 - 1963/64 7.0

 

a . . . .
Jamaica revised upwards on the baSis of figures supplied by Mr. Oswald
Nurse.

Source: Bryden, John M., op. cit., p. 3.

such factors as employment, balance of payments, and in—
creased demand for food and consumer durables. It also
raises serious questions as to the dynamics of the re—
gional economic structure and specifically why the regional

economy has apparently slowed down. To answer some of

 

 

. ‘
' ,5 AH” U in ,
'lz': up ' 1 . b . *‘
”3v ulus}.-u.. v

’i
q
r”.
d

‘ .
w" A: 7P5 YA"! .

I. - I
sub U- 9..» a- V’ “.

 

I . 1F . -.p A '0 A
‘ I. Q
.vP'n In. F

 

p. y.-
“.."."-“‘I doc»- \—
4

. ’
.. nun. ., .“ ~ .- -
7 ‘ u... ‘
u..--.‘- -__ ‘Iv-.. U ~

~

..--A “7“Au‘ Ann‘s
_ ‘ ' ' .—

' “"-\¢..‘-

Vvv.-

H

 

o
“ .mvfia
8‘

..u _. a.
o

». ‘
A § ‘

" v—h-YA F~

-"“.-u-..u

' '

 

 

.q
a...“
.—
" ho.» \
‘Aa. ‘ -
.4,- r -'
.4v-. -. -.
.
'.. .
ud .
‘ 0..
~ ..~
tab. 1 _ «fiw‘v.
U-..

 

u.
nu
V“ ‘
‘ u-‘ ‘E
“-.u M

.

 

I r.
n;
(J
(I)
l

 

.
n

{I}
(J;
111

 

 

32

these questions we will explore further the struc—
ture of the regional economy.

Although the regional economy is strongly
agricultural, there are wide variations among the
islands in terms of the importance of agriculture
in the national economy. The most complete set
of figures regarding the relative contribution of
agriculture to the GDP of individual territories
are for 1961. In that year, it is estimated that
the relative contribution of agriculture to GDP
varied from a high of 43 percent in Dominica and
St. Kitts—Nevis, to a low of ll percent in Trin—
idad and Tobago. In general, agriculture ranks
second to mining and manufacturing in terms of
regional contribution to GDP. Table 2.4 shows the
proportional contribution of the various sectors
to GDP by territory for 1961. If the table is
taken at face value, there are strong suggestions
that the more advanced economies of Jamaica and

Trinidad and Tobago have undergone a substantial

:. \ ~.:\~.\

pl»
v
—
..
\-
D
\
~
I
.

 

CC; ..... a .C \.I_ s-:
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII... ..-I. .. II.I..lIl. II .II I. . . ..~.s..-.~.—:.I . I , . .I ..
IIIII-IIII.II.1I A. I I I I i‘llil I I I I IOI . . l . | . I I I | I

I I I...v r... . av. I I .f. ~.:....... . I ~...~.~ I ‘1‘. a...... \x....;I I
o ca.o- I..-.a-_-_..3A_I _ I u ..I ...... I . - . ‘2 I ‘ I.s-~s~e.:.u x
ufv-.a.nuv._.0 I I _...-. I I ~..-.. I ~..—-. I ~.-~. I I \v~ \~s-s\.\
IIIF-I.~90>Aunvl uuv canrnv. I I .--.~.—.I I I I a h\./\ I
H u H .~.1.u-\/-Iw.a.. II II.-‘. .-..- s -..‘~—.I~.-‘ 5‘. u..-\-..-.F\II.-I~‘ ..-.~ s....-~.~II II
'll Iflilrln 1" .I.- I..l .IIII . I . . I I I I I u I I I
.... ~
I IIII unuaI - II. I7} I .- u u. u I. I o I. a I I ..n-.I.I I II. '7 I u I ...u.. I I.~ , a . . I.... I. . . I.. . I. . I ‘ ... . ~ ... I ~ I I II. . . I I I. I u I. ., . I I x . \.. I

 

 

.OOOH ~m0HgmeMpm HMHSpHDUHMmm QMHUQH ummz mo umwmwo
Q .N .02 meme HMQOHmmooo ..H.B.D .uamfiwmmcmz EMmm Osm wUHEocoom HwyngdoHHmd mo unmEuHmme ”mousom

 

 

 

 

I . o . .
QH0>OOH MO pa m m00H>Hmm u “GOH#SQHHumHDumEHHSMOMMSQMZ”GOHUOSHumCOOn

OOH m m m h OH ON O OH mmHMEZOOU HHfl
OOH OH m w m hH m N Hv ucwonH> .uw
OOH OH m w m 5H m w Om MHUSH .pm

OOH OH O O H MH H HH mv MHHHsmcd
\mH>wZ\mupHM .um
OOH @N w m m HH m m mm pmnummpcoz
OOH 5H O O H vH N HH mv MUHCHEOQ
14 OOH OH O OH O NN OH O wN mowmnumm

A5

OOH ON 5 m w OH O mH mN MUDQHmm
Uzm mstpca

OOH OH 5 b m VH N OH mm SoomHHMmo
Ocm mcmcwuw

OOH OH N O O OH MH m HH OOMQOB
Ucm OMOHGHHB
OOH 0.0 m.O b.wH m.m O.hH O.VN m.HH v.NH MUHMEMO

unmoHDm
m ufiwfi mmmGHHstnmnonmMMOHmm whom m moHMHMOU m OGMMHE m @GHHQGGHmemeSpHSOM
Hmuoau u U Imqmna . . U . flaw IHumm ” P3560

 

.mefi
~m®flUGH ummvB .fiflmHHO HMHHDWDHVCH \HQ GOHUUSCOHnH OHuWQEOQ mmOHO On. GOHHDQHHHCOU HwGOHuHOQOHmII.v.N MQMJNB

 

 

 

 

C

we: sf economc St!

a
“I
4

q
II'UO “I nf‘" "f 5: :e
u: L: “Ur v.. 5'" .

a
F‘uw‘u 'p ('7‘: rs: 9- r C
"cc-o: 1;. CU; U- 9.. e

. ..
.90.:3 :: I'hnfl;-~‘p~ I
"a n- - .M-\.d-.~.nu

-

  

 

O ' ‘
u‘p.-.yvp~ "Qua
a M
-h-u-d.-u- -..u Inf-:3»
C

u.

.. .
I". A -~ a
:‘v _ _n ‘ op: . v.‘ 's
' ‘~‘O'v-- v...» -..‘~

 

’ N-_\Ag~-‘

'~. .. In“ __ ‘

-. . u -""\v- - g
.“ '— yd. ' ‘—

- v“ --

II.
.
A‘ N
\..- ':“"“v
y u...
" \r.¢-.V__-
.
.
."'“--n,‘ . ‘-
.“'~»— .1 ‘v:":v~;-P-
.
- v‘i‘.'.-"‘.

 

Q.
\ "‘flh..‘,"
§“‘ — ‘vx.
»--_“ .-
‘ —-M

 

 

34

degree of economic structural transformation.8 However,
this is not the case. The relatively low shares of agri—
culture in GDP of these territories should not be inter—
preted as indicating the evolution of an industrial and
manufacturing base. Instead, the share of agriculture in
GDP reflects the inability of the agricultural sector to
increase its productivity, and thus increase its contribu—

tion to GDP. Even if we make adjustments for on—farm

 

8See Chapter I, page 13, for earlier reference to
"structural transformation." It is recognized that com—
plete structural transformation in the economic sense,
i.e., equalization of the MVP's (marginal value products)
of factors between sectors is never fully attained. Thus,
some form of "dualism" persists in highly advanced econ—
omies. For example, in the United States, incomplete
structural transformation (and hence dualism) results in
divergence between the MVP‘s of agriculture and non—
agriculture. However, in such instances, the dualism is
largely due to Pxi(acq) > Pxi(salv) within the agricultural
sector. Under such conditions overcomm1tment of resources
to agriculture occurs. Glenn Johnson argues that many less
developed countries are beyond the Schultzian equilibrium
where MVP's equal marginal factor cost. Instead, they
operate where low MVP's are below MFC based on acquisition
price, and above MFC based on salvage value. Thus, on a
private account many of the less developed countries actu—
ally overcommit resources to agriculture, while on a public
or national account resources are actually undercommitted.
See Johnson, Glenn L., and Quance, C. L., Overproduction
Trap in U.S. Agriculture: A Study of Resource Allocation
World War I to the late 60's (Forthcoming work sponsored
by Resources for the Future and Michigan State University) .
Also, Johnson, Glenn L., "Factor Markets and Economic
Development," McPherson, W. W., ed., W
of Tropical Agriculture, University of Florida Press,
Gainesville, 1968, pp. 93—111.

 

 

 

"no.

’ ‘- 3
mac: no mile:

""1: he re'l 9* -. 2'9

‘ a-
a-u-‘vi .

 

.. q
*; :n-nm-

S
Vvv oobepbh

(n
'1
b.
a.
(b

)
(V
I .‘9

I - ‘
..np:onp A- :~'.’ ”I. .-

h..".'. v- ‘Vbhvu- :—
J

 

 

 

 

 

 

V n
.. ‘ A «or
I I)— —~
hbosu' -‘- v y'.
.
'5‘a .
~FI‘
-‘Nru‘-_.
. ‘ '
y. 5.. .
V; -’ .A“ Y“
I-oaguu.‘ -‘ h '—
' -..\.I -‘_
.__
-V‘Av‘fl'fivA‘. a;
5..
. :‘w-_-_._ ‘
- \
0-" ‘
‘- I— ‘N‘
u..- “V.
"'-.; .
. ..K .
-.. _‘ ~ ”a“ ..
"-- n -‘
"h‘- I\

 

 

‘\. I
.‘I ‘\ Y.v‘\
~ ‘ "
§‘ h‘
‘“‘I A
.._
. .‘
\ ‘n ‘
‘ ~
~ ‘ 1 a“
uu‘vu. ‘H
V“
‘1». .
n “
I. “ ‘
I“ ~ “‘~ ‘-
‘-\“\: ‘ ‘§§ g
5 §‘\‘. \
n!_‘
I
I_~ \
H‘ m“
. I‘
\~ ‘
u‘ ‘ ‘-
‘
. \-
~5 ‘
H“
.
II"\‘
‘ \
z».
‘ l‘\
“..~§- ‘ ‘
\Wu “\.H
-I.“‘\
I
u
I‘
\
‘ \
" ‘~ \“\.,‘ ‘
~ \
i ‘\ ‘.K k.
“u ‘ -\A
w.
I‘ :‘»‘\ ‘
\. 1
, “ ‘.
‘ ' \N \ .‘.\
. . ‘ k
‘ \Q
“R ‘s - ‘\_
‘-.: x‘
‘
‘H\ -.
‘ ‘ x ‘
k ‘_ s i ‘I‘:
‘ ‘
‘.\ “K I \
‘ N
\ \
I ‘\M N.‘
.I -‘ \'
‘~\. I. ‘ ‘\
I .. ‘ .
x ‘x.
~_ :- \
.\ "\
‘ It I
‘- ‘ \‘I .:\~\‘
\
I \\ ‘ ‘z
»: ‘N \
._\ ‘ _ ‘
‘ ‘ t \s I
I
\ x ‘ \‘ :‘\\“
‘\4
N n‘ ‘
‘I. “~‘
‘ a \‘
"‘ Y¥é “‘\
._ :\ \ ‘K‘.
\ \~‘_ \
.‘\‘ ‘x -
‘._ Vs
‘ I
\ ._\
\‘ k

 

35

consumption not reflected in GDP, the picture changes
little. The relatively high degree of monetization of
the economies makes the GDP figures a fairly accurate
indicator of agriculture's performance. In Chapter III,
this point will be explored further in terms of empirical
evidence.

Another measure of the relative importance of
agriculture in the regional economy is provided by:
(l) the proportion of the total population living in rural
areas and (2) the agricultural working force as a propor—
tion of the total working force. Table 2.5 shows the
characteristics of these components for the year 1960.
The table shows that some 68 percent of the region's popu—
lation is rural, while some 33 percent of the total work
force is engaged in agricultural pursuits. For the 1960
period, population density per square mile of land aver—
aged about 402 for the region as a whole. Density varia—

tions between individual territories ranged from a high of

M

91t should be noted that much of the data on West
Indian agriculture relates to 1960. This year coincided
With the last time that an Agricultural Census was taken
in the region. Much of the 1960 data only became avail—
able in 1965. Preparations are now underway to conduct a
1970 Census of Agriculture. We feel that there have been
minor changes over the decade and so the 1960 figures are
IEpresentative .

 

A.I\.» .II._\. ..~....I.I...I_ I ~....~.:_:.\_
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII..II.III--o~.-.I.—. I . I. |i..! . I I ~...~:_~.~g
4.2.. .n..-.:-I....

51.11..sz .3. a. I...

.—I._ ~..—-..-.v._

nIoavr —.- .x .. . .
ufid fl-IJ-.c IA-I-nuu_ a-n . . .n...I.—. - IA’\ _.~\ I.~1\ \A~s-~II\ s
.. I .I -- -I¢..-I- §-.--\~ -~II\~\~ .
Its/N Push-vv-I.II¢ .-.l\ II .s< —II...~.
-I’ Ill Ill! I I . h I I

I IIIII. - I I... u n... I I II. .73 I .III

 

 

36

 

.mmma .moflpmflumum HmHSpHDUflHmw quUQH #mm
.mmaccH pmwB mgp mo wufimum>flco .pcwfiwmmcmz Sham U

 

   
    

 

 

3 mo umwmflm w KN
Gm mUHEOGODm HMHS¥

 

 

 

.oz mwflumm HMCOflmmooo
adoflhmm mo unmfiuhmgwa

 

 

 

quHDOW
«.mm m.hw mna.moa.m mmm.wmo.m wmm.moo‘fl mmHmazsou qq<
n.mw v.0m oov~am www.mm nmm.ma pawoqfi> .pm
H.mm m.mm woa.om mmm.on mam.mfl aflosq .um
H.mv m.mm mmm.om mmm.om mma.wm maaflsmcm
\mfl>w2\muuflx .um
n.ov m.¢m nma~ma mvw.oa va~H pmnuwmwcoz
o.mm m.o> mam.mm mmo.ov mmw.ma maficflaoa
mm v.m> mum.vmm Hmm.me vvm.wv mowmngmm
w.
. . mmv.mm hmw.HN mUSQHmm
H.Hm O ow owo Wm Ufiw mdmflpflfl
. ~ ~m> mem.m soomfluumu
Mow? m mm PQQ mm VOM UGM GUMCMHU
. owa~wnm ommnos
m.mH m.vm mhm~bmw mmw mvw 6:6 Umvflnflna
m.on ovm~®om.fi mom.>ma~a mvm.mnv moflmamn
m.nm gogagfl
unmonum
coaumadmom nOHpMHSQom mmwufl mmmud muucsoo
mnaxwoz HMHOB HMpOB mo Hmuoa HMHSM :MQHD
MO.GOH#H0m0Hm GOHHHOQOHQ

mm amusuasoflgm¢ m m¢ Hwnsm

 

0H 5 Huumflmxl.m.m mamms
HMHDM Ufim nMQHD fimwBUmm GOHUMHflmUm m0 S .9 Q

mm ~mmmHm

.OmmH .mwflvflH U B

 

 

 

1.1.13 oersons per 5332

. u
“A . av. fi ”‘7'.
.MI J33: 35 C e.- “th

. _ I
’2'. 'FzO .pa

0 .

flaw-a- . g...

- _. D

Uo-w u". Ov|
-

 

 

' v
."‘V‘~An ~
- _ A
.¢-n ""““CH 3"
a

 

\(‘J

J-

in..." -1

.--‘ h
l..
“g,

‘ ‘
\2Vn...‘-

1]

 

A“

‘I..

 

 

II)

111
(II
J
I

I

I
J:

l

 

 

37

1,413 persons per square mile in Barbados to a low of
192 in Dominica. The pressure of population on the
land base is even more dramatically reflected in the
fact that the density per square mile of agricultural
land averaged about 980 in the same year. Territorial
variations, with reSpect to agricultural land, ranged
from a high of 2,022 in Barbados to a low of 515 in 1‘ H
Antigua and Barbuda. The pressure of pOpulation on
the land and the disappointing performance of the
agricultural sector have combined to create (among
other things) chronic unemployment and underemployment
in the region. Brewster and Thomas estimate that the
region has about 280,000 persons in "open" unemploy—

ment alone. At the same time, the population of work—

ing age is increasing at a rate of about 140,000 a year.lo
Given these dimensions of the movements, it has been
estimated that the level of Open (structural) unemploy—

ll

ment in the areas ranges anywhere from 10 to 18 percent.

 

loBrewster, H. and Thomas, C. Y., o . cit., p, 60.

1Employment figures are not accurate. However, a
few studies show that unemployment ranges from ll to 14
percent in Trinidad and Tobago and 10 to 18 percent in
Jamaica. These unemployment figures are thought to be
rEpresentative of the other islands. See: Harewood, J.,
"Employment in Trinidad and Tobago, " w,

 

 

 

 

a
" U. IIuV
.

   

 

\l.... v“. a A. .

‘Y
.wv-..u 01v ‘-
v
1. .I..'.‘ AA—
- “A ‘ C
k... — a. F F

.-
vvo..h\..v...
.

 

‘.
-. -
_ fl‘ \ .
\..-.. ' _ _r::
‘ ‘ '..~ “‘Mu

 

 

\. a
“ n
-_ I;a. -“.-
‘ “ b" \_ nah ‘~5.
‘~¥ .\'u
x—_-
-
n
-
- ‘n‘ x-..
-—
3‘ _.-v ‘:

 

 

‘
w~ n” ‘
\ ~ \ ‘
“m.“ - \-
y “
“
5‘s
”‘1 a
\“x x‘ h
\-
‘- 3.x-
\y
‘ \
.“ “
. -. ‘
\ ‘
..
"w 1“
-‘\ -._
\-‘ K \
‘9'.
\ \.

 

 

38

Table 2.6 shows the area, population, and population den—-

sity of the region for the year 1960.

Unique Features of the General Economy

Moving now from a review of the physical setting
and general components of the regional economic structure,
this section will review some of the features we consider
unique to the area, and thus, having substantial implica-
tions for long—run develOpment planning and implementation.
Many of these features evolved out of the unique historical

background of the region.

Economic Growth

Without Development

We have already referred to relative movements in
growth rate of per capita income and GDP for the region

over the last two decades. We saw that the region averaged

M

No. 1, December 1963, Central Statistical Office, Govern—
ment of Trinidad and Tobago, p. 68; and Government of
Trinidad and Tobago, Draft Third Five—Year Plan 1969—1973
(1968), p. 46. Also: Government of Jamaica, _F_i\Le_Y_e_a£

Independence Plan, 1963—1968, pp. 33-37.

 

. . ~......\.

avg-m\\— mm—flh A.\-. \ q s. v I u
\ \ .x.u‘ \.\ .\ \ ~.
...\..\.2...\_ ... \. ...: . .._.. \ .... .
-. .....~..’\ n. ......N avg n.
n .-n.~.\\.... .I \As \-~.‘...

«x...
<up- ‘VC .
\\\s\»|

 

A.”\4.~
|.ll.l!l.rl III. I. . | It! .6 I . . | . 1.03 I I I I I
On-wfllta— H n.49-< H nunofi .I--.~. -.. In o...u~.~/\ II \ ~.‘~.~‘.. -
~:.h.p.-.....u..< u .11.... u n .21.. n . . ,.
IIIIIIJIDUI. .IIUI- flu: II. Clo-v- I—Iu. I;o.5. .0”... cos n. 0.. I n v > u n on... I: - .HD 0 .. ~ a I\ h a. - ~n s ~ ~. . ‘ . \./\ u. ~.. v ~ I\ K o. \\ ..~.
' . I b I . . ult .. . u ....c:.. u..ru-..... ~.. .7. .; s ..... ... ....\ ~. ~.. . . ~ ‘, \v ..., . ‘. ~.. s.. . . .. \ \.\

[‘1“- ’ .. ll

 

39

.m .d .moms .mosumeumym Hmnsu
.woawnH “moB o£# mo muflmuo>HCD .Dswfimmmamz EMMA U

 

Hove“ m coflosH #ww

 

 

 

 

 

3 mo umw so m .m
cm mowfioqoom HMHSD

 

 

.oz wowswm Hmcofiwmooo
Hmoesmm we powspsmmoo

 

 

me mnomhom m0 mpflmfimn

mmufl HMHSUHSOflHmm

"wOHSOm
new mow ms..mo..m mmo.m mo..m mem.e mms.» mmHmszooo new
mmm.H mam oov..m we mo om om. pqmoafl> .um
mom mom mos.om om so mms wmm sauna .pm
wen Ohm mmm.wm av mm mm mmH maassmcm

6cm muuflx .um
moo Nmm hoa.ma ma om om Hm pmunwmpcoz
me.H 00H oam.mm mm om mmH mom moflcflfioo
mo 6 HM
mmo.m m.e.s msm.emm an em. we. owe o n m
. moa moa ova moonsmm
mam mam owo gm no paw momsucm
em ems soomflsumo
mHN.H hhm www.mm hv mm Cam MUMCMMU
som.s mmm.a oomnoe
mmN.H wag mom.hmm vvv mmm cam UMUHGHHB
. Hav.e «Oshawa
. . HHN.H Now.H wa N
«om mam moo H
m
we no :2
. n H mouom m meHE ” monom m GMMMWM
mosmq “ «on... . noeumgdom H 000 . u mamas...“ H 000 . . @3560
. Hmuoe u n . u .
HMHSNHDUHHmfl ” . . .

"mo waflz OHMSWm

mwhm HMUOB

 

. 0 fiOHHflHDQOQ GEM
.meH .mofiwGH umwg .hpfimfi Q

.EOvaHSQOQ

\MwHfill.w.N MHm<B

 

 

£221 rate of growth

330%: J O‘J‘ICGEC :...

. a, - ,
.q- ’5'; r: 1“ ‘I F ia’
'1: .J'.» I.‘ a.“ ‘1. U ..

o

 

‘I';A:;Q ."\" ., 9"!
2:....:. 1108.91", 4.:

 

-.
a .
- '3‘ ;~-~ M.
: -‘---~""-Uo.
.
n. . . ‘
~.-‘AF ‘“ -’.‘ v A
h... h .—
Ihytt -15 b..\,-- b
,. '
.IC: 9!- 5'. “NY -
..-. _ . -AW
‘ ---~ .21--.-
...
.
._.
. y ‘A ‘
"‘: “-‘-‘~P~ \v-N
- ~‘V'OM..‘ A A

~ ‘c.\‘ .

 

..
“ v \--‘V-\
Q‘ -~‘

u
"u.
u
‘ n
n .. .
as”. _ u. “2" A“ R
- "h k» '
‘*\,u
¥ I
.
.. ,
“ -
-- '; ~~.-
.‘w ”v“

h‘-~

 

 

.
.~‘
\N.
\tu. H\
M L51“
N
s ‘4‘
\
\
\
‘~
‘\
‘
Ax \
c -h': N
. “‘\‘
‘K.. “
§ \
“ \K
. .“ x-‘H
“ \‘ ~q‘
. . \
‘\\ “-\
“\
.1
\ \
‘ x
“ \n \“\\A
‘ ‘ \_\
~\ ~ \‘
\\ ‘\‘
‘5 Q“
- \\ v‘._‘
x t
‘ ~ \¥\ -\
x : ‘
.‘. u ‘ k
‘ .:Q\ .
.
3‘ \suQ‘N ‘
‘ ‘M N ~
.‘ .‘¥‘ “
\.~ .
h N V y
\\ ‘k‘
“~.‘.:w\
"“uk -
\ k

 

40

annual rate of growth in excess of 9 percent in the 1950's
and over 5 percent in the early 1960‘s. The rate of growth
was more rapid in Jamaica and Trinidad during these

periods. However, we also indicated that the relatively
low share of agriculture in GDP of these two territories
was not a reflection of any appreciable structural trans—
formation in their economic base.12 We will reserve com—
ments on the performance of the agricultural sector for
later sections and chapters. However, we now examine the
extent of transformation of the regional economic base
during the period of high growth rates and its implications
for the future.

Two questions immediately arise regarding the
relative status of economic transformation: (1) if eco—
nomic transformation did indeed occur (or is occurring),
how widespread is it,- and (2) what has been the magnitude
of the transformation process in terms of sectoral link—
ages.l3 With respect to our assessment of the dimensions
-———________.__._

12

See pages 27—34 of this chapter.

13We are using the term "linkages" in two senses:
(1) input-provision, derived demand or ”backward linkage
effect"-—i.e. every non—primary economic activity will
induce attempts to supply through domestic production the
inputs needed in that activity,- (2) output—utilization or
“forward linkage effect"——i.e. every activity that does

 

 

 

:f 1.2 transformation

 

u . . Q ' a
t
pz‘ :h‘:fl I n "8.. r“

.uoouvvv'd -5. _. V .H
v

 

. ‘ . '
an... -F’f‘oo “5"" —'
.
"a.-.“ v’... Va “v .1 a
a

 

..
.
*nw -ynq. -"S ’2‘
a
.‘J’o-..u --v... v.‘~ h“.
g
It“... I ‘
:- tat-A .fi".":..
"“ui. .-
0 ‘VO-Ifi -..u-v‘-
o...
I ‘.
. u . H I ~~_‘~‘
~- ‘n.. _‘ .-
v ”5"-..“
. .
v.~.‘_\ r." . .
...‘._': ~n ‘P‘fl~ ~~
I l‘
-V‘U.‘ -..u-\-‘
-
‘-..,
- v. ~ .
' ~‘: -~ -p-
-
A " ‘." uv a .—
c-\. .
.._
u. “
~ ‘
u ~‘
.. -H _ -.
-‘H‘.
~N
n
" a
‘._‘- ~~u‘\ F. N‘
‘ b.A~--‘ ‘-
‘ \ru
‘l-~.
“x “u I“
‘ “‘u. ‘
~~ ~ M--.
.
....“._‘;\.
\-

“ , y. h
.‘ .“..
.
“
'.:~ .
5., (.0. 5:“ “
“a. x-“
Ku‘
-
~1“~“‘ .-
‘~. I “‘I‘ V
s
“ \L.‘ ..
"‘sq “v
y.‘
‘
“I.
‘ \
H. ~ «I. -
5
~ K‘
~.'\ ‘
\ ~Qu‘
s
\. “-

 

.\
“‘h M
I ‘ N.
\' \ ‘
“l ‘ H‘:\-
\ ‘ ~
\\ .
. ‘ \N
. \‘ ‘
..\‘ .' \Q\ ‘
I N
“;\~ \ \¥\
“ . N
‘ H
I \_ ‘\
~\. \\
‘ \\‘

 

41

of the transformation process, we will first specify our
assumptions. These are: (1) if economic transformation
has taken place to any significant degree, it should be
reflected in a generalized diffused pattern of industrial—
ization throughout the region; (2) the ratio of GDP ori—
ginating from the manufacturing sector to total GDP can
provide some indication of structural transformation over
time; and (3) estimates of inter—sectoral transactions
provide rough indicators of economic transformation, since
they relate to the magnitude of sectoral linkages at any
point in time.

The empirical evidence shOWS that most of the ex—
pansion in manufacturing industries is largely confined
to Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago.14 Thus, at the very
outset, We can say that if transformation does exist, it
is not diffused throughout the area. The question then

became one of estimating the level of transformation of

 

not by its nature cater exclusively to final demands, will
induce attempts to utilize its outputs as inputs in some
new activities. See: Hirschman, Albert 0., The Strategy
Of Economic Development, Yale University Press, New Haven,
1964, pp. 98—119.

14 . . , . .
For discuSSion of the state of regional indus—
trialization, see Brewster, H. and Thomas, C.Y., op. cit.,
Chapter 3, pp. 58—102.

 

 

 

 

 

and Trin

 

 

I Q
"I,':..‘ 5'. 'a- In: 2
fl‘ ‘ v'u u ca ‘5'“
Ali! U

- o. Q q -‘fiO-f:
II... .q.‘ q “0.": ‘ I ‘
JI: Luau 3ah~vu...-

l _ -
h- A. a9..:,.--..o
\

 

Hr.
a.
\I‘

. D
—. In- :d‘aab--. .

. ‘ ‘
... 'AV‘AR In- ”"HVSH
k' V:.-‘.u

.

v- un.\45»\,
.

v . . ‘
n-v .o..q.. ”FA"~ .- 0"

‘ ‘
h‘... "“" :CIVAU we.

a
. U
"--.-.A ‘
"~_R -“V’: .- P_ ,_

..,,_".‘u

"""-\' v..~4..

 

.2....,. '~

*5

.-

“I.“‘u‘-..v t:
o

._
v-. ‘
~ -..---,.‘ “'
.. .
‘5..l ‘ ..
‘iu‘..._ *-
.

~l-v-.

 

 

‘-.‘ ~
. .‘ .
I: ‘ ~q :_ ~‘.~‘
‘.¢“ “- :\' .-
' y
'-
.-
'-. ‘-
4a. ‘.
a.‘ ‘ ‘
., ~ ‘
I u \ \ fl“
l‘-~ ‘~ uk
.
AH“ ‘-
a
‘H. “~—
. -_‘
.x
. . n-‘ .“‘\
.- “\ - “ -
~ I“ s—
--» ‘7
.:- ‘ ._
u‘ IN...‘ 4 “
a . K
”I ‘ ‘
‘“ \ N
.' M n K
“u_‘_
\s‘\
' §
' ‘
". u -
' - '3. .4-
“ ‘-.\ N\
~\4\
‘-.‘~
._ ‘ ‘
‘. ‘h “
‘ a "x ‘
VA: \A\| ~y\
“u“
.“
.»~:~‘
> ‘
“x “V.“ ‘
~ ' N-
M‘\\.I
. “\I
‘
~
I W _‘
\.. w. ‘
‘-\
s
..
.
§
..
“
. “.-:‘\ ~
‘ I
N ‘\\I\ ;,.
.- p
“Q)- ‘ \.~
.‘ ‘
‘\
‘ >
n
‘\
‘
‘ ~
A ‘..
‘ '5 \~ .
‘ \u ‘ ‘\
. ‘
s‘ ‘
~.‘ “hi;
\ ‘v. ‘
“ “‘ut : .
.x . ‘
I ‘ K.‘
‘~. .‘ “ ‘\
\
‘ \ x.
. \“b\ \‘ ‘-
\ u
-.

’

iflm Jamaican and Trinidad and Tobago economies. Brewster
amiThomas point out that between the 1950's and the mid—
1960's both Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago appeared to
hawaadded substantially to their manufacturing base in
tenmsof quantity and range.15 This period coincided with
the period of unprecedented growth in these two economies.
Thehrstudy shows that over this period the two countries
increased more than fourfold the real output of their
unnufacturing sectors. Specifically, Jamaica's manufac—
muing output (excluding sugar and alcoholic beverages)
wasxmlued at some 144 million West Indian dollars in
1963.16 This is approximately equal to 12 percent of GDP
and averages out at about $75 per capita. In contrast,
311951 its value of manufactures was some 33 million
WefizIndian dollars, or about 8.3 percent of the value
ofGDP. In the case of Trinidad—Tobago, the figures were
106nd11ion dollars in 1962 or 10 percent of its gross
&mmstic product. This averaged out to be about $132 per

capita. In 1951 its industrial production was valued at

 

m

15Brewster, H. and Thomas, C. Y., op. cit.,
Chapter 3.
16
At current rate of exchange, $2.00 W.I. = $1.00
' U.S. At predevaluation rate, the exchange rate was approx—
imately $1.85 W.I. = $1.00 U.S.

 

 

"Ffl'fi a relax-1":

1'.
Ové‘
v- ‘

. I .

nn-AI- «1», DA :v-n ‘ an

-:‘..u db ad ‘1.“ -aabn
J .

. . .

-
“ "a ':f="°'c v: a
0...... ov-‘v-vv -bfivyI

'- ' - ~ .
:u ""‘"‘:h_ Rfl‘fln
n... ......u‘-& .Vfiuy

U

 

 

- - .
”‘V PA. A- ‘
.- ‘ _ up:

".". .V‘O. ‘ '0‘“ -

n _ R
I: , ‘n-I I I! ~
‘
one In. a..‘ ”iv U

.. a
v- u .
\ D. :-«.~‘ ‘“~

lu' .. \- F a ‘-

‘..“V“ ‘4.“
‘ I
‘I.
.
"'.Jn‘ v22nsn—..
“"I --..:
b—. I
‘
~’:..:-~Y ‘F'
'-s“|.'~ ,..
V‘ ‘~.\

. .

‘Ih-

~ ‘

“‘ u \ ‘

. ‘~- - 5 Q ‘-

’ .I‘A‘ A ‘ -
‘9‘.
\- as
‘Q
h.
‘3 a A.
"-‘.‘ ‘vs..._ ' ‘
s s-,,‘u 6‘“:
L - “k
-
¥\..~ ;
‘Q
-~."..‘
I v
I' ‘ V‘s ~
\n\
“'~ \: «5
‘ ‘ ~~A

 

u
. ..
M‘ I ‘Y \ a
“ :a " vx.
~~ \-
§
..
‘.‘ y
‘.: :5. N
“V: "‘v-. ‘ ~
. N‘” ..
.9“
~
‘ \
‘s. Q“. ‘
‘ \ NW“.
“i \H ‘
H“; N o.
‘s.\.
— ‘4
‘~
‘
u‘
\\ “
‘1 K N‘
' W ‘\\\b A“
\\-\ ~\
‘I
.
s
\
‘\
‘\
N. ‘
-p N
V, R
l k
s
\
\
\-
N
‘I
1- \M‘ Q h\
‘ ‘~ g
»“ . K\
.‘: k . s
‘. ‘u‘
N K
“\- CAI.
\.

 

43

24 million dollars or 7.8 percent of GDP.17 The figures
indicate a relatively low rate of industrialization in the
region up to and including 1963. However, the disparity
in the relative rates of industrialization between Jamaica
and Trinidad—Tobago over the periods warrants taking a
closer look at the industrial trends in the two countries.18
Tables 2.7 and 2.8 show the GDP of the manufacturing sec—
tors of Jamaica and Trinidad—Tobago between 1959—1963 and
1957—1962, respectively.

Brewster and Thomas showed that over the 1957—63
period, Jamaica's average annual rate of increase in in—
dustrial output was about 6 percent. Industrial output
maintained a constant 12 percent share of GDP over the
1959—1963 period. More recent Jamaican figures show a
manufacturing output of approximately 225 million dollars
in 1967, or a 35 percent increase over the 1963 period.19
The average annual rate of growth in industrial output was

9 percent during the 1963—67 period. The annual growth

M—

17 .
Brewster, H. and Thomas, C . Y. , op. Clt . , pp.
64—65.

18Ibid., p. 63.

l9Quite possible some of this change was due to
Changes in the general price level.

 

3.3— N. .. . .

.vIv ..... a... ....I

5.... S... I-..
-

.. ....;.\. T. .x....~§7.. .1... \......~l\x....

....s\\~.i~..\.....~ ux .s \\\.\\\n\ \ ... -\\\\

.

?.\\*
I
e.
I

put? .Iu \ I.
«I I: ..-\. 4.-.. -\ 4.-.. «:2. . -..-.\«... w...\...~..\..i. .....\x...\x-..\
cc»: 3.... 5-... ..-.\. 3.... « .....:... -..-N..\ \lxxés
I..|.Illlu|l..l.ul.lll1'.ll. |.lvohl..-p.v-.—Avqu aunt—~vn-u -...b3 .usy‘ — u «PL
Pa.UAv- H .-\.-a.- I“ -.u;.- II .-.v..- H: u...~.\ .I. ~....~.. \\.\~. ~.\.-\
. Au. .'.~ o.... you... on. .v . .. . ... - I. .n....... I I.. . . I.... ... . ...\..... ~. s., ..\ . . ..\. x

 

 

 

.mo .m ~.pflo .mo ~.w .U .wmfiona Una .m .Hmpmwum EOMM @mumm@¢ "moudom

.H.3 mm.am u .m.D OOJHW mumn GOHpmSHm>w©mHm um

.Hoz OO.NW H om.D OO.HW @uwMH GWGMQUKG UQ®HHDO Uflm

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

m.NH m.NH o.mH m.HH n.NH vamaw HMpOB op mcfluduommscmz mo oapmm
H.NNHH m.mmoa o.vhoa «.mmoa H.hhm "mow amuOB
h.me m.vma w.mma h.mHH m.vNH HOpomm mcflhsuomwscmz Scum mow
H.m m.N m.m m.m H.m meDpomwdcmE msowcmaawomflz
0.5H N.hH b.vH w.vH b.NH mpodcogm Hmuwz
m.m w.m v.0H m.m H.m muUDEOHm mmHo can quEwU
M v.0a H.NH «.0H 0.0 H.m w#od©oym HMOHEwflo Una meoHEwSU
N.H H.H m.o 0.0 w.o mgoswonm HmSpMmH wcm Hwflummq
N.NH m.HH o.HH h.m ®.w muoswogm Mmmmm Hwnpo Ucm
qumeHw>Um .mcflflmfiandm .mcflpCHMm
m.o w.v N.h o.h ¢.m onsume 6cm mHSUHcmsm
H.v m.m H.v m.m ©.m muodwoum @003 Ucm U003
m.NH h.HH ®.OH w.m m.m mwaflpxme
®.m ©.m v.m m.m m.m Hmoauoom
m.vH h.w w.© h.m m.h muoSUOHm ooomnou mam OQUmQOE
o.¢ m.m h.m h.m w.m mummum>wfl DHHO£OUHMIGOZ
m6 mK Nd v.5 m.m Eng .3me mmmmngwa 030:8?~
0.0m 0.0m m.¢m O.¢m m.mm Ahmmfim .Hoxmv UOOM
IIIIIIIIIIIIII mmumfloo .939; umws QOHHHHEIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
mwma n 33 u 33 u owma u mmma u @595 mnumdwcH
. AmHmHHOQ HGwHHDUV mwlmmmH uMUHMEmb ~“nouuwm mfiflhflanMMSEME N0 mQOIl.h.N mqmdfi.

 

‘OII

‘.—. . ..
\u.‘— ~uw~ .x.n‘.-x.\‘ \\‘\~.
~.:.~L‘.~ wt. \x~...\b‘«:x~ ~.:\~‘~ s\:: u...:\:~m

‘..~.\~..-:: ‘11);

..— -u\— a»-.._ ..‘»‘. «L~.\\:u‘. .‘...vw.»» \~:.-~.
..—.—-..-I_ .u-nvz .n.»_— — _—\L
A.- H n.....- I o~..-.~ u: \-.-.~ w .\~.\-.. \A~ ‘~..-“-\

.I - I..s.n..n... ‘.--‘ ‘..ny~..- I: ~ -. u . . . nu. .«.» .- \~.u‘..\ ‘.\\ \ .«x . ~x \~‘~, ‘

 

45

.mw .m ~.uH0 .mo ..w .0 .mmEOSB 0cm .m ~Hmumswhm EOHM wmpmmvfl "wousom

 

 

 

 

 

 

.Hé mméw n 6.: 84% .mp3 noflmsagmwmum um .53 8.3 u 00.3, mpg wmcmgoxm “$526 in
m.oa v.0 N.m 0.0 H.@ m.w vamow Hapou 0# mCHHSHUMMDGME mo oflpmm
h.mooa m.vmm m.m®m H.mmb «.mah H.mmw mow Hapoe
m.moa N.Nm >.mh H.h> @.mm m.vm MOpomm maH~5pommssmE Eoum mow
o.Hm h.Hm m.mv m.Hv v.VM m.wm mcflusuomwwcmfi “mapo
m.mN o.HN N.ma h.mH N.@H m.mH mwaflgxwu Uqw

WCHHOaHmu .Hmm3uoom uwnwo Gem mmonm
o.NN m.mH o.oH H.hH o.ma m.NH Agmmsm .Hoxwv mGHHUUUMMDQME woom
IIIIIIIIIIIIIII meHHOQ fimwwnH umwa GOHHHHZIIIIIIIIIIIIII

NomH m meH u 000.... m mmmH .. mmmH H hmma . QDOMO bumDmEH
. AmHMHHOQ “COHHDUV Nme OD. hmmH .OmflQOE mug @MMVHGHHH. .HOHUGW WGHHSHUMMDQME $63. M0 mQUII.m.N mqmddu

 

 

 

d ‘ - F:- '\ ._ I '
u "Iv-fir" : ‘ ‘, . 5,
a '1 v.‘ .u ti -

0.: -

 

. fl
.-

- .""'| h” . _ o :J

. :C.‘;-..\o av \v

‘fil. '

 

.
’ - sun“ I."
tau-yv pur- A“ p n

' ,_~A..IA
-~--U..~du-v-- ko- -

.

l I. . Q *

--...y...- -y-hc. -- u_
_ -

...-'.'§o-

 

--v... u..ifiv

. .
.-""" Han-vaan ~ v
I ‘ \ .—
""‘V-~— V‘su--~—H -.
.

 

.
“z“;w' “V‘\‘V"-

~-~‘ul
. . -
....‘..‘
""‘hv2.
‘ ~
"‘ «- . ,. ~
.. -« \
."V v—uu.
.

 

1.
\“:h. -A n -
~~,.__ ‘ “CV‘:
~ ‘\ ”V‘yy
.
.I V
.-,.‘ -
. ~ y‘-‘
"' - '- R‘ ‘Vs-K.
- -u‘,‘ ‘ \4 ‘1
‘V
~V._‘ -
‘\
. -~ , A
"‘s“~ ‘ ~‘h.._‘
‘» ~ - _
‘ ...u\_ u
‘ sq.
..‘
N‘ ‘F“ \n
‘ u
“~-.. : p: "y\.
" “-h‘t.
\‘ _
‘. ~“\ “
' «
“‘~ A Hxs‘.‘
"W x:
in“
x
2.“
\ ~ ‘
\... \‘ \
‘sn ‘V‘.
’ . -- V\ N\
..»‘\’ s: k
y»
u ‘."
. 4‘
‘ -
".V, ‘:H..“
“a” ‘N“.‘.
M“
\nv
'\
‘\.
\. ~N “"‘ -
\‘ ‘ ‘
. \~' ‘ \N— ‘
w V\
~~ ‘c K
..,

 

46

rate appears to have been extremely uneven over the period.
The important point, however, is that the contribution of
manufacturing to GDP was only an annual average of 12.8
percent. Thus, for all practical purposes, the relative
contribution of manufacturing to GDP in 1967 was hardly
different from that of 1963.20 However, significant ex—
pansions occurred in certain subsectors——textiles, print—
ing and paper products, furniture and fixtures, and metal
products.

The study showed that in Trinidad and Tobago, the
manufacturing sector increased its share of GDP from 8
percent to 10 percent between 1957 and 1962 or an average

annual rate of growth of 18 percent. However, the relative

 

increase of manufacturers' share in Trinidad's GDP did not
come from an extremely dynamic sector in terms of linkages,
but from the petro-chemical industry. As in the case of
Jamaica, more recent data for Trinidad and Tobago show that
in 1963 manufacturing accounted for 14 percent of GDP and

13 percent of employment. In 1968, estimates show that

 

20Growth rates were 14.5 percent, 4.2 percent, and
6.6 percent for 1963-64 through 1966—67. Computations for
the 1963—1967 period were made from data presented in
Economic Survey Jamaica, 1967, Central Planning Unit,
Government of Jamaica, 1967, pp. 73-88.

 

' I &h g A f.
I! «.5 -1. R p!
inL’l‘IC-ourloc‘: b e.; “\-

 

( ' : 0- t.

h‘ FIB-\uVaov V
D
'-n [P .‘n ~A5.’Y '
JrK_ 3 ~_

“" ol‘vv vsov wvyby- ‘
no - ‘
'n‘t: “2‘5. .
Colo~ -‘vb

 

 

 

 

.‘I .

. A...” -A Q

.u. - ~ ~ “V?
.vsv. vv “ a-

v

; ' .

‘n- .'A .

L . _ ‘;H-Av :‘:
...\' V'“'\v- s1-“

 

' \
A
- -‘A ~‘ I
._ A...
'. b"" “a...
“a. .
.‘-
‘- “ vu. _ _
"" n-
'y‘ 5. _ .
"ty

 

 

 

~.
H\ ~
~. ‘ “N...
“ ~ N!
‘h. r...
‘~.
\
, I“
.
:_‘
‘ \-
“u \“~ ‘
. ~‘
“.. ‘\
‘M~‘\‘
.1“
\ .
" “
‘ ~\\h
s\.
.‘ .
‘-
‘\ \
~~:-\
"~ \ \‘
\‘ \xfiu‘
‘5‘ 3.‘
‘x \
§\."
.‘. -
.““‘
\ \._
.‘ .~ ‘
.. ‘
‘-.\. u“
x ‘
' "s ~\\
»
‘x.
“_
,\_
' \“\ ‘
\
-\ N \ _
‘kq ‘
\‘x
‘ "\\
\
“K

 

S
\
‘
q,
a .
. \. “-
i“ K
\ ~ \\ \ |\ v\“‘
‘ ' ‘ A‘LI
§‘\N ‘ ‘
'\
\I
’ \ NU \
' x \

 

47

manufacturing then accounted for some 17 percent of GDP
and 16 percent of total employment. Thus, between 1963
and 1968 the sector grew at an average annual rate of 7
percent. This rate was substantially less than the 18
percent rate of growth in the sector between 1957 and 1962,
and reflects to a great extent the relatively low base from
which the sector started in the 1950's. However, the per-
formance of the manufacturing sector was even less than
indicated by the 7 percent growth rate. The following ob—
servation summarizes the situation quite well:

On the face of it, this performance appears to

be exceptionally meritorious. But, if we ex—

clude petro—chemicals, we obtain a somewhat

different picture. Excluding petro—chemicals

(mainly fertilizers) and sugar the growth

rate of the sector between 1963 and 1968 was

only 4 percent per annum 21

This review of the manufacturing sectors in Ja—

maica and Trinidad and Tobago suggests that although there
has been some expansion in absolute terms in the output
of these sectors, in reality, they had no major impact on
broadening the economic structure of these countries during

the period of rapid growth in GDP in the 1950's and 1960's.

A150. there is further evidence for claiming that
M

21Government of Trinidad and Tobago, Draft Five—
Year Plan, 1969—1973 (1968), p. 290-

M

 

 

bodes

- C
' 1 n
.f-n‘tr- ‘1f‘r C...“
l \
udoht.Vo

 

 

 

 

 

9"

o;

p
fl-
v-
. O
o , 5"
HI .‘.-qu‘“~ z,"
. l ..U ‘nau v.-.
J“..'—--- '
a1
"' ‘r; a»_
U- “H.” 5......
.\
..
u
. ‘ ~
-; ~:.~ "'V~n.., .. :'I
- \
I.» «ad hu-'.“‘-l V“
' .
..._ . . ‘
‘~“’ “5“ RNA“ 2
~ ~ ~—
~sya- ..~‘u ~‘~.. u
u.
. u -. ‘v‘“~“p— N‘
.~-. ~
~‘.. 5‘ -..u-uv__' ‘
_ .
"--
v. . ..
av" “ ¥u~fi‘ «. .
‘w
\. t
v.‘ ~
‘. ~‘ ~:“v.‘
.‘ h .-
. v.u .I.‘-"‘—u_ .
..‘
. ‘ I“ ‘
\q. .. Q :-"V"A‘
"b
-H -~-~“‘\—u
h“ .
._\ 1““...
“§‘. \ ‘
“
Vn.‘ ._
.
N ‘
Ԥ
“1 “¥ s-‘ ‘
.
‘ \l"
. . “K
“ 'Vs \
\..\
.N
.‘.
‘
~.“‘~‘ .‘ ‘1‘
‘ 4
. ~ an 2 ‘NQ-
-“‘
y\\"
N .
.
l~ y‘".
‘ ; V‘vi
"‘!.~ .-
\‘\
.
\
‘.
. ‘ \_
' x
. ,.‘
..\ “‘~_
\ §\b “\\‘
5“
\
'l
,.
\
"‘ -‘ ‘
“‘ “: v. ~ ‘
‘\I ‘“~ \
. “\\- K
\
"x
‘s
Q
‘\
~~ ‘
x. ¥\\ C“Q
0:“ -Vyt
. ‘ ‘ -
‘ R
\ ~
‘\ \-‘\ 1‘ - ‘
. .\‘ ‘
‘I .‘\ ‘ ‘
‘ \
“x ~ ‘ ‘ “
\\“‘ '
‘n “‘1‘“ ‘
{\‘iv‘x n:‘\
k'.\«\s‘
\
\. ‘
“
~§
\
\‘N -
g
‘ \ \
. \\‘ \“
~‘~ \‘ ‘\‘\ x
.‘ \ |\
. H‘
‘\
‘ - ‘-.\\
.W“

F

. . 22
transformation did not accompany growth. For example,

48

in Trinidad and Tobago, where the growth rate was rela—
tively high in this sector, available data show a rela—
tively low volume of intermediate transactions between
manufacturing and other sectors. The relatively small
magnitude of the cost coefficients reflects the lack of
effective backward and forward linkages between sectors.23
The data strongly suggest that the industrialization that
did occur had been accomplished with relative small mobil—
ization of indigenous factors of production. A relatively

high proportion of final industrial output is made up of

 

: imported material. These characteristics are indicative
of an untransformed economy. In Table 2.9, estimates of
cost coefficients of input structure for Trinidad and
Tobago for 1962 show very little evidence of significant
changes in the coefficients since that time.

I We have presented the argument and some evidence
tO Support our contention that the region has experienced

relatively little structural transformation (development)
| M
2 .
See page 40, footnote 13 of this chapter for the

relationship of linkages to structural transformation Of
the economic base.

3 . . .
_ See footnote 13 of this chapter for our defini—
tion of "linkages."

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

~
F":"Y‘:~. ‘_
. “

to. .‘~- ‘3.

 

. ‘-
'\—

 

 

.‘\

 

 

 

49

=-TABLE 2.9.—-Cost Coefficients of Inputs Structures, Trinidad-Tobago,
1962.

 

 

Alcoholic

 

 

Intermediate Transaction I Beverages I FOOd . I Other .
. . Manufacturing . Manufacturing
. and Tobacco . .
---Percent---

Oil .0048 .0139 .0324
Alcoholic Beverages

and Tobacco -- -- --
Food Manufacturing -- .0199 —-
Other Manufacturing . 0724 . 0787 . 0214
Transportation -— . 0071 . 0064
Distribution . 0139 . 0259 . 0566
Services .0281 .0199 .0168
Construction -- . 0 l9 3 . 0062
Public Utilities . 0061 . 0063 . 0113
Sugar Manufacturing . 0163 .0302 -—-
Sugar Growing -- -- --
Other Agriculture . 0163 . 1368 . 0442
Banks and Financial

Institutions -- -- . 00 81
Total . 1578 . 3581 . 2035

 

Source: A. A. Francis, "A Note on Inter-Industry Relations in the
Economy of Trinidad and Tobago, 1962," Research Papers,
Central Statistics Office, Trinidad and Tobago.

amidst relatively high rates of growth in per capita GDP.

Theoretically, this phenomenon is well explained by Demas.

We think his theoretical explanation is sound, and pro—

vides important insights into the structure of the West

Indian economy. He argues that there is a fallacy in the

Popular assumption that countries with a relatively high

per capita income are in some sense more "developed" or

 

 

 

 

 

qt, R:“.I-a .
I:- 'u‘bcv
D D
. . . q‘
‘ ‘n. '-
1 up: :rno Co V‘s “
ouV ‘00.“- g
' -4 1.
. Q I
' I o a"... 1 H
h \-l .:‘= -G-..\.u
v-
. I
"a- .o ’L :‘flw: cl,- 2
- n
I... b- y..‘..\:~, _ h

“In“,
UA-v..
.

.
:..-...A_ -..~.. - ..
.. : ..
'.~ h.-'00
.

.—
-..u- w..-

 

 

 

 

V»-
'“.‘~F" ~ ‘
.-
u»-‘_~. u-‘
- d
a
-\ 2" «mo-HH‘. ‘-
~.-’ A... wig‘iu‘ a
.
.‘II
. ‘ .
.1 -: .. __‘ M.
..~ ..,
~ .u v._" V-"|\
H‘s ‘ ~
"‘ “s.
... . 3: 3‘.h“_‘
h“"~ _
3“ -
.fi~ ‘
‘ \
‘~~: -"“: 4..
.
.uuu-‘- :‘I
‘!
.‘. ‘
‘\ “,‘ .
N‘: l. H s., .—
h.“ ‘ I K ‘\
“ -hk _
. ‘U
.‘
.'!
Ԥ
“.t ‘~-‘~AV~‘3
h“ \ .A‘ .
“"\. ‘.‘
-I
u ‘0‘
~ \‘.
I.“ ~“"~.-.‘ ‘r
\u‘ t -
"\—
..
\N “
» x‘ ‘ -
\‘ \‘fi “ ‘
“x. "‘Q
5"»
I“
V‘N ‘
‘i“ \:
‘h
s
“

 

 

 

 

 

50

or near the “take—off" point than those with lower
per capita incomes. He attributes the fallacy to:

(l) the ambiguous assumptions underlying the concept
of "self—sustained" growth which relate the level of
rate of change in per capita income uniquely to the
state of development, (2) the largely unconscious
asmmmtion that one is dealing with a "closed" economy,
and (3) the indiscrete application of the Harrod—Domar
models whereby ”global aggregates of savings, invest-
ment, and output are considered to be the central var—
iables in the growth process."24 He argues that the
West Indies experienced rapid rates of growth without
any substantial structural transformation because of
essentially two factors: (1) the existence of "en-
clave sectors" within individual territories, and

(2) the extreme ”openness" of the regional economies.
The impact of these factors on development are sub—

stantial .

 

4Demas, William G., The Economics of Develop—
ment in Small Countries: With Special Reference to the
Caribbean, Center for Developing Area Studies, McGill
University Press, Montreal, 1965, pp. 5—6.

 

 

 

' n" or “"1:-
l": '1‘ bL - a...

___I

.

I an!
. ‘F'a-n hr Definfe4-Uvo
2.5:: w. is
.

 

J
‘I
D

m'
(I)
( '1

.4
‘

. .
' \
"‘nl‘ Fr

“p“fi' *f‘
y'v.....'v.. 'V

..- .n ‘9

. .

On: 'A:. ‘—,‘F'-:F'

v-w u...» gauv- -u..-
A

 

u u a
. . A
-~ :-~.~r :v-~ -"...
d..u-\... A..H v¢.b
I .

.' \"' “Danna —
"1" o— .—
v4.-~~u..\,\, \

u-
9...

 

":V‘zfi‘A—us . ,.

nn-.‘--\'._: -..
.
. ‘ w

. ‘~~~"‘~ Wan—s
' ‘ “Wm-v aw:

 

--
"‘-A
'— h—a
v-..»
....‘
- s
’v: 6“ 1“
‘a. \ “VA
V- \ V-»
\ . I
- u‘
‘ n‘ g
‘u \ ~
" ..;‘ l‘ H: In.
v ‘V ~\, .
3:“ . ‘ _
"‘-. an
' b..: L. :“K~.‘~_
..\,‘_~ h
. n..\_,‘
.4
.
n“.-\ "‘2~
' ‘ ~.___ ~“: ~.
u»
.
‘\I
K .
t_: \‘a‘h‘ ‘
\\ ~~‘ as
‘H. ‘\
A .\,‘_\
\
-.
n'§
._ :I‘
‘ ‘ "N-
‘«.y ‘ wuq :
“‘M
Q \ ‘
h.-
:~ .
. \
~ I
'~ M.
.
~
“-\.\ :V\ I:
m: :~~
sh
.
.
\
\ “ \ a
\‘.: \‘ x ‘
\‘ N‘s
“!.‘_
:‘~
.“\‘I‘ ‘
nhx ‘
x s“
“. ‘1 ~‘_
‘nv
I ‘-
‘~_
‘\|\‘\
‘\‘\ \-
x| HQ‘~
‘¢.\,\ 1‘
\Q.
3““
‘ V
n __
'\
‘ \
\.
s ' \‘\a ‘
‘~.
‘\\\
‘s
\
\
~
‘
\\‘ -
\
N
‘\t ‘\
‘ ._ \.
»' l“ \
‘ \x‘
“\‘
N \\H
\.

I
’l/

 

51

The Impact of Enclaves and
Openness on Development

The West Indian economy has many characteristics
which are common to the less—developed countries. Some of
the most important are: (1) an unfavorable ratio between
population and the stock of capital and natural resources,
(2) the existence of sectoral dualism as demonstrated by
wide variations in the productivity among sections, and
(3) a lagging domestic agricultural sector to the extent
that domestic effective demand is low, relative to the do—
mestic cost of production. The little existing effective
demand has to be met by cheaper food imports.25 To under—
stand the phenomenon of growth without development, Demas
argues that one must consider both the "size" and the rela—
tive "openness" of the economies. One of the most impor—
tant and unique features of regional economies is the fact
that they are "small, open economies.” They are "small"
in terms of limited land space, the absolute number of
persons living in the economy and the size of domestic
markets. They are ”open" both "structurally" and "func—

tionally.“ Structural openness means that the mere
M

2 . . .
5See footnote 8 for a brief discuSSion of the
theoretical considerations with respect to "dualism."

-..

 

 

 

V 1
' .-
.at'»vl: n" 9 HA I‘_ I

--..’.....- v” u..- U-

' u c 9
.'Iflfl p -9 -pA
:.--5: NC u... a..c

 

. . ,
fln~~ Fz- 1"
“V--.-..‘- \A

A
'—
i—

n..‘. ' n . .
. v.:: -n: ’§ ~F
v‘~.-..u.' -‘.‘- ..-u_.
O
NH..." ' . -
. 9_~ Agr.,Ah
""-.-l ‘ \o— .-
- u“ “V- ‘ ya
....I ~
n- v. a. _
‘ ‘ " "‘ «av..-
nu... n- .h: :‘I‘H—
\
n
u- .
-’~ 2"“ ~.
“-\-.-a .: :-‘

§
"“t‘v..-~ \- V“ «o- .

‘ . 'I N
.‘ “a
-.._ :Vl‘".‘\
”way u. .a“\

 

\
. ‘Y:""'*v
--\s“\- -.
~5‘
‘ ‘
'Q
~.
‘ \
‘s‘n :‘f‘anfl‘... h
‘“‘~~. . g2“
5.;
d
.‘ _
s
.
'. :z‘ I‘u
.
I.‘~: “zy‘ “
‘uu "‘ \v
“~—:
~
nu .
. \ ~‘
.
‘\ Nh‘
~ , h
‘ \ ‘ “\x‘
‘\‘ ~\ ~
. --.¥\:
.K
‘. \
‘v, \‘ \
I ,5» a
‘ Q
‘h K \
L‘~ ~
.
‘\
‘-
‘5
~
.‘ ‘
": ‘ ‘\\ ‘
~ \‘
~ \
\u' x
\ V4
‘\ I
§
‘\
H ‘~
.‘t n
. a a“
“s K~
‘.\b 5.
\.
§
‘ I
.
\ .
\
‘
“':\Q \‘\
‘~ ~'~. ‘
‘m ‘
~
~\\: .
\
\ ‘ \
n‘: \“
c
~“t.:“ fi‘“
‘ \
‘\\.‘ ‘
k
A.
I\‘
~
‘\

‘- .“a .
Wx 'w ,3.
‘ \.
“t ‘\ \w.

::\‘
“ \s “x -
m: -
"t ‘N x
“H “w
- ‘ ~\.
\‘\ K.‘ ~
~
.‘-“

 

 

 

 

52

physical size of the area makes for a relatively high pro—
portion of foreign transactionsas against domestic trans—
actions. On the other hand, the economies are functionally
open since both the capital market and financial institu—
tions are dominated by foreign entities. Unlike some
cmnmries, the high functional openness of the regional
ecmmmw has served to reinforce the importance of enclave
sectors at the expense of more broadly based sectors.26
”Enclave sectors" and "Openness" do not make for
an economic structure that is peculiar to the West Indies.
Most underdeveloped and many developed countries have some
ofthese characteristics. However, what makes the West
Indian economy peculiar in this respect is the magnitude
of these characteristics. The most commonly accepted mea—
mue of openness is the ratio of exports and imports to

GDP. Table 2.10 shows that the ratio of exports and im~

 

ports to GDP is relatively high in the West Indies for
1961. The most recent figures for Jamaica show some change
hithese ratios. For example, our calculations show that
hithe Jamaican case, the ratio of exports to GDP was about
__________.___________

26The term ”enclave sectors" is used to describe

those sectors of an economy that are largely dominated by
fineign capital, expertise, and decision—making.

 

 

fl

Puucrno

I
\ry in..- .

 

 

 

~_‘l
1
. u u I- ‘ ~A
-‘«.-q~.‘ "~ A" a
n _ ‘-
. uh.“ t...“ . v

 

 

 

.
\ v-:I .~-h~~~~ I
~-...,.I ‘5hl-V.'-» '
h.
u.~__“
‘ ‘ buy
..‘u-~-‘-’
.
~‘-“_‘ ~
\ ~ \
~»“'-V\—-\.
3
v.‘.~:~
‘--”—u“‘
x
”A .R“"
» x
A\.\‘\-\_.
-
‘-
.“. . ‘
‘
.,: N_... '.'n‘ a
‘ -
. 5»..- H..“¥
‘k
: ~‘~ ‘n ‘~'n~
. N" -. ”A
. ‘vy .
II». ‘-
~ .
... ‘ \Kh.\\“‘ A
H ~\\‘\ 5.
‘-
‘ V
‘A‘ ‘ a-‘
." ..: Ufit‘ ‘
‘.¥.\' _
~
.“‘ ‘
':- ..p- ‘ ‘
~ i
‘ H“ :32“ ‘H
\r\“"
.
‘l
‘\
A “13‘
\ \“\ ‘\ ‘\—\
. \ \ k
e
\ \‘-
\4 “~
~ ‘. ‘
..\ - .“ \ ‘
“M: M
“\‘k‘
.~‘
‘ ‘~N‘ ‘
\‘\ ‘
“‘ ~M‘
\‘.\.“.
\\
..‘
.‘ ‘\ ‘
\\: av“ ‘ “
“~ \‘\ \
x
“

 

 

53

TABLE 2.10.——Relative Openness of West Indian Economies,
1961 (Current Prices).

 

 

 

Exports Imports
Country Year
GDP GDP
—————————— Percent——-———————
Jamaica 1961 24.8 30.9
Trinidad and Tobago 1961 59 . 3 (1962) 64. 5 (1961)
Barbados 1961 32.0 68.8
Leeward and
Windward Islands 1961 27 . O 59 . 3

 

Source: Economic Planning Division, Office of the Prime
Minister, Government of Trinidad and Tobago. A
Statistical Report of the Patterns of Trade of
Trinidad and Tobago for the Period 1948—1963.
(Cyclostyled), 1965, p. 3.

37 percent, while the ratio of imports to GDP was about 24

percent in 1967. Although there were changes, the ratios

were in opposite directions. In the case of Trinidad and

Tobago, the 1968 figures show that the ratio of exports

tO GDP had declined to about 49 percent, while the ratio

Of imports to GDP had declined to 46 percent. Figures

were not available for the other islands. Despite some

Sl9nificant changes in these two countries, the Jamaican

ratios are still well below 50 percent while those of

 

 

 

 

 

 

»a

"'“dad 1.51 chase

' ' " .. 1.,
2536!. ngres s...

A v
‘ P n vfl
flu-II uyfi— A“ ve‘ _"
-:-“:d -5V». 4 .
o

.
I. I . ”‘4

I 7‘
-. 'R‘fl H .fl
" v, ..\A .U~

.
A
-- ..o..-u.3'u 4

 

A ll ‘
:""‘ n:v-- u . .-
-.-U‘Iav- I

e

 

 

!- “-
u. .‘ gArA:'_ fir q.
. _ x
u. .a Ub-y§,..- -.. “‘—
.
. . .
‘I. “ “AA .
3‘ \o—
." v-\.~\,_
4
' I
.' A.
a s...‘ “A 'A Q
.‘~ - - \v—n. Y‘
"-'-‘.' "*-~.\-v--

.-~:.‘ A'-

u

“"i‘l ...
.0

‘>".~-.

..V~
\ I“
~..‘ ~ uh
.
‘2'... ‘ ‘
. n ." Ya,‘
"“-‘ -. y—
H b.‘~ ‘Vu
-
‘h.. ‘
.n"“q.,_ : ‘
u" " n. ..
«Jun cl"
I. w
s
l. -
- : ‘I-v. ‘.
.~.‘§~ ~‘

.
~-..“\ n:.~_‘-‘
tan.“ ‘.t
N‘-
\ c
. .. ‘
~. 1“ 5“ ‘
~_ .“
“ ‘¥. ‘
~~Au\ I
W.
._.
a
M‘: ‘x‘\ ‘
.5».: -V.‘ V‘
l “‘t p.
~y
‘u
:‘\k V' . ‘n x -
.~ .-
. “~.‘ \ ‘I“‘
\ ‘x-
.I
~‘. ‘
‘~.“‘\-.‘
»
“ \Q: --
. ‘\\\ ”Q
' ”My:
‘.
h‘.
‘\.~ 5
\\\.‘ N:““‘
.
. \‘\‘ ‘
‘ Vq‘
‘s
s
N‘ ‘
I ‘ ‘ \~-
\ \N

 

‘\
~C
\
' \\\
\
‘ \\~.. .
~l-.~ \ ‘
t“ I“
\ ‘
\H‘t:

 

 

54

Trinidad and Tobago are close to the 50 percent level.27

Tm31961 figures show that the ratio on the export side
ranged from 25 percent in the Jamaican case to 59 percent
:U1Trinidad andfTobago. On the import side, the ratio is
shfifificantly higher, ranging from 31 percent in Jamaica
1x>69 percent in Barbados. The relatively high degree of
(Kenness is closely related to the magnitude and evolution
ofexmlave sectors.28 Examination of territorial capital
flnmation shows up the relative importance of foreign
capflxfl.in the regional economy. Table 2.11 gives the
imxmkdown of capital formation for selected countries for
difflxent time periods. The influence of the extractive
sedxms (bauxite and alumina in Jamaica and oil in Trini—
dadanmiTobago), as well as the sugar and manufacturing
:Umerests, are reflected in the table. A relatively high
pnnmmtion of foreign resources are involved in these
enmerprises, these are the enclave sectors. The share of

flnmfign capital in total capital formation reflects their

‘—

 

7Calculations for 1967 and 1968 ratios were made
fixmldata presented in (1) Government of Jamaica, Economic
,flggpy of JamaicaLil967; and (2) Government of Trinidad
mKiTobago, Draft Five-Year Plan, 1969-1973.

8 . . . .
See footnote 25 of this chapter for definition
0f enclaves.

 

 

 

 

 

I. 23-13.. :

 

Auunu— ..
lllll'lrllltlillllll |I10IT I- '5': .. u-—.-.-«s._ Ii! . I . I . i. i I . . l. . I. ....I -~
PnAJI‘. aqfin—n «5.... H a-g w. .nv:— -A ‘2— —~. ~ .am-.. v I. u .— IAu um» I» -\».~ s~.:~ &\\.K
.—.—~...d asudsnv Has a. v... n__ u -.. ..~._. .-_ 3... u..- .. .._ ....m ..:: ~..»..~ II -. . .a.‘...e
nunJJ...au..... a... ua—ua._ n —~s . _.—...v .~—._.-.«v..— I. ~.. . _..-..v .... .s.....:.:~ - .t.~ a“...2.::\
and IUIHCV‘nuu H -‘-.. ..--.—.... II .A. .--.-.... II 4.....xs ~u~
"II“. hIIIun.II.leI|III I "a“ I I h I u I I. ... . . I I . . . I u
authO-I-o- oat-t; not .I-nunru-nnuvn. nu... unn I... Ah.yn.. h.. ...v. u ..I- ~ It». ...u. .~qu ~. ... n.. n \ u n \.s- .. \.. .‘..

 

 

 

 

 

55

 

 

.mme .coozoq .moflmmo mumcoflumum m.%pmwnmz Mom .wopmnumm pow .mpGMHmH UHmBUCHB
.mpcMHmH wumsmmq may mo mpmoz Hopflmuu was mHMHpcmfiom OHEOGOOM on“ mo >O>H5m < ..U .canmsmq.o
. .

 

 

 

m
.momHIwmme .amem nmmst>em .ommnoe 6cm emoHcHne .ommnoe was masseuse no ucmscnm>oo
m
.wwmalmoma radam ucmwawmmUaH mOHmEMh .MOHmEmn mo unmECHw>Ow "wOOMDOm
H
.H.3 mm.am u .m.D oo.aw .mpmu GOHDMSHm>m©wHQ “a .H.3 oo.mm u .m.D oo.am .opmu mmcmsoxm pawssso mm

D

.mupssoo mzu CH Umpmm>cHwH on hoe wmnu mum£3 co>o
Ilmuflmoum :mfimsom mo mamsuoom Doc Ham meSHocH SOHSB pcsooom DCOHHDU so DHOHmov mwcmfimmm mo moccamm
m

.wenmeem>a noz n .m.a

 

 

 

.m.G o.mv m.ma H.Nm Aawmav moomnumm
6.Hm 6.mm m.mm m.mmm Amomec ommnoe
mean meanness
0.0H m.om m.mm o.msm exoomec moemsme
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII unmoummIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII n.H.sIaoHeHH2m
GOHDMEHOM m COHDMEHom HMDHQMU m .m.m.w m SOHpoEuom m
Hmuemuo fiance :H H Hmuoe as sonaH M an coeumsnom H appease H
HOpomm OHHnsm n HMHHQMU cmflouom H HMDHQMO OHDmmEOQ u OHDmmEOQ H
mo Ohmsm u mmo mumsm u mo oumnm ” mmOHO H

 

 

.mmflfiocoom
GMHDGH uwmg m0 :mmmfldwmdz m0 OOHOOQ MO GOHHOOHMOM mm GOHDMEHOM HMUHmuU MO COHUflmOQmHQII.HH.N mqm<fi

 

 

 

 

*-
‘I'IfT'S'Y‘O . 0;. 5118
“\a-v"; by

' ' Q A It,
"‘73:? 1015' 1636}. v-
I. 5..

~ “A.”
3::- a UV-..
0 v. .

 

 

Q ‘ 1 -L
~I‘RI19GeC ‘V‘

v..
-c.
"' .NV-QJ

A v
:-,A'QF ,=:rocvn:S ‘
"':“‘-- -vuv «l- v

a

Q
n
.‘ I V" a
‘.“q.-.fi':. A.

. .

““'-vn.a-

 

 

—. ~ . A
.-H ‘F‘ A
q — .
".WNI' ‘*~-~. a .
’ .
.. 52" “:“.r: ~“N'K
u Nu.- 5‘3.--” ‘..~‘
I Q
.-u ":V~-...: "A~-~.._Y
--. l‘--““ VMuo.--
.‘ ‘
\ - “~fl ‘ua- AZ.- .
s
.‘ 'OU‘ -Ilu-»“-
N‘.. .
: .. -, '2'“ N
.._ .
-.. en» »._»“ ‘
~u ‘ _
":. all,“ _
c..» s'»...~‘_
._.
~I““ \ .
.\.....:\\ _ \a I‘ ‘_ n \
i N' m... ...':.
‘-
h“\‘ -
. . ‘
.~.-“' :““V«‘
I ‘9“... :\
‘ \-
V i
.. .
~-
\ v‘ -
Is. ‘_‘ K \‘
‘u
. ‘““\ x s
'\
Y
"51““- .
\u; ‘\l\_“ \
~‘\‘ ~ H a
§‘“u¥ “
.
.
a“ ‘V
‘ ~ “RN‘ .
'. ..
.5 an“ \e‘.:\
\
\\-
N.
“‘.K\
i ‘ ‘ ‘
- x v‘ A
\~\ ‘tilu“‘\
‘\‘¥ K
\ ‘ g
'\
a,
‘ ‘I‘V
~...: ‘M V ,
‘w\
\ \
\ ‘g\“
\>\‘
\. u‘ ‘
.~~ “
. ~ ‘\.~
‘\ \y . N
\M“ C
“
-
.‘x
V
\—
‘I\.\
\ \
~\..‘\\
“\

 

’ 7TM_-e. ..
Tr?— , J

56

importance. On the other end of the scale is the rela-
tively low level of capital formation from the public
sector. Demas points out that if depreciation allocations
were included in the calculations, the relative share of
foreign resources would be substantially higher.29 There
is additional evidence to support the argument that the
enclave sectors are of major importance in the regional g
economy. Table 2.12 shows the divergence between indices
of per capita income, GDP and GNP over the 1960—62 period
for various countries. The wide divergence in the indices
is a good indication of heavy reliance on foreign invest—
ment in the enclave sectors in the 1950's and 1960's.

The combined characteristics of smallness of area,
openness, and the magnitude of enclaves have resulted in
certain features of the economic structure. These are:

(1) high ratio of foreign trade to GDP, (2) the domination
of export trade and the general economy by a single export,
(3) the undiversified resource base and narrow domestic
markets relative to costs of production, (4) negligible
national or regional inter—industry transactions, (5) the

export of savings via foreign—controlled capital markets,

 

2 . .
9Demas, William G., op. cit., p. 105.

 

pi
V I
N
K;
':
9.
g
'I-Jo
1‘!
H-
(5

 

 

 

O
I
....A:1
~
. ‘ o 0 0"“
(”1.7"
W '9‘ I
O
C
3
—¥
Q .. ;
4r-
~".- -4 -
o. ‘
0".
- A -
Jr
-a -
‘ ,-
J'-
‘:\:.A: I V
.\._"‘

 

.. ‘
. -y.- ‘.-.~ _ ‘ ‘
_ - -\
\‘vul .-~‘. I ll--‘-
1-. . ‘ .
F. .‘\v“ ‘ h‘

\
.\ ‘

I»- - “"-
\ ‘.‘
‘. ‘\

‘« “V‘
‘~"\-t

 

 

.s.“ ‘
s ‘ ~
\‘ ”KN ..
“N ‘\2
““~L ‘
‘IA. i
N
"‘- . “‘~-~‘-\\
.~ ~ \ I ‘
., “ \ \
“Hu‘u~ \-
I
Q“‘\- .
\i~‘\ I ‘R¥ .n
‘~ A .z
. . ‘\-- ”“5 y
,I
‘ ‘
‘-.~“ \-.\~ -
~ “ kl“ ’\‘- \
\\‘\.‘ ‘\‘ ~
5 n
\
M‘ ‘
. \ A‘
1 ‘ ‘
\
\ ~H‘x “Q5“ ‘
“\Ku
\ “
-\
N‘ '
‘ H
~ . 3“ ‘ ‘.“ ‘
n.
\..,‘\ Ax
‘\
‘.
\
“Ch“
.
.-“ ‘\:H\“‘
\\\‘\:‘
‘ ‘
~. ‘
"K x x
\
x
‘\'t \
‘\~
\\~
.‘ ‘\
‘>\ ‘VNV ‘
-
‘H‘ \‘ ‘;\
‘ H \
\‘\\

 

57

TABLE 2.12.--Disposition of G.N.P., G.D.P. , and National Income Per
Capita, The West Indies, 1960—1962.

 

I I Per Capita 2 Per Capita I Per Capita

Country :Yearl G.N.P. . G.D.P. National Income
° I (Factor Costs) I (Factor Costs) I (Factor Costs)

 

———————————— West Indian Dollarsa———————-——-—-
Jamaica 1962 706 734 658

Trinidad and
Tobago 1962 1,058 1,180 920

Barbados 1961 n. a. 502 n.a.

Leeward and
Windward Islands 1961 n.a. 337 n.a.

 

aAt current exchange rate $1.00 U.S. = $2.00 W.I., at predevaluation
rate $1.00 U.S. = $1.85 W.I.

Source: Demas, William G., o . cit., p. 102.

and (6) very little domestic—generated inflationary pres—
sures, since prices are tied to export savings. The net
effect of these features has been a condition whereby
growth stimulus stems largely from those sectors producing
largely for the export market and usually employing a
higher level of technology than the domestic economy.
Under this peculiar set of circumstances, certain indices
of economic well being (GDP, real per capita increases,
domestic capital formation) have attained fairly reSpec—
table levels. However, the economy has failed to exhibit

structural differentiation in terms of a broadened economic

 

'-:-* Quite evidern

\d
line I

p Q
cup-avg .. ,- n
u

-: .ne 93Ch
ub'u I». .

 

 

' v-
..;A.’ fir tea I
"ii-go‘s“. H.1Iv o ‘

 

v ’ . a
an... “A... a

cue-a . f
-‘ ' 2 96-.
"""'~ vVII-‘ a.
‘ C
.. Q'Avu.’ , F '2: . v
.. 1.. u.. -,. ‘V‘- :
.

 

‘ c
Vin-Ffi : F‘Wfla‘
k-'-"-OQU “
' .

§

“,2 ~y-A' .- ,.

00“ u-\'|
.

5..

"v-a u“ ‘ ~
: ~ AV " s
:"‘v_-‘--'

 

..
‘V

‘ ‘3“ re -
Viguvn... -V‘

(I)

v.

‘H
“"~u

 

 

(I)

{n
I(1

"n
.\.~

( )

9\

§
‘
w, v H‘.‘
s., V- . h
\ L““\

‘\

III

 

 

58

base. Quite evidently there has not been significant
ploughing back of capital and technology into other
sectors of the economy that could spearhead the trans—
formation drive. It is now easy to see how the West
Indies could attain a relatively high and sustained rate
of growth in real per capita incomes and GDP without
undergoing a higher rate of structural transformation.
The growth stimulus of the 1950's and mid—1960’s
(particularly in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago) to a
great extent reflected a set of extremely favorable cir—
cumstances. In the first place, population growth was
restricted by an unpredicted migration to the United
Kingdom. Between 1946 and 1960, annual net migration
siphoned off an estimated 30 percent of the annual in—
crease in population.30 Secondly, both Jamaica and Trin—
idad and Tobago were favored by an extremely bouyant
market for bauxite and petroleum (their largest dollar
earners). Furthermore, the negotiated prices for sugar,
bananas and citrus were extremely favorable under the

Commonwealth Commodity Agreement for this period.
M

30Roberts, G. W., "Prospects for Population Growth
in the West Indies," Social and Economic Studies, Institute
Of Social and Economic Research, University of the West
Indies, Jamaica, Vol. XI, December, 1962, pp. 333—50.

 

 

o

The e*-11de..c<

rm a1 .
:1" We (Danna...

I.
ulna 56V-

:' t‘r. rate it.

   

' C
.. ' v""fl..|:
.Ezc l: m--4\..¢-u

-
‘Cu .

.

"”‘W‘: n?:"anc-

""‘:' ”-Vavoov
' O

..
‘ c.

" " ::. ',.‘

5..-“,‘v .

(I)

-. ‘
9‘ _‘
“ “V—on"
‘--\v N:

‘Vvvu

“Rn s.-
a.
-.u_“.

.
- 'n.
V

“vs“,

‘ux...

‘ ‘ss-s

“‘I\4

 

~... ‘-
y‘ _
. ‘ ‘
.‘ ‘v. ‘.R‘ ‘
'N." ‘3 NJ- .‘~
..‘».. ‘5:
'n
‘.
x.
..‘ -
\‘.~ «‘g ‘fi‘q
. ., V‘
‘N‘ n,-
‘ “-.\
._..
s~‘
~ ~ ‘
\ ~ ‘
‘ ‘
~~ ~ N‘~~\'
.. h. \
u ~ ‘
\.\-
‘\.

 

‘
y“ ‘
§ ‘
~
e=~
\
M‘
.
‘\
.~\
.‘ M
x
:«w
‘u

 

59

The evidence and argument advanced by Demas appears
even more convincing in retrOSpect. The slowing down of
the growth rate in the region (in Jamaica and Trinidad and
Tobago in particular) is documented by the World Bank

figures presented earlier.

Unique Features of the Agricultural Economy

 

The preceding section examined some of the features
of the West Indian general economy which we consider to be
peculiar to the region. The peculiarity evolves out of
the unique economic and social political structure in
which the regional economy emerged. This section will
examine some of the characteristics of the agricultural
economy which we consider to be unique to the region and
important for understanding the policy implications for

different development strategies.

Land Tenure and Land

Use Patterns

“_

One feature of the West Indian agricultural economy

that stands out immediately is the relationship between

 

farm

3!: SIZE,

I -
,.’.. vacac
2....6.»

79 per: 2‘.

 

 

‘
I. o. a. O'cva‘ ”A-‘ o,
‘I '- I“ '
'- M‘s-«3 We-» ux..J'I.
. .
... “:Yflafl- p‘ l
VV~vau v-
.

 

 

. ‘ .
q

1"." u”, “NV‘ A._
'v t .- .-

"‘ I l-a'u- uu--b_.

. ‘

.2h:v: o v- ”"V" ~
.‘Cu—u ~ . -.‘ H K

'V-...\.

N‘A

 

.
PIA.

""" ”en

5“?

u..-

u
.-
F‘s ‘A‘

.—
‘on‘ "'K

(ll
‘1!

kfi

A
\.

1(1

(I'

 

(II
([1 [II
Ill

{)1

(I)

 

6O

farm size, farm holdings, and farm acreage. In 1961, an
estimated 79 percent of the total number of farms were
less than 5 acres. Some 21 percent of the total number
of farms were between 5 and 100 acres. Finally, only 0.6
of one percent of the farms were over 100 acres. Evi—
dently, the agricultural sector is dominated by small
farmers (in terms of land ownership). The unique feature 1 VI
of the sector, however, is related to the distribution of
the land resources among the three size groups. The 79
percent in the less than 5—acre size account for only 13 ‘
percent of the total farm acreage. The 21 percent in the
5— to 100—acre size account for some 32 percent of the
total farm acreage, while farms of 100 acres and above
account for 55 percent of the total farm acreage. Table
2.13 gives the breakdown for the individual territories

by farm size groups.

The table provides some insights into tenure pat—
terns as well as land endowment and distribution. For one
thing, there is an inverse relationship between numbers of
farm holders and the possession of land. Secondly, there
is also an inverse relationship between farm size and the
percent of land being cultivated. The 1961 figures indi—

cate that the farms of less than 5 acres were actively

 

AUA~— avi.v.. \..A. s . ~
I'lllllllollllqlluliul..IIIIIII...-.I.|.|II.I ... ...III... .I. r-.. . u—uov..hc~.m.lI. . .|.. ..I. .I.| I, .I I. I . . I . II. III: I-.I
u ......'..~..< u .......-...— -..: n .L.....s..< .. “...: ~q...~ -..wg . .11..» ....< . ....Z.-...~ -.xxe -
n 2-1- a...— —.n.. ref?” —.~ .. ..—. n ... ...... ~a. .. ».—.I. ~.. _. .... I. ...L....~ ~ .. ...)? I ~ ~. ~.\L. I
:oV§—.mu ~—< H u... I.—Av.~._ u _.v I.—...~.— u .a. I....~.~ H ... I...\.n.~ .. ~«s ..~\-.~ I es» I.~\.L.\I \\.\--....
H nt-v I. .< . av-v- III onlv -. .< svflsh .~ .II -\.~ s .I\ .. as III
\\ a... u \ I... - .... u - vlvu>1 | \If -I .u.. I ..I. n ....I s . as ... ~ .~ ‘ .s... ... ~ \ . . I ... ...-... ~ ~ .. n. . s. s. . ... . x \ .. . x. . . ~ . \ .

I. IHIIJ

61

.mme .moHpmemuw HMHDp
~meUGH “mm: msp mo thwHw>HnD

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HdoHHmfl CMHUGH umwz
.unwfimmmsmz Ehwm Ucm

IMO #wwwflm d ~N IO
wOHEOQOOm HMHDHH

z meme HMSOHmMUUO
SUHHmm Ho pcwfipummwn

 

 

 

"GUHSom
OOH N.mm OIO G.Nm OION wINH w.wh mmHMBZDOO QH¢
OOH NImm ¢IO O.wN m.NH m.NN HINO AwmlhmmHv
”Ewen; .um
OOH m.>w w.o m.hm N.mH m.wH m.om memHv mHosH .um
00H wdn H.H 5m o.m m.NH m.mm Ammo: MHHHsmSH
\mHszmfiHM .5
03 Two m.o m.mH m6 HéH 5mm HummHv “333202
OOH m.mm 0.0 OINm O.HN h.NH H.wh AwmmHv MUHGHEOD
OOH NIHm O.H m.v ®.H v.MH v.bm AHOOHV wOUMQHmm
8H Ham To 0.: m.m méw w.om HHomHv magnum
Haw mumHHQ¢
. . m.mN OIHH OINN ¢.hw AhmmHV DOUGHHHMO
OOH N hv b o wad mwmcwuw
. . . .o o.mH v.8 82mm: ommnoe
8H q .3 m o H ow m H Ham Haggis
OOH OIOm 5.0 NINM O.wN w.HH m.Hh AmeHV MOHMEMO
pamonum
H wmmmuod ” manmm .02 m ommmuom m meumm .oz ” mmmwnom H mEHMMOHozm
m Sham HMHOBH Hmuoa u EHmm Hmuoau Hmwoa m EMMh.MMMMHH MM .mdhm” whucdoo
mwNHm HHfl H mo .mOHm H m0 .moum u mo .QOHm H MO monm H m n H
M me0m +00H m monofi omH I m u mmuo¢ m I o m

 

.HmmH Maw mm\nmmH

HmeUGH HmOS

 

 

 

 

 

. M
acres had abc I.

[I
2;,
O
In
(D
C)
I h
.._.-J
('3
(_

 

 

.
C
a . “
’ “Fa-
' - . I
egrna" C_ __“.,-.
I. 55-55“-
.
.‘ -.0!‘ ’;
I’v- ..
flu
...H
- fi
.
‘- I-p‘p ""‘m‘i: -3
' \—
~- urnv‘ u..-~1‘\u ‘
R.-
”—
h-Ah
; " A‘ ‘O-A
" :YYH fl _
-..hv--\--"fi
I.‘ ‘ . ‘
....“ I5“ ‘I ‘Ql‘fi .
...." ""§‘ nymu

 

~|
-
n

““v-_
H

..I.."‘“‘
.

 

 

HI“ ‘
s
k“"r\
\ I
\‘ I‘u~ “k
‘i
I‘ ~I“\ -
\‘ ~ ’\
‘1
m‘ 5‘.‘
I ‘~‘ y
~_ ‘\
Q‘I
'u. _ \‘ ‘
.s .: N :s“\‘
k a
‘ \
“\..
‘|
‘ ‘
‘u \\ ~.
\uM: :H\‘
I
‘ ' ‘\M;
...K I ‘
‘\
‘ ‘
\ ‘ \‘
‘~‘ : ‘H \
..I ._ u
‘ u
\ x “
\‘\ \\: ‘ ‘ ~
\ R
- II“ \ ‘
\‘ ‘
I ‘ ‘\‘\
.I‘
‘\
I ‘\“ Q‘
“‘ \4 :‘I
T‘. ‘\\‘
\
~‘:| "\ ‘
I ..\~"‘“ ‘
I“ \
‘ ~
\ \.‘“‘
in "
i IE ‘
.. H ‘N‘ ..‘
I ~ ‘
.IIg "“Q‘
I~_I \\ ‘
\‘ x.‘
‘\‘~: “ ‘
~ ‘\
\’ ‘ .
I .\“
IN“ ‘
I
I ‘W
s
. ‘ ~. ‘
- h‘
\ \‘§u ‘ ‘\
. \R
\‘ \ ‘4
\: ."‘
I‘ .‘ ‘
;\‘t \.~ \
‘ ‘ \\
- \
I .‘ \\
.\ ‘
‘ \\:~ ‘
\\ k ‘I
- I \‘ w
‘ \
“H‘t‘b

 

62

cultivating some 66 percent of their land. Farms of 5 to
100 acres had about 46 percent of their lands under crops,
while farms of 100 acres and above only had betWeen 30 and
40 percent of their lands under cultivation (Table 2.14) .31
The two tables set the stage for further discussion
of other unique features of the agricultural sector. Un—
doubtedly, the pattern of land tenure and land use is
highly interrelated with other features of the sector,
which would tend to set the sector apart from the more
generalized agricultural sector models popularized in de—

velopment texts .

Plantation——Peasant Dichotomy

The dichotomy between peasant and plantation agri—

culture is shrouded in the characteristics of the land use

 

31Undoubtedly, much of the larger holdings are
marginal for crop production. However, in the West Indies
there is a strong correlation of land quality with size of
holdings. Usually, plantation and larger—size holdings
are located on gently rolling and fairly fertile lands,
while small holdings are on steep and generally unfertile
land. For discussion of the evolution of this pattern,
see: Marshall, Woodville K., "Notes on Peasant Develop—
ment in the West Indies Since 1838," W
Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, September 1968 (Special Number).
(Agricultural Development and Planning in the Caribbean)
Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of
the West Indies, Jamaica, p. 252.

—. f.

.- Adgn.

.. AI....... ...: v

nun. u-v-n
nu... -- u
.

DI

Inn-

........~....

-.~.~

 

ye...»

