"H a -". i a ' _ 5 .. pl - ‘- D ‘2 -l- . . ‘ ‘ ‘ . ' H' -- .- \ I ' ‘ . ,‘:. \_ ' . .- .--. . L‘... I ‘1'“: -. .'. .3, .,.,' .f l- - ".3 W3..- 1. ~‘3 \ ABSTRACT THE TERM PLAN AS IT RELATES TO THE EXTENDED SCHOOL YEAR: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF THE PERCEPTIONS OF SELECTED TEACHERS AND STUDENTS BY William Charles Dean The purpose of this study was to assess the value of an organizational change, a term plan, within Okemos High School. The study was designed to examine the atti- tudes toward school by students and faculty as a result of the introduction of the term plan. The total population of students and faculty was utilized in the study. Rudman's instrument entitled What Do You Think About Your Schools? was used to measure attitudes of teachers and students in September of 1970 and again in April of 1971. The instrument measured an attitude of: (l) satisfaction with school, (2) how the school compares with other known high schools, and (3) satisfaction with the school program. The participants were asked to respond to twenty- four items with a four point weight response ranging from a positive attitude to a negative attitude toward a William Charles Dean specific item. The tests for both students and faculty were comprised of similar questions and percentages of favorable responses for both groups were calculated. The analysis of the data was completed in two steps: 1. Chi Square tests of individual items were found not to produce significant results. The Fisher Exact test, administered to the three categories, or scales, indicated a shift in attitude within each of the first two scales between pre-test and post-test for both students and teachers. However, the shift was not in the same direction, nor proportionately similar. The Fisher Exact test revealed for the third scale unreliable results regarding a shift in positive attitude scores. However, the low reliability of that particular scale implies perhaps the answers provided were not true indicators of the attitude of both teachers and students. In addition to the survey, other product tools were used to gather information regarding, (1) student drop-out rates, (2) attendance patterns, (3) course enrollment in non- required areas, and (4) grade point averages. William Charles Dean Findings As a result of survey information and collection of data on previously mentioned indices of interest toward \ u school, the following results were evident: 1. If you were a teacher at Okemos High School, the probability of your attitude toward school improving, over a period of time, is high. If you were a student in high school at Okemos, the probability of your attitude toward school improving, over a period of time is low. Specifically, within categories or scales of the survey, there a. b. a decrease in a decrease in school, a decrease in school, a decrease in future of the a decrease in was found for students: students' "liking" school, a feeling of pride for the feeling satisfied with the feeling concerned for the school, perceiving courses as valuable to the student, a decrease in perceiving courses as being effective, and a decrease in useful. perceiving courses as being William Charles Dean Within scales of the survey, there was found for teachers: a. a wide difference in teachers' perceptions of students' attitudes toward school as compared to students' actual attitude toward school, a change toward the negative direction, regarding a perceived value of studies for students, an increase in positive attitude toward the total curriculum of the school, an increase in positive attitude toward the effectiveness of courses, and a change toward the negative direction, of a perceived usefulness of studies for students. There has been no decrease in the drop-out rate as a result of the term plan. There has been no decrease in the amount or per- cent of unexcused absences as a result of the term plan. There has been an increase in the number of students taking courses from departments where there are no graduation requirements. There has been no significant increase in stu- dent grade point averages as a result of the term plan. of this William Charles Dean Conclusions The following conclusions were drawn from results study: 1. Teachers, who have been involved in decisions regarding the direction and form of an organiza- tion, behave in a positive way as a result of their involvement in decision-making. Teachers, given the opportunity to create guidelines for the behavior of students, will show an increase in positive attitude. Teachers, having the opportunity to develop an organization which better accommodates their needs, tend to behave in ways which will sup- port and perpetuate that organization. Students, having little opportunity for involve- ment in the decision-making process regarding those decisions which affect their time and energy within an organization, do not reflect a wholly positive attitude toward that organiza- tion. Students, given little or no opportunity for modifying the controls placed upon them by those in the hierarchy of an organization, will, over time, tend to show a decrease in positive atti- tude toward that organization. William Charles Dean Students, having little or no opportunities to develop an organization which better accommodates their needs, tend to behave in ways which either show a lack of commitment or a lack of motiva- tion for the organization's development. Indices of interest used in this study have not shown significant change to warrant concluding the term plan has created more interest in school for students. An evaluation of the first step toward the Extended School Year (ESY) for Okemos has not evidenced that the ESY can increase the positive attitude toward school