A

~su-gu—hua vs»:

I

w

 

 

 

mm CMHUQH pmmB mo #mwOHQ d am .02 moHme HMQOHmmooo

.mm .mme ImoHpmHumum HausuH50Hn
mass: Ehmm was onEocoom HmHSpHDOHMmm mo psmfiuummma ”moHSOm

. I H
OH o o wuHmMm>HcD .pcmfim

.mmHOGH pmmz esp m

.Uwum>HuH50 mono mma £0H£3 pcmH so npzonm wumtcoomm mH #H
.msusonm poms CH wwuw>oo pqu on meHmmm sump HmooH m mH :muMCHSH: sum“ one

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.mmwup HHmEm Ho wndufim Q
.menouHunmu
& mDOHHw> mflp CH coxwu wst msmcmo HmasuHSOHHmm was“ mums» esp 0p mpcomwmhnoo HOOH Cam rmmmH .OmmHm
OOH llllllllllll «NIAVN llllllllll OIOH ©.®N VINM mwnom +Oom
OOH 0.0 O.m >.HN 0.0m ¢.O¢ mwuom oomv I OOH

OOH O.wm h.mH b.md meom OOHv I m

OOH OImN m.w H.©® mwhom mv I O

usoonum
Nfiwumnflsm 00H>Hom mend mVHHmHUOOB
Hmpoe nHWMMMMHO WOIHHHDM was ummnom UQMHmmMHO OGMHQOHU whomwumo wNHm

 

m.HomH cam ommH ImwawnH “was .mmNHm unouwMMHo mo manna an scuafiumm mo meII.VH.N mamas

 

 

 

a . 5' q,-
“‘r"-‘c-'r-v Earthen
death ou‘

V 5' I
.1 I. ..I.“? “I"
...Y:' De; 5“]. g

.
L...” A.

;“‘*a-se
’ J. $..».
-.--\n.

c “I-
. an", .3
: ;‘-31.\-- ..

:‘7 :v .“.G “Fa

' '- v‘.‘

F
u
I \—
nv_‘,' u...
.
.‘I‘... ‘ ‘ fi".:v
‘ ' \— I
....Z:3 M. v | --
I
n
i..,

v

‘ . - I. ‘
A H

a: q : _ «

...HQH“

‘5.“ ‘5 C

 

a-
‘O
‘U
h ““ ‘n~:
"...-.. -.‘-~
I ‘ ~ ‘
~ ‘ F“ N-
~ \
‘ ~

a... . ‘ .
u. \N -~:§ q“: ‘
en ...-t. “a“ ‘
‘I. ‘t - ‘
‘h‘ l\::‘ I"“‘ «n I
‘ .
5 ‘IIu‘u_- ‘
‘-._ ‘ -
.. Fs .‘ ‘ h _ Q
..u.‘_ ~
. ~‘ ‘N “\-
““I. ‘ ‘
-. __,‘ ‘ “
u\\-. ““H “A- \‘
~‘“»u
§
‘A

 

‘\
“
~\
.‘
..
‘x
I \ ‘\Q
. “H‘\\
.M ‘
\z; \
‘ V‘

\ “
\J M \ I‘M
I ‘k‘ I
“‘ “\
. ~ ‘

‘. “ ~
I \ \R
\

V'—
64
and tenure patterns of the agricultural sector. This
dichotomy manifests itself as “dualism" in the agricul—
tural sector. However, it must be noted that the exhi—
bition of intra—sectoral dualism in the West Indies is
only a further manifestation of inter—sectoral dualism.32
For example, the average output per head in mining and
process is over eight times as high as agriculture in
Trinidad and Tobago. In Jamaica, output per head in
mining and processing is over 20 times as high as agri—

culture.33 This general gap in sectoral per capita

 

output also holds for the other territories of the region.
To say that dualism exists in the agricultural sector of
the West Indian economy could be extremely misleading if
thought of in terms of "complete” dichotomy between plan—

tation and peasant agriculture. While it is true that the

 

32See footnotes 8 and 13 of this chapter for notes

on the concept of "dualism" as used here. We see dualism
in the "real world" sense as being characterized by three
major features. These are: (1) lack of specialization

, on a significant scale, (2) lack of regular production of
a Surplus with a view to sale, and (3) almost stationary
technology. See: Meier, Gerald M., Leading Issues in
Development Economics, New York, Oxford University Press,
1964, pp. 48—89.

33 .
Cumper, G. E. (Editor), The Economy of the West

Egg, Institute of Social and Economic Research, Univer_
sity of the West IndieS, Jamaica, 1960, p. 114.

 

 

     

 

"ration economy
1: .15: be kept in
lziiar. aaricul"'-*o

. Ian.»
4

. - ‘
..., ' V“ “ren-
_ (3” WW
. O
V A n ‘ " o
: JF“\":‘Q' “Yb-'1‘
00" .y‘-» U- u
..': :AA‘fi-.' ‘ 1

P‘ "A
AC
“-v UT:

u-» "V'uv... ‘
.

 

..
no. ._
\u- ‘—
~... .3
. .Vusv. fi“ Y‘
....~..~ vy.-:
.
.,A
' . ::: ~fifiv !
*4 -
v::. my I
I: ‘ v.A\".
.
'Q

“I.
1“
~le" b

I);

.‘u

2“
\ ‘3
5D»

 

65

plantation economy is largely geared to the export market,
it must be kept in mind that there is no branch of West
Indian agriculture which is not involved in export produc—
tion. Export production is not the undisputed domain of
"large-scale" producers in the West Indies. Historically,
the economy has been characterized by a high level of in—
terdependence of the plantation and small farming systems.
Many farmers operating at the near—subsistence level never—
theless gear their farming enterprises to the production
of certain export crops.34 In addition, many of these
farmers make up a significant proportion of the seasonal
and casual labor to the plantation.

Plantation or "estate" enterprises have command
Of, or access to, a substantial amount of financial re—
sources. In addition, the level of technology and manage—-
ment employed on these enterprises is generally superior
to that on the small farms.35 This does not necessarily
mean that large—scale farming enterprises are more ”effi—

cient" in the West Indies. On a private account, there

M

34The term "subsistence" is used here in the sense
of a relatively low level or standard of living rather
than in the sense of a lack of a marketable surplus.
35 . .
The term "small farms" is usually applied to
farms of less than 25 acres in the West Indies.

 

 

 

I.

w. evidence tc

.. allccaze rescur:

I Q
n.‘:'; ‘mflf‘"" 'F
a. l I . ,
"\IO‘. ‘VbbJogv’ '0.
fl

. ‘ .
:pn: anpbzbfifin AI
.QU» u--..uu--\Hn. C.
a .

". A V ’ o

‘ ‘~ vv .“ ..

—§ H a I .P"
I-‘uvu. g) fi‘---.."
l . I,

   

.
. ,. .
' ';n-:n ~:,.

'“ :"'Vvvvu ....g-..‘

‘-
“UK,

(a!
(’N

 

' ‘qv.

—I .
I ‘
F: "‘ ~PA-
.A“ “--..-.
IQ."
" "a-
\. ..
"h. A.- “:3“ h a”.
v. "n u I:
‘ .
. .
_I
. -\
. -q ‘u- . ‘
'- «u. a
..u -.. a fi —.
"V a
A-
.
-I
‘ V
u,‘ \~~‘Av .
. ‘ie‘. 'x
-V»
“'
~ I v I
~ .
-_. - 2-.“ ~
. a. ‘ h A s
- _~u ‘
I.» _.

 

.-
.
.
.‘
“I 2““‘ I
‘V H ‘
b \, ~
' “" \n‘
‘ ~
..- I
‘

I "sa
‘-._:\1 2.“
~‘ u: I:‘\~‘
Ny~‘\
~ \

 

I « Q
‘ g

 

is some evidence to suggest that many large estates fail
to allocate resources in the most efficient manner. On a
social account, the question has been raised whether the
large plantation enterprises are impeding the develOpment
process by failing to adOpt innovation rather than relying
on protected markets and price negotiations to keep them
viable.36
The dichotomy in the characteristics of resource
base between plantation and peasant agriculture has re—
sulted in a low average production per farm for the domes—
tic sector.37 Low average production is in turn function—
ally related to a low level of technology, internal and
external capital rationing and a relatively low level of
managerial skills. Subsequent chapters will eXplore some

of these aspects .

 

36

See, for example: Beckford, G. L., "An Appro—
priate Theoretical Framework for Agricultural Planning, "
and Best, L. A., "A Model of Pure Plantation Economy,"

Social and Economic Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, September
1968, Institute of Social and Economic Research, Univer—
sity of the West Indies, Jamaica (Special Number on Agri-
cultural Development and Planning in the Caribbean), pp,
233—242 and pp. 283—326.

37 . .
In terms of the weights of food crops and live—
StOCk products produced for local consumption, the average
Production per farm is estimated to be less than two tons.

 

 

 

 

.‘I
...,“
~«A-

 

'- I..-

I
...

- "fi‘
:-

 

' ~ua.

-
'-q-.

I
"'— -

:‘YNAOH,: ..

I‘ F Ab‘p
FLA.- ...

:BR‘M'
bby gy-

‘vvu-.§-

‘.
~- ESQ

er

.
‘
.."f'v

-dky- .

r
.1

 

"Y“

H...

9.0

"H A_~

o-o
‘I‘vgu

l
(I)

1))

 

n'

 

67

Coexistence of Agricultural
Labor Shortage With Overall

Unemployment

Another unique feature of the West Indian agricul-
tural sector is the coexistence of a lO—l8 percent level
of structural unemployment and a chronic shortage of agri—
cultural labor. The shortage is not only seasonal as a
result of peak labor demand at planting or harvesting.
Instead, there is an annual and persistent situation where
the supply of labor is well below the demand for workers.
The shortage is aggrevated by seasonal labor requirements
on larger plantations or the larger farms.38 Thus, it is
not a matter of large scale frictional unemployment due
to imperfections in the market. The phenomenon has been
observed in most of the countries in the region, but is
more pronounced in the larger islands of Jamaica, Trinidad
and Tobago, and Barbados.

The rates of unemployment in both urban and rural
sectors suggest that it is unrealistic under present con—

ditions to look to the urban sector as an outlet for the

 

38This phenomenon has been well documented in
Jamaica. See: Government of Jamaica, W-
dence Plan, 1963—1968: A Long Term Development Program
for Jamaica (July, 1963), pp. 34—40.

 

 

 

a H'
. ‘fi -
- - ‘V a 1': '. e.
or. r. :Le b be. 0

- ~
P . fl
Incl-\.g~ I“? 7' _e u
H ‘ \ U‘ be.
"...“.Iu» -
' w
I‘m-n— AQ’~"~ .In
- a \ -1. LJ
""‘I' V'lo‘t“
’1‘ - n ‘_ . .
.I I I -- 1:-Y‘ an
~ I." ' u up

..A-‘

I‘-
":r
‘ We.“

 

.. _
...?
V»--

|“.‘. .‘ .
‘ A. r-

\1.'-“ A
I V-

I

‘h ‘

. , .‘~1-~., .' ..
~‘.~.h fir.
. . |
.' ‘ _

. - . p‘~.“

\I.‘ n \ _\ ."

-.....~ .x“

 

‘\
" a
‘Ie \n‘.\
I \..‘\
s .“ _
\ I| ‘ ‘
I
an” ~"‘-‘\~
\.‘~.‘\-
.I
u
~‘~ .-
'\:\ I‘ ‘
. \
\ \~I\‘
&‘ ‘ fix
...“ N
‘\.\‘
\
‘.\‘~ I
~\ n‘ ‘
" ~\
. ‘-H\ m‘\
‘ ~N~¥\
\k“
I
‘ NI.‘
.~:.‘
“3 “N
\I.‘ :\<\h
\ \\
K
:\~‘.
\~ “
u \“ \K‘V" \
‘4‘ ‘ ‘
s H

 

 

68

rural unemployed and underemployed. This is so, because
the incidence of unemployment is already higher in the
urban areas in many of the islands. Table 2.15 shows
estimates of the distribution of employment for the most

recent census in Jamaica (1960) .

TABLE 2.15.——Distribution of Unemployment, Jamaica, 1960.

 

I Charac— 3 Labor 2 Proportion of Labor

 

Parish teri S ti 0 3 Force Unemployed 1 Force Unemployed
——————— Number———--—— —---—-Percent———-—-
Kingston Urban 58 , 100 10 , 800 19 . 0
St. Andrew Urbana 136,200 22,200 16.0
Other Parishes Rural 454 , 100 49 , 000 10 . 8

 

aThe Parish of St. Andrew has areas that for all practical purposes
are "rural." However, because of the proximity to Kingston, the
urban characteristics are strong.

Source: Government of Jamaica, Five Year Independence Plan, 1963-

1968: A Long Term Development Program for Jamaica (July,

1963).

The chronic level of unemployment has persisted
even with phenomenal increases in total output. In the
case of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago where aggregate
output has been increasing the fastest in the region, the
increasing proportion of manufactures in output has not

Significantly lowered the level of unemployment. Thus,

 

 

iculd appear the

 

 

. ‘ ‘.
"“"na c-na ':
" u __ a
.' ‘V‘Wvb v04» -5.

 

-. a -*, . Z
\— .Y'_ a | ‘
'“"' ‘.\. I -
9
. . _ Q a
:I..' .Avna F!
«U...

“'M-v' “nu

' I
"Qp-A “'7"
-
"""~-\'U .
.

‘
‘3‘“ (‘7'.
\Nnv- v . -.
. -

 

‘ a
.. :~“-\~.“

...

a...‘
‘ ‘1!“ A». ‘v-
'-"“‘v..

~
\_“

 

‘
flax

\ n

 

 

 

69

it would appear that solution to the unemployment situation

I will not be forthcoming for some time to come from the in—

dustrial sector.

In general, rapid increases in output have failed
to reduce the level of employment because of two factors.
These are: (l) a relatively high rate of growth in the
labor force, and (2) the capital—intensive nature of modern
technology employed in the industrial sector. The impor—
tance of additions to the labor force is illustrated by
the situation in Trinidad, where the rate of growth in
output has been relatively high. Between 1960 and 1968,
the labor force was growing at a rate of 3 percent per
annum. It has been estimated that an additional .5 of
one percent was siphoned off by emigration over this
period. The 1969—73 development plan estimates that the
annual addition to the labor force between 1969 and 1973
Will be about 2.5 percent per annum. This rate of growth
is adjusted for net reductions for various reasons. With—
out adjustment, it is estimated that the annual rate of
growth over the period would be of the order of 3.5 per—

cent.39 These rates of growth are high and are certainly

 

39Government of Trinidad and Tobago, Draft Five
Year Plan, l969~l973, pp. 170-190-

 

Err-ad the ability

THERE

. ,
q
:"'V.’,~a

H

in.

J-
u

' ' s
canal

.5!
Plowman ..

.
‘Hfl w n r
A u U o. .
‘n-DCI‘H-y .... J
a
n . b
-..- : ce- 0
\
-—:.. ~-V.~ ‘ w
c
P ‘
.... Q“; -- _”:
'I‘v. UV...» a.‘

 

 

 

 

.

“...-... “H‘PV§ ”P!
.

..:-...- ...-.... ...-

i h

F'youflfi‘ ‘v-‘“~ .

‘- _-"~

.. NAN!» ~"—..U

. ' . ‘ .

Q _ ‘

...... a- -8“ ‘ : 2

....
\igql 5‘ ...b -~-u
‘ .
4,: ..v ‘ v~-..,\
- A
-._
.. ...- H ‘C'I‘C
-‘ ‘
n! ‘
‘ ~ ”.2 -—
...» .‘.“b
.
N.
”r. ‘ .
~‘: \_"‘-\y: r
... ~ ~5V§s A

I I

.N
9 ~ ‘

fi‘ ..fi ‘ «R‘NA‘

-
.q .‘NMU\

‘u N

‘ M N "v-I v.

. ‘ ~ I
..~~_ ~ a A
‘. “¥\_ \

.
.
“‘.
m.
\u: \ \ ‘~“‘ '.
\
s» suuvty‘ \ ‘-
-. \y‘ \—
\;~~.“
.“‘ ‘
\“ .
‘ Q
‘
‘ Q . Y‘“ ‘~
V
.
‘qu ‘ .
h. ‘fi
sng- ‘khq‘A‘
‘ ~ «.\‘\A:
‘
‘I
x.‘ .
\ ~ ‘
‘\. a
. x“, Q‘
5“».
‘
~. ‘
K“
. \ "N ‘
»-.\‘“~\ “\~
“ t-
‘ \-
.‘ ‘
‘~.
-‘ x y. ‘.~
5...\ \\ ‘\;
i‘ \\
‘ L
'x
\
‘\
~\
"\ ‘

‘ \ N I

“ ..¥
. .

._\ , \

N N
w “1“ -
5 ~ ~
..\\ x“
‘ . \\,
. g“
\ \

‘ § §
.\\ ‘

\~ ‘ ‘
\\. 5Q "‘
‘ |

‘. .\' h

. x‘ ‘
‘~ \ \

~~l K ‘
\ ,‘

‘ “ . .2
.‘ “\
s \V
\ “‘

“‘- \‘1\ ‘
.\U“ “v‘
‘ x

 

70

beyond the ability of the industrial sector to absorb under
current conditions.

However, the peculiarity of agricultural labor
shortage and general unemployment coexisting in the area
comes from a set of features unique to the economic struc—
ture. Some of these features are: (l) the extremely
powerful union movement in the territories; (2) relatively
high wage—paying tourist industry; and (3) the close prox—
imity of the islands to the North American continent, which
makes for a rather strong international "demonstration ef—
fect." The relatively high wage rates obtainable in the
modern sectors (bauxite in Jamaica and petroleum in Trin—
idad and Tobago), tend to raise the reservation price or
"Supply price" of labor in the less productive sectors.
Lewis suggests that wage earners in the less productive
sectors

raise their sights, and now demand what

they consider a living wage. Even if unem—
ployed, they refuse to work for less than they

Consider reasonable. So those who are willing
to employ peOple but cannot pay the new wages
R“
40

The ”reservation price" of labor is defined as
the highest offered price at which a seller still refuses
to sell. He will sell at any figure above the reservation
price, In the sense used here, it is meant to indicate
the minimum price at which a seller will sell.

‘ind that there
the midst of u:

 

 

 

 

 

 

"- :u:

'
-p
A .
fin .
:cn .-\ ‘
hw.‘"’ “5&5» .,

‘ R'N'N -
\
v‘.".“

.‘.‘V‘
M

\Q“

“a...
u ..x‘

(I)

 

71

find that there is a shorta e of labor even in
the midst of unemployment.

Sheltered High Cost
Export Agriculture

One major consequence of the heavy reliance on
enclave sectors for growth is that agricultural eXport
earnings and GDP have become dependent on sheltered in—
ternational markets. The economies are not particularly
well equipped to compete freely in international markets.
The units are high—cost producers of most export agricul—
tural staples. To a great extent, this reflects (1) high
labor costs, and (2) inefficient and obsolete production
techniques. West Indian sugar is not competitive with
Australia, Mauritius, and Hawaiian sugar. West Indian
bananas do not compete with bananas from Central America.
Citrus from the United States and Israel is more competi—
tive than West Indian citrus. Cumper summarized the sit-
uation when he wrote:

. . . the whole West Indies is at the moment a
high cost sugar producer, partly because the

protection it has enjoyed has permitted it to
indulge in what, to a laissez—faire economist,

 

 

 

41Lewis, W. Arthur, Jamaica's Economic Problems,
The Gleaner Co. Ltd... Jamaica, September 1964, p. 3.

 

 

 

I I
F. bn n q a
I-G .
v. in.» :0.G-V

{2291' the

‘1.-. .‘l .

"‘1" a V. 1..

\ ... I

-.-.. “QC“. 5‘
‘ -

..2'::A \ ,.

v‘ ‘ _ haau
..uu.' 5““ vt-

ivn. ..
~‘: Y: ”A

“....-. b

.
‘
“Fa“‘V

.
"' b-.-._u
-
‘ Q

.

- F‘nu -_‘r“ E.
II II .-
.--u\¢_._'.:. P:

‘0:
I. .

I .

.“\-.“_. . _
b"‘- '- : nv‘ .
. V—H-¢b“_ ~.

- - -\
.
~
“‘~..

‘Qc
H". A“ AA-._
yg,‘

V.

s-.~_.

.. .
"u’C

I
I
1:)
II)
J
l

I.
(I)
p

 

72

must be classed as luxurious—~a persistent
holding back from the full use of labor—saving
devices now available, the maintenance of a
fringe of "peasant" cane suppliers, whose ef—
ficiency is very variable, and the preservation
of the share in the market of small technically
backward factories.

Under the umbrella of Commonwealth Trade Agree-
ments (largely with the United Kingdom but increasing with
Canada), the West Indian economy has not felt the full
pressure to change the technical structure of its export
agriculture. The possibility of negotiating for higher
preferential prices under conditions of rapidly rising
production costs has tended to reduce the incentive for
seeking ways of coming to grips with the cost problem.
Under such circumstances, it is not difficult to see why
the present pattern of export production persists. Ob—
viously, in the short run it is less painful to spend
months negotiating for increased export prices than to
apply the technology and policy measures, which, while

necessary for increasing the efficiency of the system,

would also disrupt the industry.

M.—

2 .
4 Cumper, G. E., Op. Cit., p. ll.

 

 

U)
1;:

l

n‘! D“ J,‘,, “}a
;o:. y‘r-‘.u

v55»

!

' Q I ‘
I ‘Nfla
uh: A. ‘r‘o f‘ H

""v v .

 

ho.» ..-U..\—
d
‘ I '
h ‘ ' ” w
\ FA: _,aln ... -.._
...... nut-4‘. -..» .~
~I . " ‘ T
\ i. .u A‘y- " .
....ci.__.H . .
' ‘

 

~
~ I ‘

‘\ Aha
~~~.' “..u

.
n.
\ ‘Ic -.

.
“2n. n« ~
y.-..---\.It;.-' kc:
V..A . ~
~: ‘Q A- ~5‘A' ...:-
-
C§U 5- u‘~|‘-..
.
..
‘\
, - -v,‘~ “n.‘ a
..4‘ -‘\-. ' ~-

A‘.

...V ‘

[u

 

73

Summary and Implications for
Agricultural Research

The West Indian economy occupies relatively favor—
able positions on the global scale in terms of per capita
GDP. During the 1950's and 1960's the region experienced
amp of the highest rates of growth in the world. However,
since about the mid-1960's, the growth rate has declined
significantly. Physical dispersion, small size, ”open—
nessfl'and population pressures all function to prevent
significant, basic structural transformation despite rapid
rates of growth in output. Growth in output has largely
come from the enclave sectors which have not ploughed back
appreciable amounts of capital into the agricultural in—
frastructure. Capital has not been reinvested largely
because profits have been remitted to foreign—dominated
shareholders.

Domestic agricultural output and technology re—
flects the “dual” nature of the export agricultural sector
and the peasant sector. One reason why development has
not accompanied growth is the fact that the relatively
unproductive domestic agricultural sector has tended to
mfizpressures on the general economy through: (1) rapid

rates of growth in the labor force, (2) high cost of

 

‘ t
"ch tion, resrl

  

* dorestic £00.

 

pr,
. ‘ h“ '3:
.55 ZEECEC :v a;

. ‘ . . I
n ' . .floi‘lr. Yo
... fl~vl . -b
a ‘V--\"-
In. ‘

. I
' V p 1
. . ‘
.IR *QFFn-‘u" -b -
_
I”: ‘vbuvu‘

.
. .‘gs- ,._ flan
'- : q \p a.
N" nun.

..

‘ . A-“
..a l‘.-fl, ‘ “A t
I '- _ ‘Hbv...
‘... ~‘Ub5.

... “‘ "

~'~..

infiv-
" v. . .-
' - _

‘ -A-:
‘ H
cu“ v v»..-
‘ ‘1
2“~.‘ ‘ ‘5‘: hv '\
nu.~»~l.-n-‘ ~-V
' Q
. “ ‘ I
‘ -
2 ~: '2‘ ”a...“ ‘
~ "-.»u u\1\.. \-
s
i O
‘n
._ :V 1“ “QYQNV‘
\-\ \. Vh‘~~..
.
a
“in ‘
.. l‘
‘. ‘ ‘yzl ~ 5
.~.\i ‘ “ ‘fi’.
‘\ ‘
~“ "* \ “fin..::-
' ... \ “yku M\.
‘ Q
.. ‘
5““
.. .:\ ‘1 ‘h:_ :
~~h~ “‘M\. \4
.
‘\
A“ “‘R“ 2“ N
. ~ I
“:~.. ““\“
.‘ ‘ ‘
\ ~ I
“‘= 1‘ “““Q ~ ~
‘~‘ ‘ \
“\fi‘.‘¥‘
‘V
‘\
.‘N 1“:
5 N‘~
.‘ ‘
x .‘ I
s
s 5‘
t ‘v \
u: \4 Q‘
‘\’H
.
.,
n ‘ ‘1‘ ‘
\ ‘ ‘
“a
x ‘ ‘
~~ ““N ~‘\\
..\’\
‘. ‘
. \“
, ‘ H ‘
N\\‘\ H‘ ‘\\
M“ K
x g..\
..‘
‘ \‘o
. \
\ \

 

74

production, resulting in (3) rising domestic food prices.
With domestic food prices high relative to imports, exist—
ing effective demand is channeled into food imports. This
has tended to affect the balance of payments adversely.

With agriculture occupying such a strategic position in

the economy, it is necessary to focus attention on the

role that it can play in bringing about increased income
and better income distribution as well as structural trans—
formation. Increased well being of almost 50 percent of
the region's total labor force will depend on increased
agricultural productivity. Furthermore, agriculture will
be called upon to provide a livelihood for a significant
number of persons who are not directly attached to the
agricultural labor force. With almost 70 percent of the
region's population living in rural areas it seems logical
to assume that a significant proportion of the rural non—
farm population would derive their income from agriculture—
related activities.

We are convinced that technological change offers
one of the greatest potentials for increasing the produc—
tivity and income of the agricultural sector. This is not
to discount the role of purposeful, soundly based social

and political changes in bringing about social and economic

 

trarsfomation. C
fried forward a:
Braver, that tec‘.
22a; sector, Via
”H‘;:9rarc;or

V'-
.v-
'.~“ 0.09 v- A

v

:-’ .-V"A—u~

 

. .
Y‘] ‘v
‘ ‘3- a-
.'. ...‘~UU-
. . -
" ‘~ “c. a: .
I -.‘.\'-\'%fi

 

' "“‘v-u.
‘- \

~-
~.. \ \- V v...

‘ ‘ N‘ .
""'. “P‘-
""c~q u

A I
~ \
V...\.\,"\'
. \
.V I‘
- V: *3:Q~Y‘A
»-.~~A.-\- ‘vau‘y
- ‘
.p5-~:,‘AHQ I":
.. .“‘-“"u...~ V“
.
. ..

-. ‘
“ “’R-‘ -‘ r
—
‘l.‘ ‘.A~

..
~‘~‘-VH*
.

-
\-
-“' ""Yei‘
5‘. \‘.¥““‘
. .
,§
"- -
‘ fi‘ ‘v‘ ‘ ‘-
N‘“ \
‘Vu 5‘ k
‘\.
M.
\.:~:~ ‘. _._“H- '
.
‘5‘
N ‘v- ‘ ‘
h. ‘ 5‘: 2""
s 5" “at-H
“in. .
w‘\ ~N ~‘.‘ \:
. “x l\
\ ~ \‘
'-.
.
‘\ ~ ‘“\ \
I ‘
!;~\‘.: N:‘
y“\“
\‘I‘ .
‘ \
“‘\ ‘ “~-V\.
\‘
‘“*\u.
.
.p .
‘ ‘
H, :¥\‘\. ‘
\“ ~ Q
...q\\
. u‘
‘\-‘ \“
‘ \\.
\ ‘”\ 3.
p
C \ ~
‘7‘ \- \
\\ ‘
\‘ .
‘C
. ‘\
\ ““\‘
5“ ~ ‘ \\
‘ K
. N ‘
\‘\“¥

 

75

transformation. On the contrary, such changes must be
carried forward along with technological change. We feel,
however, that technological innovation in the agricul—
tural sector, via research and development, should under—
gird the transformation process. Fundamental requirements
for structural transformation of an economic structure
are: (1) increased levels of indigenous capital formation
and investments and (2) expansion in the level of per
capita domestic effective demand. We see relevant agri—
cultural research and development as increasing the level
of indigenous capital formation and investment by increas-
ing the profitability of investment in the agricultural
sector. Increased profitability is related to (a) the
production of superior inputs that will substantially in—
crease output, with a constant aggregate expenditure on
resources, and (b) increases in the quality of complemen—
tary factors of production per unit of labor in such com-—
binations that real per capita income rises with a constant
ratio of output to total input. With this mechanism at
work, farmers' savings would increase and they would re—
spond to increased investment opportunities by increasing
the level of non—farm inputs. This is a vital component

of capitalization of domestic agriculture and a more

 

at it~re

F 1 ‘
IE E'e AA»:-

and the same:

‘1

' t-
Z"‘" as n
":13. id»; 068‘- e

u
'f 1...,

”‘3" "ca 2.
V‘s. UC..“
U

: a...
it ~-\
.

 

a ‘N‘An-s‘
u. R
.”-. v‘v-.:_...

.‘

‘L

i
(n
(l)
{)J

 

76

broadly based agricultural economy. On the demand side,
we feel that increased income and its distribution will
expand the market for industrial products in the rural
areas. The net effect of such an expansion in effective
demand is to provide firmer linkage between the agricul—
tural sector and the industrial sector. Increased tech—
nology can generate increased income by (l) reducing
unit costs of production and (2) increasing the level of
output at constant price levels or even low price levels
if demand is elastic.

In general, we see the application of advanced
technology to West Indian agriculture as one way of com—
pensating for the scarcity of productive inputs. In gen—
erating relevant technological innovations, we are sub—
stituting knowledge and ”know how" for scarce productive
inputs. Subsequent chapters will examine more thoroughly

some of these aspects.

 

 

‘
NF'
«ts4s
-——.
“
IH‘,‘ ‘~
. A:
-00‘: :t»
v-“
.
...‘h ' -.

~

l
~

‘A ‘u

s“: “‘8‘.-

-...g,
V
Q ~ B

\
...“.—

“A...

:Y-u‘
"‘-..t .
‘m

“n

1‘
\\ "
kw:

mg».
u '\~.
rut ;
...q

s
.
\
‘
-. ‘
\M ‘i‘
y“:
N
\
Ke~‘\
. u\~v\.
‘u

 

 

PART II

CHAPTER III
PERFORMANCE AND COMPOSITION OF THE
AGRICULTURAL SECTOR
Approach to Assessing Performance
and Composition
This section examines the general performance and
composition of West Indian agriculture, as well as some
of the important questions raised by these characteristics
for agricultural research in the region. The discussion

will be carried out at two levels:

1. General analysis of the agricultural sector in
terms of its composition and relative contribution
to GDP, growth, employment, income, and food re—

quirements.

2. General analysis of changes in the composition of
(a) the export agricultural sector and (b) the

peasant or domestic sector.

77

 

 

In discuss

 

...ultural seen

1..' s‘no Str. -_..

| l
.n- bsnv d \- u

I' \
"FM Y‘

.~_:, nth -:- e o

a." —-I~ . . .

‘- “7 I re l 1w-

Ii..Vs| ‘..\- --.“

'2 =flr1fnv —..‘

.. o... 3.... a I'm;
4

 

V
nA'"”f“'

4
EVA-Hay” :

-
a-
a.

 

q.
.n-

_
- ‘.‘

 

\.‘ H: 2
u

If)
'T

 

78

In discussing the relative performance of the
agricultural sector (and the subsectors), we implicitly
link the structure of the sector (as an aggregate of farm
firms) with the economic results that flow from the
sector. The link is established through the "conduct"
of the agricultural enterprises within the sector. We
define conduct as those patterns of behavior which the
enterprises follow in adopting and adjusting to market

situations .1

The Agricultural Sector in General

Evolution of the Sector

 

To be meaningful, an analysis of general perform—-
ance in the agricultural sector must specify the conditions
giving rise to the existing situation. One must therefore
appreciate that the origins of the agricultural sector in
the West Indies differ significantly from the EurOpean

Pattern. Almost from the outset, crops were produced in
___________________

l . . . - - II II '

This definition of firm conduct is borrowed

from: Bain, Joe 5., Industrial Organization, New York,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1959, pp- 10-11-

 

 

 

 

 

~ w.
'7;

. Q
-FA-"NP
‘10-‘61 ..u..

a

PR A- -AAP‘
...*-...v V_ ‘Vv
.

.... ‘A - ”A

‘~ - y b

. v ”.‘I

..__A
~ ~
.~ ~..».. ”-..“, '
llh"‘ O -
":'~ ’53“ rz-QYW
- ~5Mss -.-V-‘
“‘3'... ‘
‘ ‘
‘Z. “u—" :I‘ : 5.
V IO'yu ‘ ‘

.
I~~“
...: ~~-\~“‘ 2“
.‘uyuu‘. “u
._~
‘
NR
. ~ u
‘.‘ \- ‘ wn“ ‘
‘l~‘AO.~“¥
'~ ‘a‘-‘
.u ‘ ‘
s
5“: -fi
' ‘.‘ ‘-
‘\.“

 

 

‘
‘
‘
\\
‘ “a _
.. . “it 'C
. ._‘ ‘
\n
..w :p\ ‘-
Iq‘: \

 

T—

79

the region largely for export. Furthermore, the bulk of
agricultural activities were organized around the planta—
tion system and financed from outside resources. Subsis—
tence farming of the European type is a recent phenomenon
in the West Indies. The seventeenth century sugar—based
plantation system was the antithesis of peasant agricul—
ture. Although some plantations did provide plots for the
growing of food for their labor force, such cultivators
were not true peasants. They controlled neither the land
nor their time. These forerunners to today's peasantry
have been referred to as ”proto—peasants, " since they
represented a rudimentary form of peasant agriculture.2
True peasant agriculture and large—scale production for
home consumption came into existence after Emancipation
in 1838. At that time, ex-slaves proceeded to establish
small holdings on the periphery of plantations, abandoned
plantations, and in the mountainous interior of the

islands.3 Mintz appears to have grasped the fundamental

 

2Marshall, Woodville K., ”Notes on Peasant Develop—
ment in the West Indies Since 1838, " Social and Economic
Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, September, 1968 (Special Number).
(Agricultural Development and Planning in the Caribbean)
Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of
the West Indies, Jamaica, p. 252.

3The evolution of peasant agriculture was rapid.
BY the late 1900's this sector had become the dominant

 

 

 

acczmic relation

. ' . ‘- '
:e-asanr. agricult;

I I‘ ‘ 03"
h 'n “13“.. f,
.Id voa‘v U-h‘., -u

‘
-F H I51: ”pr
'V Ennul¢a|eflhy.
a r:
HQFHAFA “-
u...u:.._e 3;.“

 

‘V

a];
(l)
I

\-
“4‘
‘~

 

 

80

economic relationship between the plantation system and
peasant agriculture. He suggests that:

. . . the new peasantry represented a reaction

to the plantation economy, a negative reflex

to enslavement, mass production, monocrop de—

pendence and metropolitan control. Though

these peasants often continued to work part—

time on plantations for wages to eke out

their cash needs; their orientation was in
fact antagonistic to the plantation rationale.

4

The typical agricultural worker in the West Indies
Ins always been a wager earner (either in cash or in kind)
rather than a yeoman farmer. By virtue of his past rela—
tionship to the plantation system, he has tended to emulate
the production patterns of that system both in his choice
of enterprises and agronomic practices. The combination
ofsuch practices, with the dominance of the plantation
system, has resulted in a relatively high correlation be—
tween the level of economic prosperity and the spread be-
tween unit price of agricultural exports and unit price
ofinports. Although there are substantial variations

among the islands in the degree of dependence on the export

 

tenure pattern in terms of the number of holdings. By the
early 1920's the sector accounted for almost all of do—
mestic food production and a significant proportion of the
value of export crop production.

4 . . .

Mintz, s., Foreward to Sugar and Soc1ety 1n the
9.5%, By R. Guerra Y. Sanchez, New Haven, 1964 (p.
XX-xxi).

 

 

 

A!

u . ‘
“pa--.n“ :“f‘
I"'~H‘v'°év-\g.. ‘..u
“—

ll. '1" :‘fl"fif .-
._ _ . .
'- vuv “Hy-b- ‘-
‘ -
h

‘ -
A-‘n-Qu-‘A“ A-
....~»~._-\“ V-

.
~....~ .‘ .
" - \A‘.‘
i" a .— Van’s
‘.‘~-" ‘\—\a.
d
-
‘
‘.,_
"R —‘\ ‘
h A
3,. ..

o ‘v

:Vv.

‘
-.. ‘ -
H.“ V“ .
u ‘h“‘- \
S"
e. ~: ”2"“, 1"
h... g. y.
“a... “
uyab. ,n::‘
. “'\-\,.
‘
~
" h\"\"\\.
~~~~.
‘ -
:‘Y\ ~
‘4‘“;
.
..
n
a, Q -
‘¥
\
‘\‘V-\‘
‘u‘;
.‘
(..I“
A.\\I‘:
§
\
\
\
\,“\\
W...
l‘ ‘ .
‘ \‘ ,
\ “V“‘<\ ‘
‘.‘\\‘N\
s; “y
\ ‘\
Ms‘ “x
x . ‘
K\ \ ‘
L \__~
.‘ ‘
N
‘1‘ \ V
\
\\ ‘

 

81

sector, it is safe to say that even today, economic pros—
perity of the region in general is still closely tied to

export—import price differential.

99mposition and Contribution
of the Sector to Output

Assessment of agriculture's contribution to GDP
would be pre—mature without some knowledge of the regional
composition of the agricultural sector. The most readily
available regional data on this aSpect relate to the year
1961.5 Table 3.1 shows the composition of the regional
agricultural output for the year 1961 and suggests at least
three major characteristics of West Indian agricultural

output. These are:

1. Export crops are the major contributors to total
agricultural output. For the period covered by
the table, more than 50 percent of total agricul_
tural output in the region came from export crops

However, there are wide variations among the

 

5Some more recent data are available for Jamaica
and Trinidad and Tobago. However, we are interested at
this point in the composition of the agricultural sector
on a regional basis and 1961 appears to be the most recent
data.

 

 

 

H 3,33% 3;

 

.III
.v—ndfiv uteri) —._
Her-ow 1.: run... a _ _<
n'llhb”:.fl. I4.“Ia|.|fl dill nu.||-ul I i

 

..1- ...17

:34.

llll
Ollillllll

..l-u— . 3

_

.2.

l
l
1

~_—vv
—-v oAH-—- uav
|.—AV~.—
V—V-A

uleM-oe—

”.... . _
...»..p. u

. :- —
...) .. .

......Q
. .«vL.
Inhav I

..n

v
I.'|‘.

:3, .3 ..w. E

 

82

IHDOHHmd mo unmfiunmmmo

AcmHmpmoHowov
.m .m ~hme humannmm ~mmHUCH ummz wflp mo wuHmHm>HQD ~wsmfiwmmqm2 Eymm Una moHEocoom HMHSH

 

 

.mGOHpmmHgmm>cH QOHU wad Mooumw>HH mo mEmHmoum 0p Undommxomm UHEocoom

$38 nmeUcH ummz m£# EH gunmmmwm HmudeSOHumfi ~.h ~Hmmmono mam ~.B .a .mUMMSUm EOHM Umpmmw¢ "woadom

.OCHOCSOM mo omsmown OOH Op ms 660 uoc ugmHE pcmouom |

\Q

 

 

 

 

 

.H.3 mw.Hw u .m.o oo.Hm .mumu coHpmsHm>mwmum p4 .H.3 oo.Nm u .m.p oo.Hw .mum“ mmcmsoxo upwuwso p<\m
OOH O.Nmm o.mH O.mw 0.0m 0.0m O.mm m.NnH mMHmBzDoo HH¢
OOH w.H v.Hm m.o m.wo m.o m.wH N.o umuuwmucoz
OOH v.m O.vm m.H O.vm m.H w.Hm m.m msmHuc¢
OOH m.m m.h 5.0 m.Hv m.m m.om >.v unwOQH> .um
OOH H.m h.Hv m.m II II m.wm m.m mHOSH .um
OOH N.HH v.Hm v.m «.mm m.m H.m¢ m.m mvmcwuw
OOH 0.0 w.m 0.0 H.Hm w.m N.NO O.m MOHCHEQO
OOH H.m m.m m.o m.vH m.H m.mn m.® MHHHSOQ¢

umH>mZImpuHm .um
OOH v.0m m.mm H.w I: II v.55 m.wm mowmnumm
OOH o.m0H n.wH m.ON O.Hm m.vm m.mv m.mm ommnoe mam OMUHQHHB
OOH H.MMH 0.0H H.mm m.mm m.Hm m.vv n.mm mOHmeb
m.H.z w.H.3 w.H.z I \«w.H.3
#dGOHOm GOHHHHE #EMUHGAH HHOHHHHE #fiGOme COHHHHZ \fiQQOHwnH COHHHHE
H Hwnvom. mo H ” Hmfioa mo u H Hmfioe m0 u
xooumm>flq . .QOHm . wde> . .mOHm . GDHM> . .moum . 05Hm> .
. . . . . . . \HHHZBOU
cam mmono HHm u . u . n . n
n x00pmw>flq u mmOHU H930 H mmOHU “:5me u
.HmmH .mmHucH umoz ~usmuso HMHDUHsoflhmm mo :0HuflwomEOUII.H.m mqm<a

UL;

(3111»!

r

-
~Av
---v-\

L
Ba
‘vr:

q

I

‘

'-..
Y2.
u‘-»

ag

 

an I. ..\ ‘ . H . \
. y A C L ‘ C C. S S
. at S C L ‘ C
u w
H . . _ ‘ . ..L y . v ‘ v ‘ v u \C 1..
. 2“ .x~ ~ «g av. .~. N». n: Hg
:‘ ~nu ..AL Wan .\ s 1.x .x» \HM ‘ H ‘ \
‘ .. . v -

 

83

individual islands in their reliance on such crops.
The percentage contribution of exports to total
agricultural output ranged from some 78 percent

in Barbados to 14 percent in Montserrat. In gen-
eral, however, the contribution of export agricul—
ture to total agricultural output appears to be
inversely related to the size of the territories,
and more so to the economic base of the terri—

tories.

The level of agricultural diversification (or lack
of specialization), when measured in terms of the
value of non—export crops and livestock, shows
that Jamaica has the most diversified agriculture
followed by Trinidad and Tobago. In 1966, the

value of non—export crops and livestock accounted

for some 73 million dollars, or 55 percent of total

agricultural output in the Jamaican case and almost

55 million dollars or roughly 50 percent of total

agricultural output in the case of Trinidad and

Tobago. The contribution of non—export agriculture

registers a dramatic decline from here on. Bar—

bados is a distant third with only 8 million

 

 

 

’f

\

o
' h
1. .I.

‘ Au-
f".~
H-""
h-~,~~
.
“VAN“
“~vuu
-. A”
5“‘.
o.
h:o-‘ vs
.."I‘-A

§
t T\ ‘u. ~I.v“
...“ ~
' ""u“‘
. Q
.‘Mu‘w ‘
“I "5“
.“s‘ v- ~
u“‘
.
‘ ‘ ‘
‘
“ § I‘VW a“
“‘~ “
\‘~“
.. ‘
s-
.t ““ 75--
.....:’ W,“
_"'
sn“ ‘
‘\
:~.: ‘ “Q‘Jfia‘.
N ~¥
hiy‘
‘l
‘R “
-\~ h ‘
«I ‘ .1 “A
.
w \u\
~":~‘
s~“ flv“. ‘
‘\h\ ‘
x. I
\‘
~.‘.‘
"‘ \ ‘
.N ‘
~.: n.“
H‘s: a
b
‘\
\“‘
“ \ .h ‘
‘ \
\ \._ h ‘~.
\“
\‘N
\
fi
\ \
.‘ \‘\‘
“u: “NH\\4
¥\“‘
\
\.\
C ‘
i~ : \
\\ ‘ \
\‘ QM

 

84

dollars, and practically all of this came from the
livestock enterprise. The contribution of non-
export agriculture of the remaining seven islands

averages out at considerably less than 5 million

dollars.

3. In terms of meeting the basic protein needs of the
diet, the domestic output of livestock products
presents cause for concern. In general, livestock
production is providing a relatively small propor—

tion of total agricultural output of the region.

Having identified those characteristics of the
agricultural sector which we consider to be important for
agricultural research, we will now examine the contribution
oftfie agricultural sector to the regional GDP. Two
gmriods, 1955—56 and 1964—65, are examined in order to
give a better perspective of the relative changes over
thmx The choice of these periods is based on two consid—
euations: (1) these are the only periods for which appre—
ciable data exist and (2) these are periods of rapid ex—
pansion in output, incomes and eXport agriculture as well
assume contractions, as world economic activities changed.

Table 3.2 Shows the relative contribution of the

 

 

 

 

 

 

3.2.4119 Cont
Gross Dc

;- f‘
:ECtOI .

 

 

 

. A
\O'

0 ~»\

I

a

I

I l
R
v9

. -
n

0 -y

a

_
n
o

 

 

‘1’

 

 

“~-'.. -
.-

-“'-<n\-

 

Q .,‘.: ‘
. ‘s ‘
‘\~‘
\ ~
“kt: “‘\¢-“
~¥¥~c - ‘

 

 

\.
‘\
s
. ~ .
u \\ ‘
.
‘x \K‘ ‘
‘K‘s, ‘
:s‘ “x
‘ ‘
~
u. ~\~‘
-‘~ \A‘ ‘
“K‘ a"
. \ K
.
‘
V
‘s
.‘ ".-
‘
‘\~\ \
, \u‘ Q .
1* s.
.
\\ \ \‘
‘s, \ \‘
\ .
\“ v
\
\ 'r
.‘ ‘\
\‘:I \
‘ ‘h.
s

F

TABLE 3.2.—-The Contribution of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing to
Gross Domestic Product, and the Rate of Growth of the
Sector Over the Decade, 1955—1965.

 

Sector Comprising Agriculture, Forestry & Fishing

 

. Absolute I Proportional I Avera e Annual
Country/Group: Contribution I Contribution I g

. . Rate of Growth
... .. ...A..
I To G D P (AV ) . To G D P ( v ) . of the Sector
IPeriod l-Period 2

IPeriod IaLPeriod 2bIPeriod liPeriod 2
. , . .

 

Thousand W.I.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

re. t
Dollarsd cen

Barbados 34,850 39,400 34.7 27.0 1.7
Grenada 9,231 10,259 41.2 34.8 1.8

St. Vincent 7,448 7,890 32.9 32.5 2.9
St. Lucia 9,062 10,644 34.9 33.9 5.5
Dominica 7,478 9,408 35.4 39.0 7.9
Antigua 5,884 3,544 34.7 14.1 —7.0 (dec.)
Montserrat 1,456 1,422 50.0 29.9 —0.2 (dec.)
St. Kitts 9,784 3,445 61.6 39.6 —1.8 (dec.)
Eight Totale 80,914 93,775 38.3 30.2 1.9
Windwards 35 , 100 40 , 964 42 . 3 36 . 2 2 .0
Leewards 15,664 13,411 45.2 26.2 —1.9 (dec.)
Barbados 34,850 39,400 34.7 27.0 1.7
Jamaica 125,500 166,980 14.9 13.2 3.6
Trinidad 85,500 107,300 14.1 10.2 3.3
"West Indies"

TotalC 291,900 367,600 17.6 14.0 3.4

 

a _ . . .

Period l 15 1956/57 (average) for St. Kitts, The Eight total, The
Windwards total, The Leewards total, Jamaica, Trinidad, and The WeSt
Indies total; 1957/58 for St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and Dominica.

bPeriod 2 is 1963 for Grenada and St. Vincent; 1963/64 (average) for

Jamaica. Trinidad and The West Indies total; 1964 for St. Lucia and
Dominica; 1964/65 for Barbados, Antigua, Montserrat, St. Kitts, the
Eight Total, the Windwards total and the Leewards total.

c .
These total figures were computed separately for a different period
and are not the same of the individual island figures.

d

At current exchange rate, $1.00 U.S. = $2.00 W-I. At predevaluation
rate, $1.00 U.S. = $1.85 W.I.

SourCe; Bryden, John M., op. cit., P- 5-

 

 

wicultural sec

' ~.
Kant". A: _"‘a C:
d9-—u-\,gfl .... .

e

a ‘ _

.‘ I“: "“nl ~p3,‘
._ _

-. Cd. u‘vl‘-..~“

' Q
1 . ‘ ‘-
3‘" "‘2- :2.-h
n»-..ul “"' v- ..‘I
.

. V . .
. ‘ A
.H‘: 5:." n.-
u. cui- \Av‘-“.~

.-" “a...
..\v
V ‘

I
(I

 

86

agricultural sector to the GDP of the region for 1955
and 1965, as well as the annual rate of growth of the
sector between the two periods.

The table shows that, with the exception of
Dominica the proportional contribution of agriculture
to GDP declined relatively over the two periods.

Among the eight smaller territories, the magnitude

of the decline varied widely but with an average de—
cline of about 8 percent for the eight smaller islands
as a group. In absolute terms, however, there was
actual expansion in the sector's contribution to GDP.
The sector experiences an annual rate of growth of
almost 2 percent for the group over the period.6 For
the West Indies as a group, there was a relative de—
cline in the sector's contribution to GDP of about

4 percent between period 1 and period 2. In absolute
terms, the region as a whole experienced a 3.4 percent

annual rate of growth in output value.

 

6
There was an actual decrease for three of the
islands over the period.

 

Contribution or
___________
1: Economic Groa-

. . _
”'W‘: “C an
't--U\hu - UV
. ‘

1' FVF'Icr ._ ‘r
L- ‘v -.. - .
-

In-.¢d‘- .‘b. Iv-

-. .

.; nwunzy. ‘1‘.“

M" "'n-v'»- -DCu
.

~ .. A A
:“ z ‘ / cal“
. H
«._‘ ... -‘
“
. 2 “2‘. :“Ftvwn
~1-
Ib 5- “““§..
....
u.:\ :Vku.”‘ . 3
~ I.\,u..u .2. a
n,“ ‘
~v .“
....

III
2
l

 

87

Contribution of the Sector
to Economic Growth

 

The next logical step is to assess the contribution
of the sector to the growth of the region over the two
periods. To do so, we compared the average annual rate
of growth of the agricultural sector with the average
annual rate of growth of the regional economy in general.
The comparison is shown in Table 2.3 (Chapter 2) and
Table 3.2. Table 2.3 shows that on the average, the growth
rate per annum for the economy of the eight smaller islands
was around 4.9 percent over the 1955—1965 period. However,
over the same period, the agricultural sector was growing
at an annual rate of only 1.9 percent (Table 3.2). Ob—
servation of individual islands shows that in many in—
stances the general economy was growing at some 5 percent
per annum, while the agricultural sector was experiencing
an average annual rate of decline. In terms of the re—
gional economy as a whole, comparisons show that over the
two periods the average annual growth rate of the West
Indian economy was some 7 percent, while the agricultural
sector was growing at about 3.4 percent per annum. On the
basis of these comparative growth rates, we conclude that,

hlgeneral, over the 1955—65 period the agricultural sector

 

 

cf the West Indi

:c be the Wind»:

~ 9
.-.S CESE, :ner

.‘ .‘q : '-
': "Yfi' . H A

M 34401.1: I“...
‘. . _

.u I FA -; ’Qv‘l .
“... LI: '“AN—na .
. . . .
”r. :nv- nf‘ | -...

luv-- a“--"u‘ .— a.
. 4

qt

...; ~-

 

 

88

of the West Indies made little or no contribution to the
economic growth of the region. The only exception appears
to be the Windward Islands as a group. However, even in
this case, there are serious questions as to the source of
the growth from the agricultural sector. This question
will be taken up further under our discussion of the ex—

port agricultural sector.

Contribution of the Sector to Employment
and Income Distribution

The problem of assessing employment generation is
extremely complicated in the West Indies. The complication
stems from at least two factors. These are: (l) the gen—
erally inadequate data on employment and underemployment,
and (2) the structural pressures exerted by a certain
combination of forces which tends to convert underemploy—
nent into open unemployment. Our earlier review of the
economic structure in Chapter 2 indicated that expansion
h1total agricultural output has not brought about any
appreciable expansion in the level of employment in the
region. Furthermore, the expansion in output of the re_

gional industrial sector has failed to absorb appreciable

 

 

rarities of la

H
*I

., wage demand

The 028

’: “"5 am”. an) -
" 5305 \AU'
J

-svu.’.u

:ay- ""1 ..."YC 9'7."
‘0.
u

-""“"‘-\r v...g
.

. I
“"na ‘ ,_
..

"CVv '.,.

“"A y:

...
deny “

u . .
.*: :Hufiv“-."‘
a... ubb‘y- V..-" '
.

‘*u

5 .
\ _ ”hVfiaa‘ A
b.
....y ‘WU-\‘::-\.¢
.
“'W‘N - ‘
h- - a: A...“-
....\. ...; :.MV;
.
.1; . ‘, ‘
~: 7' 9. v‘ “R‘
..“ ~' '4‘.

‘ ‘5‘-“~-
I“\r\- ~
:‘V‘...:‘ 2"” V‘

.- “H“ .h
.
.
... ‘43‘ 2'“
a.“ -
~~"‘«u‘
‘ o
.“\.; Ya I Q
a» ~
..i \
. - \n‘“
“‘ H n .
"“qu a.
a
‘ N
‘\ x
.
“‘ \l
V“. \K‘...‘
Q.\‘t
.._“
"‘fi‘hlv -
\.‘ ‘Q ‘
‘1
‘g
V
.

 

q
\
Q
\‘ “SS
.s
.
I \\ .
‘\\ 4‘
~ \
\\ ‘\\.
“x.
\

 

89

quantities of labor, largely because of: (1) its absolute
size is small, (2) technology is capital—intensive, and
(3) wage demands tend to keep down employment.7

The question of concern here is the performance
of the agricultural sector in the employment Sphere. With
agriculture employing some 33 percent of the total working
force in the region, it is important to assess the poten— .
tial absorptive capacity of the sector. We first draw
some impressions of the employment situation from Trinidad,
where the employment data are most readily available and
fairly reliable. Table 3.3 shows Seers' estimates of em—
ployment and production by sector for Trinidad and Tobago
for 1955 and 1966. The table shows a relative decline in
agriculture's share of GDP. Furthermore, the magnitude of
the changes are in line with Bryden's estimates for Trin—
idad.8 More important from the employment point of view,

however. is the fact that employment in the agricultural

 

7For a discussion of the impact of rising wage
rates on employment in the West Indies, see: Seers, Dud—
ley,'% Step Towards a Political Economy of Development:
Illustrated by the Case of Trinidad and Tobago,” Social
and Economic Studies, Vol. 18, No. 3, September 1969.
hmtitute of Social and Economic Research, University of

West Indies, Jamaica, pp. 221—223.

8 .
See Table 3.2 of this chapter for Bryden's esti—
mates of agriculture's contribution to GDP.

.HI d.V\d “Up—-
I FWAJIH :—

 

 

0'0""

 

 

42:. ::<

nouI‘IIIO"

-nv ufiuvn—s
I K—A.v..h.—

.. 2. QE<

I

O

I

O

0

I |1I

nun-Av—
Lev ..uny..-
...-o ......

LHIIIIII

v

Lo\~——b——-—.L I

.~fi~

- A v..~

I.»--u.

.~.

\af\..

— n h

IafiNVN.‘

fi~\~as‘

..u-~.

.. ~.u«~

5.2.2.123:

.-~

\~\\ g.

~..~

\.\

a

\1\.

90

m ..uau .mo .mepso .mnmom "moudom

.Hw 1 .m.D OO.Hm .mpmn QOHumon>mp
1 o
co OOMQOB pun popHQHMB mum chHH om

\\

 

 

 

.ONN .
.B.B mm
ImHm m .B.E OO.Nm n .m.D OO.Hm .mpmu mWQMSOxm “mousse pm .mHmHH
u 0.00H mmm 0.00H
H fl.OH mm ¢.®
0.00H thafl 0.00H whv ®.mw OOM ®.mm
m.m he m.m HH 1. I- I-
m.mH QON fl.mH Oh P.HN mm m.mH
m.m. mh H.m mH m.© NN m.®
m.wH 0mm ¢.MH #0 m.vH om m.NH
H.® Nw O.® mm b.0H om m.b
®.wH WVN G.NH ow O.PH hm m.ON
®.mm VHM N.®N ®MH
w.h ¢OH w.hH vw w.wH mm O.mN

 

 

monom HOQMH Hmuoe

NON
SH pmmonanD
omm Hmooe
1| meHHHosa mo mHanwcso
ma moOH>Hmm
hH uuommcmne
mm GOHuBQHnumHO pom mommaaou
Hm mmapaaauo 6am doauosnomeoo
mm H mcHuSpommScmE
a imaaaaaaa maaaaaoaav eaaaaz
mm OGHSmHm can mnummnom

mchdHosHv ousuHsoHHm¢

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

AmQOHHm #GwHHSU

.pmoo Houuwmv mow

wOHOM HOQMH

cH mnomuom

HEmOme .mw EOHHHHE #QOOme MW fiOHHHflE unmohwm figmdog HGwOHwnH DQMWSOSE
. . n u OUHO H ” GOHO .. n
Hmpoe u H Hmuoe . . m . . m . .
. . UCSOE¢ . . HCSOEfi . Honda . Mwnfidz . Honda . Hmnfisz .
monm .moum . . . . . .
n n H H .aoaa H H .aoaa “ H

. H . u . n . u Hoaomm
womH u mmmH u wme .ooolocsh u mmmH Honfio>oz u

 

.ome can mmmH .ommnoa 0am pmanHHe .mouomm an coauosuonm new usmESOHmEmll.m.m mamas

 

 

 

 

sector declined

D
D

berieer: 1935 a

‘

izcreased by a:

...» h...“

"'3 other "8 Y‘d,

. . P
FAA+AV "1 r. f.
::\-u"u'.' 3-9. L

‘ -1

. I
-.": C WWW-:1 I“
‘nv e“ ‘K:hv
.

- Io

. I
nus? 4...: “FRY
1.... ...» “A“

- n

‘:""'Y‘Fh :2."

.‘h'.--..u “By
C

‘1’.
M “fin
.4~¥.
“ ’
H: ‘
.._» .3.
.F ‘ ,
v.

:-- w ‘
...” ‘y‘
\ \,‘ h .e C
‘I
-
"'\-~‘
‘ \
v-A\\I tel“A|
V... .
‘
:‘~‘ _
\~.~ “
u \l g“: ‘
..y
‘I
.
§‘ ‘ ‘5‘ ‘I
‘ - sn‘
.
1 y.‘c
\
“‘\
‘ ‘N ‘ ‘
“u s‘ ‘ I. ‘
“mg l\"
‘\K
‘\
\ “‘\‘ .
\ \~ ‘h
1 "y‘
. \.‘\ t
‘V
‘\\
~.l‘\.~-(“‘
.‘..: x,‘ ‘
‘\H v
.
e
‘ \
. \V‘
“SH?
\
R"
.
\‘I
.
‘ V
“\4 ‘V V.
\“ .M
‘1
- C

 

91

sector declined by some 12,000 persons, or 16 percent,
betWeen 1955 and 1966 while the output of the sector
increased by about 24 percent during this period. On
the other hand, with the exception of the manufacturing
sector, significant expansion in employment accompanied
the expansion in the level of aggregate output. However,
with the poor performance of the agricultural and manu—
facturing sectors, the expansion in other sectors was
unable to absorb the 3 percent annual rate of growth in
the labor force. The estimated level of unemployment in
Trinidad rose from 6.4 percent in 1955 to 10.4 percent
in 1966.

The inability of agriculture to absorb more labor
hiTrinidad typifies the phenomenon of chronic unemploy—
ment in the general regional economy and in the agricul—
tural sector in particular. In Chapter 1 we discussed
some of the variables at work in the region. The reduc-
tion in the agricultural labor force in the case of Trin—
idad and Tobago cannot be attributed to any major produc—
tivity increases in agriculture. While there was some
eXpansion in productivity of certain crops and livestock,
in general, the performance of export agriculture (par-~

ticularly sugarcane) was not impressive. Yields tended

' ..a"

 

:1 remain const
ftsing wage deIE
scale retrench'.

ah. “- '.
it“ A'J {391’ C82.

' I
u
‘2'. A. 0- le 2c
\uvedu L- L..~ u .‘
J
' a
2.1-Jr "'3- h"

n r
“U“ Viv-Lab}.

«n.4,. A‘A».
I‘.’ 4‘
ahhflb 5‘:C.
d
II;;~ --\ .hf‘va:
nv-u uv “‘V‘HH
-
"7‘ \_~ ‘
"e" “ " *ezr
' ‘V “ u;\,“‘
‘ Q
uQH~~ I.“ “-v; ‘
."'v.. \ a
» \A-~"-‘
.
h . ‘
.. .. Hahn

.
'1‘

§“‘

‘_ .
" '\

‘uk‘
.

i
(D
/

 

92

to remain constant or declined for this commodity.9
Rising wage demands on sugar estates precipitated large—
scale retrenchment in labor. With sugar accounting for
some 20 percent of agricultural lands and almost 40 per—
cent of the agricultural labor force, the effects of the
labor cut—back were substantial in the Trinidad and
Tobago case. This situation is a classic example of the ‘ 0
need to increase the productivity of domestic agricul—
ture as a means of reducing unemployment and increasing
income distribution and effective demand along the bulk
of the population.

The pattern of agricultural employment in Trin—
idad and Tobago was evident in most of the other islands.
The collapse of the sugar and cotton industries in the
Leeward Islands in the 1960's precipitated widespread
unemployment in those islands. In addition, the failure
of the arrowroot industry in St. Vincent was a major
economic setback to that island. The Windward Islands
were somewhat more fortunate in that a major shift

to banana export somewhat cushioned the unemployment

 

9See discussion of yields under export agricul—
ture below. Also, see Table 2, Appendix B, for estimates
Of yields changes in major export crOps. Also see
Chapter VI.

 

 

situation. HOW
these economies
as .zployment g

.'f"‘\“ geom ‘
...”: b are. I 1 Z.

n u .
Vina, 1“,, ..I.“!
‘2 :-C. .U 9‘

l

o .HU‘.
J C
'I a
‘F :v-‘a
-:.~A..u:.
.
~ ‘A "(Aw
.. -~‘- u:..E
.4
- ‘Q‘VQA
”I" VQ-\,\A
..." n .
fl
1.-.: ---\'rt
Y” 2" fl".-
“‘ V“ v...”
—.

"K
. ‘ ~2Hays
..., V

-..

n—
u..\'

(
r
(u

 

 

93

situation. However, the reliance on export crOps places
these economies in extremely tenuous situations as far
as employment generation, increased incomes, and general
economic stability are concerned. The following observa—
tions summarize the general conclusions of policymakers
regarding employment and income generation in many of these
islands.

It is generally agreed that future growth must

be geared to structural change, although posi—

tive increases in the sugar sector are not

ruled out.
The general concern with the employment and income situa—
tion in the Eastern Caribbean is illustrated by the con—
clusions of a team of experts studying the economic prob—
lems of the Leeward Islands. They wrote:

Some diversification of agriculture is pos—

sible, and this could add to income and em—

ployment, but the major growth industry will

most likely have to be tourism. It can

rapidly become an important generator of

income both directly and indirectly by the

creating of job opportunities in construc—

tion, while the hotels are being built, and

through permanent job opportunities once the
hotels are built.1

 

0 . . . .
Government of St. Kitts—NeVis—Anguilla, Five Year

 

Draft Plan, 1966—1970. (Unpublished), p. 12.

 

1 . . . .
lBritish Overseas Development Ministry, Report of

the Tripartite Economic Surveygof the Eastern Caribbean,
Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London, April 1967, p.
113.

 

7.. m- ' ".n

 

 

:e a rajor c011;

.Y "“2? fit: ,- .
'1' :‘- Ute

~»- I
. o

' 1
..~: flan Fa
...-I; at» V

L-:.

.Y‘

. ‘ ‘-
h""/“"‘ ("0-
~"-"v..

2

V-“

 

 

 

94

Projections of employment absorption rates of var—
ious sectors for the 1970's show that agriculture will not
be a major component in those islands. For example, the
forecast for the Leeward Islands shows that employment in
primary industry will decline at a rate of 2.66 percent
per year over the 1965—75 period. This would result in a
total decline of about 30 percent.12 The declining con-
tribution of agriculture to employment as suggested by
these projections, means that substantial pressures will
be brought to bear on other sectors of the economy to
absorb labor. Estimates are that the level of unemploy—
ment in these islands will double between 1965 and 1970
and quadruple between 1970 and 1975.13 Since no signifi—
cant manufacturing activities exist on these islands, the
burden of providing employment will be placed on the tour—
ist sector. There are serious doubts whether tourism will
be able to absorb any appreciable proportion of the unem—

Ployed under existing conditions. The Jamaican situation

 

12

Shurcliff, A. W., and Wellemeyer, J. F., Economic

Development in the Eastern Caribbean Islands: St. Kitts—
Eflflfitflgggilha. (Series 4——Manpower Surveys), Institute of
Social and Economic Research (Eastern Caribbean). Univer_
SitY Of West Indies, July 1967, p. 20.

13ibid., p. 16.

 

 

as covered in (

:e acricultura

12:5. earn-lone

“TWP :orn 1..“
0:51;“. 3V-» 0

T" e3 8220? C'

V“ *9qu
.

., ‘
.1’-V‘P"-‘,fly\_ ./

"'"".U«'-v—b.. L.»

Q. Q .
.
_~_ : A- -2“
\II . I
. v-” V- 'bvon
-. ‘
in!
-» “(2. :“chR
"“‘W *vw we
.
.
.,u

. .
' _ Hv:n:~~1“‘r
n» .b‘bHU.M-“:‘

.
“v. n “
.. ~~
".5 “5A “1““:
Y I
....l
W I
“2 ':~~ V
...U [\‘V‘d
v \_ -‘
-
e
‘zN‘AV u,"\~
‘5 .
sh“ A‘. ‘N
-- \,

~-
~ ‘ .
....: _ l.‘ 1‘“
“"nu \ .
..
.
.‘ u“
5 Q
. .4 :‘H ‘3‘
" ...x'. ' :
‘ \» .._|\
.
\
t " ~ ~
“‘ «x
. ,H h
‘ V q
H. \v‘.‘
n‘ .
‘ \
x.“ '3"; -
‘ ' ‘
'g‘ 3
.

 

\\
.m.
“.‘:
‘I
\
\.
“:~w§‘\ ‘
“it" .
M
‘
‘v
\“
~N)‘ .
\‘r “ .
\‘ W:
‘K

 

95

was covered in Chapter II. We will only note here that
the agricultural sector has also failed to provide addi—
tional employment opportunities for the rapidly growing
labor force. Furthermore, the other sectors have not
expanded employment to any major extent, although their
contribution to total output has made significant gains.
In general, it is safe to say that under current 0
levels of technology West Indian agriculture has failed 1
to make appreciable contributions to employment. Given
the predominance of export agriculture in the region, and
the new drive to be competitive on world markets, plus
rising wage rates, it is likely that the agricultural
sector will continue its rapid retrenchment of labor.
This trend will most definitely increase the overall level
of unemployment unless new agricultural technology and
planning can strengthen agriculture's capacity to increase

the level of employment.

Contribution of Agriculture
to Food Requirements

This aspect of the agricultural sector will be
discussed in subsequent sections of this chapter. How—

ever, it is important to note at this point that the West

 

Indies has ”“51
from domestic 3‘
increase in per
mexcess of PE
output-14 This
'surplus" 01' 'I‘
increased leve
:he level of 8
level of effec
1:1 in relatic
"£- The hi9
Elected in the
21 imported f1

Ieriive denim

.600. imports.

 

 

 

 

96

Indies has constantly failed to meet its food requirements
from domestic agriculture. The average annual rate of
increase in per capita demand for food in general is far
in excess of per capita annual increase in domestic food
output.14 This phenomenon does not appear to be due to
'surplus” or ”excess demand” for food. It is true that
increased levels of real incomes have increased somewhat
the level of effective demand for total food, but the

level of effective demand for domestic food items remains

low in relation to the high costs of domestic food produc—

tion. The high costs of domestic food production is re—

 

flected in the high prices of local food items relative
to imported food substitutes. Thus, any increase in ef—
fective demand via rising income becomes channeled into

food imports.

 

l4See succeeding sections of this chapter, as

well as Chapter VI, for further discussion on the food
deficit situation in domestic agricultural production
and the economic pressures imposed on the regional bal—
ance of payments, capital formation, and price struc—
tures. In addition, see Chapter IV for some of the
empirical evidence of the high costs structure of agri—
cultural production in the region.

 

 

’:q‘f\’:. :h .l f‘
"HI-tun; ‘ur \-
' 4

av
" vngy- . “U-
n

n..‘

 

 

 

97
The Agricultural Sub—sectors

The Export Sector:
Changes in Composition

and Relative Contribution

The preceding discussion of the composition of the
regional agricultural economy established the importance
of export agriculture in the GDP and employment structure
of the West Indies. This section seeks to specify the
make—up of export structure, as well as changes in its
composition and contributions over time. Although recent
data are not available, we feel that the pattern has not
changed to any major extent since the mid—1960's. In
addition, our primary objective is to assess the struc—
ture of the export sector as a basis for assessing agri—
cultural research strategy. As such, the importance of
current data became less crucial. Table 3.4 shows the
contribution of the major agricultural eXports to total
agricultural exports and total exports for the region in
1955 and 1962.

The table shows an overwhelming reliance on sugar
and bananas. For example, in 1955, sugar, molasses, and
bananas alone accounted for 75 percent of total agricul—

tural exports of the region (excluding Trinidad and

a. «. TH
\n s s s\\.5:\:\\ 8.1»

 

 

 

 

vaAaJ n...q»_. 3...... 3:4.—
..LJQHCZXZ ~p....:.—. .... ......Xv. -L?< .... .3...
. .... ~ .~\».~VA..; ‘4» .:.-.\/
UAv use}. a .. L3. ...»... ._ Lav ... .. a .a 3.18.5.—
III .|.F||“. Hi. "3“ r “I II I": I'. I." u‘ h h‘ . .' I. I ,l I H II .I . I I II .h. I I II I v I .II I I Idl .1 ll I. ' I i v I i I l i |
..I»-..n.~ ueaqa. ..I.A.\ \as.\~\-~s sen.u\/\_ \n. §.\\‘I\ve\...\
nxu; use-quunuu..‘ -\~l\ ...-ac.—. ..V et-...~4I.a ~o.-.s-. .~ ~\./\ ~I.\~.-l\ u.» n~ev~ s...\\ ~ s..I. \ .\ .. \\.~,\.\.

 

 

 

Our... Isa-p.

 

.m .m ..pHo .mo ..2 .b .uwphnm noonsom

.oaHpeuou mo omumooo OOH ou one so: oanE ucouuomo
. . . x0 Gasman um
.B.B mm.Hm u .m.D OO.Hm .mpmu aoHumsHm>ooon Hm .B.B OO.Nm n m D co Hm .wumu ogsmgo p n

.ommnoe pen pmoHcHHB mopSHoxmm

1l1I1IIII11IIII1111111111111111111111111111111

 

 

98

 

 

 

mpuomxm
. . . . . mes.mON =
H mm H O4 O OOH O OOH Haw ONN HanaanOHsO<= Hence
1%
sO.O AN.O N.O O.O mmO mam.H aHaoewmmmmmm
mH.O oN.O m.O 0.0 Nem.H ekm.H mH.o Hedusonua
sH.O m.O H.O m.O mOe.H mmw.H a demon
mm.O e.O m.H H.H msa.m Nmm.m o o
F0.0 m.O m.O N.H wHe NOA.N paHH a pm o
N.O O.O O.H a.H moe.m mom.m Adv mueseou
weapon w mmoEusz
m.O H.H H.H O.m mem.m mHO.m daemon
m.O H.H m.m e.m eO0.0 eme.m mmoHsO mauuHo
e.O m.H w.H m.m mmm.a Has.O aHaum msHpHo
a.H H.a O.m H.OH mea.MH HOH.HN doooo
k.m m.m O.mH H.NH mHm.om Hmm.km mmaeamm
H.H m.H 8.8 e.m aOk.OH awe.» wmmmmHoz
m.eH «.mm H.me m.mm www.msH HOH.HNH Madam
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII opcoouomlllllllIIIIIIIIIII AHmHmHHOD .H.3 UGMmSOSB
NOmH mmOH NmmH mmOH memH mmOH
proossoo

muhomxm HMHOB
mo dOHuHOQOHm

muHomxm .HOd Hopoa

m0 QOHnuomoum monomxm mo 05Hm>

 

M.N@m.fi «MGM mmmH smmflmvfiH #wwg IWUIHOQVAM
Hence one wuuomxm HMHDuHDOHHms Hmuos ou musomxm HmHsuHsoHumd 90nd: no soHuansunooul.v.m momma

 

 

Tobaoo). Howe‘

, 1 r 6
up, \ ... ... 8
'IV‘ GL'JC: v A

R Q 1 .‘

‘I-nzv‘ :n a,“ I

hula. an; ..IV ha
a

3:33.“: :1 this

I

.‘ ‘
-': AF“. ‘ h..-
on». 5V..'-‘~uv

. ‘
HHv.‘ - .-
. \ QY Isa
.1Q'~ -V- .‘.»

‘ ‘
m-p- .
Ys
- h'i‘flq ~
'u"‘~u\-\,\‘ '

In

‘II
(I!

 

99

Tobago). However, sugar and molasses accounted for some
62 percent of the 75 percent contribution of these three
commodities. In 1962, these three commodities accounted
for almost 82 percent of the total agricultural exports.
Sugar and molasses accounted for some 67 percent of this
amount in this time period.15 Of equal importance are
the contributions of these three commodities to total ex—
ports for the two periods. In 1955, export agriculture
contributed about 40 percent of total exports. In 1962,
it contributed about 23 percent of total exports. How—
ever, sugar, molasses, and bananas accounted for some 30
percent and 19 percent respectively of the 40 percent and
23 percent for each time period. Thus, although there
was a 17 percent decline in the contribution of agricul—
tural exports to total eXports over the period, in re-

ality there was a 7 percent increase in the contribution

 

15There is strong evidence suggesting that the

increased contribution of sugar and bananas to total ex—
ports did not come from expanded productivity but rather
from more favorable price concessions and expansion in
acreage under cultivation. There might have been some
expansion in yields for bananas, but acreage eXpansion
was significant (particularly in the Windward Islands).
See Tables 1 and 2, Appendix B, for estimates of relative
changes in volume, value and yields of the major exports
for 1955—1965, also Appendix D, Tables 9—10 for yield
changes over the 1948—67 period.

 

.
§ K.
h“ :\"'\\¥‘
“\K.
‘M
‘~\\
i ‘h .‘
|
\. “Q
\-
\
\
-\
\‘\\‘V‘\
..
‘L‘\‘ K
‘\
\‘.\
a ‘,
“~‘~.\ ‘
a“ 4 ~
~k :
~ V
‘\

 

\ x“
\ \
h“‘
“4‘
a
\e \
\ \Ql‘
‘
»‘\‘

(’1'

 

 

 

100

of the three major agricultural exports (sugar, molasses,
and bananas) to total exports. The 1962 figures were up-
dated to 1966 (Table 3, Appendix B). At that time, sugar,
molasses, and bananas accounted for 74 percent of the
value of agricultural exports from the region. Sugar and
molasses alone accounted for some 70 percent.

Earlier in this chapter we pointed out that the
Windward Islands appeared to have been the only region
where the agricultural sector provided the major impetus
to growth. We will now examine the source of this impetus
more closely as related to the export and domestic sub—
sectors. Table 3.5 compares the rate of growth of the
agricultural sector of the West Indies over the 1955—65
period with the rate of growth in the export agricultural
sector for the same period. The table suggests that where
agriculture is a leading sector, the impetus comes from
the export agricultural sector, rather than the domestic
sector. We feel that this characteristic lends further
support to our contention that domestic agriculture has
failed to expand, largely because domestic effective demand
is low relative to the cost of production. While it is
true that the cost of production of export agriculture is

also relatively high, the level of effective demand has

 

 

 

 

‘ . .
.’":"t
"Ob ‘AJ‘,

l ,-
‘O.
‘V- II"-

huh.“‘

:. “"3 “I.

‘Mvveé L.

 

' ' I
I‘""::Yr;-
. "‘ i»-.‘-
- I
‘. ‘6.-
\
... "-b~
~
.-
.. ‘ u
.~7.§ vvgr‘~‘
u.._ _ .-
'-“'~ ..IC.._-l.

“K.
a .. .2
Va
\ e
.
n
0§“.“~

a
L

 

 

101

TABLE 3.5.--Relative Rates of Growth of the Agricultural Sector and
the EXport Agricultural Sector, West Indies, 1955-1965.

 

Rate of Growth Per Annum
(Agr., Forestry, Fishing)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Country/Group .
IAgricultural Sector,IExport Agricultural Sector,
I 1955—1965 I 1955-1965
Percent
Barbados 1.7 3.4
Grenada 1.8 9.4
St. Vincent 2.9 1.9
St. Lucia 5.5 11.0
Dominica 7.9 12.3
Antigua —7.0 (dec.) —12.4 (dec.)
Montserrat —O.2 (dec.) —3.4 (dec.)
St. Kitts -l.8 (dec.) —1.5 (dec.)
Eight Averagea 1.9 11.8
Windwards 2.0 8.2
Leewards —l.9 (dec.) -3.7 (dec.)
Barbados 1.7 3.4
Jamaica 3.6 2.6
Trinidad 3.3 N.A.
West Indies Averagea 3.4 N.A.

 

a .
Averages are computed separately and thus don't relate directly to

individual figures.

Source:

Bryden, J. M., op. cit., pp. 5—9.

been maintained through various preferential agreements.

For example, in the Windwards the rate of growth in the

agricultural sector was 2 percent per annum, while the

rate of growth in the export sector was 8 percent per

annum .

On the other hand.

in the Leewards where there

was an average annual rate of decline of some 2 percent

 

 

in the agricul
decline of ale.
agricu ture tc
esoteric crise

19: crises, s.

. Q
..Il‘lh ”YIN"?- .
I ‘ UQI'U at.
In..-» 4‘ * ES

 

‘lhT‘. ‘
dVO-VI
‘ ‘
u.
'1: “3" :5 .
~y... "VU_\,\"_
..
‘ N
‘ e
:1! 2*"211
~~~n “.H‘-‘y
- -
‘ I
. ”u“ "n; h
I ‘JIIH b...» V
L

I
\N ‘ .
‘:I\I“ Inn
5 "‘\- \
“‘yn‘
~A W‘u—‘I
““‘ ‘ he.
~Vu.“
Vi \
‘n‘
‘ 8 ‘ Iva:
..g ““H
.
\“ I
V x
a
I i ~¥A 1W
‘§ ‘ l
x»- “
.: ‘
ul“
.‘ “-‘
...‘: 3:»

 

 

102

in the agricultural sector, there was an annual rate of

decline of almost 4 percent in the contribution of export
agriculture to GDP. With export agriculture facing major
economic crises in terms of costs of production and fall—
ing prices, serious questions arise as to the duration of

this growth stimulus.

The Domestic Sector:
Changes in Composition
and Relative Contribution

 

Domestic agriculture in the West Indies has long
been neglected in the planning process. This neglect has
been largely attributed to the evolution of the economy
around the plantation and export system, oriented toward
foreign markets. Earlier in this chapter we briefly re—
viewed the circumstances giving rise to peasant agricul—
ture. Domestic agriculture achieved any major proportion
in the area only after the 1900's.16 Generally, reliable
data are limited on domestic agriculture. The analysis

of this sector will be carried out in terms of:

M

l6See pp. 78-81 of this chapter. Also footnote 3.
For general discussion of the structure of West Indian
agriculture, see: Enochian, R. V., Prospects for Aqricule
ture in the Caribbean, USDA—ERS, Foreign Agricultural Eco—
nomic Report No. 58, April 1970, pp. 1—12.

ii) movements

crops, and 11'.

is

'..
‘ nflufil I
- H I.

.. .I.“
"g'I-‘- ‘

 

.‘ . ‘-
~yc "..--A“ A-
...~"-V.. V-

.. .
IM‘“ 2~v1n.
"“‘14. ‘9

‘4».
v

u
—‘:v:' ‘ a.
.-1-usu-' b.-~l
.‘ ‘i
\ 78 ‘fi‘
-.. ~-gt. dki
M'. I‘V‘x": 3
.1. .-.»:w “
\
.‘fi
"a... ”‘5- “VA
.bt_ “st
NV
“a

‘2 ““N-

' “Ya
OMVB y‘ K
\‘ “
~ .
.h..,“V: 2",
H‘_\
\‘K
" x
“\'V ‘I‘Y:\.~‘
. ‘k‘VQO:
n“
~ ‘ ‘
3:. 3.1; A
V...» “I
‘\.‘
Ox ‘ ‘ -
N \ .
.~\\ 3.73 Q
~
1‘
‘1
‘
\
L
‘: ‘ ‘
. ,‘N‘ ‘ ‘
x “‘\A‘):‘ Q‘-
‘
\
‘
in
‘\~
3 ‘ l
:\ \s \
H ax”
y‘tnéfir

 

 

103

(1) movements in acreage, volume, and value of staple food
crops, and livestock production and (2) food production
deficits.

Table 3.1 shows that domestic agriculture and live—
:tock accounted for a little less than 50 percent of agri—
cultural output in the region in 1961. However, there are
wide variations among the islands with respect to the con—
tribution of the sector.17 A major characteristic of West
Indian agriculture is that domestic food production is
almost exclusively confined to peasant cultivation. In
general, these farming enterprises are less than 10 acres
in size. Domestic food production is largely made up of
two broad categories of staple food crOps, i.e. cereals
and root crops. The cereal crops are mainly rice and corn.
The root crops include yams, sweet potatoes, cassava
(manioc) and the Aroids.18 Although data on staple food
crop acreage relates to 1961, the general movements sug—
gest some definite patterns for this important food group.

Table 3.6 shows that cereal and root crop acreage declined

 

7 . ,
See pages 81—84 of this chapter for discussions
of individual islands' composition.
18 . . .
The ArOids include: Cocoa Yams, Eddoes, Tannlas
and Dasheens.

 

'I'ABLE 3.6.--Ci‘.

 

a
fl‘rfl§ ‘ ‘
IV:‘ V15»

~ ‘ V. ‘
hpg‘..’,‘\~ \:
-\
‘nt‘ AME» -“I
I \
lqh‘ [A‘Al
‘I‘.“"v\ O
‘ .
\‘uupf‘"

..I
5“.»

C. Le:

x.
‘ Q
IHN
“-\J
'1‘-
‘5“
‘M\
..
5‘
v
.
fl.~ ‘
‘5 N I
h ‘ In - “.1
. ~\.“~ ‘ y
.
~M‘M‘NY ~'..
.1 ~ l
x.“' “
r.
‘\.\Y\‘
.
\uu \‘\r~:
‘.
\\ ‘
.‘N‘a “
\ ~ ‘ ‘
Anew“ D“ \
.
\,_
.
~
"1 \“Y\\
. y \
.‘CHF
.
.
.
‘
\
:~\. “~.‘ -
.‘\‘ ‘~
\ \
‘2: “fl ‘
- |
.~L’ \DL:
\.. ‘
.
\ ‘ ‘
...‘ t :q“
‘k\\-‘
\
...”.
.
‘t“':\ K
\\

 

 

 

104

TABLE 3.6.——Changes in Cereal and Root Crop Acreage, The
West Indies, 1946—1961.

 

 

 

 

Cro 3 Year 3 Changes in Acreage,
p . ' 1946—61
1946 I 1961
—————— Acreage—————— Percent
Cerealsa 45,000 59,000 +31
Root Cropsb 103,000 83,000 —19
Total Roots
and Cereals 148,000 142,000 — 4

 

a . . .
Mainly Rice and Corn (Maize).

b .
Includes Yams, Sweet Potatoes, the ArOids and Cassava
(Manioc).

Source: Leslie, K. A., "Local Food Staples and West
Indian Economic Development," Report of the
Faculty of Agriculture, 1967—1968, University
of the West Indies, p. 13.

 

by some 4 percent in the region between 1946 and 1961.
However, it is important to note that the acreage under
root crops actually declined, while that of cereals ex—
panded by some 31 percent. The relative movements in the
two groups could have been related to shifting income
elasticities of demand for the two food groups. For ex—
ample, USDA estimates showed that at 1959 caloric levels,
the elasticity coefficient for cereals was about .45, as

against .2l for root crops. During the 1940's. the

 

A

elasticitv COG

4n

'3
is.» :5;-

ng compc

new

H
.p

1

fl
L

e

C033

-
u
-u

u an ....
v.....\¢
a

. 0

3“

2

u
l
l

c

.
n

b.& 5

“&?fi
bu..-»

‘

g 'H'A‘

‘ -4
V~ sun;

 

 

 

105

elasticity coefficients were relatively higher for roots
as against cereals.19 Table 4, Appendix B, shows the
changing composition of the two food groups in total food
expenditure in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. The move—
ments would tend to support the argument regarding shifts
in the income elasticity coefficients over time. One
thing is quite clear: there has been a significant move—
ment of land out of root crop production. However, deSpite
a 12 percent drOp in the relative proportion of root crop
acreage (as a proportion of total roots and cereal acre—
age) root crops still remain the most important food group
in terms of land committed to staple food production.

The relative movement in cereal and root crop
acreage was not uniform over the 1946—61 period. If the
period is broken down into three sub—periods, i.e. 1946—61,

1946—54, and 1954—61, the movements for cereal acreage

 

19USDA Foreign Regional Analysis Division (ERS

94), Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Leeward Islands, Wind—
ward Islands, Barbados, and British Guiana: Projected
Levels of Demand, Supply and Inputs of Agricultural Prod—
ucts to l975, p. 70. The 1958 estimates of income elas—
ticity for cereals give figures of 0.45, 0.3 and 0.6 for
Jamaica, Trinidad and the Leeward Islands, the Windward
Islands, and Barbados, respectively. On the other hand,
the figures for root crOps and starchy vegetables are
0.06, 0.3, and 0.1 for the same territories.

 

 

were 31 percer

period, ISSpEt

13:! ~11
Lax. Lie {3.5

.
"“1“- . '
«ML ' Zvfinw‘

7"..‘R
it": 2
u h ‘0

I
I
1'
t
u
n;
(I)
{ll

Ir)

.
y-
. ~‘
.~‘
“~u~\.
.’¥"~

Y‘
N...‘ CVA '

-y,

L) .
(D

:‘~ ‘
“4“: x. "
c ~'

. \
JQ

(I)

\ i
._ W‘
N .‘i‘V
“ Q
“‘\. .
\
_\
\‘~
“:3 \K.
~
“‘5 W
‘M
o.
‘L
\ 'N‘
“. \-‘
\“;:
‘s.

 

106

were 31 percent, 111 percent and —37 percent for each sub—
period, respectively. On the other hand, root crOp acreage
were —19 percent, 45 percent, and —54 percent for the
periods, reSpectively. Thus, it would appear that the
major withdrawal of staple food crOp acreage came after
1954. The period of withdrawal appears to coincide with
the period of increased prices for the traditional exports
under various commodity agreements. Table 3.7 shows the
given acreage composition of individual cereal and root
crops as a proportion of acreage planted to each group of
crop. The table shows that rice acreage has been expand—
ing and that of corn declining. Corn was by far the
largest cereal group under cultivation in the area. Fur—
thermore, it shows that although acreage under root crops
has been decreasing in general, the decrease has been
largely in yam and cassava acreage. The acreage in sweet
potatoes has increased.

Data are extremely limited on yields and value of
the staple food crops in the region. Tables 5 and 6
(Appendix B) present figures on estimates of production
and value of cereal and root crops for Jamaica and Trin—
idad and Tobago for l964—68. The figures for the two

countries might be representative of cereal production in

 

 

 

 

Crcp Grc

 

«-

vN‘ .
' N
VVl.\t' ‘~
~\.
Pa
‘N.
\
’fi
‘ \4
N
"‘1
“'0
~
.
‘H
\ l
\-
..‘: Q N
\
l \V \“
Ev.“
xxxtl‘: ‘h
‘\ .
“‘
\
‘
‘\
~\\\‘\. ..‘H‘
‘. \ ~
0.“
N
\:\“
h
N.“ \Q‘h‘
..,\“;
,“-‘~
\ I‘
. \ \
“\ “Q
b.|¥

 

 

107

TABLE 3.7.——Proportion of Various Cereal and Root Crops'
Acreage to Total Acreage of Cereal and Root
Crops, The West Indies, 1946—1961.

 

 

 

 

 

Year Change in Acreage,
crOp GrouP 1946—1961
1946 1961
Percent of
Total Percent
Cereals:
Rice 26 38 +98
Corn 74 62 +10
Total Cereal Acreage 100 100 +33
Root Crops
Yams 33.8 33.3 —20
Sweet potatoes 26.0 31.5 + 2
Aroids 20.5 23.6 — 7
Cassava 19.7 11.6 —52
Total Root Acreage 100 —20

 

Source: Leslie, K. A.,

"Local Food Staples and West Indian

Economic Development,” Report of the Faculty of

Agriculture,

p. 15.

1967—68, University of West Indies,

the region, since these countries produce the bulk of

cereals in the region.

From Table 5, Appendix B, it would

appear that cereal production declined by almost 16 thou—

sand metric tons, or 41 percent, between 1954 and 1961

While the acreage in cereals declined by only 37 percent

 

over the same period .

15pe

ned over th

1

deal

rem 4.5 milli

..ed f

:11

5
U

relative

a

....

a

all.

qll.

0““

..
_.
. ".3
u-.\,

a.\
5.17.”.
«ea:

L“
... “a“

u
.-
V

0125'

p.

Q

“1":H-
"Wan“

f‘
\,

‘1!-

-. ‘ a

:1nec

custar-
:1.“

q

Eta

my

5 he.
WM . ~
a h»
“N; H.H
«\v
AL
1: Qt
«\~ 304.
, . a t
v \
.Q»
A. .
us.

 

 

 

108

over the same period.20 This suggests that yields have
declined over this period. In value terms, output de—
clined from 4.5 million (U.S.) dollars to 2.8 million
dollars, a relative decline of almost 38 percent (prices
remained constant).21 Between 1961 and 1968 there was a
modest decline in output of about a thousand metric tons,
or a 5 percent decline. The value of output has remained
constant between the two time periods. It appears ex—
tremely likely that recent trends will continue, unless
major technical innovations are forthcoming along with
significant shifts in demand patterns.

Data are scanty for output and value of root crops.
However, Table 6, Appendix B, provides some insights into
the relative movements in these crops for Jamaica and
Trinidad and Tobago. The table shows that root crop pro—
duction increased by almost 95 thousand metric tons between

1954 and 1961 for the two countries. This represents an

 

OSee page 105 for the relative movements in acre—

age over the sub—periods 1946-61, 1946—54, and 1954—61-
21 . '

The prices used for value weights are 1957—59
averages. See: (1) USDA (ERS), Indices of Agricultural
production for the 20 Latin American Countries Plus Guyana,
Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago (Revised 1954 through 1965)'
ERS~Foreign 44, January 1967. (2) USDA (ERS)' £3§19§§—9£
égricultural production for the Western Hemisphere, Exclud—
ing the United States (Revised 1959 through 1967)' ms—
Foreign 264, March 1969.

 

increase t

88percent

the expanded

ref

1.

h

sweet g

,-
.-
l
-

output 0

are

|L

1'1

0 orcduct:

at

I
-
U

u .
filing ‘h
\I' A..\. 4.;

Qu
.nu

‘-‘hA
uh:

u
.5.

.L“
.3
a
0 «NM
any .-.
«a n u
.Fu .s .
.1. r.
nu Ml.

.1.

r; bu
ml. .1.
n u HQ
I! - flux.
at
Cy 14‘
gm.“ 3»
.3. Ar...

1.. . . . . ... .
... L a _ .C C .Q E .C ... . . 11 .
C r -.. an S Ru 2 a” r t 31
C a S C .3 a a .. Ta ‘3 S C
r. a. o .h .. C. n .. .--. S w a 3 . 1 .Q S 3.
-7 .. C ..o «a a“ C it .Q .h... an .1
«C r : 2 C ....n T. C S .7 i t a 3
an my. 8 AL AV s» my A; nu an hkt
«G .I. . . 9» x3. ...“ l. i, ‘ Qt \\ \t
a.» .3 «Nu Q» Q» my; . kl. NU \ a J ‘ u. \
a: .. t e at .. a .. . at :1 Q» n... Hi \3. a t xx
..I“ ‘Hfi; Nhu Rik u is \hu nu ‘ 1. “Ls UK A\ \uH
a a“ an... ... ‘3. T. «t - a» T. an . v\ ..u .t
A: ..I.. a u "...- .3 y a. a TL \ a t . 2L L e \t
V. "1.. a: 2» . . N» .1 . u .. fix ‘ a x t
A: a» 1‘. 1 . . v a is .. ~ ~\\ a: :x a x
ht. Y. ~\~ Rh. 2% ‘ a a \ wxa \\M u ... AV. 1» x ..
HU. 1. :i ~.- on» \V. \FL at a. v~ . . 1.x 3‘...
.~ . BL. ... u u — . y .9. .lxu :‘ . y :5. h s l» .p \ .. . x .
A v ‘4‘ ~ ~ ~\u a s x a N- u e .\ s ‘q x N x s s. .e x N ‘ \.\

 

 

 

109

88 percent increase betWeen the two time periods. The
bulk of the expanded production came from Jamaica where
the output of sweet potatoes and yams more than doubled.
Irish potato production increased almost fourfold over
this period. At the same time, cassava production was
on the decline in Jamaica and so was sweet potatoes and
yams in Trinidad. However, the output of cassava in— .' i
creased in Trinidad over this period. The combined value J
of cereals and root crop for the two territories was
approximately 43 million West Indian dollars in 1961.
This suggests that the value of Jamaica's and Trinidad's
staple food crops accounted for some 43 percent of the
total value of non—export crops in the West Indies in
1961. This could be the case, since the value of non—
export crops was some 99 million dollars in 1961 (See
Table 3.1). In addition, the data indicate that staple

food crops accounted for approximately 9 million of the

 

34 million West Indian dollars attributed to domestic
crops in Trinidad for 1961. This represents about 26
percent. Of this 26 percent, approximately one half came
from cereals and the remaining one half from root crops.
The Situation is quite different for Jamaica where cereals

and root crops accounted for almost 34 million dollars of

I

llion dolla

l

m51m

I
a
I
U

t

fins represen

Ed.

18 cc
alvs‘

.—
\I
H
..

.

A

565 percen

d1

‘

era

U

‘

Q

I

2 “,AW‘
ALA/at

;‘

r

~
If.“

H.“

 

M‘
"
‘.u\4

AN...
\ou'x.

e

.4; .

‘~ fl;
r~rCe“~

 

110

the 51 million dollars attributed to non—export crops in
1961. This represents some 65 percent. Unlike Trinidad,
this 65 percent is composed of 96 percent root crOps and
only 4 percent of cereals.

Our analysis of the domestic sector has concen—
trated on the staple food crOps up to this point. Earlier
in this chapter we commented briefly on the relatively
backward state of livestock production in the area.

Table 3.1 showed that the livestock sector only contrib—
uted about 15 percent to the agricultural output of the
West Indies in 1961. Mayers and Cropper estimated that

in 1958 Jamaica's total agricultural production was valued
at some 78 million (U.S.) dollars of which livestock was
valued at about 10 million dollars, or about 13 percent.
In 1967, the estimates are 92.5 million (U.S.) dollars

for total agricultural output, of which livestock produc—
tion accounted for about 12.7 million dollars, or about

14 percent. In the case of Trinidad and Tobago, livestock
production accounted for some 4.2 million of some 31.3
Hullion (U.S.) dollars, or 13 percent in 1958. In 1967
livestock production accounted for 6.6 million of some

34-4 (U.S.) million dollars, or about 19 percent.

 

.
.ai:

nroduction for Jar

k

Tables 7 and 8, Appe

the tab.

‘1

1

ll
LL

..I.

0

in add

.H..
Y;
a»

has made v

“inn
am.

0
.
‘ u
d

3;.“

at:
new

‘

C
‘H-VU\'..‘

...-"Yap, '\

vxv
-_.€
0

-...H‘\' ‘ ‘.‘U
x
u“:

e
1"nraxd
- a.»

V

‘
xfir
'-b..

.\

 

ODE-er 0'

P»
\v.

 

n~

o

‘hfi-
..._
Va.“-

rw- ...
.‘ Ag.
v. b.‘vfis

lan~
'~»

VAN“
Q‘VUI

‘

 

o
‘

~:. ”‘5
mg“

 

 

111

Tables 7 and 8, Appendix B, show the value of agricultural
production for Jamaica and Trinidad-Tobago, 1958—1967.22
In addition, the tables indicate that total food produc—
tion has made very little gains over the last decade.
However, regarding the livestock situation, Mayer and
CrOpper observed that:

Livestock production in the Caribbean is not

only a very insignificant part of total agri-

cultural production, but over the past ten

years, there have been no signs of its posi—

tion improving.

The foregoing review of the domestic agricultural
sector shows that both crOp production and animal produc—
tion is low in the West Indies. Furthermore, all indica—
tions are that, given the existing level of agricultural
technology and structure, aggregate and per capita output
Will not be expanded to any significant extent in the
near future. The failure of domestic agriculture to ex—

pand, plus rising pOpulation growth rates and incomes,

has resulted in rising levels of food imports to satisfy

 

22Mayers, J. M., and Cropper, J., Eh§_§§E£l§_lflQE§—
tries of the West Indies: Characteristics and Potential
EQEJégflggigg, Department of Agricultural Economics and
Farm Management, University of the West Indies, St. Augus_
tine (Cyclostyled), January 1969, p. 2.

2
3Ibid., p. 2.

 

 

 

ireme

food reqll

ocal

1

llustrat1

0

tion 15 1

dun
b

e

V

'7

othe area.

mt

240 perce

o
I

ased b3

”r5
t- s

s

‘fih ‘n‘ ‘
.0.. “SQ

’ .
.50
a

4.31: order t:~:‘

.
~m~

 

 

 

 

112

local food requirements. The gap between demand and pro—
duction is illustrated by movements in the import of food
into the area. Mayers and Cropper found that over the
last decade the import of meat and meat—preparations in—
creased by 240 percent, milk products by 200 percent, and
animal feed by 250 percent. In 1966, for example, the
region had to import some 266 million (W.I.) dollars of
food in order to meet its food requirements.24 Animal
and livestock products alone accounted for some 93 million
dollars, or some 35 percent of the total. Animal feed
accounted for over 18 million dollars, or 7 percent of
the total, while the remaining 155 million dollars (58
percent) was made up of a wide variety of other foods.
Table 3.8 shows the composition of the food import bill
for livestock and general food imports by territories

for 1966.

In 1966, it has been estimated that the value of
food imports was close to 16 percent of total imports into
the region. In addition, the importation of food as a
percentage of food consumption exceeded 25 percent in

1966, and the ratio showed an increase of some 10 percent
__________.____________

2
4Computations were made from data presented in

Mayers, J. M. and Cropper, J., op. cit.

 

 

UT? .5 :1..\

magsm 4.2.373 3»: .:.Z .
an: .4}. Vigil or _ .c C: .s. a. 3%. .. \.\.: 3; . .
r. .: ON: . N .2 NC... CC: .I is.

num~ n... s n\

T:~.J..._:.:.Tlll
31: .....:< n

 

 

\
NNC. h.
llll..|I|I|lu llllllllllllllllllll mhbfiu.ml —.fi.va_ u — n3
dw
u H H nnu~U3~va.uL.— Hnfl—n...~ Jx $u~.—A»Hnu ~H»~.W~A»u~.—Hun-hfit...-.l~1w«4.\.vlfl.mcmnfi
«UOOLH n nqvonnvrwfl n mflymvmuhnu _. ...—CA a~< .— H < H \ "nuns—u».m.—_ H \fihk u -fi~ n. ~zL-v H. -.\.\~)~ - ...~\w ..fi- u
Handoun. n MadurnUnJ u ,—.1.~..:A.:< n- I illll la: 4 1 -u- u I - l I I l ll 1.| I |.I l I I l--- I -,I l I] - ll. I-! - u n - l - \AL ~:~:t..t
H H n av ~..U~..~:~L- ~,-...:~.~< .
\nn-v.-‘-- -;~.u3 \\fi~a~.< no .- \f.~ ..I.. ...~:.~.~ ~u....~..t\ s-~.. ~ya.....~ \.. -\:\:s~ y \yu .\.\.\;\0\.

IA-nvA.un

 

 

 

 

 

113

 

.pao

.mO ~.h

.Hmmmouo tum ..S .o

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.mswwmz Scum pwpmmo<

 

 

 

muUDUOHm HMSHG¢

u QOHDOW
.H.3 mm.Hw H .m.D oo.aw .wpmu qofluMSHm>opmHm pm .H.3 oo.mw H .m.D . .
oo Hm mums wmcmgoxw uqmsuso pew
H.wm w.o m.em o.H s.oa m. .
OOH ®H m Hm#OB W0 GOHQHOQOHQ
mmm.omm mmw.ama mam.ma ooo.mm owm.m mos.ee oao.am mma.a
Hence
oav.mm omm.ma Haw.o mao.mm ome.a aem.sa moo.aa aso.H isomav ommnoe and seeded”
oso.m omm.m sea mam I: mmm mmm I: inmost undone» “um
Nea.s mam.v 0mm omo.m I: mom mmm.s we , isomav mdoau .nm
mms.a aao.m mmm owe.a ems «so ooo m Nmomac
maafldmcmlmfl>mzlmuuflM .um
vmm wa II mam II mm vwa H “momav unnummpcoz
omw.moa mmo.so omo.m mvo.om smN.H ooo.sH maa.wa cam dosages
ssm.o mam.w osm mms.a m Nmm omm s message
mms.m wmo.m mos omo.a m was smm m moaaHeOn
Hoa.vm www.ma smH.v omm_aa sH aoa.m ssm.m mm moemnnmm
«ma.s omm.e mam mmm.m we «so oom.a Hm demands
MmHMHHOQ .H.3 Undmsosfi
m m m mpODGOHm mmpmm w mHHOmmuOSUOHmmmsOHUMMmmonmmaoEHsfim
poom n mpoom n mowwmnamfifinfl Ham” .mmpflm n mHHMQ H one pew: mbflq H whucdoo
Hmpos n Hwfio ”ensued” . . . H

 

 

.woma

.mQHUnH umwB

 

 

thHOUflHHOB an muOSQOHm HMEHG¢ Ufim woom mo UHOQEHIl.w.m mamme

 

 

 

I

ure of the d

he 1950-66 pe

OVEI 1'.

.6 1a

.I‘

E

 

Wu” Fug ~ . . .
e T. . u a a ”a ... .: . . .
C nU ..-. C 3 C C ... .C ... S S
8 .... C .2 a C e C .Q C e _ t a
.C «C u a no. 11 v . . C “r at I
O Y.. “av... Cy «D at s . u u u C. ~ ‘ C v . h...
0 e .-u .... Y. nu on so my; at .W
5-. v. C Y. e h a at C .3 .3 4...“ an t
C C C .l. _ e r. a u. C A.» ..-. .1. v.
OJ H hw. so» Ab AL my. .... AL AL \H~
D Liu ".5 a nu 4.-. O a: C . I; .... NL .3
.I. a a» .1. ..v Y. «Q. ‘l. in .. ab Q» a e
8 an“ r. nu. . . a“ a» it. A» .04 AL .l. ‘5
.l ..Ih a ~hlu A: ~\v n} .1; «C «x. ‘3. .
r. A... n» «my. 3» ~.. .. u A.» u n ... a
..flu S "J at . [.. .nd \C «C . a v . \fiu « t Z
nFlv Auk ..l- «\v sad §~M . u I‘ll. Nut. ‘NH N~¥ . \ V \ .u
A: ..lu Y1. v . 2n 2» 5: ~ ... a. w ...u y. . a. . .N u
a.» 3% O r. . ...v. .74 .n .u ...u . .. nxv v . 3:... «t w n a
P.” .... “J . .nt .ru . - . . . . .3 ... a K». V a ...n a t e .

 

 

 

 

 

 

114

over the 1950—66 period. The significant aspect of
the import situation, however, is that it shows up
the failure of the domestic agricultural sector to
meet rising food demand and needs. It has been esti-
mated that over 80 percent of the regional food im—
ports are "competitive imports." As such, almost all
of such imports could be produced locally or replaced
by acceptable substitutes if the appropriate agricul—
tural structure could be found.25 Our feeling is
that a major aspect of this apprOpriate structure is
the development of a relevant agricultural research
system that could substantially lower the cost of
domestic food production to the point that locally
produced food items become competitive with current
lOWer-COSt imports. In addition, such a system

would also increase per capita income and its distri-

bution.

\—__———_—

25Brown, Headley A., Import Substitution and west
Indian AQriculture: Theoretical Issues. Paper presented
at Fourth West Indies Agricultural Economics Conference,
University of West Indies, Barbados, March 24—29, 1969,
Pp. 21—25. See Chapter VI of this thesis for further
discussion on food import structure of the region.

 

 

The precedir‘.

u *4
.-..
( 3
‘21
...—l
r"
-3

ral 0‘;:_ Ci:

‘
no c
c .

.—
Vt:

\I-I - L .
relaix'e terms

annfr uni-inn “A GD
b‘Jle--LuL-I.Ul. IUD P

 

“615v-

v‘v-a

 

' r-
InAKAH A-
- -Hla \a
.
l

51

’.l.
()
l

.
.
.\
“-1“ H‘Hfi
~\-‘.-..;..

he
V “I:

(n
(I)
t

.1.

I
2
$1
I
(l)

A ‘ ’
“u. :fir‘ ”My. ‘
.e-w... an

‘ -

(I)
l'.

a
(I)
(I,

ll}

 

 

 

115

Summary

The preceding analysis suggests that although
agricultural output has expanded in absolute terms, in
relative terms the sector is declining in its proportional
contribution to GDP. The decline in agriculture's propor—
tional contribution to GDP is linked to some degree to
the expansion of other sectors of the economy. However,
in general, agriculture's contribution to output has been
declining because the domestic agricultural sector has
failed to increase its productivity. Absolute eXpansion
has generally come from the export agricultural sector.
The agricultural sector, in general, has not been a lead-
ing sector in the rate of growth in GDP. In a few islands
where agriculture appears to be a leading sector, the im—
petus appears to have come from the export sector. The
growth stimulus from the export agriculture sector and
the non—primary sectors has been instrumental in expanding
somewhat per capita effective demand. The demand for food
is a major component. However, expansion in the aggregate
level of effective demand for food has failed to stimulate
increased productivity and output from domestic agricul—

ture. Evidence suggests that despite the modest increases

 

 

I

he level Of a

L
L.‘

i.

for

q

ema no

effective d

5

o the COST—5 0*

ve E

VA:

U-

I ‘ ‘
ma ..Cnm— . N:
.... u- ‘uuu

..
F"
V-

1
i

.e leve

' Q
{‘2‘}- _
bub»... b
o

5
-.

 

12:31:83

‘
.1
M

.
H‘SQH

.. _ m
~\'\'tt Mi

.
-2
“u

R
u

«

'Q~\

YD

03¢ e K‘ e

‘ I

1
us

\a“..'

 

 

116

in the level of aggregate effective demand for food, the
effective demand for domestic food items remain low, rela-
tive to the costs of production of local food items. With
high production costs of domestic agriculture, the in—
creases in effective demand (in the aggregate) has been
channeled into increased imports of lower—cost food items.
The production costs of export agriculture is also high,
relative to foreign competitors. However, to a great
extent the level of effective demand for the export sector
has been maintained at a relatively high level by artifi—
cial means, such as preferential prices and import re—
strictions.

The expansion in the contribution of the non—
agricultural sectors has been generally impressive in the
region. However, the ability of these sectors to absorb
labor has been unimpressive. In particular, the labor—
absorption capacity of the manufacturing sector has been
far below expectations. At the same time, rather than
functioning to reduce the level of unemployment, the agri—
cultural sector has been cutting back on employment, thus,
increasing the pressure on the other sectors. The large—
scale reduction in employment in agriculture stems from

the retrenchment of labor in the dominant export sector,

 

 

n

F

g

him has been facec

C A..‘W-

u... N
t\\-»

to itcrease
-:c0:c

In

J

wade demands.
orts

he
eff

3
u

 

E
w n

V!“
“‘9 ekTC'r:
.

 

117

which has been faced with rising unit costs of production
and wage demands. Retrenchment of labor is related to
efforts to increase the competitive position of the tradi—
tional exports on the world market. The pressures to be
competitive on the world market are related to: (1) de—
clining income elasticities of demand for the traditional
agricultural exports, (2) potential loss of preferential ‘0
markets and prices if the United Kingdom enters the Euro—
pean Economic Community, and (3) some evidence that United
Kingdom beet sugar has become competitive with West Indian
cane sugar. Given the future uncertainty of the major
exports, it seems reasonable to assume that the contribu—
tion of the export sector to employment, income, and GDP
will decline rapidly unless strategies and priorities are
found to exploit the potential of this sector and that of

the domestic sector.

AGRICULT

IX TE

‘
1’ .e
‘ I

is

Seed

3‘ '5
a. v0-
. eLLOs LS

fik
.r .
fifu
A:

:‘1‘
Ni“.

 

-v'.‘u.

H,‘
..

h

00:

o

‘
I
L

Devel

‘ n

are mean

‘Ql

.n\

Y;

a:
5L

 

 

 

CHAPTER IV
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INFRASTRUCTURE

IN THE WEST INDIES, 1930—1968:
EMPIRICAL DIMENSIONS

Need for Assessment of the Infrastructure

 

The need for assessment of the agricultural re—

search efforts in the West Indies is essentially four—

fold:

Development of relevant long—term agricultural
rsearch institutions. priorities and strategies
are meaningful only within a framework of a de—
fined set of goals or objectives. Assessment of
the research structure is one step in the direc—
tion of identifying these objectives and any

apparent conflicts between objectives.

In order to rationalize the regional agricultural
research infrastructure. it is necessary to know
the weaknesses or strengths of the existing Sys_
tem. Identification of these vital areas will

permit long—term planning to discretely modify

118

e m
817715 L.

I

the structufl
could hat
mits the sal

..,——-—-—:W '

 

n u s ‘ ~\~ 6 \ .

.. . a... . i to a a v .
e 5 2a ..k u .. .. a

«\v M.“ \Q ‘Ku Nu. \b “n.

e S .C it e ...

Wu. «.3 .HM t v a

a .. e e .L a .1 6

\NH «\U Mun. h ‘5.“ . nIA

n u S C at a... .Q ...

«t \u... C» m i 2a x: at

 

 

119

the structure in those areas where the changes
could have major impact. Furthermore, it per-
mits the salvaging of components that would be
costly to replace if indiscrete changes are

made.

Assessment of the research infrastructure is a
major aspect of identifying the shortages (or
surpluses) in the research input requirements
(in terms of the desired output levelL Assess-
ment is necessary to arrive at some approxi—
mation of costs and returns from incremental

changes in the research input.

Assessment of the infrastructure could provide
some basis for testing the validity of the argu-
ment that the region is already well endowed with
an adequate relevant research structure. If 80.
additional funds and manpower can be used for

other purposes.

 

 

Data C011

The data use

“”1?
Lu v-

. 1
r.
«3

I16

lest Indi

u

-E

4

p

210313 survev CEII

fiYnxnn \-
an‘ 7“
V—ju..'.ZQ._

n
.l

qulfifin
” *~V.L..

s.“
dq~
.

 

i.
aLIE

C
“k.

‘t

:‘v’NH
'V

 

120

Data Collection, Scope, and Limitations

 

The data used in assessing the disposition of
West Indian agricultural research infrastructure stems
from a survey carried out between June of 1968 and May
of 1969. The survey involved three phases. The first
phase involved personal visits to the various islands
covered in the study to inventory the major agricultural
research organizations in these islands. The second
phase involved the designing and forwarding of mail—out
questionnaires to the various research organizations in
the inventory. Phase three involved a series of follow—
up personal interviews with research personnel responding
to the questionnaires as well as the non-reSpondents.

On the basis of the research inventory. the uni—
verse of the study was established as some 28 agricultural
research units. divisions or departments scattered over
the ten islands. The research organizations covered a
wide spectrum or organizational formats from government
ministry, to cooperative—like structures. Data were
obtained from all but one of the 28 organizations. The
single, non—responding organization does impose some limita—

tion on the scope of the study. The first limitation stems

 

.-

~

u

‘
4&e

1.
n

Q

t
esear.

Y‘

[I
.c

t

.88 O

ome exten
I.
"-11:31

0

CC

C

a data oresented

bu

aajor livestock rese
24
to

om the fact that t‘
organization which

fr

 

.P\

IL

‘

K I‘. C‘\\‘

‘-

..
l

i

“tes o

A‘l
‘\

“'M
“Na

 

121

from the fact that the non—respondent represents that
organization which is generally acknowledged as the
major livestock research unit in the region.1 Thus,
the data presented in this chapter tends to understate,
to some extent, the research picture for the livestock
sector.

A second shortcoming of the data relates to
estimates of research expenditure. In many of the ter—
ritories, existing accounting procedures to not separate
research funds from administrative funds. Where such
situations existed, estimates were made by examining
public documents and other records. In addition,
estimates of knowledgeable research administrators
were utilized. A third shortcoming stems from the fact.
that it was practically impossible to exclude completely
some element of subjectivity from the responses. In
order to get a more "balanced” view of individual re-
search organization, two approaches were utilized:

(1) to get responding research organizations to use the

"team approach” in filling out the questionnaires, and

_____________________
l . . .
The non—respondent organization was the Live—

stock Research Division of the Jamaican Ministry of Agri—
culture and Lands.

 

 

 

{2) to include a ser
ling consistency. E
iataby the choice c
iowever. we feel ths
our choice of time

I- V!‘ ‘ l ‘ ‘ ‘ "I‘M “
nZDuDllSEEC COMMB“

:‘Q‘r .,

«in. general Cat C
v ‘ I ‘ i
Lam, :2»
‘2

‘L

 

 

122

(2) to include a series of ”check" questions for control—
ling consistency. Some limitation was imposed on the
data by the choice of the period covered (1930—1968).
However. we feel that there are good justifications for
our choice of time period. A review of published and
unpublished documents dealing with agricultural research
in the region suggested that a significant proportion of
"research" efforts prior to the 1930’s were essentially
”experimentations” or varietal trials. True scientific
research appears to have evolved in the region around
the time of the great depression of the early 1930's.2
Data from the survey will be presented under
four general categories: (1) agricultural research
organization. (2) the subject matter and orientation of
research. (3) the input volume of research. and (4) gen—

eral summary and conclusion drawn from the data.

 

2Fennah. R.G.. ”Applied Science in the British
West Indian Agricultural Development, 1933—1958: An
Evaluation of Progress." The Empire Journal of Experi—
mental Agriculture. Vol. XXXI. No. 193. July 1958. pp.
208—209; and: Caribbean Research Council. Yearbook of
Caribbean Research. Port—of—Spain. Trinidad. 1949. Also

 

Martin. S.L., Spence. J.A.. and Wright. R.W.. ”Current
Scientific Activities and Problems in Commonwealth Coun—
tries of the West Indies.” Background Papers on Science
hiCommonwealth Countries. The Royal Society Conference

 

of Commonwealth Scientists. London. 7—ll April. 1967. cc
18/1 and 18/2.

 

 

Discussion ‘
ization will develol
accomodates the var
which research is C‘
hedirected to SUCh
(h) regional or nat
tation. and (d) geC

Discussion
orientation will e:
of the research on
ilicts among objec
Made of the fun
W911 as the econon

inlar lines of re
“11 be made of f;
the aPplication o

A set of
:i inputs being 11
Criteria Used are

The final

iran
general €01. (
i

“Vultural IESl

‘13.“. of .
the 1mm

 

123

Discussion under agricultural research organ—
ization will develop a classification scheme that
accomodates the various organizational structures under
which research is conducted in the area. Attention will
be directed to such factors as: (a) research longevity.
(b) regional or national orientation. (c) market orien-
tation. and (d) geographical concentration of efforts.

Discussion under research subject matter and
orientation will examine some of the stated objectives
of the research organization. as well as apparent con—
flicts among objectives. In addition. assessment will
be made of the fundamental—adaptive research mix. as
well as the economic rationale given for following part—
icular lines of research philosophy. Finally. examination
will be made of factors considered to be constraints to
the application of research findings.

A set of criteria is used for assessing the level
of inputs being utilized in the regional research efforts.
Criteria used are: (l) manpower and. (2) expenditure.

The final section will make a brief summary and
draw general conclusions regarding the disposition of
agricultural research activities in the area. No discus—

Sion of the implications for research will be undertaken

 

 

 

Subse

mu.

R
an

-
«gran
.L..\-I

..

Tz
'ew

he Or an
If". [EV ;

T

a:

V - ,.
..0.'.COEC.1I‘;C S I I01“;

.
"r
h

 

.4V .

“Q

Z3210

J

‘5‘ I

._ Ynfin\
..c O 1

-3a“-

 

 

 

124

at this point. Subsequent chapters will cover this

aspect.

 

The Organization of Agricultural Research:

Classification. Concentration and Longevity

In reviewing the data on organizational aspects
of research. it appeared that there would be major
chortcomings from any classification scheme based solely
on: (1) form of the organizations. or (2) function of
the organizations. The final classification used con—
centrated on usefulness in understanding the major prob—
lems facing agricultural research planners in the region.
With this consideration in mind. the final classification
scheme was based on both the fprm and the function of re—
search organizations.

Illustration 4.1 gives the scheme for the final
classification used in this study. Illustration 4.2
shows the organizations. location. scope and longevity

Of the various organizations. The two—way classification

x“—

3We use the term form to designate the institutional
framework and financing arrangements while function refers
to the emphasis. clientele served. and types of commodity
being researched.

 

 

    

UUUCNka QFCwlrI:

UOUCOdHO >UHDOEOUICC2
WUHUMHNOUUGHQSU Ucmlcrimk

COUSOANO >UHDOEEOU
GOADGUCOHHO 900

   

0>HUWN0QOIQU “EM :OflUGNfl

MONO QUNNQNWE UfiHQSQIflEQSU .U
:COflUUCDh:AQ OflUfiNHCNmHO SUHMOWUK UUQ>HHL -3 ENOK: «<V
OanmNfifiah—‘O SHIN-Mumwwu Uflflnfill »

EHNNVLH uv> in film U mu: flEnd<

HSUCOE
lflufl5h 0E“ 0>Humfifl<
H‘UCOEGVEDE NHQUNGJ

Onrdundflfiv‘ \flH WUHHQ

 

 

. Mui‘fixlhs WV K <V

 

 

.maobflpowmmos .Hmpsosocssm Ho w>aummwm
mum muuommm Soumomos HaoSp mo usoouom OOH Op mu Eonm umsp omuuomou wasp mcoaummaqmmso gunmen
nos mpmsmflmwp 0p poms mum consumes :HmusoEMUQSM waomuma= was soummwwu :obwumoom mawmsma mason ore

muommuwo Some ODQH @SHHHmm wcowpmuflsmmuo mo Hogans wse H
Amusv SOHuMNHcmmHo cosmomws owucofluo hufloossoo .m>Humocm hammuma .OHHQsmlflwmsa .m make a
AHHGV soapmuficmmuo Soummmmu copsmfluo prUOEEOOIQOG .o>Hpmmcm hammuoa .ofiansmiflmmsa .m wake
ANHQV QOflpMNflCMOHo Soummmos cmpsofluo muflwosfioo .ngcmswbcdw maomuma .wpo>flam .v some
Ahnsv coauouficmmho SUHMomoH Umpcmflno wuHUOEEoo .o>fipmmcm maomuma .opm>flmm .m mmhe
AHHQV coaumuflcmmno gohmmmou wwuswfluo MpHcoEEOOICOQ .m>flumm©m wawmnma .mum>flum .m mama
rashes soapmwflgamno cosmomon eopaofluo muHeOEEOOIcog .w>aumaea saooumH .oflassm .H wows

HCOHpossm find EHom spom so wommm soapmuflsomopmo Hoses “UV
mHmOSUOHm Umpccflso
oauwofioo HHmEm .
mucosooum wousmflho
oauwofiom wmumq .o
mucoscoum Umpsofino
uuooxm Hamsm .
whooswonm popcoflso
uuooxm manages .

ow>umm oHouGoHHU
popcofluo wuflwoafiooisoz .
wmuaofiuo >HHUOEEOU .

soapmucoflso poofloum

125

       

wwccmcflm oamqflm .
UwOGMCflm camflpasz .
moHpmHHQHUMHmQU mQflocmcflm HH

 

 

      

Hmucofi
Imwnum can m>H#QMU¢ .0

>Humuom0|oo was QOfiHMNH
mmHo cosmomcm oaansmlflmmso .0

 

Hounwfiqudm haomhmq . :Goflpocfim:Am OHuMNHGmmHO summomom opm>flum .Q :Enom: Amy
m>Hummw< Mammumg .m OHpMNflqmmHO SOHmmmwm OHHQSm .
mama: Em Suhmwmwm .H Euom w>apmuuwflGHEU¢ .H
=:0Huoc:m= mo mammm Ame =suom: no mammm Ace

wwmfl smOHmVGH #mwg 0S“ CH WQOHn—hNflfimmHO
SOHmwwmm HMHSDHSOHHMXN HOW. wfivflom COHHMUfluHHWWMHUIIH.V COHHMHHmDHHH

 

 

 

 

 

 

3....._V_ ..I..

I I

 

 

126

 

3:6; as... “izazzzii Lamar... pica: If...
. 3
92 9.. . .... a
page men. chases: .: :cai9.2:nmmgmmuwhhwwwflwwm
3:3: n::::.».::5293;32 :nhifidw42AWMMM
aoma aoma iamcoamomv Auuooxmv
omoaaaae uaCD Soaomem msapao .m
soma mama whoacaua ApaoomeAqoapmaOOmmm
maooDoOHm HomSm omoacaaBVIGOauMpm .m game
noaoommm aoadaasoaamfl asoaou .a
moma moma mOUMQHmm AoaumofioovacoapMHOOmmm
mucosooam ammSm moomnummv .m mmwe
loans coaomoamamuo>ao ooao .a
ooma ooma osmapn< AoapmmEOQVoHSpaDoaamm mo pswapaomoo .aa
mmma mmma aaaasmqa
\ma>o2\mpuaM .pm AcapmmEOQVmMSpasoaamm mo ucofipaomom .oa
mmma wmma maosa .um AoaumoEoovmaspaDoaamm mo usoepaomoo .m
soma ooma moomnuam AoapmmaooVAoasuasoaama
mo maumasafivlpgofipammmo soaommom .m
moma ooma moacasoo Acapmofioovmaspasoaamm mo coama>ao .m
homa owma moocoaw AcapmoEOQVAmHSpasoaamfl
mo mapmacazvlcoama>aa mfiocoamm .o .a omme
wmma omma pcooca> .pm aoapmoaoovmaspasoaamm mo pamfiwmmmmm .m
soma. mama omoaQaae aoaumosoovAoasu
Iasoaamm mo mapmacazvlaocmpcmov
Goapopm pcmaaaomxm aoapcou .o
amma amma ooamfiob aoapmmaoovamocoa one madpasoaamm mo
magmacazvlsoama>am mEosoamm moau .m
ooma omma ooamfimo aoaammaomvamocoa
Ugo canvasoaamd mo mapmacazv
Isoama>ao soapoopoam usoam .N
amma mmma moaoEon Acapmmaoovamocoa
odd oHDpasoaHmd mo mapmacazv
soama>aa mupmafimso amafipasoaamm .a
Each” Umflmaaflma. H H soauouaqmmao
ucomoam can now Hoow soapoooa H coaamuasmmao soammmmm H m0 mmhe

emamaaaaummu

 

 

 

 

soauouaaomouou aocam amoQD
mcaaaom macawmuasomao Soammmomlim.v coapmapmSaaH

 

 

.moam wag Ga msoaamuafiomao Soamomma mdoaHo> map mg ooaammuw GOameMOMGa m0 coapmaaoo nooasom

mmwa Ga omfimaaQMpmo who; soapMNafimmHo mafia mo manoaoao Damon one

mmma. mmma. papacHHB. ApaomxmwASOHmmmom pdcoooov
Ipswauammoo guanomom mcam Com .m
mmma mmma coaMEMb Auaomxmv

Aoumom whamdoca udcoooo Moamfimhv
lacofiuammoa noncomom pDQOOOU .v

 

 

 

moma mmma sauna .Dm “paomxmv ucofipammoo .o ome
Soaoowom csosom ocoama oamsosaz .m
ooma sama iaaaOamoE 3.89%
moamsob ofimsom soamomom msaomoam ososmm .N
mmma mama Sagan 33me
pcoapammoo Soamomwm oaoom osmsmm .a
7. homa moma Aamcoamwmv Aoauwwfioovaaoacmo scammmwm amsoamom .m omwe
H copaCaMB Imwaoca umoz map mo wpamao>acov
Edumoum “cwfiaammwm oaoam ammoamwm .a
moma moma moomnaom AppomxmvacoaumaUOmmm
mucosooam ammdm moomnammvlpasb
. .a moms
Soamomwm maosoamm mawodooam Hmmsm .N
moma 0mma omoacaae Apaomxmv pasb noamomom moooo .a
coma aama mobava .pm 33me acaumaoomma.
waoosooam ammSm mpaHM .pm .5
moma Nmma aamcoamomv Auaomxmv coauoum msaoooam
* moomnhmm mcoo ammsm amapsou moaosa pmoz .o
ooma ooma onwacaaa 33mins .Ba roamomom
pusoooo ommaoa odd omoasaaa .m
mama mama moanfimo auaomxmvamoaofimo

mo soawmaOOmm< mHoHDuommssmE
Hdmsmvlucwfiahmmoo goummmmm HmmDm .v
homa woma moamfimo aoaumwfiomv
GOHumam nohmwmmm amUflQOHB
lwaamAaEOU CHOU Umhmlflm meQOHna .m

scheme shows that t1
structures within W]
are conducted in th
structures will be

The 2: Type 3' thr
“he research organi

six basic types ems

Type l.--Publi.
orien
TYPE 2.-—Priwa
orier

Type 3.~-Pri\ve

I686

Type 4-“Priv

128

scheme shows that there are at least six organizational
structures within which agricultural research efforts

are conducted in the West Indies. The six organizational

 

structures will be referred to from here on as: Type 1.
i Type 2. Type 3. through Type 6. Illustration 4.1 shows
' the research organization typology from which the following

six basic types emerge.

Type l.——Pub1ic. largely adaptive. non—commodity

. . . 4
oriented research organizations

Type 2.——Private. largely adaptive. non—commodity

oriented research organizations

Type 3.-—Private largely adaptive. commodity oriented

research organizations

Type 4.-—Private. largely fundamental. commodity

. . 4
Oriented research organizations

TYPe 5.--Quasi—public. largely adaptive. non-commodity

oriented research organizathflS

\m

4The categorization of research organizations on
the basis of ”adaptive" or ”fundamental” research orien—
tation was made on the basis of the organizations' response
to the questions dealing with their primary area of research
activities, The definitions given in the questionnaires

 

Type 6-"°“aSi-

orient

The longest
to exist among the
average number 0f 3
been sponsored witT
25 years. In addi
research organizat
search organizati:
represented some 1
search organizat i<
in longevity (fror
extreme in Type 1
geographical conc

cf ' -
Organizations

We as follows:
uii’estigations

|
leg .

129

Type 6.——Quasi—public. largely adaptive. commodity

{a l.
i
l

oriented research organizations

The longest continuous research programs appear
to exist among the Type 1 research organizations. The
average number of years that research activities have
been sponsored within this organizational framework is
25 years. In addition to its longevity. this type of
research organization represents the largest body of re—
search organizations in the region. In 1968. this group
represented some 41 per cent of the total number of re—
search organizations covered in the survey. Variations
in longevity (from time of establishment) are the most
extreme in Type 1 group of all the groups. In terms of
geographical concentration. some 27 per cent of this type

0f organizations are located in Jamaica (i.e.. 3 out of

\—

were as follows: (a) fundamental (basic) research:
"Investigations aimed at extension of scientific know—
ledge; of increasing out understanding of nature; it is
therefore explorations of the unknown or of the insuf—l
ficiently known.” (b) applied (adaptive research: ”(i)
reSearch aimed at practical application or problems. (11)
research which attempts to put to use existing knowledge

or even to discover new knowledge which may have immediate
Practical application,” On the designation. ”non—commodity
oriented.” it is recognized that all agricultural research
organizations are inherently commodity oriented. [However.
We are using the term here to represent organizations that
are not confined to any single commodity. but instead cover
a Wide range of agricultural commodities-

 

11 organizations) .

of this organizatic
activities appear 1
culture. This cha:
of the organizatio
mental research ac
level. or the divi
research activitie
research systems,

Contact .

Following

longWith alppears

lZl years) , Type

*4 Years) , and .1“

55’ ~ .
\erfll pol-Hts O:
aspects of this ‘

only group in th
mental agricul

Qilv 9
his» .~ .

.. tHELr acth
Qi-

"\
ups (COQOa am

3.30% 9
MEG and,

.zqtm

has bee

 

130

11 organizations). Another important characteristic

of this organizational group is that all research
activities appear to be concentrated on domestic agri—
culture. This characteristic reflects the fact that all
of the organizations within this group represent govern—
mental research activities. either at the ministerial
level. or the divisional and departmental levels. All
research activities within this group relate to national
research systems. with minimal regional cooperation or
contact.

Following the Type 1 research group. research
longevity appears to run in the following order: Type 4
(21 years). Type 3 (19 years). Type 6 (10 years). Type 2
(4 years). and Type 5 (2 years). Type 4 is important from
several points of view. However. one of the major important

aspects of this group is the fact that it represents the

 

Only group in the region primarily concerned with fun—
damental agricultural research. The group is made up of
only two research organizations (7 per cent of the total)
With their activities exclusively confined to two export
crops (cocoa and sugar). Both organizations are privately
Sponsored and. in the case of cocoa research. the organ—

ization has been functioning for some 40 years. Type 3

 

research group ran}
terms of the numbe3
represents- There
in this group! rep
total number of re
survey. The highe
tation is found if
emphasis relateS ‘
citrus. The data
organizations wit
on export crops-
izations in this
ofhest Indian as
the limited effoi
iron export—orie:
Even in this are
l’iolicly sponsor
:0 he regionaliz

QIQQ

Pthat is er

Hy -
K03 \

.s the Pior
Within

the grouy

~ralllzations e

_‘~pn
»~.S.
one on

 

131

research group ranks second to the Type 1 group. in
terms of the number of research organizations it
represents. There are seven research organizations

in this group. representing about 26 per cent of the
total number of research organizations covered in the
survey. The highest degree of regional research orien—
tation is found in this group. The regional research
emphasis relates to two export commodities——sugar and
citrus. The data show that at least six of the seven
organizations within this group are engaged in research
on export crops. The disposition of the research organ—
izations in this group dramatize two important aSpects
of West Indian agricultural research. There are: (l)
the limited effort to regionalize research comes largely
from export—oriented research organizations. However.
even in this area the regional efforts are minimal. (2)
publicly sponsored agricultural research efforts have yet
to be regionalized. The only organization within this
group that is engaged in research on a primarily domestic
Crop is the Pioneer Hi—Bred Corn Company in Jamaica. Thus.
Within the group we find four of the seven private research
Organizations engaged in research on sugarcane. one on

Citrus. one on coconut. and one on corn.

 

 

The dearth
«mmfiities. relat
there might be a d‘
profitability of i
a nainst non-EXP
returns per acre i
indicate that unde
iitable to invest
returns per acre
toroot crops (th
mElOIdeterrent t
Concerned with pr
abmil is linked
Rhumnan.
undertaking on a
Domestic and reg
the new imPrOved

B: ‘
eu Corn Compan

   

hild'g‘ar rlnldfi
Lea \d Islands

6 .
0m Plonee
. . rIds
red 2

 

132

The dearth of private research on non—export
commodities. relative to export crops. suggests that
there might be a definite link between the relative
profitability of investments in research on exports.
as against non—exports. USDA estimates of gross
returns per acre for export and domestic crops clearly
indicate that under existing conditions it is more pro—
fitable to invest in export crops.5 The differential
returns per acre to the traditional exports. compared
to root crops (the major domestic staples). could be a
major deterrent to private investment that is primarily
concerned with profitability of the venture. Profit-
ability is linked to the level of demand for the output.
It is hardly an accident that the only private research
undertaking on a major domestic crop is that on corn.
Domestic and regional demand has been running high for

the new improved ”seed corn.‘ produced by Pioneer Hi—

 

Bred Corn Company.6

 

SUSDA (Foreign Regional Analysis Division-ERS).
Jamaica. Trinidad and Tobago. the Leeward Islands. The
Windward Islands. Barbados and British Guiana: Projected
Levels of Demand. Supply: anéilflEQFts Of Agricultural
Products to 1975. (1964). p- 95-

6pioneer Hi—Bred Corn Company has developed two
local hybrids (X304 and X306). These two varieties aver—
aged from 60 to 65 bushels per acre. compared to average

 

Type 6 rese
group of agricultui
Indies. There are
resenting alm°St 1
the research organ
search on export C
nuts). Jamaica at
This group offers
concentration of .

This type of rese
and incorporated
their structure.
channeled into tl
Crops. The strur
he infrastructu
he export secto

there
. are no res

\

{ities of 12 to

.
..uies

133

Type 6 research group represents the third largest
group of agricultural research organizations in the West
Indies. There are five organizations in this group. rep—
resenting almost 19 per cent of the survey group. All of
the research organizations are exclusively engaged in re—
search on export crops (three on bananas. and two on coco—
nuts). Jamaica accounts for three of the five organizations.
This group offers an excellent example of the overwhelming
concentration of research activities on the export crops.
This type of research organization is usually established
and incorporated under government statutes. Because of
their structure. significant amounts of public funds are
channeled into the support of research on non—domestic
crops. The structure offers an excellent example of how
the infrastructure is organized to supplement and support
the export sector. It is important to note. however. that

there are no research organizations working on sugarcane

 

yields of 12 to 15 bushels per acre for unimpr0ved West
Indies varieties. With two crops per year. this averages
about 120—130 bushels per acre, which is above the 80 bu./
acre yields of the U.S. Corn Belt. In March of 1969, the
company had requests for over 110 tons of the imprOVed seeds
from Central American and Caribbean countries. See: Ehé
Daily Gleaner. Kingston. Jamaica. March 6. 1969, p. 5.

 

 

 

-i—w’i

mum this 9m" ‘
export ml” in te]
he postulate thet 1
differences in the
Banana and coconut
small farming SYSt
hand. sugar cane i
system.7

The sugar
ture. From its e.
financial and teC
parent company. a
there were some i
West Indies in ti
Of these enterpr.
Panama Disease v

194 ..
-0 s: as small

QCtions. local
9

Governmental as
s

134

within this group (although sugar is the most important
export crop. in terms of export earnings and employment).
We postulate that this peculiarity is related to the
differences in the evolution of enterprises in the region.
Banana and coconut production are largely products of the
small farming system in the West Indies. On the other
hand. sugar cane is still oriented around the plantation
system.7

The sugar industry has always been a foreign ven—
ture. From its early history. a substantial amount of

financial and technical assistance came from its British

parent company. as well as the British government. Although

there were some foreign—owned banana plantations in the
West Indies in the early history of that industry. most
of these enterprises were shifted to the Pacific when the
Panama Disease virtually destroyed the industry in the
1940's: as small producers were unable to take similar
actions. local governmental assistance had to be sought,

Governmental assistance was required also to mount

 

7In recent years. a greater proportion of sugar
cane is being produced by small farmers than by estates.
particularly in the larger islands. In Jamaica. over
50 per cent of annual sugar cane supplied to factories.
comes from non—estate production. However. the pro—
duction system is still oriented around the estate system,

 

agricultural resea
coconut industries
due largely to the
formation was avai
region. The indie
from virtually n01
was able to draw (
formation generati

of the problem st

be seen in the is

the banana indust

level of regionaj
had not been thro
Whether a region

Lhis instance

1/

c,

as G
' overnme
m nt

8
l The "Pa
Jill a
a“ ted effor

...“FS- similar
3““ of "Red 1

lisgvs
. . ere l
the

...;

v

31
n

lSEaSeS 0f

M ””1

135

agricultural research programs to save the banana and
coconut industries. The reliance on local support was
due largely to the fact that very little technical in—
formation was available on these crops from outside the
region. The indigenous research base had to be built
from virtually nothing. In contrast. the sugar industry
was able to draw on a fairly large pool of technical in—
formation generated outside the region.8 The magnitude
of the problem stemming from the outbreak of disease can
be seen in the level of regional cooperation achieved in
the banana industry. The banana research program is the
only program in the Type 6 group to reach an appreciable
level of regional cooperation. If the regional industry
had not been threatened with extinction. one wonders
whether a regional research system would have developed

in this instance.

 

See: Government of Jamaica. Report of the Sugar Industry
Enquiry Commission (1966). Jamaica. p. 217.

8 .
The “Panama Disease” outbreak of some 25 years ago

stimulated efforts to develop resistant varieties of banana
plants. Similar efforts were stimulated by the large—scale
attack of ”Red Ring Disease” in the coconut industry in the
1950's, There has never been a large scale outbreak of
diseases of these two types in the sugar industry.

Type 2 rese
search organ,lzatior
ization is the only
research on a Wide
organization is SP‘
industry. It is a
scene and reflects
on the sugar indus
development of don
ihich the organiz;
amend-crop agric
cultural sector a

which 20 per cent

remaining 5 per C

upor'rant from tl

the fact that in

136

Type 2 research group consists of a single re—
search organization. as does Type 5. The Type 2 organ—
ization is the only privately financed agency conducting
research on a wide variety of local food crops.9 The
organization is sponsored by the export—oriented sugar
industry. It is a relative new—comer to the research
scene and reflects the increasing pressures being applied
on the sugar industries to aid in the diversification and
development of domestic agriculture. The territory in
which the organization is located (Barbados) is practically
a mono—crop agriculture. For example. in 1966 the agri—
cultural sector accounted for some 25 per cent of GDP. of
which 20 per cent came from sugar cane alone. and the
remaining 5 per cent from domestic agriculture. Even more
important from the employment point of view. however. is
the fact that in 1966 sugar cane accounted for 72 per cent
of the labor employed in agriculture. Estimates for 1970

and 1975 are given as 67 per cent and 63 per cent respect—

ively. for sugar's contribution to employment in agriculture.1

‘w—d—

9Pioneer Hi—Bred Corn Company is a privately financed
company researching a domestic crop. However. the company's
research efforts are exclusively concerned with corn at this
point.

OPilgrim E.C.. The Role and Structure of Agri—
culture in Barbados and the Agricultural Development Program.

 

 

All indications are
out of political c<
profitable investmi

The single
the university—eff
Center was establl
Welfare schemes of
functioning since

cand phase of the

late the fields ‘
Ht :' ‘
he urs: ohase c

A

various SOll SUIV

has been carried

331 Agriculture
he College becal

«My of the w

U,
the EEC“

Livities c

35 :h

e Center. 2

““QISitV ' 5 Fa/

tiger
T“ Presented
“JON

‘C Confer

137

All indications are that the research organization evolved

 

out of political compromise rather than in a response to
profitable investment.

The single Type 5 research organization represents
the university—affiliated. Regional Research Center. The
Center was established under the Colonial Development and
Welfare schemes of the 1950's. Although the Center has been

functioning since 1955. it is only since 1967 that the se~

F

cond phase of the regional research program has been taken
into the fields for testing crop responses to soil types.
The first phase of the program was mainly concerned with
various soil surveys. Some form of agricultural research
has been carried out at the former Imperial College of Trop—
ical Agriculture in Trinidad since it's founding in 1921.

The College became the Faculty of Agriculture of the Uni—
versity of the West Indies in 1960. This study only covers
the activities of the Regional Field Experiment Program (RFEP)
Of the Center. and not of the individual departments of the

. . ll .
University's Faculty of Agriculture. Our rationale for

‘—

Paper presented at the Fourth West Indies Agricultural
Economic Conference. March 24—29. Barbados. pp. 2—3.

11 . . . .
R.F.E.P. 18 the abbreViation for the Regional
Field Experiment Program of the University‘s Regional
Research Center.

 

excluding activite:
essentially three-
izational structur
partnents provide
activities. As St
the on-going rese;
{2} The survey in.
Trinidad. and the
Staffs are includ
Vulture. Double-
individual depart
Faculty of Agricr
nests,

ReSearch

bilities and on

\

t“. For a

3.1th of the VB
W
:1 the WeSt Indi
villege of TrOpj
\xYCiOStyled)

 

138

excluding activites other than those of the RFEP. is
essentially three—fold. (1) Under the present organ—
izational structure. faculty members of individual de—
partments provide back—up services for the RFEP research
activities. As such. the work of the program reflects
the on—going research within the academic departments;
(2) The survey included both the Cocoa Research Unit in
Trinidad. and the Citrus Research Unit. whose research
staffs are included in the staff of the Faculty of Agri-
culture. Double—counting is reduced by excluding the
individual departments; and (3) The departments of the
Faculty of Agriculture are essentially teaching depart—
ments. Research is supplementary to teaching responsi—

. . . . . 12
bilities and on a part—time baSlS.

 

2For a discussion of the function and the evo-
lution of the various research organizations. see: Regional
Research Center. Agricultural Research and Its Organization
in the West Indies. University of the West Indies. Imperial
College of Tropical Agriculture. Trinidad. January 1962
(Cyclostyled).

Ob'ectives 0f ReS<

organizat
dealing with rese
Column (1) shows
veloped in this 5
ranking in terms
in columns (3) t1”
"lstRanking" in
given as the fir:
ization. The 2n

lieu to other 0

13) through (7)

win each orga

0bjefiiives

It woulc

“-101” the rese;
0f .

Proouction a

:eiilve (

which
lion
3] appears

5:34 ‘
‘ lmuons

._.l“

139

The Orientation and Subject Matter
of Agricultural Research

 

 

Objectives of Research

 

Organizational responses to a series of questions
dealing with research objectives are presented in Table 4.1.
Column (1) shows the organizational classification as de—
veloped in this study. while column (2) gives the order of
ranking in terms of the importance of the objectives given
in columns (3) through column (7). Thus. the designation
”lst Ranking" in column (2) means that this objective was
given as the first and foremost objective of that organ—
ization. The 2nd and 3rd rankings correspond to the rating
given to other objectives. The percentages given in columns
(3) through (7) represent the proportion of the organizations
within each organizational type as they rank the various
objectives.

It would appear that the major objective of almost
all of the research organizations is increased efficiency
Of production and lower unit costs. The second major ob—
jective (which is confined mainly to research on domestic
crops) appears to be decreasing the level of dependence on

food imports. The export—oriented research organizations

 

 

 

 

 

m mumoo ueED ”QUEQULOQE~ k0"
LUIDA math . LMULO ts u KaeufiNmEMMkD
atextbfl u to OQXK

    

. I i- ‘ rhi viadi

 

 

 

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
u “ Ute Op Em Uta u
u ULOQEH u Hauvzo UflmmoLucu " muUJUOLl to
m0>r000fi00 " UOOK :0 " Mv> uCOEQOpu>QD u Au’nuao Uw>OLQE~ u

£0280 "XUCUUCUQUD u PQEO—GOZ OH H Qv> EOFHUNmeunW h UEQ tOquJDOLl KO

u flmIULUUD ”COvUJO—LUEOU UmBULotn "Sm-EZWCOU UmMULUE~ ”NUEU.U>$&U UWMQULUEN

h . G iiilflmfllrilliliriaiiinllde rr.r- . vii NMdlrullr‘irltriliIQNC

300p .mfl»UE~ and} .mnlefih n0i0.u6V.E!?&C >12 H.H)...UEWCC .sUkildnuo: \3 3.:XI.C\ ~..\ ~.~.2\\

 

144)

93 mo “:8th ms umfi ...:me m 5:38 E mcicmm um— .52.: ms Longs: m5 mcoBmNEmm-io F m8? 5. £2:

1......Bccofimmao so...» SEE-.85 do SEE—3 “muraom

$13930 among: ...—9: 9:3 mm 3.593% wt: some mcobmficmmto

.mo> .5830

mfi v.52 .35 mm “5.53.533 to 2:? 5mm 55:: 2053238 305 we “:8th m5 3 283:8 3:83am

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

- - om - om acicmx Em
I- om as 8 I- mcicmm new Sui
-- -- om om om 3.52mi “3 .0 08?

I- II - 02 II 35:3. Em
-- OS - -- - 95.5 EN :1;
-I -I I- - 2: 9.35m um; .m max...

-- om .- -I II 9.325. E».
- - 02 8 -- 2:5 E 8i;
-I -I -I I- 2: 35:2. “2 .v on:

I- I- 3 3 - 9.35m Em
- mm 3 3 II mztzmx new :ch
ll VF .v— I.- 0w mcwxcmm Hm— .M QQXF

II II -I -I 2: 9.55m 2m
-- - 8. - - 25:2 as. :1;
- OS - - -- acres 3 .N we:

-- mm mm -- m mcicmm arm
-- 8 am -- - acres 25 :75
-- on o. - 2 2:5... 2 ._ as:

" €35 “ usauso Emma-85 $260.5 mo mumou PE: mousse-Sash mom
$338.25 u too... 5 u M; 285338 N .3530 333E “ .823 SE. H route 5 u :oEQNEmmto
.555 ”3:35an n :33qu 3 u «.5 853353 u use 5.53%.: we u 9.35m ” mo 25.
.n 3838 EoEaflhcoo 3.3.5.: "$5328 3855 ”55513 83955 n n
E E E E 5 E E

mwmp $0.55 umo: .392. Pacowumficmmto .3 3333.8 curmwmwm mo 3.32.3. Te ”39:.

appear t0 be less
there is a strong
increased output-
amajor goal. Th
lies in the fact
izations primaril
crops do not apps
quality as far a:
very well be a k-
the West Indian

A signif
izations dealing
mports as a maj
have to face up
meme Wither
inferences.

A.
ject“ (increa
Research effort
production cost

research Will k

as Chapter,

141

appear to be less concerned with this aspect although

there is a strong tendency for such organizations to list
increased output. employment and general devlopment. as

a major goal. The significant aspect of the data. however.
lies in the fact that. in general. those research organ—
izations primarily concerned with research on domestic food
crops do not appear overly concerned with the product
quality as far as consumer taste is concerned. This could
very well be a key variable in the future development of
the West Indian agriculture.

A significant proportion of the research organ—
izations dealing with domestic crops ranked decreased food
imports as a major objective. These organizations will
have to face up to the question of how to accomplish this
objective without being sensitive to consumer tastes and
preferences. All indications are that their major ob—
jective (increased efficiency) is far from being realized.
Research efforts do not appear to have appreciably reduced
production costs in the West Indies. The cost aspects of
research will be taken up further in succeeding sections of

this chapter.

 

Fundamental and M

_...._——-—-—-———

w

In cons"1d
cerned With the r
researCh and adaE
in the ecommiC I
research. The dz
is overwhelmingl:
the West Indies.
According to our
izational types
search. The fir
93 per cent of t
in the survey (1
assess the econ!
"we collated the
Table 4
between two fat
or fundamental
QIleantation of
as aCainst dome
lEstimation av

“Tanned as f

 

142

Fundamental and Adaptive
Research

In considering research orientation. we are con—
cerned with the relative emphasis given to fundamental
research and adaptive research. We are also interested
in the economic rationale for pursuing either line of
research. The data suggest that agricultural research
is overwhelmingly oriented towards adaptive research in
the West Indies. Illustration 4.1 bears this out.
According to our classification. five of the six organ—
izational types are engaged in ”largely adaptive" re-
search. The five organizational types represent almost
93 per cent of the total number of research organizations
in the survey (i.e.. 25 of the 27 organizations). To
assess the economic rationale for the research emphasis
we collated the questionnaire responses into Table 4.2.

Table 4.2. suggests a high positive correlation
between two factors and the relative emphasis on adaptive
or fundamental research. The factors are: (l) the market
orientation of the commodity being research (i.e.. exports
as against domestic). and (2) the backlog of technical
information available on the commodity. The table is

organized as follows: Section I. adaptive research. columns

 

 

PU>UJ 50F: .- . .
£9LIOV-01u h Hat—bt—kupfiutgbtaku ..
. —¢u:w=6v::kuutn>0_0k 50.. {0.550ka ..
u _eutmI=flU:=k n ..
.. .- UUEEUL°QE~MEOeufiNIxMDLD
. LO MEX-L.

  
     

  
 
 

 

" eon-woosvot

" 09:95:" mus-OLA o... .-

” tug-scout!" vonvsuuku u 0>wuacu<n .

n Flue-0:06.53“: 0m :50 u Vt! poutgflvgku a mtvxnukvfitbntnkuhu-AOQE—
IOSOIOK" $§l>0r0¢ .505 EULGUnOK “ K0080: mvmvlwuflm30m¢0¢nko umOU £991.. Lou EOLK mu wketvn

n O E u Q5 u . L0 9 u) >-_0)—..uQ—NRH0QOU WEQ -. UUDL 30 ..kO LUV-x0 Ee-

SULfl0n0¢ 0>~UQWV< NpO Ln..— .. 0~§EO~UBK .-
IiI JHH IIIII- I IIHHIIIIHIl1I~l1sEVo§n I..- I IIIIII
at» «M» «N» -~
ail-1...: \IV .15:

- I. ICILEU ..ULIOI$~. ..EILLIU Let i. din: at! L C

~IEO-HII viii-50

.DOOP .aI-1:~ BIO! .flCa-N-r

 

 

 

143

 

 

$358330: 5 882.5 835.85 mo 8.5
.338qu 32.3... ...85 9:3. 8 22853 m

m 5.5.8 .... 9.3.5. um.
.89.... 2853285 mo 8.?

. Eu count 2.553238 23
.62.: me .695: 93 20.53238 F 09$ 5. 5......
some 55...... 20.53238 323 we 8588.... m5 8.

mZou

688m

.8 288.. me 23 memo...
...—2.03.... ...85 5.8.. .85. mo
vzoamwtou 38m: “canton.

p

.333233 cognac... 98 29.5.53 8.33.. no xuup 257:... M839. ..wfio
a

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

   

  

       

I- cw II II II 9.58m Em
- - I- -- -I - - 8 2.5.5.. as
II I- - II II -I 8 cm 3.5.5.”. um— ... 9.3
I- -- - - I- 8. - II 2:5. arm
- - -I - I- I- 8— II .2.5.5.. 25 CI...
- - - - I- -I I- 8.. 2.5.5.. 3. .m 2....»
II II II II I- .- 9.38m Em
II mm 8. mm. -- II I- II 9.2.5. .55 AN"...
II om - om II I- II -- 9.5.5. ”3.. .e 3.:
- -I I- I- - 2 2 a“ 2.5.5.. can
- I- - I- 2 - E E 25.5.. so ..I.:
II II II II S 3 no mu 9.5.5. 3. .m we:
- - -I - I- II 2.5.5.. .5 .
-I II II II I- II 9.5.8”. new Sn:
- H IH -I II -- R: 8. 2.5.23. 3. .N 25
- - I- . a m. 2.5.2.. can
I- - - mm mm m. a 2.5.5. .55. ...-5
-I -- - -I M: 2 2 2.5.5. 3. .. 25
$8.532; . . . . .
28...”. £3.83. 3:53. . H .. . n
u 3 opfiuzaafipuucweavca... mo . n H mu: 5.... u u
u A 90.. u 96 at. on n . . . G . H . .
. KEEN-.... Fugue“... o... . 883$.” . 352......38885U H .
H 8833.. 8328.5 . 2.583. . Faucgucafiuegflom eon 858.8”. N H
” F3888...” mm...8 . v8 $89585. . 853.525.853.35“ $28.38. N aucmfoaeicofimNEmEo
2.33% «82:9. .3 8.8mm”. . cowfium mumwxmummcogomflo «moo 8:: .8“. “so... 3133. . ...F0 wax.—
u so o u n 5238...". 2.8" n . .
F

 

 

s... .e a. .3

.82 .38.: 32.. 58.2 5.353....an 5.52.2... 5.38.. 22.5 L8 233.52. .3 2.52.3.

 

  
 

.Né 9.9:

 

3t0 6; and secti:
to 10. column 2 :
tance. The highe;
mating on adapti.
ception that dire

research findings

 

cost of fur-(lament
I

is the apparent ‘
with respect to 1

PnrexampleI the
from fundamental

and Type 5 resea

izations account

inthe survey (1

icant aspect of

the three groups

Organizations e)
research (13 of
55Y that the ow
aShe‘dltural re
ai53>t1ve resear

fund
amental res

 

144

3 to 6; and Section II, fundamental research, columns 7
to 10. Column 2 ranks the rationale in order of impor-
tance. The highest ranking justifications for concen—
trating on adaptive research appears to be (1) the per—
ception that direct benefits are low from fundamental
research findings. The third major factor is the high
cost of fundamental research. The important thing, however,
is the apparent variation among the organizational types
with respect to the ranking of their economic rationale.
For example, the major rationale of low perceived benefits
from fundamental research comes from the Type 1, Type 2-
and Type 5 research organizations. Together. these organ—
izations account for some 48 per cent of the organizations
in the survey (13 of the 27 organizations). The signif-
icant aspect of this ranking, however, is the fact that
the three groups represent 93 per cent of all of the
organizations exclusively engaged in domestic agricultural
research (13 of 14 organizations). Thus, it is safe to
say that the overwhelming justification among non—export
agricultural research organizations for concentrating on
adaptive research. is that they perceive benefits from

fundamental research as being negligible.

 

 

 

The situa
organizations 1a:
commodities' The
on adaptive resea
importation 0f re
Pioneer Corn Com}
venture into domt
n- the groups th
rationale.

The seco
mo organizatior
in fundamental I
for concentratir
terms of equal \
exists between
{Column 7), and

iyplicable to s
iiiicantI that
i74.00rtant only
335 more Specii

’\
VIC-17“

‘~ lzations.

fro
anental re:

firms 0f th-

145

The situation is quite different for those
organizations largely oriented towards the export
commodities. Their major rationale for concentrating
on adaptive research is the fact that they rely on
importation of relevant fundamental research findings.
Pioneer Corn Company. the only successful private
venture into domestic-oriented research, is included
in the groups that gave this factor as their major
rationale.

The second section of the table refers to the
two organizations that reported being engaged largely
in fundamental research. Their major rationale given
for concentrating on fundamental problems is given in
terms of equal Weighting between: ”complementarity
exists between fundamental and adaptive research”
(column 7), and ”limited scope for relevant findings-
aPplicable to specific crops" (column 9). It is sig—
nificant, that cost considerations are considered
important only by the domestic research organizations-

and more specifically by the governmental research

Organizations. The survey Suggests that the limited
fundamental research on export crops, (i.e.I limited
in terms of the proportion of organization5)r is a

 

 

seekin‘l of fundame
elsewhere -13

What emer‘.
be a paradox. Gi‘
to utilize importt
at face value-SH
izations should b
oriented organize
Export research 6
imported findings
While domestic re
area of fundamen'

Given th
izational types-
em‘mei (1) he

15% benefits frc

‘9‘, how they per

13
h For w<
“menial resear-

146

seeking of fundamental information not obtainable
elsewhere.l3

What emerges from the data so far. appears to
be a paradox. Given the ability of export research
to utilize imported basic findings, the data——if taken
at face value—-suggest that the efforts of these organ—
izations should be far less than those of domestic—
oriented organizations. However, the opposite is true.
Export research efforts have attempted to supplement
imported findings with indigenous fundamental research,
while domestic research efforts have done little in the
area of fundamental research.

Given the stated objectives of the various organ—
izational types, and their economic rationale, we can now
examine: (1) how the various research groups perceive
the benefits from their particular lines of research and

(2) how they perceive the constraints to their programs.

 

l3For working definitions of adaptive and fun—

damental research, see page 128—129 of this chapter.

 

 

W
RetrosEct and Pr
To begin
and inter-organi:
estimated contril
research. Furth-
to vary between
Within the Type
Of the organizat
0f research to t
than fundamentaj
since the group
or‘JaI‘I'lZations c
{We have “it
W is unexpec

M
CC

or of the san
contribution tc
been high food
assertion is b

urin ‘
.«ce index f0

14

w , The
.....cusly with

 

147

Benefit Perception:
Retrospect and PrOSpect

 

 

To begin with. there are significant intra—

and inter—organizational differences regarding the

 

estimated contributions of the adaptive and fundamental
research. Furthermore. the assessed contribution appears
to vary between ex post assessment and ex ante assessment.l4
Within the Type 1 and 2 research groups. some 45 per cent
of the organizations assert ex post that the major benefit
of research to their clientele came from adaptive. rather
than fundamental research. This response was predictable
since the group constitutes the majority of research
organizations concerned with domestic agriculture. and
these have not engaged appreciably in fundamental research.
What is unexpected however. is the assertion by some 45 per
cent of the same group of organizations that the major
contribution to the viability of the domestic sector has
been high food prices. rather than applied research. This
assertion is borne out by the movements in the consumer

price index for food in Jamaica. between 1963 and 1967.

 

14The terms ex post and ex ante. are used syno—
nymously with "retrospect” and ”prospect.” respectively.

 

 

Between the 1963-
consumer Price i!
moved from 129 U
for “all items"
141. thus, over
annual per cent
food (in the urh
that of "all 0t}
rural areas. th‘
for food was fr‘
index for "all
annual per cent
3.6 per cent CO
The que
v'ny increases 3
about significe

culture The 1

r ‘
~€gard was cow

148

Between the 1963—64 period and the 1966—67 period. the
consumer price index for food (within the urban areas)
moved from 129 to 140. For the same period. the index
for "all items" in the urban areas moved from 131 to
141. Thus. over the period. there was an average
annual per cent change in the consumer price index for
food (in the urban area) of some 2.7 per cent; while
that of "all other items” was some 2.4 per cent. In
rural areas. the movement in the consumer price index
for food was from 129 to 142 over the same period. The
index for ”all items” was from 125 to 138. The average
annual per cent change in the index for food was some
3.6 per cent compared to 3.3 for all other items.15

The question can be raised at this point as to
Why increases in domestic food prices have not brought
about significant supply response from domestic agri—
culture. The poor performance of the sector in this

regard was covered in Chapter III. Information supplied

 

15The 1963—67 period is used because it is that

period for which data are more readily available. The
base for the index is December 1955:100. The weights
used for the urban and rural areas are 51.1 and 58.0.
respectively. for food (i.e.. the per cent expenditure

of the average household devoted to food). See: Central
Planning Unit. Government of Jamaica. Economic Survey

Of Jamiaca. 1967. pp. 106—107.

\“

 

 

 

in the questionna
research has not
none of the 27 re
felt that researc
production over

of the research

:nproved low-cos

..Ie exceotior. 0'
Give“ t‘

[FIST-‘1 \

..-.e supplv
me ~ ..
.-.ces Ias bee“
an. “
e I

31"81 «
‘ ‘kal Drod‘d/
““3 Scar

 

149

in the questionnaire indicated that agricultural
research has not helped reduce the cost of production;
none of the 27 research organizations in the survey
felt that research had reduced their unit cost of
production over the years as much as 25 per cent. Most
of the research findings in the region have been in the
area of improved agronomic practices and pest control.1
In almost all cases. the contribution of biologically
improved low—cost inputs were rated extremely low (with
the exception of the Pioneer Corn Company in Jamaica).
Given the existing cost structure. we argue that
positive supply response of domestic food crops to rising
prices has been negligible because rising prices have not
come from increases in domestic demand for food. but from
high production costs. Furthermore. although the marginal
physical products of labor for export cash crops is pro-

bably scarcely different from domestic food crop production

M

l6Personal discussions with research personnel for
the banana industry. suggest that the industry's costs of
production have actually been increasing by adapting some
Of the findings from their research activities. In addi~
tion. upward pressures on production costs have come from
increased wage demands. High land values have not been a
major factor in the West Indies.

 

 

 

 

 

among peasant far.
of labor for such
since output pric
levels by prefere
are engaged in ft
minimal amount of

culture relative

I
C)
I

' domestic fee

“4"”.
...; 1

used because
moh‘gh

imports.

.00?“ ;.

through r:

 

 

 

150

among peasant farms. the marginal value product (MVP)

of labor for such cash crOps would be relatively higher
since output prices are maintained at artificially high
levels by preferential treatment. Peasant farmers who

are engaged in food production would tend to utilize the
minimal amount of productive resources for domestic agri—
culture relative to export cash crops given the MVP's of
the two types of enterprises. This general characteristic
of costs offers further support to our argument in Chapter
III17 regarding the relatively low level of effective demand
for domestic food items. High—cost local food items are
not used because lower-cost substitutes are available
through imports. Thus. any increased effective demand for
food. through rising per capital incomes is reflected not
in expansion of domestic food production. but in increased

food imports and expansion in export cash crop production.

 

7See Chapter III under section on domestic agri—
culture and Chapter VI for discussion of effective demand
and costs of production. Costs aspects for domestic pro—
duction are illustrated by the fact that imported Irish
potatoes are cheaper than locally produced sweet potatoes
(its substitute) in Trinidad and Tobago. See Cropper. J.,
The Prospects for Commercial Production of Irish and Sweet
EQEEEQSEr (D.T.A. Project Report Series No. 2). Department
of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management. University
Of West Indies. 1967.

From an m 1
tion is quite different 1
assessing the future sou:
agricultural sector. soml
indicated that the stimu
efficiency of production
varieties. as well as ex
per cent of the organiza
would require expansion
research.

Type 3. 4. and e
um Point of viev
Prises they serve came 1
three groups of organiz;

in role that fundamentz

search Programs, This

that °f Type 1.

 

151

From an ex ante perSpective. however. the situa—
tion is quite different for the Type 1 organizations. In
assessing the future source of contribution to the domestic
agricultural sector. some 45 per cent of the organizations
indicated that the stimulus would have to come from increased
efficiency of production—~through improved crop and animal
varieties. as well as expansion in market demand. Only 36
per cent of the organizations indicated that development
would require expansion in the present level of adaptive
research.

Type 3. 4. and 6 research groups asserted that. from
an ex post point of view. the major contribution to the enter—
prises they serve came from adaptive research. However. the
three groups of organization gave substantial recognition to
the role that fundamental research has played in their re—
search programs. This assessment is quite difficult from
that of Type 1. 2. and 5. which indicated that fundamental
research made little or no contribution to their research
Program. It must be borne in mind. that the first three
groups of organizations represents 14 research organizations.
Of which 13 are oriented towards export crOps. The sole non—
eXport oriented research organization in the group is Pio—

neer Corn Company in Jamaica. The perceived benefit from

utilization of fundament
rationale given by the 9
tiveresearch.18 These
dicated that a major con
their industries has con
it appears that in the i
tions the contribution C
about through various pr
Commonwealth countires.
ments is to provide a f
that are unable to comp
of higher costs of prod
sWad contribution of
dustries served by thee
from that of the domest
ssessing the likely s<
hution three research (

tivir .
‘ i.
ywlll have to C0

801 -
e1) adaptive line 0

d I
whole. the Type 6 or

mi
zant than any 0th
er
18

QvssiOn 0 See earlier
or - e ‘
ganlzations ratione

152

utilization of fundamental findings is in line with the
rationale given by the group for concentrating on adap—
tive research.18 These two groups of organizations in-
dicated that a major contribution to the viability of
their industries has come from high prices. However.

it appears that in the first three groups of organiza-
tions the contribution of the pricing variable has come
about through various preferential agreements within the
Commonwealth countires. The net effect of such agree—
ments is to provide a form of subsidy to those industries
that are unable to compete on the world market because

of higher costs of production. In this sense. the as—
sessed contribution of prices to the various export in—
dustries served by these organizations is quite different
from that of the domestic agricultural enterprises. In
assessing the likely source of future research contri—
bution three research groups indicate increased produc—
tivity will have to come from a combination of the

solely adaptive line of research. Within the groups as
a whole. the Type 6 organization appear to be more cog—

nizant than any other group that future productivity

 

l8See earlier sections of this chapter for dis—

cussion of the rationale of this group of research
organizations.

will demand greater att
of the product. This i
consumer tastes and pre
of demand. The two org
Type 4 group asserted 1
their industries came :
and fundamental resear-
ever- in looking to th
the viability of the i

combination of adaptiv

Constr '
of aints on Impleme

Research Results

A series of qi
variables that are thr
the implementation of
Presents the response
differences among org

ce '
Ptrons of these co
r

Within the T\

.h L 4
is total number _

OI (

in
-.Yolm .
d “1 domestic

153

will demand greater attention to quality and standard
of the product. This indicates some sensitivity to
consumer tastes and preferences. an important component
of demand. The two organizations that comprise the
Type 4 group asserted that the major contribution to
their industries came from some combination of adaptive
and fundamental research. as well as from prices. How—
ever. in locking to the future. their assessment is that
the viability of the industries depends on some optimum

combination of adaptive and fundamental research.

Constraints on Implementation
of Research Results

 

A series of questions was designed to assess those
variables that are thought to be the major constraints to
the implementation of research findings. Table 4.3
presents the responses. There appear to be significant
differences among organizational types as to their per—
ceptions of these constraints.

Within the Type 1 research group (41 per cent of
the total number of organizations and 11 of 14 organizations

involved in domestic research). the major constraint to

 

ccsxcee av.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
  
 

ILIII _ Tr. . L ..JLCU:

cop II I-
II II oc_ II
o NN II am e. ocsxcas ocm
m— m a on II scarce; new «..I:.
m m we I II I-III o m 0:.xcem um. . muss
MIKWFFNWPWWWKDEKO a:UJ.J IIIJHIIIII HHUHNH. I II l II IUHHWJHHHHI 1 . Ii- I .
n mxuucvpuvom 0>wu mmflwuuacbvmcu c0+usn—Lumva m m m QUEMHLOQEN m
QwCOMIDKHIGLUWVCvEU< FDOOJ "d @Evukawz DEB m00£30m®m ”EO‘mCUuXN Uta mLUFEMKHEOrMEQuXM DEN £ULQUWWK "to LQUKO t~ u
LULUO n DEG rnUpuerQ u XIflmmWUOZ NL—JUU< Ou u EDUIHQQ HUOHCOU u twvluwm QUMuEOU ”mutenxumt00 "EbeuNN‘IMMLO
u u XOerQflEN ”smut-Lun— u U>qumv¥I+u $0 V‘UMI. .. 0>fiuUWu¥$m $0 XUMd .. D KO .. k0 WQsfi-h
u H II n illvlilv ”Iiill.lll||iiii-v .iIIWIiiKhHEWWIlITI- -II-!lil
Av; «N» x:
.mrcaiu. .) ..lx. .n.IC.. .u.\..:..~..3
..v. .3 EC. ...J. .. .t.._..... L..\..: x: 3:. ..I.; t .....x.

AOV

Ahv
)5 n.a>UJ Esau act

>L . n33:—

 

 

mvcgsm cowwmaLomcw Io sewum__ou ”ougaom

.m_n_mmmm xHFMUwEocoom
L mcowuvacmmLo ozho
m: muozuoom mwm
ucmugmma

.mmL_mccowumm:v cw nw;

ma v :0:
_ wasp name—w; :mwn m>mc muFamwg cogmwme ucmuvwwcmwm o: mmzmuwn muzwagumzou 0: nmuLoam
.mHCImLumcou .mwgamwm we co_umuwgqgmuc% Low F.c m_nmh =
wcu xcmL szu mm compoNWEMmLo mo maxu comm cwzywz mzowumecmmLo us» me achng mzu op muconmmggou
. . >mF
so? meELm mLmEme mo Emwpa>mecou ucwgw::_ cam >UQLmu*_ mo _m
I, IE :8 I6 83:: it no: .3538 8283 SEE; t t: .83: :2 "25:5 :25? 35o;

   

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

mm II
I- I- I- mm II :25; E
II II mm mm mm mcwxcmm cam Amucv
mm mm mm mcwxcum gm_ om maxp
II HM II II 00— mcwxcmm th
II II ooh II II m:_¥:mm ucm Afiucv
II co, II mc+xcmm um_ m maxh
om II
Ae II II II II om mcwxcmm vLm
:4 II II II om II mcmxcmm ucm Amucv
I; om om II mcwxcmm amp q mgxh
cg II
E II -I S E 955;. E
«P II VF mv «F mcwxcmm cam Anucv
«F q_ ¢F mcwxcmx amp m maxp
cap I” ”H II II mcwxcmz vxm
I- I- I- -I 3:5 EN :1:
OS I. I- 3:5 3 N 25
m K II
w_ am RN wF mcrxcam ugm
m m mm I- 2.5.5 E :75
o m m mcwxzma «m— P qup
m wxumcwpuuom o>pu ”mmrumzcmvmcH corp: P; m u u u u
mcommmmuImguchPE m. H . . n. u To U n " wucmugonEH .
m . . u< a m . m . .
gmguo H ucm quFuWFoag .a mmwwmwmw um” “wugzommm .cowmcmuxm ucm mLmELmLucommcmpxm vcu cuxmmmmm ”mo swugo :H u
u . . H >uF p on m” u< op ” :wwzuwm uumucou n cwwzpmm pumucoo "mucwmgumcou .copum~pcmmgo
. u H .2 H 2E: u 9.503: Is v.03 " 2.50th mo v.03 ” we m .t. Kb
Amy 0 . u n " mzwmcmm n
A v E E E E E

> m u>m .mwm. .mm_nc_ “mu: qu>F _mco_umN_cmmL
n _ 4 ELM; vcm >Lumzuc_ ogu um mmc_vc_m LUmemwm Lo co_umum—11& ou muc_mLuflcoQ Lmez no mp_xcmmII.m.: MAm<F

research implementatior
farmers to acquire the
the findings as well a:
distribution. The 580'
be the lack of effecti'
extension personnel.
political bottlenecks.
indicate that the latt
group rated extremely
research and extensiox
Situation is quite di.
research groups. The

Implementation appear

(1] lack of effective

tension, (2)

lack of
and farmers, and (3)
resources. and market

te '
major constraint‘

group.

A review of I

wide
3 Some insights

The
mu? rePresents

here
en -
gaged in r

fitter
‘ and product I

155

research implementation appears to be the inability of
farmers to acquire the necessary resources to implement
the findings as well as inadequacies of marketing and
distribution. The second major constraint appears to
be the lack of effective contact between farmers and
extension personnel. The third is given as ”legal and
political bottlenecks." Type 1 is the only group to
indicate that the latter constraint is important. This
group rated extremely low the lack of contact between
research and extension or farmers and extension. The
situation is quite different for the Type 3 and Type 6
research groups. The major constraint to research
implementation appears to be equally distributed between
(1) lack of effective contact between research and ex—
tension, (2) lack of effective contact between extension
and farmers. and (3) inability of farmers to acquire
resources. and marketing inadequacies. It appears that
the major constraints are much more diffused in this
group. A review of the composition of this group pro—
vides some insights into its assessment of the constraints.
The group represents 12 research organizations. of which
11 were engaged in research on a Single export commodity.

Factor and product markets tend to be fairly well organized

 

 

through some form of pr
associations. The Stm
“Maniwhy the acquisi
aspects were rated as 1
'III the Type 1 grouP- (
ciations have been a V9
ages between productio!
the Type 3 research gr

The two Type 4
nniw an inadequate
famenextension conta
Whhthedisposition c
are largely engaged ir
Wdlfhnings are not
FM fin single organi
of Contact between fa

na'o
l I constraints. wi

sec
0nd. and research

Want -
Zatlon '
ls rel
at

has -
not included an e

l9I
Par t is '
in?“ o Agriccntiiy
tenet“ Agricnltt
thI‘oUgh t e F U
or

156

through some form of producer cooperatives or commodity
associations. The structure of the market could tend to
explain why the acquisition of inputs and distribution
aspects were rated as being much less a constraint than
in the Type 1 group. Cooperatives and commodity asso-
ciations have been a vital force in creating certain link—
ages between production. distribution. and consumption in
the Type 3 research group.

The two Type 4 organizations rated resource avail—
ability and inadequate marketing equally with lack of
farmer-extension contact. This appears to be consistent
with the disposition of the category. as these organizations
are largely engaged in fundamental research. By nature.
such findings are not directly applicable at the farm level.
For the single organization of the Type 5 group. the lack
of contact between farmers and extension was rated as the
major constraints. with limited resources and marketing
second. and research—extension contact third. The single
organization is related to a university. which historically.

has not included an extension function in its activities.19

 

19It is only in the past three years that a De—

partment of Agricultural Extension has been set up in the
Faculty of Agriculture. Financial support for the program
came through the Ford Foundation.

......

 

The In ut V01

In examining t1”
research efforts. two \

and (2) expenditures.

The Manpower Component
Research

Two elements a
of research manpower i
availability over time
quality of manpower 0'.