by students. The implementation of a new organizational pattern will not, by itself, appreciably alter the behavior of all members of that organization in a positive way. Recommendations The results of this study suggest further study into the organizational processes of Okemos High School for the purpose of maximizing human resources. The timetable of movement toward the ESY, with its specific goal of improving the educational William Charles Dean program should be re-examined to provide for new organizational processes to be developed. A broader decision-making and involvement process for both students and faculty should be developed. This process should include (a) an Opportunity for all members of the stu- dent body and faculty to be involved in the organizational processes of the school, (b) in- service training for students and teachers regarding decision-making processes, (0) a vehicle for interaction between teachers, students, and administrators. A decision-making process which provides both students and teachers the opportunity to (a) identify problems, (b) set problem priori- ties, (c) diagnose problems, (d) develop and share data concerning problems, (e) joint action planning with several alternatives devel- oped, (f) implement and test selected alterna- tives, and (g) periodic review of implemented plans of action should be instituted. The creation of a representative all-school government where student and teacher concerns can be acted upon by the total school community could serve as the "vehicle" mentioned in recom- mendation number three. William Charles Dean The development of a decision-making and decision-sharing process should be accompanied by a heightened awareness on the part of teachers, that student attitudes toward school can be improved by allowing for more interaction and involvement in the classroom. The term plan should be evaluated to determine not only attitudes toward school, but the effectiveness and value of present Course offerings. A simple, short survey instrument should be developed or adapted to assess periodically student and teacher attitude toward their school. THE TERM PLAN AS IT RELATES TO THE EXTENDED SCHOOL YEAR: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF THE PERCEPTIONS OF SELECTED TEACHERS AND STUDENTS BY William Charles Dean A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1971 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author would like to recognize the assistance and encouragement he has received in this research endeavor. It is the result of the efforts and encouragement of many people. Special appreciation is given to Dr. Calhoun C. Collier, chairman of the doctoral committee. His counsel, encouragement and support has had a positive impact on the writing of this research. Appreciation is also extended to the other members of the doctoral committee--Dr. W. Vernon Hicks, Dr. Robert L. Featherstone and Dr. James B. McKee. Others to whom accolades must be given include Dr. Leland F. Dean, without whose interest and caring this doctoral program would not have been completed; Dr. Kenneth W. Olsen whose advice, confidence and friendship has added encouragement; the students and faculty of Okemos High School who participated in this study, and to Mr. Robert Wilson, research consultant at Michigan State University for his advice and assistance. The most important group of people to the writer's life, also make the greatest contribution to this study and to the completion of the doctoral program. With a ii special sense of gratitude and love, the writer would like to thank his wife, Barb, for her patience, faith and love through the trials and tribulations of such an undertaking. Special thanks go to the writer's two children--Scott and Stephen. They contributed in a very special and signifi- cant manner, far surpassing their years. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 0 0 ii LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O I O 0 Vi CHAPTER I 0 THE PROBLEM O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 1 Scope and Definition of the Problem . . . 3 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . 4 General Questions to be Answered . . . . . 5 Educational Implications . . . . ... . 6 Assumptions Underlying this Study . . . . 7 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . 8 Organization of the Study . . . . . . . . 9 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . 10 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Current Organizational Theory . . . . . . ll Organizational Effects on Individuals . . 22 Extended School Literature . . . . . . . . 36 Supportive Articles or Reports . . . . . . 38 Non-Supportive Articles or Reports . . . . 42 Articles or Reports Recommending Action . 45 Articles or Reports of On-Going Programs . 49 Articles or Reports Reporting Failure . . 52 III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 The Instrument . . . . . . . .‘. . . . . . 56 Collection of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 iv CHAPTER Page IV. ANAI'YSIS OF DATA 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 71 IntrOdUCtj-on O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 71 Analysis of the Data . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Interpretation of the Data . . . . . . . . 90 V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . O O O I C O O O O O O O 9 3 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Purpose and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 105 APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 115 Table 1. 12. 13. 14. LIST OF TABLES Page Hoyt reliability of three scales within student battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Hoyt reliability of three scales within teacher battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Student scale items . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Teacher scale items . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Fisher Exact test--scale one . . . . . . . . . 74 Chi Square analysis of scale one items . . . . 75 Fisher Exact test--sca1e two . . . . . . . . . 77 Chi Square analysis of scale two items . . . . 78 Fisher Exact test--sca1e three . . . . . . . . 79 Chi Square analysis of scale three items . . . 80 Number and percentage of students who left school before graduation from Okemos High SChOOl--1969-7O I O O O O O O O O I O I I O 82 Number and percentage of students who left school before graduation from Okemos High School--1970-7l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Number and percentage of students classified as unexcused absent by class period-- 1969-70 0 O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 84 Number and percentage of students classified as unexcused absent by class period-- 1970-71 0 I O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 85 vi Table Page 15. Comparison of 1969-70 to 1970-71 percentage of total student body absences by class periods 0 O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 86 16. Comparison of selected student enrollments for non-required departmental offerings-- 1969-70 and 1970-71 0 o o o o o o o o o o o 88 17. Comparison of student grade point averages from 1969-70 and 1970-71 . . . . . . . . . . 89 vii CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction On January 16, 1969, the school districts of Okemos, East Lansing and Haslett, Michigan, submitted a joint pro- posal to the Michigan State Department of Education to study the feasibility of extending the school year beyond the classic confines of the September to June time period. The funding of the feasibility study by the State Department of Education made it possible for the districts to coopera- tively examine the implications of not only extending the academic calendar into the summer months, but also the implications of expanding the experiences which might comprise the curriculum of high schools in years to come. Historically, year-round patterns of curricular organization are neither new nor particularly successful as the review of literature indicates. However, the feasibility study conducted jointly by the three districts indicated that such a venture into the extended school year was feasible. Further, it was not only feasible but impera- tive if the educational experiences of students were to be expanded. The first phase of moving to this extended school year (ESY) as reported by the feasibility study was the expansion of educational experiences for students for the school year 1970-71 by moving toward a four term plan within the current school year calendar. Such a term plan calls for students to take six courses in each of four nine week terms. This differs significantly from the traditional programs of studies where students take six courses for thirty-six weeks each year. This does not mean, nor should it imply, that the term plan calls for the traditional course structure being divided into four parts. Rather, it means, for example, a student will have six or ten courses to choose from in the American History course. Vescaloni, Smith and Romano point out that "the most commonly held reason for the (year-round school) is the economy that might result from use of present school "1 The tri-district feasi- buildings throughout the year. bility study was rejected as the main feature of the ESY this notion held by Vescaloni, gt_§l. Instead, the dif- ference between the tri-district ESY proposal and many other proposals that have been planned, implemented and discarded is the absence of mandated terms of attendance and in particular the reform of the traditional curriculum. 1Fred Vescaloni, et al., "History of the All Year School," A Portion of a Paper Prepared for the Utica Public Schools Reproduced in the Feasibility Study for the Okemos, Haslett and East Lansing School Districts, (Okemos, Michigan: 1969), PP. 268-269. The ESY proposal is not an attempt to economize from greater utilization of present school buildings. Rather, the tri- district proposal for extending the experiences of secondary school students moves toward reform and greater flexibility within course offerings. Scope and Definition of the Study The major purpose of the ESY plan is to improve the educational opportunities for students in secondary schools. The prime components of change to effect this improvement have been the restructuring of the curriculum, primarily by offering courses other than those of traditional semester length. Changes within an organization as extensive as those implemented within the term system are of concern to the students, teachers, parents and the community as a whole. The ultimate acceptance of the ESY plan makes it mandatory that some measure of success be achieved in the term plan whose prime goal is meeting the desired end of improved educational opportunities. For that reason, effective means of measuring the success or lack of success of the term system within a school organization must be developed and communicated to these groups. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study, which was exploratory in nature, was to examine the value of implementing a term plan of course offerings as a means of legitimizing the movement of a school district toward the ESY concept. The study was designed to determine the value of the term plan as an organizational pattern for instruction by measuring the participants attitudes toward school and collecting other data related to student attitude toward school. If the specially designed courses are assumed to influence the attitudes of students and teachers, an assumption about the increase of positive attitudes could be made. If, however, the specially designed courses are perceived as having little or no impact upon the attitudes of the members of the school organization, the study should provide some insight into this. Conclusions reached within this study will provide additional data upon which to base a decision as to whether or not the school district shall move toward the ESY concept. More specifically, the purpose of the study was to: 1. Survey the perceptions of the total student body at Okemos High School regarding any shift in attitude toward school over a period of time. 2. Survey the perceptions of the total faculty at Okemos High School regarding any shift in attitude toward school over a period of time. 3. Determine if, as a result of a term plan, cer- tain variables within a school organization have been affected positively or negatively. 4. Seek answers to a series of questions, which are stated below under "Questions to be Answered," relevant to the data gathered. General Questions to be Answered Questions to be answered by this study include: 1. Is there any shift in the attitude of students toward school, over a period of time, as a result of the term plan? 2. Is there any shift in the attitude of faculty toward school, over a period of time, as a result of the term plan? 3. Has there been a shift in student interest shown toward school as a result of the term plan, as measured by the frequency of unexcused absences? 4. Has there been a shift in student interest shown toward school as a result of the term plan, as measured by gains in grade point averages? 5. Has there been a shift in student interest shown toward school as a result of the term plan, as measured by the drop-out rate? 6. Has there been a shift in student interest shown toward school as a result of the term plan, as measured by student enrollment in non-required courses in the area of industrial arts, home economics, art and business? Educational Implications The impact of this study has obvious and immediate local implications to administrators, teachers, students, parents and patrons of the Okemos community. The term plan has been billed as an improvement, even reform, of the traditional eighteen week or thirty-six week organization of classes at the high school. The term plan is the pivotal concept in moving toward the ESY concept which many view from afar skeptically. This skepticism toward the program is based largely upon sentiment rather than empirical data from.which to make intelligent judgments. This study will provide needed data from which school people may more intelligently judge the value of the term plan and more significantly make judgments regarding the ESY. On a broader scale, the body of knowledge collected from this study will assist curriculum planners who may desire specifics on the value of the term plan as an educational reform. The mechanics of developing this pro- gram are easily gleaned from studies of the feasibility of the concept or from a catalog of courses. What these documents do not reveal are the judgments teachers and students within the organization make about the program. A review of the literature, individual program visitations and discussions with personnel involved in ESY programs reveal but two basic reasons for implementing the ESY concept. The first major reason most often given is based upon financial savings for the individual district. The second major reason centers around the desire of a district to try something new for the sake of change, a kind of "bandwagon" effect. Often this kind of reason is interpreted as improvement and results in a summer school enrichment program. It is evident that the decision to move to an ESY concept has not been based upon any empirical evidence showing the effectiveness of the condensed courses. Assumptions Underlying this Study A study effort is, in essence, an argument. The participants in the argument are the writer and the readers. A11 arguments are conducted on the basis of underlying assumptions that, by agreement, cannot be challenged by those engaged in the argumentative discussion. The fol- lowing assumptions are essential to this study: 1. Different organizational structures will pro- duce different psychological and sociological climates for the participants. 2. The perceptions of individuals within an organi- zation, about that organization will have influence upon their adaptive behavior. 3. There does exist a relationship between atti- tude toward school and performance in school. Definition of Terms Due to the variety of terms used in the context of extending the school year beyond the normal September to June academic year, it is necessary to define the fol- lowing terms: Extended School Year Plan (ESY) is any plan of organizing a full academic program beyond the regular school year plan. All Year School Plan or Year-Round School Plan can be used interchangeably. Summer School Plans are often only enrichment or remedial programs and not a full selection of courses offerings available to students.‘ Term Plan is a plan to organize the school year into four nine week periods of time for instruction. Organization of the Study The report of the study will be composed of five chapters. Chapter One has presented an introduction to the problem and a statement of the problem along with rationale for undertaking the study. A review of the literature will be given in Chapter Two. A description of the design of the study will be given in Chapter Three. Chapter Four will be devoted to an analysis of the results of the study. The summary of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations will be presented in Chapter Five. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction A review of the literature is not complete by merely reporting current ESY programs. Educational organizations, like all organizations, are in a constant state of change. Pressure on educational institutions to change have greatly increased. These pressures are both external and internal and require decisions which guide change. The quality of these decisions will depend upon the kind of information known about organizations, their characteristics and Optimum conditions for making changes. Therefore, since the ESY concept constitutes a change within an organization, the relationship between the ESY and an organization is apparent. To highlight this relationship the first half of the review of the literature will deal with current organizational theory and the effects of the organization upon the individual. The second half of the review of the literature will deal explicitly with the ESY as it has been or is being practiced in school organizations. 10 11 Current Organizational Theory Because most individuals have or will inhabit schools at one time or another, the manner in which indi- viduals respond to organizational climate will be an important factor in determining the success or failure of the institution's mission. Increasingly, students of educational administration are concerned with the relevance of organization to the nature of education students receive. Abbott states, "It seems obvious that the structure of the organization has important implications for the way in which the organiza- tion will function."2 Most students or organizations agree that schools are bureaucratic in nature. Etzioni implies it when he says, Modern society is to a large degree a bureaucratic society; that is, many of its functional requirements . . . such as allocation of means and social integra- tion . . . are carried out and controlled by complex organizations. But not only does modern society as a whole tend to be bureacratic, the most powerful social units which make up modern societies are bureaucracies3 2M. G. Abbott and J. T. Lowell, eds., Change Per- spectives in Educational Administration (Auburn, Ala.: Auburn University, School of Education, 1965), p. 40. 3A. Etzioni, Complex Organizations (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961), p. 257. 12 Bidwell,4 Blau and Scott,5 Corwin6 and others specifically mention schools and education as having bureaucratic characteristics. The classical analysis of the bureaucratic organi- zation by Max Weber is still considered an important general statement on formal organization. According to Weber, bureaucracy has the following characteristics:7 1. Organization tasks are distributed among the various positions as official duties. Implied is a clear-cut division of labor among positions which makes possible a high degree of speciali- zation. Specialization, in turn, promotes expertness among the staff, both directly and by enabling the organization to hire employees on the basis of their technical qualifications. 2. The positions or offices are organized into a hierarchal authority structure. In the usual case this hierarchy takes on the shape of a pyramid wherein each official is responsible for his subordinate's decisions and actions as well as his own to the superior above him in the pyramid and wherein each official has authority of superiors over subordinates is clearly circumscribed. 4C. E. Bidwell, "The School as a Formal Organiza- tion," Handbook of_Organization, (Chicago: Rand, McNally & Co., 1965), p. 972-1022. 5P. M. Blau, and W. R. Scott, Formal Organizations: A Comparative Study (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing C6., 1960), pp. 27-45. 6R. G. Corwin, A Sociologyyof Education (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts Publisfiing Co., 1965), pp. 35-54. 7H. H. Gerth and C. W. Mills, (trans. and eds.), From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), pp. 196-204. 3. 13 A formally established system of rules and regulations governs official decisions and actions. In principle, the operations of these general regulations relate to particular cases. The regulations insure the uniformity of opera- tions and, together with the authority structure, make possible the coordination of the various activities. They also provide for continuity in operations regardless of changes in per- sonnel, thus promoting a stability lacking, as we have seen, in charismatic movements. Officials are expected to assume an impersonal orientation in their contacts with clients and with other officials. Clients are to be treated as cases, the officials being expected to disre- gard all personal considerations and to maintain complete emotional detachment, and subordinates are to be treated in a similar impersonal fash- ion. The social distance between hierarchal levels and that between officials and their clients is intended to foster such formality. Impersonal detachment is designed to prevent the personal feelings of officials from dis- torting their reational judgment in carrying out their duties. Employment by the organization constitutes a career for officials. Typically an official is a full-time employee and looks forward to a lifelong career in the agency. Employment is based on the technical qualifications of the candidate rather than on political, family or other connections. Usually, such qualifications are tested by examination or by certificates that demonstrate the candidate's educational attainment--college degrees, for example. Such educational qualifications create a certain amount of homogeneity among officials, since relatively few persons of working class origins have college degrees, although