search personnel are I

scientists. (2) resea

Personnel. Working d

in '
the questionnaires

Sonnet .21

20
am The measure
i a1 hum r of res
n .
midi; The measurI
e . Years of a
21S
. 9% S ‘
.he, . Peeim
QIWWQ defin‘ -
aiegOries - 1t l

157

The Input Volume of Agricultural Research

In examining the input component of agricultural
research efforts. two variables are studied (1) manpower

and (2) expenditures.

The Manpower Component of
Research

 

Two elements are utilized in examining the level
of research manpower in the West Indies: (l) manpower
availability over time. and (2) the characteristics and
quality of manpower over time.20 Three categories of re-
search personnel are examined in the study: (1) research
scientists. (2) research technicians. and (3) supporting
personnel. Working definitions were developed and defined
in the questionnaires for each category of research per—

sonnel.21

 

0The measure for manpower ”availability” is the
actual number of research personnel employed at any point
in time. The measure for manpower ”quality" is the number
of formal years of academic training or complementary work
experience.

1 . . . . .

See SpeCimen of Questionnaire in Appendix C for
the working definitions of the three research personnel
categories.

 

 

Research Scientists

_——___————-

Four P°ints in
to the number of resear
various research organ:
(1) Period when organii
ten years ago (1958) ’
at the present time (1
the first period does
since the various rese
tence at different per

Table l. Apper
number of research sc:
within the Type 1 org;
intime. The table pI
number of research sc
Wide variety of commo
of top level manpower
efforts Although tr

in
creased over the VE

22
as to See Illust:
Itse the SPECific t
“Ch organizer:
O

158

Research Scientists

Four points in time were examined with respect
to the number of research scientists employed by the
various research organizations in the region. These were:
(1) period when organization was first established. (2)
ten years ago (1958). (3) five years ago (1963). and (4)
at the present time (1967—68). It should be noted. that
the first period does not represent a common base year.
since the various research organizations came into exis—
tence at different periods.2

Table 1. Appendix C. gives the distribution and
number of research scientists employed and ”provided for”
within the Type 1 organizational group. for the four points
in time. The table points out: (1) the relatively small
number of research scientists engaged in research on a
wide variety of commodities. and (2) the severe shortage
of top level manpower confronting the domestic research
effortS. Although the number of scientists have generally

increased Over the years. there were only 57 research

 

22 . . .
See Illustration 4.2 of this chapter for details
as to the specific time of establishment of the various
research organizations.

 

scientists employed by
this group during the i
tistsrePresent the ma
searchers for the dome
iflmms hithe region-
the domestic research
these organizations we
scientists than budget
were budgeted. but on]
table points to the h:
eardiscientists. W:
inescovered by the '
matsudia limited n
all functions well.
Additional ev
vmkload of publicly
ans. An appreciab]
isdimcted at non‘re
rhhiestimates of t}

as I .
ts time devoted -

ititi

es .

I ‘Ae C
omputed

159

scientists employed by the 11 research organizations in
this group during the 1967—68 period. These 57 scien—
tists represent the major contingent of top level re—
searchers for the domestic agricultural sector for ten
islands in the region. The shortage of scientists in

the domestic research area is indicated by the fact that
these organizations were operating with 30 per cent fewer
scientists than budgeted. In 1968. some 80 scientists
were budgeted. but only 57 were employed. Thirdly. the
table points to the high work load of West Indian re—
search scientists. With the wide range of research activ—
ities covered by the Type 1 organizations. it is unlikely
that such a limited number of scientists could perform

all functions well.

Additional evidence is available regarding the
work load of publicly sponsored. domestic research scien—
tists. An appreciable proportion of the scientists’ time
is directed at non-research activities. To arrive at
rough estimates of the proportion of the research scien—
tiStS' time devoted to ”directly productive" research act—

ivities. we computed estimates of the number of "full—time

 

 

equivalent scientists-
disposition of researC
when adjustments were
The table indicates ti
only 43 of the 57 scie
rectly productive rese
per cent of the numbe:
in duties other than I
Proportion of the sci
research activities c
Changes, this could '1

research process to a
\
23Utili .
. . zing info:
or
mpmzations, the folio.
{ Ietpuvalents researd
2) + I I O (n '
There: (1) rm.
(2) N

 

160

equivalent scientists.”23 Table 2. Appendix C. shows the
disposition of research scientists for the Type 1 group.
when adjustments were made on a full—time equivalent basis.
The table indicates that on a full—time equivalent basis.
only 43 of the 57 scientists are actively engaged in di-
rectly productive research. Thus. approximately 14. or 24
per cent of the number of employed scientists. are engaged
in duties other than directly productive research. If the
proportion of the scientists' time being spent on non—
research activities could be reduced by organizational
changes. this could increase the manpower input into the

research process to an appreciable extent.

 

23Utilizing information furnished by the various research
organizations, the following equation was used in computing full-
tine equivalents research scientists:-—F.E. = N—[(nl . A1) +

(n2-m2)+. . . (mg-mgH

where: (l) F.E. Full-tine equivalent research scientists

II II

 

(2) N Number of scientists employed by the
various units
(3) n1 . Hg = Number of scientists engaged in non—

reaxmchawthfitkw

(4) h . . . A = Proportion of tine spent in non-research

g activity (expressed as a fraction) and
associated with each n.

It is fully recognized that in many instances it is practically ins

possible to distinguish the boundaries between "directly productive"

research activities and "non—productive" research activities. How—

ever, we assume that the respondents are best able to assess the

relative proportion of this tine Spent in the two types of activities;

and thus their assessment was accepted.

 

 

Work-load and
Type 1 group could be
by this group in retai
tists. The shortage e
aggravated by signific
governmental research
The two tables indicat
not being met within i

The quality 0.
0f the research input
measure significant C
We assume that qualit

would be reflected in

of professional quali
periods). Table 3. F
qualifications held 1

Organizations at dif

24
r The loss 0
they has pointed 0
mice; miStry Of
' - . Hewitt,
same Ministry Hea

dist

25
need 1 hIf we a5su
bet. 8 ”Provide
owe“ his cate
IIdt the ee '5 901
not

 

161

Work—load and other working conditions within the
Type 1 group could be related to the difficulty experienced
by this group in retaining and attracting top level scien—
tists. The shortage experienced by the group has been
aggravated by significant losses of scientists to non—
governmental research organizations in recent years.24
The two tables indicate that manpower research needs are
not being met within the Type 1 group.25

The quality of scientists is an important element
of the research input. Attempts were therefore made to
measure significant changes in this variable over time.
We assume that qualitative changes in manpower component
would be reflected in years of formal training (i.e.. types
of professional qualifications held at different time
periods). Table 3. Appendix C. shows the professional
qualifications held by research scientists for the Type 1

organizations at different time periods. The data indicate

 

24 . . .
The loss of research seientists to private in—

dustry was pointed out by Mr. Winston Stuart. Chief Technical
Office. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands. Jamaica. and by
Mr. C.W. Hewitt. Head. Agricultural Chemistry Division of the
Same Ministry.

If we assume that a crude indicator of manpower
need is the ”provided for” category. then the divergence
between this category and the employment category suggests
that the need is not being met.

 

that there has been Si
of research SCientiSts
gamed degrees have be
However. in view of th
activities. it is unli
is large enough to Off
input noted earlier.
The single TY]
hiw65. From the ou‘
only two scientists.
hittue in directly
the number employed r
fidfilwfl. he}:
misunit would tend
err input_26
There are sit
TYPE 3 and the Type I
m on disposition c
Appendix (1, Shows th
scientists employed
26

c See dis
:ltural esearchELIE
Ickgrouryd of th'

162

that there has been significant improvement in the quality
of research scientists within Type 1 organizations. Ad—
vanced degrees have been replacing the "diploma" category.
However. in view of the time spent on non—research related
activities. it is unlikely that the quality differential
is large enough to offset the trends in manpower research
input noted earlier.

The single Type 2 organization was first established
in 1965. From the outset it employed and "provided for"
only two scientists. However. both scientists are engaged
full-time in directly productive research activity; thus.
the number employed reflects the manpower input in research
at this level. The historical background with respect to
this unit would tend to explain the relative volume of man—
power input.

There are significant differences between the
Type 3 and the Type 1 research organizations with respect
to the disposition of research scientists. Table 4.
Appendix C. shows the distribution and number of research

scientists employed by the Type 3 organizations at different
___________________

6 . , u . . _

See discuSSion under the Organization of Agri—

cultural Research" page 124 of this chapter for historical
background of this organization.

 

Points in time- Table
full-time equivalent 5
Type 3 and Type 1 0‘95
in the manpower situai
search efforts and Pr:
In the first place: t]
scientists per C0mm°d
we find a total Of 57
organizations in 1968
presumably working on
hand, in the private

in seven organizatior
citrus. coconut. and
plete in some instanI
Scientists and the n‘
preciably lower in t
This could reflect t
Working Conditions.

years there has beer
sponsored research (

What
e o ' -
rganizeItioI

employed” and “fill

an
dType 1 Organiza

163

points in time. Table 5, Appendix C. shows estimates of
full—time equivalent scientists. Differences between
Type 3 and Type 1 organizations illustrate the variations
in the manpower situation between public multi—crop re—
search efforts and private single—crop research efforts.
In the first place, the private efforts utilize more
scientists per commodity. In the public research efforts,
we find a total of 57 scientists representing some ll
organizations in 1968. In addition, such scientists are
presumably working on a wide variety of crops. On the other
hand, in the private efforts (Type 3) we find 35 scientists
in seven organizations working on only fOur crops (sugar,
citrus, coconut, and corn). Although the data are incom—
plete in some instances/ the disparity between employed
scientists and the number of scientists budgeted is ap—
preciably lower in the private research organizations.

This could reflect the generally higher salaries and better
working conditions. We indicated earlier, that in recent
years there has been a net loss of scientists from publicly
Sponsored research organizations to private and semi—
private organizations. The magnitude of divergence between
“employed” and ”full—time equivalent” Scientists for Type 3

and Type 1 organizations offers a few clues to the differences

 

in internal organizalti
and the private resear
the Type 3 organizatic
Sscientists, or a red
complement of scientis
in the complement of 5
when adjustments are I
research. It should 7
per cent reduction in
versions to full-time
organizations. The r.
ninistrative from res
research organizatior
the time available f<
the “"0 grouns of or
The general

scientists is also e
(See Appendix c

e I Tab

per
CEntage of time c

categor
Y’ the quantj

grew. ,
uLEI impact in t}
of the two '

r
Proportion of

164

in internal organizational structures between the public
and the private research organizations. In the case of
the Type 3 organizations, the divergence amounted to about
5 scientists, or a reduction of about 14 per cent in the
complement of scientists. In absolute terms, the reduction
in the complement of scientists is from 35 to about 30,
when adjustments are made for more directly productive
research. It should be recalled that there was some 24
per cent reduction in the number of scientists, when con—
versions to full—time equivalent were made for the Type 1
organizations. The private research efforts separate ad-
ministrative from research functions more than do public
research organizations. This explains the differences in
the time available for directly productive research between
the two groups of organizations.

The general improvement in the quality of research
Scientists is also evident for the Type 3 organizations
(See Appendix C, Table 6). However, considering the smaller
percentage of time spent on non—research activities in this
category, the quantitative improvement has probably made a
greater impact in this group than in Type 1 group.

Of the two organizations in the Type 4 category, the

major proportion of scientists are employed by the cocoa

research organizationr
mental research. The
and “provided for" art
In the case of the 5m
tist has been employe<
1965. On the other in
experienced variation
over time.27 Quite p
to Periods of crises

t0 the sources of fly

of improved manpower

Type 5 organ.

research unit. As t‘

Period of establ ishm‘

are 0
nly four scient

1y ‘N l ‘

S: t

thir‘
Q largest bodv c

andg The numbe'
I for time per.
28

Int ‘ A Subs
ternational C0:an
oa

 

165

research organization, which conducts large-scale funda—
mental research. The number of scientists "employed"
and "provided for" are the same for both organizations.
In the case of the sugar research unit, only one scien—
tist has been employed since the unit was established in
1965. On the other hand, the cocoa research unit has
experienced variations in the number of scientists employed
over time.27 Quite possibly, these variations are related
to periods of crises in the industry's history as well as
to the sources of financial support.28 The general pattern
of improved manpower quality holds for this category as well.
Type 5 organization is represented by only one
research unit. As this unit was established in 1967, the
period of establishment and "presently” coincides. There
are only four scientists employed within this unit and when
conversions are made to full-time equivalents, there are
only two scientists. In this respect this organization is
similar to Type 1 organizations. Type 6 organizations (the

third largest body of research organizations in the survey)

 

27The number of scientists employed were 3, ll, 5
and 8, for time periods 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively.

28 . . . .
A substantial portion of finanCing comes from the
International Cocoa Alliance and the American Cocoa Institute.

 

are quasi-public. Tal'
of research scientist5
category. Although 3
relationship between ‘
establishment figures
is similar to the pri‘
organizations with re
professional scientis
is favorable in this
ization (or the Type
find a total of some
or9anizations in 1965
research on only two
between Employed Sci

tists for this grOUP

organizations. Tabl

between employed sci

tis
ts for this cate<
on v
ll roduces the nur

“Wit 10 per cent

rQSear
ohers h
as als
the

 

166

are quasi-public. Table 7, Appendix C, shows the number
of research scientists employed by time periods for this
category. Although there are some gaps in the data, the
relationship between the available scientists and the
establishment figures are relatively close. This category
is similar to the private, commodity—oriented research
organizations with respect to working conditions for its
professional scientists. The ratio of scientists to crops
is favorable in this category compared to the Type 1 organ—
ization (or the Type 3 organization, for that matter). We
find a total of some 29 scientists representing some five
organizations in 1968. These 29 scientists are engaged in
research on only two crops (bananas and coconuts). The gap
between employed scientists and full—time equivalent scien—
tists for this group is smaller than either Type 1 or Type 3
organizations. Table 8, Appendix c, shows the relationship
between employed scientists and full—time—equivalent scien-
tists for this category. Conversion to full—time equivalents
only reduces the number of scientists from 29 to 26 or by
about 10 per cent. In general, the quality of the top level
researchers has also registered significant improvement Over

time.

 

 

 

Research Technicians a

—__—_———-—-

Suppgrting Personnel

A high deeree
research scientists! ‘
We observe general m
and supporting person
of scientists.29 Wit
of technicians to SC.1
1967—68 period. For
for supporting persor
research technicians
working in cooperatir
the l967~68 period ('
The general
Hicians and supporti
number of scientists
There were some 40 t
Sonnel associated. w
the TThe 3 category
This WOUld give a r;
29

workin See Speci‘
9 e initiOnS

 

167

Research Technicians and
Supporting Personnel

 

A high degree of complementarity exists among
research scientists, technicians, and supporting personnel.
We observe general increases in the number of technicians
and supporting personnel to complement the increased number
of scientists.29 Within the Type 1 organizations the ratio
of technicians to scientists was about 1.4 to 1.0 for the
1967—68 period. For the same period, the ratio was 5 to l
for supporting personnel. Specifically, there were some 79
research technicians and some 279 supporting personnel
working in cooperation with 57 scientists for this group in
the 1967-68 period (Table 9, Appendix C).

The general pattern of growth in the number of tech-
nicians and supporting personnel to complement increased
number of scientists is evident in the Type 3 organizations.
There were some 40 technicians and some 86 supporting per—
sonnel associated, with approximately 35 scientists within
the Type 3 category during 1967—68. (Table 10, Appendix C).

This would give a ratio of 1.1 to 1.0 for the technicians

h

9 . . .
See Specimen of Questionnaire of Appendix C for
working definitions of the three research personnel categories.

 

and approximately 2'4
Thus, at face value, I
and Type 2 organizatit
to the ratio of suppo
different from Type 3
the case. We had dem
organizations had a s
scientists engaged ir
Private, Type 3, orga
PUtEd using full—time
organizations have a

organizations, there

and seven Supporting
Scientists employe—d
the ratio would be 1

Within the T
33 technicians and 5
With 29 scientists.

technicians and l 7

AThendix C) . Table

s‘ ‘
rtuation in domest

The table 1'

orga ‘
n1 ‘
Zations invo'

 

168

and approximately 2.4 to 1.0 for supporting personnel.
Thus, at face value, it would appear that the Type 1
and Type 2 organizations are fairly similar with respect
to the ratio of supporting personnel to scientists and
different from Type 3. However, this is not necessarily
the case. We had demonstrated earlier that the Type 1
organizations had a significantly higher proportion of
scientists engaged in non-research activities than the
private, Type 3, organizations. When the ratios are com—
puted using full—time-equivalent scientists, the Type 1
organizations have a higher ratio. Within the Type 4
organizations, there are approximately eight technicians
and seven supporting personnel associated with the nine
scientists employed by the two organizatons. In both cases,
the ratio would be less than one.

Within the Type 6 organizations there were some
33 technicians and some 49 supporting personnel associated
with 29 scientists. This would give a ratio of 1.1 for
technicians and 1.7 for supporting personnel (See Table 11,
Appendix C). Table 4.4 shows the unfavorable manpower
Situation in domestic research efforts.

The table indicates that the number of research

organizations involved in research on export crops is roughly

 

 

          

n HWNWMMWOQ n Amwmflv u AQOTHV MUTflUCTH «womdv u Amwmflv u COHUMNflCQEHO
, . mGQHUflESUGH.IflUW UEQHQ>H5wH. U0>OHQEH . TCOflUQNH . N0 OQXH

. mGfiUHOQQDm . . . u . .

u u n @EHBIHHUE . mUMflUCOHUW n ICQWHO n

sCOflUMUGQflNO \AUHVUOEOU 00
0 SCH—quifimommfiollv .U. ,3ng

smvfiUGH “$03
an .fiflvnhanUlN ”@3004ng MN

wmmfi

 

169

.mmaoopomo> can

 

 

 

Amudsoooo can

   

 

 

.wosdwwa Cacao

.maoohmo

.depHO .moooo

.mmouo uoon mo mu0HHo> woes so sonmmmwm
o

.AwNHMEV :Moo wane so soummwwm

.mocmson

 

 

 

 

 

.Hmmsmv macho o>Hw so noncommmm

Q

com mn.ov mo ma mQOHpMNacomuo coucoauo
wuflpofifioolcoz
opuomeIcoz
v H muofluoNHcmmHo powsofluo
om w m Q%#HUOEEOO puomxmvsoz
. mo ma msoH#MNflqmmMo powcoflno
NHH >5 me am mmpflcosfioo #Homxm
Honfiszl .
. . u u H u COHuMNHcmmHO
“ imemac H imwmfiv H imomfiv monarch” imwmac ” mmwmmwwa N no mass
. Housomnom n mamaoas£ooa.rflom pcon>fldwmn wmmoamfim “ :mmHo. u
- mCflu:HomeD.m H . . - wgfl—HIHHDW H WHWHHUHHQHUW - ,

 

 

CoHHO >HHUOEEOU on

.m@ cH umog .COHumu . .

MmmWHooowwHosomsmz mo GOHunomeQIIv u mumma
HH-

 

similar to those enga‘
of domestic cr0p5 (13
former type Of organi
ratio of scientists t
organizations. SpGCi
engaged in research 0
while in the latter c
on a wide variety of
aSpect is the relatir
and directly product.
oriented research on
activities from othe
than the non~commodi
"erSionS are made to
former We of organ
scientists of some 1
is a reduction of a]

f
or the latter type

E

xo ,
enditUre Com O
ne

Data On 39):

desk .
t incomplete Of

SlIUQtuIe

ii). mOSt

 

170

similar to those engaged in research on a wide variety

of domestic crops (13 to 14, respectively). However, the
former type of organizations possess a much more favorable
ratio of scientists to crops than the latter type of
organizations. Specifically, we find some 69 scientists
engaged in research on five export crops in the first case;
while in the latter case, some 63 scientists are working
on a wide variety of domestic crops. Another significant
aspect is the relationship between commodity orientation
and directly productive research efforts. The commodity—
oriented research organizations have separated research
activities from other activities to a much greater degree
than the non—commodity—oriented organizations. When con-
versions are made to full—time equivalent scientists, the
former type of organizations show a reduction in available
scientists of some 10 per cent. On the other hand, there

is a reduction of almost 26 per cent in available scientists

for the latter type of research organizations.

Egpenditure Component of Research

Data on agricultural research expenditures are the
most incomplete of those on agricultural research infra—

structure. In most cases, it was simply not possible to

 

separate research eXPe
In other instances, in
search organizations .
figures is incomplete
ever. in the absence c
to use the available 1
shortcoming. The dati
period. nine of the e
spending approximatel
capital outlay for re
able for the remainir
Appendix C). On the
Toned that in 1967—E
1.5 million West Ind:
“within the single Ty
for 1967~68 was repo
amount probably was
Operatims, and (2)
expenditure was unde

eStablished. Rec ur
r

 

l
l
1
i

separate research expenditures from general expenditures.

In other instances, information was available from the re—
search organizations. The resulting set of expenditure
figures is incomplete and of questionable reliability. How—
ever, in the absence of more reliable data we were forced

to use the available figures, recognizing this major
shortcoming. The data indicate that in the 1967—68

period, nine of the eleven Type 1 organizations were
spending approximately $995,000 (West Indian) in annual
capital outlay for research.30 Figures Were not avail—

able for the remaining two organizations (See Table 12,
Appendix C). On the other hand, 10 of the 11 units re—
ported that in 1967—68 recurrent expenditure was approximately
1.5 million West Indian dollars (See Table 13, Appendix C).
Within the single Type 2 organization, the capital outlay

for 1967-68 was reported as $2,000. This relatively small
amount probably was due to : (1) the small scale of the
operations, and (2) the fact that the bulk of the capital
expenditure was undertaken in 1965 when the unit was first

established. Recurrent expenditures were given as $30,000

 

3OAll expenditure figures are given in terms of

West Indian dollars. At current rate of exchange $1.00
U.S. = $2.00 W.I. At predevaluation rate, $1.00 U.S. =
$1.85 W.I.

 

for the same time per i
expenditure goes to sa

There were sin
for Type 3 organizatic
were not available for
egory. The remaining
$198,000 (W.I.) for ca
ational expenditures \
for all seven units i:

Appendix C) . Althoug"

difficult. operationa

private organizations

10 Public organiza tic

0f the two or
lture on capital equf
08 for both units con

$313,800 (W.I.) for ‘

for L -
the single Type

Thi
1e recurrent expe

1% -
7 68~ Within the

Est: L
mated reCUrrent

 

 

172

for the same time period. Almost 70 per cent of recurrent
expenditure goes to salaries and wages.

There were similar gaps in expenditure information
for Type 3 organization. Expenditures on capital outlay
were not available for two of the seven units in this cat-
egory. The remaining five units were spending about
$198,000 (W.I.) for capital equipment in 1967—68. Oper—
ational expenditures were about 1.1 million dollars (W.I.) I
for all seven units in that year (See Tables 14 and 15,
Appendix C). Although the gaps in the data make comparison
difficult, operational expenditure of the five reporting
private organizations compare favorably with that of the
10 public organizations in the Type 1 category.

Of the two organizations in Type 4 category, expend—
iture on capital equipment was about $11,840 (W.I.) in 1967-
68 for both units combined. Recurrent expenditure was about
$315,800 (W.I.) for the same period. Capital expenditure
for the single Type 5 organization was about $70,000 (W.I.),
while recurrent expenditure was about $200,000 (W.I.) for
1967—68. Within the Type 6 organization, four of the five
organizations reported a total capital outlay of $57,274 (W.I.)

estimated recurrent expenditure at approximately 1.0 million

 

dollars (W.I.) for th
ll. Appendix C) .
Expenditure d
The table shows that:
survey were spending
(W.I.) on capital eqt
1968: and (2) twenty.

dollars (W.I.) as re

TABLE 4.5-~Capital a:

l
\
\

Type of
Organization

Oriented Organ:
iZations

“Unix-port

:modityo Orien Led
ganizatio losn

H
\011‘ mhxport’ Non-

modity iOri
029mm Sented

‘OTAL FOR ALL TYDL‘

N
IX“

. when
rate. $100 Ethane ;
. : $1

 

 

173

dollars (W.I.) for the same period (See Tables 16 and
17, Appendix C).

Expenditure data are summarized in Table 4.5.
The table shows that: (1) 22 of the organizations in the
survey were spending approximately 1.3 million dollars
(W.I.) on capital equipment in the research efforts in
1968; and (2) twenty—six were spending some 4.2 million

dollars (W.I.) as recurrent expenditure.

TABLE 4.5—-Capita1 and Recurrent Expenditure on Research:
West Indies, 1968

 

 

.
o
o
a

0.00

 

 

 

 

Type of Responding Capital Recurrent
Organization I Units I Expenditure I Expenditure
I I I 1968 . l
. On . On Re— . ( ) . < 968)
ICapital Icurrent I I
Number ‘ west Indian Dollarsa———
Export Commodity
Oriented Organ—
izations 10 13 207,209 2,396,013
Non—Export,
Commodity Oriented
Organizations 1 1 60,000 80,000
Non—Export, Non—
Commodity Oriented
Organizations 11 12 1,067,055 1,786,079
TOTAL FOR ALL TYPE 22 26 1,334,264 4,262,092

 

 

a
At current exchange rate, $1.00 U.S. = $2.00 W.I. At predevaluation
rate, $1.00 U.S. = $1.85 W.I.

 

Ten of the 22
working on export are
per cent of the tow]-
0n the other hand: 13
(50 per cent) were we
for some 56 per cent
on research in 1967—6
research expenditure
capital and recurren'
million dollars (W.I
million dollars (W.I
to cover the single
at an estimate of so
Assuming a figure of
estimaited value of t

duction for the reg

This est'

t . ll
hire are indicatio
penztudy Livestoc
n 192mg pproximat
~ The no
cent“ inidad, C

 

Ten of the 22 organizations (45 per cent) were
working on export crops, and accounted for almost 16
per cent of the total capital expenditure in 1967—68.
On the other hand, 13 of the 26 reporting organizations
(50 per cent) were working on export crops, and accounted
for some 56 per cent of the total recurrent expenditure
on research in 1967—68. For the units reporting total
research expenditure in 1967—68, the combined total of
capital and recurrent expenditure was approximately 5.5
million dollars (W.I.). If we assume an additional l.O
million dollars (W.I.) (capital and recurrent expenditure)
to cover the single non—respondent in the study, we arrive
at an estimate of some 6.5 million West Indian dollars.31
Assuming a figure of some 400 million dollars (W.I.) as the
estimated value of total agricultural and livestock pro—

duction for the region in 1967-68, we arrive at a figure

 

31 . . . .
This estimate might be conservative, because

there are indications that the single non—respondent in
the study (Livestock Research Department. Jamaica) was
Spending approximately 0.5 million dollars on research
in 1967—68. The nonmrespondents within the sample are
Caroni, Trinidad, Coconut Research (Jamaica) and the
Central Sugar Cane Breeding Station, Barbados. It
would see reasonable that these organizations would
account for the remaining 0.5 million dollars.

 

of 1.6 per cent rate
search as a PrOPortic
output.32

In terms of €
the West Indies appei
position; however, t?
the shortage of faci
Trends in capital ex
facilities are extre
oriented research ei
Trinidad and Tobago)
amuch firmer base ‘
research facilities
structures of the 9
have more balance.
are Superior to non
data show that the

so
*9“ aPeroximatel}

175

of 1.6 per cent rate of investment in agricultural re—
search as a proportion of the value of agricultural
output.32

In terms of expenditure on agricultural research,
the West Indies appears to be in a relatively favorable
position; however, the total expenditure does not reflect
the shortage of facilities in the domestic research area.
Trends in capital expenditure indicate that research
facilities are extremely limited in the public, domestic-
oriented research efforts of the smaller islands. Jamaica,
Trinidad and Tobago, and to a lesser degree, Barbados have
a much firmer base than the other islands with reSpect to
research facilities. On the other hand, the capital
structures of the private and quasi—public organizations
have more balance. Export—oriented research facilities
are superior to non~export research facilities. First, the
data show that the export—oriented organizations in 1968

spent approximately one—fifth as much on capital as the

 

32The assumption of 400 million dollars (W.I.) is

based on extrapolation from estimates of the value of agri—
cultural output in 1961 and l965. In 1961 the estimated
value was 332 million dollars (W.I.) while in 1965 it Was
estimated to be approximately 368 million dollars (W.I.),
See.Table 3.1 and 3.2, Chapter III.

public research orgal
that the relative sc:
tionally related to:
(2) technological ob
changes in research
indicate that export
the greater prOporti
5 to 10 years earlie
in this area in l96E
the need for furthe:
organizations are g<
thus their research

uP“‘L<>~date than the

high capital invest
conscious efforts t
Second, it is only
mental policies ha\

iood CIOps‘ Table

0 ’V

.lated 01) redUClng
l’ L‘

EIELIVely high ca

Of T .
toolingiupn f0

 

176

public research organization. However, it would appear

that the relative scale of capital investment is func—

tionally related to: (l) the level of past investment,

(2) technological obsolescence of facilities, and (3)

changes in research emphasis. Specifically, the data

indicate that export—oriented activities had undertaken

the greater proportion of their capital investment some ‘1 J
5 to 10 years earlier. The relatively small expenditure H
in this area in 1968 could reflect a general reduction in

the need for further facilities. In addition, these

organizations are generally of a more recent origin, and

thus their research facilities would tend to be more

up—to—date than the public facilities. The relatively

high capital investment in the public sector could indicate

conSCious efforts to update their research facilities.

Second, it is only in relatively recent times that govern—

mental policies have shifted from export crops to domestic

food crops. Table 4.1 pointed out the high priority

placed on reducing food imports by the public sector. The

relatively high capital investment could be a reflection

of "tooling—up" for the new policy implementation.

‘9

Classificati
basis of “form and f
organizational struc

number of organizati

Type l.--Pu‘r
Ori
Type 2.--Pr:
0r:
Type 3.—-Pr
0r
Type 4.-—Pr
Or
Type 5.~—Qu
Co
Type 6.~—Q\_'
01
Tyne l is ,

Th

e fom of reSear,
on .

adaptive resear

(7 per CGut) in th

Sea
rch. FurthErmO

i

c
ocoa and Sugar
c

“o
t note that 50 p
e

the
SUIVe
V are
‘ em

177

Summary and Conclusions

 

Classification of research organizations on the
basis of "form and function” revealed six different
organizational structures in the area. These, with the
number of organizations in each, are:

Type 1.——Public, Largely Adaptive, Non—Commodity
Oriented Organizations (11)

Type 2.——Private, Largely Adaptive, Non-Commodity
Oriented Organizations (1)

Type 3.——Private, Largely Adaptive, Non—Commodity
Oriented Organizations (7)

Type 4.-—Private, Largely Fundamental Commodity
Oriented Organizations (2)

Type 5,-eQuasi—Public, Largely Adaptive, Non—
Commodity Oriented Organizations (1)

Type 6.——Quasi—Public, Largely Adaptive, Commodity
Oriented Organizations (5)

Type 1 is oldest followed by Type 4, 3, 6, 2, and 5.
The form of research activity is overwhelmingly concentrated
on adaptive research. Specifically, only two organizations
(7 per cent) in the sample are engaged in fundamental re-
search. Furthermore, such work relates to two export crops
(cocoa and sugar cane). It is even more significant, however,
to note that 50 per cent of the research organizations in

the survey are engaged in research on a single export crop

 

4
i

(sugar, banana: Citr
50 [Br cent of the r
with research On a w
legumes, livestock:
ofresearch organiza
related to the level
and Trinidad and T01
share of research i1
There is an
past research empha
significantly betwe
domestic-oriented c
organizations have
Search because a re
fundamental work w,
transferable to th.
only when trans fer
biems Unique to th

fact .
Lhat fundamer

C

due and COCOa is
uUStries to Come 1
In ,,

lqwe t0 the are

0t.
'iEr hand, dome
S

178

(sugar, banana, citrus, coconut and cocoa). The remaining
50 per cent of the research organizations are concerned
with research on a wide variety of root crops, grain—
1egumes, livestock, vegetable, and cereals. Concentration
of research organizations appear to be functionally
related to the level of economic development. Jamaica
and Trinidad and Tobago account for a disproportionate
share of research institutions.

There is an underlying economic rationale for
past research emphasis; however, the rationale varies
significantly between export—oriented organizations and
domestic—oriented organizations. The export—oriented
organizations have traditionally emphasized adaptive re—
search because a relatively higher proportion of relevant
fundamental work was done elsewhere, and was directly
transferable to the area. Fundamental work was undertaken
only when transfer of findings was limited, or when pro—
blems unique to the area confronted specific crops. The
fact that fundamental work is largely confined to sugar
cane and cocoa is symbolic of the need felt by these in~
dustries to come to grips with certain problems that are
unique to the area and could not be solved outside. On the

other hand, domestic agricultural research efforts benefited

)
i

 

far less from fundam‘
there has been a lim
genetic material to ‘
research program. T
emphasis on adaptive
program is largely 1:
istrators that the l
to be extremely smaj
that the general la<
organizations is ra
it has not benefits
the reason that it
because it has not
to draw from inter:
been done on expOr.
Sta“tial for West
Wesr India
succeedEd in re duc

oCdptatiOn 0f recc

cost

5 0f Productic
) 7. ,
.IlQLlStrles. This
LZatisms

Resear‘

Nay

179

far less from fundamental work done elsewhere. Apparently,
there has been a limited stock of biologically superior
genetic material to draw from within the local food crop
research program. Thus, in reality, the overwhelming
emphasis on adaptive research within the domestic research
program is largely based on the feeling of many admin—
istrators that the benefits of fundamental research tends
to be extremely small. There is a paradox here. We find
that the general lack of fundamental research among domestic
organizations is rationalized on the basis of the fact that
it has not benefited domestic research. On the other hand,
the reason that it has not benefited domestic research is
because it has not generally been done, and there is little
to draw from international sources. Where such work had
been done on export crops the technical ”Spin off” was sub-
stantial for West Indian Export agriculture.

West Indian agricultural research efforts have not

succeeded in reducing unit costs of production. In fact,

 

adaptation of recommended findings tends to increase unit
costs of production, for both the domestic and export
industries. This holds for all types of research organ—
izations. Research findings are costly to implement be-

cause most of the findings recommended are with respect

 

to W of Pro
i_mpu_ts- The number
crop and livestock V
are negligible‘ EXE
some improvement in
has been largely due
and product market <
limited coordinatio
adapted largely bec
plemented. A major
search finding at t
the necessary resor
domestic research c
in the application
practices have not
Culture in the lag
that an important

lack of appropriat
serious doubts Whe
“tion to exPansior
All indications a1
high

' relatihe t0

i'n ,
If

 

180

to technigues of production rather than new improved
inputs. The number of biologically improved (low cost)
crop and livestock varieties coming from research efforts
are negligible. Export research efforts have achieved
some improvement in output via new techniques, but this
has been largely due to a relatively high degree of factor
and product market coordination. Domestic agriculture has
limited coordination, and recommended techniques are not
adapted largely because they cannot be economically im—
plemented. A major constraint to implementation of re—
search finding at the farm level is inability to acquire
the necessary resources for those farmers served by the
domestic research organizations. Export agriculture leads
in the application of improved cultural practices. Cultural
practices have not changed significantly in domestic agri—
culture in the last 50 years. There are some indications
that an important variable in the production process is the
lack of appropriate credit facilities. However, there are
serious doubts whether the injection of credit is the sol—
ution to expansion of production within domestic agriculture.
All indications are that costs of production are simply too
high, relative to effective demand for domestic food items.

Until costs are reduced, credit expansion in itself will

 

 

 

provide little incen
it is doubtful that
an fin answer to th
hdrth costs of f
matthe size of the
line would be substz
mbhc revenues we r
approach.
Given the hi
m um area, plus t
aTil—Culture, and th
and export agricult
mlhmal research p
sum of the Problem

m \
eeos to aCQUire al

lmprMd inputs
m“ ' L
ode ll) the adapti‘

Su
rest and most re

ce ‘
ssible, 10W~cosL
L.

ef
forts so that a

medtal
resear
Ch fi

with)“

 

181

provide little incentive for expanding output. In addition,
it is doubtful that price subsidies at the product level

are the answer to the problem of low domestic food production.
With unit costs of production as high as they are, it seems
that the size of the subsidy to bring costs and prices in
line would be substantial. Given the opportunity cost of
public revenues we question the justification of this
approach.

Given the heavy concentration on adaptive research
in the area, plus the disproportionate efforts on export
agriculture, and the problems now being faced by domestic
and export agriculture, we suggest that a relevant agri—
cultural research program can be instrumental in alleviating
some of the problems. Both domestic and export agriculture
needs to acquire appreciable doses of low cost, biologically
improved inputs. A reallocation of research efforts must be
made in the adaptive—fundamental research mix. One of the
surest and most rewarding methods of insuring readily ac—
cessible, low—cost, improved inputs is to gear the research
efforts so that a meaningful balance of adaptive and funda—
mental research findings are generated.

We estimate that the region was investing in agri—

cultural research at a rate of 1.6 per cent of the value of

 

agricultural OllllPut
istic to suggeSt tha
much on agricultural
composition of the e
proportion of the e)
research with relati
the domestic agricu:
could actually be a
value of agricultur
be much more favora‘
0i 1.6 per cent of
OUtPHt. The potent
balanced combinatic
absolute level of i
impbrtant variable
allocated to give (
level of PrOfit, 0
research mix, and
search leaves seri
current resource a
We feel t}
search struCture c

duction of bot)

 

182

agricultural output in 1968. It seems extremely unreal—
istic to suggest that the West Indies is spending too
much on agricultural research. In the first place, the
composition of the expenditure is important. A substantial
proportion of the expenditure is in export agricultural
research with relatively little technical ”spin off” to
the domestic agriculture sector. Secondly, 1.6 per cent ” 1
could actually be a relatively small amount if the absolute
value of agricultural output is small. The situation would
be much more favorable if the area were to spend at a rate
of 1.6 per cent of the potential value of its agricultural
output. The potential can only be realized by finding a
balanced combination of research. Finally, even a high
absolute level of investment could be misleading. The
important variable is the extent to which the resources are
allocated to give either a low—cost combination, a high
level of profit, or both. The characteristics of manpower,
research mix, and organizational structure of regional re—
search leaves serious questions as to the efficiency of
current resource allocation.

We feel that strategic changes in the existing re—
Search structure can bring about reductions in costs of

production of both domestic and export agriculture. In

 

 

addition, relevant
increase per capita
the profitability 0
components can be
low level of domest

the high importatio

are vital aSpects o

 

 

183

addition, relevant research strategies can function to
increase per capita income and its distribution by raising
the profitability of investment in food production. These
components can be powerful forces in raising the currently
low level of domestic effective demand for food and reducing
the high importation of lower costs foods. These forces

are vital aspects of the agricultural development process.

 

This secti

(l) to provide a l

(2) to set the sta
cerning potential .
associated with in‘
need to establish

ance of the West I
position of the re
is twafold. In tr
istics of the regi
viewed in Chapter
the input structui

and composition 0:

should be conceiw

 

CHAPTER V
THE PERFORMANCE OF WEST INDIAN AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH SYSTEMS: EMPIRICAL DIMENSIONS OF
FIRST GENERATION PROBLEMS
General Background to First
Generation Problems

This section seeks to accomplish two things:
(1) to provide a link between Chapters III and IV and
(2) to set the stage for discussion in Chapter VI con—
cerning potential second and third generation problems
associated with increased agricultural productivity. The
need to establish a link between the historical perform—
ance of the West Indian agricultural sector and the dis—
position of the regional agricultural research structure
is twofold. In the first place; many of the character—
istics of the regional research infrastructure (as re—
viewed in Chapter IV) represent only rough indicators of
the input structure of the research system. The magnitude
and composition of research manpower and expenditure
should be conceived as representing merely partial inputs

184

 

 

in the production

search (as reflecte
system and the agri
side of the produc
input side of the
would not provide
output dimensions
dynamic links betw
and the realizatio
This chapter will
as well as the out
insights into the
past performance,
future performance
In additic
input; and the per:
System and the SE!
stage for subsequu

third generation

generation proble
M

1We defin
Problems associat
0f the agricultur
inPuts used in t}

 

185

in the production process. However, the output of re—
search (as reflected in the performance of the research
system and the agricultural sector), represents the other
side of the production process. Consideration of the
input side of the process hiisolation of the output side,
would not provide useful insights into research. Secondly,
output dimensions of agricultural research provide the
dynamic links between the current state of development
and the realization of future developmental potentials.
This chapter will explore the characteristics of output,
as well as the output mix, as a means of gaining further
insights into the relationship of these components to
past performance, as well as into the SCOpe of improved
future performance.

In addition to providing a link between research
input and the performances of the agricultural research
system and the sector as a whole, this chapter sets the
stage for subsequent discussion of potential second and
third generation problems evolving from solution of first

generation problems.1 It is important to consider

 

1We define ”first generation problems" as those
problems associated with increasing the physical output
of the agricultural sector by improving the biological
inputs used in the production process. In other words,

 

 

Chapters V and VI a

separate discussion
are only encountere
have been solved.
relationship among
strategy implicati
VI.

Analysis 0
at essentially thr
examine the impact
(a) factor prices,
(bi farm incomes a
and regional level
of its impact on:
(bi increased nati
life; We explore t
Indies from obseru

systems in buildiu

domestic agr icult'
M

the Problem has t
technology" is em
tiOIu" problems at
Effective demand
Problems deal wit

 

186

Chapters V and VI as an integrated whole, rather than as

separate discussions. Second and third generation problems

 

are only encountered after the first generation problems

have been solved. Because of the high degree of inter—

relationship among the three types of problems, research

strategy implications will not be discussed until Chapter

VI. ,‘
Analysis of the research system is carried out

at essentially three levels: (1) At the farm level we

examine the impact of agricultural research in terms of:

(a) factor prices, supply and input combinations, and

(b) farm incomes and farm output. (2) At the national

and regional levels we examine research output in terms

of its impact on: (a) aggregate agricultural output and

(b) increased national income. (3) At the international

leygl we explore the lessons to be learned by the West

Indies from observing cross—country agricultural research

systems in building indigenous research systems for its

domestic agriculture. We explore also the relationship

 

the problem has to do with the process by which "new
technology” is embodied in the inputs. "Second genera—
tion” problems are problems dealing with the level of
effective demand for food, while "third generation"
problems deal with income distribution problems.

 

of agricultural res

export agricultural
sector to the domes
development.

Our focal
cultural productiv'
our earlier propos'
development of the
to lie in the area
factors of product
expansion as well
expansion in aggret
of the directly co
quite possible tha
generated by focus
tivity, rather the
factors, such as l
M

2We recogu
productive factor:
complementary fact
factors are to be
the long run the ;
the level of such
the level of inve
the technology em
tOI'S. In other w
from incr
Productive" inpu

 

 

187

of agricultural research systems to the viability of the
export agricultural sector, and the relationship of this
sector to the domestic sector and to general economic
development.

Our focal point for analysis is ”increased agri—
cultural productivity." This approach is in line with
our earlier proposition in Chapter IV that the future
develOpment of the West Indian agricultural sector appears y
to lie in the area of increasing the quality of indigenous
factors of production. This is important for both output
expansion as well as cost reduction, since it allows an
expansion in aggregate output with a smaller complement
of the directly conventional productive factors.2 It is
quite possible that some degree of ”uneasiness" might be
generated by focusing the analysis on increased produc—
tivity, rather than on the conventional institutional

factors, such as land tenure, public administration,

 

2We recognize that improvement in the quality of
productive factors necessitates expansion in the level of
complementary factors if the full potential of the direct
factors are to be realized. However, we argue that in
the long run the additional costs incurred by increasing
the level of such factors will be offset by expansion in
the level of investment opportunities made possible by
the technology embodied in the directly productive fac—
tors. In other words, complementary inputs are “derived
demand” from increased profitability of the ”directly
productive” inputs.

cooperatives, or cr
can only argue that
not because we cons
growth and developn
essential for devel
Hopper when he sugc_

. in my vie
fend it in this
rural social si
agriculture. f
growth, but th.
in themselves (
tained Expansi
Springs are we
that the Signi
tion to a mode
Enral PEOple,
built around t

i new knowledge

£ .
L0: lts Elpplic
In our ana
tural research to

two i .
duderymng as:

FOOd Self

is not CO

 

188

cooperatives, or credit arrangements. To this point we

can only argue that our analysis focuses on productivity
not because we consider it the only variable in stimulating
growth and develOpment, but because we think it is one
essential for development. Thus, we are in agreement with
HOpper when he suggests that:

. . . in my view, and I will not attempt to de—
fend it in this forum, these features of the
rural social structure are passive features in
agriculture. They constrain or facilitate
growth, but they are not its source and cannot
in themselves generate the impulse to a sus—
tained expansion in output unless the main—
springs are wound and driving . . . . I agree
that the significant investment for a transi—
tion to a modern agriculture must be made in
rural people, but such an investment must be
built around the production and extension of
new knowledge backed by the requisite supplies
for its application.3

In our analysis of the relationship of agricul—
tural research to productivity and development, we make

two underlying assumptions explicit:

1. Food self sufficiency as a desirable policy goal
is not considered as mere physical replacement of

food imports with domestic output. Rather, we

 

3HOpper, W. David, The Mainsprinqs of Agricultural
Growth. Paper delivered as the Dr. Rajendra Prasad Memor—
ial Lecture to the 18th Annual Conference of the Indian
Society of Agricultural Statistics, January 28—30, 1965,
p. 22.

conceive it
domestic fc
food import
conceptual:
rule out tl
Within the
ciency all

tion of £0

The progra
to increas
carried 01
Work. Th:
POtential
ical mini
technolog

ical Orie

tece Thi COT
Su 1y elabOrat
up lAgriCult
A1 L L 86(1er

The te
' I
t ‘nati 1

189

conceive it as a level of food prices which equates
domestic food production, plus non—concessional
food imports, with effective demand.4 Thus, our
conceptualization of self sufficiency does not

rule out the importation of cheaper food items.
Within the effective demand context, self suffi—
ciency allows for cost differentials and importa—

tion of food items.

2. The programming of agricultural research designed
to increased agricultural productivity will be
carried out within an integrated regional frame—
work. This approach appears to offer the greatest
potential for the long—run achievement of a ”crit—
ical minimum effort” in generating agricultural
technology. Furthermore, the economic and polit—
ical orientation of the region is heavily in favor

of the regional approach to develOpment.5

 

4This concept of food self sufficiency has been

 

recently elaborated upon in: Johnson, Glenn L., "Food
Supply, Agricultural and Economic Development.” Proceed—
ings of the Second Western Hemisphere Nutrition Conference,
American Medical Asso., San Juan, Puerto Rico, Aug. 26-29,
1968.

5

The term regional programming is defined here as
multi—national economic programming designed to assist th
or more nations in solving common problems. For a

 

 

 

Observatior
domestic agriclfltm
the level of convex
expense of increasr
gains to be realizi
conventional input
The Jamaican domes
in point. Since 1
development plans
review of the prop
in agriculture unc

The table
capital eXpenditu:
relative to agric
fertiliZer acquis
56 Percent of tot

u
-and~re1ated 8 Che

190

Observation of the poor performance of West Indian
domestic agriculture and public emphasis given to raising

the level of conventional inputs (particularly land) at the

 

expense of increased productivity leads us to question the
gains to be realized from merely eXpanding the level of

conventional inputs without considering their productivity.

 

The Jamaican domestic agricultural program presents a case
in point. Since 1947 there have been three major long term .
development plans for the domestic agricultural sector. A
review of the proposed annual average capital expenditure
in agriculture under the three plans is given in Table 5.1.
The table illustrates the tendency to allocate more
capital expenditure to land, subsidies and loan schemes,
relative to agricultural research, crOp development, and
fertilizer acquisition. For the first Ten Year Plan, some
56 percent of total annual capital expenditure went into

land—related schemes, loans, and subsidies. Only 1 percent

 

discussion of regional agricultural research programming
in the African context, see: Eicher, Carl K., Regional
Programming for Rural Development in Tropical Africa:
Implication for AID. Paper prepared for Conference on,
"African Development from a Regional Perspective," Warren—
ton, Virginia, November l4—l6, 1969.

The case for a regional approach to agricultural
research planning is dealt with in Chapter VIII.

 

 

more 5.1.—-Breakd°‘.m (
diture 1n ,
ment Plans

——_-—_"_

 

Item

 

. Subsidies and Loan

(Land Settlements
(Land Reform
(Land Authorities

N

a.)

. Irrigation

4)

Research

m

Crop Development
Fertilizers

ox

Extension, Schola
Farmers Training

Total Six Items

All Items

Source: Adapted frox

Agricultura
Third West

the Univers
P- 3. Appen

was allocated to

and fertilizer ac

C

0" e)tpenditure we
training_ In W
among

the variou

53;.
LC just hOV m

 

191

TABLE 5.l.——Breakdown of Proposed Major Annual Average Capital Expen-
diture in Agriculture for Three Major Long Term Develop—
ment Plans, Jamaica, 1947—1968.

 

 

Item 1947 Ten 1957 Ten 1963 Five

Year Plan Year Plan Year Plan

————————— Percent of Total--——————-—
1. Subsidies and Loans 26.8 31.9 40.2
(Land Settlements 29.5 24.5 5.0
2. (Land Reform —— —— 34.9
(Land Authorities —— 9.8 2.3
3. Irrigation 17.9 9.8 8.6
4. Research 1.1 2.0 0.4

5. Crop Development and
Fertilizers —— 9.8 ——

6. Extension, Scholarships and

 

 

Farmers Training Centers 11.2 —— 0.3
Total Six Items 86.5 87.8 91.7
All Items 100.0 100.0 100.0

 

Source: Adapted from: McFarlane, R., Singham, N., and Johnson, I.
Agricultural Planning in Jamaica. Paper prepared for the
Third West Indies Agricultural Economics Conference held at
the University of the West Indies, Jamaica, April 1-6, 1968,
p. 3, Appendix.

 

was allocated to agricultural research, crop development,
and fertilizer acquisition. Surprisingly, some 11 percent
of expenditure was allocated to extension and farmer
training. In view of the relative levels of expenditure
among the various items, some serious doubts are raised

as to just how much "new information" and inputs were

 

generated from the
Over the 1957—69 pe
subsidies, 66%; re:
fertilizer and exti
over 82 percent of
sidies, loans, and
expenditures are r
annum. There were
and fertilizer ac;
accounted for only

Assessed a
ance of the domesr

6
Years. The rela‘

i ~L .
nphLSI relathe

Critic t0 aSsert

aPPears to be One

192

generated from the research process over this period.
Over the 1957-69 period, the distribution was land and
subsidies, 66%; research, 2%; crop development, 10%; and
fertilizer and extension, 0, respectively. For 1963—68,
over 82 percent of capital expenditure went into sub—
sidies, loans, and land—related activities. Research
expenditures are reduced to one—tenth of one percent per
annum. There were no allocations for crop development
and fertilizer acquisitions. Extension—related activities
accounted for only three—tenths of 1 percent.

Assessed against this allocation, is the perform-
ance of the domestic agricultural sector over the last 15
years.6 The relative emphasis on expanding conventional
inputs, relative to increased efficiency, has led one
critic to assert that the long-term development philosophy
appears to be one:

. . with productive efficiency to be encour—
aged in growing export crops but work-spreading

 

6See Chapter III for discussion of the relative
rate of growth of the domestic agricultural sector in
relation to the export sector for the West Indies in
general. The rate of growth of the Jamaican agricultural
sector is given in Tables 3.2 and 3.4.

to be the watcl
home market.

This Jamai
agreement with Dav
agricultural growt
ically possible to
expanded input, st
the level and dist
rural sector. Hov
sources cannot be
WP“. particula
eXpanded with lan
Suggests that thi
CWiural Planning
SEctions of this
Pontion Of tech:

ing for dOmestic
the information

implication for

_ Peck,
‘ltl ll
Uni me’ Q
. 0f ty

8

193
to be the watch—word in production for the
home market.

This Jamaican example leads us to reaffirm our
agreement with David Hopper as to the mainspring of
agricultural growth and development. While it is phys—
ically possible to expand aggregate output solely through
expanded input, such expansion does not generally increase
the level and distribution of per capita income in the !
rural sector. However, expansion of marginal land re—
sources cannot be expected to significantly increase total
output, particularly when complementary resources are not
expanded with land resources. The Jamaican situation
suggests that this has been the general framework of agri—
cultural planning over the last two decades. Subsequent
sections of this chapter will explore the level and dis—
position of technical information that has been forthcom—

ing for domestic research efforts. The scope for changing

 

the information will be examined, as well as its long—term

. . _ , 8
implication for economic development.

 

7 , . . . .

Peck, H. Austin, "Economic Planning in Jamaica:
A Critique,“ Social and Economic Studies, Vol. 7, No. 4,
University of the West Indies, Jamaica, December 1958.

8Christensen, Raymond P. and Yee, Harold T., "The
Role of Agricultural Productivity in Economic Develop—
ment,” Journal of Farm Economics, Vol. 46, No. 5, Decem-
ber 1964, p. 1052.

 

 

At current
that increased inp
duction costs. Tl
expansion in the r
In addition, input
Would not release
sector for expans
sider such a rele
0pmental process

increased Opportu

Tedmicay AS Get
In

W

We look

as _
t0 the “mains

In earl‘lEr Chapt

Indian ecOhomv a

reSe
arch_ From

ceristycs w

hich

Eur
a1 produucti\.

194

At current levels of technology we do not expect
that increased inputs will appreciably reduce unit pro—
duction costs. Therefore, we do not see any appreciable
expansion in the consumption of locally produced food.

In addition, input expansion without increased quality
would not release product resources from the agricultural
sector for expansion of the non—primary sectors. We con—
sider such a release to be a vital aspect of the devel—
opmental process whereby agriculture can contribute to

increased opportunities in the non—agricultural sector.

Empirical Dimensions of Agricultural
Productivity Gains: The International
Experience

Technical Aspects of the
International Experience

We look to the international scene for guidance
as to the ”mainsprings” of agricultural productivity gains.
In earlier chapters we reviewed the structure of the West
Indian economy and the structure of regional agricultural
research. From these reviews we ascertained three charac—
teriStics which set the stage for assessment of agricul—

tural productivity gains: (1) the region has a high degree

 

 

 

of openness, (2) t
absolute terms in '
economy (particula
Despite the absolu
tion of the manufa
sectors remain low
search has used a
research outside i
reSpect to export
Can one a
about some adjust
Prices and demand
faCturing sector
Supply price and
fortunatelv this
The Ego. estime
appreciable eXpa:

gems fertilize

195

of openness, (2) there has been significant expansion in
absolute terms in the non—agricultural sector of the
economy (particularly in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago).
DeSpite the absolute expansion in the size and contribu—
tion of the manufacturing sector the "linkages” between
sectors remain low, and (3) West Indian agricultural re-
search has used a significant proportion of findings from
research outside the region. This is even more true with
reSpect to eXport agricultural research organizations.

Can one assume that these characteristics bring
about some adjustments in agricultural factor supply
prices and demands? For example, expansion of the manu—
facturing sector could have had favorable impact on the
supply price and demand of nitrogenous fertilizers. Un—
fortunately this has not been the case in the West Indies.
The F.A.O. estimates for 1948—1967 show that the only
appreciable expansion in commercial production of nitro—

. . . . 9
genous fertilizer occurred in Trinidad and Tobago.

 

9F.A.O. figures show that prices paid by farmers

for fertilizer at the farm gate (adjusted for subsidies)
have actually been on the increase for N, P, and K in
Jamaica since 1965. In the case of Barbados the price
level appears to have been on the increase from 1962—63
up to 1965—66. Slight decreases were noted in 1966—67.
See: F.A.O. (UN), Production Yearbook 1968, Vol. 22,
p. 631.

Phosphate and POta
cially in the regi
appears to be incr
geared to eXPOr'C C
Thus, this would 1
creases in fertili
export agriculture
sector. We feel i
tive demand for f
are linked to: (
capita income of

more to the fact

0f indigenous crc
cremental changes
“Qt Warrant incre
.Iresponse“ aspect
10ng~run gains ti
Itsearch_ Howev

The SUbject matt

t' ,

ional experienc
ll)

in J. Ibid'
.. those ifidc

 

196

Phosphate and potash fertilizers are not produced commer—
cially in the region. In addition, fertilizer consumption
appears to be increasing only in those islands that are
geared to export crOps (particularly to sugar cane).10
Thus, this would lead one to suggest that the major in—
creases in fertilizer consumption is coming from the

export agricultural sector and not from the domestic
sector. We feel that the observed low levels of effec—
tive demand for fertilizer inputs in domestic agriculture
are linked to: (1) the relatively low levels of real per
capita income of the rural pOpulation in the region; but
more to the fact that, (2) given the generally poor quality
of indigenous crop varieties, the marginal product of in—
cremental changes in fertilizer use is so low that it does
not warrant increased fertilizer inputs. We consider the
”response” aspect of our argument to be crucial for the
long—run gains to be realized from relevant indigenous
research. However, in making a case for reorientation of
the subject matter of research, we draw on the interna—

tional experience.

\—

l . . .
0Ibid., pp. 457—473. Most of the fertilizer used

 

in these islands is imported.

 

Unlike the
component of outpU
argument for in?Ut
native for increas-
opment in the West
ment from a cross-
ductivity and fact
In this study, Haj
successful attemp
agriculture in "n
extent to which (2
productivity of t
major constraints
estimates of part
United States am
in faCtor product
two countries up
labor was the CO

agricultural pro

1 - yam
logical Chan e .
lenQeS i 1

197

Unlike the solely conventional input—increasing
component of output expansion, we are convinced that the
argument for input efficiency presents a realistic alter—
native for increasing agriculture's contribution to devel—
opment in the West Indies. We draw support for the argu—
ment from a cross—country study of relative factor pro—
ductivity and factor combination conducted by Hayami.ll
In this study, Hayami found that a common thread of the
successful attempts to expand the productive capacity of
agriculture in ”new” and ”old" countries alike was the
extent to which these countries increased the relative
productivity of those factors of production that imposed
major constraints at the limits. For example, Hayami's
estimates of partial factor productivity ratios in the
United States and Japan indicated significant variations
in factor productivity ratios and combination between the
tw0 countries up to the 1930's. In the United States where
labor was the constraint at the limits to output expansion,

agricultural productivity was first generated by research

 

lHayami, Yujiro, "Resource Endowment and Techno—
logical Change in Agriculture: U.S. and Japanese Exper—
iences in International Perspective,” American Journal of

Agricultural Economics, Vol. 51, No. 5, December, 1969,
Pp. 1293—1303.

 

and development “h
Power for scarce 1
hand, where land V‘
cultural producti\
_ . _ progress
represented bl
application 0:
rapid growth I

of severe con:
Hayami prr
biochemical agric
front in the Unit
preach dated from
assembled data or
genous fertilizer
ieties and improx
research in Japar

fertilization thr

198

and development which succeeded in substituting machine
power for scarce labor inputs. In Japan, on the other
hand, where land was the constraint at the limit, agri—
cultural productivity gains were generated by:

. . . progress in bio—chemical technology

represented by seed improvements with larger

application of fertilizer which permitted

rapid growth in agricultural output in Epite

of severe constraint on land endowment.

Hayami presents evidence to show that large—scale
biochemical agricultural technology only came to the fore—
front in the United States in the 1930's, while this ap—
proach dated from the 1890's in Japan. In addition, he
assembled data on the relative yield response to nitro—
genous fertilizer for unimproved East Pakistan rice var—
ieties and improved varieties developed through biochemical
research in Japan. Table 5.2 shows that at low levels of

fertilization the yields of the unimproved East Pakistan

varieties are as high or higher than the biologically

 

12Ibid., p. 1294. Biochemical innovations are de—
fined as those biological and chemical innovations which
affect the physiological aspects of plants and animals.
They usually alter the timing sequence of agricultural
production significantly. Bio—mechanical innovations are
defined as those innovations which do alter to some degree
the physiological aspects of plants but the ultimate ob—
jective of the alteration is to make the production more
ameniable to large—scale expansion of mechanization.

 

 

rumm 5.2-"Yield

 

ieties
: Yiel‘

Varieties
: L‘
3 951
Paid

.a
Habigan] 478
Bataka 544
KamenOOb 541
Norin 1C 635

Norin 87C 511
Rikuu 232C 580
K

a . .
Indigenous var 1e

b . .
Variety selectec
lent in Japan fc

c _ .

Varieties SElect
experiment Stat:
dinated experimf

System" was eSt2

Source: Hayami,
lesisat
13%

present
tucky,

im
proved Japanes

1‘ r
.n per rormance C

k.
ulgher levels oi

of‘ ' ‘
tertilizatior

199

TABLE 5.2.——Yield ReSponse to Nitrogen Input by Rice Var—
ieties, East Pakistan, and Japan.

 

 

I Yield (lb./acre) at Different I Marginal
' Levels of Nitrogen Z Product of
Varieties I I Nitrogen
Level I I Level II I (II—I)
95 lb./acre Z 150 lb./acre I 55

 

Paddy Straw Paddy Straw Paddy Straw

Habiganja 4785 7948 4372 10478 —7.5 46.0
Bataka 5445 9488 5875 11743 7.8 41.0
Kamenoo 5417 5500 6077 7617 12.0 38.5
Norin IC 6352 7205 7700 8225 24.5 18.5
Norin 87c 5118 6352 6517 7892 25.4 28.0
Rikuu 232C 5802 6902 7425 8553 29.5 30.0

 

a . . . . . .
Indigenous varieties in East Pakistan (unimproved).

Variety selected by veteran farmer, which became preva—
lent in Japan for 1905—1926.

CVarieties selected through hybridization by agricultural
experiment stations in Japan after the nationwide coor—
dinated experiment system called ”Assigned Experiment
System" was established in 1926—27.

Source: Hayami, Yujiro, Resource Endowments and Techno—
logical Change in Agriculture: U.S. and Japanese
Experiences in International PerSpective. Paper
presented at AAEA meetings, University of Ken—
tucky, August 1969, p. 11.

improved Japanese varieties. The appreciable difference

in performance of the varieties comes at successively

higher levels of fertilization; however, at higher levels

Of fertilization, the unimproved East Pakistan varieties

 

do not respond in
stead, they merely
tion of the margir
and straw) bears 1
additional applic;
Japanese varietie

the marginal prod

l

paddy, relative t
table we can GODS
curve for the uni
addition, we can
relative changes
output prices) t<
policies aimed at
in the absence 0

components of bi

Illustra
curves. In the
fertilizer respc
varieties or in}
represents the 1

logically impro

re
presents tact

200

do not respond in terms of increased yield per acre. In—
stead, they merely increase the output of straw. Observa—
tion of the marginal product of nitrogen (in terms of paddy
and straw) bears this out dramatically. On the other hand,
additional application of fertilizer to the improved
Japanese varieties resulted in significant increase in

the marginal product of nitrogen, expressed in terms of -'
paddy, relative to straw. From the yield reSponses in the
table we can construct a hypothetical fertilizer response
curve for the unimproved and improved crop varieties. In
addition, we can incorporate pricing variables to reflect
relative changes in factor supply price (i.e. relative to
output prices) to see what are the implications of public
policies aimed at stimulating increased use of fertilizer,
in the absence of research to change the physiological
components of biological inputs.

Illustration 5.1 shows the hypothetical reSponse
curves. In the illustration, Uu represents a hypothetical
fertilizer response curve for unimproved indigenous crop
varieties or imported unadaptive varieties. The curve U
represents the response of crop varieties that have bio—
logically improved characteristics. The price line PO

represents factor supply price for fertilizer inputs while

 

l
'1
1
l

Ilhntration 5'l'-_Hy

Un
Yield
Per Unit
Mea
Price 11’“
"high pri<

factor

p/

 

l

price line P re
1

l
-evel, as repreS<

most of the West

I0)”

Illustration 5.l.--Hypothetical Fertilizer Response Curves for
Unimproved and Improved Crop Varieties.

Yield

:er Unlt Price line for "low priced“ factor
rea

    
  
  

Price line for

"high priced"

factor . .
Fertilizer response curve

for improved varieties

Fertilizer response curve
for unimproved varieties

 

Fertilizer Input Per Unit Area

price line P represents a reduction in the input price

1

level, as represented in the slope of the line.13 For
most of the West Indies, the fertilizer reSponse curves

for most local domestic crops varieties are similar to

 

l3 . . . . . .
We Visualize a decline in relative factor prices

as coming from any of three sources: (1) In an ”open”
economy as the West Indies, increased efficiency of fer—
tiliZer production in the industrial countries could lower
import prices, (2) Expansion of indigenous manufacturing
base for local use or export could result in economies of
scale and increasing returns, thus, lowering prices, and
(3) Governmental policies to reduce prices by subsidies.

 

that represented i
limited crop var i6
order of UR.14 Fl
absence of high re
culture is related
domestic agricultt
of production ratl
to develop biolog:
chapter we will e:
servation in term
iment stations.
Offers a plausibl
lems 0f increas
the West Indies d
fertilier prices
General failure C
schemes and a Wic‘

appreciable Chant

Ontput .

202

that represented in Uu' With few exceptions, there are
limited crop varieties which Show a response curve of the
order of UR.l4 Furthermore, we argue that the general
absence of high response crOp varieties in domestic agri—
culture is related to the historical concentration of
domestic agricultural research on developing techniques
of production rather than applying biochemical research
to develop biologically superior inputs. Later in this
chapter we will examine some of the evidence for this ob—
servation in terms of the research output from the exper—
iment stations. HOWever, at this point the illustration
offers a plausible explanation of: (l) the generally low
levels of increase in fertilizer consumption per farm in
the West Indies domestic agricultural sector (even when
fertilizer prices are highly subsidized), and (2) the
general failure of land settlement schemes, irrigation
schemes and a wide variety of programs to bring about
appreciable changes in agricultural productivity and

output.

 

14As indicated in Chapter IV, two of the possible
Outstanding exceptions to this observation are the two
hybrid crosses of corn (X304 and X306) developed in
Jamaica by Pioneer Hi—Bred Corn Company (Tropical Sta—
tion),

 

Let us as:

given in footnote
infertilizer inp‘
mundane. ASS
mndthe level of
hcalseeds, mach
now became one of
hctor price char
hidemand for in;
tum to which per
cond be expecter
hdies the level
Puts will be min
creased quantiti
hmrease total a
Sure most of dc
sPOnse curve, tl
additional unit
flanges in yielr
i“ fertilizer a
ofincome there
upital fOr pro

05‘
.Ler
a Plausil

 

203

Let us assume that for any one of the reasons
given in footnote 13, there is an appreciable reduction
in fertilizer input prices for West Indian domestic
agriculture. Assume also that efforts are made to ex—
pand the level of complementary inputs (i.e. unimproved
local seeds, machinery and water supply). The question

now became one of: (l) the extent to which relative

factor price changes will stimulate significant expansion
in demand for inputs at the farm level, and (2) the ex—
tent to which per farm and national agricultural output
could be expected to expand. We argue that in the West
Indies the level of demand for fertilizer and other in—
puts will be minimal, and that the application of in—
creased quantities of fertilizer will not significantly
increase total agricultural output in the long run.

Since most of domestic agriculture faces the Uu time re—
Sponse curve, the marginal cost involved in applying an

additional unit of fertilizer, relative to the incremental

 

changes in yield, would not warrant significant expansion
in fertilizer application. The fact that at low levels
of income there is a high degree of competition between
capital for production and capital for consumption could

offer a plausible explanation why West Indian domestic

 

farmers have not ]
sidY scheme—5° Ful
large-scale applii
actual decline in
also. Total Reve
Prices. If addit
the total Costs 0
to the Point that
could realize a 1
constant over the
not see any apprE
tural output 0f t
The role

becomes clearer

the illustration
cultural deve10p
research efforts
tions that would
in Illustration
as primarily ger
curves over time
injection of gre

venerate a mar
g

 

204

farmers have not been very responsive to fertilizer sub—
sidy schemes. Furthermore, the farmer is aware that
large—scale application of fertilizer could result in an
actual decline in yield, and hence in his income position
also. Total Revenue is the product of output and product
prices. If additional application of fertilizer increases
the total costs of production, and yields are depressed
to the point that Total Revenue decline, then the farmer
could realize a loss (assuming product prices remain
constant over the period). Under these conditions we do
not see any appreciable long—term expansion in agricul—
tural output of the domestic agricultural sector.

The role of the relevant indigenous research system
becomes clearer in terms of the response curves shown in
the illustration. In generating long-term domestic agri—
cultural develOpment in the West Indies, we suggest that
research efforts concentrate first on biochemical innova—
tions that would generate a response curve similar to UR
in Illustration 5.1. We see indigenous research systems
as primarily generating a series of such high-response
curves over time. With these new reSponse curves, the
injection of greater levels of fertilizer would tend to

generate a marginal product that would make incremental

 

input changes H1013e
agricultural Pmd1
curves, and releve
be spelled out. i
the West Indian dt
whereby the ferti
for strategic cro
chemical innovati
thresholds will i
0f production .
Over time
from this initial
forts will spearl
in both the agrit
A5 Productivity
demanded by the
creased inVestme
MW At this
in terms of lanc‘
”tension became
tures are news:

pttential 0f gr
I

205

input changes more profitable. The relationship between
agricultural productivity gains, fertilizer response
curves, and relevant indigenous research systems can now
be spelled out. We visualize biochemical innovation in
the West Indian domestic agricultural sector as the means
whereby the fertilizer reSponse thresholds can be raised
for strategic crops. Furthermore, we argue that bio—
chemical innovations that raised fertilizer reSponse
thresholds will increase productivity and lower unit cost
of production.

Over time, the productivity increase generated
from this initial concentration of domestic research ef—
forts will Spearhead a self—sustaining development drive
in both the agricultural sector and the national economy.
As productivity increases, additional resources will be
demanded by the agricultural sector in response to in—
creased investment opportunities in the non—agricultural
sector. At this stage We feel that facilitating features
in terms of land reform, irrigation, mechanization, and
extension became more meaningful. The facilitating fea—
tures are necessary for agriculture to capture the full

potential of growth.

 

W
W
The techn
ganm represents
iame with reSpeC
Theeconomic or C
We conter
halinnovations
ofthese changes
ghbal experience
mturn to investl
hgher than most
Sdmltz recently
fidmthe point 0
expenditures.15
cmmention that
efhctive agric(

tlively small. r

' ., research

“Suit Of adVdIl

Reg

fl! Agric

McEOI ECOnomi
(ReviSQd J

206

Economic Aspects of the
International Experience

 

The technical aspect of agricultural productivity
gains represents only one side of the international exper—
ience with reSpect to building relevant research systems.
The economic or cost-return aspect is equally important.

We contend that the costs of strategic technolog—
ical innovations are outweighed by the long—run benefits
of these changes. Our contention is largely based on the
global experience which suggests that the social rate of
return to investment in agricultural research tends to be
higher than most alternative investment opportunities.
Schultz recently reviewed the cross—country experience
from the point of view of returns to agricultural research
expenditures.15 He presented empirical support for his
contention that the risk involved in mounting relevant and
effective agricultural research systems tends to be rela—

tively small. He believes that the risk is low because

 

". . . research possibilities are highly favorable as a
result of advances in science.” In other words, the rate
15

Schultz, T. W., The Allocation of Resources to
Research, Agricultural Economics Paper No. 68:16, Depart~
ment of Economics, University of Chicago, December 20,
1968 (Revised January 20, 1969).

 

 

of return is larg
Technological adv
of generating a s
benefit—cost rati
Given the
relevant researcl
tunity costs incr
change would be
costs. The econ
The incentive to
alternative inve
would be as grea
the rEturns to i
been eStimated_

W ' - .
ere Slgnlflcant

. ,———————_————w~ . “fl- 7. 7..

207

of return is large for agricultural research expenditures.
Technological advancements have lowered the supply price
of generating a stream of benefit to the extent that the
benefit—cost ratio has been increased significantly.16
Given the relatively low risk involved in mounting
relevant research systems one could argue that the Oppor—
tunity costs incurred by pg; adjusting to technological
change would be in excess of the short—run adjustment
costs. The economics of the situation is fairly simple.
The incentive to change is large, since there are few
alternative investment opportunities where the payoff
would be as great.17 Schultz cites five examples where
the returns to investment in agricultural research have
been estimated. In almost all instances, the returns
were significantly higher than alternative investments.

Table 5.3 shows the various studies cited, and the

 

6Schultz, T. W., op. cit., p. 41. The supply
price is defined as the reciprocal of the rate of return.
The example given by Schultz is a situation where the rate
of return on investment is 50 percent. The supply price
for this rate of return would be 1/50, which would imply
that the price of $1.00 per year income stream Would be
only $2.00.

17 . . .

We are thinking of the ”change process” as being

similar to an investment. If costs are incurred in making
the change, then there is no reason why the change could
not be visualized in these terms.

 

 

 

208

 

oom
COM
Oman.
wwlme
hmlwm
oom
Hm hma
mm wha
owm
oeimm oow
eats H
QwaacsuoucH pssoomflo Dgoosom”
popsnfiuumflm ea c o>09¢ “new”
mcudpom cam Dc mandpom
m d

 

cunpom mo mwpcm HcHoom

.Qoucomom HouspHSOHsm¢ CH Dsofipmo>cH O

upooev.-.

MQGH 0U MVOH

‘00....‘XCE Ed EUNMOWGH HQMUUHIUNNWQ H0005 .0
MCGH 0U mvmlfi \SUNQOW‘UM ENOHU .n~
Nomi—u 0U meQH \PTU‘HNVUWUMH #00:: .Ho
oorwuvficz :ufi ..thflonuuubhw \fluk:;filnvw~t-t< .V

noncomon opm>flsm Mom popmsnp< .Q

soflmgouxo pom goncomon HMHSpHSOHHoc oaansm .c
momalwmma .oMSuHDOflnmc .m.D .m

wpflocmco mmmoxm Mow poumdmpc COHmsmpxm

was Sosmmmou HMHDDHSUAHmc opc>flum was oaaflsm
mmma one .vmma .mvma .oMDDHSUHHmc .m.D .N

wpfl>flp05poum HMDOB
wocofloflwmo pooh
owmaumama Mo>o
poNHHchopcfl pcm coma .OHHQDQ .Sonmomou aspasom .o
. soma m0
we .ouc>HHm Usc UHHQDQ .QoHcowoM Eunmnom pHHQmE .Q
mmmauoama Ho>o poNHHccuoucH pom mmma
mo mm .opc>HMm Ugo UHHQDQ inosmomou gsoo pfinflwm .m

mu05poum Escm .m.D Hmasoflpscm .H

spasm

p sHssom mo woumm HcHoom map mo moucfiflumMIl.m.m mamas

 

 

209

 

.wvlmv .Qm ..ufio .mo .SUHoomom Op moUHSOmom Mo COHpmooaam wSB ..3 .H .N#H5£0m quHSOm

.mpomm uflmocwn cam
Hmoo mo uom mean can mcflposmnoucfl mo macs ugomomwflp mum m was 4 mopmfifipwm .csduos mo open Hashes
IGH was mo memos ca cosdmmwa coamom oufluso esp no>o maacdwo muflmocon so: esp mousnflupmflp warp pH
uwfiflu Mo>o msssuwn mo 30am paw mpmoo mo 30am esp mmumsqw guess GHDDoH mo open wasp we m ochHummn
.pgofiumo>GH mum>flsm

Ugo Hafioom w>HumcHopHc no cusuou mo mums 03p mom axosm oHQMGOmme c on on pofidwmm me mums pgsoomflp
enmosom OH one .cwucassdoom oEHp Mo>o pocficpno mpfimwcon mo 30am ego op .och .psm woumfissdooc wasp

Ho>o UmHHSUGH pmoo mo 30am ass 0D owns pssoomflp ucwonom 0H c msflwammc m9 pocacpno we < oecfiflpmmc

.Ame . , . . . mpsdon HoBOH .mHo>HuoomwoM .com COHHHAE
m.HN cam mwe .mmma as can «no» noHHHHs

m.o .moamsopxo can consumes HmudeDOflHmc mam

ism» COHHHHE ©.mm ECHpcodpw .omwa QH .oamfimxo

How .GOHpcospo CH pcosumo>cfl wfiusmcHEOUwsm

mmmalowma .oHDuHDOHHmm ommccmcb .m

O®N MGOH O# mva
.ooaxmz CH cosmomon HMHDDHSOHHmc Hcpoe .0

com moma on mvma stoucomos EH00 .Q

oms moms on mean .eoumomou names .m

OOwaS :fl concome Hmssbasoflumm .v

QVIWAV

QOHMMVMMVH Wards/AHA.» HOW Uflflwdflflfl -9
hmlvm l

conflmgmpvnm flvcm CUHMVMWWHIJH .fiUrHdejl/dulfldu )4.1).(;.. p

 

 

estimated social
twoof the five :
countries.

We feel
spect to relativ
agncultural res
lhhnary observa
mmput suggest t
nmuts to emerge
forts in the la:
are X304 and X3l
Pflw in Jamaica
social rate of
agricultural re
Hut estimates
provide Some it
this Venture,
maize (X304) p
irrigated land

1he
~ a
Verage cc

‘30 .8.0 While

\

18
ofc See
‘ hapter IV

210

estimated social rate of return. It should be noted that
two of the five studies relate to the less—developed
countries.

We feel that the international experience with re—
spect to relatively low risks and high returns to relevant
agricultural research, applies to the West Indies. Pre—
liminary observation of the state of the regional research
output suggest that hybrid maize is one of the few improved
inputs to emerge from West Indian domestic research ef—
forts in the last two decades. The hybrid maize varieties
are X304 and X306, develOped by Pioneer Hi—bred Corn Com—
pany in Jamaica.18 Although there are no estimates of the
social rate of return to this venture (or to any other
agricultural research venture for that matter), we feel
that estimates of production costs and yields of this crOp
provide some indication of the returns to investment in
this venture. Table 5.4 shows the breakdown of hybrid
maize (X304) production costs and returns per acre of
irrigated land in commercial operation in Jamaica in 1968.
The average cost of production per acres for each crop was

at30.8.0 while return per acre for each crop was £52.10.0.

 

18See in particular pages 132—133 and footnote 6
Of Chapter IV.

 

 

TABLE 5. 4._-Breakd0W
Acre on
Jamaica I

 

 

Cost Category

WAGES: Land

MACHINERY : Der

0V6
Lal

(I!

A
pprox. Average Co

:PPSEOX. Return per
: »0 lb. per acre

met Profit per Acr

\l 1s
net Profit per Acl

:
u.

.I-l

v
n

Sterling : $3

Soar
sauteed Goverl

.
5 Hr
ONCE‘

Figures ;
Bred Cor

 

211

TABLE 5.4.-—Breakdown of Mechanized Maize (X304) Production Costs per
Acre on Irrigated Lands, Pioneer Hi—Bred Corn Company,

Jamaica, 1968.

Cost Category I Items of Cost

WAGE S :

ICost Per Item ITotal Costs

———-Pounds Sterlinga ——————

Land Preparation & Planting f 1.13.

 

 

 

 

6

Cultivation, Moulding,

Side Dressing 16. 6

Irrigation 1.17 6

Harvesting 8. 3

Spraying 1. l. 0

Miscellaneous

(Drying-—Storage) 8. 3 f 6. 5. 0
MATERIALS: Hybrid Seed 1.17. 6

Fertilizer 7.10. 0

Insecticide 3. 2. 6

Herbicide 1. 9. 0

Fuel & Oil 12. 6 § 14.11. 6
MACHINERY: Depreciation & Repairs 2.18. 6 f 2.18. 6
MISCELLANEOUS: Overheads l 9. 0

Land Use Charge

(Interest & Taxes) 5 4. 0 f 6.13. 0
Approx. Average Cost of Production Per Acre per Crop f 30. 8. 0
Approx. Return per Acre per Crop (Average yield
3,500 lb. per acre @30 shillings/100 1b.)b ,C 52.10. 0
Net Profit per Acre per Crop f 22. 2. 0
Net Profit per Acre per Year (2 crops) f 44. 4. 0

 

a .
#1 Sterling = $2.40 U.S. at
Guaranteed Government Price

Source: Figures supplied by

current rate of exchange.

in Jamaica.

Dr.

S.

M. Sehgal, Director, Pioneer Hi—
Bred Corn Company, Tropical Research Station, Jamaica.

 

 

Thus the net Pr‘
Apart from the P3
the hybrid maize
Thus, the net Pr
The profitabilit
Janican venture
by Schultz might
As such, the opp
research system:

earlier would t

We loo
SEW) organiz
lrdnctions Of IT

earlier . The:

pri
‘ate sources

19

US At .

212

Thus, the net profit per acre for each crOp was £22.

Apart from the profit margin, it should be noted that

the hybrid maize easily produced two crOps per year.

Thus, the net profit per acre per year was actually £44.19
The profitability of investment in hybrid maize in the
Jamaican venture suggests that the global experience cited
by Schultz might very well be applicable to the West Indies.
As such, the opportunity costs of not initiating relevant

research systems as proposed under our prOposition advanced

earlier would tend to get higher as time progresses.

Fertilizer Response Curves in West Indian
Domestic Agriculture: The

Empirical Evidence

 

The Nature of Yields
in the Region

We look to West Indian domestic agricultural re—
search organizations for some evidence that the response
functions of most domestic crOps are of the type discussed
earlier. These organizations appear to be the most appro—

priate sources of these data for two reasons: (1) if

 

19At current rate of exchange £1 sterling = $2.40

 

 

fertilizer respor
sector, the high
the experimental
tific techniques
able, and (2) th
crop varieties (
cator of the out
efforts.

Before 6
howeVer, it is c
in yield and prr
Tables 1, 2’ am
level of yield
(cereals, root
1948 to 1967,
ciable increase
and Mn) in tl
stances, the le
1948‘52 and 19
ranged frOm ab
about 1:780 p0

field for the

213

fertilizer reSponses have been significant in the domestic
sector, the highest levels of response would tend to be on
the experimental plots, where the highest levels of scien—
tific techniques and complementary inputs would be avail—
able, and (2) the absence (or presence) of high responsive
crop varieties (in general) would provide some rough indi—
cator of the output of West Indian agricultural research
efforts.

Before examining the specific technical cases,
however, it is desirable to firmly establish the movements
in yield and production for the major domestic food crops.
Tables 1, 2, and 3 of Appendix D, show movements in the
level of yield for the three major staple food groups
(cereals, root crops, and pulses) for the West Indies from
1948 to 1967. From the F.A.O. figures we detect no appre—
ciable increases in the yields of the major cereals (rice
and corn) in the West Indies since 1948. In many in—
stances, the level of yields since 1963 is below the
1948—52 and 1952—56 averages. Since 1963—64, corn yields
ranged from about 588 pounds to the acre in Jamaica, to
about 1,780 pounds to the acre in Barbados. The average

yield for the region is probably around 1,500 pounds to

 

 

the acre.20 In E
declined since t:
for rice. curre
rice-producing C
averages about 1
clear that cerea
varieties. Furt
creases in the 1
duction and acre
region. Jamaica
appreciable qual
recent years Tr

velop and expan
that yields of

1930's and the

the 1960‘s, yie
8:000 pounds tr
potatoes have 1
acre in St. Vir
Orer the same .

2‘137 POunds i

20 _
a , ilel
“(lures in Tab

 

214

the acre.20 In actual output volume, corn production has
declined since the 1950's. The situation is quite similar
for rice. Current rice yield per acre for the two major
rice—producing countries (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago)
averages about 1,425 pounds to the acre. Thus, it is quite
clear that cereal yields are extremely low for the local
varieties. Furthermore, there has been little or no in—
creases in the level of yields over the last decade. Pro—
duction and acreage of cereals is on the decline in the
region. Jamaica is the only territory that produces any
appreciable quantity of “Irish" potatoes. HOWever, in
recent years Trinidad and Tobago has been trying to de—
velop and expand production of this crop. It would appear
that yields of this crOp increased somewhat betWeen the
1950's and the early 1960's in Jamaica. However, since
the 1960's, yields appear to be fairly constant around
8,000 pounds to the acre. Since 1963, yields of sweet
potatoes have ranged from a low of 1,692 pounds to the
acre in St. Vincent to a high of 8,900 pounds in Barbados.
Over the same period, cassava yields have ranged from

2,137 pounds in Jamaica to 27,000 pounds in Barbados.

 

20Yield figures are derived from conversion of

figures in Table 1, Appendix D.

 

Yields in Fumes
creases Over the
Appendix D.)
Having 6
well as the gene
domestic food C1
stations and re:
Of yield levels

niques and know

Data ar
type of assessm
tain crude ind:
agricultural r<
high fertilize:
nical informat
present a seri
t‘erritories wh

l: \
Ebedrch OUtp"
\

Cdl r '
~13 improve:

 

 

215

Yields in pulses remain low and show no appreciable in—
creases over the last decade. (See Tables 2 and 3,
Appendix D.)
Having established the wide variation in yield as
well as the generally low levels of yields for most of the
domestic food crops we will now turn to the experiment
stations and research projects for some general indication ~‘ I
of yield levels under varying levels of scientific tech—

niques and knowledge.

Response Curves for Local Food Crops
in Experimental Research

 

 

Data are extremely limited and variable for this
type of assessment. However, we feel that there are cer—
tain crude indicators of the degree to which indigenous
agricultural research efforts have succeeded in developing

high fertilizer response varieties. Availability of tech—

 

nical information poses a major problem. However, we will
present a series of information available for the various
territories which we feel provides some indication of the
research output with respect to the development of biologi—

cally improved high—response varieties of local food crops.

 

The Jamaican Sit

______——-————

Table 4,
iments and varie
Ministry of Agri
Fertilizer resp<
gen, phosphate,
istics appear t(
variation in so
just, (2) non—r
nitrogen and p0
fe-tiliZer appl
in resPonse frc
(5) the concent
breeding for ir
Varying Soil t:
was Obtained f;
regal-(11888 Of
made that Sine
Nitrogen

litw

5“ d .

Den} .- ‘
L 101‘ nltIC

Lhat this low

 

216

The Jamaican Situation

 

Table 4, Appendix D, summarizes fertilizer exper—
iments and varietal trials carried out by the Jamaican
Ministry of Agriculture and Lands between 1940 and 1963.
Fertilizer response eXperiments were undertaken for nitro—
gen, phosphate, and potassium (N, P, K). Five character-
istics appear to stand out in this summary: (1) the wide
variation in soil type to which crOp varieties must ad—
just, (2) non—response to fertilization (particularly
nitrogen and potassium), (3) the low levels of recommended
fertilizer application, (4) the extremely wide variations
in response from year to year and among soil types, and
(5) the concentration on varietal trials rather than on
breeding for increased responsiveness to fertilizer for
varying soil types. Over the 1940—48 period, no response
was obtained from nitrogen application to Irish potatoes,
regardless of soil type. The general observation has been
made that since most Jamaican soils are deficient in
nitrogen, it would appear that under local environmental
and agronomic practices Irish potatoes have a low requires
ment for nitrogen. Furthermore, it has been suggested

that this low nitrogen requirement appears to be more

 

 

I
l
l
1
i

 

important than t
trient.21 Sligh
application over
crease response
over this perioc‘
increased yields
the yield incree
did not come fn
adaptability bu
soils had decre
so that a posit
fairly consiste
Significant,
Several
be“ conducted
of their Prima:
reCOmmEnded fe
maXimum Yields

a£lronomic prac

21 _
Jam. Mlnl
1
1 Ca)’ E:

H Jamaica. ‘

Ibh

 

217

important than the ability of the soil to supply the nu—
trient.21 Slight increases were observed in nitrogen
application over the 1949—55 period. This period of in—
crease response coincides with the observed yield increases
over this period in Table 1, Appendix D. However, the
increased yields were short lived. Research suggests that
the yield increase had to be of a short duration since it
did not come from improved biological characteristics or
adaptability but from the fact that the main potato—growing
soils had decreased sufficiently in fertility by the 1950's
so that a positive reSponse to nitrogen could be obtained
fairly consistently.22 However, yield response was not
significant.

Several field scale fertilizer trials on corn have
been conducted by government agronomists since 1958. One
of their primary objectives has been to determine whether
recommended fertilizer programs are adequate for attaining
maximum yields. It has been reported that despite good

agronomic practices and pest control, relatively low yields

 

21 . . .
Ministry of Agriculture and Lands (Government of

Jamaica), Fertilizer Research on Food Crops and Vegetables
in Jamaica. (Cyclostyled.) Undated document, p. 2.

 

 

Ibid., p. 3.

have been obtain
relative to star
Government resee
. inadet
factor limil
Apparently 1
do not have
conditions “
able.
Fertili
limited on othe
work has been d
done on sweet p
shown some res;
ever, the resul
Pel’imentg inch
associated Wit?
experiments ha
d' ..
lSease B1055
Soil tYpes. A
the lncidenCe
iZer

a‘Pplicatj

We ha<

sponsored Pio'

 

 

 

have been obtained from additional fertilizer application
relative to standard fertilizer application. Thus, the
Government research concluded that:

. . . inadequate nutrition is not the main

factor limiting corn production in Jamaica.

Apparently the varieties available up to 1963

do not have the yield potential under local

conditions to make corn production profit—

able.

Fertilizer reSponse experiments are extremely
limited on other local food crops and vegetables. Some
work has been done on yams but no formal work has been
done on sweet potatoes. A few local yam varieties have
shown some reSponsiveness to nitrogen application. How—
ever, the results were extremely variable. On a few ex-
periments increased levels of potassium application were
associated with a decline in yields. In addition, some
experiments have linked fertilizer application with the
disease "Blossom End Rot” of tomatoes grown in certain
soil types. Agronomists have not succeeded in reducing
the incidence of this disease at higher levels of fertil—
izer application.

We had earlier reviewed the work of the privately

Sponsored Pioneer Hi—Bred Corn Company (Tropical Research

5‘”

2
31bid., p. 6.

Station). Unlik
Hus organizatio
hochemical tech
adaptable to the
cial and manpowe
hct. The compa
hadsuccessfullj
X306) that demo;
resPonse curve
Furthermore, th
region than any
fie extreme var
logical that pl
similar new inl
amortunately,
mend the use 0
funushing the
He feasibilit
Despite the ge

24
of See
5 page 136,
“em or the ,

219

Station). Unlike publicly sponsored research efforts,
this organization has concentrated on the utilization of
biochemical technology to produce local hybrids that are
adaptable to the region. In addition, substantial finan—
cial and manpower resources were committed to this pro—
ject. The company was established in 1964. By 1967 it
had successfully develOped two local hybrids (X304 and
X306) that demonstrated significantly higher fertilizer
response curve relative to the local varieties of corn.
Furthermore, they were generally more adaptable to the
region than any varieties used up to that time.24 Given
the extreme variation in West Indian soil types, it seems
logical that public efforts would be initiated to develop
similar new inputs for varying ecological conditions.
Unfortunately, governmental efforts have tended to recom—
mend the use of unadapted varieties to farmers, without
furnishing the appropriate technical information as to
the feasibility of their use in particular locations.
Despite the generally superior performance of the new

hybrids, the variation in yields between soil types is

 

24See Chapter IV, pp. 132—133; also Footnote 9

Of page 136, for discussion of Pioneer Corn Company and
yield of the new hybrids.

 

anlyllrvl-fi-’

somewhat large.

hybrid X304 on 6

II 'n
among the man

TABLE 5.5.——Re51
196'

N

 

Site

Lawrence Pa
St. Ann

- Cobbla Man<

w

' Hal(ewoods (

' KeYnsham
St- Elia

u"

. Grove Plac‘
Manchest
\

Note; NO real

5 igned
Some: Depar
Indie
as

It Would appeg

soil tl’pes "In:

SXhibitS sign

.__.—————————————s—W—— 7" ~~ 71ml
._————— _.r‘

220

somewhat large. For example, the variation in yields for
hybrid X304 on experimental plots was found to be greatest

among the "maximum" yield plots. (See Table 5.5 below.)

TABLE 5.5.——Results of X304 Maize Experiments, Jamaica,

 

 

 

1967.
With Fertilizer
. Yield of Shelled .
. Yield . o
' 8011 Without Maize (15.5%
Site Type . . MOisture)
No Fertilizer (Lb r )
' (Lbs./Ac.) s./Ac e
Min. Mean Max.
—————————————— Lbs -—————————
1. Lawrence Park
St. Ann 78 272 363 1117 1851
2. Cobbla Manchester 78 1630 653 1350 2432
3. Harewoods C.A.L.A. 32 1978 1035 2482 3539
4. Keynsham
St. Elizabeth 73 2108 2360 3078 3703
5. Grove Place
Manchester 73 3121 2850 3763 4501
Note: No real differences or interactions could be as—

signed to any treatment at any of the five sites.
Source: Department of Soil Science, University of West
Indies, Report of the Faculty of Agriculture,
1967—68, p. 12.
It would appear that under conditions of widely varying
soil types "maximum“ yield levels of the new hybrid (X304)

exhibits significant variability. In this experiment the

 

 

yield of unferti
minimum yield 1e

of three of the
the data, it was

It would app

L i should gene:
even though

only as an i

It is 3:

yield of the 10(

tion is plotted

i ar9515, the fert
fertiliZed area
shows the reSpo
against the fer
sites given in
In gene

Yields through
domestic CrOps
types in the i
sistent’ and i

the beSt 9Com

 

 

221

yield of unfertilized plots was higher (or as high) as the
minimum yield levels of the fertilized plots in the case
of three of the five experimental sites. In interpreting
the data, it was suggested that:

It would appear from the results that maize

should generally receive a fertilizer dressing,

even though this may occasionally be provided

only as an insurance factor.

It is significant, however, that when the mean
yield of the local X304 variety produced under fertiliza-
tion is plotted against the yield of the unfertilized
areas, the fertilized areas generally out—perform the un—
fertilized areas in almost all cases. Illustration 5.2
shows the reSponse histogram for the "control” areas as
against the fertilized areas for the five experimental
sites given in Table 5.5.

In general, modest increases have been made in
yields through the application of fertilizer on a few
domestic crops. However, under the widely varying soil
types in the islands, yield reSponse has not been con—
sistent, and in many instances experimental work under

the best ecological and technical conditions has produced

 

2 . . . .
5Department of 8011 SCience, UniverSity of the
West Indies, Report of the Faculty of Agriculture, 1967—68,
p. 11.

 

 

Seem
A.BA~V
mzu<

,5.» <=2 > <

313%

 

 

..\/.1_ \A..._

 

DIET-.5 ... Cl;vl ......2 1.51:. _.

 

 

 

2122

 

 

.wusufiauwuw< mo zu~sucu ecu we unoawm .mmwvcH

Nz.a .mo-~oma
mEunman .m.m winch Eonw tv>ehov EmHmODmi:.oup30m

umwz msu mo zuwmuu>«:3 .wucmwuw Hwom we as

M. .SNLZDLQm guns I

A Luwwiuumm oz U
umwuoz

mmum mum BzmzhmmmB MmNHAHEmmm ho qm>mq 02¢ WMHHm momémmmm

n wuwm q wuflm m muwm N wuwm H muwm

1. COOH

t oonH

 

 

ooom

00mm

 

i seem

A.mnzv
comm meua
mes namHs

m0<¢m><

oooq

 

.noma .monEmo ca mmuam Lonmwmm
macaum . . m
. > um Av0mxv mNflmz pawn»: pwmoflw>wo haemooq new EMMOOumHI mucommwm uwNaHauuwh .N.m ceaumu
. . . II . DWDHHH

yield levels noi
farmers, and in
more commercial
Given the curre
with respect to
doubts whether

about significa

The Trinidad ar
\

Agricui
domestic agric‘
mainly by thre
Culture of the
Central Experi
Agricolture, a
Farm, The Den
the UniVersltl

Tm“: Trini<

enterpriSe is

26
Au . See
\. 581 .
so On 0f h
. r the agri

C

 

223

yield levels not significantly greater than peasant
farmers, and in many instances less than that of the
more commercial farmers using traditional technology.
Given the current expenditure emphasis of government
with respect to the agricultural sector, we have serious
doubts whether existing agricultural policies will bring

. . . . . . 26
about Significant expanSion in agricultural output.

The Trinidad and
Tobago Situation

Agricultural research and experimentation on
domestic agriculture is carried out in Trinidad and Tobago
mainly by three organizations: (1) the Faculty of Agri—
culture of the University of the West Indies, (2) the
Central Experiment Station (CENTENO) of the Ministry of
Agriculture, and (3) the Texaco Food Crop Demonstration
Farm. The Demonstration Farm is a joint enterprise between
the University, the Government of Trinidad and Tobago, and
Texaco, Trinidad, Inc. The primary objective of this

enterprise is to develop and commercialize experimental

 

26See earlier sections of this chapter for a dis—

cussion of the long—term capital expenditure allocation
for the agricultural sector in Jamaica.

 

 

findings and re
University's Fa
mental policy e
development of
pulses and grai
Corn va
approached maj<
would appear t}
varying soil t:
difference, how
are the X304 51
Althouclh these
re<lion, they m
tions in Trini
Variety from t
On corn date s
tion. The St;
several Years
fertilizEr re
work bEtween
in two 10ml
be SuPGrior t

are the St. in

224

findings and results from the Government Station and the
University's Faculty of Agriculture. Under recent govern—
mental policy emphasis has been given to the long—term
development of local food crops (cereals, root crops, the
pulses and grain legume).

Corn varietal trials and agronomic practices have
approached major proportions in the island. However, it
would appear that the situation as to adaptability to
varying soil types is similar to that of Jamaica. A major
difference, however, is that the major hybrids being tested
are the X304 and X306 which were developed in Jamaica.
Although these varieties are much more adaptable to the
region, they must be adapted to unique ecological condi—
tions in Trinidad and Tobago just as any other hybrid or
variety from the temperate zone. Governmental research
on corn dates back to 1950 at the Central Experiment Sta—
tion. The Station has been operating a seed program for
several years in an attempt to increase the yield and
fertilizer response of the local varieties. Cooperative
work between the Station and the University has resulted
in two local selections which are generally considered to
be superior to other local varieties. These selections

are the St. Augustine Selection (SAS) and the Economic

 

 

Botany Selectio
these two varie
pounds to the a
yields are low,
which have tenc'
acre, the imprr
The cox
and fertilizer
that are adapt.
local hybrids
has been to in
and test these
cemy, the dc
have been int]
X304 and X306
pany have bee
tance of deve
by the gonera
under lOCal c

that althoug}

 

225

Botany Selection (EBS). Under experimental conditions
these two varieties have given maximum yields of 2,500
pounds to the acre. By temperate zone standards, these
yields are low, but compared to the other local varieties
which have tended to average less than 1,000 pounds per
acre, the improvement was significant.27

The considerable research on varietal selection
and fertilizer response has not developed local hybrids
that are adaptable to the various soil types. Since no
local hybrids have been developed, the general approach
has been to introduce a wide variety of hybrid varieties
and test these for response under local conditions. Re—
cently, the double—cross hybrids, Cornelli 54 and PT 66,
have been introduced. In addition, the Jamaica hybrids
X304 and X306 developed by the Pioneer Hi—Bred Corn Com—
pany have been made available to the island. The impor—
tance of developing indigenous hybrids has been illustrated
by the generally poor performance of the imported hybrid
under local conditions. For example, it has been reported

that although the Cornelli 54 hybrid has become the most

 

27Ministry of Agriculture (Central Experiment Sta—
tion), Maize Production in Trinidad and Tobago. Paper
delivered at Extension In—Service Training (Central Exper—
iment Station), February, 1968, p. 2.

 

 

 

pOpular hybrid
perimental cond
the maximum yie
pounds to the a
tions. However
yield of 5,000
X304-28 Thus,
Yields through
05 the varietil
soil types whi
Yield capacity
The in
resPOnse hybri
Soil tYPQS car
formance of t1
the two imporl
Soil tYpes, ,
From
Ported hybrid
cant Variatic

28M.
StatiOn) OlI

 

(is e—L ~—\— .fi—‘a—jfi. vi:

226

pOpular hybrid in the island; its maximum yield under ex—
perimental conditions was 3,000 pounds per acre. Thus,
the maximum yield of this variety has only been about 500
pounds to the acre more than the two local varietal selec—
tions. However, it has been reported that experimental
yield of 5,000 pounds to the acre has been obtained from
X304.28 Thus, despite some_gains in the level of corn
yields through selection and introduction of hybrids, most
of the varieties exhibit substantial variability among
soil types which has tended to reduce their potential
yield capacity.

The importance of developing indigenous high~
response hybrids highly adaptable to a wide variety of
soil types can be demonstrated by the variability in per—
formance of the two local selections, SAS and EBS, against
the two imported hybrids, PT 66 and X304, under different
soil types. This information is presented in Table 5.6.

From Table 5.6 it can be seen that both the im—
ported hybrids and the local varieties registered signifi—
cant variations among the two soil types. Even when

treatment is standardized, there is still significant

 

28Ministry of Agriculture (Central Experiment
Station), op. cit., p. 2.

 

 

 

TABLE 5.6-"Con

 

VaI

19E

: TRIAI

Variety ; rhean
I per

X304 31
M66 30
EBS 28
SAS 26
‘_‘_________..

Notes: Both 1
Block
and ha
ever,
while
tionS-

Source: Minis

tion)

m

variation amor
n has been 81
inyields bet\
generally faVi
fertility at

up local var

29 .
ya ' M10
t ‘ion
9134‘ 'M

227

TABLE 5.6.——Comparative Yield of Local and Imported Corn
Varieties Under Varying Soil Type, Trinidad,
1967.

 

2 TRIAL II(St. Augustine) I TRIAL III (El Carmen)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variety Mean Yield I Mean Yield I Mean Yield I Mean Yield
Per Plot I Per Acre I Per Plot I Per Acre
Lbs. Lbs.
X304 31.96 5044 11.82 1865
PT66 30.06 4744 9.58 1512
EBS 28.03 4424 10.01 1580
SAS 26.99 4260 12.85 2028

 

Notes: Both local varietal trials were of the Randomized
Block design. Plot size was 12' x 23‘ and planting
and harvesting occurred at the same period. How—
ever, Trial II had 8 treatments and 3 replications
while Trial III had 20 treatments and 4 replica—
tions.

Source: Ministry of Agriculture (Central Experiment Sta-
tion), Centeno, Trinidad. Annual Report of the
Food Crop Aqronomist, 1967, pp. 2—5.

variation among the varieties. In the above experiments,

it has been suggested that a proportion of the difference

in yields between the two trials was largely due to the

.generally favorable ecological conditions and natural

fertility at St. Augustine, relative to El Carmen. Even

29
the local varieties performed well. Table 5.7 shows

 

29Ministry of Agriculture (Central Experiment

Station), Annual Report of the Food CrOp Aqronomist, 1967,
pp. 4—5.

 

muem

A®H0§\.mnqv
HQNHHHUMQM
UBOSUHE
UHGHW

®Q>E Heom

AQHU£\.MQAV Amhflumfloz
muofi Mmm UHGHM

Xm.mao
.Illlllllll||l|ll|||l||
MQNHHHUHOM QUHE

‘000905 650 QMUHCHHB

‘I
I|.."
I.

| Q HQ 11‘ mH <Lu

LUHg EUCUEWQUQXHi|.h

”H'HIH1

\AVOMXV @Nfimz

 

.PmmH

 

228

 

 

 

 
 

 

.monegH

pasomm man no uno mm
coEuHmmoQ "monsom

.mocmflom seem no u

 

.onSuHDUflH a we

.s .n .molsomH
ummg mo muflmuo>ficb .musuasoflnm< mo mpasomm

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

nomflsflunom sens

Hoes Noe Ho Ho smHo one: nmmsmmmns
ossm comm woos omsm Smog smso mnonoocoo Ho_o meson
mmme ease mmmm oamm swao oceanogm no_o meson
omom mama oms mam swao oQQEQUHm gouo5mo
eamm ommm meow oomm smso ocoEQUHm nosononmoeoo
mmem msfim mew mew smao oHHH>moHoom cannon pcflom
mesa ommfi ome Name smso oHHH>moHoom onmao onm
Hume boom mmww nowm Emoq oumumm Hm>flm oceumsmsm .um
Noom oNHN ONOH mama ogmm ocnm mmsnoz cflunom pence
whom eesm ohm com nonumz\mmomnmz monone
.m meflmHHHm
somm eomN moms Hmmm uoHonmzxmoomnmz moson<
.m mesmesflm
ommm News mme msm eemm omen oceanm . . . .
Hoom mama om» we . . H m o m
N H EGOQ wwmumm Mm>Hm EOanmum .H.3.D
.mnq
.VAMS m Gmmz m .CHS. H H .
. . H ionom\.mnqv H H
A®H0m\.m9qv AmHsumHOE H HGNHHHuHmM H .
am mHv muofi Hmm GHmHN u pSOSpHB m ®Q%B HHOm H mpflm
H vamflw H H

 

 

 

 

.hom .om .
H once one omoncflne Aeomxv wNHmz sue; munoEHnoexmuu.s.m mqmme

the level of yi
soil types. E)
application was
wide variation
relatively C10:
a relatively 81
mp without 13
and mean yield
the unfertiliz
ferent from t}
the mean yielc'
ont‘PErform t}
The tl
conducting re
SWeet POtatoe

range 0f Yiel

\

t- 30Wic
ll-lOn is not \
lation tends
per-imental r6
1955563 perm
vulnerable t<

 

 

229

the level of yields recorded for X304 on eight different
soil types. Except for the control experiments, fertilizer
application was standardized. The table illustrates the
wide variation in yields among soil types and even with the
relatively close confines of the experimental sites.30 In
a relatively small number of cases the yield levels of the
crop without fertilizer was higher or equal to the minimum
and mean yields of the fertilizer crops. In a few cases
the unfertilized crop yields were not significantly dif—
ferent from the maximum fertilized crop yields. However,
the mean yield of the fertilized areas generally tended to
out—perform the unfertilized areas.

The three major research organizations have been
conducting research on such root crops as Cassava, dasheen,
sweet potatoes, yams, tannias, and eddoes. However, the

range of yields obtained in experimental work has been

 

3OWide variation even within the experimental sta—

tion is not unusual. Johnson and Hoffnar found that var-
iation tends to be higher among small plots used for ex—
perimental research at Michigan State University over
1955—63 period, the small size made the yields much more
vulnerable to variations in natural conditions. See Hoff—
nar, B. R., and Johnson, G. L., Summary and Evaluation of
the Cooperative Agronomic—Economic Experimentation at
Michigan State University: l955—63, Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Research Bulletin ll, 1966, Michigan State
University.

 

fife—fif—‘::= ‘ r—T . yr

 

 

 

 

gnaw

 

extremely wide
year. For exam
sity Field Expe
yields to avera
yields over the
For the 1960-6]
the acre with 2
Finally, over '
clined to 5 t
7-4 tons to th
has SUcceeded
liElds on expe
Vary Significg
these Stations
these variati<
holdings when
are minimal a
than reSEarCh

been rePOIted

 

230

extremely wide from year to year and even with a single
year. For example, over the 1959—60 period the Univer-
sity Field Experiment Station reported sweet potato
yields to averaging 2 tons to the acre. The range of
yields over the period was .04 to 3.1 tons to the acre.
For the 1960—61 period average yields were 7.3 tons to
the acre with a range of 1.0 to 10.4 tons to the acre.
Finally. over the 1961—62 period average yields had de—
clined to 5 tons to the acre with a range of 2.2 to
7.4 tons to the acre.31 Thus. although research work
has succeeded to some extent in raising the levels of
yields on experiment stations. the yield levels tend to
vary significantly from year to year and within year on
these stations. One has to raise the question whether
these variations would not be more extreme on peasant
holdings where cultural practices and fertilizer use
are minimal and plot sizes are not significantly larger
than research plots on the experiment station. It has

been reported that sweet potato yields in commercial

 

lCropper, John, The Prospects for Commercial
Production of Irish and Sweet Potatoes in Trinidad (DTA
Project Report, Series No. 2), Department of Agricultural
Economics and Farm Management, University of the West
Indies, 1967, p. 15.

 

 

 

 

production on t
nificantly lowe
for experiment;
on the Demonst:
sons of the ye;
from this comm
attained was 5
mum yield was
interesting pc
per acre was 5
acre. The per
Percent to a y
5) Against tl
that the aver
is about 1.1
croo varietie
any Single YE
dehce that t}
of the Deleon:
than the Sma
we must Qlues
tiCes Coming

prOduCtion

 

231

production on the Texaco Demonstration Farm have been sig—
nificantly lower than yields and saleable yields per care
for experimental and local varieties grown commercially
on the Demonstration Farm, for both the wet and dry sea—
sons of the year between 1964 and 1965. Total yields
from this commercial effort were low. The maximum yield
attained was 5.6 tons to the acre for variety 049. Mini—
mum yield was l.6 ton to the acre for the H5 variety. The
interesting point, however, is that the saleable yield
per acre was significantly less than the total yield per
acre. The percent of yield loss per acre varied from 23
percent to a high of 86 percent. (See Appendix D, Table
5) Against these yield figures we must consider the fact
that the average yield for the small ”primitive“ farmer

is about 1.1 ton to the acre. Furthermore, with existing
crop varieties the maximum number of crops possible within
any single year has been 1.25 crops. We find little evi—
dence that the ”large” scale, high—technology enterprise
of the Demonstration Farm is any more superior in yields
than the small commercially oriented peasant farmer. Thus,
we must question the utility of the inputs and actual prac—
tices coming from the research efforts in sweet potato

production.

 

 

 

We find
successful atte
varieties of CI
of domestic agI
to different fe
ment Station or
a good insight
agricultural r
Given the extr
gion and the v
501-15: it is r
are responsive
Vidufllh Unc
high degree 0
Eve“ in areas
dithn Of Hit
a hi<lher leve
ments with CC
Sponge 0n pifi

conditiOns m

32
t Cr
in Agricmtu
undated

' P

 

232

We find additional evidence that the generally un-
successful attempts to produce high response adaptable
varieties of crops has seriously affected the performance
of domestic agriculture. Table 5.8 shows yield response
to different fertilizer treatment at the Central Experi—
ment Station over the l967—68 period. This table provides
a good insight into the problems confronting West Indian
agricultural research (particularly domestic research).
Given the extreme variation in soil types within the re—
gion and the variation in natural fertility among such
soils, it is not sufficient to develop varieties that
are responsive to nitrogen phosphate and potassium indi—
vidually. Under West Indian soil conditions there is a
high degree of complementarity between fertilizer inputs.
Even in areas where there is nitrogen deficiency, the ad—
dition of nitrogen compounds does not necessarily generate
a higher level of response. For example, several experi—
ments with commercial fertilizers have given negative re~
Sponse on Pigeon Peas. Thus, under Trinidad and Tobago

. . . . . . 3
conditions no fertilizer is recommended for this crop. 2

 

2Cross, L. A., The Pigeon Peas Today. Ministry
of Agriculture (Central Experiment Station). (Cyclostyled),
undated, p. l.

 

 

 

u. C®Efih muflwnfl H MMU 20.0

 
 
 

m.m .M.Z
m-«V mum .nH.Z MHCCMH
lllllllllllllllllllll ®HU¢\NCOBIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllll
0m NwN .fl H0 MEAEH -..n whwfihfi. . 0H0 H0 . CQE 00h. . . I
.0 D H.H.” h H . .2. CJLK. .H q < nu . U U .H. - GHOHU . C0HUQU.W
D.C.MWMNAH HON ”H04”? ‘Hflmvz Mummyfififiuvmm u mvavfiuw gm: n .NWNflHHUNQLN n .. .
.Mwmlhowmfi
\WEOHHVQUMW fiuummmmm no HUQUSHUOHRA MANOMAU DOOM mUOflMQNV H0.“ QQEONNWUNN ‘NNJNWvHfiQthhwllamwvf .\.~C:a\.~.

 

\ Ufifiva—thhu

 

 

 

233

.e .m ..mmmlnmm ..n .Homdouo one “calm .md .
Icon a ono coon was no uno om Homage .Acoauwum peasanomxm Hmuusoov annuasoanma

hmmH awwHEO
m0 hnumflcflz ”mousom

.dOHuosooum wafluofiflumo as poms one one muSpHSOHMmfl mo mnpmflzflz esp ha pounfiflpmo ohm mam>oa came» omens
. o

 

 

coHumpm
mooppm pcofiflsomxm Hmuucoo

 

 

 

coaumum
coonmmm #sofifluomxm Hmuucoo

 

m.¢

 

G CO CD \0 V N O m Ln Ln 0 O (D m H 0 L0 N ON ON Ln m N O
n a
M m (V) M m M m N m <1‘ fl (‘0 m m ('1 M l\ k0 l\ Ln 1\ [\ 0 KO

 

0H0<\mcoe

.m.z

coflpoum
Madame #coEHMmmxm Hmuucoo

 

comb HwNHHHunm Hmfificflz Qua: whofihmm
snowman now same» goes ooumsaumm

.UMGHEHHB .mGOH#mvw soumowmm no

ono¢ Mom
pHoHM cows

UGOSUOHm mQOHU

uaofiuoouk
MoNHHHuHoh

NOON. WDO H.H.MNV MOM

QOHU GOflUQUW

out-.-

.wmlhme
omnommom HoNHHfluHomlx.m.m mamme

 

In corn produc
plants to util
depend on the
Apparently the
such that nitr
only to the ph
but to the int
trients. Furt
tendency of lc
Season. The (
Water 0r Comm
the crust has
The d
average yield
d'lfferent Wit
contr01 eXpe:
PhOSphate am
although in (
to be of majv

Wide Variati

 

 

234

In corn production and other food crops the ability of
plants to utilize commercial nitrogen has been found to
depend on the presence of potassium or phosphorus.

Apparently the chemistry of many of the local soils is

 

such that nitrogen uptake is functionally related not
only to the physiological characteristics of the plant,
but to the interaction effects between the various nu—
trients. Furthermore, nutrient uptake is limited by the
tendency of local soils to form a crust during the rainy
season. The crust formation limits the movement of either
water or commercial fertilizer placed on the surface after
the crust has been formed.3

The data presented in Table 5.8 shows that the
average yield of the three crops was not significantly
different with nitrogenous fertilizer than yield of the
control experiments. However, additional treatment with
phosphate and/or potassium showed some gains in yields,
although in general the differences cannot be considered
to be of major significance. We feel that the extremely

wide variation in soil types and the strong interaction

 

33 . . . .
Ministry of Agriculture (Central Experiment
Station), Maize Production in Trinidad and Tobago, 9p.
cit., Appendix 1, p. l.

 

 

effects among ;
sion in basic 1
if yields are 1

relevant resea:

The Eastern Ca

~—_

Furthe
tilizer reSpor
exPeriments ir
ing the 1966—j
that deSpite (
“0t impossibl.
adaP'Cable to
ance of Such
still Outperf
SPOnsiVeneSs
Table 6' APpe
island Of An,
Cal Yams, sw.
cation Under
Conclusions

 

 

J

235

effects among plant nitrient require significant expan—
sion in basic research in soil chemistry and soil physics
if yields are to be increased appreciably. In addition,

relevant research will be required in plant physiology.

 

The Eastern Caribbean Situation

Further evidence of low and highly variable fer—
tilizer response among indigenous crops is apparent from
experiments in the Windward and Leeward Islands area dur—
ing the l966—l967 period. These experiments also show
that despite the complicated physical conditions it is
not impossible to develop crop varieties that are more
adaptable to the local conditions. Although the perform—
ance of such crops would vary among locations, they would
still outperform the unimproved varieties in terms of re—
sponsiveness to commercial fertilizer and other inputs.
Table 6, Appendix D, summarizes research conducted in the
island of Antigua to determine the responsiveness of lo—
cal yams, sweet potatoes and tomatoes to fertilizer appli-
cation under the two major local soil types. The major
conclusions drawn from the experiments are: (l) the local

yam “White Lisbon” showed no response to any treatment of

 

N-P-K, relative
variety of swee
any treatment (
lucie” showed 1
(4) the local ‘
the “improved"
experiment sta
Despit
adaptable hybr
this improved
among a wide \
bean. Furthe:
dbOVe thOSe O
SPOnsiveness
COHditions, is
the general a
it is POSsib]
ties in the l

IESOUrCeS an

 

236

N—P—K, relative to no fertilizer treatment, (2) the local
variety of sweet potato "Hurricane” showed no response to
any treatment of fertilizer, (3) the tomato variety "Mana—

lucie" showed no response to any combination of fertilizer,

 

(4) the local sweet potato variety "Hurricane" outyielded
the ”improved" selected C.lO4 and T.67 developed at the
experiment stations in Trinidad.34

Despite the fact that the yield of the locally
adaptable hybrid corn (X304) has varied among soil types,
this improved variety responded consistently to N—P—K
among a wide variety of soil types in the Eastern Carib—
bean. Furthermore, it has tended to give average yields
above those of the local corn varieties. The general re—
sponsiveness of this crop to a wide variety of physical
conditions is demonstrated by Table 5.9. We feel that
the general adaptability of this hybrid indicates that
it is possible to develop high response food crop varie—
ties in the West Indies if the appropriate emphasis and
resources are committed to the research efforts. The

general conclusion regarding the performance of this

 

34The experimental results of Table 6, Appendix

D, are taken from the Annual Report: August 1966—July
1967, of the Regional Field Experiment Program (Leeward
Islands).

 

TABLE 5.9 Mai:
Soil
(X31

Country

Barbados

St. Vincent

Grenada

St- Lucia

\
SourCe; Depa

9L

Variety and t
ized in the 1
variety :
\vEll ada'
yields 8'
feasible

he fEel that

varietv of f

237

TABLE 5.9 Maize (Yield) Responses to Fertilizers on Some

Soils in Barbados and the Windward Islands
(X304 Variety)

S ' I S '
Country ' 011 011

Responses
. Type I No.

I N P K NPK

 

Barbados

 

Black Assn.

30 + + + +
Grey Brown Assn. 40 + + _ _
Yellow Brown Assn. 50 + + _ +

St. Vincent Akers Sandy Loam l5 + - + + ‘

Bellevue Sandy Loam l9
Soufrere Cindery

Gravelly Loamy Sand 29 + + — +
Grenada Capital Clay Loam 30 + + - +
Belmont Clay Loam 4O — + + +
St. Lucia Belembouche Gritty

Clay Loam 38 + — + +
Batille Clay 49 + + + +
Raveneau Clay 50 — + + _

Source:

 

Department of Soil Science (Faculty of Agriculture),
op. cit., p. 8.

variety and the implication for future research is summar—

ized in the following statement:

Variety X304 as an indicator crop appeared to be
well adapted to the region generally. The grain
yields suggest that grain corn production is 35
feasible for the area, given suitable varieties.

We feel that the same statement could be made for a wide

variety of food crops, if local research can come to grips

 

Department of Soil Science (Faculty of Agricul—
ture), op. cit., p. 8.

 

with the task

development of

E
A313
Our re
search effort:
vanced in Our
source of inc
We have found
tended to con
little effort
improved vari
Sou tYPES a1
10ca1 researt
the given 11
under eXperi-
Confines of
ited Wide Va

[wields Were

\
36

\7' SE
field Vari

at

 

238

with the task that they face with respect to the future

development of the area.

General Conclusion on Domestic
Agriculture Research ReSponse Curves

Our review of West Indian domestic agricultural re—
search efforts has led us to reaffirm the suggestions ad—
vanced in our earlier proposition regarding the future
source of increased agricultural productivity. In general,
we have found that indigenous research organizations have
tended to concentrate on varietal trials with relatively
little effort in the direction of developing indigenous
improved varieties that are adaptable to a wide variety of
soil types and ecological conditions. Over the years,
local research systems have developed a few crops that
have given higher yield responses to commercial fertilizer
under experimental conditions. However, even within the
confines of the research stations, the yield levels exhib—
ited wide variations.36 In many instances the experimental

yields were less than the average yields from peasant

 

36See footnote 30 of this chapter for note on

yield variation among experimental plots.

 

 

holdings with I
argued, however
perior average
area good ind:
tobe extended
Imnt. We feel
stations are 1
average is lar
hmtances larg
iment stations
sults of the h
little eViden<
research effo
in raiSlng ex
better farmer
It is the
ment X g:
the vien
ls effic
for it a
in Outpu
treared

exist an
level of

239

holdings with limited fertilizer application. It could be
argued, however, that in many instances the generally su—
perior average yields obtained on the experiment stations
are a good indication of the sound base of ”new knowledge"
to be extended to farmers. We do not agree with this argu-
ment. We feel that the average yields on the experiment
stations are less meaningful if the dispersion around the
average is large and the experimental plots are in many
instances larger than those of peasant farmers. The exper—
iment stations must place these results well above the re-
sults of the more commerically oriented farmers. We find
little evidence to indicate that West Indian agricultural
research efforts have succeeded to any appreciable degree
in raising experimental yields significantly abOVe the
better farmers. The implication for extension and develop—
ment of such results has been pointed out by Hopper when
he wrote:

It is the easy conclusion that because treat—

ment X gives thirty of fifty percent more than

the yield without treatment X, the treatment

is efficacious and should be widely adopted

for it assures a thirty to fifty percent gain

in output. While the difference between the

treated plot and the untreated may in fact

exist and even be economic, unless the yield
level of the treated plot is substantially

 

 

 

superior t
getting, t
tension su
We hav
that consisten
fertilizer tre
the better far
Plots of the e
WEIe higher t]
Stances where
Peasant farme
Such yields p
0f the farmer
The 9
to be the nev
Jamaica as the
average yieh
better fame
input to be
biological ,1
last two de
hybrid X304

potent 1811 re

\

37
H(

 

240

superior to what the better farmer is already
getting, the treatment will hardly be an ex—
tension success.

We have found very few experimental crop varieties
that consistently produce superior yields under various
fertilizer treatments, relative to the untreated plots of
the better farmers. In many instances both the untreated
plots of the experiment trials, and that of the farmer,
were higher than those of the untreated plots. In in—
stances where experiment station yields were superior to
peasant farmers the level of control required to obtain
such yields places the practice above the economic means
of the farmer.

The general exception to this situation appears
to be the new indigenous hybrid corn X304 developed in
Jamaica as mentioned above. This variety generally gives
average yields under treatment superior to those of the
better farmers with untreated plots. We consider this
input to be possibly the only major "new“ high potential
biological input to enter domestic agriculture in the

last two decades. Thus, at the present time the local
hybrid X304 appears to be the only crop variety with the

potential response similar to UR in Illustration 5.1.

 

7Hopper, David, op. cit., p. ll.

 

 

 

Unfortunately,
the agricultur
Increased prod
regional agric
ability to ger

to X304 and XI

“New

Re ion: The

W

Discr
tions Will b<
not mean to :
tant to the

.c
COLfee' and

smaller iSla

t
hese two cc

3

 

 

——j

241

Unfortunately, no single crOp can be expected to underpin
the agricultural productivity drive in the West Indies.
Increased productivity and expansion of the output of the
regional agricultural sector will be determined by the
ability to generate a large number of new inputs similar

to X304 and X306.

Fertilizer Response Curves in West Indian
Export Agriculture: The

Empirical Evidence

The Nature of Yields in the
Region: The Case of Sugar
Cane and Bananas

 

 

Discussion of export agriculture's response func—
tions will be confined to sugar cane and bananas. We do
not mean to suggest that other export crops are unimpor-
tant to the region. On the contrary, citrus, cocoa,
coffee, and Spices constitute the mainstay of many of the ,

smaller islands. However, our rationale for focusing on

 

these two commodities is essentially twofold: (1) they

account for over 80 percent of total regional agricultural

export,38 and
zations cover<
infrastructurv
commodities .3

Table
of sugar cane
Guyana from 1
Suqar cane, 1
Of 5119M cane
lation betwee
it is more me
period than (
tained in 5‘f
FIOm Table 7
Sugar cane r

to the acre

\
38

Se

contributior

eXport CfOps

experts, 866

Appendix B,
39

w e

Lloh Of the:

Rent,

40

2240 lbs.)A

 

242

export,38 and (2) some 30 percent of the research organi—
zations covered in the survey of West Indian research
infrastructure are involved in research on these two
commodities.39

Tables 7, 8, and 9, Appendix D, show: (1) tons
of sugar cane reaped per acre for the West Indies and
Guyana from 1953 to 1967, (2) tons of sugar per acre of
sugar cane, 1953—1967, and (3) the tons of sugar per ton
of sugar cane, 1953—1967. Because of the positive corre—
lation between rainfall and cane yields and sugar content,
it is more meaningful to consider yields over a larger
period than one year. Thus, a better picture can be ob—
tained in 5—year, lO—year, and lS—year "moving" averages.
From Table 7, Appendix D, we find that yields per acre of
sugar cane reaped has averaged somewhat less than 30 tons

to the acre for the three moving averages, from 1953—67.40

 

38See Chapter III for discussion of the relative

contribution of the export sector to economic growth and
development. For specific contribution of individual
export crops to total export agricultural exports and total
exports, see Table 3.4, p. 98 . Also Tables 1, 2, and 3,
Appendix B.

39 .
See Chapter IV, Illustration 4.2, for the loca—
tion of these research organizations and time of establish—
ment.

40All figures given in tons are “long tons” (i.e.
2240 lbs.)

 

Thus, we see 1
the region on
shows that th‘
reaped has av
the three mov
Table 9, Appe
sugar per tor
t0 1 for the
yield 1 ton c
it is safe tr
there has bee
last 15 year:
Tablv
Show the cha
in the West
Show that th
that yields
most dramatj
and Product]-
Islands. B<

dramatiC ch;

\
41

are derived

 

243

Thus, we see no major increases in sugar cane yields in
the region over the last 15 years. Table 8, Appendix D,
shows that the yield of raw sugar per acre of sugar cane

reaped has averaged a little under 3 tons to the acre for

 

the three moving averages of the 1953—67 period. Finally,

Table 9, Appendix D, shows that the milling rate of raw

sugar per ton of cane has averaged somewhat less than 10 v
to l for the three averages (i.e. 10 tons of sugar cane

yield l ton of sugar). Given these figures, we feel that

it is safe to say that, by any of these three measures,

there has been little or no increase in yield over the

last 15 years.

Table 2, Appendix B, and Table 10, Appendix D,
show the changes in area, production, and yield of bananas
in the West Indies between 1948 and 1967. The tables
show that there has been modest expansion in yields, and
that yields have varied widely from year to year. The
most dramatic changes, however, appear to be in acreage
and production expansion, particularly in the Windward
Islands. Both acreage and production have shown less

dramatic changes in Jamaica since the 1960's.41 In

 

1Figures for banana yield, area, and production
are derived from F.A.O. (UN), op. cit.

 

 

general, banal
to the adjace1
countries. T?
region probab
acre. These

presented in

three times a
high in Centr
ica. The int
the fact that
duction patte

French Islam

R

e5 onse Cur

W

The
banahel indus
0n VariOus \
the largest
Indies! and
markable in.

IertiliZer

I713 tOns

 

244

general, banana yields are low in the West Indies compared
to the adjacent French Island and Central and American
countries. The F.A.O. figures show that yields for the
region probably average out at less than 3 tons to the
acre. These figures are supported by independent data
presented in Table 5.10 which show that banana yields are
three times as high in the French Islands, four times as
high in Central America, and twice as high in South Amer—
ica. The interesting aspect of the yield situation is
the fact that ecological conditions, soil type, and pro—
duction patterns are similar in the West Indies and the

French Islands.

Response Curves for Sugar
Cane and Bananas

The sugar industry (and to a smaller degree the
banana industry) conduct extensive nutritional research
on various varieties. The sugar industry is undoubtedly
the largest commercial user of fertilizer in the West
Indies, and annual fertilizer consumption has shown re—
markable increases. For example, in Jamaica nitrogen
fertilizer consumption on sugar estates increased from

1,715 tons in 1950 to 2221 tons in 1958. Over the period

 

 

 

 

.mfi QLL§\UE(E
iiiiiiliiilill l.i\liliiiiiii\l|i

 

uzmfloz
mmuflnvmvunhmxr SUEDE EHQJHN HMQN \FNUCSOU
0mflh®><
:fl WUHCMCA HZZMCQEII.C~ ..W‘ IQms/Nh

UMVZ D.CQU \NOQEH @EOWJ,

u mwflNU.ESOU UCflUNOAHuAH

 

 

enmsmsm ewmflan ummz on“ we Muflmnwbflab

 

.em .m .soae

.moonomcoo mofifiocoom HMHDpHSUHHmm cmflch wwwz pcoowm
.wuumSGGH mcmcwm mUQMHmH pum3pufl3 map mo mEmHnoum erocoom: ..m .vsmmuom "monsom

 

 

 

 

 

oz» mo sapwoooum :

W .m.n .m.a m.m vwma cmaflwe
"aflma

mumfinom rfimflpcm>mo MHMBQ N.mm m.m momH mflamfiom

.SOHE mOHU .>mo MHMBD N.mm 0.0 moma ammou who>H

HmMSOHS mouw Imumsaom mm G.NH mwma coonmfimu
"mOHum¢

nmumomq .mgmsaom h.wm m.m vwma mpcmamH ©HMBUCHB

mpmanom .cmumomq m.wm m.m some monmsme

gmecam>mo pmmno .mumsnom .nmflwcm>mo human .m.: e.» eoxmwma msaflcfiunmz

muwsnom .m.c m.w vo\m®ma mmsoawpmsw

dengue: mouo Iwuwam> .m.c w.m~ mood veansmmm amoflcflfioo
no "amongflumo

4

2 sown m.on m.m|o.m moma menfioaoo

amazon: mono mo ma.m moma Mowmsom
"moeuwa< susom

Homnoflz mono Imuoam> hr o.oa mwma mfimcmm

lop: .m.c >.valm.oa wood MOflm ammoo

How£0flz mono .mcmnmu .mumam> .m.c w.na1m.mfl voma mwudpcom
"moanwsm Hmnusmu

amflpco>mo mumso H.m© w.ma mw\N@mH AmtcmHmH metamov cflmmm
Homoudm

.mnq wuo¢\m:09
usages
weapoflnm> socdm Gamay Hmom xhucsoo
wwmuo><

.mmfluucsou mqfluuomxm pmz uGMpHOQEH ofiom 2H mpamfiw mqmnmmll.oa.m mqm<e

 

the percentage
from 95 percer
sumption decli
period and the
ment declined
the period, pi
and the perce
from 32 perce
be asked as t
tents have re
the last 15 y
has been a se
Varieties in
that there i:
(ities at dif
irrigation}
is a high p0
quality, in:

sugar reSear

\
42
n 3‘

43
Va

 

 

246

the percentage of acreage using N fertilizer increased

from 95 percent to 98 percent. Phosphate fertilizer con—
sumption declined from 124 tons to 106 tons over the

period and the percentage of acreage getting this treat—
ment declined from 19 percent to 9 percent. However, over
the period, potash consumption rose from 590 tons to 1490,
and the percentage of acreage getting this treatment rose
from 32 percent to 56 percent.42 The question could then
be asked as to why average yields per acre or sugar con—
tents have remained fairly constant in the region over

the last 15 years. We find little evidence that there

has been a serious shortage of non—reSponsive sugar cane
varieties in the West Indies. HOWever, we do find evidence
that there is a wide range of yield response among vari—
eties at different levels of nitrogen application and
irrigation.43 In addition, in many cane varieties there

is a high positive correlation between cane yield, cane
quality, irrigation, and fertilizer treatment. West Indian

sugar research organizations conduct a large number of

 

2 . . .
4 Sugar Manufacturer's Assoc1ation (Jamaica),
Memorandum (Cyclostyled). Undated material.

 

43Variation in yield response was observed for
both small as well as "large” commercial operations.

 

 

varietal trial
Cane Breeding
sponsibility ,
high-yield va
tion, each co
varieties eac
has resulted
knowledge as
izer treatmer
can be demons
Optimum econc
0f test fiel<
to the regim
V01Ved the a-
monia and 12
Plots’ as ag
Tabl
favor of the
acre 0n the
calculated t

acre 0n the
\
44

S<
Work of the

 

247

varietal trials for local adaptability. The Central Sugar
Cane Breeding Station in Barbados is charged with the re—
sponsibility of breeding disease—resistant as well as

high—yield varieties for the various countries. In addi—

 

tion, each country imports a considerable number of new
varieties each year.44 Regional research coordination
has resulted in a relatively high level of technical
knowledge as to the response of cane varieties to fertil—
izer treatment. Significant positive fertilizer response
can be demonstrated by an experiment in Jamaica to obtain
optimum economic returns by raising the 12 month yields
of test fields to 45 to 46 tons of cane per acre, compared
to the regional average of 30 tons. The treatment in-
volved the application of 6 cwt./acre of sulphate of am—
monia and 12 to 13 irrigations in plant cane for the test
plots, as against 4 cwt./acre for the control plots.
Table 5.11 shows that the yield differentials in
favor of the test fields amounted to over 10 tons to the
acre on the average for the 12—month period. Research
calculated that the additional revenues (over costs) per

acre on the test fields averaged about 4 10 to l 11

 

44See Chapter IV for further discussion on the

work of the Central Sugar Cane Breeding Station.

 

HHMR

 

  

 
 

U£(E
6H0 0G6 WCO . . . u u
¢\ U H n MWEOHUQOHHHH u UMUEGHA u um®>NME . DETEUMMNB .
u NO .02 n MUQQ n UT ®®< n u HMHME
.hOIGQQH \MUNGEdh
EOHUMEHNHthmNWHNuhthI.HH.m EJD§S

®HO§\HMWSW mCOH u
Iii‘ll'ii‘lli‘iiliilii
UHQHW WSUGOZ NH OUMEBXOHQmi
TVKVUQJU QmQOAHmmHm

smufim EONMQMGNH C0 mun‘VfiUMfihnflyxw mCTU HQHUHUEOU NON

 

 

 

 

 

.sm .m .somH

.ucofipummoo noummmom map mo uuomom Hmscgd .AmonEmnv QOHumHoowma m.HoHDpomw5:mz Macaw H®OHDOm

.omMHo>m

ofiu no GOHpmmHHHH mom mogocH onom w psonollwogHm pmoB paw Houpcou smog How “MHHEHm mos own Houmzm

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

mm.¢ ¢N.mv NH wolemxm mh.HH umoe
om.¢ on.wm HH wmlmlm om.mH Houpcou .U
8
4
2 .m.: mH.mv NH owxmlm mh.NH umoB
.w.c , mm.mm HH wwvmmlw oo.MH Hospcoo .m
wH.m vm.md NH wwlmHIm mN.NH pmoe
mo.v we.hm NH owlmlm mn.mH Houpcou .<
mace mace mgpcoz
ouo¢\umm5m mGOB H ono¢\o:mo mQOB H H H H H
H . mQOHummHHuH . popGMHm . umo>umm . . HHmm
” m o .02 n o m n m mm H ucwEumeH H may
UHoHN mswcoz NH opmfiflxoammfi H m H p Q n u fl n H H . B

 

.ouHm noumwmom do moHHwHHm> undo

.soloomH .monmemn

HMHonEEOU Mom o>HSU mmcommwm ECHummHHHHIHwNHHflmuomII.HH.m mqmme

(sterling) pe
profitable.
other field e
per acre of n
additional 1C
accounted for
Experiment it
Of cane per a
between 11 i:
eXperiment,
cane per acr
Give
tiliZer and
can tUrn to
increaSQd ir
0f experimel
in the regi,
reSPOUSe Cu
cane acreag

that Yields
\
45S
QEQSLJEHK
CurrEnt

 

 

249

(sterling) per acre. Thus, the venture was extremely
profitable. Calculations from this experiment and many
other field experiments suggest that an additional 2 cwt.
per acre of nitrogen accounts for about 3 tons of the
additional 10 tons of cane to the acre, while irrigation
accounted for the remaining 7 tons. Furthermore, in this
experiment it was estimated that only about one half ton
of cane per acre could be attributed to the variation
between 11 irrigations and 12 irrigations. Thus, in this
experiment, irrigation accounted for about 6.5 tons of
cane per acre.

Given the observed relatively high positive fer—
tilizer and irrigation response curves for sugar cane, we
can turn to the question as to why sugar yields have not
increased in the region over the past 15 years. A review
of experimental work in other sugar—producing countries
in the region indicated similar fertilizer and irrigation
response curve to that of Jamaica. We noticed that sugar
cane acreage has significantly expanded over the period

that yields have been constant. We also noted that the

 

5Sugar Manufacturer's Association (Jamaica),
Annual Report of the Research Department, 1967, p. 38,
At current rate of exchange, 171 (sterling) = $2.40 U.S.

 

 

average annua
aresult of m
these movemen
explanation o
crease its pr
of sugar has
that is margi
sion has resx
Product of 1;
has just bee]
PrOdUCt of f.
margin); (2)
resulted in
Problems of
SearCh resul
not effect“
output comir
knowledge 0:
PErfOrmanCe
ally rElate.
If
strong eVid

then
One mu

 

 

250

average annual change in value increased significantly as
a result of more favorable preferential prices. Given
these movements, we suggest three factors as a plausible
explanation of the failure of the sugar industry to in-
crease its productivity: (1) regional output expansion
of sugar has come from expanding cane production onto land
that is marginal for sugar cane production. This expan—
sion has resulted in a relative decline in the Marginal
Product of land input (at the extensive margin), which
has just been offset by the increases in the Marginal
Product of fertilizer and irrigation (at the intensive
margin); (2) harvesting and productive inefficiencies have
resulted in significant losses; and (3) there have been
problems of effectively commercializing eXperimental re—
search results such that experimental response curves are
not effective measures of the utility of the research
output coming from the research organizations. From our
knowledge of the sugar industry we feel that the yield
performance of the regional industry is probably function—
ally related to all three factors.

If factor (1) is indeed the case (and there is
strong evidence to suggest that this has actually occurred),

then one must question the social and economic consequences

from alloca
tion, when
utilized ir
bases for I
gion, since
of land ho]

appears to

 

in Chapter

the highest
labor costs
tiOn of the
has been eg
a ton of 51
Puerto Ric<
and 104 i1
efficiency
COSt struc

the fact it
l‘ands that
QUctiOn'

WW

 

 

 

251

from allocating scarce land resources into sugar produc—
tion, when such land could probably be more effectively
utilized in other crops.46 Quite clearly there are sound
bases for rationalization of the sugar industry in the re—
gion, since the opportunity costs of following expansion
of land holdings in sugar production is high. Factor (2)
appears to have some validity. We had already pointed out
in Chapter IIthat the West Indian sugar industry is one of
the highest cost producers of sugar in the world. High
labor costs is a major component of the uncompetitive posi—
tion of the industry on the world market. For example, it
has been estimated that it requires 53 man—hours to produce
a ton of sugar in Jamaica, compared to 33 man—hours in
Puerto Rico, 33.5 man—hours in Louisiana, 9.8 in Florida,
and 10.4 in Hawaii. Further insights into the production
efficiency of the industry can be gained by examining the
cost structure in terms of the major cost components. In
the Jamaican industry, labor costs accounted for 48 percent

of total cost of producing a ton of sugar over the 1964—65

 

46The West Indian sugar interests have acknowledged

the fact that the industry has expanded production on to
lands that are marginal and submarginal for sugar cane pro—
dUCtion. See: Sugar Manufacturer's Association (Jamaica),
Memorandum (Cyclostyled), Undated material, p. 5.

 

 

period. Cu]
some 31 per<
Factor (3) a
of the consi
found that 1
consistentlj
mentation o
(1) lack of
sion, (2) 1
farmers, an
necessary r
fertiliZer_
experiment,
for OVer 7C
timer ac:
tion now be
the Small (

cane proml<

Cheers; We

to underta‘;

this inVes
\

47
w

252

period. Cultivation and harvesting costs accounted for
some 31 percent of the total labor cost per ton of sugar.47
Factor (3) appears to have some validity. In our analysis
of the constraints to implementation of research finding we
found that the Type 3 agricultural research organizations
consistently indicated that a major constraint to imple—
mentation of research findings was equally weighted on:

(1) lack of effective contact between research and exten—
sion, (2) lack of effective contact between extension and
farmers, and (3) the inability of farmers to acquire the
necessary resources. From reviewing the data on
fertilizer—irrigation response curve for the Jamaican
experiment, it is quite clear that irrigation accounted
for over 70 percent of the additional yields, while fer—
tilizer accounted for the remaining 30 percent. The ques—
tion now becomes one of the feasibility of irrigation for
the small cane farmer. Over 50 percent of annual sugar
cane production in Jamaica is supplied by small cane pro—
ducers; we seriously question the ability of such farmers
to undertake such a high capital investment. We feel that

this investment is within the range of the large sugar

 

47Government of Jamaica, Report of the Sugar In—
dustry Enquiry Commission, October, 1967, p. 51.

 

 

 

estates, but
produces sug
Mucl
plies to bar
in the Windv
concentrater
11:11:33) t<
prevailing ,
research f1;
0f one ton
YiElds in t'
PGrimental
restilts fro
variability
tions. In
any "Sure"
Some imprm
When reConm

losses are

\

 

253

estates, but is hardly feasible for the small farm which
produces sugar cane as a cash crop.

Much of the argument advanced for sugar cane ap—
plies to banana production. It has been estimated that
in the Windward Islands it is possible to use one ton of
concentrated N—P-K fertilizer formula (in the ratio of
11:11:33) to produce at least ten tons of bananas under
prevailing conditions. Under experimental conditions,
research findings suggest that a general application rate
of one ton of N—P—K per acre can more than triple banana
yields in the Windward Islands.48 As in the case of ex—
perimental results in domestic food crop research, the
results from banana research have exhibited substantial
variability according to soil type and ecological condi—
tions. In addition, research findings have not produced
any ”sure” way of pest and disease control of bananas.
Some improvement has been made in this area; but even
when recommended practices are followed, substantial

losses are still incurred. Banana disease and pests are

 

48Twyford, G. T., "Economic Aspects of Banana
Research in the Windward Islands,” Proceedings of the
Second West Indian Agricultural Economics Conference.
University of the West Indies, Trinidad, August 1967, pp.
71—88.

 

constantly (1
these condit
most banana
fertilizer.
age fertiliz
than 0.16 t(
We :
minimal unt:

and high po'

Thi
designed tc
as Well as
Vestmem ii
that hiSto:

gains in b
\
49

(:97 perCent
in the Wes
and Beckfc

Of
Bostoh, l<

 

254

constantly developing immunity to chemical controls. Under
these conditions, plus the generally uneconomic size of
most banana holdings, there is little incentive to apply
fertilizer. For example, it has been estimated that aver—
age fertilizer application in the Windward Islands is less
than 0.16 tons to the acre.49

We feel that adaption at the farm level will be
minimal until research output can demonstrate consistent

and high potential payoffs.

Summary

This chapter examined the international efforts
designed to generate significant agricultural productivity,
as well as the available evidence as to the return on in—
vestment in agricultural research. The evidence suggests
that historically, successful agricultural productivity

gains in both the ”new” and the ”old” countries were

 

49Ibid., p. 75. It has been estimated that about

97 percent of the banana holdings are less than 10 acres
in the West Indies. See: Arthur, H. B., Houck, J. P.,
and Beckford, G. L., Tropical Agri—Business Structures
and Adjustments: Bananas, Division of Research, Graduate
School of Business Administration, Harvard University,
Boston, 1968, p. 58.

 

 

 

achieved by .
those factor
the limits.
most relevan
purposeful 1:
response crc
chemical inr
in this dire
t0 investmel
that this t:
ratio Signi
Opportuniti
to be small

The
gains is Ce
lOgically s
tilizer res
CrOps.

A :
and 90m),
indicates

clined Sin

255

achieved by generating technology which substituted for
those factors of production that imposed constraints at
the limits. The international experience that appears
most relevant to the West Indies is that dealing with
purposeful research efforts to generate high fertilizer
response crop varieties for domestic agriculture. Bio—
chemical innovations appear to be the basis for success
in this direction. The studies dealing with the return
to investment in relevant agricultural research indicate
that this type of investment tends to give a benefit—cost
ratio significantly above most alternative investment
opportunities. Thus, the probability of failure tends
to be small for relevant research efforts.

The general discussion on agricultural productivity
gains is centered around the presence (or absence) of bio—
logically superior crop varieties, in terms of high fer—
tilizer reSponse thresholds for the regional domestic
crops.

A review of crop yields for the major cereals (rice
and corn), as well as root crops and starchy vegetables,
indicates that in many instances yields have actually de—

clined since 1948. Examination of experiment station

. a...“

results for

Caribbean is

the
litt

feri

yie

out

exp
lar
trc
the

FEE

CO

te

 

256

results for Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and the Eastern

Caribbean islands indicate the following:

1.

The crOp varieties that are generally released by
the experiment stations to the farmers show very
little significant yield differentials under N—P—K

fertilization as against no fertilization.

In a number of cases the addition of nitrogenous
fertilizer depressed yields to the point that
yields were actually lower than experiments carried

out without fertilizer.

In a few cases, fertilization increased yields of
local crop varieties; but even within a single
experiment station, the variation in yields is
large. In addition, the level of biological con—
trol necessary to attain such yields tends to make
the recommended variety uneconomical for the

peasant farmer.

EXperimental results (in terms of crop yields)
conducted under conditions of the best available

technology were not significantly better than

m x'
with“ f

, i

.

resu

usin

the
wide

hybi

Jame
.v‘

Frm
ical innova.
Indian dome

In .
Organizatio
Varietal tr
varieties t
ical Condit
halle Hot St
IESults Of
WhEn Expe“
treatment,
mending the
the Yield (

:0 What thl

 

 

257

results attained by the "better" peasant farmer

using traditional technology.

5. The only crop varieties that generally out—perform
the local unimproved varieties consistently, under
widely variable ecological conditions, are the tw0
hybrid corn varieties (X304 and X306) developed in

Jamaica by Pioneer Hi—Bred Corn Company.

From the above observations we feel that biochem—
ical innovations are practically non—existent in West
Indian domestic agriculture.

In general, we find that domestic—oriented research
organizations have tended to concentrate their efforts on
varietal trials rather than developing indigenous improved
varieties that are adaptable to a wide variety of ecolog—
ical conditions. Domestic agricultural research efforts
have not succeeded in placing their results well above the
results of the more commercially—oriented farmers. Even
when experimental yields are higher than under non—fertilizer
treatment, we feel that this is not a sound basis for recom—
mending the extension of Such treatment to farmers. Unless
the yield of the treated plots are substantially superior

to what the better farmers are already getting with

 

 

traditional
extension su
The
fertilizer 1
why peasant
governmental
varieties aV
serves a 10x
generated fl
tially redu
in applying
the increme
nificant ex
into accour
Producer al’
would furtl
fertilizer
that fI‘Om .
are dWare
reSult in
positiOn.

priCES. I

L

L
LOLal COSt

258

traditional technology, the treatment will hardly be an
extension success.

The general failure of research to produce high
fertilizer response crop varieties would tend to explain
why peasant farmers often show a lack of interest in
governmental fertilizer subsidy schemes. If the crOp
varieties available to the farmer are such that he ob—
serves a low response curve, there will be limited demand
generated for fertilizer, even when the price is substan—
tially reduced by subsidies. The marginal cost incurred
in applying additional units of fertilizer, relative to
the incremental changes in yields, would not warrant sig—
nificant expansion in fertilizer application. If we take
into account the high degree of competitiveness between
producer and consumer capital for the peasant farmer, it
would further explain the general reluctance to invest in
fertilizer, even at highly subsidized prices. We argue
that from past experience, West Indian peasant farmers
are aware that large scale application of fertilizer could
result in an actual decline in yield, and hence his income
position. Total Revenue is the product of output and
prices. If additional application of fertilizer increases

total costs of production, and yields are depressed to the

 

 

point that t
eXperience a
stant). Um
term expans:
izer subsidj
A g,
cane and ba
shows that
past fiftee
Windward Is
speaking is
little evic
POSseSS a j
Sugar cane
and imprOVe
dUCtion by
to reCOnci
range of h
closEr exa
(iency to e
lands that
to eXpan d

working 0;

 

259

point that total revenue decline, then the farmer could
experience a loss (assuming product prices remain con—
stant). Under these conditions we do not see any long—
term expansion in agricultural output by massive fertil—
izer subsidy schemes.

A general review of the yield situation for sugar
cane and bananas, the two major agricultural exports,
shows that sugar cane yields have been constant over the
past fifteen years. Banana yields in Jamaica and the
Windward Islands are substantially lower than the French—
speaking islands and Central and South America. We found
little evidence that West Indian sugar cane varieties
possess a low fertilizer response threshold. In general,
sugar cane research is highly advanced in the West Indies,
and improved varieties are constantly being put into pro—
duction by local research efforts. We found it difficult
to reconcile constant yields with the existence of a wide
range of high response sugar cane varieties. However, on
closer examination, we found that there has been a ten—
dency to expand sugar output by expansion of acreage onto
lands that are marginal for cane production. The tendency
to expand output by increasing acreage is related to the

working of the quota mechanism and preferential

 

 

 

 

arrangement
pansion ont<
decline in ‘
(at the exti
increases i
and irrigat
labor cost

research ef
ation of te
costs per u
a more comp

COuntrles_

 

 

arrangement covering sugar production. We feel that ex—
pansion onto marginal land has resulted in a relative
decline in the Marginal Physical Product of land input
(at the extensive margin), which has just been offset by
increases in the Marginal Physical Product of fertilizer
and irrigation (at the intensive margin). Given the high
labor cost component of sugar production, we feel that ‘
research efforts should be redirected toward the gener—
ation of technological innovation that would reduce labor
costs per unit of output. This would put the region on

a more competitive basis with other sugar producing

countries.

 

 

 

 

Th:
re‘lairding i
ulating int

tasks of t.

Cd

definitim

 

PART III

CHAPTER VI
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH PRIORITIES AND
STRATEGIES IN THE 1970's: POTENTIAL

SECOND AND THIRD GENERATION PROBLEMS
Introduction

This chapter expands our discussion in Chapter V
regarding the problems encountered in the process of stim—
ulating increased agricultural productivity. Specific

tasks of this chapter are:

1. Examination of a set of criteria to determine how
agricultural research priorities and strategies

can be based in the West Indies over the 1970's.

2. Examination of the relationship of these criteria
to the long—run solution of likely second and

third generation agricultural problems.1

 

lSee pp. 184-186 and footnote 1 of Chapter V for
definitions of first, second, and third generation agri-
cultural problems.

261

 

 

 

In
On second a
specific 56
aPproach is
assigning 1
are implic:
generation
ment and i
“Signing
Normally b
t3id1 of re
which are
of the rel
Dent of de
aspect in
generatim
Problem is

heiow.

 

262

3. Development of a set of research strategies and
priorities dealing with the subject matter and
types of agricultural research systems for both

domestic and export agriculture.

In pursuing the first two tasks, we focus attention
on second and third generation problems, rather than on a
specific set of research criteria. The rationale for our
approach is this: we believe that the major criteria for
assigning research priorities in the agricultural sector
are implicitly included in assessment of second and third
generation problems. For example, if food import replace—
ment and increased employment are to be major criteria for
assigning research priorities, each of these criteria would
normally be included in discussion of the state and poten—
tial of regional effective demand and income distribution,
which are second and third generation problems. Because
of the relative importance of the effective demand compo—
nent of development, major attention will be given to this
aSpect in the discussion of potential second and third
generation problems. Furthermore, the effective demand
problem is closely linked to the other four problems given

below.

 

 

We

lems to be

1970's. Th

for

SE

m<

 

lems to

1970's.

 

263

We consider five second and third generation prob—
be of major importance in the West Indies over the

These are:

Lack of aggregate and per capita effective demand
for expanded agricultural output resulting from

successful research efforts.

Increased levels of structural unemployment. With
an already high level of regional unemployment,
this potential problem deserves special attention

in the West Indies.

Unequal distribution of net worth among and within

sectors of the economy.

Artificially high Commonwealth preferential prices
for export crops are already malallocating scarce
land away from food crops to eXport crops. Under
conditions of increased efficiency of production

for export crops, this problem could be aggregated.

Inadequate diets and nutrition among certain seg—
ments of the pOpulation——amidst expanded food

production.

 

 

 

 

Stu
past fiftee
has been eq
The margina
with a rise
rapid rate
buted to es
sector (1a:
impe’cus frc
by the mid.
growth Sta]
came as a 1
However, a:
thring was
there is l
i‘ESulted i
ployment.
malOr fact

\
2
T
alillhina ir.
3
5
rate 0f t}

 

264

Studies in the West Indies indicate that over the
past fifteen years the rate of growth in import expenditure
has been equal to, or greater than that of, total income.
The marginal prOpensity to import has risen concurrently
with a rise in real per capita income. In the 1950's the
rapid rate of growth in the region could be largely attri—
buted to establishment and growth of the extractive mineral
sector (largely in Jamaica and Trinidad).2 The growth
impetus from this sector appeared to have reached its peak
by the mid—1960's, and thus, the unprecedented rate of
growth started a decline. From the mid—1960's, some growth
came as a result of expanded manufacturing and tourism.
However, as indicated earlier, the expansion in manufac—
turing was largely confined to Jamaica and Trinidad, and
there is little evidence to suggest that such expansion
resulted in appreciable structural transformation and em—
ployment. On the other hand, expanded tourism has been a
major factor in maintaining the 2.5 percent average annual

rate of growth in per capita income betWeen 1961 and 1967.

 

2The extractive mineral sectors were bauxite and
alumina in Jamaica and oil in Trinidad and Tobago.

3See Chapter II, pp. 26—50 for discussion of growth
rate of the region.

 

 

 

 

Con
income sign
income elas
The shiftin
ing level 0
import bill
components
idad and Tc
grounds for
Shifters i1
N0n~durab1.
79‘4 99rce
and Tobago
increased
r1Oikdurabl
tween i95c
cent to 35
ShiftS in
COincided
in real pe
obserVed ;
not have

the incom

265

Concurrently with the movements in per capita
income significant structural shifts occurred in the
income elasticities of demand for certain commodities.
The shifting demand structure is indicated by the increas—
ing level of capital and intermediate goods in the regional
import bill. The most recent data on the movements in the
components of regional imports refers to Jamaica and Trin—
idad and Tobago. However, such movements do provide some
grounds for assessing and identifying the major demand
shifters in the regional consumption and demand functions.
Non—durables as a percentage of total imports declined from
79.4 percent in 1951 to 68.5 percent in 1965 for Trinidad
and Tobago. Over the same period, the quantity of durables
increased from 20.6 percent to 31.5 percent. In Jamaica,
non—durables declined from 80 percent to 64.8 percent be—
tween 1950 and 1965, while durables increased from 20 per—
cent to 35.2 percent. In both islands, there were major
shifts in the composition of import demand. The shift
coincided with that period of unprecedented rate of growth
in real per capita income already mentioned. Clearly the
observed shifts in import demand and propensities could
not have occurred without the dramatic upward shifts in

the income position of the region. However, there are

 

 

 

reasons to
import dema
the relativ
This point
of this cha
Des
ables in t}
some 40 per
time perior
COHipositiox
Memo (19!
The
indiah bal;
CdutiOH ag‘
Placement
income pro
COuntries
Par capita
substituti
This Sugge
natignal a
case for e

by the m0.

 

266

reasons to believe that much of the observed expansion in
import demand (particularly food) is highly correlated with
the relative cost of imports as against domestic items.
This point will be pursued further in subsequent sections
of this chapter.

Despite the increasing importance of consumer dur—
ables in the total import billlfood products represent
some 40 percent or more of the non—durable items for both
time periods, and for either country. Table 6.1 shows the
composition of consumer goods imports for Trinidad and
Tobago (1951 and 1965) and Jamaica (1950 and 1965).

The high food import bill is important in the West
Indian balance of payments problems. However, we must
caution against policies that seek to use food import re—
placement solely as an answer to balance of payments and
income problems. Import replacement policies within
countries with relatively rapid rates of growth in real
per capita incomes must necessarily involve policies for
substitution of non~food items as well as fppd items.

This suggests that policies must be programmed at the
national and sectoral, as well as regional, levels. The
case for an integrated substitution policy is demonstrated

by the movements in the aggregates of personal diSposable

 

 

TABLE 6.1.-

Inn

NON—DURABL}
W

Beverage:

Medicinal

ceutio

Essentia

Textile,

Fabric

i Clothing
FOOtWear

9%
Jewelry
Radio Se
Televisi
Radiogra
Washing
MotOr Ca
MOtor CYC
BiCYCles
FurnituI
Travel C

Handba
Other C(
Durabj

TOTA]

SouIce:

 

 

267

TABLE 6.l.——Composition and Consumer Goods Imports Trin—

idad and Tobago,
1950 and 1965.

1951 and 1965 and Jamaica,

 

Imports

Trinidad and

 

 

NON—DURABLES

Food Products

Beverages & Tobacco

Medicinal and Pharma—
ceutical Products

Essential Oils, etc.

Textile, Yarns,
Fabrics, etc.

Clothing

Footwear

DURABLES

Jewelry

Radio Sets

Television Sets

Radiograms

Washing Machines

Motor Cars and Parts

Motorcycles & Parts

Bicycles & Parts

Furniture & Fixtures

Travel Goods and
Handbags

Other Consumer
Durable Goods

 

 

Ja '

Tobago maica

1965 1951 1965 1950
———————————— Percent—————————————
68.5 79.4 64.8 80.0
40.5 46.0 39.8 39.6
3.2 2.1 3.3 1.4
3.2 2.1 2.6 4.4
2.9 2.4 2.7 2.0
12.2 17.8 13.4 21.3
2.9 4.6 2.3 6.7
3.7 4.4 .7 4.6
31.5 20.6 35.2 20.0

.3 .5 .9 .5

.7 .5 .5 .5

.4 — .7 —
1.3 — — _

.2 — .2 —
9.4 5.6 9.5 3.2
— .1 .2 .l

.2 .6 .2 .5
1.0 .8 .8 .3

.5 3 .5 —

17.5 12.2 21.7 14.9

 

TOTAL

Source: Brown, A., Brown H.,

100.0 100.0

and Girvan,

N.,

100.0 100.0

"Patterns of

Consumption and Possibilities for Change," 33—

gional Conference on Devaluation,

Institute of

Social and Economic Research, University of the

West Indies, Jamaica, February 2—4,

1968.

~——-__.

 

income, pei
both Jamai<
1950's and
point out 1
average pe:
1950-60. 1
not grown
and averag
able incre
Savings as
ally rapid
ticular ft
StitUtion
industrial
mingfl‘ II
the West 1
formation
ages betwv

eXtreme 1y
\
4

ary 2-4,

 

268

income, personal savings, and personal consumption for
both Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago between the early
1950's and the early 1960's (Table 6.2). Brown epflgl,
point out that there have been substantial gains in
average per capita disposable income over the decade
1950—60. However, the personal prOpensity to save has
not grown significantly. At the same time, both total
and average personal consumption have registered remark—
able increases. The relatively slow growth in personal
savings as against personal consumption, plus the gener—
ally rapid shifts to imported consumer durables (in par-
ticular furniture and automobiles) suggest that any sub—
stitution policy must necessarily make provisions for
industrial programming as well as agricultural program—
ming.4 In addition, our analysis of the degree to which
the West Indian economy has undergone structural trans—
formation indicated that the backward and forward link-
ages between the various sectors of the economy were

extremely weak. The data with respect to cost coefficients

 

4Brown, A., Brown H., and Girvan, N., "Patterns of
Consumption and Possibilities for Change,” Regional Con-
ference on Devaluation, Institute of Social and Economic
Research, University of the West Indies, Jamaica, Febru—
ary 2—4, 1968, p. 123.

 

 

 

OmvamHOH. QZAQ QSQHZHNHH. <UH§<E
MAOOO.$ WQUHHW HGMMHDUV

flAmmUHHnH OOOHV -.H. .HW COHHHHZ

-WIHQQN
MUHNETD \M@Ummv@hnmwmuflw “do COWHHMQEOUII-NID mHeHmfimNrH

somMOHOH. Cum MummvvaHHH. Drum.
MU

HUQUUGHQW

 

 

269

I‘HHHdil-

 

.mNH .d ..uHo .mo ..m .cm>nHo can ..

 

 

 

 

m CBOHm ..m .cBonm "mousom
.B.B ow.¢w H .m.D ow.mw H H4 mmcmfloxo mo who“ ucousso u<o
>.mw N.mmm H.mw o.mom mm.vm ooo.me mm.mm ONN.mm soHuQESmcoo
Hmcomnom
. . . . mcH>mm
m OH m h . . . m .
m 0 HH m mH mm m hmo NH no H mom Hmcomnom
. oEoocH
o.ooH m.mm® o.OOH m.¢NN o.OOH sworoHN o.OOH mmH.om oHHMmOQmHQ
Hmcomnom
ucoonom COHHHHEW Dcoomom COHHHHEW pcoouom ooo.H% usoouom ooo.HH
HomH HmmH vmmH NmmH
oommoe ozm nsonHme moHasme monsoonmma
mimoUHnm oomHV .e.ew eoHHHHs onoo_H mooflum oaaonsov

 

 

 

.mnmow
pouomHmm .omMQOB pcm popHQHHB paw mUHmEmb .mmummongmm mo COmHHmmEOUII.N.© mammB

 

of the Trix
a relative
being util:
Chapter II
the argume‘
ming are e
dynamic ro
is no guar
Sired resu
Well planr
PrObabilit
0f simulta
the food 5
of this cl
impact of

Prices an,
this POin

West Indi

has risen
\
5
tural tra
SEe fOOtr
linkages I
IGg‘lOnal

 

270

of the Trinidad and Tobago input structure indicate that
a relatively low percentage of indigenous material was
being utilized in manufacturing process (See Table 2.9,

Chapter II). This would tend to lend further support to

 

the argument that overall sectoral and regional program—
ming are essential if import substitution is to play a
dynamic role in economic transformation.5 While there
is no guarantee that such programming will give the de—
sired results, there is every reason to believe that a
well planned and executed programming would increase the

probability of realizing specific results. The importance

 

of simultaneous expansion in the non—food sector and in
the food sector will be discussed in subsequent sections
of this chapter. Discussion will focus on the long—run
impact of food and non—food expansion on domestic food

prices and farm income. However, it should be noted at
this point that as per capita income has risen in the

West Indies, the proportion of durables to non—durables

has risen appreciably. With the current levels of income

 

5See Chapter I for working definition of struc—
tural transformation. Also footnote 8 of Chapter II.
See footnote 13, Chapter II, for definition of economic
linkages, and footnote 4, Chapter V, for definition of
regional and national programming.

 

elasticity
food secto:
in order t:
panded foo
If
ciable adj
would be 5
ever, ther
question.
Placing fc
p01icy is
the domest
(or its 51
Price at \
level and

helogy in
\

6
relations
of demand

7
haVe not

with res;
mOSt Case
induStryI

it is dot

271

elasticity of demand for food, it is vital that the non—
food sector increase its contribution to per capita income
in order to prevent domestic farm price decline due to ex—
panded food output resulting from increased productivity.6
If import replacement policies bring about appre—
ciable adjustments in the region's terms of trade, there
would be substantial economic gains to the region. How—
ever, there is a second element involved in this policy
question. This element deals with the cost aspect of re—
placing food imports. Import replacement as an Operational
policy is inadvisable if there are clear indications that
the domestic unit costs of producing the imported commodity
(or its substitutes) are substantially higher than the unit
price at which the commodity can be imported.7 Given the
level and characteristics of current agricultural tech—

nology in the West Indies, there are strong indications

 

6See page 301 of this chapter for discussion of
relationship between per capita income, income elasticity
of demand for food, and farm prices.

7Policymakers in many less developed countries
have not given enough consideration to this cost argument
with respect to the establishment of new industries. In
most cases their rationale has been based on the ”infant
industry” argument, which has some validity. However,
it is doubtful if such an argument is applicable to agri—
culture.

 

 

 

 

that domes
are substa
Thus, some
to import
relevant a
erated whe
reduced.
realistic
become one
following
We
briefly d.
GirvahtS
in 1963 t
than in 1
Value of
The growt
livestock
durables
Cam; gait

the Share
\

BevelO m
iiShed m

 

272

that domestic costs of production in certain commodities
are substantially above unit prices of similar imports.
Thus, some economic justification exists for continuing
to import certain commodities. We believe, however, that
relevant agricultural research and technology can be gen—
erated whereby unit costs of production are substantially
reduced. At this point import replacement could become a
realistic alternative. An important aspect would then
become one of evaluating the likely long—run impact of
following this particular course of action.

We set the stage for subsequent discussion by
briefly describing the regional food import sector.
Girvan's study of the Jamaican situation indicated that
in 1963 the share of consumer import goods was higher
than in 1954. In addition, he found that the absolute
value of imports had more than doubled over this period.
The growth in consumer imports was largely attributed to
livestock and dairy products, motor cars, and household
durables. In general, the items that registered signifi-
cant gains in total consumption also registered gains in

the share of total imports.8 (See Tables 1 and 2 of

 

8Girvan, Norman, Foreign Investment and Economic
Development in Jamaica Since the Second World War (Unpub—
lished material), p. 405.

 

 

 

 

Appendix E
household (
Although tl
dications ‘
Tobago and
movements
period in
twice that
in general
imPort exE
caPita dis
eXPenditui
major facl
of dairy .
ihgs frOm
tern in t

the reidt
\

0

.1

territOri
eeh rUnr
1(

p, 111 ii
Study.

 

Appendix E for the share of individual food items in total
household consumption for Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago.)
Although this study was limited to Jamaica, there are in—
dications that similar situations exist in Trinidad and
Tobago and in other territories.9 Adam's study of the
movements in food consumption and imports over the 1950—63
period in Jamaica found that the income elasticity of
import demand for food was well above unity, and was about
twice that of the elasticity of consumption demand for food
in general. This meant that, over the period, per capita
import expenditure on food was rising faster than real per
capita diSposable income, and almost twice as fast as food
expenditure per capita in general. It was found that the
major factors in the movements were the large quantities

of dairy products, meat, and imported cereals.lO The find—
ings from the Jamaican study characterize the general pat—
tern in the region, and to a great extent, they reflect

the relatively high income elasticities of demand for

 

9A review of the Development Plans of the various
territories shows that imports of livestock products have
been running high in the territories.

l . .
0Brown, A., Brown H., and Girvan, N., op. c1t.,
p. 111 in reference to Nassau Adams unpublished econometric
study.

 

 

 

cereals, n
tories. F
the averag

1 about .45

.77 and .E

The averag

eral was a

pendix E,

i Table 4, 1

capita fO<
i

imports,

and Trini
iOWest va
of agricu
POrts_ I
is less 5
Peasant E
emergence
in the Le

\

elastiCii
was with
and Thom,

 

 

274

cereals, meat, and dairy products in the various terri—
tories. For example, it has been estimated that in 1958
the average income elasticity of demand for cereals was
about .45 for the West Indies. The estimates were about
.77 and .63 for meat and dairy products, respectively.
The average income elasticity of demand for food in gen—
eral was about .40 for the region. (See Table 3, Ap—
pendix E, for breakdown by countries and commodities.)11
Table 4, Appendix E, shows the relative changes in per
capita food imports by territories between 1956 and 1964.
In terms of actual dollar value of per capita.
imports, Barbados has the highest value, Antigua second,
and Trinidad and Tobago third. Jamaica has the third
lowest value. There is some correlation between the level
of agricultural diversification and per capita food im—
ports. In the sugar producing islands, food production
is less developed. The figures reflect the emergence of
peasant agriculture in the individual territories. The
emergence of peasant farming was relatively less pronounced

in the Leeward Islands, Barbados, and Trinidad and Tobago.

 

llBrewster and Thomas estimate that the income
elasticity of demand for meat and dairy products in 1969
was within the range 1.00 to 1.10. See: Brewster, H.
and Thomas, C. Y., op. cit., pp. 290—300.

 

 

 

These are
port (suga
However, t
been extre
examines i
and total
Between tl
caPita fo:
total imp:
I
Only abou
By 1964 t‘
Six times
acteristi
1964 peri
the relat
total imp
the deCli
total 961
IOSE by a
ihGly em
hheiage

 

275

These are the countries that find it advantageous to ex—
port (sugar and/br bananas) in order to import food.
However, the rates of change in per capita import have
been extremely uneven among the territories. Table 6.3
examines the movements in both per capita food imports
and total imports for the area between 1953 and 1964.
Between the two periods, the value of food imports per
capita for the region increased by some 82 percent, while
total imports per capita increased by some 131 percent.
In 1953 the value of all imports per capita was
only about 4—1/2 times as high as per capita food imports.
By 1964 the value of all imports per capita were about
six times as high as per capita food imports. The char—
acteristics of the 1953—1964 period, as against the 1960—
1964 period, are largely reflected in the magnitude of
the relative decline in food imports as a percentage of
total imports. The years 1958 and 1959 show a break in
the declining proportion of per capita food imports to
total per capita imports. Specifically, the proportion
rose by almost one percent over the 1957 period. Surpris—
ingly enough, effective in 1960 the ratio registered an
average annual decline of almost 2 percent. It appears

significant that the two atypical years coincided with

UHOQEH HMUOE M0 COHUHOQOHQ HHfi TCCE
ii COHHQHDQOA iii Amos

mé UHOQEH Doom MHHQMU me
GUHQMU me WUHOQEH HmUOH

.vwmfllmmmd ~WUflUEH UWOB .WUHOQEH Hdfi “Cd WUMOQEH TOOh MUHQMU MGA hid HMUOSII.M.® HQQQB

 

 

 

 

 

.nomH .hsmsuflwm .qo .moHpsH Hum: map mo muHmHo>HnD .moHEosoom HmnduHsoHHmH mo unwaummmoo
”mmHUcH pmoB o Hummemm>cH QOHU pad Mooumo>HH mo Edumosm m on pcdonmxomm UHEOQoom oSE
. SH SH Sommomwm HMHDHHDOHHmm ..b .Hommosu paw .E .Q .mpumspm "Eomm ponmpfi "mousom

.H.B . u .
ow Hm oo Hm opus :OHpmsHm>opmHm um .H.B oo.mm u .m.D oo.Hw nouns omcssoxo unounso was

 

 

 

 

 

 

m. somHuoomH
m n e.om e.m o.sm m.mm omaaso
llllllllllllllili pcoonom
m. emaHimmmH
Hm: o.HmH N.mm s.amH H.aNH omqaao
Illlllllllllll ucoohom
"m “.mw c.6He 6.Hs mHe.m oom.mme.H omw.aem «was
2 s.mom o.eo smm.m www.mmm.H mHo.MHN momH
MHsH s.mmm ”.mo mmm.m Hso.HsH.H wHe.Nom memH
.sH m.mam m.mm emH.m ome.eOH.H mmH.mmH HomH
o.sH m.mmm N.mm mmH.m smm.mmo.H oao.mma coma
H.mH m.omm n.6m sHH.m «mo.amm smm.osH mmmH
H mH m.NwN m.em Nmo.m NOH.mow emm.moH mmms
aHmH s.m©m o.ma mmm.m Hmo.mom smm.maH smas
m.mH m.mmm «.6e Hmm.m mwo.mmo mee.mmH ommH
m Hm m.owH «.mm mss.m mam.oom mmm.moH mmmH
uuuuuuuuuu unwoummuiluuluul aHsm mmmmmmmzmmmw luunullaHeooo.w-luilu
uaogsH Hmpos no coHuuomoom HHm soon HHa coon
QOHumHsmom snow

mm “HomEH poem cpHmmo Mom
muHmmo Mom

 

mpHomEH Hopoa

 

.womHlmmmH .moHch umoz .mpHomEH HH< pun munomEH poem MUHQMU Mom pan Hmuoeli.m.® MHmfle

the period
of the reg
modest exp
translated
since the
from abroa
II
in the reg
certain k.
has to do
imports o
caPita ef
to what e
reflectig
caPita ef
1“ CJanera
relative]
the 1950
ieVel 0f
the 8Com
food in

p1

first P1

mush hav

 

 

the period of dramatic rise in the real per capita income
of the region. It appears that the two periods represent
modest expansion in per capita effective demand, which was
translated into an expansion in per capita food imports,
since the imported food items could be obtained cheaper
from abroad.

In observing the rising propensity to import food
in the region, plus the movements in per capita income,
certain key questions naturally arise. One such question
has to do with the relationship between increasing food
imports on one hand and the level of aggregate and per
capita effective demand on the other hand. Specifically,
to what extent is the rising propensity to import food a
reflection of appreciable expansion in the level of per
capita effective demand among the West Indian population
in general? While it seems reasonable to assume that the
relatively high rates of growth in per capita income in
the 1950's and 1960's did generate some expansion in the
level of per capita effective demand, other features of
the economy tend to suggest that the observed increases in
food imports did not come mainly from this source. In the
first place, the expansion in per capita effective demand

must have been relatively small, since it was unable to

 

 

 

l

 

absorb the
from high
domestic e
it would 1
sponse f0]
sponse di<
0:
in the im‘
imports r
foods as
imports a
iiflports I
for certa
SCheduleg
1
leads us
fOQd imp
gional e
the SOur
bution C

\

behh act
are C0n<

 

absorb the relatively high domestic food prices resulting
from high production costs. Presumably, if per capita
domestic effective demand had been expanded significantly,
it would have been able to generate a positive supply re—
sponse for domestic food production. Such a supply re—
sponse did not occur.

One plausable explanation of the observed movements
in the import figures is that the rising level of food
imports represent an expansion in consumption of imported
foods as a result of changes in relative price of food
imports as against domestic foods. As such, rising food
imports represent movements along specific demand schedules
for certain food items rather than outward shifts in the
schedules.12

A second characteristic of the regional economy
leads us to further question the argument that the high
food import bill reflects a generalized eXpansion in re—
gional effective demand. This characteristic relates to
the source of growth in per capita income and the distri—

bution of such income. As pointed our earlier, the major

 

12In the case of Specific islands, there might have

been actual shifts in the demand schedules. However, we
are concerned with the West Indies as a whole.

 

 

 

source of
sectors ge
labor for<
sectors i:
skilled mi
view it i
generate
widely ov
of a prod
C
there is
in the We
ture is 5
available
effectivi
filled b
handing

Costs ra

high don

Uhder CC

\

ECOh0mi<

 

 

source of growth came from the mining sectors. These
sectors generally accounted for a small proportion of the
labor force such that increased income generated in these
sectors is highly concentrated in the hands of a few
skilled members of the labor force. From this point of
View it is safe to say that the growth sectors failed to
generate production in ways which would distribute income
widely over the population. Johnson argues that this type
of a production system does not eXpand effective demand.l3
On the basis of these observed characteristics
there is a lack of domestic per capita effective demand
in the West Indies. The existence of such a demand struc—
ture is intimately related to the low levels of technology
available in the agricultural sector. Currently, whatever
effective demand that exists within the region is being
filled by food imports and domestic food production. Ex—
panding food imports reflect high domestic food production
costs rather than eXpansion in per capita effective demand.
The second question deals with the extent to which
high domestic production costs are related to land values.

Under conditions of high land values, the divergence

 

3Johnson, Glenn L., ”Food Supply, Agricultural and
Economic Development,” op. cit., pp. 13—14.

 

 

between av
unit of on
are low.
major fact
of the is]
than agrir
dications
in Jamaic
premium i
Despite t
has been
lands are
first pla
ih a nari
tributes
l
Structur
Pelicies
reducing
fOOd imp
idem-_ifX
Edwards

the Wesi

 

280

between average total cost and average variable cost per
unit of output tends to be greater than when land values
are low. Agricultural land values do not appear to be a
major factor in high production costs of food. In most

of the islands, the opportunity costs of land for use other
than agriculture tends to be low. However, there are in—
dications that there are modest increases in land values
in Jamaica, and to a lesser degree in Trinidad, where a
premium is now placed on bauxite and oil bearing lands.
DeSpite this upward movement in land values, the movement
has been moderate, largely because bauxite and oil bearing
lands are not generally suitable for agriculture in the
first place. Secondly, such lands are generally located
in a narrow geological zone, rather than being widely dis—
tributed over large areas.

Preliminary assessment of the regional import
structure indicate that there are justifications for
policies to reduce the high food import bill as well as
reducing the cost of producing the food. However, the
food import data need to be disaggregated in order to
identify strategic opportunities for import substitutions.
Edwards and Cropper reviewed the food import structure of

the West Indies in 1964, in terms of the Standard

 

 

 

 

Internatio
that lives
thirds of
livestock
dollars, v
lion (W.I
and fish 1
of the to
each grou
dollars 0
lion doll
Sugar pre
I
asSigning
haVe to c_
If th6se
Ciently :
respect 1

SaVed SO]

/

 

International Trade Classification (S.I.T.C.). They found
that livestock products and cereals accounted for two—
thirds of the value of all food imported. Specifically,
livestock products accounted for some 82 million (W.I.)
dollars, while cereal products accounted for some 73 mil—
lion (W.I.) dollars. Importation of fruits, vegetables,
and fish products ranked third with some 10 percent each
of the total cost, or approximately 20 million dollars for
each group. Livestock feed accounted for some 14 million
dollars or 6 percent of the total. The remaining 20 mil—
lion dollars or 9 percent was accounted for by beverages,
sugar preparations, and miscellaneous food items.1

If import substitution is to be a major basis for
assigning agricultural research priorities, support would
have to go to livestock, cereals, fruits, and vegetables.
If these commodities could have been produced in suffi—
ciently large quantitites at 1964 competitive prices (with
respect to the imports), the area could presumably have

saved some 194 million (W.I.) dollars. These commodities

 

l4Edwards, D. T. and Cropper, J., Agricultural

Research in the West Indies: The Economic Background to

Programs of Livestock and Crop Investigations. Department
Of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management, University
of the West Indies, February, 1967, p. 14. (Cyclostyled).

 

 

accounted
in that y
agricultu
substitut
dairy prc
domestic

food pric
nology a1
creasing

Pricing I
and vari<
Variable

for cert

 

282

accounted for some 82 percent of the total food imports
in that year. Long—run solution of first generation
agricultural problems now become a focal point in import
substitution problems. Substantial quantities of meat,
dairy products, and cereals are imported largely because
domestic production costs are high, and as a result local
food prices are high. Agricultural research and tech—
nology are not the only variables in the process of in—
creasing the efficiency of food production. Positive
pricing policies for agriculture, as well as taxation
and various forms of quota restrictions are important
variables in bringing about significant supply reSponse
for certain commodities.15 These variables will have to
be taken into account in planning and implementing re—
gional and national agricultural development policies.
Our previous analysis of the structure and performance

of regional agricultural research, as well as the

 

15Schultz argues that a system of efficient prices

is required for three sets of prices in the process of
stimulating food supplies (1) prices of farm products,

(2) prices of agricultural ipppts, and (3) prices of con—
sumerggoods and services that farm people buy for consump—
tion. See, Schultz, T. W., ”Increasing World Food
Supplies: The Economic Requirements,” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 56, No. 2, August,

1966, pp. 322—327.

 

 

 

 

 

 

character
a major i
output is
productio
along lin
threshold
tion of c
substitut
adjustmel
efforts ;
and past~
would be
Vegetabl
ment of

Banded r
grain an
Used as

greatest

the low]

point 0:

Wheat f

The Wes

genetic

 

characteristics of the agricultural economy, suggests that
a major impediment to expansion in domestic agricultural
output is the lack of improved technology, and hence, high
production cost in the sector. Technological innovation
along lines that would significantly increase crop response
thresholds, would serve to lOWer the unit costs of produc—
tion of domestic food products to the point that import
substitution become a major force in balance of payments
adjustments. This would tend to suggest expanded research
efforts in the area of animal nutrition, animal breeding,
and pasture management. Complementary research efforts
would be required in the cereals, as well as in fruits and
vegetable production. With reSpect to the import replace—
ment of cereals, this criterion would tend to suggest ex-
panded research on hybrid corn and rice (for both food—
grain and livestock feed). These are the major cereals
used as staple food in the area, and they offer the
greatest potential for commercial cereal production in
the lowland humid tropics. Thus, from a purely physical
point of view the potential for import replacement of
wheat flour with rice and corn appears quite promising.
The West Indies could capitalize on the large number of

genetic materials now available for rice research from the

 

 

Internati
Improved
ternation
Expanded
years. I
have alre
hybrids j
tablishe<
in Niger
offers p

ing in r

Mum

technic
the fiv

in this

pUrSue

 

International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines.
Improved varieties of corn could be obtained from the In—
ternational Wheat and Maize Improvement Center in Mexico.
ExPanded corn production appears possible within a few
years. This seems possible because commercial efforts
have already succeeded in developing locally adaptable
hybrids for the Carribbean. Furthermore, the newly es—
tablished International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
in Nigeria and Center for Tropical Agriculture in Colombia
offers potentials for international cooperation and train—

ing in research on the new cereals.

Strategies and Priorities for Domestic and
Export Agriculture Research Subject—Matter

Subject Matter Strategies

These strategies are based on the discussions of
technical agricultural problems found in Chapter V and of
the five second and third generation problems given earlier
in this chapter.

Strategy 1: Domestic Agriculture.——In order to

pursue an import substitution strategy of food crop

 

 

productio
In our ju

are a maj

 

food crop
effective
Furthermc
establis}
at the fa
Path, ef:
| duce the
Should e
1 Systems
be estak
level.
path, at

innoVat:
\

biOChem

 

 

production the cost of producing food should be reduced.
In our judgment the introduction of biochemical innovations
are a major source of increased productivity of domestic
food crops. The West Indies should establish relevant and
effective indigenous research systems that will generate
biochemical innovations which can be substituted for land.
Furthermore, effective institutions and channels should be
established for developing and diffusing these innovations
at the farm level. At subsequent stages along the time
path, efforts should be made in the direction of pig:
mechanical innovations.

Strategy 2: Export Agriculture.——In order to re—
duce the cost of producing export crops, the West Indies
should establish relevant and effective indigenous research
systems that will generate a significant number of p19—

mechanical innovations. Institutions and channels must

 

be established for diffusing these innovations at the farm
level. At subsequent stages along the innovation time
path, attention should be directed towards bio-chemical

innovations.

 

16See footnote 12 of Chapter V for definition of

biochemical and biomechanical innovations.

 

 

servation
constrair
current 1
tance of
Even if t
domestic
a signif
aqricult
viable u
creased

Constrai
domestic
basis 01
poor qua

the ear:

Indian
With re
ated by

\

and lar
III re\
growth

 

Our rationale for Strategy 1 stems from our ob—
servation that West Indian domestic agriculture faces a
constraint at the limit with reSpect to land; given the
current land tenure and land use patterns, and the impor—
tance of export agriculture to the regional economy.17
Even if there is a reallocation of land from export to
domestic agriculture, the region necessarily has to retain
a significant proportion of its arable lands for export
agriculture; particularly if eXpansion in exports is a
viable undertaking due to expanded opportunities via in—
creased competitiveness on the world market. Despite this
constraint, biochemical technology has been limited in
domestic agriculture and attempts to expand output on the
basis of expansion of land have been unsuccessful due to
poor quality land. We reviewed the Jamaican example in
the early sections of Chapter V.

Strategy 2 stems from our observation that West
Indian export agriculture faces a constraint at the limit,
with respect to labor; given the high wage demand gener—

ated by organized labor and the policy of government to

 

17See Chapter II for discussion of the land use

and land tenure pattern of the region. Chapters II and
III review the contribution of export agriculture to
growth.

 

 

 

 

keep dowx
the sugai
straint
rently.
of commo
to cushi
maintain
sequent
agricult

for expa

dealing
over the
Search 1
SYstems
that an
and thi
tiOned

eration
eratior
abOVe c
reSUlts

and th.

 

 

287

keep down mechanization of the industry (particularly in
the sugar industry). The pressure to remove this con—
straint in the past has not been as great as it is cur—
rently. Export agriculture has operated under a system
of commodity agreements and preferences which have tended
to cushion the impact of the constraint by artificially
maintained prices tied to the costs of production. Sub—
sequent sections of this chapter will examine export
agricultural research and output, as well as the scope
for expansion via research and development.

Having specified a set of research strategies
dealing with the subject—matter of agricultural research
over the 1970's, the next step is to develop a set of re—
search priorities dealing with specific commodity research
systems. We should point out that it is at this point
that an integrated approach to discussion of first, second,
and third generation problems become meaningful. As men~
tioned in Chapter V, strategy implications for first gen—
eration problems form the basis of second and third gen—
eration problems. The subject—matter strategies presented
above deal with first generation problems. However, the
results of such strategies constitute the long—run second

and third generation problems. It seems logical that the

 

 

 

three typ

system.

 

Commodity
Under Str

l
m
sumption
\ t
l . .
l .

tYPeS of

high prim

in the ]
to ex011
System
Peasant
mOney e
type Of

in the

 

 

 

288

three types of problems be considered as an integrated

system.

Commodity Research Systems
Under Strategies 1 and 2

 

 

Domestic Agriculture Research Priorities Under

Strategy l.——From our assessment of the demand and con—
sumption characteristics of the West Indian economy, three
types of agricultural research systems appear to warrant

high priorities over the 1970's. These are:

l. A livestock research system
2. A cereal research system (maize and rice)

3. A fruit and vegetable research system.

In terms of the relative importance of root crops
in the local production system and diets, it is unrealistic
to exclude this group of commodities from the research
system. Root crop production represents a major basis of
peasant farmers' ability to participate actively in the
money economy. From this point of view, we add a fourth
type of domestic research system that demands high priority

in the 1970's:

 

 

 

 

research
balance <
ance of i
that at '
the supp
areas.18
importat
for this
distribt
and incc
a tender
locate,

tiofi of

fiQUres

per cap

than in

\

of the
the 195

 

 

289

4. A root crop research system (sweet potatoes, yams,

, cassava, and certain aroids).

The potential payoff from a successful livestock
research system goes beyond the long—run adjustment in the
balance of payments. From our discussion of the perform—
ance of the livestock sector in Chapter III, it is evident
that at present levels of domestic livestock production
the supply of animal protein is limited in the rural
areas.18 This protein shortage exists despite significant
importation of meat and dairy products. The explanation
for this phenomenon is found in the inequitable income
distribution between the urban and the rural areas. Wealth
and income tend to be higher in urban areas where there is
a tendency for the professional and skilled Workers to
locate. Thus, despite a relative high level of importa-
tion of livestock and livestock products, the import
figures would tend to reflect relatively higher level of
per capita effective demand in the urban centers rather

than in the rural areas.

 

18See Chapter III, pp. llO—ll3 for a discussion

of the trends in livestock production for the region over
the 1958—1967 period.

 

 

 

 

system ir
structure
to reduc<
food pr0(
resource
scale ex
ability
forts su
If Strat
Stream c
substitl
Straint
hOrizon
Of an a“
meat pa
atready
industr

in Jama
\

induStI
Tootsie
Trinide
t

%
Trinid

 

290

The development of a successful livestock research
system in the West Indies under Strategy 1 along with
structural changes in the socio—economic system Would tend

to reduce the competition between livestock production and

 

food production for human consumption. Under limited land
resource base (as in the case of the West Indies), large
scale eXpansion in livestock production reduces the avail—
ability of land for food production; unless research ef—
forts succeed in substituting nonland inputs for land.

If Strategy 1 is effectively implemented, we visualize a

stream of biochemical innovations that would effectively

 

substitute for land, thus, lowering feed prices, a con—
straint to livestock development. Over a longer planning
horizon a viable livestock industry could form the basis
of an agri—business complex through the development of a
meat packing and processing industry. Some success has
already been achieved along these lines in the broiler
industry in Trinidad and Tobago, and to a lesser degree

in Jamaica.19 However, there is significant potential

 

19For a review of the development of the broiler

industry in Trinidad and Tobago, see, Ferrer, V. A. and
Toolsie, D., ”Growth Problems in the Broiler Industry in
Trinidad,” Proceedings of the First West Indian Agricul—
tural Economics Conference, University of the West Indies,
Trinidad, February 1966, pp. 318—326.

 

 

still to

from some

 

from loce

the rapi<
time, a l
l

latter 5

cereal,
SYStems
the deve
Would ft
farming
dOmesti(
investmg

Sector.

EEEEESS

the exp
Operate
This is
exports
relath

giOnal

 

 

291

still to be realized from a meat—packing complex. Apart
from some unfilled demand for quality livestock products
from local residents, there is an untapped demand among
the rapidly expanding tourist industry. At the present
time, a significant proportion of demand coming from the
latter sector is being met by special imports from abroad.

The potential payoff from the development of
cereal, vegetable (grain legumes), and root crop research
systems also transcends the import replacement aspect of
the development process. Under Strategy 1, such systems
would function to increase the profitability of peasant
farming to the point that returns to investment in
domestic food production rise to a level that savings and
investments are generated in the domestic agricultural
sector.

Export Agriculture Research Priorities Under

 

Strategy 2.——Unlike the domestic agricultural sub—sector,
the export agricultural sub—sector of the West Indies
operates within highly structured and protected markets.
This is even more true for the two major agricultural
exports of the region——sugar and bananas. Because of the
relative importance of these two commodities in the re—

gional economy, we suggest that high priority be given

 

 

 

to the f(

the 1970

 

in terms
facing t

eration

be anal

tion 0
pages
moditi
Note t
Change
ture,

 

292

to the following research systems under Strategy 2 over

the 1970‘s:20

1. A sugar cane research system

2. A banana research system

The long—run impact of Strategy 2 must be assessed
in terms of both changes in the external demand conditions
facing these crops as well as other second and third gen-

eration problems.

Consequences of Strategies 1 and 2 for

Second and Third Generation Problems

Consequences of pursuing Strategies 1 and 2 will

be analyzed as follows:

1. Examination of two probable directions in external
demand for sugar and bananas over the 1970's, as

Well as potential problems of resource

 

20See Chapter III for discussion of the contribu-
tion of the eXport agriculture sector. See in particular
pages 97—100 for relative contribution of the two com—
modities to export agriculture over the 1955—1962 period.
Note that the terms sector and sub—sector are used inter—
changeably when referring to domestic or export agricul—
ture.

 

 

 

 

 

§l§2§§3£
w
M

tétihrr:

to the

in the

Contim

mehtS V

 

293

reallocation, unemployment, and inequalities in

net worth between export and domestic agriculture.

2. Examination of likely effective demand constraints
on domestic agriculture under Strategy 1 over the

1970's.

3. An integrated discussion of the likely unemploy—
ment effects of pursuing Strategies 1 and 2 as

well as of the nutritional impact on the economy.

Potential Demand and Income
Situation in Export Agriculture
Over the 1970's Under Strategy 2:
Some Considerations with Respect

to Sugar and Bananas
Two sets of assumptions are advanced with respect
to the market conditions likely to face these commodities
in the West Indies in the 1970's.
Assumption l.-—Present preferential policies will
continue or minor modifications of such policies will
occur over the 1970's.
A§§pmppi9p_g,—-Elimination of preferential arrange—

ments within and outside the Commonwealth over the 1970‘s.

 

l

ditions l

ation of

 

under co
would ha
resource
biomecha
be to re
currentl
sugar p1
raw suga
in prof:
For eXa]
are red
tOH of
abOut 2
wOuld t
per tor
dramat:
Per t0]

quireml
\

iabgr
1964‘6

 

 

294

Long Run Impact of Strategy 2: Assumption 1 Con—

 

ditions Prevailing in the Market Place.——Successful initi—
ation of biomechanical innovation and machinery importation
under conditions of preferential marketing arrangements
would have major long—term impact on per capita incomes,
resource allocation, and employment. One major effect of
biomechanical innovation and machinery importation would

be to reduce labor costs per unit of output, which is
currently the single highest cost component of West Indian
sugar production.21 Reduction of labor costs per ton of
raw sugar produced would result in considerable increases
in profitability and export earnings from sugar production.
For example, in the Jamaican case, if labor requirements
are reduced by one half over the 1970's, labor costs per
ton of raw sugar would decline from about 48 percent to
about 24 percent. Costs of harvesting and cultivation
would be reduced from 31 percent of the total labor costs
per ton of sugar to just over 15 percent. Even more
dramatic, however, would be the reduction in man—hours
per ton of sugar. A 50 percent reduction in labor re—

quirement would mean that Jamaica could efficiently use

 

1See pages 251—252 of Chapter V for estimates of
labor costs in sugar production in Jamaica over the
1964—65 period.

 

approxim
rather t

labor re

 

in the w

would 96
At this
teristic
income v
become (

\ I respect
a major
In esse
bility
tected
margina
point t
cane p]
Depend.
0f lan
duCtio
Cane,

Sugar

 

 

approximately 26 man-hours to produce a ton of sugar,
rather than the current 53 man—hours. Such reduction in
labor requirements would make the island more competitive
in the world market.

Increased profitability of sugar cane production
would generate substantial increases in export earnings.
At this stage it seems likely that two important charac—
teristics would be evident: (a) regional per capita
income would rise and (b) sugar cane production Would
become competitive with domestic food production with
reSpect to land. The second characteristic could present
a major threat to long—run agricultural diversification.
In essence, the potential conflict stems from the possi—
bility that biomechanical innovation (under a highly pro—
tected market and artificial prices) could increase the
marginal value product (MVP) of sugar cane lands to the
point that it is profitable to allocate lands to sugar
cane production rather than to domestic food production.
Depending on the magnitude of the disparity between MVP
of land for sugar and MVP of land for domestic food pro—
duction, there could be a reallocation of land to sugar
cane, thus, reinforcing a mono-culture economy in the

sugar producing islands. Similar arguments could be made

 

 

 

 

with res
difficul
tion to

the unce

novatior
in domes
action j
bility (
researc
tables,

c0mmitt
greater
is the

expand

mechanj

market:

\

to ac‘n
tiOns
in the
more,
deVelo

 

296

with respect to banana production.22 However, marketing
difficulties now being encountered in the U.K. could func—
tion to delay rapid expansion into this crop, as long as
the uncertainty continues.

The potential conflict between biomechanical in—
novation in export agriculture and biochemical innovation
in domestic agriculture underscores the need for vigorous
action in the domestic research sphere. With the possi—
bility of such a conflict vigorous and effective domestic
research systems are needed in livestock, cereals, vege—
tables, and root crops that will generate MVP's for land
committed to these enterprises that will be equal to or
greater than those for sugar and banana enterprises. This
is the only way that the region can expect to retain and
expand land resources into domestic food production.

LppgrRun Impact of Strategy 2: Assumption 2 Con—
ditions Prevailing in the Market Place.—-Successful bio—
mechanical innovations coupled with a loss of preferential

markets could seriously reduce regional per capita income

 

2 . . .
2While it is pQSSible for a mono—culture economy

to achieve rapid rates of growth in GDP, under such condi—

tions the uncertainty of growth and the general instability
in the economy make such an economy unattractive. Further—
more, such economies generally fail to transform and become
developed. See Chapter II.

 

 

 

in the §
should b

ence is

 

quotas,
actual i
1 argues t

i be effec

on impox
ducers,

market a

net impl

l their t
if cons

the Uni

I the use
mestic
SumPtic
Suited

and a 7

free w<

\

States
EEQflpm

 

 

297

in the short run through loss of export earnings. It
should be recognized, however, that if the loss of prefer—
ence is the result of a global shift to world market
quotas, the long—run effects over the 1970's could be an
actual increase in export earnings from sugar. Horton
argues that a worldwide free market trade in sugar could
be effectively implemented through removal of restrictions
on imports and the use of direct payments to domestic pro—
ducers, thus, enabling them to sell sugar in the domestic
market at the world price. He argues that if consumers in
net importing countries could buy sugar at world prices,
their total consumption would be substantially larger than
if consumers are required to pay the support price, as in
the United States.23 Estimates are that, at 1959 prices,
the use of worldwide deficiency payments to protect do-
mestic sugar growers would have increased world sugar con—
sumption by 11 percent. The net increase would have re—
sulted in a 30 percent increase in international trade,

and a 70 percent increase in net free market trade. The

free world price of sugar would have been 4.5 cents per

 

3Horton, D. C., "Policy Directions for the United
States Sugar Program,” American Journal of Agricultural
Economics, Vol. 52, No. 2, May 1970, p. 187.

 

pound, r
a net ex
sugar pr

ceipts i

 

the higl
produce<
t ‘ Sugar p1
‘ be sold
an exte

i eluded
YSis as
mated t

creased

eXporti

Free t1

WOrid
ruary
tectic
tr‘les:
V01. ;

 

 

298

pound, rather than 3 cents per pound. The West Indies as
a net exporter of sugar, with comparative advantage in
sugar production, could actually have increased its re—
ceipts from sugar production through increased sales and
the higher world price. The West Indies has chronically
produced sugar in excess of its negotiated market quotas.
Sugar production in excess of the quota generally has to
be sold on the world market at relatively low prices. In
an extension of the Snape's analysis, Harry Johnson in—
cluded the possibility of complete free trade in the anal—
ysis as well as deficiency payment.24 His analysis esti-
mated that in 1959, deficiency payments could have in—
creased the export earnings of the less—developed sugar—
exporting countries by one half billion (U.S.) dollars.
Free trade in sugar would have increased the export earn-
ings of the seven major world eXporting countries by three-
fourths of a billion (U.S.) dollars.

The short—run loss of export earnings from the loss

of preferences in the case of the West Indies could

 

2 . .

4Snape, R. H., "Some Effects of Protection in the
World Sugar Industry," Economica, Vol. 30, pp. 63—73, Feb—
ruary 1963. And also see: Johnson, Harry G., "Sugar Pro—

tectionism and the Export Earnings of Less Developed Coun—
tries: Variations on a Theme by R. H. Snape,” Economica,
Vol. 33, pp. 34—42, Feb., 1966.

 

 

 

conceiva
prices 0
mechanic
machiner
and worl
of expat
West In<
variabl<
technol

gion's.

the 105
allocat
cation
domestj
The re;
in the
MVP 0f
effici
unable
Sugar

 

299

conceivably be offset to some extent by somewhat higher
prices on the world market over the longer run. If bio-
mechanical innovations and reduced import restriction on
machinery succeed in cutting production costs by one half,
and world market prices increase significantly (by virtue
of expanded demand through less protectionistic policies),
West Indian sugar producers would be able to cover average
variable costs of production. Under present levels of
technology, world prices are significantly below the re—
gion's average variable cost of production.

As under Assumption 1, it seems reasonable that
the loss of preferences would bring about significant re—
allocation of land resources. We visualize some reallo-
cation of lands from sugar cane and banana production into
domestic food crop production when preferences are lost.
The reallocation is likely to come about through disparity
in the MVP of land in sugar and banana production and the
MVP of land in domestic food production. Many of the in—
efficient sugar plantations and small farmers who are
unable to adopt biomechanical innovation would discontinue
sugar cane and banana production. However, if such pro—

ducers successfully shift to domestic food production,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ing a m
tection
occur w
substit
be incr
still f
the reg
demand
demand
and do,
notOgi<
1970's
eXpand

tribut

percen

 

300

Where MVP's are higher, a new and more desirable system

of export and domestic enterprises could emerge.

Potential Demand and Income
Situation in Domestic Agriculture
Over the 1970's Under Strategy 1:
Some Considerations

 

 

We do not visualize the demand component as impos—
ing a major constraint on the level of domestic food pro—
tection over the 1970's so long as technological advances
occur with import substitution. However, after import
substitution is completed, production and consumption can
be increased by lowering cost of production and prices
still further or by increasing effective demand. Although
the region still faces a problem of a lack of effective
demand for domestic food items, currently the effective
demand that exists is being satisfied by imported food
and domestic production. We feel that cost reducing tech—
nological advances can reduce the demand constraint in the
1970's by increasing consumption of local foods and by
expanding effective demand through increased income dis—
tribution.

The West Indies is currently importing about 40

percent of its food requirement. With an average income

 

 

 

elastici
aggregat
over 3 p
populati
cent, re
if glL(
comes f
fall dr
food is
This su
seCtOr
gerousl
an incc
cent a1
Would 1
Preven
ested
POint
tural

\

demanc
d

P
g
n

 

301

elasticity of demand of about .40 for food, the level of
aggregate demand for food can be expected to increase by
over 3 percent per annum if the annual rate of growth in
pOpulation and per capita income are 2 percent and 3 per—
cent, respectively.25 It should be noted, however, that
if gll_of the annual rate of change in per capita income
comes from expansion in food production, food prices will
fall drastically when the income elasticity of demand for
food is only .40. This could be disastrous for farmers.
This suggests that simultaneous expansion in the non-food
sector is required if food prices are not to sink to dan—
gerously low levels. In the case of the West Indies, with
an income elasticity of demand for food of .40, a 60 per—
cent annual contribution to per capita income changes
would have to come from non—food production in order to
prevent food prices from falling. We are, however, inter—
ested in ways of reducing domestic food prices. From this
point of view, we are interested in programming agricul~

tural technology that would harmonize the relative

 

25Computations of the annual average growth in food
demand is made by the equation d = p + gn Where:
d = the average rate of growth in food demand
= the average annual rate of growth in population
= the rate of growth in per capita income
= the income elasticity of demand for food.

:5th0

 

contrib1
GDP, wii

Such a l

 

fall en

demand

; demand
above t
rates c
' aggrege
over 5
PrOduct
1963 h
actual

Tables
\

eCOnom
and fc
l.

mates
pr0du

 

 

302

contribution of agricultural production to per capita
GDP, with the relative contribution of the non—food sector.
Such a harmonization would allow domestic food prices to
fall enough to set up a series of dynamic adjustment in
demand and consumption.26

Current estimates place the income elasticity of
demand for meat, dairy products, and processed foods well
above unity. With population and per capita income growth
rates of the order of 2 and 3 percent, reSpectively, the
aggregate demand for these food items is likely to be well
over 5 percent per annum.27 In value terms, domestic food
production has increased by about 1 percent per annum since
1963 in the case of Trinidad and Tobago, and output has
actually declined in Jamaica over the period. (See

Tables 7 and 8, Appendix B.)

 

26It should be remembered that there are two basic

economic relationships between changes in per capita income
and food prices:

1. If per capita GDP increases by 1 percent and the
increase is generated from .4 and .6 increase in
food and non—food, respectively, then food prices
will remain constant.

2. If per capita GDP increases by 1 percent and the
increase is generated solely by increased food pro—
duction, then food prices will fall and the real
change in GDP will be less than 1 percent.

7See footnote ll of this Chapter for 1969 esti—
mates for income elasticities of demand for livestock
products.

 

 

The nl
which technoli
can bring abo
the income el
tively high,
per capita in
research stin
output, farm
in losses to
fall under St
of an innoval
expanding 0111
conditions.21
decline in d,
in largetma
farmers OVer
the region .1

\
28

Rt
of TechnolOC
0f -

Farm ECor

11') the Jamaj

 

 

 

303

The next question deals with the mechanism by
which technological innovation and relative price changes
can bring about dynamic adjustments in demand. Although
the income elasticity of demand for food might be rela—
tively high, the price elasticity of demand is low when
per capita income is constant. Thus, if agricultural
research stimulates a 3 to 5 percent annual expansion in
output, farm prices could decline in the 1970's resulting
in losses to farmers. We expect domestic food prices to
fall under Strategy 1 because it is difficult to conceive
of an innovation that successfully lowers costs Without
expanding output and lowering prices under free market
conditions.28 We do not feel, however, that relative
decline in domestic food prices will necessarily result
in large-scale loss of income to West Indian peasant
farmers over the 1970's. Within that period of time when
the region is below the food self-sufficiency point, there

is some potential for expanding farm income through

 

28 .
Ruttan, Vernon W., ”Research on the Economics

of Technological Change in American Agriculture," Journal
of Farm Economics, Vol. XLII, No. 4, November, 1960, pp.
749—50. Also see Chapter IV, pp. 22—23, for changes in
the retail price index for food, relative to ”all items"
in the Jamaican case for 1963—1967.

 

 

 

downward adjr
imports. If
domestic unit
food items c2
farm income (
ticity of de1
unit costs a
increased, 1;
We could fin
elasticities
the fact the
the refiluirec'
Suggest that
these items

tutes for i,
Elasticitie

indeed larg

demand fOr

\

29

C
of that cha
30

C
(REViSed E(
pp~ 42154 .

 

 

304

downward adjustment in domestic food prices relative to
imports. If technological innovation succeeds in reducing
domestic unit costs of production to the point that local
food items can undersell the major food imports, gross
farm income could actually increase (if the price elas-
ticity of demand is greater than unity). Furthermore, if
unit costs are reduced substantially and farm receipts are
increased, then even net farm income could be expanded.

We could find no studies dealing With the relative price
elasticities of demand for the major food items. However,
the fact that estimates indicate that some 80 percent of
the required food imports are "competitive imports" would
suggest that the price elasticities of demand for many of
these items are above unity.29 A wide range of substi—
tutes for imports is indicative of relatively large cross—
elasticities of demand. If the cross—elasticities are
indeed large and positive then the price elasticities of

. . 3
demand for such commodities Will be elastic. O

 

29See Chapter III, pp. 112—114. Also footnote 25

of that chapter.

OSee Stigler, George J., The Theory of Price
(Revised Edition), the MacMillan Company, New York, 1965,
pp. 42—54.

 

Our a
about dynamic
component. I
will functiot
tive demand 1
locally prodw
elasticities
elastic pric
eXPahd. Sec
cost—reducin
0f increasir
income by it
ture and the
Stances the]
Per capita e

Fall
can Provide
thtments i
sufficiency
tary and fi
intensive i
PricES rem

fiScal POlf

 

 

305

Our argument suggests two mechanisms for bringing
about dynamic adjustments in the domestic effective demand
component. First, cost—reducing technological innovations
will function to redirect consumption, and whatever effec—
tive demand that currently exists, from food imports to
locally produced substitutes. With relatively high income
elasticities of demand for many such products, and an
elastic price demand, both gross and net from income will
expand. Second, in addition to redirecting consumption,
cost—reducing technological innovation holds the potential
of increasing both the level and distribution of real
income by increasing the return to investment in agricul—
ture and the non—agricultural sectors. Under such circum-
stances there could be an outward shift in the level of
per capita effective demand.

Falcon argues that adjustments in relative prices
can provide powerful tools for bringing about dynamic ad—
justments in demand and consumption, even after food self—
sufficiency is attained. He argues that purposeful mone—
tary and fiscal policies that are designed to be labor—
intensive in nature can offset to some extent declining
prices resulting from ”over production." Monetary and

fiscal policies as well as pricing policies can be used to

 

 

 

bring about E
income distr:
to shift the
the right.
in prices.31
our second m
cost—reducin
the adjustme
period,

The}
M per capit
rural and m
ceed in bri:
POSition of
Pension in
Mt Ohly fo
This could

 

306

bring about adjustment in regional and sectoral per capita
income distribution. The net effect of such policies is
to shift the demand curve for the major "wage goods" to

the right. Such a shift would help to counter the decline

 

in prices.31 To some extent this mechanism is similar to
our second mechanism discussed above, except that we see
cost—reducing technology as being a major component of
the adjustment process during the pre—self—sufficiency
period.

There is a serious imbalance in the distribution
of per capita effective demand between and within both
rural and urban peoples. If biochemical innovations suc—
ceed in bringing about significant increases in the income
position of rural people, there would be appreciable ex—
pansion in per capita effective demand in the rural sector,
not only for food, but for nonfood industrial inputs.

This could pave the way for further expansion of the local

manufacturing and processing industries.

 

31Falcon, Walter P., The Green Revolution: Gener—
ations<1fProblems, Paper presented at the Summer Meeting
of the American Agricultural Economics Association,
Columbia, Missouri, August 9—12, 1970, pp. 19—20. The
major wage goods (food) in the West Indies are staple food
crops (cereals and root crops, livestock products, and

 

 

Potential Che
and NutritiOI
Strategies l

Desp
by applying
systems, it
change will
groups Of ir
technologica
rate, and t}
adlust to t}
levels.32 2
displaCemen-
SuCh as the
emploiment,
be SUbstant
deCline in
lation, or
by having t

wage rateS

\

3%
ical) is a
abor is S

 

307

Potential Changes in Employment
and Nutrition Situation Under
Strategies 1 and 2

 

Despite the potential long—run gains to be realized
by applying Strategies 1 and 2 to the agricultural research
systems, it is unrealistic to assume that technological
change will not result in relative loss to individuals or
groups of individuals. At the farm level we know that
technological innovation is never adapted at a uniform
rate, and that there will always be individuals unable to
adjust to the new technology and the new productivity
levels.32 An adjustment problem may arise due to the labor
displacement effects of technological change. In an area
such as the West Indies with an already high rate of un—
employment, due to union wage rates, this dimension could
be substantial if measured in terms of (l) the absolute
decline in the income of a particular segment of the pOpu—
lation, or (2) the additional costs imposed on the society
by having to provide for those unemployed due to union
wage rates and those diSplaced by machinery in the presence

of rigid wage rates.

 

 

 

32Generally, technology (particularly biomechan—
ical) is applied at the farm level either when the farm
labor is scarce or farm wages become prohibitive.

 

 

 

 

 

We as
in the agric1
competition 1
workers by 0j
timism that
control arti
conditions 0
Will be used
ital is avaj
POSsible the
Vances coulc
agriculturaj
90Vernments
1e9iSlation
in her Sopp
rent major

We
high Wage r
tant asPect
West Ihdieg

seCtor, We

lnnovation

 

308

We assume that wage rates will continue to spiral
in the agricultural sector over the 1970's. The vigorous
competition now being waged for bargaining rights of sugar
workers by Opposing labor organizations offers little op—
timism that steps will be taken in the immediate future to
control artificially high wages over this period. Under
conditions of artificially high wage rates, less labor
will be used in the sugar industry when labor saving cap—
ital is available. With more flexible wage rates, it is
possible that the long—run effect of biomechanical ad—
vances could be an expansion in labor used in the export
agricultural sector. We do not feel that West Indian
governments will find it politically feasible to introduce
legislation over the 1970's that will result in a decline
in her supply price for sugar cane labor relative to cur—
rent major export countries.

We consider the unemployment costs of artificially
high wage rates and technological change to be an impor—
tant aspect of the future developmental potential of the
West Indies. With reSpect to the agricultural export
sector, We see the long—run application of biomechanical

innovation as a means of cheaply replacing labor because

 

 

 

 

 

of high wage
cially high \
borne by the
worker is re
investment i
to make such
is measured
Wage rate ar
Thus, the lc
greater the
In 2
level of in‘
training, i
Additional
exploiting
COunted as
Itents are w
of the incx
ment Oppon

Fr<

\
33

t0 inereas

 

 

 

 

309

of high wage rates.33 The unemployment cost of artifi-
cially high wage rates and/pr technological progress is
borne by the affected worker and the society until the
worker is re—employed. Reduced wage rates or additional
investment is required either by the worker or the society
to make such a worker again employable. The cost involved
is measured in terms of the earnings loss from the high
wage rate and/or the introduction of the new technology.
Thus, the longer the time span between employment, the
greater the cost to society or the individual.

In any event, the West Indies should increase the
level of investment in human capital by education and re—
training, if it is to cope with technological progress.
Additional investment designed to increase earnings by
exploiting new technical knowledge cannot legitimately be
counted as a "cost" of technical change. If such invest—
ments are wisely conceived, they should be paid off out
of the increased earnings generated by increased invest—
ment opportunities.

From our review of the current productivity levels

Of domestic and export agriculture in the West Indies, we

 

33 . . .
See Chapter VII for discus310n of the alternative

to increased efficiency of the sugar industry.

 

 

 

 

feel that in
ical progres:
would tend ti
employment.

culture, we

a higher lev
but within t
three mechar
chemical inr
0f employmex
tion would ;
ditional" a,
that sector
Product (MV
With the in
levels of t
labor Withi
SeetOr is a
existing ir

tivity of 3

 

310

feel that in the longer run vigorous pursuit of technolog-
ical progress along lines advanced in Strategies 1 and 2
would tend to increase employment rather than cause un—
employment. With respect to Strategy 1 for domestic agri—
culture, we feel that increased productivity can generate

a higher level of employment not only within that sector,
but within the economy as a whole. We visualize at least
three mechanisms by which machinery importation and bio—
chemical innovations can generate an expansion in the level
of employment. First, cost—reducing technological innova—
tion would increase the return to investment in the ”tra—
ditional“ agricultural sector. Rising profitability in
that sector would tend to increase the marginal value
product (MVP) agricultural labor to a level more in line
with the industrial MVP and labor supply price. At current
levels of technology the low marginal value product of
labor within the traditional sector relative to the modern
sector is a major factor in the level of unemployment
existing in the region.34 If the marginal value produc—

tivity of labor and, hence, wages in the agricultural

 

34For a discussion of W. A. Lewis' argument on the
relationship of agriculture's ”supply price" and its im—
pact on unemployment in the West Indies, see Chapter II,
pp. 70—71.

 

 

 

 

 

 

sector can b
“reasonable"
tor's wage l
attracted tc
unemployment

Secc
ated under §
time that c:
possible to
(b) tend to
Well as har
Value produ
are increas
cussed abox
increaSe, 1
tially by (

\

 

311

sector can be increased to a point that appears more
"reasonable” to the worker, relative to the modern sec—
tor's wage levels, then labor will be employed in and
attracted to the domestic agricultural sector to reduce
unemployment.35

Second, bio—chemical innovations that are gener—
ated under Strategy 1 would: (a) reduce the period of
time that crops come to maturity. This would make it
possible to produce at least two crops in any single year,
(b) tend to increase the demand for labor to produce as
well as harvest the additional output. If the marginal
value productivity of labor and agricultural wage rates
are increased (as discussed in the first mechanism dis—
cussed above), then the level of employment would not only
increase, but labor seasonality will be reduced substan—
tially by double cropping. Agriculture would be able to

36 .
offer much more permanent employment. Farm income Would

 

351bid.

36Our review of West Indian food crOps indicates
that there are very few local food crOps capable of pro—
ducing more than one crOp per year. For example, the
crOps reviewed in Table 5.8 (i.e. Tannia, Dasheen, and
Eddoes) produced on the average one crop per year in
Trinidad and Tobago. The maximum number of crOps produced
in any single year for local sweet potato varieties was
1.25 crOps. Cassava and yams varieties produced only one

 

 

 

 

 

 

be less vari
ducing power
The
applies to l
in the abser
restriction
in the prod
Ployment an
His argumen
effect of s
upwards.37
which in ti
income, p,
in excess (
that technl

rapid or t.

\.

CI‘Op per Y
local corh

37
efficienq
“Count \n
of ahhuitj
Capita1~as
Ptlce," 5
W

mac 12)

' .

 

 

312

be less variable as well as greater, and off—farm pro—
ducing power would be increased.

The third mechanism is related to the first, but
applies to both Strategies 1 and 2. Kendrick argues that
in the absence of restraints from rigid wages, import
restriction, etc., the "appropriate" technology applied
in the production process would generate additional em-
ployment and income, rather than to create unemployment.
His argument is that such technology would have a net
effect of shifting the marginal efficiency of capital
upwards.37 Such an upward shift stimulates new investment
which in turn would generate additional employment and
income. From this argument, it follows that unemployment
in excess of normal frictional proportions would suggest
that technological progress is too slow rather than too

rapid or that the cause is in rigid wage rates, import

 

crop per year. Similar situation applies to unimproved
local corn varieties.

37 . . . .
In the KeyneSian conceptualization, the marginal
efficiency of capital is defined as ". . . that rate of
discount which would make the present value of the series
of annuities given by the returns expected from the
capital—asset during its life, just equal to its supply

 

price.” See: Keynes, J. M., The General Theory of Em—
plpyment Interest and Money. Macmillan and Company (Paper—

 

 

 

mac 12), London, l964, p. 135.

 

 

 

 

restrictions
in the Unite
average proc'
tended to be
slower.38
Real
unemploymenl
cent politi.
urgency of
unemploymen
already see
tribution c
has made re
generation.
long‘run St
run POliciE
te’traih the

impaCt of l
\

38‘
Technologi
o. 5’ Dec

39
contribut.l

 

 

 

restrictions, etc. Empirical evidence for this argument
in the United States shows that during periods of above—
average productivity changes, the unemployment rates have
tended to be lower than when productivity changes are
slower.38

Realism suggests that account must be taken of
unemployment in connection with Strategies 1 and 2. Re—
cent political upheavals in the islands underscores the
urgency of coming to grips with the chronic high level of
unemployment and underemployment in the 1970's. We have
already seen that, despite impressive growth in the con—
tribution of the manufacturing sector to GDP, this sector
has made relatively little contribution to employment
generation.39 In the process of planning and implementing
long—run strategies for technological innovations, short—
run policies must be implemented to provide employment and
retrain the labor force for gainful employment when the

impact of the new technology begins to be felt. Along with

 

38Kendrick, John W., ”The Gains and Losses from

Technological Change,” Journal of Farm Economics, Vol. 46,
No. 5, December 1964, p. 1067.
39 . . .
See Chapter III for discuSSion of the relative
contribution of the agricultural and manufacturing sectors
to employment generation.

 

 

l
‘ l
l
l

 

 

the impact 0
West Indian
to its wage
pansion in '
the disrupti
Properly pla
provide vita
0f the agril
PrOgrams co-
thereby pro
Wise isolat
foster entr
as ihlectin
roads are t
Fir
long—run in
diet in the
agricuytUri
of lOCe1 a
other Coun-
Of Plant p

range pOpu

“tented in

 

 

the impact of high wage rates and/Or import restrictions,
West Indian government should give serious consideration

to its wage rate and machinery import policies and to ex—
pansion in ”public works" projects as a means of reducing
the disruptive effects of technological progress. If
properly planned and executed, such an investment could
provide vital infrastructure for the increased productivity
of the agricultural sector. For example, public works
programs could be implemented in the area of road building,
thereby providing access to urban markets for the other—
wise isolated areas. Such transportation network would
foster entry into the money economy by peasants, as well

as injecting capital into the isolated areas while the
roads are being built.

Finally, it is necessary to take into account the
long—run impact of technological progress on nutrition and
diet in the region. We feel that there is no reason why
agricultural research cannot improve the protein content
of local food crops, as in the case of corn in Mexico and
other countries. This would make available cheap sources
of plant protein for the bulk of the population. If long—
range population control programs are effectively imple—

mented in conjunction with increased nutrition, the

 

 

 

 

 

development
linkages wor
of the econc
bility of i1

than growth

Thi
Which dealt
the West In
a“ ihtegrat
and third c_
Criteria up
Can be has
search Str;
Emblectqha.
exPort egr

Fi

t0 Stand 0

 

 

develOpment process will have firmer basis in the region,
linkages would be established between the various sectors
of the economy, and the region would increase the proba—
bility of its future "development" and ”growth" rather

than growth alone.

Summary

This chapter represents an extension of Chapter V
which dealt with first generation agricultural problems in
the West Indies. The chapter sought to: (l) examine in
an integrated manner (a) the relationships between second
and third generation agricultural problems and (b) feasible
criteria upon which agricultural priorities and strategies
can be based in the 1970's and, (2) develop a set of re—
search strategies and priorities dealing with research
subject—matter and types of systems for both domestic and
export agriculture.

Five second and third generation problems appear

to stand out in the West Indies:

1. Lack of per capita and aggregate effective demand

for expanded food production.

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. Inc:

3. Unec
sec1

4. Art
for

lan

con

for

5. The
amc

eXl

As

ShOWS that
of its foo
been risin
food impor
GDP‘ Best
in the reg
to questi(
attribute,

til/e dema‘

 

316
2. Increased levels of structural unemployment.

3. Unequal distribution of net worth among and Within

sectors of the economy.

4. Artificially high Commonwealth preferential prices
for export crops are already malallocating scarce
land away from food crops to export crops. Under
conditions of increased efficiency of production

for export crops, this problem would be aggravated.

5. The possibility of inadequate diets and nutrition
among certain segments of the society deSpite

expansion in food output.

Assessment of the West Indian demand structure
shows that the region currently imports about 40 percent
of its food requirements. Per capita food imports have
been rising rapidly since the 1950‘s. At 1964 prices,
food imports amounted to almost 10 percent of the region's
GDP. Despite the observed increases in per capita income
in the region over the 1950's and 1960's, we found reasons
to question whether the rapid rise in food imports was
attributed to appreciable expansion in per capita effec—

tive demand. Undoubtedly, some expansion in per capita

 

effective de
supply respc
such expansi
sorb the re]
deSpite some
mand remain:

production.

rising impo

imports rep

t majOr Chang
0f changes

as against

Sent a move

I taih food j
for Web it
effectiVe ,
as a WhOIe
haVe been
commoditie
Th

last decad
major eXpa

Whole ‘ GI

 

317

effective demand did occur, but the fact that agricultural
supply reSponse was unchanged or negative suggests that
such expansion in effective demand was not enough to ab—
sorb the relatively high domestic food prices. Thus,
despite some expansion in income, domestic effective de—
mand remains low, relative to the cost of domestic food
production. One plausible explanation of the rapidly
rising import propensity for food is that expanded food
imports represent an expansion in consumption (rather than
major changes in per capita effective demand), as a result
of changes in the relative prices of domestic food items
as against imports. As such, expanded food imports repre—
sent a movement along Specific demand schedules for cer—
tain food items, and not a shift in the demand schedule
for such items arising from major expansion in per capita
effective demand. This argument applies to the West Indies
as a whole. In the case of Specific islands, there might
have been some shifts in demand schedules for particular
commodities.

The characteristic of the growth structure of the
last decade also leads us to question the existence of
major expansion in effective demand in the region as a

whole. Growth has been generated by the enclave sectors

 

 

 

 

of the econc
and manufact
stituted for
the increas<
concentrate
the labor f
gone to the
tional sect
shared litt
For these p
Big

to be high]
Indies, Gé

Other than

Some islanl

land Value

However, i

agriCUltur
hearing la
generally
Ol

CIOp reSpc

318

of the economy. Wages have risen rapidly in the mining
and manufacturing sectors but rising wages have been sub—
stituted for employing additional labor. In other words,
the increased income generated by these sectors have been
concentrated in the hands of a relatively few members of
the labor force. In most cases the additional income has
gone to the skilled and professional workers. The tradi—
tional sectors with the bulk of the labor force have
shared little in the income generated in these sectors.
For these people, per capita effective demand remains low.

High domestic cost of production does not appear
to be highly related to high land values in the West
Indies. Generally, the opportunity costs of land for
other than agricultural pursuits tends to be low. In
some islands there has been some observed increase in
land values as a result of discovery of mineral resources.
However, in such cases, there has been limited impact on
agricultural land prices, since, in general, mineral—
bearing lands occupy restricted geological areas and are
generally not suited for agriculture.

Observation of domestic and export agriculture

crop response curves in Chapter V leads us to advance two

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

key strateg.
agricultura
Str
the generat
substitute
of biomecha
importatior
labor costs
is establi:
Strategy 1
considerat
to the £01

1970's;

to theSe

319

key strategies with respect to the subject—matter of
agricultural research over the 1970's.

Strategy 1 for domestic agriculture is based on
the generation of biochemical innovations which would
substitute for land. Strategy 2 focuses on generation
of biomechanical innovations and relaxation of machinery
importation in export agriculture which would reduce high
labor costs. Under both strategies a set of priorities
is established for specific crop research systems. Under
Strategy 1, import replacement, income, and employment
considerations lead us to suggest that priorities be given
to the following complementary research systems over the

1970's:
1. A livestock research system
2. A cereal research system (Maize and Rice)
3. A fruit and vegetable research system

4. A root crOp research system (sweet potatoes, yams,

cassava and the aroids)

Under Strategy 2, the relative importance of sugar
cane and bananas as export earners lead us to give priority

to these two systems over the 1970's.

 

 

 

 

 

We 1
tion proble
two strateg
constraints
levels of e
in the 197C
reduce fooc
means of he
biochemical
Ports to l<
Prices of 1
imports. \
mand for ti
bOth grOSs
reducing t
by placing
Segment of
geherate l3
distribute
emohg rura

Come elast
essential

per Capita

320

We assessed the potential second and third genera-
tion problems likely to result from implementation of the
two strategies. With reSpect to potential effective demand
constraints under Strategy 1, we argue that relatively low
levels of effective demand will not be a major constraint
in the 1970's, as long as Strategy 1 can substantially
reduce food imports. Two mechanisms are presented as a
means of handling the demand component: (1) Cost—reducing
biochemical innovations can redirect consumption from im—
ports to locally produced substitutes by reducing unit
prices of the substitutes to competitive levels with the
imports. With relatively high income elasticities of de—
mand for the major imports and an elastic price demand,
both gross and net farm income could expand; (2) cost—
reducing technology can expand per capita effective demand
by placing productive resources in the hands of a large
segment of the pOpulation. Productive resources that
generate profitable returns on investment and are widely
distributed can increase the level of per capita demand
among rural people. We noted, however, that with an in—
come elasticity of .40 per food in the region, it is
essential that some 60 percent of the annual increase in

per capita income be generated by the non—food sector or

 

 

 

 

 

covered by 1
to dangerou:
after impor'
tion and co
costs of pr
effective d

Twc
the likely

under Strat

mm

m

In
with more
imPort res
PrOductior
(hast-ical]
SincE the
Despite e:

cation CO

321

covered by non—food imports if farm prices are not to fall
to dangerously low levels. We further argued that even
after import substitution is completed that food produc—
tion and consumption be increased even further by lowering
costs of production and prices further or by increasing
effective demand.

Two sets of assumptions are made with respect to
the likely demand condition facing export agriculture

under Strategy 2 over the 1970's.

Assumption 1: Present preferential policies will

continue or undergo minor changes.

Assumption 2: Elimination of preferential arrangements

within and outside the Commonwealth.

Initiation of Strategy 2 under Assumption 1 along
with more flexible wage rates and relaxation of machine
import restriction would reduce labor costs in sugar cane
production to a major degree. Man—hours would be cut
drastically. However, export earnings would be increased,
since the return on investment over costs would be greater.
Despite expanded export earnings, agricultural diversifi—

cation could be curtailed if ”artificial” preferential

 

 

 

 

prices resu
land betwee
conditions
sugar produ
Similar sit
ing areas.
must genera
tion equal
In:
ditions, W1
the m
to a shift
over the 1
earnings 0
ing that t
free trade
for cane 5
Well as tl
SUgar pro<
sell On t]
might be ;
CrOps. T'

 

322

prices result in significant divergence in the MVP's of
land between export crops and domestic crops. Under such
conditions additional lands would tend to be allocated to
sugar production at the expense of domestic agriculture.
Similar situations would apply to the major banana produc—
ing areas. To prevent major land reallocation, Strategy 1
must generate MVP's for land used in domestic food produc—
tion equal to or greater than those of export crops.
Initiation of Strategy 2, under Assumption 2 con-
ditions, would result in a decrease in eXport earnings in
the short run. However, if the loss in preference is due
to a shift to global market quotas, the long—run effects
over the 1970's could be an actual increase in the export
earnings of sugar. We present evidence from studies show—
ing that the shift to worldwide deficiency payments and
free trade would increase the world consumption and demand
for cane sugar. This could increase the world price, as
well as the quantity of sugar that the West Indies (as a
sugar producing area with comparative advantage) could
sell on the world market. Under these conditions there
might be reallocation of lands between sugar and domestic
crops. The inefficient sugar producers would be driven

out of business and their lands could be taken up by the

 

 

 

 

 

more effici
allocation
MVP's of su
crops.

The
not be ignc
of unemploy
vation and
in export a
trade-off ]
With Short‘
of the indl
that the W.
and retrai
SUlt in sh
run, we Se
level of e
Creased pr
ture and h
more in 1i
the margir
profitabi]

expanding

 

323

more efficient producers. However, the extent of the re—
allocation would depend on the divergence between the
MVP's of sugar cane lands and lands for specific food
crops.

The employment effects of Strategies 1 and 2 can—
not be ignored. The region already possesses a high level
of unemployment. It is evident that biomechanical inno-
vation and machinery importation may reduce the labor force
in export agriculture, particularly. There is however a
trade—off between a more efficient and viable industry
with short—run labor displacement, and the complete loss
of the industry and foreign exchange earnings. We suggest
that the West Indian governments consider ”public works”
and retraining programs in case technical advances do re—
sult in short run displacement of labor. In the longer
run, we see Strategies 1 and 2 as actually increasing the
level of employment. This could come about via: (1) in—
creased profitability of investment in domestic agricul—
ture and hence increase in its supply price to a point
more in line with non—agriculture, (2) upward shift in
the marginal efficiency of capital resulting in expanded
profitability of investment in the non-food sector, thereby

eXpanding employment and income, (3) reduction in the time

 

 

 

that crop c
Additional
number of <
output.

Wit
argue that
tein contex
cost prote;
PeOPle. R‘

in this di;

 

 

324

that crop comes to maturity as well as increased yields.
Additional labor would be needed to handle the greater
number of crops per year, as well as the additional
output.

With reSpect to human nutrition and diets, we
argue that biochemical innovations can increase the pro—
tein content of local food crops. This would make low
cost protein available to a large percent of the rural
people. Research work has already produced some success

in this direction in maize production.

 

 

 

Th:
those Orga:
regional r
bottleneck
and priori

‘ an adminis

bOttleneck

lf‘\

We
major bot‘

reseArch

 

 

 

CHAPTER VII
TOWARDS A PROGRAM FOR IMPROVING THE
ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF
WEST INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

IN THE 1970's

This chapter has two objectives: (1) to identify
those organizational and administrative aSpects of the
regional research system that represent potential major
bottlenecks to implementation of the research strategies
and priorities developed in Chapter VI, and (2) to develop
an administrative program designed to remove the major

bottlenecks.

Current Bottlenecks in West Indian Research
Organization and Administration

We consider the following characteristics to be
major bottlenecks to the implementation of appropriate

research strategies in the West Indies:

325

 

 

 

 

Hic

l.

Thi

the

res

pr:

ef:

in

de

CI

fa

 

326

Highly diffused agricultural research activities.——
This characteristic can be partially attributed to
the generally slow pace at which policymakers and
research planners (a) establish relevant research
priorities, and (b) carry through concentrated
efforts to provide a ”critical minimum effort” for
research on food crops. Diffused research has not
generated high pay—off and profitable technology
in food crops. Moreover, we find very little evi—
dence that research institutions have provided food
crOp technology superior to that of better peasant

farmers, who operate with traditional technology.

An imbalance in research activities betWeen adap—

tive and fundamental research.——The latter is
limited. Relevant fundamental research in progress
is mainly confined to export crops despite evidence
that there are significant benefits to be derived
from a more "balanced” mix of fundamental and adap—
tive research. The present imbalance appears to
relate to: (a) general lack of recognition among
domestic research organizations of the crucial role

that fundamental research has played in forming the

 

 

 

 

 

 

COI

 

327

solid research basis from which many export re-
search efforts were launched. This is even more
true for research carried out on sugar cane and
bananas,1 and (b) a widespread feeling among pub—
licly sponsored domestic research organizations
that fundamental research should be exclusively

confined to the University of the West Indies.

3. An inadequate university research system.——Public
policy of general reliance on the university for
solutions to fundamental—adaptive problems fails
to take into account that under the present staff—
ing, financing, and organization, the university
is ill—equipped to provide this type of service to

the widely diverse local problems of the region.

 

1An example of this characteristic is the fact
that export agricultural research organizations indicated
that they have been able to concentrate on adaptive re—
search because substantial proportions of fundamental re—
search findings were obtained from outside the area. This
characteristic has been confirmed for sugar cane and
bananas by studies carried out by Evenson, Houck and
Ruttan. See Evenson, R. E., Houck, J. P., and Ruttan,
V. W., Technical Change and Agricultural Trade: Three
Examples (Sugar Cane, Bananas and Rice), Staff Paper
P 68—4, Department of Agricultural Economics, University
of Minnesota, December 1968, pp. 1—41.

 

 

 

 

 

p_L
wi
th

CO

as
i ,

pc

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

se
di

dc

"Subject~
term IIre
moditieS

328

4. A strong tendency among agencies responsible for
research planning to discount the contribution of
economists and other social scientists to the
planning process.——This attitude has resulted in
widespread tendency to plan research systems on
the basis of technical relationships, without due
consideration to the economic aspect. Domestic
agricultural research planning appears to have
failed to recognize differences in the demand com—
ponent. Furthermore, domestic agricultural re-
search planning appears not to recognize (a) the
differences in demand structure between export and
domestic agriculture, and (b) the relationship of
the demand structure to research ”form." Under
the existing preferential arrangement for the
major agricultural exports, the opportunity costs
of not undertaking maintenance research are less
than the opportunity costs for domestic agricul—
ture.2 Constant or falling per unit productivity

of the major exports has been made less painful by

 

2We use the term "form" interchangeably with
"subject—matter” of research. On the other hand, the
term ”research systems” is applied to the specific com—
modities being researched.

 

 

th<

GX‘

in
ri
th

pr

0
\
3

reSEarch .

329

the system of artificial prices surrounding these
commodities. Under the demand conditions facing
export agriculture, the need for maintenance re—
search has been far less than for domestic crOps.3
A concrete example of this situation is the sugar
industry in the West Indies. In periods of rapidly
rising unit costs of production and constant yields,
the industry has tended to negotiate for higher
prices and greater protection, rather than to im—
plement cost—reducing technology. On the other
hand, as domestic food production and yields have
fallen, internal food prices have risen rapidly.4
5. Ineffective use of scarce research talent.——Gen-
erally, public research organizations have not
recognized the importance of separating the role
of the researcher from that of the administrator

or extension personnel. Our study shows that a

 

3See Chapter 1, p. 5, for discussion of maintenance
research within the context of the international transfer
of technology. Also see, Evenson, Robert E., The Contri—
bution of Agricultural Research and Extension to Agricul-
tural Production, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Univer—
sity of Chicago, 1968.

4See Chapter IV, pp. 147—150 for discussion of the
movements in the Retail Price Index for food in the Ja—
maican case.

 

 

 

CC
p1

Fe

d:

b
\

5
distribut
reseal‘ch

6

 

330

significant proportion of the scarce public scien—
tific manpower in the region is being utilized in
duties other than directly productive research.
Given the drastic shortage of tOp level research
personnel, this aspect of the research structure

. . . 5
imposes a major constraint on research output.

6. Failure of West Indian research administrators and
planners to recognize the link between consumers'
tastes and preferences and effective demand for
locally produced food stuff.6——Satisfaction demand
components would expand consumption and Open up
production Opportunities for domestic farmers.
Failure to recognize these links has resulted in
a general failure of the research system to make
dynamic adjustments in its structure. This failure
could in part be due to the non—involvement of
economists in the planning and implementation of
research activities. In other instances, it could

be due to the preoccupation of planners with

 

5See Chapter IV, pp. 167—170 for discussion of the
distribution of research manpower in terms of productive
research efforts.

6
See Chapter IV, pp. 152-153.

 

 

mi<
so
c0]
tr.
Ja]
pr
se
su
1
In
Lt
dc
tl
at
ac
t
m
d(
o
d
7

 

 

 

 

331

micro—studies at the expense of macro—problem
solution. The rewards for being sensitive to
consumers' tastes and preferences can be illus—

trated in the case of Pioneer Corn Company of

 

Jamaica. This company saw the opportunity for
profitable investment in maize research by ob—
serving the high level of imported cereal con-
sumption. The profitability of this venture has

already been reviewed.7

Inadeguate financing of agricultural research in

the West Indies.——This is especially true for
domestic research activities. Our estimates show

that in 1968 the region was spending on research

at a rate of about 1.6 percent of the value of its
agricultural output. However, the greater propor—
tion of research expenditure went into export agri—
culture. Given the relatively low base from which
domestic research is to start and the complexity
of large number of crops to be researched, expen—

ditures must be greatly increased in this area.

 

 

7
See Chapters IV and V.

Mil

8.

(

ti

le‘

re

e
r

un

re

is

V(

 

8.

 

 

332

Minimal inter—territorial and inter-organizational
research cooperation and coordination.——Duplica—
tion of research activities is widespread. The
level of research sophistication is functionally
related to the level of develOpment of the islands.
Since regional cooperation is minimal in domestic
research efforts, there is a tendency to have
underutilization, or excess capacity, of certain
research facilities in some islands, while facil—
ities are nonexistent or inadequate in other
islands. A classic example of this underutiliza—
tion of facilities can be illustrated by livestock
research in the region. Jamaica has an excellent
livestock research program, while most of the other
islands have limited facilities in this area.
Very little attempts have been made by regional
public research organizations or the university
to develop lines of research cooperation and co—
ordination that would effectively utilize the

Jamaican facilities for both training and research

purposes.

 

E

9.

Se

 

be

cr

st

 

 

 

9. Isolation of export and domestic agricultural re—
search activities.——Few joint undertakings have

been attempted to develop and commercialize new

 

crops to replace the traditional exports or to

stand on their own merits.

10. Generally poor working conditions and economic .
incentives among West Indian research organiza—
tions.——This is even more true of domestic re—
search organizations. Although the gegd for com-
petent scientists is large, the region is a net
exporter of top level scientific manpOWer. This
phenomenon is related to: (a) the fact that under
current research philosophy the demand tends to be
low for highly trained scientists who are oriented
towards fundamental research and (b) salaries and
benefits of agricultural scientists lag substan—
tially behind the other professions. Substantial
reorganization is needed both in research emphasis
and in the economic incentives necessary to retain

top level researchers.

ll. Inadequate fellowships and scholarships provided

by regional research organizations for agricultural

   

 

 

 

Th

tu

ua

de

re

IE

0!

l 1

pi

334

graduates at the University of the West Indies.——

The output of the University's faculty of agricul—

ture is small in terms of the need for its grad—

 

uates. The Report of the Baskett Commission of
Inquiry in the Faculty of Agriculture of the Uni—
versity of the West Indies pointed out that inade-
quate undergraduate enrollment is a major factor

in the relatively high cost of training per stu-
dent, and creates an unsatisfactory staff—to—student
ratio. The Report pointed out that staff-to—student
ratio in the Faculty of Agriculture was 1 to 6.5
over the 1965-66 period. Cost per student over the
1965-66 period was estimated to be L 1089 as com—
pared with ; 1053 in the U.K. universities in

1963.8

12. Failure of research planners to recognize that new,
relevant agricultural technology can be an effec—
tive substitute for the scarce land inputs that

impose a major constraint to increase productivity.

 

8Baskett, R. G. (Chairman), Report of the Mission
to Advise the University of the West Indies on the Work of
the School of Agriculture of the University of the West
lflélgg, October 1965, pp. 14—29.

   

 

 

Bel
the existir
research, :

framework ,

 

West India

Co

wi

 

 

335

Improving the Regional Organization and
Management of Agricultural Research

Before proceeding to specific programs for removing

 

the existing administrative bottlenecks to subject—matter
research, it is necessary to state explicitly our overall
framework, philosophy, and rationale in dealing with the

West Indian research structure. These are:

l. A meaningful agricultural research program for the
Commonwealth West Indies must necessarily be framed
within a regional context in which the national

systems form the links to the needs of farmers.9

2. National research systems are advantageously viewed
as specialized extensions of the regional research
system to the extent that such national systems
must play a role quite similar to that of the state
and provincial experiment stations in the United

States and Japan.

3. Given the unique structure of West Indian economy

and its agriculture, the regional research system

 

9See footnote 6 of Chapter 1 for definition of
national, regional, and international programming. Also
See Chapter V, footnote 4.

 

 

 

he

8

O
is based
Admittedl
in other

Exist .10
\
]
limitatic
search p:

336

appears to represent the only feasible means for
mounting relevant agricultural research for cer—
tain territories, i.e., the regional research
system must be so structured that it is Egg na-
tional research system for those territories that
are unable to develop viable indigenous systems.
In other instances, the regional system will be
supplementary to those indigenous systems that
have developed their own fairly s0phisticated re—

search programs.

4. National and regional research systems need not
be competitive in nature, if clear lines of ac—
tivities are defined and manpower and financial
resources are allocated and coordinated in the

various levels of government and organizations.

Our argument for a regional administrative program
is based on a set of factors that are unique to the region.
Admittedly, such an approach might warrant serious doubts
in other areas of the world where these factors do not

exist.10 Some of these factors are:

 

10For example, Eicher argues that there are major
limitations to the regional approach to agricultural re—
search planning in Tropical Africa, largely because of the

_..4.

 

 

 

 

pC

re

t

\\

POlitiCS
.K_’ g
T

r0 ical

337

l. The West Indies already possess the basic regional
political structure for mounting a more ambitious
regional research program. The Regional Research
Center of the University of the West Indies, Fac—
ulty of Agriculture, has been institutionalized
into the regional governmental structure. The
governments of the various islands have agreed
that a regional university should be the basis of
providing university—level agriculture and basic
research training for the region. The regional
approach to higher agricultural education and re—
search has been further strengthened by the un—
willingness of the major international foundations
and agencies to grant funds for agricultural and
institutional building that are not regional in
scope. The recent grants made by the Ford and
Rockefeller Foundations to the Faculty of Agricul—

ture are examples of the general leaning towards

 

politics of getting regional cooperation. See, Eicher,
C. K., Regional Programming for Rural Development in
Tropical Africa: Implications for AID, pp, cit., pp.
9—12.

 

 

 

 

re

de

UT
re

ai

\
1
regional
that unde
Of AgriCI
e aPpoj
WOuld ho]
AgricultL
is majoI
Work for
search p]
ISSearCh
housed i]
e semi,
that isl;

 

 

338

regional programming of agricultural research and

development.1

2. At the recent meeting of the representatives of
the various governments supporting the regional
university, a recommitment to the concept of a
regional university was affirmed, rather than to
aim at development of national universities.

Furthermore, some planners appear to have grasped

the potential benefits to be derived from the
association of agricultural research activities

with an academic environment. Moseman argues
strongly that this association has been a major
factor in the agricultural development of the

United States and in the successes of the Rocke—

feller and Ford Foundations research activities

 

11The importance that the foundations attach to
regional programming is further illustrated by the fact
that under the recent Ford Foundation grant to the Faculty
specific funds were earmarked for

of Agriculture of UWI,
The Coordinator

the appointment of a Research Coordinator.
would hold senior faculty appointment in the Faculty of
Agriculture in Trinidad, but would be located in Jamaica.
His major function would be to coordinate the research

work for the Faculty of Agriculture with governmental re—
search programs, as well as to liaison with non—governmental
research organizations. The Research Coordinator is now
housed in permanent buildings on the Jamaican campus and is
the senior member of the agricultural faculty located in

that island.

 

 

it

In:

\

agriCult

Velo in;

 

339

in Mexico and the Phillipines. Action has

already been taken to Operationalize the comple-
mentarity of the research and the academic en—
vironments as well as the true regionalization

of the university. The University of the West

Indies is now located on three campuses 10cated
at strategic geographical areas in the region

(Jamaica, Barbados, and Trinidad). Each campus
is served by the Regional Research Center through
the location of permanent and itinerant agricul-
tural research personnel on these islands. Re—
search facilities in the three islands are usually
shared with various territorial government agri—

cultural research units. In islands that do not

have a campus, agricultural research work of the
Regional Research Center is conducted by the
Center's locally stationed junior technicians under
the direction of senior government researchers,

and by visits from the regional research leader.

 

12See Moseman's assessment of the requisites of
agricultural research institution building. Moseman,
A. H., Building Agricultural Research Systems in the De—
velOping Nations, Agricultural Development Council, Inc.,
New York, 1969.

 

 

 

 

SLEM
1%

51%
mOVing r
\

in 1969.
the Unit
COMOnM

 

 

340

3. Although there are some ecological differences
among the region, there are enough similarities
in cropping patterns, enterprises, and problems
to make the regional approach feasible in terms

of achieving economies of scale in tackling the

problem areas.

The formation of the Caribbean Free Trade Associa—

tion is also indicative of the desire to follow

the regional approach to development. The recent

formation of a Regional Development Bank headed

by Prof. W. Arthur Lewis points to the vigorous

efforts in regional integration. Presumably, the

Regional Bank will be able to differentiate and
respond to the capital needs of individual terri-

tories as well as the region as a whole.

Steps in Improving the

Administration of
Agricultural Research

In discussing administrative strategies for re—

moving research bottlenecks, no attempt will be made to

13The Regional Development Bank came into existence
The Bank is so designed to include membership of

in 1969.
Canada, the United Kingdom, and the

the United States,
Commonwealth Caribbean countries.

 

 

develop 5]
given abO'
there is .
tarity be
administr

focus on:

CUSsed u

Export 3

Aw
Do

E~m§§il£

%

tiVe COr

 

 

341

develop specific strategies for each of the bottlenecks
given above. Our rationale for this approach is that

there is a high degree of interdependence and complemen—

tarity between the strategies advanced for dealing with
administrative constraints. Discussion will therefore

focus on:

strategies for dealing with the domestic—export

1.
research mix.

2. strategies for dealing with the fundamental—
adaptive research mix on a regional basis.

3. the problem of research cooperation and coordi—

nation, financing, and manpower training.

These three areas of concentration will be dis—

cussed under two general strategy headings: (1) Domestic—

Export Strategy and (2) Regional Strategy.

Improving the Administration of
Domestic—Export Research

Programs

On the basis of our findings regarding the rela-

tive concentration of research activities on export as

 

 

against do
cial suppo
ganizatior
1970's. C
research 5
range of (
that expel
Quite caps
under Str
suGar ind
T

respect t
exPenditu
participa
Also impc
creaSed i

tional fc
rEQOmmem

fOUndath

recommem

hittee Cl

IEpreSen‘

 

 

 

342

against domestic research, we feel that public finan—
cial support of the traditional export research or—
ganizations should be far more discriminating over the
1970's. Given the generally high quality of their
research staff, research facilities, and the narrow
range of crops being worked on, all indications are
that export agriculture research organizations are
quite capable of financing the new lines of research
under Strategy 2. This is especially true for the
sugar industry.

The situation is quite different, however, with
respect to domestic research organizations. Public
expenditures need to be expanded in this area. Greater
participation from the private sector is also needed.
Also important to domestic research activities is in—
creased financial and personnel support from interna—
tional foundations and organizations. We do not
recommend across the board expansion of public and
foundation funds in domestic research activities. We
recommend the formation of a Regional Research Com—
mittee consisting of representatives from organizations

representing domestic, export, university and

 

 

 

 

 

internatir

of such a

TeChnica
Cehter (
COm-Hlitte
SeCtor (
foundati
membersh
Jamalica,
States a
opment p
C0coa A]
POsed cc
COuld be

 

 

343

. . . l4 . .
international research agenCies. The primary function

of such a committee would be:

1. To act as liaison among the organizations conduct-
ing and supporting export and domestic research.
Our study indicates that at the present time there
is practically no formal communication or coopera—
tion among these organizations. Even informal
lines of communication are weak and ineffective
for implementing concrete measures of cooperation

and coordination.

2. To prepare periodic reviews of on—going and
projected research, and to explore areas where

cooperation and coordination would facilitate

 

14There is currently in existence a Regional
Technical Committee which advises the Regional Research
Center (UWI) concerning research programs. However, this
committee does not include representatives from the export
sector (with the exception of cocoa) or the international
foundations supporting research in the region. Current
membership includes the Chief Technical Officers from
Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, the Associated
States and representatives of the British Overseas Devel—
opment Ministry, Rothamstead and Reading (U.K.), U.W.I.,
Cocoa Alliance and MacDonald College (Canada). The pro—
posed committee might be unnecessary if this Committee
could be expanded to serve similar functions.

 

 

 

 

 

344

cost—reducing programs or efficient utilization
of facilities. We have already indicated that
deSpite the existence of poor research facilities
in certain areas, there are actually underutilized
facilities in others. This committee could iden—

tify these areas and develop plans to plug these

gaps.

To seek out areas where crucial manpower needs

are major constraints, and explore feasible basis
for short—term and long-term exchange of research
personnel. Under the present structure there is
no formal basis for exchange of research personnel
even within the region itself. We feel that there
is need for improving on—the—job training for
government and university personnel by developing
an exchange program among the various island re—
search organizations as well as with temperate

and tropical zone countries.

To seek areas where export research organizations
can actively participate in field testing of new

and improved domestic crops, as a basis of

 

 

 

pansion c
primaril3
activitie
private :
research
feasible
certain

Potentia
forming

traditic
with the
new COHu
SUCh st]
initial‘
nels wh.

cial ba

ularly

the thr

 

 

345

effective commercialization for either domestic

or export markets.

One note is in order concerning the possible ex-
pansion of public funds into export agriculture. We are
primarily concerned with public expenditure on research
activities that have traditionally been underwritten by
private foreign capital, as in the case of sugar cane
research in the West Indies. It would seem economically
feasible, however, to channel public investment into
certain private organizations engaged in research on
potential new, high-demand export crops, We suggest the
forming of new ”corporate structures,” whereby certain
traditional export organizations enter into partnership
with the public sector by selling stocks and shares for
new commercial enterprises aimed at the export market.
Such structures could facilitate the expansion of research
initially aimed at the domestic market by providing chan—
nels whereby domestic crOps could be tested on a commer—
cial basis for possible outlet on the external market.

With respect to the traditional exports (partic—
ularly sugar), we feel that a significant proportion of

the thrust for technological innovation will come from

 

 

 

 

within, v
of the Co
the case,
munity.

lation wi
out the a
sary for

ernmental
3 .

l x

I

1

following

mechaniz
ready hil
governme
negative

reSultin

 

be the c
EAQEE cc
I that goy
a tOp‘le
i ing agrj
t0 Undel
0f cert;

demand

 

 

 

346

within, via the potential loss of the protective umbrella
of the Commonwealth Commodity Agreement. This would be
the case, if the U.K. enters the EurOpean Economic Com—
munity. However, we feel that substantial enabling legis-
lation will be needed before the export sector can carry
out the appropriate shifts in research emphasis so neces-
sary for reducing its cost structure. Under present gov—
ernmental policies, the sugar industry is prevented from
following certain lines of technical innovation (e.g.
mechanization) because of the fear of increasing the al—
ready high level of unemployment. We feel that such
governmental policies could precipitate greater long—run
negative effects on the economy than the displaced labor
resulting from new biomechanical innovations. This could
be the case if the alternative to such innovation is ppm—
plete collapse of the industry. To this end, we suggest
that government and private research organizations appoint
a top—level research team of technical personnel, includ—
ing agricultural economists and other social scientists,
to undertake a pilot project dealing with the likely impact
of certain innovations (particularly machinery), on the
demand for labor. One of the basic reasons for suggesting

research in this area is to fill the present void of

 

 

 

informati
and machi
strongly
utilizati
This couI
tablishe<
are sync
the labo:
seasonal
as reduc

be major

W

Mining

 

the regj

11p Ofa
\ an inst:
) Center (
l
I
|

\

istics

A180, 8'
of biom
industrv

 

 

 

347

information relative to sequential timing of labor input
and machine input in the production process. It is
strongly felt that there is significant scope for the
utilization of labor, even when mechanization is allowed.
This could be the case if proper timing sequence is es—

tablished, such that the inputs of labor and machinery

are synchronized to even out the peaks and troughs in
the labor supply. Such sychronization could reduce the
seasonality of labor requirements in the industry as well
as reduce extreme variations in money wages. These could

. . . . . . 15
be major factors in rationaliZing the industry.

Proposed Regional
Administrative Programs

 

In view of our findings on the effectiveness of
the regional research structure, we advocate the setting
up of a Regional Agricultural Research Institute. Such
an institute would absorb the present Regional Research

Center of the University of the West Indies to the extent

 

15See Chapter V for discussion of the character—

istics of labor costs in sugar cane production in Jamaica.
Also, see Chapter VI for discussion of potential effects
of biomechanical innovation on employment in the sugar
industry in the West Indies over the 1970's.

 

that ther
of effort
the frame

ing struc

 

 

348

that there would be limited competition and duplication

of efforts from competing regional organizations. Within

the frameWOrk of such an institute, we propose the follow—

ing structure:

A. Organizational Structure

1.

 

The Institute should be established under
formal inter—governmental agreement in terms
of financial commitment for research facil—
ities, staffing, and travel on a long—term

basis.

The Institute should be established under
conditions permitting long—term capital fund—
ing and recurrent expenditure commitments from
international foundations and bi-lateral and

multi—lateral public aid.

The Institute should be organized as an au—
tonomous body, headed by a Director, respon—
sible to a Research Committee. Membership of

such a Committee would normally come from:

 

 

 

349

Elected representatives from the various

funding territories.

Representatives from the international
foundations and agencies involved in fi—

nancing of the Institute.

Representative from the Regional Develop—

ment Bank.

Representative from the Faculty of Agri—
culture of the University of the West

Indies.

Representative of the Regional Committee
proposed under our discussion of export-
domestic agricultural research organiza—
tion. (In fact, this Committee could serve
the need of the Committee prOposed earlier,
in which case such a Committee would be

unnecessary.)

The research committee should have represen—

tation from the international research organi—

zations serving the region——i.e., the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

International Wheat and Maize Improvement
Center in Mexico, the International Center

for Tropical Agriculture in Columbia, and

the International Institute for Tropical
Agriculture in Nigeria. The Nigerian organ—
ization is specifically designed to carry

out research on root crops and other tropical
food crops. One way of doing this would be

to make the Directors of these two Centers the
representatives of the Ford and Rockefeller

Foundations.

The Regional Research Institute should serve
as an integral part of the University system,
with provision for the utilization of research
facilities for teaching and research of under—
graduate and graduate students. In this re—
spect, the Institute would be operating within
a framework similar to the present Research
Center, but at a greatly expanded level. In
addition, the Institute could award degrees
or certificates for advanced studies in coop—

eration with the University.

 

 

B

 

 

351

6. The Institute should expand and incorporate
the existing facilities of the Regional Re—
search Center in the various islands. Where
local research facilities are inadequate for
training lower—level agricultural technicians,

such facilities should be made available.
B. Staffing of the Institute

1. The Institute should carry its own complement
of researchers and technical personnel who
would be accorded regular faculty status and
privileges. On the other hand, academic
members attached to the agriculture faculty
and related disciplines should be accorded

associate status with the Institute.

2. Provision should be made for (a) periodic
rotation of research staff of the various min—
istries of agriculture in the territories to
allow them to be in residence at the Insti—
tute's headquarters, and (b) for members of
the Institute's staff to substitute for such

public officials in their own country.

l___

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3.

 

352

Through international foundations and agencies,
financial assistance could be secured to allow
advanced graduate students in temperate zones
and other tropical countries to conduct re—
search for advanced degrees in tropical agri—
cultural problems under the supervision of the
Institute's staff. Such students would be
accorded the status of junior staff members

of the Institute.

The Institute should be adequately staffed by
competent social scientists who would actively
participate in the planning and implementation
of research activities. In addition, such
staff members would engage in long—run economic
analyses of the possible consequences of cer—
tain research findings at the farm level, the
national level, and the regional and inter—

national levels.

Salaries and benefits would necessarily have
to be competitive with the University and
private industry. In addition, it might be

necessary to have an upward adjustment in the

 

 

 

 

353

salary structure for the Institute's staff as
well as the University's and government. The
adjustment would facilitate the attraction and
retention of top-level staff members. It will
be necessary, however, to exercise extreme
caution in making salary adjustments; any ap—
parent differential in the salary structure of
the various units could result in staff members
leaving key positions in lesser paying organ—
izations to enter the Institute. This could

be a serious problem for the national systems.

C. Research Orientation of the Research Institute.

On the basis of findings on the present research
pattern in the region, and the implication of such
a pattern for the productivity of the agricultural
sector, we proposed the following lines of research

emphasis:

l. Emphasis should be given to creating a large
number of biologically superior or improved
varieties of crops and livestock. Such an

emphasis will be the first step in establishing

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

354

and maintaining a pool of high—quality, low—

cost, high—adaptive inputs for the area.

The testing of the "pool" material for adapta-
bility to national ecological conditions should
be undertaken with the full cooperation of na—
tional research systems. Where such national
systems are weak, the territorial units of the
Institute should be prepared to carry out the

adaption trials.

The initial thrust of the Institute would thus
be in the area of achieving a ”critical minimum
effort" in the area of fundamental research,

in order to change the biological content of
the inputs. At the same time, research should
be undertaken to maintain some balance in the
fundamental—adaptive mix within the Institute.
Such a mix is vital in realizing the potential

for commercialization of the new inputs.

It is extremely important that technical re-
search efforts be undertaken in c00peration

with agricultural economists. The economist

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

355

should undertake costing trials as well as
general farm management studies. In addition,
the economist should be involved in long—run
macro—projections of demand, supply, labor,
and pricing variables. Continuous research
programs should be directed at identifying
the crucial variables in farm—nonfarm inter—

actions.

The Institute should in turn serve as a "re—
gional experiment station" for the introduc—
tion and adaption of new crops from outside
the area. This would be aimed at attaining
a ”general” level of adaptability for the
region as a whole. Adaptability of new crops
to a Specific territory should be initiated
largely by the research systems of the indi—
vidual territories in c00peration with the
territorial unit of the Institute. In this
respect, the Institute should participate in
frequent exchange of research material with
the newly formed international institutes in
Nigeria and Columbia as well as with other

institutes and research centers.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PlEte .
PrOgra

by the

 

356

6. In its function as the entry point for new
inputs into the area, the Institute should
maintain a "quarantine" function. With the
rapid strides in transportation, indiscrim—
inate introduction of foreign plant material
could make new plant varieties immediately
obsolete through the outbreak of disease and

pests.

7. The Institute should be responsive to the
problems of individual territories to the
extent that Specific and crucial problems
can be channeled to the Institute for inves—
tigation. In addition, research findings at
the territorial level that appear relevant
for improved productivity of agriculture
should be explored by the Institute for poten—

tial regional application.

The suggestions given above are by no means com—
plete. Furthermore, the work of the Institute must be
incorporated into the extension, marketing, and overall
programs of the various agencies and territories served

by the Institute. One final note is in order. We stress

 

 

 

that the
flexibil

for adjt

in the
bottlen

The fir

 

the ex;
adaptiy

dinatic

 

Scale (

dence a

minist:
approai
fUture
exists
resear

makers

 

357

that the Institute's program maintain a high level of
flexibility in its activities. Flexibility is necessary

for adjustment to dynamic needs and changes as they arise.

Summary

In seeking to identify administrative bottlenecks
in the West Indian research structure we found the major
bottlenecks could be generally classified under two groups.
The first group relates to the general emphasis given to
the export—domestic research mix as well as the fundamental-
adaptive mix. The second group relates to research coor—
dination, cooperation, financing, economic incentives, and
scale of activities. There is a high degree of interdepen—
dence among the observed administrative bottlenecks.

We argue for a regional approach to research ad—
ministrative reorganization in the region. The regional
approach appears to present the most realistic view of the
future potential of the research structure. There already
exists the basic foundation and institutional regional
research structure, and all indication are that policy-

makers will continue in this direction. Within the region

 

 

 

 

 

framewor
national
of the r
tion of
system t
tional 1

system r

strateg:
mestic ;
capable
must be
ation b

aS well

Suggest
Institl
Regions
Indies,
sity, ]
staff \
from m'

adVa nC

358

framework of reorganizing the structure, we see the various
national research systems as being specialized extensions
of the regional system. Such systems would serve the func—
tion of outlying experiment stations and link the regional
system to the specific problems of the farmers at the na—
tional level. When national systems are weak, the regional
system must take the place of national systems.

Within the domestic—export context, we advocate a
strategy of greater public and foundation support for do—
mestic agriculture. Export agriculture appears to be quite
capable of financing its own programs. However, efforts
must be made to coordinate and formalize research COOper—
ation between domestic and export research organizations
as well as international organizations.

Within a regional administrative structure, we
suggest the setting up of a Regional Agricultural Research
Institute. Such an Institute would absorb the existing
Regional Research Center of the University of the West
Indies. The Institute would also be linked to the univer—
sity, but would hold an autonomous status. Faculties and
staff would be greatly expanded, and support would come
from multi—lateral sources. The institute would offer

advanced degrees and diplomas in cooperation with the

 

 

 

Univers:

revised

on crea
superio
of new
to nati
would a
livestc
0f ecor
cluded
tists v
resean

conseqx

 

 

359

University, and salaries and working conditions would be
revised to attract top—level scientific manpower.
Research work of the Institute would concentrate
on creating a ”critical minimum effort" toward generating
superior crops and livestocks. Work would include testing
of new inputs for both regional adapability and passing on
to national systems for local adapability. The Institute
would also maintain a quarantine function for crops and
livestocks introduced in the region. A competent staff
of economists and other social scientists would be in—
cluded in the staffing of the Institute. Social scien—
tists would actively participate in the development of
research priorities as well as assessing the long—term

consequences of such priorities.

 

 

 

 

develOp
of incr
agricul
many of
ceived

in the

from tt
adaptal
West Ir
for r0<

bulk 01

t0 fin<
Culture
tribut

Chroni‘

CHAPTER VIII

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summaryiand Conclusions

The West Indies, like many of the other less—
developed areas, is seeking ways of capturing the benefits
of increased agricultural productivity to be realized from
agricultural research and technology. However, unlike
many of the less—developed countries, the region has re—
ceived only minimal benefits from the ”green revolution"
in the cereals. The new and improved genetic inputs coming
from the international research organizations are: (1) not
adaptable to the humid lowland tropics (which include the
West Indies), and (2) there has been no ”green revolution"
for root crops and starch pulses——crops that make up the
bulk of the diet in the West Indies.

The region is currently faced with rising pressures
to find ways of increasing the productivity of its agri—
cultural sector, as well as to increase the level and dis—
tribution of income among rural people. In addition, the

chronic high level of unemployment (about 15 percent) and
360

 

the rece
the unen

with thi

jective:

361

the recent political disturbances (largely spearheaded by
the unemployed) point out the urgency of coming to grips
with this problem.

This study was undertaken with the following ob—

jectives in mind:

1. To identify the characteristics of the existing
regional agricultural research structure in terms
of (a) the organization of research, (b) the
subject—matter of research, and (c) partial as-
sessment of the input component of research in

terms of manpower and expenditure.

2. To examine the characteristics of the output from
the regional agricultural research system to see
how they relate (a) to the performance of the ex-
port and food farmer at the farm level and (b) to

the general performance of the agricultural sector.

3. To explore the major bottlenecks to productivity—
increasing technological change in the agricultural
sector, as well as the scope for relevant techno—

logical change.

 

 

standin
actuall
structt
can mox
Velopme
develO]
t0 Som‘
agricu
West I

the p1

 

362

4. To develop a strategy of agricultural research
priorities, including measures to overcome admin—
istrative problems in research agencies for the
region over the 1970's, and to explore the possible
consequences of following particular research

strategies.

The study hopes to contribute to a better under—
standing of regional research system in terms of (1) what
actually exists, and the disposition of the existing
structure, (2) possible directions in which the system
can move to increase its contribution to growth and de—
velopment, and (3) the possible long—run consequences for
development of moving in a particular direction. Answers
to some of these general policy questions would allow
agricultural research planners and policymakers in the
West Indies to improve their decision-making process in
the planning of research activities.

The current interest in agricultural research and
development by policymakers and planners stems from a
number of factors. Some of the more important are:

(l) recognition that the future of the traditional agri—

cultural exports (particularly sugar and bananas) is

 

 

 

 

 

extreme]
tential
its maj<
Europea1
Indies I
it is p
in per
cant tr
in the
very li
largely
called
plough
indiger
and ris
eXpansj
SPite I
turing
failed
For 8d
agricu
and un

agricu

 

 

363

extremely uncertain, since the region now faces the po—
tential loss of the protected United Kingdom market for
its major agricultural exports if Britain enters the
European Common Market, (2) the experience of the West
Indies over the last two decades has demonstrated that
it is possible to have a relatively rapid rate of growth
in per capita income and GDP without undergoing signifi—
cant transformation in economic structure. Rapid growth
in the West Indies in the 1950's and 1960's resulted in
very little "broadening” of the economic structure,
largely because the growth stimulus came from the so—
called ”enclave sectors,” which generally failed to
plough back a significant proportion of profits into the
indigenous structure, (3) it is unlikely that the chronic
and rising level of unemployment will be alleviated by
expansion in the manufacturing and mining sectors. De-
spite phenomenal increases in the contribution of manufac—
turing and mining to GDP, these sectors have generally
failed to generate appreciable increases in employment.
For some time to come, the region will have to look to
agriculture for reduction in the level of unemployment
and underemployment, (4) lagging productivity of domestic

agriculture has tended to aggravate the regional balance

 

 

 

 

 

of payme

via ris:

level 0
relativ
countri
though
bring a
We four
food st
limite(
Prices
tends

rates

genera
manufa
0f the
SeCtor

Skille

With i

 

 

364

of payments problem by export of scarce foreign exchange
via rising food imports.

Our study indicates that deSpite a relatively high
level of demand for imported food (which is backed up by
relatively high per capita incomes, as the less-developed
countries go), a relatively low level of per capita piggg—
tive demand still persists in the region as a whole. Al—
though the rapid growth rate of the 1950's and 1960's did
bring about some expansion in per capita effective demand,
we found that domestic per capita effective demand for

food still remains low, relative to the cost of domestic

 

food production. This indicates that effective demand is
limited since it was not enough to absorb the local food
prices. A second characteristic of regional economy which
tends to indicate a low effective demand is that rapid
rates of growth in income over the 1950's and 1960's were
generated largely by the capital—intensive mining and
manufacturing sectors which account for a small prOportion
of the labor force. Increased incomes generated in these
sectors tends to be concentrated in the hands of a few
skilled numbers of the labor force. Production systems

with this characteristic do not expand per capita effective

 

 

 

 

demand ]
hence i1

force.

the nex
with th
argue t
expansi
Of dome
price (
increa:
along

(cerea
outwar.
This a
island
ObSerV
island
caPita
relatj

thrthe

tslan<

the n

365

demand because they do not place productive resources and
hence income in the hands of a large number of the work
force.

Given the above indication of demand limitations,
the next questions deal with reconciling this argument
with the observed high propensity to import food. We
argue that the rapidly rising food imports represent an
expansion in consumption of imported food at the expense
of domestically produced food as a result of changes in
price of food imports relative to domestic food. As such,
increasing levels of food imports represent a movement
along Specific demand schedules for certain food items
(cereals, livestock products, and vegetables) rather than
outward shifts in demand schedules for these commodities.
This argument holds for the region as a whole. In specific
islands, there might have been some shifts in demand. We
observed, however, that in certain instances specific
islands experienced rapid increases in food imports per
capita over periods when per capita income changes were
relatively small. This phenomenon would tend to lend
further support to our argument that, for many of the
islands, per capita effective demand did not spearhead

the increased importation of food. What seems to be the

 

 

 

 

case is
being 5

food.

agricul
bananas
in the
being j
present
enterix
have b(
locati

t0 Cen

gional
Period
covere
indica
withir
gion.

T3

366

case is that the effective demand there is for food is
being satisfied by local food production and imported
food.

High costs of production exist for the traditional
agricultural exports—-sugar and bananas. In the case of
bananas, it is obvious that the high cost of production
in the West Indies has prevented West Indian bananas from
being in demand in the United States market. At the
present time, there are no duty restrictions on bananas
entering the United States; however, West Indian bananas
have been unable to exploit the advantage of favorable
location to the U.S. market because of high costs relative
to Central and South American countries.

Assessment was made of the disposition of the re—
gional agricultural research structure over the 1930—68
period. Classification of the 27 research organizations
covered in the survey on the basis of "form” and'function"
indicated at least six different organizational structures
within which agricultural research is carried in the re-
gion. These are:

Type l-—Public, largely adaptive, non—commodity
oriented organizations.

Type 2——Private, largely adaptive, non—commodity
oriented organizations.

 

 

 

 

 

TYP

TYP

TYF

TYP

5. Prc
Only 7
in fun<
iS lar<
cocoa.
of the
in res
coconu
in res
legume
reSear
the 1e
and Tc
tegiOr
ah unc

howeve

367
Type 3——Private, largely adaptive, non—commodity
oriented organizations.

Type 4——Private, largely fundamental commodity
oriented organizations.

Type 5——Quasi—public, largely adaptive, non—commodity
oriented organizations.

Type 6——Quasi—public, largely adaptive, commodity
oriented organizations.

Type 1 was the oldest, followed by 4, 3, 6, 2, and
5. Programs concentrated heavily on adaptive research.
Only 7 percent of the research organizations are engaged
in fundamental research. Furthermore, fundamental research
is largely confined to two export crops-—sugar cane and
cocoa. Of equal significance is the fact that 50 percent
of the research organizations in the survey are engaged
in research on a single export crop (sugar, banana, citrus,
coconut, and cocoa). The remaining 50 percent are engaged
in research on virtually hundreds of root crops, grain
legumes, cereals, and vegetables. The concentration of
research efforts appears to be functionally related to
the level of economic develOpment. Jamaica and Trinidad
and Tobago account for a disprOportionate share of the
regional agricultural research organizations. There is
an underlying economic rationale for past research emphasis.

However, the rationale varies significantly between

 

 

 

 

 

export -<
ization:
could e1
high pr«
elsewhe
eXport-
mental
problem
Large—s
mainly
Efforts
knowlec
case 0:
knowle<
matter
ganiza
resear
adapti
has 10
agricu
tive r
PrOpOr

h0he C

368

export-oriented organizations and domestic—oriented organ—
izations. Specifically, the export—oriented organizations
could emphasize adaptive research because a relatively
high proportion of relevant fundamental research was done
elsewhere and was directly transferable to the area. Most
eXport-oriented research organiZations undertook funda—
mental research only when information was lacking or when
problems unique to the region confronted specific crops.
Large—scale fundamental research in the West Indies is
mainly confined to sugar and cocoa because it stems from
efforts by the sugar and cocoa industries to generate
knowledge not available from outside the region. In the
case of domestic research efforts, there has been limited
knowledge to draw on from outside. The research subject—
matter emphasis between export and domestic research or—
ganizations is inconsistent and paradoxical. Domestic
research organizations rationalize their concentration on
adaptive research on the grounds that fundamental research
has low benefit—to—cost ratios. On the other hand, export
agriculture rationalizes the heavy concentration on adap—
tive research on the basis of the fact that a significant
proportion of the fundamental work on export crops was

done outside the region. Furthermore, the results were

 

 

 

 

 

direct]

extent

expendi
activil
searche
organi:
roughl
crops,
centra
covere
also a
for th
cant a
resear
eXport
aCtivi
than t
Sions

tists‘
in ave
hand,

of 0h

369

directly applicable and beneficial to the region, to the
extent that they could concentrate as adaptive research.
There is an unfavorable manpower and research
expenditure ratio between export and domestic research
activities, with respect to the number of crops being re—
searched. Over the 1967—68 period, the number of research
organizations engaged in research on export crops was
roughly equal to those engaged in research on domestic
crops. However, the eXport research efforts were con—
centrated on five crops, while the domestic efforts
covered a wide variety of local food crops. There was
also a much more favorable ratio of scientists to crops
for the export—oriented organizations. Another signifi—
cant aspect is the relationship between kind of commodity
researched and directly productive research efforts. The
export—oriented organizations have separated research
activities from other activities to a much greater degree
than the non—eXport research organizations. When conver—
sions were made to full—time—equivalent research scien—
tists, the former type of organizations show a reduction
in available scientists of only 10 percent. On the other
hand, the reduction was 26 percent for the latter groups

of organizations.

 

 

 

 

 

of the
ganizat
domest:
manpow<
need tt
scient
Furthe
incent
study

terior
region
of for
all an
comple

than t

reseal
ever,
the c}
rESea]
is the

in th.

370

Serious question also exist as to the distribution
of the work load among the regional domestic research or—
ganizations. Given the magnitude of the task confronting
domestic agriculture, there is a shortage of top level
manpower in the region. Domestic research administrators
need to give top priority to the training of agricultural
scientists at the undergraduate and graduate levels.
Furthermore, a hard look must be taken at the economic
incentives being offered to agricultural graduates. Our
study found little evidence that there has been any de—
terioration in the quality of research personnel in the
region. On the contrary, if one uses the number of years
of formal education as a rough measure of ”quality,” then
all available evidence tends to suggest that the present
complement of research scientists are much more competent
than those of 20 years ago.

Data on expenditures on West Indian agricultural
research are the most incomplete of the input data. How—
ever, the available figures do provide some indication of
the characteristics of the capital structure of regional

research. What has emerged on the eXpenditure question

 

is that in 1967—68, twenty—two of the organizations covered

in the survey were spending approximately 1.3 million

 

 

dollar:
Over tl
spendi
expend
ing ca
(45 pe
of the
26 res
50 per
search
total

remair
domest
Portir
aPpro>

and re

reSpOI
was %
egric
eXpen.
Spend

Of th

 

 

371

dollars (W.I.) as capital outlay in the research efforts.
Over the same period, 26 of the 27 organizations were
Spending about 4.2 million dollars (W.I.) as recurrent
eXpenditures in research. Of the 22 organizations report—
ing capital expenditure, 10 were working on export crops
(45 percent) and these ten accounted for almost 16 percent
of the total capital expenditure over the period. Of the
26 research organizations reporting recurrent expenditure,
50 percent (13) were engaged in export agriculture re—
search. This 50 percent accounted for 56 percent of the
total recurrent expenditure for the 1967—68 period. The
remaining 44 percent was being spent by the remaining 13
domestic research organizations. Thus, for the units re—
porting research expenditure in 1967—68, we estimated
approximately 5.5 million dollars (W.I.) combined capital
and recurrent expenditure.

On the basis of both the respondents and non—
respondents in the survey, we estimate that the West Indies
was spending approximately 6.5 million dollars (W.I.) on
agricultural research over the 1967—68 period. From these
eXpenditure estimates we estimated that the region was
spending on agricultural research at a rate of 1.6 percent

of the value of its agricultural output in 1968. However,

 

 

 

the rat
facilit
partict
researc
facilii
organi:
much 01
zation
of cap
past i
Search
Specif
Organi
capita
tively
genera
sincE

of the

reeem

their

thani

high.

Conld

fl [

372

the rate of expenditure does not reflect the shortage of
facilities in domestic agricultural research activities,
particularly in the smaller islands. Export—oriented

research facilities are superior to non—export research

 

facilities. First, the data ShOW that export research
organizations were spending approximately one—fifth as
much on capital equipment as the public research organi—
zations in 1968. It would appear, however, that the level
of capital investment is related to: (l) the level of
past investment, (2) technological obsolescence of re—
search facilities, and (3) changes in research emphasis.
Specifically, the data indicate that the export research
organizations undertook the greater proportion of their
capital investment some 5 to 10 years earlier. The rela—
tively small expenditure in this area in 1968 reflects a
general "Scaling down" of expenditure on capital equipment,
Since the major proportion was purchased earlier. Many

of the export—oriented organizations are of relatively

 

recent origin (banana, citrus, and coconuts), and as such,

their research facilities would tend to be more up-to—date

 

than the public research organizations. The relatively
high capital investment of the public research organizations

could reflect conscious efforts to up-date their research

 

 

 

 

facilit
that gr
export
capitai
could 1

tion 0

spendi
search
emphas
resear
agricu
feel t
Of agr

absolt

 

 

373

facilities. Second, it is only in relatively recent times
that governmental policies have Shifted emphasis from
export agriculture to domestic agriculture. The high
capital investment among domestic research organizations
could reflect a general "tooling up" for the implementa—
tion of the new policy.

Inspite of the fact that the region appears to be
spending at a relatively high rate on agricultural re—
search, we find reasons to question: (1) the relative
emphasis being given to adaptive as against fundamental
research and (2) the allocation of resources to domestic
agricultural research as against export agriculture. We
feel that an investment rate of 1.6 percent of the value
of agricultural output can be a misleading figure if the
absolute level of output is small.

Having reviewed some aSpects of the input struc—
ture of the regional research system, we turned to the
various research organizations for assessment of the out—
put of agricultural research activities. After reviewing
the international experience with respect to the fertil—
izer response curves for improved and unimproved crop
varieties, we then reviewed the response curves for a wide

range of experimental research projects in the West Indies.

 

 

 

The pri
specifi
tural ;
specifi
the ma;
and sta

instan

compar
Trinid

indica

 

 

 

 

The primary objective of this review was to identify the
specific characteristics of the first generation agricul—
tural problems facing the region. Before examining the

specific cases, however, we noted that crOp yields for

374

 

the major cereals (rice and maize), as well as root crops

and starch vegetables, have experienced a decline in many

instances Since 1948.

With respect to regional research activities,

comparisons of experiment station yields for Jamaica,

Trinidad and Tobago, and the Eastern Caribbean islands

indicate the following:

The crop varieties that are generally released by
the experiment stations to the farmers show very
little Significant yield differentials under N-P—K

fertilization, as against no fertilization.

In a large number of cases, the addition of nitro—
genous fertilizer depressed yields to the point
that yields were actually lower than experiments

carried out without fertilizer.

In a few cases, fertilization registered some gains

in yields when applied to local crop varieties;

 

 

Organj
Variet
Variet
ical ,

haVe !

 

 

 

375

but even within a single experiment station the
variation of yields are large. In addition, the
level of biological control necessary to attain
such yields tends to make the recommended variety

uneconomical for the peasant farmer.

4. Experimental results (in terms of crop yields)
for the best available technology were not sig—
nificantly better than results attained by the
”better" peasant farmers using traditional tech—

nology.

5. The only crop varieties that consistently out—
perform the local unimproved varieties under
widely variable ecological conditions were the
two hybrid corn varieties (X304 and X306) developed

in Jamaica by Pioneer Hi—Bred Corn Company.

In general, we find that domestic—oriented research
organizations have tended to concentrate their efforts on
varietal trials rather than developing indigenous improved
varieties that are adaptable to a wide variety of ecolog-
ical conditions. Domestic agricultural research efforts

have not succeeded in placing their results well above the

 

 

 

result
Even w
sarily
such t
the tr
better

nology

fertil

why pe
ernmer
‘ eties

throug

 

 

 

 

sponse
tiliZe
SUbsi<
tional
Chang,
ferti;
“883]
of th
to in

We ar‘

 

 

376

results of the more commercially—oriented peasant farmers.
Even when experimental yields are higher, this is neces—
sarily not sound basis for recommending the extension of
such treatment to farmers. Unless the yield levels of
the treated plots are substantially superior to what the
better farmers are already getting with traditional tech-
nology, the treatment will hardly be an extension success.
The general failure of research to produce high
fertilizer response crop varieties would tend to explain
why peasant farmers often show a lack of interest in gov—
ernmental fertilizer subsidy schemes. If the crop vari—
eties available to the farmer are such that he observes,
through trial and error, consistently low fertilizer re—
Sponses, there will be limited demand generated for fer—
tilizer even when the price is substantially reduced by
subsidies. The marginal cost incurred in applying addi—
tional units of fertilizer, relative to the incremental
changes in yields, must warrant Significant expansion in
fertilizer application. The high degree of competitive—
ness between production and consumption for the capital
of the peasant farmer further explains a general reluctance
to invest in fertilizer, even at highly subsidized prices.

We argue that West Indian peasant farmers are aware from

 

 

 

 

 

past e1
could 1

his im

system
search
that w
fertil
higher
series
crOp I
Would
incree
farmel
genera
head a
agrim
tiona
SEQtO
SEctO
itati

irrig

 

 

 

377

past experience that large scale application of fertilizer
could result in an actual decline in yields, and hence,
his income position.

The proper role of relevant indigenous research
systems now becomes clearer. West Indian domestic re—
search activities need to generate biochemical technology
that will produce significant numbers of high response
fertilizer curves for local crOps. The generation of
higher response curves over time can be visualized as a
series of short—run higher response curves. With such
crOp response curves, increased fertilizer application
would tend to generate marginal products that would make
increased fertilizer usage profitable for the peasant
farmer. Over time, the factor productivity increases
generated by this type of research activities will spear—
head a self—sustained development drive in the domestic
agricultural sector. As productivity increases, addi—
tional resources will be demanded from the non—agricultural
sectors in response to increased opportunities outside the
sector. At this state in development, we feel that facil—
itating features (in terms of land reform, extension, and

irrigation) become more meaningful. The facilitating

 

 

 

 

 

 

featurt

potent

cane a
that s
fiftee
Island
island
evider
low fe
resea:
proved
by 10(
recon(
range
Close;
to ex]
ginal
by in
qUOta
Shgar
has r

ical

378

features are necessary for agriculture to capture the full
potential of the growth process.

A general review of the yield situation for sugar
cane and bananas, the two major agricultural exports, shows
that sugar cane yields have been constant over the past
fifteen years. Banana yields in Jamaica and the Windward
Islands are substantially lower than in the French—Speaking
islands, and in Central and South America. We found little
evidence that West Indian sugar cane varieties possess a
low fertilizer reSponse threshold. In general, sugar cane
research is highly advanced in the West Indies, and im—
proved varieties are constantly being put into production
by local research institutions. We found it difficult to
reconcile constant yields with the existence of a wide
range of high—reSponse sugar cane varieties. However, on
closer examination we found that there has been a tendency
to eXpand sugar output by expansion onto land that is mar—
ginal for cane production. The tendency to expand output
by increasing acreage is related to the working of the
quota mechanism and preferential arrangements covering
sugar production. Expansion to marginal sugar cane lands
has resulted in a relative decline in the marginal phys—

ical product of such lands (at the extensive margin),

 

 

 

which 1
physice

intens

eviden
sugar
compon
costs
the re
under
Systen
of suc

cost (

to gr
over

the p
Searc

Secor

 

379

which has just been offset by increases in the marginal
physical product of fertilizer and irrigation (at the
intensive margin).

In addition to the land characteristics, there is
evidence that there are substantial inefficiencies in
sugar cane production. Labor represents the major cost
component per unit of raw sugar produced. High labor
costs are a major factor in the uncompetitive nature of
the regional sugar and banana industries. We argue that
under relevant technological innovations, a more efficient
system of production would be forthcoming. The importance
of such a technology would be to reduce the high labor

cost of the industry.

Recommendations

Two general strategy areas are developed for coming
to grips with the inefficiencies of the agricultural sector
over the 1970's. The first set of strategies deals with
the priorities to be given to the subject-matter of re—
search and the Specific commodity research systems. The

second set of strategies is concerned with administrative

 

 

 

 

aspect
the su
likely
strate

and th

to don
agrict
genera
substi
hels \
tions
serva

strai

eXpor
biOme
innov
eXpor

can t

be gj

380

aspects of the regional research system and to complement
the subject—matter strategies. Assessment is made of the
likely short—run and long—run impact of subject—matter
strategies over the 1970's in terms of a Specific second
and third generation agricultural problems.

Under subject—matter strategies, Strategy 1 relates
to domestic agriculture while Strategy 2 relates to export
agriculture. Strategy 1 research would concentrate on
generating a stream of biochemical innovations that would
substitute for land. Furthermore, institutions and chan—
nels would need to be developed to diffuse these innova—
tions at the farm level. Strategy 1 is based on the ob—
servation that domestic agriculture faces a land con-
straint.

Strategy 2 suggests that research activities in
export agriculture concentrate on generating a stream of
biomechanical innovations over the 1970's. This type of
innovation is needed to reduce the high labor cost of
export agriculture to the extent that export agriculture
can become competitive on the world market.

Under Strategy 1 we advocate that high priority

be given to the following commodity research systems:

 

 

 

 

System
exchax
versi
of th«
diet,
to a
gion'
ment
that
lines
reSea
eVEr'
SYStE

this

381

l. A livestock research system

2. A cereal research system (maize and rice)

3. A fruit and vegetable research system

4. A root crop research system (sweet potatoes, yams,

cassava, and certain aroids)

The major basis for assigning high priority to
Systems 1 to 3 are: (a) conservation of scarce foreign
exchange by import substitution and (b) agricultural di—
versification. High priority is given to system 4 because
of the relative importance of root crops in the regional
diet, and the fact that it represents a major access route
to a stream of income for a large proportion of the re—
gion's farmers. We Should note, however, that the assign—
ment of priorities to the above systems does not imply
that there is currently no research being done along these
lines. On the contrary, many of the islands do carry out
research on these systems. What we are suggesting, how—
ever, is that priority be given to the four commodity
systems within the framework of Strategy 1. Currently

this is not being done.

 

 

 

 

 

given

import
(b) t}
these

ploib

reCt:
item:

effe

382

Under Strategy 2 we suggest that high priority be

given to the following over the 1970's:

1. A sugar cane research system

2. A banana research system

The rationale for two systems recognizes (a) their
importance to the regional economy as export earners and
(b) the comparative advantage that the region enjoys in
these commodities if their potential can be fully ex—
ploited.

Implementation Of Strategy 1 is first discussed
in terms of the potential lack of effective demand in the
1970's. We argue that despite our finding that domestic
per capita effective demand is low in the region, expanded
output will not face demand limitations in the 1970's; l:
Strategy 1 can reduce costs to cut Off food imports. TWO
mechanisms are suggested whereby cost—reducing technology
(under Strategy 1) can affect the consumption and demand
of expanded output. First, cost—reducing biochemical in—
novations can expand domestic food consumption by redi—
recting consumption from imported foods to domestic food
items. Second, such technology can expand per capita

effective demand for locally produced food items if

 

 

 

product
propori
lower s
tion r
foods

net fa
moditi
of sub
that t
are la

be ela

about
age ir
0f age
by eve
in POE
rESpe(
ahHUal
food I
the h
It is

Cohtr

 

383

productive resources are placed in the hands of a large
proportion of the population who are currently at the

lower end of the income scale. If technological innova—

 

tion reduces domestic food prices to the extent that local
foods can undersell imported food, then both gross and

net farm incomes will expand if the demand for the com—
modities is price elastic. The existence of a wide range
of substitutes for the major imported items indicates

that the cross—elasticities Of demand for these commodities

are large and positive. Under such conditions, demand will

 

be elastic.

We noted that the region is currently importing
about 40 percent of its food requirements. With an aver—
age income elasticity Of demand Of .40 for food, the level
of aggregate demand for food can be expected to increase
by over 3 percent per annum if the annual rate Of growth
in population and per capita income are 2 and 3 percent,
respectively. We also pointed out that if all Of the
annual increases in per capita income comes from expanded
food production, food prices would fall drastically when
the income elasticity Of demand for food is around .40.
It is necessary, therefore, that around 60 percent annual

contribution to per capita income changes be generated

 

 

 

in the
drasti
and st

nation

terms
for Si

given

13>

ASSur
the1
Shga
COme

raw

384

in the non—food sector if food prices are not to fall
drastically. Thus, agricultural development programs
and strategies must of necessity be formulated within a

national programming context.

 

Long—run effects of Strategy 2 are assessed in
terms of two possible directions in the external demand
for sugar and bananas. The two possible directions are

given as a set of assumptions. These are:

Assumption 1: Present preferential policies will

 

continue over the 1970's or minor
modifications will occur in such

policies.

Assumption 2: Elimination Of preferential arrangements
within and outside the Commonwealth

over the 1970's.

Implementation of Strategy 2 under conditions of
Assumption 1 would lead to expanded export earnings from
the two major agricultural exports. In the case of the
sugar industry, the expansion in export earnings would
come from drastic reduction in labor costs per unit of

raw sugar produced. For example, if labor requirements

 

 

 

are re
costs
about
would
ton 01
of sug
in la]

011a:

earni
that

ducti
agric
major
Peter
sibi]
(MVP)
tion

stoC}
Prod]
dome:
tion

asri

 

 

385

are reduced by one half in Jamaica over the 1970's, labor
costs per ton of sugar would decline from 48 percent to
about 24 percent. Costs of harvesting and cultivation
Would be reduced from 31 percent of total labor costs per
ton of sugar to just over 15 percent. Man—hours per ton
of sugar would be reduced from 53 to about 26. Reduction
in labor costs of these magnitudes would place that island
on a competitive footing with other sugar producing areas.
Despite the potential for expanding the export
earnings of sugar and bananas, it Should be recognized
that increased profitability of sugar cane and banana pro—
duction can result in reallocation of land from domestic
agriculture to export agriculture. This would present a
major constraint to agricultural diversification programs.
Potential resource allocation problems stem from the pos—
sibility of disparity between the marginal value product
(MVP) of lands committed to sugar cane and banana produc—
tion relative to lands committed to food crops and live-
stock. Under protected markets, sugar cane and banana
production could generate MVP's substantially above
domestic agriculture. In order to prevent such realloca—
tion, research activities under Strategy 1 (for domestic

agriculture) need to generate MVP's for land equal to, or

 

 

 

greate
is a f

cultur

condit

in the

as we
such
atiVe

eXpor

Will
of pr
Sugar
to e]
lands

Up bf

 

 

 

386

greater than, that for sugar cane and banana lands. This
is a fundamental requirement for carrying forward agri—
cultural diversification programs.

Implementation of Strategy 2 under Assumption 2
conditions would reduce the export earnings of the region
in the short run. We argue, however, that over the lppg
ppp, export earnings could actually increase, if the loss
of preferences is as a result of a shift to direct pay—
ments and free—world quota for sugar. Studies carried
out by R. H. Snape, Harry Johnson, and D. C. Horton indi—
cate that a Shift to free world price and deficiency pay—
ment could appreciably expand the trade volume of sugar
as well as per capita consumption and world prices. With
such expansion, the West Indies as a region, with compar—
ative advantage in sugar production, could increase its
export earnings from sugar production.

It is reasonable to assume that some reallocation
will occur under the second set of conditions. The loss
of preferences can result in a withdrawal of lands from
sugar cane production if the new market conditions function
to eliminate the inefficient sugar producer. Whether the
lands withdrawn from inefficient operation will be taken

up by larger and more efficient cane farmers, or move into

 

 

 

domest
the tw
produc
tems u
in a n

cultux

major
the n
short
sult

more,
could
run p
artif
ities
emplc
Publj
place
prOg]
ing.
tech

tati

 

 

387

domestic food production, would depend on the MVP's of
the two types of enterprises. If the inefficient cane
producers can successfully shift to food production sys—
tems with high MVP's for land, this shift could result
in a more desirable system of export and domestic agri—
culture.

Strategies 1 and 2, taken together, would have
major impact on the employment and nutritional aspect of
the regional economy. Under Strategy 2, there will be a
short—run increase in the level of unemployment as a re—
sult of displaced labor in the sugar industry. Further—
more, increases in the already high level of unemployment
could seriously aggravate the political situation. Short—
run programs must be implemented to cushion the impact of
artificially high wage rates as a result of union activ—
ities and of technological innovation on the level of un—
employment. We suggest that governmental agencies launch
public works programs to create jobs for both the dis—
placed labor and the chronically unemployed. Furthermore,
programs should be implemented for retraining and educat—
ing the labor force to meet the requisites of the new
technology as well as long run removal of machine impor—

tation restrictions, etc. Public works programs that are

 

 

 

 

 

 

properl
infras
output

people

of tee
effect
and re
gesteé
vatior
t0 ple
agricx
cost—3
to in
Profr
raiSe
to Is
When

into

which
SeCon
margi

Stimr

 

 

388

properly planned and implemented can serve to create vital
infrastructure to meet the new levels of agricultural
output; they can also place income in the hands of the
people currently outside the money economy.

DeSpite the short—run labor displacement effects
of technological change, it is argued that the long—run
effects of Strategies 1 and 2 will increase employment
and reduce underemployment. Three mechanisms are sug—
gested for expanding employment. First biochemical inno—
vations under Strategy 1 should be accompanied by programs
to place productive resources in the hands of low—income
agricultural workers. Since such innovations are also
cost-reducing in nature, they would increase the returns
to investment in the ”traditional sector.” Increased
profitability of domestic food production will tend to
raise the marginal value product and supply price of labor
to levels more in line with that of the industrial sector.
When this occurs, labor would have incentive for moving
into agriculture, thus, reducing the level of unemployment
which coexists with a shortage of agricultural labor.
Second, relevant technological innovation will shift the
marginal efficiency of capital upwards. Such a shift will

stimulate increased investment opportunities in both the

 

 

 

 

 

 

agricui
ployme
crease

labor—

incre
the p
able

Sourc

 

 

389

agricultural and the non—agricultural sectors. Both em—
ployment and additional income would be generated by in—
creased investment (particularly if the investments are
labor—intensive). Third, biochemical innovations will
(a) reduce the period of time that crops come to maturity
and (b) expand aggregate crop output. Additional labor
will be required to handle both the greater number of
crops produced as well as the additional output.

Apart from making significant contributions to
increased employment, biochemical innovations can improve
the protein content of food crops. This would make avail—
able to a large proportion of the population a cheap
source of protein.

We identified 12 major administrative bottlenecks
to successful implementation of subject—matter strategies
in the West Indies. These bottlenecks can be classified
into two general categories: (1) those having to do with
emphasis given to (a) the export—domestic research mix and
(b) the fundamental—adaptive research mix, and (2) aspects
of research coordination, cooperation, financing, economic
incentives, and scale of activities. The two groups of

administrative bottlenecks are highly interrelated.

 

 

 

 

tion <
and a
pears
infra
and p
strat
this

agric
izing

tion

creat
The 1
Cenn
and

Come
ment
tute
WOul
with
woml

attl

390

We suggest a regional approach to the reorganiza—
tion of the administrative structure. Given the political
and economic structure of the region, this approach ap—
pears to offer the most realistic method. Basic regional
infrastructure already exists upon which future policies
and programs can be built. Long—run administrative
strategy would concentrate on domestic agriculture, since
this area is the most neglected. Furthermore, export
agriculture appears to possess the resources for reorgan—
izing its structure if the appropriate enabling legisla—
tion is carried out.

Domestic administrative strategy focuses on the
creation of a Regional Agricultural Research Institute.
The Institute would absorb the existing Regional Research
Center of the University of the West Indies. Financing
and staffing would be greatly expanded, and support would
come from international foundations, the regional govern—
ments, and other public and private sources. The Insti—
tute would be affiliated with the regional university and
would offer advanced degrees and diplomas in association
with the university. Salaries and working conditions
would be such that competent agricultural scientists are

attracted to the Institute.

 

 

 

 

 

creat
super
of me
on tc
tiona
state
natir
of tl
Inst:

and

proj

Sect
not

must
fran
indr

COnE

 

 

391

Research of the Institute would concentrate on
creating a "critical minimum effort" towards generating
superior crops and livestocks. Work would include testing
of new inputs for both regional adaptability and passing
on to national systems for local adaptability. The na—
tional systems would provide a function similar to out-
state experiment stations in the United States. The
national systems would provide the link to the problems
of the farmers at the national and farm levels. The
Institute would maintain a quarantine function for crops
and livestocks introduced in the region.

Economists and other social scientists would play
a key role in the planning and implementation of research
projects.

Although this study focuses on the agricultural
sector, and in particular on the research aspect, we can—
not over—emphasize the fact that the agricultural policies
must be programmed within a total national and regional
framework. Within such an overall programming framework,
industrial programs, marketing distribution, storage, and
consumption policies must be integrated and harmonized.
In addition, special attention must be paid to pricing

and taxing policies as a mechanism for assisting the

 

 

 

 

 

proce
these
repre
cussi
that

tant

recon
with
the 1
Indie
betw<
Suggz
leVe
requ
inpu

and

rura
Capa
the
is l

8119(-

 

392

process of technical change. We have not gone deeply into
these problems, since any one of these mechanisms would
represent a study in itself. However, our general dis—
cussion of research has been predicated on the assumption
that policy changes would be implemented in these impor—
tant areas.

Because of the limited scope of this study, we
recommend that detailed and comprehensive studies dealing
with farm management and the interrelationship betWeen
the farm and non—farm sectors be undertaken in the West
Indies. Such studies will necessitate a teamwork approach
between social scientists and technical personnel. We
suggest that detailed studies be conducted at the micro—
level on costs of production, scale of enterprise, labor
requirements, and input combination for new and improved
inputs. At the macro—level, we visualize a need for demand
and supply studies for specific commodities. In addition,
we recommend comprehensive studies dealing with the urban—
rural employment structure, and the relative absorptive
capacity of the two sectors in terms of the unemployed and
the underemployed. The list of problems to be researched
is by no means exhaustive. However, those that we have

suggested represent areas of immediate need. Much of the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

work
The p
scien
howeV
like]

with

 

393

work will demand the skills and tools of the economist.
The problems are enormous and the ability of the social
scientists will be put to the test. In the long run,

however, the insight gained from such studies will most

likely equip the West Indies with tools to come to grips

with the problems of stimulating economic development.

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDICES

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX A

 
 

 

 

Table |.

ai Facio

Couni

UniTed S
Venezue
Canada

Luxembo
Wes? Ge
Belgium
Unifed

Netherl

 

Table I.

APPENDIX A

 

R #95 of Increase in Gross Domestic Producf
af Facior Cos? - Seiecfed Counfrles, I953 and I959 - Currenf Prices (U.S. 5)

Gross Domesflc Producf, Per Caplfa Gross Domesflc Produci and Average Annual

 

 

 

Gross Domesilc Produci Gross Domestic Per Caplfa
Facfor CosT Producf Annual Rafe of
Per Capita Increase
I953-l959
(Currenf Prices
Country I953 I957 I959 I953 I950
$ million (U.Slsvr U.S. Dollars Percenr
Uniied Sfaies 333,249 404,258 44l,738 2,079 2,484 3.0
Venezuela 4,078 6,6OI 7,l52 749 |,098 6.6
Canada 22,799 28,888 32,597 l,536 i,869 3.3
Luxembourg 3|2 4|8 429 |,04O l,375 4.7
Wesf Germany 29,5i4 43,950 5l,l89 600 970 8.3
Belgium 7,949 9,978 |0,3|6 906 |,l33 3.8
United Kingdom 4|,343 53,80l 58,446 8l3 l,I2l 5.5
NeTherlands 5,589 8,475 9, i6| 533 807 7.2
PuerTo Rico 893 |,l99 l,489 405 64| 7.9
Trinidad & ,

Tobago 224 383 464 530 568 9.5
Iialy l6,798 22,407 25,7l9 353 524 6.8
Jamaica 300 539 592 202 354 9.8
Argenii na I6.876 | I ,990 6,808 9 I 7 330 .
Indiab 2|,980 23,899 27,II7 58 64 |.6

 

a . . . .
Conversuon made usang means of official rare of exchange.

b Nef DomesTic Produci.

Source:

Rampersad, Frank.

§______£L_________.

P

1396

Groan and Siruciural Change in The Economy of Trinidad
nd Toba o l95l—l96l. i.S.E.R., Universiiy of The Wesi indies, Dec. I963,
. 4.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX B

 

 

 

 

 

 

.+mo . o ..E .w .cou>tm ”monaOm

 

 

 

 

 

 

x.azmaa<

.+00t30ttm cc: .mme+ac .co.rh.oo toe. mm\vomw
0+ om\mmm_ can .mcaoo can .noooo .mocmcmn t0+ v0\noo_ 0+ wm\mmm_ “mahemo
can .mesm t0+ mw\Nwm_ 0+ A monto>nv om\mmol ore eotmaeoo mvo_toa onp\m

w.O ®._l . MLQOO
.n.mn w.wi .+00tzoLt<
0.0 e.m ”swords nnt+_o
...N m.>i
o.v1 «.ml no..U
e.n_n N.o_u . coilou
M3? MC” AHMZMCGE
o.m m.o nomsm
hamu IO
\Moo .mas soo muo.tod Lee W \Mootmascu mco_tod t0+ m
. >+_ooszoo
o:_m> c. om: coco .m:cc< ommtm>< u ms:_0> c_ omcmco inacc< ommto><n
mea_lmno_ .mo_sc_
+m03 .m+c0aXm _oc:+_:o_tm< LOmoz +0 o:_m> can usamo> cw momcnco ._ mnmqe

m X _ QZMnkax

 

 

 

3??

 

.+_o .om ..z .w .cmv>tm "oULuOm

.no_msn -l

s in

\m.

.mOnmntmm oco .mucnsown .motmxucm2\fl
. .co++oo use Amenmatmm vcm .m taxman .mocnzuc. v
roman to u no msn ocm m cszc_. mocmcmn to c. um.:couoo
. . . i . l .7
new .+ootzottm .nooou 0min .mommeMw c_ Lamam hot mom_ 0+ mocoamottoo N combed I

.co++oo not mm\nmm_ use “meanntom new .metnzuc_3 .motnxoon oc+ c_ roman
L0+ om\mmm. “no_nEmw :_ mucoCMC new twmnm to» awe. um+ucooou can eootxutce
.noooo 0m_m .mucnum_ otmscc_z 85+ c_ wncmcoa t0+ wmmi 0+ meccamotuoo . oo_tmd.i

\@

 

 

 

 

8% man 8; 85-83.33: . . be
8.8. 9N: ; ....
m._ 8.0 so
01%: 0.9: o.
v.82 Tom ,_
0.8.... o. E .
m_.m em.N o-o<\mcop .m
om.m om.m otu<xmcoe m
1m 8Z3 ” ... noted ” .. H i.
\m: 38; u >3 2m; H 3?: H r

 

 

momiimmmi
M

.momnc_ +moz .w+toaxm .m;:+.=o_tm< team: to more.» c momcmgo in .m mnm<s

m xiozwdd<

 

m. X ~ DTQQQ<

 

 

 

ii i

 

{/00

 

 

.cowmchXm Lei _om.co+0d
new wom+m_to+ootmco "+no3 03+ +0 mo_t+m3nc_ o_++mo och ..w .LodaoLo can ..2 .w .mtm>m: 20L» oe+amo< ”mounOm

 

...z mm._w u .m.3 oo._w .o+mh cou+m:_o>ooota +< ._.3 oo.Nm u .m.3 oo._w .e+mt wmcogoxm +cettso +< m

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

\
m. m.o m.m m.m i.e_ 8.me . . irios lo c8m+r0aarm
omm.oem mso._ ovo.m~ e_m.m_ omo.om sam.om m_m.mmm Meson
lm_.mm -- mmm._ Nmm.m was.m e mmw.s
0mm.m .. ,s_k.m o_ .. emi.m ‘3
emo._i N va._ as. w Nmm.o --
emm.s me me i. l- a: m_m.k
mmm _ m_N .. s s N
omn.nmm I New oll.m_ eom.m Noe.ml NNe.om . omw.wei
New.m or. mmm.v m_m.m a. asm.m ..
om_.s in ems mm. was s_e.m ..
eom.sm . mm. «mm N _ -l mmm.sn
mm m m i- ll -l es
\Mmum__co ._.3 ocsmnOLH

” $2688” 880 H 888 u n H 8820: H
IM+OH n -. i n . H new ” m3c+mo H mncncmm N van H >tncnoo

u totes“ 855 H 8:8“ H H .5828 H

 

 

com. .mo_uru rues .wetoaxm inu:t_uo_tmm so com+wm0asoa mama» ii .m an<

m

x_ozwdd<

 

,H N, .CZUCCC

 

 

 

 

 

.mmal .elm steeraou
.mtmamm com+ns_n>oo co oocotmmcoo mn:o_mom .m0_o:w +m02

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

05+ +0 >+_mto>_c3 Arecommom UNEOcoow new io_00m +0 m+g+m+mcm .m
.mmmfl .conEooon
.mm .02 .+t0aom um60coom _mL:+.aomLm< cm_0L0m .mo_msmw 0+
.mta+_:o_tm< .m.3 t0+ m+uoam0tu .oo_>tom cotmowom o_50coum i<om3 .N
.vmm_ .mommscw
.mo_ec_ +803 to >+_mra>_:: «mm. ..sow-_mol .ommsos new eme_cmre .
+0 >50coom 05+ c_ occmro .0L3+ost+w can creche reentm .onmtomsmm .I moot30m
e.m_ N._N cmmnos see saew8_te
m.e_ m._N cameos 0cm uwn_cmte
e.om e._m omasos 8cm emelc_rs
N.o_ o..m ounce» can emomcmts
N.o_ m.NN ommnos new ememc_rs
w _.s o.NN mu_e58e was“
4, ®.mw m.ON mU_mei mom;
m.m m.Nm mommEMe mum”
N.m N.em no_msma mam.
m.m. N.mm m0_osmfi Mme“
iiuliiiaiHaadqfl. ............ ii
maOLo +oom u m_motoc H .>L+caoo “ can»
., memo» new mo_t+caoo oe+ommom >8 wolvew emu;
Hot:+_ocoaxm 300m “neck *0 3mm.cootod m we maOcQ room cam 2mmwcmu i .e mnmmw

m x_oz.u.an

 

 

902

APPENDIX B

TABLE 5
“'Pr0duct‘
Ion and Value of Cereals and Root Crops, Trinidad-Tobago

 

 

 

 

 

 

and Jamaica, 1954-1968
%
COmmodit 3 ' Price Per . I I I I .
y ; Country 3 Ton ail954 :1961 :1965 :1967 :nggém
M ;$U-S. 57-59: : : : :
Cereals: ------- l,000 Metric Tons ------
K
Rice (Rough) T . .
Corn rlnldad 138 l9;3 16:] l5;0 15:0 l5;0
Rice (Rough) Jamaica l39 8.6 3.0 4.9 2 O 2.0
Corn 66 9.7 3.0 4.0 4 o 4.0
Total Cereals Pro- Trinidad - 37.6 22.l 2A.8 21.0 21.0
duction and
(Rice 8 Corn) .Jamaica. - ,
--Miliion Dollars (U.S.) ------
Cereals Value:
Rice (Rough) Trinidad — 2 7 2 2 21 2 l 2]
Corn ‘ ' ‘ ‘ r -
Rice (Rough Jamaica - l.2 .4 7 .3 .3
Corn ' 6 -Z 3 .3 .3
Total Value Cereals Trinidad -
(Corn 8 Rice) 8 Jamaica - 4.5 2.8 3 l 2.7 2.7

 

aAt current exchange rate, $l.00 U.S. = $2.00 W.I.

$l.OO U.S. = $1.85

Sources:

W.I.

At predevaluation rate,

(l) USDA (ERS), indices of Agricultural Production for the 20

Latin American Countries, British-Guyana, Jamaica, and
Trinidad and Tobago (Revised 195A through l965), ERS-

Foreign EE, January, l967.

v

(2

USDA (ERS), indices of Agricultural Production for the

Western Hemisphere, Excluding the United States (Revised
1959 through l967), ERS-Foreign 26A, March, 1939.

 

 

 

 

 

 

903

APPENDIX B

TABLE 6.-- ' I
Production and Value of Major Root Crops‘ Trinidad—TObago
and Jamaica, 1954-1968

 

 

_ I :Price Per : : : : : .
commodity ECountry Ton a :1954 :1961 :1965 21967 :Piggém'
. :su.s.57-59 : : : : :
M . .

 

------ 1 000 Metric Tons-------
miss: —’————

Sweet potatoes

and Yams Trinidad 107 20.4 16.2 15.0 15.0 16 0

Cassava (Manioc) 110 3,6 5,0 5 4 5,0 5 0
Potatoes (Irish) Jamaica 109 2.4 8.0 12.0 12.0 11.0
Sweet potatoes

and Yams 87 64.0 160.0 150.0 150.0 145.0
Cassava (Manioc) 110 17.0 13.0 12.0 12.0 12.0

 

Total Root Crops Trinidad s
Productionb Jamaica — 107.4 202.2 194.4 194.0 189.0

---~Miliion Dollars (U.S.) -----

 

Root Crop Value:

Sweet potatoes
and Yams Trinidad - 2.2 1.7 1.6 1.1 1.7
Cassava (Manioc) . .
Potatoes (lrish) Jamaica 3
Sweet potatoes
and Yams - 5.3 13.

 

 

9 13.0 13.0 11 6
Cassava (Manioc) .4 1.3 1.3 l 3
Total Value Rot Trinidad 8
Cropsa Jamaica — i0.Li' i8.5 i7.8 17.3 16.4
aAt current exchange rate, $1.00 U.S. = $2.00 W.I. At predevaluation rate,

$1.00 U.S. = $1.85 W.I.

bThe available data does not report production of the Aroids (Tannias,
Dasheens, Eddoes and Cocoes). This group of root crops are important
in many parts of the West indies.

Sources: (1) USDA (ERS), indices of Agricultural Production for the 20
Latin American Countries Phis Guyana, Jamaica and Trinidad
and Tobago TRevised 1954 through 1965), ERS-Foreign 44,
January, 1967.

USDA (ERS), indices of Agricultural Production for the
Western Hemisphere, Excluding the United States (Revised
1959 through 1967), ERS—Foreign 264, March, 1969.

A
N
V

 

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIE::::___________________________l , ,

 

 

 

 

 

 

+_0 .ao ..w .coaaOLU new .2 .w wee>nz ”00L30m

 

I ...: mm..w u .m.3 oo._w
. , .0+mc co_+m:_o>oooca +< ...3 oo.mw u .m.3 oo._m .omcmcoxo to 0+wc +coctsu _ -1

, . \.

.>cm:ms_.0td *

 

0
0
-

  

 

 

 

 

a mm a No N N. m as .aeoa.
a.om m.oo. w.N. N.No cod.
o.oa 0.00. a.N. c.so moo.
a.ao o.No a... o.mm ado.
o.ao m..e a... ..om mod.
o.oo o.Nm N... N.oN Nod.
d.om m.mo o.o. N.mN .oa.
a.om m.mm a.o. e.ws see.
a, o._m o.am o.o. a.ms ems.
MW o.me o.wN ..o. o.No and.
a.mN 8.0m m.o_ a.os .ma. - Nee.
ommco><
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii.n u.. co.._.:
. Ni. O . . o
u oca+_ao.c < n u H i.
DOC-i _m+0._. n .m._.0._. H x00+m0>_1_ n quLO u 4.00)
sod..o+ omiemm. .oo.oEMs n...oIoaoocd .ora+.ao.cm< io oa.o> i- .N msmee

m x_ozwdd<

 

 

r i
i
i
i

 

 

4416

.o+mc cow+na_m>0ooca +< .

.+_0 .mo ..e .LoaROco can .2 .w mc0>nz "oocaom

...3 mm._w u .m.: oo.im

_.3 oo.mm n .m.: oo._w .omcncoxm to o+mt +cotcau +<.1

¢\0
\(

 

 

 

 

 

m.mm e.vm w.b m.nm *mwm_
m.mm a.mm e.m o.mN woo.
..mm a.em N.o h.mN mom.
m._m m.mn m.e m.wm «be.
m.wm _.vm m.v w.mm mom_
m.om ..Nm _.a w.wm mom.
_.vm s.om ..e 0.0m .cmw
m.mm m.mm a.v m.mm oom_
0.0m 0.0m m.v o.om mmm.
n.0m m._m N.v ”.sm mad.
m.mN m.om m.a m.oi mmn. 1 nmo.
mmnco><
\Hmum.mqo .w.: co_.__z
wood _m+0e m iJWMHmwtc< m x00+mo>.n m macro m coo»

 

 

 

.oooaoe ace SEE: ”coffees .a

m Xmazmdd<

no
cu+_ao

0+ ominmmm

m.
ch< to 03ms> 1:

 

 

APPENDIX C

 

i
i
i

DEF

1. From Whii
0r Depar-

a) Priv.
b) Gove

C) Gove
(or

d) Univ

91 We

 

\

[“6556 che

 

APPENDIX C.

Specimen of Questionnaire

 

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS AND FARM MANAGEMENT
University of the West Indies
St. Augustine, Trinidad, W.I.

QUESTIONNAIRE

RESEARCH UNIT OR DEPARTMENT

 

LOCATION OF UNIT OR DEPARTMENT

 

PART I: THE ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
I. From which of the following kinds of organization does yoUr Research Unit
or Department obtain most of its funds:
a) Private Industry (or Corporation) | |
b) Government Department (or Ministry) | i

0) Government Sponsored but Semi-Autonomous Board
(or Co-operative) I .. ___I

d) University I_TT—T—_:I

e) Other (please specify)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(Please check] I the appropriate box above)

407

 

N

. Do you fee
I that your
large bene
Yes

No

\J-a

. If your a1
organizatl
of such r1
Yes

No

b

. Please gi
organi zat

 

 

 

 

 

1 . 1y Fesea
l reasonsi

GI Lacl
Exte

”I Lacl
EXTI

CI Far

(I.
i

2.

_ 2 _

Do you feel that there are organizations or industries other than those
that your Unit is directly responsible to serve that are apparently reaping
large benefits from your research?

Yes |_______J
No |__—__..._._I

If your answer to Question (2) is yes, do you feel that these
organizations or industries should be brought into the financing

of such research?

Yes I__..___J
No If .__1

Please give the reasons why you feel that specific industries or
organizations should contribute to your research.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

If research results are not being applied at the farm level, what are the
reasons?

3) Lack of effective contact between the Research Officers and
Extension Personnel i

b) Lack of effective contact between the farmers and the
Extension Personnel i I

0) Farmers' inability to acquire the necessary resources
(i.e. lack of credit, marketing and distribution
system, etc.) I........J

--- ___ -....-
y [I
I 1
I

 

 

 

 

d) Admin

Other

(0

(Please desir
writing numbi
lacior;i ;

_ 3 _

d) Administrative bottlenecks (legal and political)

e) Other (please specify)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(Please designate your assessment of the relative importance of the factors by
writing numbers in the appropriate boxes (e.g.I I = Most important
factor;I 2 I = Second important factor, etc.).

 

6. What perce
two types

Ii. Fundai

a) Li

CC)
)
"O

i
i
i
1

 

.____—_—i

7‘ If Ihei
I ionici

BI Tile

6.

PART II: THE CONTENTS OF RESEARCH

What percentage of your research efforts are directed at the following
two types of problems?

A.

Note:

7.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fundamental (basic) Problems:

a) Less than 25% I__-__——_I

b) 25 _ 50% I—'—|

c) 51 - 75% I_-'——_—_I

d) Greater than 75% I——_—————I

Applied (adaptive) Problems:

a) Less than 25% I-"'___——I

b) 25 - 50% I‘T—“I

c) 51 - 75% I________W

d) Greater than 75% I-—-—-—_——I

Remarks:

(A) Fundamental (basic) Research: ”Investigations aimed at extension
of scientific knowledge; of increasing our understanding of nature;
it is therefore explorations of the unknown or of the insufficiently
known.’

(B) Applied (adaptive) Research: "(1) Research aimed at practical

 

application or problems; (ii) Research which attempts to put to
use existing knowledge or even to discover new knowledge which
may have immediate practical application."

If the volume of research efforts on fundamental problems is relatively small,
to which of the following factors would you attribute this situation:

a)

The relatively high cost of undertaking fundamental research I I

 

 

bl The is
appl i<

The r1
reseai

n

d) Other

——

(Please desig
boxes e.g. l
etc.)

5. if the E
To which

a) The 1
to a;

bi The _
i0 y(
are l

C) The .
lems

a

0the

 

 

 

(”lease desi
00x93 (6.9
S‘c.)

b)

c)

d)

- 5 _
The feeling that fundamental research usually has less practical
application than adaptive research I

The relatively large scope for importation of fundamental
research findings I I

Other (please specify)

 

 

 

 

 

(Please designate order of priorities by inserting numbers in the appropriate
boxes e. g. I I = Highest Factor; I 2 = Second Highest Factor,

etc.)

8. if the volume of research efforts on fundamental problems is relatively large,
to which of the following factors would you attribute this situation:

a)

b)

c)

d)

(Please designate your order of priorities by inserting nu
boxes (e.g. I l I = Highest Factor; I

etc.)

The feeling that fundamental research is a vital complement

to applied research I
The limited scope for the importation of fundamental findings

to your research (i .e. the findings that could be imported

are either incomplete or irrelevant to the local situation) I I

The feeling that it is possible to work on fundamental prob-
lems that have a high content of applied characteristics I

Other (please specify)

 

 

 

 

 

mbers in the appropriate
2 I = Second Highest Factor,

 

9. Do you fee
industry f

) Fundan

m

o-
v

Applis

An "0
App”:

0

d) Relat
shelt

Other

('0

~

Wlease desig
W writing n1
hctor; I""

'0' 00 you f
m
a) Grea

b) Grea

C) More
rese

d) The
low1

e) BET“
agn

fl 0th

D \
”3x95 (e.g.

 

-6-
9. Do you feel that the manr contribution to the develOpment of your
industry has come from:
a) Fundamental Research I I
b) Applied Research I________I

c) An "optimum" combination of both Fundamental and
Applied Research I I

d) Relatively high prices through negotiations and
sheltered markets I I

e) Other (please specify)

 

 

 

 

(Please designate your assessment of the relative contribution of each factor

by writing numbers in the appropriate boxes (e.g. I l I = Most important
Factor; I 2 I = Second Important Factor, etc.)

IO. Do you feel that the future development of your industry is likely to

 

come from:
a) Greater fundamental research I W
b) Greater applied research I I

c) More effective combination of fundamental and applied
research I I

d) The development of domestic and foreign markets via the
lowering of costs of production and increased efficiency I I

e) Better prices for products through negotiations and
agreements I __. I

f) Other (please specify)

 

 

 

(Please desi nate order of priorities by inserting numbers in the appropriate
boxes (e.g. T I = Highest Factor; I 2 I = Second Factor, etc.)

 

 

 

l
‘1
‘ 1
I

 

ll. Which of

reflect y
a) lncre

b) lncre
of pr

c) lncre
devel
outpL

d) Lesse

e) 0the1

\

‘P'ease desic
ooxes (e.g. I

I2’ BY What

ReSearci
a) Res

b) Din

 

 

_ 7 -
Which of the following set of objectives would you say most adequately
reflect your organization's objective(s) (in terms of priorities):

a) increased industry "efficiency“ (and thus lower costs) I I

b) increased consumer satisfaction via improved quality
of products and lower prices I I

v

c Increased contribution to national well-being and

development (via increased employment, increased
output, etc.) I I
d) .Lesser dependency on food imports I I

e) Other (please specify)

 

 

 

 

 

Remarks:

 

 

 

(Please designate order of priorities by insertin ng numbers in the appropriate

boxes (e 9

i2.

= Highest Objective; 2 = Second Objective, etc.)

By what body or person are agricultural priorities established for your
Research Unit at the present time?

a) Research Committee I________I
b) Director of Research (or Research Officer) I_________I
c) By individual researchers I____‘____I

d) Other (please specify)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

V4

5

Remarks :

By what t
present 5

What are.
Why? (P

' What ars

//////

 

Remarks:

 

 

 

 

i5. By what body or person were research priorities established prior to the
present system?

 

 

 

 

l4. What areas of research are getting top priorities at the present time?
Why? (Please specify)

 

 

 

 

 

 

I5. What areas of research had top priorities over the last 5-year period? Why?

 

 

 

 

 

 

i6. Would you
I tion the

Yes
No

Remarks:

iiiiiil

‘4

If your
should e
II efforts
iaithoug
Your ind

Yes
No

Rem .
£1“.

 

\
\
\.
\
\
\
\

-9-
i6. Would you say that the majority of your research efforts take into considera-
tion the extent to which the results can be applied commercially?
Yes I I
No I _ I

Remarks: (if your answer is NO, please explain)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I7. If your research is wholly privately financed, do you feel that your unit
should entertain "suggestions" from public agencies that your research
efforts follow lines of investigation that will benefit the economy
(although the results from such research might not be as profitable for
your industry as some other research would be)?

Yes I I
No I I

Remarks:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

i

Ii. inwhat yi
a) First

b) Estab

o

. What has
employed

a) When

“M

 

 

 

l9.

_ lO -

PART ill: THE VOLUME OF RESEARCH

 

in what year was your Research Unit or Department
a) First established

b) Established in its present form

What has been the average number of research scientists
employed at the following times:

a) When your Unit or Department was first established

b) l0 years ago

c) 5 years ago
d) At the present time (l967-l968)

 

Note: Please restrict research scientists to persons you would
consider to fit any of the following categories:

(i) Professionally trained personnel (degree holding)

(ii) Non—degree holding personnel with technical train-
ing leading to a diploma that is equivalent to a
university degree

(iii) Any other diploma which, in some countries, though
of less than university degree standard, is
nationally recognized as qualifying a person as
a professional scientist (e.g. D.l.C.T.A.)

(iv) Any other training or experience which, though
of less than university level or diploma as
specified above, has qualified a person to work
as a professional scientist (e.g. admission to
professional society or institution).

 

 

 

 

20. What has
categor ie

Category

iii Profess‘
trained per501
(degree holdi1

(iii Non-deg

1 holding perso

technical tra
E
|ead1n to a
is equivalent
\

sity degree

iliil Any oth
1er51ty degre
W
W4
W
aorofessmna
led. 0.1m

in) Any oti
°I experience
0* less than
level -

I‘f-g. admiss‘
ilona| SOCie'
IISIIIUiion)

2I‘ IIIIia‘I‘ ari

had dijI-
a) Wife
%
Bit

 

20. What has been the approximate number of research scientists that fit the

categories for the following times:

 

Categor When Unit or Dept. l0 years 5 ears
___1 V
was first established a 0 ago
(Number) (Number) (Number)

(i) Professionally

trained personnel
(degree holding)

(ii) Non-degree

holding personnel with
technical training
leading to a diploma that
is eguivalent to univer-

sity degree
(iii) Any other diploma

which, in some countries,
though of less than uni-

versity degree standard,

is nationally recognized

as qualifying a person as
a professional scientist

(e.g. D.|.C.T.A.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(iv) Any other training

or experience which, though
of less than university
level of di loma (as
specified above) has qual-
ified a person to work as

a professional scientist
(e.g. admission to profes-
sional society or
institution)

 

 

 

 

2!. What are the approximate number of research scientists that
had duties other than direct research for the follow1ng
time periods (e.g. administrative, supervi51ng, etc.)

Number App. time spent

a) When your Unit or on other duties
Dept. was first _
established (a) 3/4 t1me

(b) l/2 time
(c) i/4 time
b) To years ago (a) 3/4 time
(b) i/2 time

(c) i/4 time

At present

time (l967—68)

(Number)

Full—time
i lent

 

due

dim

N
N

What has
fol lowi n!

a) When
was
b) y

i0

I\)
m

* What he
()Ver Th1

a) Whe
E

 

 

22.

23.

c)

d)

_ 12 -

Number App. time spent

on other duties

5 years ago (a) 3/4 time
(b) l/2 time

(c) l/4 time

At the present time (a) 3/4 time
(b) I/Z time

(c) i/4 time

 

Please leave

this Section

Blank

Full—time
Equivalent

What has been the average number of research technicians employed over the
following time periods:

a)

b)

c)

d)

When your Unit or Dept.
was first established

 

l0 years ago

5 years ago
At the present time (l967-68)

 

Note:

Please restrict technicians to those persons who have
received not less than one year of formal technical
education, or equivalent part-time study, after

leaving secondary school at the non—advanced level.
They may also include some persons who have attained
the same level of technical training in some other
way, without formal education, e.g. within enterprises,
or the armed forces. Examples of occupations normally
filled by this category of persons are draughtsmen,
laboratory assistants, electronics technicians, etc.)

 

What has been the average number of other supporting personnel employed
over the following periods:

a)

b)

c)

d)

 

When your Unit or Dept.
was first established

 

 

lO years ago
5 years ago

At the present time (l967-68)

 

24. What has
ing time

N
m
i
j
a;
~0—
o.
O

24.

25.

 

_ i3 _

Note: Please restrict supporting personnel to such persons
as skilled craftsmen (electricians, fitters, etc.),
and unskilled assistants, directly engaged in research
activity including the management and administration
of this activity, when this is a specialized function
(e.g. secretaries). All three groups exclude indirect
labour engaging in providing and maintaining a subsidiary
service, such as water, canteen facilities, office
cleaning, etc.).

 

What has been the average annual capital outlay for research for the follow-
ing time periods:

 

Research B 'ldi Other Capital Total Capital
Eguipment ~5LL-—JEEi Expenditure Expenditure
..... ...... ...... $ (W.i.) or E ... ..... ........)

a) When your Unit

or De t. was
first established

 

b) i0 years ago

c) 5 years ago

d) At the present
1me -6

 

 

 

What do you think the capital outlay for research may be for the following
time periods:
$ (W.i.) or E

a) l968—l969

b) The next 5 years

Remarks: (Please indicate whether you feel this amount is
adequate or not; and why)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

h.

N
‘.

B

 

J

What has
research

. What do

ioliowin

a) i968
b) The

Reme

‘ HOW man
Over th

‘ HOW man

\
\
\

.1. HOW Him

I.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

_ l4 _

What has been the average annual operational (recurrent) expenditure on
research for the following time periods:

 

Salaries & Other Total Operational
Allowances Expenditure Expenditure
(5...... ...... .$(WI'C) or EIOIDIOOIIOOIIII)

a) When your Unit or
Dept. was first

established

b) i0 years ago
c) 5 years ago

d) At the present
time (l967—68)

What do you think the recurrent expenditure on research may be for the
following time periods:

$ (W.i.) or E
a) l968—l969
b) The next 5 years

Remarks: (Please indicate whether you feel this amount is
adequate or not; and why)

 

 

 

 

How many research projects were officially listed as being in progress
over the last 5-year period?

How many research projects were discontinued over this period? Why?

 

 

 

How many research projects do you have listed at the present time?

 

. 3|.

 

In what w
developme

lncre
(i)
(ii)

a

bi ITTCl‘i
(lam

c) Decry
(i)

(i i)

o.

lncr

(D

Impr
less
or a

~o~

%

‘.

IPIeaSe desi
Boxes (e.g.

32. To What
a
m

a) By

 

3|.

-15-
PART lV: THE BENEFITS (RETURNS) FROM RESEARCH
in what ways do you feel that your research has contributed towards the

development of the industry that you represent:

a) increased the competitive position of your industry on: --
(i) The Domestic Market I________J
(ii) The World Market i______|

b) Increased the output per unit of resource used
(land, labour, capital, etc.) I I

c) Decreased the cost of food to: ~-

(i) The Domestic Consumer I I
(ii) The Foreign Consumer I I
d) Increased the quality of the final product to the consumer I I

e) improved the quality of the factors of production so that
less factors are used to produce the same level of output
or a greater level of output I I

 

f) Other (please specify)

 

 

 

 

(Please designate order of priorities by inserting numbers in the appropriate

boxes (e.g.

32.

= Highest priority; I 2 I = Second priority, etc.)

To what extent would you say that your research efforts have reduced the
average annual cost of production for your industry over the past 5—year period?

a) By less than 25% I:::::::::
b) By 25 — 50% I:I
c) By 51 - 75% I___i
d) Greater than 75% I:::::::]

Remarks:

 

 

 

 

33. if your i1
last 5 yea
reduction

aim
reduc

3
o
—1-
:—

I93

 

33.

If your industry's cost of production were significantly reduced over the
last 5 years, what would you consider to be the major sources of such

-I6-

reduction:

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

improved Genetic Component (estimated % contribution to
reduced cost (as in 32 above)

Substitution of low-priced factors of production for
higpjpriced factors of production (estimated %’contribu-
tion to reduced cost (as in 32 above)

Improved Disease Control (estimated % contribution to
reduced cost (as in 32 above)

Improved methods of combining ygur factors of production

(i.e. your technical inputs, capital, labour, etc. —-
estimated % contribution to reduced cost (as in 32 above)

Other (please specify)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Remarks:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ii. if you were to ta

estimated annual

0;

Improved Gene

0‘

The substitu‘
factors of p1
priced fact01

0

Improved Di 51

ca.

Improved metl
your factors
improved man.
capital, lan
physical inp

<0

Other (p leas.

\
K

\

Noi; Exter
Domes

)5' Whai P6rcent of

bene 1W te r11

than those you a

a) Less Than 25

hi 25 _ 50%

c) 5| g 75%

Rema\rk3:

\
\

34.

35.

- I7 _

if you were to take an average for the last 5—year period what would be the
estimated annual savings (in value) from the following:

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

What percent of your

Average Annual

_____9_
($ W.I. or E)
(External)

improved Genetic Component

The substitution of iow~priced
factors of production for high—
priced factors of production

improved Disease Control

improved methods of combining
your factors of production (i,e.
improved management of labour,
capital, land and other

physical inputs)

Other (please specify)

Average‘AnnuaI
Savings

($ W.I. or E)
(Domestic)

 

 

 

 

Note: External =
Domestic = within the country

 

outside country (i.e. for the Commonwealth W.i.)

research findings would you estimate was of direct

 

benefit (in terms of being useful and available) to farming systems other

 

than those you are directly obligated to serve:

a)

b)

c)

d)

Less than 25%

25 - 50%

51 - 75%
Greater than 75%

Remarks:

 

 

 

i

 

 

36. What percentage c

estimate could be
a) Less than 251
11 25- 50%
C) Si - 75%
d) Greater than

The following se
and as such they
to Question 40 i
questions are an

L“

. Have any attempt
research for yoL
I
i ,'
I

Yes

No

v:
on

If Such an exeri
caICUIated?

\

 

 

\

 

w
\C)

X
\

a) subStantiaf
If a simi lg
markef

U

Break~GVen

.- I UneCOnOm I C

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

_ I8 _

What percentage of your industry's problems (at the present time) do you
estimate could be solved by research:

a) Less than 25% I““"“"I
b) 25 - 50% I-—'_—'—_I
C) Si — 75% It—I
d) Greater than 75% I““““j

 

The following series of questions deals with a specific technical approach
and as such they might not be readily answerable. However, if the answer
to Question 40 is positive, it would be appreciated if the subsequent
questions are answered.

Have any attempts been made to estimate rates of return on investment in
research for your Unit?

Yes I I
No h__.__"__I

If such an exercise was undertaken, over what time period was this return
calculated?

 

 

What was the estimated rate of return on capital investment over this period?

 

 

How do you consider this rate of return?

a) Substantially above the interest that could have been earned
if a similar sum was loaned out on the commercial money I

market

 

b) Break-even return I

c) Uneconomic return

 

.LU< .+a@Ou.LO< .+ooo..LU< ....cccu .LC< . Ltd :nc. . 1 1
AN: 2: A0: amv Ame Ahv Awe «me A: «My AN» «L»
Mme—UK. Emmi .chNENchmmLO ‘ 0Q)...

OLMOmOQ *0 LODEJZ DEN C0~+DQ~LEW~Q .‘ wqmvc.

“MOO—LOB DEC. >0 (LOu. U0D.>0Ll DEM UO>O.QEm m+m:.c0_0m c
0 X..n2wl&<

 

 

 

 

 

.Loe nou_>oca

.moc_m:co_+mo:u E0L+ co_+mELo*c_ +0 co_+m__oo ”ooL30m

muonEJC 202m m+oxomLA c

. moL:m_+ o._z: uo>o_aeo >__m:+om m+m_+co_om +0 Lonsac oc+ mecm 0L:m_+ +mc.+ ocen
.uonw__nm+mo +mL_+ mm: +_c: 05+ cog: uo_Lwa ones
.AmoLJOm o.nm__oL >cm EOL+ voc_m+no on +0: n_:oU co_+mEL0wc_ mz+v w_nm__m>m +02 1 m:

.Auo_Loa oe_+ Lm_3o_+cmq m_c+ +0 ooco+m_xm :_ +0: moo: mco_+mu_cmmco 05+ mommo +mos c_v o_omo__aam +02 1 :

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ace c A1V 1 Aoo_e oo. Ammv mm A1v 1 Aomv 0m Aom1v om1 A1v hm Amcv o_1 Amvv 0m A1v om1 mLmo> m
+mn. Lo>o
omcmco +coocom
A1v 1 A1v 1 Away m: AOVNV oom A1“ 1 Acne on Aom1v om1 Aowv NN Anne 00. nom_v CON Aooo. oov +coEcm__nm+mm
+m. +0 wE_+
EOL+ emcmco
+cwocom
ANS N A_v _ ANV N An_v N. A_v _ Ame m A_v _ Am.“ __ Am_v o. Ao_v m Ao_v m Awo1nom_.
>_+cowocd
Ace : A_. _ A_v _ A__v m A.v _ “NV N ANV N Am.v a “may __ nee w Ao_v o_ Amom_v
0mm .mL> m
Ace : ~_V _ A_v _ A__V 0 Ace c ANV N A_v 1 An_v o Amcv 0. Ave v Nov 0 Ammo_v
0mm .mc> o.
ANS N A_v _ ance .m.c any n A.“ _ AN“ N ANS N Ao_v 0 Race m Ave m A_v _ nocm__nm+wm
+w_ con:
s+wou3m :_ Loy uwu_>ocm van uo>o_asm m+m_+co_um +0 .onssx
u Ammm.v H a u Room—V H n u u “A_mo_v u u n
” o___>m:< u ” maumncmmu “ono_v u ” Amvo_v ”mu_mEMwn “cam—V ” mflmmm_v n
Aooo_v u 1m_>oz ” Aemm_v ” .+aoo H Aoom_v ”momcocwn nomo.v ”emu_c_chu .>_o u mo_memfi ” nu_mEMn u uo_Lom
o=m_+c< u1m++_x .+mn m_o:4 .+mu mo_cmsoon .>_o ”+cooc_> .+w ”.+w .axmu.coLm< n co_m_>_o ” co_m_>_o ” oE_p
.Em< .+Qmo..Lm< .+aoou.cm< .+amon .Lm< ”.Lm< .>_on .coLm<u .m< .+amo ”.mc+:oo ” aoLo u.+oLm +cm_mu.eo:o .Lm<u
AN_V A__V Ao_v Ame Ame “he Ace ”my Ave Ame ANV A_V
mo_uc_ +moz .mco_+m~_cmmco _ wa>k
"muo_cmd oE_e >m .Lom coo_>oLa ucm uo>o_asm m+m_+co_om cocmomom +0 Lonsaz ucm co_+:n_c+m_o .. m4m<h

Q K.oZm¢&<

425

~N_w 2: AC: n0» .1. .1
mwzoc. +m®3 .mc0..+m.N._cm.mLO . QQXH
“va.L0n_ 05:. >m am+m_+c0_0m +£0.M)_:Um_IOE.EI_ _:u 0+ UOLMQEOO U®>O.QEm m+m._.+cm:0m *0 LODEZZ Ucm CO..+:QLL+m_Q .N nunvxb

O X- QZle<

 

 

 

.moc_mcco_+m030 ecce co_+nEL0+c_ +0 :o_+m__oo ”00L30m

.+c0_0>_:00

102_+1__:+ uo+ms_+m0 oc+ xozm m+0xomcn c_ m0L:m_+ +0 +0m +mL_+ one

m0u:m.» 02+ 0__;: 00>0.aeo m+m_+co_om +0 Lassa: 05+ mzozm

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.uocm__nm+m0 +mL_+ mm: +_c: oc+ can: 00_an echo
.A00L30m m_nm__0L >cm EOL+ 00:_m+no on +0: 0.200 c0_+mEL0+c_ oc+v o_nm__m>m +02 u .o.c
A00_Loa 0£_+ L0_:0_+Lma m_c+ +0 00c0+m_x0 c_ +0: 0L0: mco_+0~_cmmco 05+ mambo +moe c_v 0_omo__aam +oz u c
Aoo.NVN AmN.v_ .oo._vN AOm.o_vN_ Aoo._v_ Rom.Nvm AmN.v_ Amn.nv__ Aom.mvo_ AmN.mvm Am>.Nvm Aw0\woo_v
>_+:ommcd
Ace: Aom.v_ AmN.v_ moo.nvm Aoo..v_ Aom._vN AmN._vN Aom.mvm Rom.o_v_s Ao.mvo Amn.nvo_ “moo.“
0mm .mL> m
10
me Ace: Acm.v_ AmN.v_ Rom.mvm Ace: AomJ_VN A101 Rom.vm Aom.ovo_ Aom._ve Am>.mvo Amm0_v
0mm .mc» o.
Aoo.NvN Rom.v_ Amcv.m.c .oo.Ncm floo. “on..vN Amm._vN Rom.ovo Rom.vvm Amn.em AmN.v_ .+mu
+m. cmcz
111111111111111111111111am+m_+c0_om +c0_0>_:001oe_+1__:u 0cm uo>0_osm m+m.+c0_0m +0 .onsim
u Awm0_y H a n Room_v “ u . . H n H
“ o___>m:< u ”menmncom” maovm_v ” ” Amvm_v H “.mm_v H Aomm_v H mammm.vu
Aoom_e n im_>0z u Avmm_v n .+aoo. . .mvmcoco” .0Nm_v ”umn_:_cem .>_o n 00_mEmw n mo_nsmw H 00_L00
m:m_+c< n1m++_¥ .+mu m_0:4 .+m. coumomom. .>_o ”+couc.> .+w..+m .xw . .c0Lm< u.>_o co_+00+u :o_m_>_on meme
.Lm< .+aoou.cm< .+noon.cm< .+aoo. .Lm< ..Em< .>_ ..cOLm< ”.Lm< .+aoo. ._0L+coo “ aoLo n 10cm +cm_0 “.Eozo .Lm<u
.N_v A__v Ao_v Ame Ame Any Any Ame Ave Ame ANV “.0
mo_oc_ +m03 .mc0_+0N_cmmLo _ ma>e
"m00_cmm oe_h >m .m+m_+c0_um +c0.m>_:0m10£_+1__:m 0+ oocmasoo uw>o_aEm m+m.+c0_om +0 Emossz 0cm c0_+:o_c+m_o .N mam<e

Q x_02mmm<

 

.Mc0_mm®+0Ll >m U®>O_0Em m+m_+c®~0m CUmemmZ m0 rOnEDZ DCQ COL+30_L+W~Q .M wum<k

"UO_LOQ 0E_F )m van mc0_+m0_+__mao

0 X_OZun.&<

:11

 

 

4037

 

.0L_mcc0~+m0:0 E0L+ co_+mEL0+c_ +0 :0_+o__oo n00L30m

.uocm__nm+m0 +mL_+ mm: +_:: 02+ :05: 00_L00\m

.o x_uc0aa< :.0E_mcco_+m0:o +0 cos_ooam: 00m .m+m_+c0_0m .m:0_mm0+0La +0 m0_L0m0+mo 0cm m:0_+_c_+00 mc_xcoz Leu\m
.0_nm_mm>m +oz n m:

.A00_L0a oe_+ m_c+ +0 00c0+m.x0 c_ +0: 0L0; mc0_+m~_cmmco mowmu +moe :_v o_n00__aam +oz n c

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 A>_c
1 1 1 _ 1 1 “___e

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

N 1 _ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 _ 1 A__c Ama1Noo_e
an N 1 N N. _ m _ E. o m m 2.0 >_+camoaa
1 c 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 A>_s
N c 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 A__:

_ c 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 A__e Amam_c
me E _ _ m 1 N N m o. m o. 2.0 can .mc» m
_ c 1 1 1 c 1 1 1 1 _ 1 A>_V
_ c 1 1 1 c 1 1 1 1 _ 1 A___V
_ c 1 1 1 c 1 1 1 _ 1 1 A__e Ammo_e
mm c _ _ a c N 1 o a N o 2.0 can .ma» 0.
N _ 1 a: 1 1 1 1 1 1 _ 1 A>_s
m 1 1 a: 1 _ 1 N 1 _ _ 1 A_._e
1 1 1 a: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x__c .+mw
NN _ _ a: m 1 N 1 a e _ m 2.. .m. can;
no» ”05m m+m_+c0_0m coLmomom +0 .onawm 1 11111

u n Ammmc u u U u u n .u H ”1. n u

n “ o___>m=< H u Room_c “ u ” AONo_c “ u ” Aomm_c\azmmm_eh 1 H

Noom_c “ 1m_>oz u Avmo_v ”mooasLam” Aooa_c “Aavm_c “ +cao ” Amvo_. ” A_mm_c ”mu_a5aenmu_m2asu \a U

.+mom=m_+=<n1m++_¥ .+m”a_o=s .+mn .+aaa ”ao_:aeoonmaa=aLon1c_> .+muama_c_L+H ao_m5aa u .>wou .>_o um+m_+ca_omu no_Laa

cuamu.cm< N .Lm< H .Lm< ” .mmm n .Lm< ” .>_o U .Lm< n.+m .axw” .>_o H .+oLau .Eago “ +0 “ oe_+

.oz “.+aoo ” .+aoa H .+aao ” .Lm< H .>_o “.cocm< H .+aao ”mme+coo ”.coem< aoLo” +ca.an .Lm< ” >Loma+a0 H

A¢_e .n_e AN_S A._c 20.0 Ame Ame ANS Ans Ame Ave Ame ANS 2.0

m0_uc_ +m03 .m:o_+m~_cmmco _ ma>+

.uo_cod oe_H >m 0cm mco_+mo_+__m:o .mco_mm0+oca >m um>o_aEm m+m_+c0_0m cocmomom +0 consaz 0cm c0_+:n_c+m_o .m mom<+

o x_ozmma<

Amy

.rc .v.
m0_uc_ +m03 .mc0.+m~.cmmLO m OQ>H

"WDO~L0& 0E+F >m Uw>0_uEm m+m_+cm_0m cUmemOK +0 LOQEJZ Ucm EO++35~L+m+D

O X.JZWQ&<

1? m4m<k

Ii

 

 

.m0L_m::0_+m0:0 EOL+ :0_+0EL0+:_ +0 :0_+m__oo ”00L30m
.L0+ 000_>0La Logan: 302m w+0xomcn :. mocsm_+ 0__:3 co>o_aso m+m_+:0_0m +0 Lonszc :02m m0L:m_+ +mL_u l
v

\:
.00:m__n0+m0 +wL.+ we; +_:= :02; oo_cou\m

.0_nn__0>m +02 n .0.:

.0_nmo_.aam +02 n :
21v 1 2.0.:V 1 21V oo_ ance vv Aoomv oom AONV ON 20:0 .0.: mcmo> m
+m0_ L0>0
, wmcm:o +:00Lom
21+ 1 2.0.:0 mNu 21v 1 20:0 mmm Aoomv com Nome CON 20:0 .m.: +:0E:m_.oo+mm

+0 ee_+ soc+
emcmco +:00E00

 

A_+ _ 2.0.:0 n AN“ N 2.0.:0 Am_v Ave v 20+ 0 Amy 0 Amofnom_v
>_+:0mecm
..V a 2.0.:0 n ANV _ 2.0.:0 Ame 2.0 _ Ame m 20:0 .0.: Amom_v
9v 0mm .m:> m
Mm 2.0 _ 2.0.:0 m Ace : 2.0.:V Ame Ace : Ace : Amcv .m.: Awmm_v
0mm .mu» o_
2.0 _ A.m.:+ v ANV N 2.0.:0 any A.V _ Ave N 20:0 .m.: 00:m__nm+mm
. +m. can:

 

 

 

 

 

5+0003m :_ Lo: nou_>oLm 0:0 Uo>o_oEm m+m_+:0_um +014muaufl

 

 

A_vm_v n “Nnm_.. u floom_e n . H A_oo_v ” ”
m++_x .+m u m0:mncmm1:0_+m+m ” umu_:_ce ” 2Nvm_v H Avom_v u omn_:_L+ n mflmvo_v n
:0_+m_00mm< u m:_000Lm 0:00 ” .oes cucmmmom u oo_MEmw n euwmsmfi ” 1+2:3 n omv_:_ce H u0_me
. .uoLm Emmam “ mezm .0L+:0o ” +::0000 omonoe ” +:mE+Lmaoo ” >:mneoo :Loo ” cocnowom n .+m cocmomom n oe_e
m++_z .+m u mo_n:. +m03 n w unu_:_ce u Eocmomwm Emmam u oocm _I Loo:o_m u m::+_o U .Lm< _:0Lmo “
Ame “we Ace Any Avg Ame ANV 2_v

m0_c:_ +m03 .mc0_+mN_:mmLo m oa>+ "muo_com os_e >m 00>0.a£m w+m_+:0_0m coLmomom +0 Lenszz 0:0 :0_+:n_c+m_o .v msm<+

o x.;zwmm<

 

Amv ”rs . .
mmlbrl +m$2 .mc0_+«.nNCNCLC v (SF
..WDO_L0& 8:. >2 m+m_+c®_0m +CO_N>_DUm10E_1_1|_.311+ 0+ 001.0an0 UO>0_QEN m+m++C®710m +0 LODEJZ DEM CO._+:D..L+W.‘Q .m wuflafi

D X . Q2mll<

 

1-11

II 1 iIII ii

 

.0520::o_+0030 505+ :0_+0EL0+:_ +0 :0_+0__oo “00:30m

.+:0_0>_300

0E_+1__:+ 00+0E_+m0 2050 m+0x0055 :_ 00L3m_+ 0__5x 00>o_aE0 m+m_+:0_Om +0 L0552: 05+ 3050 00::m_+ +0 +00 +mL_+ 05+5

.005m__50+m0 +mL_+ 00: +_:: 05+ :05: 00_L0q 05+0

.0_50__0>0 +02 n .0.:

.0_500__aa0 +02 u :

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

o x_02wmm<

AmN.v _ Am>.NV m Aom._v N AmN.N_v m. Aoo.mv v AmN.mv o “om.mv 0 ”moiwom_v
>_+:000:d
AmN.V _ AmN.NV m Amn.e _ 200.00 0 noo._v _ 20m.vv m 20:0 .0.: Amom_e
0mm .mc» m
n7
mm 35.5 m 2:0 : 80.8 o 25 : 2:0 : 20:0 .0.: 8mm:
. 0m0 .05» o_
AmN.v _ Aoo.vv v AmN._e N Rom.NV m 200..“ _ 2N0 N Amcv .0.: 005m__50+mw
+m. 5053
1111111111111111111111om+m_+:0_om +:0_0>,:0010E_+1__:L 0:0 00>0_aEw m+m_+:0_0m +0 .0 5
2.00.0 ” “Nmm_v H Aooo_v ” u “ 2.00.0 u H
m++_¥ .+m ” 0000550m1:0_+0+m n 000_:_L+ u ANvm_v u Avom_v H 000_:_L+ ” 02000.0 ”
:0_+0_0000< n m:_000cm 0:00 ” .oe5 ” 0u_0500 ” 00_0E00 “ +_:3 H 000_:_:+ H 00_L0m
.00La L0mam u Emmam _0E+:0o ” 50:0000m +350000 u +:0E+E0a0o u .00 :500 00cm U 50:00m0m u .+m 50500m0m ” oe_+
m++_x .+m u 00_0:_ +003 ”0m050k w 000_:_L+ “ 50500002 L0mzm ” 1_I L00:0_0 ” m:E+_o “ .Lm< _:0E0o u
Ame Any on Ame Ave Anv ANV 2.0

00.0:_ +003 .m:0_+0N_:0mEo m 00>+

"m00_50m 0E_+ >5 m+m_+:0_0m +:0_0>_:0m10e_+1__:m 0+ 00500500 00>0_asm m+m_+:0_0m +0 505832 0:0 :0_+:5_E+m_o

.m m5m<e

 

m¢.tc_ +u03 (11.111.1111< 1 1
"GO—Lon OE.» >m 0cm mc0_+00_+:030 _n:O_mmO+0Ln. >m D®>0_08m m+m.+cm_um LULMOmOK +0 LODEJZ Uta CO~+30+L+05Q .0 mime;

O X.JZan.<

1115

 

 

 

{/30

.o x_0:0aa< =.0:_0::0_+m0:o +0 :05_000m: 000 .w+m_+:0_om .0:0_000+0La +0 00.50m0+00 0:0 m:o_+~:_+00 m:_xcoz :0: I

 

.m0L_0::o_+0030 E0L+ :o_+0ELO+:_ +0 :0_+0__oo "00L30m

.005m__50+00 +mc_+ 00: +_:: 05+ :05: 00_L00\m

\M

.0_50__0>0 +02 n .0.:

.0.500__000 +02 u :

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 A>mu
_ 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 A___+
N 1 1 1 _ 5 1 1 A__+ Awo1noo_v
Nm _ m N ._ m o 0 2_+ >_+:0m0cm
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .0.: 2>_+
_ 1 1 1 _ 1 1 .0.: A___+
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .0.: A__+ Amcm_v
o. _ m _ w _ m .0.: 2+0 0m0 .mc» m
1 1 1 : 1 : : .0.: A>_.
_ 1 1 : _ : : .0.: A_~_v
1 1 1 c 1 : c .0.: A__+ Ammm_+
N. _ m : w : : .0.: 2_+ om0 .mL> o.
N 1 N 1 1 1 1 .0.: 2>_+
1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 .0.: A___V
_ 1 1 1 _ 1 1 .0.: :3 $5222.00
0. _ N N N _ N .0.: ~_+ +m_ :053
00>)uasm m+m_+:0_0m 50:00002 +0 _o55:2
” :3: ” 5N3: u 88: u N u n n 1 N
u m++_x u 0000550m .+mu 000_:_L+ n Anvm_v H 2000.0 H A_om_+ ” lAmvm_+ H \0 H
>Lom0+0ou .+m .0000<um:_000cm 0:00” .oh5 .002 n 00_0E00 u 00_0E00 ” 000_:_L+ n \5000_:55+ um+m_+:0_0mu 00_Lmd
500m :_u.0oLm cmmawuc0mzm .0L+:0o”+=:0000 0m050+u+cos+c0a0ou.oo :Loo 00cm” +_:: ”:0.+0+m .m0mu +0 n 0E_+
consaz u m++_x .+m n 00_0:_ +00: M w 000_:_LH ”.mom L0mzmn 1_I E00:0_0H.00m 03L+_ou .Em< _:0L00” >Lom0+0o w
Ao_v 20+ Ame ARV 20+ Ame 20+ Ame ANV 25+

00_0:. +002 .m:0_+0N_:0mLo m 00>+

"0o_500 05_H >m 0:0 m:0_+00_+_.0:o _0:0_mm0+050 >m 00>o_qu w+m_+:0_0m 5000000m +0 505532 0:0 :0_+ao_L+m_o .0 m5m<+

o x_szmm<

 

 

LCJCOUOUH . "W“ T. :1113TCLS. ICC”? ((113 (1111 .L... I 1
...); “Tim .s.\.1J \~v

 

 

 

501.00.00.91. mu mm .0005” . 0.0:

 

 

 

\

.3: 2.;

 

00.70:“ +0103
”11.. 07:0 . GE: .... OO>O QEU 01.10.500.200 :ULhuanx +0 L505:
- nu “LI N . 1L . 1 . .L

Q X _Q..Lm_.n1+0.<.

 

43/

 

.m0050::0_um030 500+ :o_00550+:_ +0 :0_00__02 .00530m

.50+ 000_.0L0

0055:: 2050 00020055 :_ 00::m_+ 0+_53 00>0~050 000.0:0 00 +0 :05E3: 3050 00c:m_+ 0.0:. .00
.005m__00000 000.0 003 u_:: :05: 00.50m0

.0_50__0>0 002 n .0. :

.0_nmu__aa0 002 w :

 

5 21+ 1 A.0.:V 1 home ON Ava 1 AQNV ON :50 > m
. +005 00>O
. 0m:05u +500nmm

 

 

 

5 Te m.mm1 5.0.5 0.3 Boa... OR 6.9.: RR 803 OR
5 5 N 5.0.5 m 8,. 0 5 s. “N: N.
2 SN . 2.0.5 m 8.. m :3 e 8: S
5 m 5.0.5 m 25 a 3 m 2.: .1 3mm:

 

 

 

 

 

Amy M .1053 m A: “
1111111113+0003m cw 00+ wecmsoco can (“/0505 m+mmkcwwow +
. a a 111 . a . . ....( p
. Ammm_v . “mmmcw . Ax 050 . 20005” . mAvas. .
000_:_1 ” mcmmsan ”050:5 .+w10505omu 00m0000 N 0020000 U nomuod
1+:0E+5000, H +:ms+cmamm n .000 mcmnmm H 0E050m .002 ” .+000 .002 H 05_e
cocmemom mcmm 00¢”.m0x +350000n ._mm n5030553 Hmcmnmocm 0:0 Emmu0u0om 0:050 m”
200 ”me 55+

 

Xmavwmdw

 

I0E~Flum3u

O."

_

“Lr¢L“C€.L(+ _.\a\. .41 .

0 X“GZMQQ<

 

 

 

:_ 00L:m_+ m__nz nm>o.new 0+0.+cm_00 .o LmnEuc $51 030:0 0m .3m_+ +0 +00 +0L_+ mnh

.mwghnccom+0aau EOL+ com+m5L0+c+

 

E 8:2 moo

”mULJOm

.+_»@.M>WJUD..QE_+I_ _3w .0 mmhvaSPmm 30cm MkmeML—n

.vmc0_mnm+0m +0L_+ 0m: +mc:

n

2++ cmrr U0.:mq mzkm

 

 

 

 

 

Amh._v N Aoo.mv m Amu.vv w noo.mv v Aoo.N_v N. Amo1nommv
>n+cmmmLa
Amn..v N Aoo.mv m Acm.vv m noo.mv v noo.owv on Amw¢_v
o.m .0L» m
Amh.mv m Aoo.mv m Aoo._v nmm.mv m “so.wflv a” . Ammmwd
OHM .mam. 3”
fl Amn.Nv m Aoo.mv m Aoo.mv mmm.mw m Aco.mw m mmxww.uu+wm
u. +0LM0 can:
11111111113+HM~ m>mscm1me _r 3+ mun nMpumoEm 0+0m+cm_um +0 .021111111111
Awmm_v u Ammm.v H Mmmmwfl . n H
nmw_:mgh ” oo_mamw Hm_an» ,+m. ;.¢romm mnvafiv mu_mEmwuuAmvwmv mumm.au . nomme
.+am ” .+amg “ coLu_ 00m m:m:mm. memcom cohmmmuau-,+awm come0om. msmp
.mmm mama coxu.0wm .nCuumocm_0_ vampnc_3.m:_nmwgm wcmcmwn numom acmcmm ”
Amy Maw Av“ Amy “NW mm“
mo_ccw +0®3 chc m Mammho m mn>+ "moomhma mémw >n 0+0m+comum +c iw>_;um
1ms_H1“mau 0+ am Lmfieow cm>oqum 0+0m+zmMUm +0 Lmngaz u;o cow+anmg+0mo .w me<h

 

 

“no—Lon. 0.5% >m. u0>0_n_Em _®cc0mLmn. mc.+LOQn_3m vcm m:m_0_cr.00F £ULm0m®m *0 LmoEaz new c0~+aahL+v.C ‘0 uEIC.

Q X _ QZmll<

 

xiii

 

 

 

4&1!

.me_mcco_+mm:u EOL* :o_+mEL0+:_ +0 co_+m._oo "moLaom

_wccomgom mc_+Loaa:m H mm
wcm_u_ccomk u H

m_nm__n>m +02 u m:
w.omo._aam +02 u c

 

 

m: I oo_ oo_I m: a: mnm mmm I I mm m: ac om OON ow. omo om. OON OON om. oov +cmEcm__nc+mm
, +0 wE_+ EOL+
mmcmco +cm0me
m I N I N N m. m. I I m N n m cm. Nm mm m N_ N. m o. Amehom_v
>_+commLm
c I _ N N . o_ m I I w n n N om_. 5N om m m m m o. Amom_w
0mm .mL> m
c I _ N _ _ n n I I _ m . co. .m 0N v o m m m Awmm_v
0mm .mL> o_
m: I _ N a: m: m m I I on m: N on m. o. N w v N N umnm__nm+mm
+mL_L cwcz

 

 

 

E

 

 

A

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

a _ I
am k ”um u H ”mm H H "mm H » ”mm H P ”mm H H ”mm H F ”mm H H ”mm H p ”mm H P ”mm H F n
u Ammo_v u n u u u H u u u u
” a.__>m=<” Avmo_vu ”ooo_v H u ”Aomo_v ” n A.mm_v ” ” Ammm_v ”
Anom_v ” m_>mz H «.034 N woomngmmu floom_v H ono_v ”+cooc_>u Amva.v “ oo_msMw n Aomm_v ” mo_msmfi ” uo~gwa
m=m_+c<n m++_¥ .+m” .+m ” .+qmo ”oo_cmeoon mumcoLo” .+m H umu_=_Lpu .>_o ” .>_o u .>_o ” ms_H
.Lm< “ .Lm< ” .Lm< ” .mom “ .Lm< ” .>_o ” .Lm< “ .+m .axw” .coLm< ” .+oLq n .Emgo ”
.+amo u .+aoo ” .+amo H .Lm< u .>_o H .cogm< u .+aoo n .mL+coo ” aoLo u +cm_m ” .Lm< “
A~_v A_.v .o_v «av Amy Apv on Amy Avv Amv .Nv ~_v

"no—Lam mE_h >m nm>o_asm _wc:0mem mc_+L0aa:m new mcm_o_ccooh co

0 x_02mmm<

mo*uc_ +mm3 .mco_+m~_cmmLo _ oa>H
wammm *0 Lm3532 ucm co_+:n_g+m_o .o m4m<F

 

pals

HUG—Lou OE_F >m U0>O.QEm

a

V\

U X.QZN&&<

m®_uc. +m03 .mc0‘+MN~cmmLO M 0Q>b
.0:cOMLmQ mc_+k0Qa:m Ucm mcm_U_:c00b CUmewmm *0 LQQEDZ ucm CON+JQ~L+M~Q

.O\

m4m<h

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.m0L_mcco_+m0:c eoL+ :o_+mELo*c_ +0 co_+m__oo ”00L30m
.mccomLma mc_+LoQa:m H mm
mcm_u_c:00k u hm
V 0_nm__m>o +02 n m:
0_nmom_aam +02 n c
I uw0+oz
on com a: m: NNI om com com CON I omv oon ea c: +co£cm__nm+mw
+0 me+ 500*
mmcoco +c00Loa
n v m N m m m m. on v NN m N. v AmoIhom_v
>_+c0m0La
V m n _ m m n N. o_ v m. 0 0: 0c “mom.“
_ 0 0mm .mL> o.
I N m I __ N w m c c c c 0c 0: Ammo_v
4, 0mm 6.; m
2u
v. N . m: m: _. N N N o. v c N m: m: nocm__nm+mw
+mL_m c053
noxomoEm .mccOmumm 0:.+L000:m 0cm mcm_o_ccoop *0 .unssz
mm H H u mm H h N mm H H H mm H H H mm H p H mm H n cam n 0h ”
H ANmo_v ” H n u u H
A_vm_v u mecongmm H «omm_v ” ” Avom.v H H ”
m++_x .+m u co_+0+m H umv_c_gh H ANvm_V ” nu_mEmw u A_oo_v n onm_v H uo_Lma
:o_+m_00mm< u m:_uooLm memo H .op; zomemmm u mu_mEma u >cmqsoo ” umv~c_gk n umu_c_Lh u me_»
.0000 meam u gmmam .nL+cmo n +:couoo ommDOk H +c0§+Lmqmo n cgoo umLm H I+_ca u .+m .mmm u
m++_x .+m u m0_0c_ +mox u w umu_c_gh “ .mmx gmmam n In: meco.m u .mom mag+mo u .Lm< ”coumo .
Amy any on Amy Avv any ANV ..v
m0_u:_ +m03 .mco~+m~mcmmLo m 00>»
"00_L0& oe_h >m uo>o_aEm .occomem mc_+Lqu:m 0:0 mcm_o_ccuoh cogmmmmm $0 Lwne:z 0cm com+:o_L+m_o .o. m4m<p

 

o X.ozw&&<

 

g ” A3 ” 2: . ,2 . ,

m0..UC. um®3 .mtO..uMN._CmmLO w UQ>F $00.7;me
0E”... >0. 30>0—QEm —®CE0mL®l mC_uL0QQ3m UCw mcmmUthumIr SULQMWOK k0 LUQEDZ DEM C0..uJD..LuW..QII.- Nqufi.

U X~szll<

 

 

 

.m0L_mcco_um0:U EoLm co_ngL0wc_ $0 co_0m__oQ ”00L30m

W _occomLma mc_uLoQa:m H mm

 

mcm_0_ccumh u H M
a 0_nm__w>m 002 n 0:
" 0_nmo__aam uoz u c
oo_ omI mNN mN com ooo_ I oo_ 0: mm 0:0E5m__nmumm

mo 0E_p EoLw
mocmgu ucmoLom

 

: _ om 2 m t N N w : swkom:
>_uc0moLm
” m N 0N m. m o N N :_ w “mom_v
, 0mm .mL> m
J N m w c c N N :_ m Awmm_v
, 5 0mm .mL> o—
m
N N w w I _ N _ m: m 00;m_~nmumm
um_ c053

I IIIII IIIIIIIIIII00>o_aEm .mccomme mc_uL0Qa:m 0cm mcm_0_ccumh mo LmnE32 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

 

 

 

mm H H mm H H mm H H mm H ” 3mm wk ”
vmv_c_LH m mo_mEmw m m_u:4 .umIoemgumm mo_mEmw m mummEmw m ,
ucmEmeaoo H “COEuLmamo H Lomemmm mcmcmmn 0E050m .mmx “ .pawa .mmm u uo_L0m
comemom m:_m 00m” somemmm 03:0000” mucm_m_ 0L030c_3n mc_000Lm acacmm” fingm mcmcmm” 05_h
g H E u E n 3 u 3 n E
m0_uc_ umwz .mco_umN_cmmLo m 00>H “00_me
oE_H >0 vo>o_aEm _0ccomL0m mc_uLoQa:m new mcm_0_csumh cumemwm m0 L0n532 0cm co_u:n_Lum_mII.__ m4m<H

o x_Qmem<

 

rc- \ t . < ~
wO_UC_ +m03 .mCOIhNTgmmLO _ 0a>._. "WUO_L0& QECI >m COmemom :0 wLaiLDcmCXu _N+_CKL

U X_Dzml&<

 

 

 

 

 

 

4I36

 

.00L_mcco_+m030 EOL+ co_+mEL0+c_ *0 co_+m__oo "00L30m

._.3 mmo.mmow u mco_+m~_cmmLo __ +0 0 L00 0L:+_0c00x0 _0+_amu _m+Obn

 

 
 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 

...3 00._0 u .0.: 00._0 .0+00 co_+0=_0>00000 +< ...3 00.Nm u .0.: 00..” .0+00 000000x0 +0000=0 +<0
o_nm__m>m +02 u .0.:
0_nmo__aam +02 n c
I- I- .0.: 000.0.0 000.0 000.~ .0.: 000.00 000.00. 000.0 000.0. 0.00-000_0
>_+cmmea
.0.: 000.0 .0.: .0.: 000.. 000.0 .0.: 00N.00 000.0N 000.0 000.0. .m0o_0
0mm .mL> m
.0.: 000.0 .0.: .0.: 0 000 .0.: 050._N 00N.__N 000.N 000.0 .000_0
Omm .m0» 0_
.0.: 00. .0.: .0.0 000._ 00m.~ .0.: .0.: 000.00. 000.. 000.0 0000__00+mm
+mL_0 :00;
0 .
“000.0 ” .000_0 ” .000_0 ” .000_0 N .000_0 ” A000_0 H .0~0_0 ” .000_0 ”..mm_0 H .000_0 H .mm0_0 U
H m_>0z H ”menmngmm” ” u H H n n 00_0500 H
0=m_+:< ”Im++.x .+m”0_0=0 .+wu .+000 ”00.00200” “+0000_> .+mn 000_c_Lp ”00_0500 H 00_0500 ”co_m_>_0 H 00.000
$.24... n 0.2.; u 9.5+ ”LUmemwmu0L3+_:U ”mum—.900 u 0L3+ H c0_+n+m ”c0_m_>_on comm—>2”. H>L+m_Ew£OH GEE.
I_:U_Lm<u I_:U_Lm< n I_:U_Lm<u _ML:+ ul_Lm< +Ouco_m_>_ou I_JU_Lm< ”+c9c_Lwaan>EOc0Lm<ncO_+U®+OL&“ _mL:+ n
+0 .+000” 00 .+000 H +0 .+000”-_=0_00<uco_m_>_0”>500000<H 00 .+000 H _00+:00 H 080 “ +00_0 “-_=0_00< “
AN_0 A__0 “0.0 .00 .00 .00 A00 .00 .00 .00 ANV .:
00_00_

+003 .mco_+m~_cmmLo _ oa>h "muo_00& me_k >m cogmmmwm co 00:+_uc00xm _0+_amo .macc< 0m000>< .N_

m4m<0
o x_ozmam<

 

3:0...

+m03 .mco_+MN_cmmLO _

®a>k

”mUO_L®& 0E_h >m cULmommm CC WLz+mtcu:)u +cdkkzt<o

0 X.02m&&<

 

 

#37

.000_mcco_+m030 500+ co_+0E0O+c_ *0 co_+0__oo "000:0m

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.ono.omm._w n mco_+mn_cmm0o __ 00 o_ 00+ 00:+_uc00x0 +00003000 _m+0h0
...; 00..“ u .0.: 00..” .0+00 co_+0=_0>00000 +< ...z 00.Nm n .0.: 00..” .0+00 0000;0x0 +0000=0 +<0
0_00__m>m +02 u .0.:
0_0mo__aam +02 n c
”00+oz
ooo.on ooo.ON .0.: mon.ovm mvn.» ooo.ON ooo.N wNm.mvm ooo.OVN OON.moN ooo.m< xfiwounoo_v
>_+:0000a
0 000.0. .0.: .0.: owm.v ooo.m_ .0.: mov.va oow.Nm_ oov.o.. ooo._m Amom_v
0mm .00» m
c ooo.oN .0.: .0.: c omN.m. .0.: www.mmN 000.00 ooo.vw oov.mm Ammo_v
0mm .00» o_
.0.: 00m.o .0.: .0.: omm.v CON.o_ .0.: .m.c omm.wv ooo.0m ooo.nm 00;m__00+wm
+0000 00;;
um00..00 :0_0:_ no:
Aoom_v n Awmm_0 ” Avmm_v ” 0000.0 u 0000.0 u ono.v u AONm_V u Am<m_0 H “.mm_v H nomo_v “ Ammo_v H
u m_>0z ” ”000000mm“ u u u u H U 00_mew0 H
0:m_+c< “Im++_x .+mum_0:4 .+wn .+amo n00_cmeoau ”+couc_> .+mu 000_c_0h H00_0500 H mu_mEmw ”co_m_>_o ” 00_000
003+ ” 003+ u 003+ ”:00mmmomn00:+_=u ”000:00w ” 003+ H co_+0+m ”co_m_>_ou co_m_>_o ”>0+0_Eozou 0E_h
I_:o_0m<u I_:o_0m< ”I_:u_0m< “ .00:+ ”I_0m< wonco_m_>_ou I_30_0m< “+00E_00axmu>50c00m<uco_+00+00u“ _m0a+ H
*0 .+anH +0 .+000 ”+0 .+ama ”I_:0_0m<”c0_m_>_ou>EOc00m<u 00 .+aoo ” _m0+:0o H 0000 ” +:m_a ”I.:0_0m< ”
AN_V A._v Ao_v A00 Amy A00 000 ”m0 Avv Amy

“NV

”.0

00_0:_ +003 .mco_+m~_cmm0o _ 00>H "muo_000 08_H >m 00000001 :0 00:+_0c00xm +c000300m .m::c< 0mm00>< .m_ MJm<H

o x_02m&&<

”00:00. +m03 .mc0_+MN_cmoLC m. ac>h ....(0Lc0 5....» :C JII. r.

0 X .02m&l<

 

 

 

 

 

4h?8

.000_0:co_+00:0 500+ co_+0E00+c_ +0 co_+m_.oo “00030m
.mmo.wm_w u +czosm 5 +0 m 00+ 00:+_0c00x0 _0+_amo _0+0h0
...3 mm._w u .m.: 00..” .0+m0 co_+0a_m>0000a +< ...3 oo.Nm u .m.3 oo..m .0+00 omensuxo +000030 +<0

0.00__m>m +02 n .0.:
0.000__000 +02 u c

 

 

 

 

 

000.0 .0.: 000.0 000.00 000.00 ovN.0v .0.: 0000:000_0
>_+c0000m
ooo.ON .0.: ooo.m mm0.o. ooo.om ovN.mv .0.: Amoo_0
0mm .00» m
000.0 .0.: c 00_.m c c .0.: 0000.0
0mm .m0> 0.
000.0 .0.: ooo.mm .0.: ooo.o0 OVN.mv .0.: 00;m__nm+mm
+00_0 00;:
:000__oo cm_uc_ +
A_vm_0 ” ANmo_0 u 0000.0 H ANvo_v ” Av00_v H 0.00.0 u Amvo_v “
m++_x .+m ”movmn0mm co_+m+mu 000_:_0+ ” ” mo_0emw u u 000_0_00 ”
co_+m_0000< ” mc_0000m 0:00 ”.u+4 £000000m u oo_0500 ” >cmaeoo H 000_c_0h ”:o_+m+m 0000000m“00_000 02_+
0000:0000 ” 00m=m .m0+-0o u+acoooo 0m0000u +c0e+0mamo n 0000 000m H +_:: ” .m0:+_:0_0m< H
00maw m++0¥ .+wu 00_uc_ +003 ” 0cm 000_c_0h “00000001 00m3mnI_I 00000.0uco0m0wmm 0:0+_ou _cO0mo u

 

 

Amv

A00 on Amy Avv Amv ANV

0.0
00_uc_ +003 .mco_+m~_cmm0o m 00>p

"UO_L0& ®E_.H >m LOmemwm CO mLD+_UCQQXm _M+_QQU _QJCC< ®m0L0>< Iv— m4m<.—.

o x_02mmm<

 

£I<..1il "((IIC F

Una—1.... _ +UG3
0 X.QZle<

 

 

 

 

ffifl7

.m00_mc:0_+mmav 200+ co_+mE00+c_ +0 :0_+m__oo "000:0m

.00v.mm_._w

u m+czosm 0 00+ 00:+_ucoax0 +00003000 _m+0h

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

0
...3 mm._m n .m.: 00._w .m+m0 co_+m:.m>00000 +< ...3 00.Nw u .m.0 00..” .o+m0 wmcmcoxm +0000ao +<m
0.0u__m>m +02 u .0.:
0_nmo__aqm +02 M c
000.nm 000.0__ 000.N~ 000.00m 000.00 000.000 000.00N 0.001000_0
>.+com00m
000.0w 000.00. 000.~m 0N_.00N 000.00 000.0m. .0.: An00_0
000 .m0» m
0 000.00 0 mm0.v_m c c .0.: Awmm_0
000 .m0> 0.
000.0. .0.: 000.00 mm0.ov 000.0v 00v.mo .m.c 00:0..00+mm
+m0_0 00;;
n.0m__00 00.00.
A_v0_0 ” ANm0_v ” A000_0 n Amvm.v ” Awom_0 H A_om.0 H 0000.0 H
m++_x .+m ”m00000mm co_+m+mn 000_c_0p u “ mo_0200 ” H 000_:_0H “
co_+m_00mm< H mc_0000m ocmo ”.0+0 :00mmm0m u mo_mEnw n >cmasoo n umu_c_0k ”co_+m+m :00mmmomuvo_0om we.»
m0000000m “ 0mmam .m0+coo ”+acouoo 000000” +cms+0mamo U :000 000m u +_c: n _m0:+_:u_0m< n
0nmam m++_z .+mu mm_u:_ +00: H van 000.0000 “£00mmmom 0mm=mu|0I 0mmco_auco0mmmmm m:0+_ou .00000 n
A00 A00 A00 «m0 A00 “m0 AN0 “.0

m0_uc_ +m03 .m:0_+m~_cmm0o m 00>H

o x_QZm&&<

”000.000 ms_h >0 co0mmmmm co m0:+_ucoaxm +0000300m _m=:c< 00000>< .m. m40<p

00:0,... ...moz .ch_+MN_CMULO 0 CC)...

-Ut(uk(0 ‘1luL.

.AL . 1

0 X _ JZmQflzx

 

 

 

 

 

...3 00..» u .m.3 oo..w .0+00 co_+0:_0>00000 +< ...3 oo.m I

.000_0000_+m030 000+ 00.+0E00+0. +0 00.+0._oo "000:0m

.00N.0mw u 0+.03 m +0 v 00+ 002+.0000x0 _0+.000 _0+000
I .0.: 00..m .0+00 000000x0 +000030 +<0

0.00._0>0 +02 u .0.0
0.000..aa0 +02 u 0

 

 

 

 

 

nmm.m. .0.: . 00N.0_ 00v.v. 000.0 0.00:000_.
>.+00000m
000.m. .0.: 00N.0m_ 000.Nm 00m.m. Am00_0
000 .00» 0
m0. 0:.N0 .0.: 0 .0.0 00m§~ 800.0
M 000 .00» 0.
0nv.m0 .0.: .0.: .0.0 .0.0 0000..00+mm
+00.0 0003
3000..00 00.00. n03
Ammm_0 H .mmm_0 .u .omo_0 H .000.0 “ A000.0 H
000.0.0p u 00.0500 H 0.030 .+m 05000m ” 00.0000 ” 00.0500 .
+00£+00000 ” +002+00000 u 00000000 000000 N 000000 0000000m “ +0oe+00000 0000000m H 00.00; 00.»
0000000m m:.m 00m ” 0000000m +300000 u 0000.0. 000300.: N 00.00000 000000 N 00000 000000 N

 

 

A00

00.00. +00: .000.+0~.00m0o 0 00>H

A00 A00 Amv “N0 A.0

"000.000 00.0 >0 00000000 00 00:+_0000xm .0+.000 .0300< 00000>< .0. me<p

O x_22m&&<

,VCCTTfihuENCLC mm 0.5.3.. .lekuLGfl. 03...... :3 £((rr.l(fl (( .\\,..‘.-u..2x£llb tu(/..\SI(<C .... 41: 2\\I4 .\ .I. L.[..I

U VCDZMQQG.

 

 

 

 

.000.0000.+00:U.500+ 00.+0E00+0. +0 00.+0..00 “000300

.m00.0N0..m n 0+.0: 0 00+ 003+.0000x0 .0+.000 .000»
...3 mm..w u .0.: 00._m .0+00 00.+0:.0>00000 +<

_ 3 00.00 H .0.: 00..0 .m+00 wmcmguxm 0000030 +0

0.00..0>0 002 u
0.000..000 +02 n 0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

000.00 000.000 0.0.000 000.00. 000.000 0.00-000_.
>.+000000
000.00 .0.: 000.0.. , 000.00. 0.0.000 .000.0
0m0 .00» m
000.00 .0.: 000... .0.: . .00.00_ .000..
0mm uMLxW Om
000.00 .0.: .0.0 .0.: .0.0 0:00..00+00
0 000.0 00
m" 0
y. . :000..00 00000:rmmmm
.000.. n .000.. H .000.. u .000_. H .000 V ”
000.0.0H H 00.0500 ” 0.000 .+m 020000 “ 00.0200 ” 00.0000 H
+00E+00000 u +00E+00000 H 0000000m 000:0m u 00000m 0000000m ” +005+00u¢0 0000000m H 00.000 0r.h
0000000m m0.m 00m u 0000000z +300000 u 0000.0. 000300.; n m0.0000m 000000 N 00000 000000 N
.0. .0. .0. .0. .0. ...

 

.000.+00.00m0o 0 00>h 0000.000 00.» >0 0000000m 00 0030.0000xm 000003000

0 x.ozm&&<

 

 

 

APPENDIX D

 

 

 

30;

hwm—IWJQ—

mogc.

um®3 0:“

C0.uUJUOL&

   

m0L<

.CLOU UCm 00.x m0 U_®.> Utm m®L<

Q X_sz.u.n.4\

....

KCO.uUDDOLO. C.

WMECM£UII..

WJQQF

 

 

,.
.
.
.

 

 

443

 

.mom. .mEOm ANN ..o? .mmm. .xoom .mm> co.0uzno.m “A.z.:. .o.<.m ”mULJOm

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.mn. 0.0 u 0x .0
mm.om 0:.N u v.mpu¢1 .m

- 0.00 - . - - 000.

- 0.00 - . - - 000.

- 0.0. - . - - mom.

- w.w. . . - . mom—

] m... - . l _ 3-0mm.

- 0.0 - . - . 0m-m:m. moomDme
0.0. 0.0. 0. w--- 0 0 00m. -- .....
0.0. w.w. o. m o 0 mom.

0.0. 0.0. 0. m 0 0 $0.
0.0. 0.0. .. m 0 0 000.
0.0. 0.0. 0. m 0 0 M00.
m.w. 0.0. m. m 0 0 0m-0mm. 000000
..m0 0..0 w. a 0 0 0m-w:m. 0:0 000.0..0
--mqw. 0.0. 0 0 0 0 ...... 000.
:.m. 0.0. 0 q 0 0 000.
..m. .... 0 q 0 m mom.
..m. 0... m m 0 0 :00.
m..0 0.0 0 0 m 0 m0m.
m.m0 ..0 0. m. 0 m. 0m-0mm.
0.00 0.0 0 m. m 0. 0m-m:m. 00.0500
cmLmuumI\.mx nmLUCJI mcop o..umz vcmmzoLh moLmuuvI vcmmsoLH
mu.m m CLOQ m wo.x m :LoU m mu.m m CLOQ m H
AwLOU ucm 00.x. mQOLU .mm.mu. m .mm> ” >Luc30u
U.m.> m co.uo:noLm m mm.< m H
000.-0:m. mo_nc. 0mm: 0.0 .c.00 0:0 00.0 0o 0.0.0 0:0 moL< .co.0u:0o.0 C. mmmcmx0--.. m.m<0

Q x_azmmm<

8.5.500

 

mwmcuzu "N 00530.

  

luuwco... 0750.! 153:5.»
.M0L< .COI—UDVOLA cm

 

F?
I lllll

 

Us.
.9920 HOOK LOHNZ L0 .300» new

0 XHDZNQL<

.hwm—vam— «0:3; Ham] 0:...

     

 

 

 

 

$6”?

 

.momF 653. .00 .7; .82 xoom L:00; :oEuauoé 23 of "8.58
mwoumuom 500;“ mo #:3050 wFauFumLaam mam mwusuogq «0:» xyouwggou apco 0;» m0 auwmsmoxm

 

 

 

 

 

 

I om I I N I I I I nomF
I mc I I N I I I I ommF
I me I I N I I I I mmoF
I ow I I F I I I I ¢me
I o¢ I I M I I I I momF
I m I I F I I N I chNmmF
I w I I F I I VI I I MFOS .#
I FN I I w I I ¢ I momF
I NN I I n I I m I ommF
I NN I I F I I m I mme
I mF I I m I I m I ¢omF
I mF I I m I I m I mmmF
I FN I I m I I m I wmINmmF
I MN I I m I I N I Nme¢mF ”Emu—:5 JIM
owN 00F I F ON I I N I mmmF
owN ooF I F ON I I N I oomF
#om ooF I F ON I I N I momF
mom mm I F ON I I N I eme
me eoF I F NN I I N I mmmF
mFF um I N cm I I v I wmINmmF lIIIllll
FoF mm I N mm I I m IIIIIINMHmNMPIIIIImmmmmwwm
FFF Nm I m wF I I N I meF
FFF mm , I m mF I I N I momF
FFF an I m mF I I N I momF
FFF mm I m mF I I N I «me
FFF cm I m mF I I N I mmmF
No mm I m mF I F n I umINmmF
mw NF I m mF I I m I Nmumva LIF moo
Immmfmwwwmwwk
#N Fm mm oF mON mF w 0* F nmaF
eN mm ma oF mFN mF c n¢ F ome
mm mm Nm m QFN mF e at F momF
wN mm . Fm w mFN FF e at F vme
mm mm NF oF RON m M an F momF
am Fv mm NF #0 m m 0— I omINmaF IMImmmI
I I0 0
Inmmegnuumzvumx vogucarwIIII IImrcoF owguwm unamzonhIwIIII IIImImugauuwzmvcumacawIIWIIIJ um w¢mF \0 . a

m>ummuu ovuuom .

canyon .

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII- 0 0mm0u .m p0uoa pa :

voF>

_ cowuuauogm

SE 30000 30.0 .w

     

9L

_

 

0>0mmau owwpoa .m cannon .
08 .6 0:---------------

  

. 0mg<

Law» >uu=3ou

 

002-002 00.65 0003 0.: .0095 080 8.00: 0° 20.; 0:0 .00: £20802“. 5 000005 "0 03:
0 505052

 

CO_uUJU0L& m m®L< n
.m®L< .EO_003UOL& CM MJm<k

m®mtm£UIl.M

 

I 30;
.m®_UC_ um®3 .m@m_3l ZLmfigOZ DEM OumEOF LO D_®_> DEW
Q X.QZM&&<

Rom—ImeF

 

 

 

 

 

4W5

 

.00m_ 0000 .00 ._0> .000_ “0000 0000 00_0000000 .A.z.00 .0.<.0 u000000

moLu< m:.N n wLmuUMI _

.00_ 0.0 u .00 _

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

m00<

...-

. 0_m I m I I 000_
I om_ I m I I 00m_
I om_ I m I I mom_
I cm. I m I I 00m.
I om_ I m I I m0m_
I 00_ I 0 I I 00-0mm_ 000000
I 00_ I 0 I I 00-000_ 000 000_c_00
m.m oo_ m 0 0 I 00m_
0.0 00_ m 0 0 I 000_
.0.C 00_ .0.0 0 .0.C I 000_
.0.: mo_ .0.: J .m.: I amm—
.m.c N: .m.: _ .m.: I mom_
0.0 00 0 0 0 _ 0mI0mm_
0.0 _0 0 0 0 _ 00-000_ 00_0E00
IIQWLmuomI\.m¥ UO0U53: Imcoh u_Lumz UCMmzo£0I IIImmLmuumI wcmmso£HII
mum—3m 00:00 mm00mE00 u mom—gm 00:00 m000m500 U mmm_sm 00:00 mmOHmEOP H H
II IIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIII00W_00 L0000 000 00000000 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII m 0000 m 0000000
I 0_0_> N 00_0000000 u H

 

mom—Imam. .mm_vc_ 0mm: “mmm_:m :Lmzuo: ncm

o x_ozmmm<

OumE00 mo U_m_> vcm ”mm0< h00030300000 c_

0000000--.m 00000

 

 

 

 

 

 

U_®_> UOmmmLUC_ .m_m A _m3U_m®m AN»

>Lm: .0m
Ivam£Qm0£QL®Q3m Lm DDOQ NM M00: xLme m¢m~
cmfiu Lmuumn .mmm Ou.m£am0£n_ .mUOJ A—v I + .I _
CC< .um»
IMUNLQmO£QL®Q3m L®.£QOU NM 0031 m.\036
CMIU LUHUGD Im_m MUWLQWOLQ —QUOJ I + |

 

I 1i

 

 

C0muc302 F>Lm£.pwv
.005me U®>OLQE_ v_ + I I 05me 0+3 :0: >xUJI.
.mnmgm U®>OLQE_ z FNV
.o0mcam05a00a3m ___I m.>:o
cmcu quumn .m_m mumzamOLQ _m000 A_v I + I 000n00u 0 030x000
c_m0c:oz cum ___I
. x 00 ncoammL umLm ucm U_m_> £00m + I I cmmLQ 0 >xu:0 Fam0
Lw_000u
Ucm
c_mucsoz mom—m
.mLom 00a m\z .030 _ 00 omcoammL 000m + I I cmme mm o>oLo _:m_
6 .0000 000 000 mc_
.W I3o__00 0o v_®_> vmmmmLuc_ x _m:v_mmm Amv
.mc_m0coo 0_
cmmuoa 00 osu >_mL_0cw mm 003:0:
cm_u LmnEJI .030 o E000 0wmwcmm ANV
.vLum Lma gmmuoa 00 oum£a_:m
.030 N 00 >_nmnoLa omcoamoL 0mmm
.x 00 vcoame mUmLm ucm U_m_> £00m A_V + I I 0 mm co>mo o:m_
...................................................:mm0F<Fom ImHmH:.....................................Z
x m z ®Q>F
mmuoz >0m_Lm> _o mu_m 0mm>
mmcoamom LmN___0me _. m

 

Ammm_Io¢m_v

mo_nmummm> vcm 00000 0000 :o 00:0_so_0m< mo >Lum_c_z cmo_mEmw >0 m_m_L0 LoN___0me 00 >LmEEJmII.: m0m<0

o x_ozmmm<

 

 

 

 

éfik7

0>_0
I_m00
000000 050
I 002 I0000< 0 :N 000: mam—
0>_0
I_moa A0co0m0e_0 A000
0:0 c_00c:oz .0m .> I005050zv
I + I00000 c0000 00>ov mm 5m0snn0m
0>_0 00-
I_moa 0000a A50050
050 5000530: 00000 IN__m .0mv
I I0000< I 50000 .0m .> _—0I >vn_w
.0000 c000 m:_3o__00 mo mv_0_> :nI
0000000c0 >_05000000 m _0:v_m0m ANV 00000
.00050005000030 00000 A5c< .0mv
c050 000000 .m_m 000500050 _0000 A_V I + I 00_0000 .0m .> 000000x
.00000 035000
mc_3o__00 mo mv_0_> 0000000 Acc<
I5_ >_0c000000 x 050 m _0:0_m0m ANV c_00c:oz .0mv 0000
.0000m v0>o0aE_ >_05000000 x A_V + + I 50000 mu Ixu_000000
000-
.0000 c000 mc_3o__00 mo mn_0_> 0000M
0000000c_ >_0c000000 x _0:v_m0m ANV 00000 F>002 .0mv
.0000m n0>00aE0 >_0c000000 x A_V + I I 00_nnoU 5300m 0000000
.0000 :000 mc_3o__00
U_0_> 00000005_ .m_m m _0:v_m0x ANV
.00050005000030 A>002 .0mv
5050 000000 .m_m 000500050 _0000 A_v I + I 00_0000 mm 0__I >000m mam—
.00050005000030 Acc< .0mv
:050 000000 .m_m 000500050 _0000 I + I 00.0500 Nm ___I m.>:o

I II.vIILIU .I ((((( ..II . v.
V. ANV
UUWIQWOIQLwfljm

UHNIQWOIQ ~WUOI. Apv

.04—0”an U0>0LQE.
CWIU Lam-upwa- Im—M

1 0H UCOQWQL UWLO UCN U—0_> £u0m

.OLUN Lfla Q\Z .uZU _ 00 OmCOQmOL ummn

:IIIILIIV

LwrnDOU

COQLU

0000000

C_MHCJO£

Ucm

ffh

~I

E0QUCJOZ
N

h:m0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

IA

 

 

.300030 0L0 A Tum PM“
00 0000 0:0 mCO—m 0C__ 0303C_0COU A 0WMM0M&._
m :0 00 0000 050 00_000 0000... c_ A .00 00.0
0.03 HE0E000_Q 00:00.03 0:0—00 0:0 0003 A U000000
0.0—03> 03.0 0000030 .00 C0_000__0n_m. A . 0M0 >CG£00D 0000
C.WLU LQuuvwn 0.005 ZOLLJL C_ uCMEMUM—l A_VA ... + + «I
rllll\
.0U05n—MO5Q
lLQh—DW .930 J (:0an car—U Luwuvmem 0C 0L0; OHOZ fivmuvmmu.
0005000£QLOQ30 .0030 N0 Ucw w E000 wU—00> I 00m 002 0 mm LmLZD—uvm
A .00C0Ewm000
CM 0: 0003 000L0v _v_ 0.00 0 00
0>_00_00 Nv_ 0:0 N0 E000 00:00000 oz ANV
.m:_0:0_0 000000
300030 :_ 0:o::_0:00 0000_0 00N__
I_0000 000_0E00 E000 00:00000 0000 0002 000000 :000::oz 00000
II0>_000000 00N___0000 00 0:0E000_0 AFV 00m 002 :000o 00000 co>0o
A0_050 000>00ozv
.000500050 _0000 .030 :_00::02 :0000000 :30
qu 0_ :o_000__000 00N___0000 0_Eo:00m I ++ I :0000 00>ov Nm 0.00—03m 0mm—
.00500
5000 00 00:00000 000:05:0 0 0:0 2 ANV
.\ N .00 8 :05 :0:
% 000000@ .30 00950 0 00 00:00000 CV I + + 02000 00m :00000
0.
.0 00
00:00000 000000000 030 2 000:05:0 x Amv
.00500
5000 00 00:00000 000:05:0 0 0:0 2 ANV
.000500050 _000_ .030 w 0:0 0\m
.030 J ..0._ .N0 0:0 N2 00 00:00000 A_V I + + 00_000u NM ___I >000m
0>_0
I_0O0
0:0 >0__0> .0:00
.5m_5 003 0_0_0 00 030000 :0m00002 I I I0000< 00_00oU m_ 0>0u m¢m_
v_ 0 z 0030
00002 00:00000 00N___0000 >00_00> __0m 000m 000>

 

A003:_0:00V 0 m0m<0

 

 

 

 

, .m\z .030 N 350 00050005300a30
0 .030 3 u 00N___0000 0005IIc_00:3oz c000w
, .m\z .030 w u 00N___0000 0005II0m050m

.305035050 uc0E_00QXm

 

.303c0EEou00 00030x0E x;
c_ z mc_33_uc_ E000 00000uc_ .m00 303050
000>_0cm 30c_nEOUIImuo_a co_0m0uchE0o

.0000 00a <\m .030 m 00 z @5033_oc0
E000 00000o:_ .m_m OCII00_3005 .303c0E
IE0000 0003ux_E x0 050 c_ z mc_33_uc_
00 000000 0000 00 000.0 co_pm000:OE0o

.0000 00m 0005a005a00a3m
.030 ¢\_m 00000 000 __00 00:0a000 0

#Q? S:-

.0 0o >0___nm

I__m>m 005m05 00 033 003 00N___u000

mo 050E0um_a E000 3_0_> 005m_5 05E ANV
_

 

.300030 050

00 0005 050 mco_m 050— 0303:_ucoo

m :0 00 0000 050 03_005 03005 :0
003 050E0om_a 0050053 0Emm 050 0003

03_0_> 033 0000030 :0 co_umo__aam
:05“ 000005 003 300030 c_ 0:0E0um_m A v

  

L). ..I..IIL NI,

ANV
I MC

IICIC _ UCOU
A....0U £001.“? 0
0 UV. —

ZAVL I. .4...
I . I. I. 0;

:m
U30.
IIU>03UD009

_U.Lm —n- ”LOnvvfl.

“000$ pn-
mCOQMvL U000.
_UL0¢ $0 uflwEWUM—a

A:

.UumLQMOLQ

wl¢ 00 CO_uNU_—Qam L0N_

~mUOJ I UZU
—_u00% U_EOCOUw

.00£u0

...—om” uvo UWCOQWQL «VOUCWLCU l UCFU 7—

\1/

A
A
A
A
A 0
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
0
A
A

 

0m030m w A350—
c_m0csoz I00OE0003V
++ ++ I 30000 :w ceumaoI mmm0
ommn0m A350—
» _3mcoQ I000E0003V
5000< w 3_0_mcm wmm_
II II co>0o 350
300000 300000 m0c3_o
002 002 + 0 NMN .c000mz mmm.
co>0o 3cm
m_C005_I
300000 300000 .c00_mz
002 002 I N NMN .5m_0_3353 :mm.
- + - 0 mm £m033300
Aco>0ov
A>cm5u0m E000
+ + I N 00mv «mm N03c0z
_u_00a
0:0 A>cm500m E000
I0maa< + I N 00mv Nmm E05500
A00_o
30m M55
330 __00
0:0000E__
.5 E
30__muv
+ + + N NMN 0cm£00m _mm_

UUOZ UUUWUH
00w uOZ

++

C .IWHCJOT.
Cwol—U

CmmuCJOZ
50000

NWWO/a
mLLvlr CON/“VD

AOPNLM
5000000?
00>Ov NM

bmm>mLOZq
de
0.00ru3m

0mm;

 

 

 

 

 

L —_Om Wm GMCCCU¢L Q>uL.UCC QZGC Q r—\ I71 \lIII:

 

 

 

 

®>wu
Immmc mmm
. N
C_ Cwfiu mcmLQm C_ OmCOQmMLwWMhWMM—M>%Wmm ++ ILNMMW + .>.m.3 MN m®u_m MN I~Mm~
.C0_HWUWL C009 N>OWICLOU
m C_ >_m303c_ucOU tummmLUMU mU—0_> ANV
.oom—m UOummu UMummu neummu mum—m Pmm—
®>0Lw am momLOm m:o_>®La mEL_wcoo A_v uoz uoz uoz .>.m.1 mm ®>oLw Imefl
.Am\z .wzu N\_I_ vcm
mumzamOLQLmazm .uzo N . ozmz .HZU JV
LmN___uLow xmz op mmcoamoL mc_x_hm ANV
.>_Lmo> : Lo N cmsu quumn
oLmz mco_pmo__aam >_me> .MmcoammL Umumou umummu Umumou mum_¢ m:m_
voom m>mm Lmo>\mLom\.z.>.m chu o A_v qu qu qu .>.m.w mm m>oLo I::m_
..u x .u30 _ Lo :ommx .u20 N I x E:E_uao ++ - - .>.m.n mm
mw .oLum Lea <\m .u30du z Enemuao ++ I + .>.m.w mm w ImLm
4
.........................................................zmou.............................................
cmLo> w
.20. x :om m_ _:mcou chL< Ucm cmLo> Lem nmummu umpmmu Umumou _:mcoo
mc_umam E:E_uao _m_LH >um_Lm> x mc_umam “oz uOZ uoz cmLL< mm mcm_um_L£u
.voEL_mcou p0: wLmz m_m_Lu owm_ wo mu_:mom I I I :w coum__Lmo _mm_
cmLo> w
.m\z .mn_ com ucm mpmgq _:mcoo
ImoLQLmasm .mn_ com <\m .mn_ com mm_H cmLL<
Im_Lm> __m Lew LmN__bume u_50coo® “mo: ++ ++ + .ommnmm aw coum__Lmo oom—
x a z ma>H
mwuoz mmconmm LmN___ULo¢ >um_Lm> __0m mu_w me>

 

Aum::_pcoov q MAm<P

 

 

 

4A57'

._U K .UZU — L0 JOWN! .uZU N

.moLD :mcu A_o>o_
N_v quumn .m_m <\mII_m_LP m\m .m> mmL:

.mmuLDOm z
:mmzumn mocmemw_v OCII_m_Lg <\m .m> moL:

.omg 0_nm__m>m Ema ow cmcu

mmm_ sum; m__0m co omcoammL “mos m>mm x

.owx m_nm__m>m Egg ow cmcu www—
;u_3 m__0m co omcoammL umOE m>mm x ANV
.momm
Ema owIOM mm; m _Wom m_ co_mmeamv
v_m_> ucoLmaam ncm o m Ema omro mm:
a __0m m_ wmcoammg m>_u_m0a wwmm m A_V

.mm:_ucm_a __mu
c_ cmsu mc_Lam :_ wmcoammL LMuumn o>mm z

I'Unur

Wrr.L — u—f-OU A — v

M! fly
nu>3Lmu I...

fl.LQI m30_)ULfl

I l I l
WHQIQWOIQLUQJA .a%0\fl nWW“WM\mUpUU“%
LUNm—muLUL KLZ 0U UflCOQWOL WC—Xubm ANV
.>—LGO>

J L0 N CMLU
.QQQ >—LMO>

ULUZ mC0_um0_
UOOO fl>mm L00>\ULUN\.X.>

Lvuuon
.0MCOQMOL

.u MCOU w A—v

H 1 EJEMuQO

nmummu vmummu

qu qu

nopmou vmumou

uoz qu
m>_u
Immoc
ucm

ILmaa< +
m>_u
Imam:
ucm

ILmaa< ++

++ ++

m>_u

I_moa

ucm

++ ILmaa<

o>_u

Immoc

ucm

++ ILmQa<

Dwumwu Uvuwwu
uOZ uOZ
++

I .>.w.1 Mb

_
_

hsmf
IJJm»

Aoum_m
m>ova
n::0go

.>.m.fi NMN >__:o
mmm
.>.m.w N cmcmow Iwmm
+ .>.m.fi _: mmp_m o—
a
++ .>.w.w :m mmu_m :_
o>_u v
Immwc V
gcm wmw
-Lmaa< .>.m.w n_o<v
v
v
v
V
V
wmv
++ .>.m.w ®c__mx_<v mou_m om
mmm.
+ .>.m.w mm mmu_m mm I_mm_
Uvumwu 000
uOZ .>.m.fl Mb 0>OWM

 

 

.OLum Lma L\Z .uZU Nix $0 —®>®_ Lm£U_£ Ou

 

«cc< .umy m¢m~

 

 

 

a .m U Lm wu_:m®L
MWMOMWMOCWHN mum WWHMUWMHOM Wu QmCOQmmm + I I wucwm wk uQOLumm Imlme
...... ............ . ...................................... mz<> .............................................

.cm wmn_ o: vcm .m2 .m2_ om .omx
.mn_ om. . o a .mn. om .2 .mn. om mo mc_

ImmOLU L®N___ume £m_£ >F—mcomuamuxm cm mcm
|>_@U®L CLOU Dam mLqu_E LONm—_uwa nMUCGE
IEOUOL —®ELOC msu m:_>_muoL CLOU CMMZHOQ mom—
cuzoLm cm mocmgwmw_v ucoLmaam 0: mm: wLoLH mm -mu
.mc_mmva
vLmucmum 0;“ m_330v mm mv_m_> mEmm
m>mm mc_mmmLU LwN___uLow Ugmvcwum Amv :m
. . . . __m:LoU
cm __w:LoQ cmsu gmuuwn vmn_m_> > m a N .
A V 3cm oum_m mom_
__ x .m n mc_umam ummm A_v .>.m.1 mm m>oLw mc_Lam
ALoc_~__zv
mm ;#30E_mmv
gotm :5 £225 MMIMNV mEo; i .5138:
2. LOOQ m>mm .>_o .Emgo ._me >n wwwcmEeouoL .vom_mv
W mmumg LON___ume mc_m: m_m_Lu ®_m0m v_o_m .>.m.fi mm o>oLwV
couQEmI
++ ++ I .>.m.w Rm ILuDOm
COHQEmI
.u__am Lo w_o;3 vm__aam .z 0“ mmcoammL oz ++ I I .>.m.w mm Isasom
.mcozmflaam z “6 235:: $9
op Lo LmN_~_yLom >cm Op mmcoammL 02 I I I .>.m.fi mm :mszQ Immm_
.LoLLm ULmvcmum cm_c vcm
mv_m_> LOOQ we wmzmomn Am: new mo.x.m.zv wmm_
nmummu mucm_Lp:c LOL mu_:mmL m>_m:_ocouc_ I I I .>.m.w N cmsmOw Immm_
x m z ma>H
mmuoz omcoammm LmN___uLmu >um_Lm> __0m mu_m me>

 

Avm:c_ucouv : m4m<k

 

 

453

 

 

 

 

I.
.m___c cmsu quuon >_ucmLmaam momv_m I + + N N coumm
Em>
.m___; ems“ Louuwn .m_m mmmv_m I I ++ 30__o> am c_3L_
Em>
.m___; Ucm momv_L EOLN U_m_> oEmm I I I 30__m> MN mum—m m>oLo oom—
.m___; ems“ Lmuumn .m_m momu_m ANV
. .>_ucmu NJ
I_m_cm_m no: usn vommmLamv nmame .u3 mmu02 Lo
.noamo; mLmnzu No.0: vmmmoLavv .m_m x A_v 0mm I I mmosg m: mmmLomw
m: ALo>0chv
.m___c cmnu Lmupmn .m_m mmmv_m I I + mm034 Ucm mm uOLmQme wmm_
Em> AmmEmw
.mmmU_L cmcu Laugmn .m_m m___z I I I 30__o> :m .umv c_3L_
v>_u m>_u
I_moa I_m0a Angmmsu
.m___c ucm use Em> Icmzv mmm_
_m:v_>_v:_ cmcu Lwapmn >_ucmLmaam mmmv_m Igmaa< ILmaa< ++ 30__o> MN wow—m o>oLo INmm_
mc_Lam xuox
new Lm>_x
m>_u m>_u com__3
. .uwm; cu Em> No o_umL Immoa I_moa am .mLmE_LL04
vcm U_m_> _mu0u mc_mmmLoc_ Luca .m Ucm 2 ago ucm vcm Lm>_m m304
cu mmcoamoL ;m_; ucmLmaam 305m mummLo>< I ILmaQ< ILmaa< N mm .u_nIqu_m3 INmm_
.oLum Lwa m\z .uzo NIx No _m>o_ mem_c 0p
mm; mmcoamoL .m_m uogov_mcou mLm my_:moL Acc< .umv m:m_
mLmo> N :05: .m_m >_co mm: x Cu omcoammm + I I mucox mN ummvam Imam—
.........................................................mz<>.............................................
UHMHWWGWM Or.“ ”—5303 mm MVFW—Mx—fflWNN—M NF «Ir/WWW“
I I . IC_mm0L«v LUNn—_uL0uv ULNUCflUW AMV
#m _—0CLOU rim—.3 Lfluuvn U0U—0_> .>.w.1 ANV ..FMECMVW
.— X .m .u mC_Unwn.m ummvm A_ Ume wow
v .>.w../ Mb 0>Ownnw OCMAWWW
.>)L I.II.AwLum Lac m_o£m:o nnInu, I:.).~

ALMCN...:/

 

 

 

 

.Umconcmnm yC®E_L®QXm

 

4f?

mLmucm~l

 

UCQ
.wLmEme >5 .OLu ummLOk
qwmwommwm wm_WWMMMIMoIMMMgIMwhmmINI“MMWW - I I IN ICIIII
.mozmz .mn_ OOMI0m_ n z E:E_uao I + + mN oLvmm
co_uomLmuc_ o>_ummoc u mg
co_uumLmuc_ m>_u_moa u mz A:v
.oamsamOLQ
_moo_ cwcu Lmuumn mm: mumcamosaLvasm Amv
.wumsamOLQ _moo_ .muzo Lo
mumcamOLaLmasm Nw_ .uZU : n m E:E_uqo ANV
m . gmccm>mm 0mm—
. ozmz .mn_ OOMIOm_ n z E:E_uao A_v I ++ + wN __:m Imqm_
ozmz I tom: 2 No muL30m ANV
.oumnamOLQLmasm .mn_ ow: n gmccm>mm _qm_
:o_pmu__aam m o_80coom a33:0me m A_v I ++ I wN __:m Io:m_
.LmN___ume
No co_umu__aam No mE_p um “coEoum_a kummu nmummu umumou mom—
LoN___uLmN No necuoe Cu mmcoammL .m_m Oz qu “02 #02 N MN mum_m m>oLw INom_
I I I N N coumm
.m___: Ucm mmmv_L
ncm mU_m_> mEmmIImc_ucm_m mo Emum>m I I I 30__m> :m c_3L_
.mucm_a cmwzuwa
co_mmmLQoU c_ cmsu quumn memwan Em>
paw—a vcsoLm o_uL_u c_ LmN___ume I I + 30__m> MN oom_m o>oLu _om_
x a z mQNN
mmpoz wmcoammm LmN__ume >um_Lm> __Om mpmm me>

 

Aum:c_ucouv q m4m<k

 

 

._oLucou Op
u_:u_mm_v oLOE m_ mmmmm_u u33 .mu_m_>
vwmmmgu:_ A_N\_I_ x _NV mc_umam mmo_o Amv
.mv_o_> vommwgoc_ ochmE ammzm ANV
.wNmLQmOLQ
~muo_ cmcu Lmupm3 mm; wumcamOLQLmasm A_V

.wumcamOLQ
.uzo N cmzu Louum3 mm: mumsam03a .330 J

.m >3 UmmmmLu
I03 3cm 2 >3 vmmmmLuc_ mm; >u_n_o< AJV

.x >3 UmmmmLumv Ucm
2 >3 nommoLuc_ mLmz mpumth pox .m.m Amv

vCZS

.wumsamOLQ
_moo_ cmzu Lmuum3 mm; mumcamOLQLmazm ANV

.vumLQmOLQ .330 N cmcu
Lmupm3 .m_m mm: oum3am03a .muzu m A_V

.mc_umam c_ vocomew_n
Cu 30 m:_m03 >LmuoL Ou mmcoammL Oz ANV

.mIN_I: cmsg Lmuuo3
mm: Ac_u x__E .ucoo _v ogscmE awocm A_v

.vmcovcm3m “cmE_LmQXm

.mLmEme >3 _oLu
Icou Loon >3 veg:Um3o mLmz mu_:mmL Lm3uo
.omcoammL w>_u_moa m m>mm LouumE o_cmmLo

CU_UUQLOUE_ 9) 0400f
[U.UUWqufn _ I a!

U>—U_MOQ I AZ AJV
CQIU LOUUUD MN; ”UNIWMWMMWWMMM
IOUNIQMOIQ —nWUO— IWUZU L0
”UNIQwOMQLUQJm NW— IHZU J H n. EJE_un_O ANV

. OZQZ .mfl— OOMIOM— l

.500—

Amv

Z EDEuuQO A—v
0202 I Dom: 2 $0 OULJOm ANV

.vumcamo QLUQJ .
co.umu__aam L J_5m:III m m3. ow: I

++

wN

wN

wN

wN

wN

033mm

>m:m>
mULm——mm

mmm.
033w; INmm_

®3_mam030
u_0_N3u30m

mLopcm_m
ncm
ummLOu
mc_aqm

£0CC$>0W OMQI

mm (Nam Ime,

x A Z ®D>F
MMHOZ Umcoamom L®N~_muL@m >u®~Lm> ~h0m Ouxm Lm®>

«UQDCMuCOUV q Mquk

 

 

 

{/fo’

ucm maoLu too; :0 3oLm®mmm 30N___3Lmu A

.>_Hcmu_m_cm_m .m.m.m mo oucmn_uc_
mmmoLu:_ Op Ummeaam Aucm_a Lma .mNo

.ucmEJUOU umpmccs Avo_>umo_o>uv mo_mEmw c_

mu_mEmfi mo “cmECLo>0wv

m0 3mummm>
mvcm3 3cm 0333—3033m< mo

Lum_:_z “muLJOm

.pcmu_m_cm_m p0: mmcoammL Lo omcoame 02 n AIV

 

MINV Esma>m moumL 303m_3IImu_:mmm ANV Umumou woumMH mem Em;
.x.m.m co Esma>m No “oomwmIIwmoanm A_v uoz qu ONN Icmxu_3N
.m.m.m mo oucmv_uc_ 30_ No mmzmom3
U®N>_mcm uo: ucmE_LmameImu_:mmm ANV .ucou
.m.m.m co m>3mam N_omo ucm Esma>m uwummu 3mummu mmm_
mumsamOLQLmasm mo HommwmIIomoaLsm A_V uoz qu NN mac: INmm_
x m z QQNN
mmuoz omcoammm LmN___ume >um_3m> __0m wu_m Lmo>

 

Aum:c_ucouv q 33m<p

m—TJU

n,o_> m.nmm_mm

mmoI¢om_

T—¢~> NG+CF I+("II: . . l I

LDULF nm®0umu0& U®®3m CKOLU >-W~UL®EEOU k0 ®LU< LOQ WU~®h>IIIm MdmiF

Q X.Q2m&l<

 

 

 

 

¢57

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.a ..uwu .ao
.vmu_c_LN :_ moOpmuOm ummzm new 3m_L_ No co_uu:uoLm _m_oLmEEoQ Lo» pumamoLm osN .o .LoaaoLu "ooLJOm
.ELmu co_umLum:oEmo aoLu noon oumxok n moumNm
MN m.N mN.m mac AmLHCOE mv
commmm um:
mm m._ ..m m: AmgucoE N\_Iov
:m o.m m.: mac commmm NLQ mom_
3m N.o o._ m:
mm m.o N.N :o_u
w: m._ m.N N;
.m N.N _.m MN: AmcucoE mv
mN N.: m.m mso commom 3w: Jew.
ANV III AmLum Log mcouv IIIIIIIIIIII
m__:o u_o_> o_nmo_mm v_o_> _muoN >um_3m> no_3mm co_pu:voL¢ 3mm>
mmoI¢3m_ moumk "mmOpmuom gomzm czoLw >__m_uLmEEoU No oLu< me mu_m_>II.m m3m<N

a x_ozmmm<

Thbk

Fert.

yams
clay
" yam:

data

Cro;
1‘ I
Spac

Plan

 

 

 

 

 

4’58

APPENDIX D
Table 6: Summary of Fertilizer Trials on Local Food Crop in Antigua by The
Regional Field Experiment Program (Regional Research Center - UWI)
1966-67.

Fertilizer Experiments:

 

Four fertilizer experiments involving the most important food crops of Antigua--
yams, sweet potatoes, and tomatoes - were done on two major soil types - Fitches
clay and Gunthropes clay — in a medium low rainfall zone. Two experiments with
yams are also in progress in Antigua. .

Details of the completed experiments are given in Tables A, B, D, & E . The
data was statistically analysed at Rothamsted Experiment Station. Rainfall in all
experiments is that from ten (10) days prior to planting.

TABLE A.
Crop 2 Yams "White Lisbon" Location : Lower Friars Hill
Spacing : 42' x 18" (on banks) Design : 23 factorial 5
Replications
Planted : 17th May, 1966 Plot Size : 140 sq. ft.
Reaped : 8th February, 1967 Soil Type : Fitches Clay.

Rainfall -— 31. 66 inches:

Very dry conditions (less than three (3) inches per month) prevailed prior to fertilizing.
Moisture conditions were more facourable after fertilizing — average four (4) inches
per month.

Treatments per ac re.

Applied on 12th October, 1966 at tuberizat ion, in a band on both sides of the plant and
buried.

N0 = Nil P0 = Nil KO = Nil
N1 = l cwt Sulphate of 2 cwts super Phosphate K1 = lcwt muriate of
ammonia 21% N 18% P20 potash 60% K20

 

 

Yield in cwl

Average
effects

Mean Yield

m
‘I

Crop
Spacing
‘ Planted
Reaped
I

Moisture c
Inches per

" t:
W

Applied 0n
éldes of rm

N0 = Nil

Nl = 1 €va
alllmI

Summary (
\
Average
effects

.‘\l\\ln YlClI

 

E

 

 

1/57

Summary of Main Effects

Yield in cwts marketable tubers per acre.
a

 

P NP K NK PK NPK SE
Average
effects 39.1 1.6 4.3 -0.9 -0.1 2.6 -2.1 —0.0 + 2.12
Mean Yield 36. 0 35. 9 43. 3 41. 5 35.4 40. 6' 38. 5 41. 8 + 3. 00

SE per plot = 6.70 Coef. of variation = 17. 13%

This trial shows no effect of fertilizers.
h“

TABLE B.
Crop : Sweet Potato "Hurricane" Location : The Wood
Spacing : 42" x 12" (on banks) Design : 23 factorial 5 Rep.
Planted : 7th September, 1966 Plot Size : 264 sq. ft.
Reaped : 2nd February, 1967 Soil Type : Gunthropes clay.

Rainfall --- l7. 8 inches

Moisture conditions were quite uniform. Rainfall averaged about three and a half (3%)
inches per month.
Treatments per acre.

Applied on 18th October, 1966 at the commencement of vine running in a band on both
sides of the plant and buried.

N0 = Nil P0 =Nil K0 = Nil
NI = l cwt sulphate of P1 = 2 cwts of super K1 = 1 cwt muriate of potash
ammonia 21% phosphate 18% 60% K20

Summary of Main Effects

Yield in cwts marketable tubers per acre.

 

— N P NP K NK PK NPK SE
Average
effects 45.8 -8.3 —9.9 —2.9 2.7 -2.3 —7.1 —5.8 i- 5.67
an Yield 50.4 41.4 44.6 41.5 56.5 54.8 48.2 29.0 _+ 8.02

SE. per plot =17. 93 Coef. of variation = 39.16%

This trial shows no effect of fertilizers.

1p-

 

 

Crop

Spacing

Planted

Reaped

Rainfall 18

Approximz
month was

Treatmem
Ap
I N0 =Ni1
‘1 N1 =1cw
I amt.
l
in;
" I

AVerage
effects

Mean Yie

Crop
spiking
131auted

Reaped

 

 

 

 

Crop

Spacing

Planted

Reaped

: 7th January to March
1967

Rainfall 18 . 16 inches .

 

460

TABLE C.
: Tomatoes "Manalucie" Location
: 2' x 2' (double rows) x Design
3' flat
Plot size
: 19th October, 1966
Soil Type

: Lower Friars Hill

: 23 factorial — 5 Rep.

: 240 sq. ft.

Fitches clay (deep phase).

Approximately eight (8) inches or an average of two and a half (2%) inches of rainfall per
month was received after fertilizing.

Treatments Er acre
Applied on the 25th November, 1966 in a circle aroung the plant and buried.

 

 

N0 = Nil P0 = Nil KO = Nil
N1 = lcwt sulphate of ‘ P1 = 2 cwts super K = 1 cwt muriate of
ammonia 21% N. phosphate 18% potash 60% K20
P205

Summary of Main Effects
Yield in cwts marketable fruit per acre

- N P NP K NK PK NPK SE
Average
effects 119.2 3.6 —4.0 11.2 8.8 -8.2 —14.3 ~3.3 1‘— 10.12
Mean Yield 110. 9 108. 3 107. 0 133. 3 139.1 126. 6 112. 8 116. 0 1- 14.31

This trial shows no effect of fertilizers.

Crop
Spacing
Planted

Reaped

TABLE D.

Tomatoes "Urbana"
42"x18" (on banks)
29th September, 1966

12th December - 13th
February, 1967

S. E. per plot = 32. 00 Coef of variation = 26.83%

Location
Design
Plot size

Soil Type

The Wood

. 23 factorial 5 Rep.

: 158 sq. ft.

Funthropes clay

 

 

Rainfall 20.

App
(3%) inches

Treatments
N0 = Nil

N1 = 1 cwt.
potasl

Summary c

Yield in cv.

Average
Effects

Mean Yielc

The

w "
bemm
s w

m

C. VARIE
It i
fOOd crops
PerformAn
1.
(one in Am
Afldgua)_

The data “
all experix

Crop
SWCing
Planned

Reaped

6’6!

Rainfall 20. 03 inches

1 Approximately thirteen (13) inches or an average of three and a half
(35) inches of rainfall per month was received after fertilizing.

Treatments per acre.

 

N0 = Nil P0 = Nil K0 = Nil
N1 = 1 cwt. sulphate of P1 = 2 cwts. super phos- K1 = l cwt. muriate
potash 21% N phate 18% l potash 60% K20

Summary of Main Effects

Yield in cwts marketable fruits per acre.

Average — N P NP K NK PK NPK : s. E
Effects 87.2 -5.4 38.4 4.9 -0.6-7.6 3.3 1.3 6.19
Mean Yield 70.6 69.2102.2 108.0 75.6 56.4 111.2 104.3 8.75

This trial shows that there was a sigificatn response only to

super phosphate — an average increase of 38.4 cwts. per acre.

The above results are inkeeping with previous fertilizer trials in Antigua
where moisture is usually the limiting factor. lnvariab_1y sweet potatoes and yams fail to
show benefit from fertilizing. Tomatoes however usually benefit from phosphate
fertilizing.

C. VARIETY IMPROVEMENT

 

It is necessary to establish the order of yield of locally grown varieties of
food crops planted at different seasons on major soil types, and to compare their
performance with selections introduced from St. Augustine and elsewhere.

1. Variety Experiments

Four variety experiments were done in Antigua — two with sweet potatoes
(one in Antigua, and the other in Dominica) one with yams, two with corn (all in
Antigua).

The results of the completed sweet potato experiments is given in Table 5,.
The data was statistically analysed at Rothamsted Experiment Station. Rainfall in
all experiments is that from ten (10) days prior to planting.

TABLE E .
Crop ' Sweet Potato Location ; the Wood
Spacing : 42" x 12" (on banks) Design : 6 x 5 Randomized Block
Planted : lst September, 1966 Rainfall : 20.57 inches
Reaped : 26th January, 1967 P1“ Size 5 252 sq. ft-

Soil Type : Sunthropes 'clay.

 

 

 

Summary 01
Mean yield

Hurricane
2. 94

S. E. = 0.
Coef. of va

In tl
C. 104 and
H others trie1
1

Source: Re

 

 

4’62

Summary of results
Mean yield in tons marketable tubers per acre

Hurricane C. 104 ' T. 67 Never Miss P. R. 3 B. 44
2. 94 ‘ 2. 32 1.66 l. 61 0.70 0.61

S. E. =0.156 L.S.D. 5%=0.457

Coef. of variation = 21. 2% L S.D 1% = 0.627

In this trial the local variety "Hurricane" out yielded both Trinidad selections
C. 104 and T. 67. The variety C. 104 however proved superior to the T. 67 and all
others tried. Both P., R. 3 and B. 44 were inferior to the other cultivars.

Source: Regional Field Experiment Program (Leeward Islands), Annual Report — August

1966-July 1967.

 

 

 

.«mwuu :Uum :._
Law» :20 Lot— .A— OVN.N $0 930 95.: .nomnlmmm— .wcuxaw Uta «05.: awe: .annmx 80.x Lmk MENU mi: ..N manna

G X ~QZUQL<

 

 

 

 

54fi3

u;u_w aucwzk. wmm_ Nom_ :opuaFuomm< ecu co gee: mgu co o>e=m .A. u=_v :opumpuomm< ammzm mmwucu “we:

 

 

p Lonemomo .moemnemm .m:_umaz xguzwueo

”muczom

.mpnmu menu mo wmaaw>m ecu wow—mm; AF>memuuwc we: vpzo: mzzu use mopnmu nguo Eocc ku=aeoua«
uFQc—pm>m go: one meme—o:—_m5m Low mmgzmpw ”area mwumumo Low mam motsmp a

 

 

 

WWMLm>M

 

 

 

 

oppmw
nex gmoxuemmumwm
mmmp
=mumagu>m
om.a~ mn.m~ Rm.mN mm.m~ om.m~ o~.m~ acaezzee
cmwx-:mp
nm\ oo\ max ¢o\ nex ~c\
mmm— smmp wmm_ mmm_ wmm~ mmm_
emmocco>m
ow.m~ mm.mw mm.a~ on.m~ mm.m~ pm.a~ mm.m~ mN.m~ oe.m~ so.m~ oo.m~ mceccsee
Lemapw>wu
Ne\ mm\ mc\ vex nex mm\ _o\ ou\ am\ mm\ mm\
mom— Nwm— pomp comp mmm_ wmm— nmmp ommp mma_ amap mmmp
m~.a~ No.m~ me.om mn.mm um.om m¢.m~ m¢.mw mm.om em.m~ n~.om vo.m~ _m.m~ o~.m~ m~.m~ oa.- «smceazw use
wwwucn awe:
—m.- co.m~ NN.om o~.m~ om.m~ mm.o~ m—._m mm.mm o¢.om vm.om mo.o~ ma.m~ mm.om _mn.mm m~.m~ «uaua=_ep
pn.w~ _~.m~ m~.om pp.om m¢.m~ am.¢m mw._m m~.mm o_._m _p._m mw.o~ mo.~m me.m~ “w.w~ mo.~m muu_x .um
m—.o~ mc.~m um.~m vw.om mo.om o_.w~ mm.m~ Nv._m ma.m~ ¢_.m~ ow.m~ mm.m~ mm.m~ mo.- Fv.mN momeew
”N.NM .—o._m em.pm om.—m F<.mm m~.vm mm.~m m_.mm m—.om m~.o< mm.mm mm.~m m_.mm ~m.¢m ow.~m seceanw
oo.mn omdm mm.¢m mo.m~ nm.om n~.m~ vo.om m~.a~ mm.em w_.mm NN.nm m¢.mN mm._m mm.mm mo.om moumnemm
.<.z em.m ow.mp on.m— mm.m_ mm.mp mo.m_ ~¢.m_ —o.- ~—.n_ mo.w. em.ow _~.m_ mo.o— ~o.m— emamwp=<
_ .1 .. n _ .4 _ w L H u _ ..
1115mmp " oom_ " m m_ n comp ” mwmp "Nom— . —om— _ swap ” mmm~ mmm_ h nmm—. mmm~. mmm—_ emaF mmm: acucsoo
VIII | .I||.1| | E>lllllllll| Ii

 

Loo» nogu new .a_ o¢~.~ mo meow acogv .mmm—ummm— .acmxsu can movucm

a xun2mmm<

umu: .umnnaz mgo< Lo; ocmu mcop

.Ammmu some cw

g 2%;

 

 

 

Table 8

 

111110111 2
BARBADOS 3
GUYANM 3
JAMAICA 1

sr. KITTSM ;

TRINIDAD’t

““-—————.__
WEST INDIES
AM)

GUYANA“:

\

Five-year
"running
averages 11

Tell-year
"running
averages“
Flfteen_yea
average
Q
“OR ESTATE
“FOR 51". R
'COMPUTED

SOURSE: we
T1

46¢

APPENDIX D
TONS SUGAR PER ACRE REAPED, WEST INDIES AND GUYANA 1953—1967
Table 8 Long tons of 2,240 lb. tel quel

For crop year in each case

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 YEAR
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1'
COUNTRY 1953 :1954 {1955 {1956 {1957 {195 '1959 11960 {1961 {1962 {1963 {1964 I1965 [1966 1196];
'r' [A
ANTTGUA 2.57 1.21 1.86 2.23 2.15 1.76 2.62 1.69 1.63 1.56 2.14 1.83 1.30 0.77 N.A.

BARBADOS 3.50 3.87 3.71 3.22 4.33 3.23 3.92 3.26 3.55 3.23 4.13 3.18 3.96 3.34 3.85
GUYANA* 3.33 3.02 3.28 3.55 3.52 3.62 3.26 3.42 3.03 3.25 3.27 2.72 2.91 2.86 2.99
JAMAICA 2.78 2.90 3.29 3.14 3.16 2.89 2.96 3.03 2.94 2.99 3.28 3.13 3.41 3.17 2.95
ST. KITTS** 3.85 3.50 3.62 3.70 3.31 3.43 3.50 3.87 3.77 3.57 3.37 3.50 3.41 3.12 3.14

TRINIDAD* 3.03 3.10 3.20 2.55 2.81 2.86 2.62 2.95 3.09 2.54 2.84 2.83 3.02 2.69, 2.07

 

WEST INDIES

GUYANA*** 2.86 2.88 3.11 2.94 3.08 2.92 2.96 3.01 2.93 2.88 3.15 2.95 3.12 2.85 2.89

 

1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963
/57 /58 /59 /60 /61 I62 I63 /64 /65 /66 /67

 

Five—year 2.97 2.99 3.00 2.98 2.98 2.94 2.99 2.96 2.99 2.97 2.97
"running

averages" 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958

/62 I63 I64 /65 /66 I67

Ten-year 2.96 2.99 2.98 2.98 2.97 2.96
"running

averages" 1953

/67

2.96

Fifteen-year
average

 

 

*FOR ESTATES ONLY.
**FOR ST. KITTS ONLY; figures not available for smallholders in Nevis.
*COMPUTED FROM other tables and thus would not necessarily reflect the averge of this table.

SOURSE: west Indies Sugar Association (Inc-). SWW-
Twenty Eight Ordinary Meeting, Barbados, December 16, 1968, p—20

 

 

 

Table 9.

991111111 T9
ANTIGUA 7,
1111111111105 3.
GUYANA 11.
JAMAICA 9.4
51.10115 3,
TRINIDAD 9,
—\
185T INDIES
AND GUYANA '3
\\
Five~Year
"runnin
averages"
Te“ year
Hl'unnin
averages”

“f LSen-Yea:-
Vera e

‘ C°mPuted f,
SOURCE: we“

Twenty Eight

4’66

APPENDIX D

TONS CANE PER TON SUGAR, WEST INDIES AND GUYANA, 1953 -1967

Long tons of 2,240 lb. tel quel

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 9.
For crop year in each case.
___,_..__,___,______Y_EA._R,_ - ._____________ --.-__,,_ :15.—
§9UNTRY‘ 19531 1954 :1955 :1956 :1957§_}958: 1959: 1960_;12§1 71962;:1363 {1964‘ 19§§ju19§6_;19§]_
To“: Cane/ Tons Saga.
ANTIGUA 7.63 8.33 8.71 9.42 8.40 9.73 8.63 9.12 9.20 10.18 9.12 9.09 9.66 10.65 11.16
BARBADOS 8.60 8.68 8.57 9.17 8.58 9.95 8.77 8.96 8.64 9.06 8.82 9.14 8.83 9.07 9.10
GUYANA 11.35 11.36 10.73 10.59 10.19 11.12 11.10 10.91 10.74 10.34 10.54 11.40 10.77 11.26 10.96
JAlmICA 9.47 9.63 8.96 9.00 9.40 9.67 10.04 10.30 10.00 9.40 9.35 9.77 9.31 10.13 9.89
ST. KITTS 8.34 8.20 8.14 8.68 8.11 9.07 8.88 8.72 8.44 9.64 8.78 8.65 8.79 8.99 8.51
TRINIDAD 9.82 9.61 9.48 10.18 9.26 10.64 10.07 10.14 10.09 10.47 10.46 9.97 9.99 10.89 10.87
LEST INDIES
AND GUYANA ‘9-77 9.82 9.41 9.69 9.42 10.37 10.09 10.28 10.05 9.88 9.81 10.09 9.77 10.34 10.18
Five-Year 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963
”running /57 /58 /59 /60 /61 I62 /63 /64 /65 /66 f§7
averages" 9.62 9.74 9.79 9.97 10.04 10.13 10.02 10.02 9.92 9.99 10.04
1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
/62 /63 /64 I65 /66 /67
Ten year 9.88 9.88 9.91 9.94 10.02 10.09
”running
averages” 1963
/67
9.93

Fifteen-Year

 

average

9 Computed from other tables and thus would not nesaearily reflect the average of this table

SOURCE:

West Indies Sugar Association (Inc.), Survey of the Work of the Association 1967—1968.

Twenty Eight Ordinary Meeting, Barbados, December 16, 1968. p.19

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 89
K m: w #69
mm mN m mom.
~n :_ N mMINmma

mm m _ NMImtma OUNCNEOQ
mm on w mom—
2: .w m $9
N2 Nw m mom—
om Ne w :omp
Nw am e m@m_
Nm N _ emNmm—

mm o _ $-39 263 ...5
m? N N $9
m2 N N 89
mN_ ..N N $9
o9 AwN N $9
of N N $2

m: m: N emNmS 6588

oo_ 2 _ $-39 2:... e625:

6 ............. ---- - .............
a 2 08 mm $2
mm omm mm 89
8 NM mm $9
5 ON om $9
i :N mm 39
em NNN 3 mmNmS

m: ”S N N??? 62658

numLmuoo: .mx oo_nu 11mc0h u_cuoz wcmmzoLknu numtmguog Ucmm305H11
v_o_> m co_uosoocm m moc< m cmm> m >cuc30o

mmcmcmm mo o_o_> ecm c0100360cm .moc< 1111111111111111

 

mwm_1w:m_ mo_vc_ “mo: ecu :_ mmcmcmm mo o_om> vcm co_uo:v0cm .moc<11.o_ m4m<P

a x_ozmmm<

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.mmm_ .656m .NN ._o> .mmm. .N665t66> eo_66:eote 1.2.:v .o.<.u “eeLJOm
oo_ mm : Nam.
w:_ _m m owm.
of w: m mem—
Nm_ m: m sem_
¢N_ m: m mam.
oo_ N 1 om1Nmm_
.m.c .m.c .m.c Nm1w:m_ ocooc_> .om
mN 1 1 Rom.
wN 1 1 0mm—
wN 1 1 mom_
mm 1 1 amm—
7 _m 1 1 $9
W om _ 1 mm1Nmm_
Nw _ 1 Nm1m¢m_ umecomucoz
mm NN : Nom_
mm 3 a $9
_m m_ m mom—
0: m N Nm1w:m_ memcocu
ow m: w wom—
mw em a $9
_N m: 0 Jam.
_m :_ N om1Nmm_
mm m _ Nm1m¢m_ oo_c_E0o
Nm MW M aWflWVM/

lllllllllllmm lllllllllllllllllllllll W lllllllllllllllll r; WMHMNM/ 0.1104112 .UW
mm. nu 1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
mm. AN N hom—
mN— mN N 00m»
0m_ wN N mom,
0m. 6N N :cm,

H. — w— W MD.»—
33-

 

 

 

APPENDIX E

TABLE i.--P

ITEMS/TOTAL

TOTAL

Meat
Dairy Prc
Sugar Prc
Fish
Bread anc
: ‘ Oils and
4 Fruit, V1
2 5 Coffee, '

Root Croi
Other Fo

\

Source:

 

 

APPENDIX E

TABLE l.--Percentage Share of Items in Food Consumption, Jamaica, l953-l965.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Years

ITEMS/TOTAL

I953 ; T965
(‘70)

TOTAL l00.0 100.0
Meat 9 2 l8.0
Dairy Products 9.9 i4.5
Sugar Products 2.5 3.8
Fish 7 9 8.7
Bread and Cereals 23 2 20.8
0115 and Fats 3.9 3.11
Fruit, Vegetables, Pulses 23.3 l7.2
Coffee, Tea, Cocoa, Herbs 4.3 2.]
Root Crops l3.6 8.8
Other Foods 2.0 2.6
Source: Brown, A., Brown, H., and Girvan, N., “Patterns of Consumption

and Possibilities for Change,“ Regional Conference on Devalua-
tion, Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of
the West Indies, Jamaica, February 2-4, I968.

 

 

 

157

 

 

 

TABLE 2.--P<
T(

ITEMS/TOTAL

TOTAL

Meat and
Dairy Pro
Sugar, Ju
Bread, Fl
Oils and
Fruits
Vegetable
Other Man

Source: Ra

APPENDIX E

TABLE 2.--Percentage Share of Items in Food Consumption, Trinidad and
Tobago, 1954-I961.

 

 

 

 

Years

ITEMS/TOTAL

1954 I 1961
""" (%)

TOTAL 100.0 100.0
Meat and Fish 23.3 24.8
Dairy Products 13.5 16.7
Sugar, Juices and Confectionery 7.1 7.1
Bread, Flour and Cereals 21.6 21.2
Oils and Fats 6 O A.h
Fruits 8.h 6.2
Vegetable and Ground Provision 16.2 13.6
Other Manufactured Foods 3 8 6.0

 

Source: Rampersad, Frank, Growth and Structural Change in the Economy of
Trinidad and Tobago 1951-1961. Institute of Social ane Economic
Research, University of the West Indies, Jamaica (196A).

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 3.--Es
t<
Sl

Food On

Cereals

Sugar and S
Preparati

Roots and S
Vegetable

Vegetables

Fruit

Meat and Po

Fish

Milk Produc
and Eggs

Oils and Fe

\

AVerage of

\

SourCe; U:

APPENDIX E

TABLE 3.--Estimated Average Income Elasticities for Food Groups by Terri-
tories, West Indies (Weighted According to 1958 Calorie Con-
sumption per Capita)

 

 

Trinidad I Leedwards,

 

Food Groups 3 Jamaica I and I Windwards,
' ' Tobago I 5 Barbados
Cereals 0.45 0.30 0.60
Sugar and Sugar
Preparations 0.40 0.40 0.40

Roots and Starchy

 

Vegetables -0.06 0.30 0.10
Vegetables and Pulses 0.55 0.30 0.50
Fruit 0.65 0.55 0.65
Meat and Poultry 0.90 0.80 0.60
Fish 0.45 0.55 0.40
Milk Products (excl. butter)

and Eggs 0.70 0.50 0.70
Oils and Fats 0.65 0.45 0.65
Average of all above Foods 0.45 0.30 0.45

 

Source: USDA (ERS), Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Leeward Islands, Wind-
ward Islands, Barbados, and British Guiana: Projected Levels of
Demand Supply, and Imports of Agricultural Products to 1975.
ERS-Foreign 94, p. 70.

 

\muumg.um

. Jmimmm_

m

.mucoc.

X_QZmll<

um®3 QIP

 

.ucouE_ noon mucdmo Louii.¢ mumqs

 

 

 

402

 

.mo_oc_ umoz ocu mo >p_mco>mc3 .wmimmm_ .oczu_:u_cm< mo >u—somm ecu
mo ucoaom :.ucoan_o>oo o_E0coom cm_oc_ “mo: 6cm mo_amom tool _mo04: .o__mo4 .< .2 Eccm vouamv< Hooc30m

 

 

 

 

 

 

.o_nm__m>o uOZ n .m.c
w._: m._m m._N m.:: m.om w.mw m.mm m.op :.o o.Nm amm_uomm_
omcmsu ucoocmm
m.:m_ N.N:_ o.m: .m.: :.mm N.mm :.mw o.mN m.:N m.mw som_nomm_
omcmcu ucoocom
m.om N.om m.mm :.mm m._m o.m__ :.:o_ m.:m m.mm ¢.om :om.
m.m: 0.0: o.mm :._m N.oo _.N__ N.:m _.mm m.:m o.w: mom—
m.mm N.o: .m.c m.Nm Hm._¢ m._o_ m.mm o._m m.:w o.m: Nmm_
m.mm o.mm o.mm m.m¢ m.w: N.mm m.mw N.w: m.:w w._: ”mm_
w.mm _.mm _.:m m.m: _.m: N.mm w.mm m.m: m.mm N.N: oom—
o.mN .m.c .m.c .m.c m.N: _.ww m.mm .m.c o._w N.:: amm—
womN .moc .m.C .m.C m.m¢ $.ww M.mm .m.C N.®N J.wm wmm—
Q.®m .muc .m.C .moc .m.C ®.N® N.m® .m.C M.JN —.JM Nmm—
_.m_ w.:~ m.mm .m.c m.om m.om :.mm w.m: o._m n.0m omm_
unnmcm__0o cm_oc_ an»:
ucooc_ m_o:4 m___:mc< muumc mo m OmoDOF
.u.> “u \mm>mz com :0 oo_cmEoQ cm a m:m_uc< mvmcocu vcm oo_mEmw cmo>
m m \muu_¥.pm - a z - m 33::H

 

.am-omm_ .mo_ac_ 0mm: mac .ucoae_ wood mu_amu Lam--.: msm<b

m x_ozmam<

 

 

 

B IBL I OGRA PHY

 

 

 

Books a

1 Art
2 Ba:
3 Be:
4 Br
5 Br

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books and Bulletins

 

Arthur, H. B., Houck, J. P., and Beckford, G. L.
Tropical Aqri—Business Structures and Adjustments:
Bananas. Division of Research, Graduate School of
Business Administration. Boston: Harvard Univer—
sity, 1968.

Bain, Joe S. Industrial Organization. New York: John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1959.

Best, Lloyd. ”The Economy of the British Commonwealth
Caribbean: An Overview." West Indies—Canada Eco-
nomic Relations. Selected papers on Canada.
Commonwealth Caribbean Conference, July, 1966.
Jamaica: Institute of Social and Economic Research,
University of the West Indies, 1967, pp. 1—13.

Brewster, Havelock and Thomas, Clive Y. The Dynamics
of West Indian Economic Integration. Studies in
Regional Economic Integration, Vol. 1. Jamaica:
Institute of Social and Economic Research, Univer—
sity of the West Indies, 1967.

 

Brown, A., Brown, H., and Girvan, R. “Patterns of
Consumption and Possibilities for Change.” Re—
gional Conference on Devaluation. Jamaica: In—

 

stitute of Social and Economic Research, Univer—
sity of the West Indies, February 2-4, 1968,

 

 

pp. 109—29.

Campbell, L. G. Production on Small Farms in St.
Vincent: Prospects for Increasing Efficiency.
Barbados: Institute of Social and Economic Re—

search (Eastern Caribbean), University of the
West Indies, January, 1966.

474

 

Cam}

7.

Car

Cun

De]

0
.1.

FA

12.

13.

14.

15.

 

10.

ll.

12.

l3.

14.

15.

475

Campbell, L. G. and Edwards, David T. Agriculture in
Antigua's Economy: Possibilities and Problems of
Adjustment. Barbados: Institute of Social and
Economic Research (Eastern Caribbean), University
of the West Indies, July, 1965.

 

Caribbean Research Council. Yearbook of Caribbean
Research, 1949. Port of Spain, Trinidad, 1949.

 

Cumper, George E., ed. The Economy of the West Indies.

Jamaica: Institute of Social and Economic Re—
search, University of the West Indies, 1960.

Demas, William G. The Economics of Development in
Small Countries with Special Reference to the
Caribbean. Montreal: Center for DevelOping Area
Studies, McGill University Press, 1965.

 

FAO, United Nations. Production Yearbook 1968, Vol.
22. Rome: 1969.

Ferrer, V. A. and Toolsie, D. ”Growth Problems in the
Broiler Industry of Trinidad.” Proceedings of the
First West Indian Agricultural Economics Confer—
ence. Trinidad: Department of Agricultural Eco—
nomics and Farm Management, University of the West
Indies, February, 1966.

Griliches, Zvi. ”Research Costs and Social Returns:
Hybrid Corn and Related Innovations." Reprinted
in Eicher, C. K. and Witt, L. W., eds., Agriculture
in Economic DevelOpment. New York: McGraw—Hill,
1964.

 

Hirschman, Albert 0. The Strategy of Economic DevelOp-
ment. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964.

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
World Bank Atlas: POpulation, Per Capita Product
and Growth Rates. Washington, D.C., September,
1969.

 

 

 

 

 

16.

17.

20.

22.

24.

l6.

l7.

l8.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

476

Krishna, Raj. ”Agricultural Price Policy and Economic

. Development,” in Southworth, H. M. and Johnston,
Bruce F., eds., Agricultural DevelOpment and Eco—
nomic Growth. Ithaca, New York: Cornell Univer-
sity Press, 1967, pp. 497—540.

Lewis, W. Arthur. Jamaica's Economic Problems.
Jamaica: The Gleaner Company, Ltd., September,
1964.

Mahadevan, P. and Edwards, D. T. "A Strategy for
Agricultural Research and Development in the West
Indies,” Information, Vol. 8, No. 2—4. Jamaica:
Scientific Research Council, September, 1967,
pp. 69—75.

McFarlane, R., Singham, R., and Johnson, I. ”Agri-
cultural Planning in Jamaica.” Proceedings of the
Third West Indian Agricultural Economics Confer—
ence. Jamaica: Department of Agricultural Eco—
nomics and Farm Management, University of the West
Indies, April, 1968.

Meier, Gerald M. Leading Issues in DevelOpment Eco—
nomics. New York: Oxford University Press, 1964.

National Academy of Science. Agricultural Research
Priorities for Economic Development in Africa——The
Abidjan Conference. Washington, D.C., 1969.

Palmer, Ransford W. The Jamaican Economy. New York:
Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, 1968.

Persaud, B. ”Economic Problems of the Windward
Islands Banana Industry.” Proceedings of the
Second West Indian Agricultural Economics Con—
ference. Trinidad: Department of Agricultural
Economics and Farm Management, University of the
West Indies, April 7—11, 1967, August, 1967.

Rampersad, Frank. Growth and Structural Change in
the Econgmy of Trinidad and Tobago, 1951—61.
Jamaica: Institute of Social and Economic Re—
search, University of the West Indies, 1964.

 

 

 

 

25. Sch
26. _
1 27 Set
28 Smi
l
i 29. Twy
30 Uni
31 Voe
I J
W
1. Be(

 

 

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

477

Schultz, T. W. "Increasing World Food Supplies: The
Economic Requirements.” Proceedings of the Na—
tional Academy of Sciences, Vol. 56, No. 2 (Aug.,
1966), pp. 322—27.

 

Transforming Traditional Agriculture. New

Haven: Yale University Press, 1964.

Sehgal, S. M. and Brown, W. L. "Mechanized Maize

Production." Information, Vol. 8, No. 2—4.
Jamaica: Scientific Research Council (September,
1967).

Smith, Henry. Study of the Cost and Structure of
Distribution in Barbados. Barbados: Institute
of Social and Economic Research (Eastern Carib—
bean), University of the West Indies, September,

1966.
Twyford, G. T. ”Economic ASpects of Banana Research
in the Windward Islands." Proceedings of the

 

Second West Indian Agricultural Economics Confer—
ence. Trinidad: Department of Agricultural Eco—
nomics and Farm Management, University of the West
Indies (April 7—ll, 1967), August, 1967.

University of the West Indies. "Agricultural Research
in Jamaica.” Caribbean Affairs. Proceedings of

Seminar held at the University of the West Indies,
June 19, 1965.

Voelker, Walter D. Survey of Industry in the West
Indies. Jamaica: Institute of Social and Economic
Research, University of the West Indies, 1961.

Journal Articles

 

l.

Beckford, George L. ”An Appropriate Theoretical
Framework for Agricultural Planning.” Social and

Economic Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, Special Number
on Agricultural Development and Planning in the
Caribbean. Jamaica: Institute of Social and Eco—
nomic Research, University of the West Indies
(September, 1968), pp. 233—42.

 

 

 

B(
C
C
E
l

 

 

 

478

Best, Lloyd A. ”A Model of Pure Plantation Economy.”
Social and Economic Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, Spe—
Number on Agricultural Development and Planning
in the Caribbean. Jamaica: Institute of Social
and Economic Research, University of the West
Indies (September, 1968), pp. 283—326.

Carrington, Edwin. "Industrialization of Trinidad
and Tobago Since 1950." New World Quarterly, Vol.
4, No. 2, Jamaica: New World Group Ltd. (1968),
pp. 37—43.

Christensen, Raymond P., and Lee, Harold T. "The Role
of Agricultural Productivity in Economic DevelOp—
ment.” Journal of Farm Economics, Vol. 46, No. 5

 

(December, 1964), pp. 1051—1061.

Edwards, David T. ”An Economic View of Agricultural
Research in Jamaica.” Social and Economic Studies,
Vol. 10, No. 3, Jamaica: Institute of Social and
Economic Research, University of the West Indies
(September, 1961), pp. 326—339.

Eicher, C. K. ”Production is not Sacred: Effective
Demand and Income Redistribution are the Key Com—
ponents in Agricultural Planning.” CERES——The

FAO Review, Vol. 2, No. 3 (May—June), 1969.

Evenson, Robert. ”The Contribution of Agricultural
Research to Production.” Journal of Farm Eco—
nomics, Vol. 49, No. 5 (December, 1967), pp. 1415—
1425.

Fennah, R. G. ”Applied Science in the British West
Indian Agricultural Development, 1933—1958: An
Evaluation of Progress.“ The Empire Journal of
Experimental Agriculture, Vol. XXXI, No. 193
(July, 1958), pp. 208—212.

Girvan, Norman and Jefferson, Owen. "Corporate vs.
Caribbean Integration.” New World Quarterl , Vol.
4, No. 2, Jamaica: New World Group Ltd. (1968),
pp. 45556.

 

 

 

10.

ll.

 

 

10.

ll.

12.

l3.

14.

15.

l6.

17.

479

Griliches, Zvi. "Demand for Fertilizer: An Economic
Interpretation of a Technical Change.” Journal of
Farm Economics, Vol. 40, No. 3 (August, 1958),
pp. 591—606.

Hayami, Yujiro. ”Resource Endowment and Technological
Change in Agriculture: U.S. and Japanese Experi—
ences in International Perspective." American
Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 51, No. 5
(December, 1969), 1293—1303.

Horton, Donald. ”Policy Directions for the United
Sugar Program.“ American Journal of Agricultural
Economics, Vol. 52, No. 2 (May, 1970), pp. 185—96.

Johnson, Harry G. ”Sugar Protectionism and the Export
Earnings of Less Developed Countries: Variations
on a Theme by R. H. Snape." Economica, Vol. 33
(February, 1966), pp. 34—42.

Kendrick, John W. ”The Gains and Losses from Tech—
nological Change.” Journal of Farm Economics,
Vol. 46, No. 5 (December, 1964), pp. 1065—1075.

Mansfield, Charles. "Monetary Evolution in the Carib—
bean.” Finance and DevelOpment, Vol. 5, No. 4,
Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund and
International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop—
ment (December, 1968), pp. 40-47.

Marshall, Woodville K. ”Notes on Peasant Development
in the West Indies Since 1838.” Social and Eco—
nomic Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, Jamaica: Institute

of Social and Economic Research, University of
the West Indies (l968).

McMeekan, C. P. "What Kind of Agricultural Research.”
Finance and Development, Vol. II, No. 2, Washing—
ton, D.C.: International Monetary Fund and Inter-
national Bank for Reconstruction and DevelOpment
(June, 1965), pp. 71—78.

Ir

 

l9.

 

l8.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

 

480

Meier, Gerald M. “Export Stimulation: Import Sub—
stitution and Latin American Development.“ Social
and Economic Studies, Vol. 10, No. 1, Jamaica:
Institute of Social and Economic Research, Univer—
sity of the West Indies (March, 1961), pp. 42—62.

Millette, James. “The Caribbean Free Trade Associa—
tion: The West Indies at the Crossroads." EEK
World Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 4, Jamaica: New
World Group Ltd. (1968), pp. 32—48.

 

Peck, H. Austin. "Economic Planning in Jamaica: A
Critique." Social and Economic Studies, Vol. 7,
No. 4, Jamaica: Institute of Social and Economic
Research, University of the West Indies (December,
1958).

Peterson, W. L. "Returns to Poultry Research in the
United States." Journal of Farm Economics, Vol.

 

49, No. 3 (August, 1967), pp. 656—669.

Roberts, G. W. "Prospects for Population Growth in
the West Indies." Social and Economic Studies,
Vol. XI, Jamaica: Institute of Social and Economic
Research, University of the West Indies, December,
1962.

 

Ruttan, Vernon W. ”Research on the Economics of
Technological Change in American Agriculture.”
Journal of Farm Economics, Vol. XLII, No. 4
(Nov. 1960), pp. 735—54.

Ryan, Selwyn. "Restructuring the Trinidad Economy.”
New World Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 4, Jamaica: New
World Group Ltd. (1968), pp. 7—23.

Seers, Dudley. "A Step Towards a Political Economy
of Development: Illustrated by the Case of Trin-
idad and Tobago.” Social and Economic Studies,

 

Vol. 18, No. 3, Jamaica: Institute for Social
and Economic Research, University of the West
Indies (September, 1969).

 

 

 

S
S
S
S
Wl
Lam
A:
Bc
Be

26.
27
28.

29
30.

 

 

 

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

481

Shurcliff, A. W. and Welleneyer, J. F. Economic
Development in the Eastern Caribbean Islands:
St. Kitts—Nevis Anguilla. Series 4—-Manpower
Surveys. Barbados: Institute of Social and
Economic Research (Eastern Caribbean), Univer—
sity of the West Indies (July, 1967).

Snape, R. H. ”Some Effects of Protection in the
World Sugar Industry." Economica, Vol. 30
(February, 1963), pp. 63-73.

Sturrock, Ford. "Sugar Beet or Sugar Cane.” Journal
of Agricultural Economics, Vol. XX, No. 1, Man—
chester: University of Manchester (January, 1969),
pp. 125—31.

Summerfield, P. "Regional Organization of Trade
Unions in the Caribbean.” New World Quarterly,
Vol. 4, No. 4, Jamaica: New World Group Ltd.
(1968), pp. 3—6.

 

Wharton, Clifton R. ”The Green Revolution: Cornu—
copia or Pandora's Box?,” Foreign Affairs, Vol.
47, No. 3 (April, 1969), pp. 464—76.

Unpublished Material

1.

2.

3.

Agricultural Experiment Station and Department of

Agricultural Economics, Resource Allocation in
Agricultural Research: The Minnesota Symposium,
February 23—25, 1969. St. Paul: University of
Minnesota, 1969.

Barletta, N. Ardito. Costs and Social Returns of
Agricultural Research in Mexico, University of
Chicago, Office of Agricultural Economics Research,
Paper No. 65041 (February 11, 1965).

Baskett, R. G. Report of the Mission to Advise the
University of the West Indies on the Work of the
School of Agmiculture of the University of the
West Indies (October, 1965).

 

 

ll.

 

 

10.

11.

482

Brown, Headley A. Import Substitution and West Indian
Agriculture: Theoretical Issues. Paper presented
at Fourth West Indies Agricultural Economics Con-
ference. Barbados: University of the West Indies
(March 24—29, 1969).

Bryden, John M. The Contribution of Agriculture to
Economic Growth in the Former Federation of the
West Indies, 1955—1965. Occasional Series No. 3.
Trinidad: Department of Agricultural Economics
and Farm Management, University of the West Indies,
1968.

Cropper, John. The Prospects for Commercial Produc—
tion of Irish and Sweet Potatoes in Trinidad. DTA
Project Report, Series No. 2. Trinidad: Depart—
ment of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management,
University of the West Indies, 1967.

Cross, L. A. The Pigeon Peas Todgy. Trinidad: Cen—
tral Experiment Station, Ministry of Agriculture.
(Undated)

Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Manage—
ment. A Digest of West Indian Agricultural Sta—
tistics, Occasional Series No. 2. Trinidad: Uni—
versity of the West Indies, 1965.

Edwards, David T. and Cropper, John. Agricultural
Research in the West Indies: The Economic Back—
ground to Programs of Livestock and Crop Investi—
gation. Trinidad: Department of Agricultural
Economics and Farm Management, University of the
West Indies (February, 1967), Cyclostyled.

. An Economic View of New Production Sys—
tems: With Particular Reference to Root Crops
in the West Indies. Trinidad: Department of
Agricultural Economics and Farm Management, Uni—
versity of the West Indies (Cyclostyled) (un—
dated).

Eicher, C. K. Regional Programming for Rural Develop—
ment in TrOpical Africa: Implications for AID.
Paper prepared for Conference on ”Africa Develop-
ment from a Regional Perspective.” Warrenton,
Virginia (November 14—16, 1969).

 

"r

 

 

12.

13.

16.

17.

 

19.

 

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

483

Evenson, R. E. The Contribution of Agricultural Re—
search and Extension to Agricultural Production.
Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Chicago,
1968.

Evenson, R. E., Houck, J. P., and Ruttan, V. W.
Technical Change and Agricultural Trade: Three
Examples (Sugar Cane, Bananas, and Rice). Uni—
versity of Minnesota, Department of Agricultural
Economics, Staff Paper P68—4 (December, 1968).

Faculty of Agriculture, University of the West Indies,
Report of the Faculty of Agriculture, 1967—1968.
1969.

Falcon, Walter P. The Green Revolution: Generations
of Problems. Paper presented at the Summer Meeting
of the American Agricultural Economics Association,
Columbia, Missouri (August 7—12, 1970).

Girvan, Norman. .Foreign Investment and Economic De—
velOpment in Jamaica Since the Second World War.
Undated material.

Hardin, L. S. Later Generation Agricultural Develop-
ment Problems. Paper presented at the Conference
on Agricultural Development, Bellagio, Italy,
April 23—25, 1969. New York: The Ford Foundation,
1969.

Hayami, Yujiro and Ruttan, Vernon. Resources, Tech—
nology and Agricultural Development——An Interna—
tional Perspective. St. Paul: Department of
Agricultural Economics, University of Minnesota
(April, 1970), forthcoming book.

Herrmann, Omer W. Nigerian Agricultural Research:

 

Review and Recommendations. East Lansing:
CSNRD—22, Michigan State University (November,
1968).

Hopper, W. David. The Mainsprings of Agricultural
Growth. Paper delivered at the Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Memorial Lecture to the 18th Annual Conference of
the Indian Society of Agricultural Statistics,
India (January 28‘30, 1965).

 

 

 

21.

22.

23.

27.

J(

 

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

484

Johnson, Glenn L. A Strategy for Rural Developmpnt in
Nigeria. Tentative working paper in connection
with CSNRD projects 3 and 4, September, 1966. East
Lansing: Michigan State University, 1966.

 

Johnson, Glenn L. and Quance, C. L. Overproduction
Trap in US Agriculture: A Study of Resource Allo—
cation World War I to the Late 60's. Forthcoming
book Sponsored by Resources for the Future and
Michigan State University.

Martin, S. L., Spence, J. A., and Wright, R. W. "Cur—
rent Scientific Activities and Problems in Common— 1
wealth Countries of the West Indies." Background
Papers on Science in the Commonwealth Countries,
London: Paper presented at the Royal Society Con—
ference of Commonwealth Scientists (April, 1967).

Mayers, J. M. and Cropper, J. The Cattle Industries
of the West Indies: Characteristics and Potential
for Expansion. Trinidad: Department of Agricul—
tural Economics and Farm Management, University of
the West Indies (January, 1969), Cyclostyled.

 

Moseman, A. H. Building Agricultural Research Systems
in the Developing Nations. New York: Agricultural
Development Council, Inc., 1969.

 

 

Pilgrim, E. C. The Role and Structure of Agriculture
in Barbados and the Agricultural DevelOpment Pro—
gram. Barbados: Paper presented at the Fourth
West Indies Agricultural Economic Conference (March
24-29, 1969).

Regional Research Center. Agricultural Research and
its Organization in the West Indies. Trinidad:
University of the West Indies (January, 1962).

 

Schultz, T. W. The Allocation of Resources to Re—
search. Chicago: University of Chicago, Office
of Agricultural Economics Research, Paper No. 68:16
(January 20, 1969).

 

University of the West Indies. Report of the Faculty
of Agriculture, 1967—68, Trinidad: Faculty of
Agriculture (1969).

 

 

Gover

 

 

485

Government Publications

10.

British Overseas Development Ministry. Report of the
Tripartite Economic Survey of the Eastern Carib—
bean. London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office
(April, 1967).

 

Enochian, R. V. Prospects for Agriculture in the
Caribbean. United States Department of Agricul—
ture, ERS, Foreign Agricultural Economic Report
No. 58, US Government Printing Office (April,
1970).

Francis, A. A. ”A Note on Inter—Industry Relations
in the Economy of Trinidad and Tobago, 1962.“
Research Papers, General Statistics Office, Gov—
ernment of Trinidad and Tobago (1963).

Government of Jamaica. Estimates for the Year Ending
3lst March 1969, Government Printing Office, 1968.

. Economic Survey Jamaica, 1967. Central
Planning Unit, Government Printing Office (1967).

Economic Survey Jamaica, 1969. Central
Planning Unit, Government Printing Office (April,
1969).

Countgy Statement for Jamaica. Paper pre—
pared by the Agricultural Planning Unit, Ministry
of Agriculture and Lands for the Tenth FAO Re-
gional Conference for Latin America (December,
1968), Cyclostyled.

Five Year Independence Plan, 1963—1968.
Government Printing Office (1963).

Fertilizer Research on Food CrOps and Vege—
tables in Jamaica, Ministry of Agriculture and
Lands. Cyclostyled, Undated.

. Documentation of Research. Ministry of
Agriculture and Lands, Cyclostyled, Undated.

 

 

 

14.

16.

17.

19.

20.

486

11. Government of St. Kitts—Nevis—Anguilla. Five Year
Draft Plan, 1966—1970 (1966).

12. Government of Trinidad and Tobago. Carifta and the

Caribbean Economic Community, Government Printing
Office (1968).

 

13. . Draft Third Five Year Plan, 1969—73, Gov—
ernment Printery (1968).

 

14. . A Statistical Report of the Patterns of
Trade of Trinidad and Tobago for the Period 1948—
1963, Economic Planning Division (Cyclostyled)
(1965).

15. . Trinidad and Tobago, Five Year Plan, 1964—
1968, Government Printery, 1963.

 

16. . Agricultural Census, 1963: Land Utiliza—
tion, Vol. II, Part B, Central Statistical Office,
1964.

17. . Agricultural Census 1963: Production and

 

Sales of Crops, Vol. II, Part B, Central Statis—
tical Office, 1964.

18. . Draft Program of Development Projects for
the Year 1963, Government Printery.

19. . Maize Production in Trinidad and Tobago,
Ministry of Agriculture, Central Experiment Sta—
tion (February 1968), cyclostyled.

20. . Annual Report of the Food Crop Agronomist,
1967, Ministry of Agriculture, Central Experiment
Station, 1967.

 

21. Nanton, W. R. E. A Preliminary Review of the Liter—
ature on Agricultural Research in St. Vincent,
British Overseas Development Division in the
Caribbean (January, 1969).

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

 

 

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

O'Laughlin, C. A Surve of the Economic Potentials

and Capital Needs of the Leeward Islands, Windward
Islands, and Barbados, London: Her Majesty's

Stationary Office, 1963.

Stuart, Winston G. Priorities in Agricultural Re—

 

search for Jamaica, Agricultural Information
——-—T—-“—‘f‘f*—‘—— .

SerVices, Ministry of Agriculture and Lands,
Government of Jamaica (October, 1965).

U.S. Agency for International Development, Spring

Review of the New Cereal Varieties, Washington,

.C. 1969).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Jamaica, Trinidad

and Tobago, The Leeward Islands, the Windward
Islands, Barbados, and British Guinea: Projected
Levels of Demand Su 1 , and Im orts of A ri—
cultural Products to 1975, Foreign Regional
Analysis Division, ERS (1964).

 

Indices of Agricultural Production for the
20 Latin American Countries Plus Guyana, Jamaica,
and Trinidad and Tobago (Revised 1954 through
1965), ERS, Foreign 44 (January, 1967).

Indices of Agricultural Production for
the Western Hemisphere, Excluding the United

States (Revised 1959 through 1967), ERS—Foreign

264 (March, 1969).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

L if!

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ICHIGAN STA Y L BRARIES
i ‘ ,
111: ~
3 12930 3070 9160 _

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1
l 1