their number is increasing. Officials are appointed to posi- tions, not elected, and thus are dependent upon superiors in the organization rather than on a body of constituents. After a trial period, officials gain tenure of position and are pro- tected against arbitrary dismissal. Remunera- tion is in the form of a salary, and pensions are provided after retirement. Career advance- ments are according to achievement, or both. 14 Other social scientists have attempted to develop theoretical frameworks from which formal organizations could be studied. Simon conceives of administrative organi- zations as primarily decision-making structures. He writes: What is a scientifically relevant description of an organization? It is a description that, so far as possible, designates for each person in the organiza- tion what decisions that person makes, and the influence to which he is subjected in making each of these decisions.8 Rational decision-making requires selecting the best decision from a series of alternatives. The function of organization is, then, to limit the scope of the decisions each member must make by defining the responsibilities of each official and supplying him with goals to guide his decisions. Mechanisms such as formal rules, information channels and training programs are employed to narrow the range of alternatives the official must consider before making his decisions. Simon views rational behavior as a series of means-- ends chains.. Given certain ends, appropriate means are selected for their attainment, but once reached, the ends often become means for the attainment of other means. The ends of every member of the organization are defined by directives of his superior, and his responsibility is pri- marily to decide on the best means for attaining these ends. 8H. A. Simon, Administrative Behavior (2nd ed.), (New York: MacMillan, 1957), pp. 126-127? 15 Summarily, each official in the hierarchy has his value premises supplied by his superior; besides, his search for alternative means is narrowed by procedural regulations.9 Talcott Parsons provides another theoretical con- 10 According to Parsons all ception of formal organization. social systems must solve four basic problems: (1) adap- tation--the reality demands of the environment coupled with the active transformation of the external situation; (2) goal achievement: the defining of objectives and the mobilization of resources to maintain them; (3) integra- tion--establishing and organizing a set of regulations among the member units of the system to coordinate and unify them into a single entity; and (4) latency--the maintenance over time of the system's motivational and cultural patterns.11 Parsons' theory includes organiza- tions as social systems and views all organizations as having to face these fair problems. The particular struc- tures devised to meet them will vary with the type of organization under consideration. 91bid., xxxv. 10Talcott Parsons, Structure and Process in Modern Societies (Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, 1960), pp.*I6:96. 11Talcott Parsons, et al., Working Papers in the Theory of Action (Glencoe, III.: Free Press,'l953), pp. 183-186. 16 Three hierarchal levels in formal organizations are distinguished by Parsons. First, the technical level where the actual "product" of the organization is manufac- tured or dispensed whose chief concerns are adaptation and goal-attainment. Above that level is the managerial level whose function is to mediate between various parts of the organization and coordinate their efforts. This level's chief concern is with integration. Finally, the institu- tional level of the organization connects it with the wider social system functioning to oversee the operations of the organization in light of its position in the larger society. Latency problems are this level's primary concern. Having thus defined the hierarchal lines of author- ity, Parsons suggests there are clear-cut breaks between the three levels. Only within a level can the superior supervise the work of subordinates and assume responsibility for it, since the differences in function between levels are too great to make supervision of the lower by the higher possible.12 In viewing the many elements that combine to make up the bureaucratic organization, Thompson finds two to be of particular importance. These are the social process of specialization and the cultural institution of hierarchy. 12Talcott Parsons, "Pattern Variables Revisited," American SociOlogical Review, 25, 1960, pp. 481-482. 17 Modern bureaucracy attempts to accommodate specialization within a hierarchal framework.l3 He further identifies a hierarchy as a system of roles, which as cultural items are learned and refer to the patterns of behavior that become appropriate for a given social position. Thus, according to Thompson, current conceptions of organization are clearly based upon charismatic assumptions concerning these roles. Merton, Selznick, and Gouldner, while not denying Weber's essential proposition that bureaucracies are more efficient than are alternative forms of organiza- tions, have suggested important dysfunctional consequences of bureaucratic organization.l4 Merton's15 system of propositions begins with a "demand for control" made on the organization by the top hierarchy.~ This emphasizes rules as a response to the demand for control, and results in a need for accountability and the predictability of behavior enforced by standard operating procedures. The reduction of personalized rela- tionships, the increased internalization of rules, and the 13V. A. Thompson, "Hierarchy, Specialization and Organizational Conflict," Administrative Science_guarterly, 5, 1961, pp. 485-521. 14J. G. March and H. A. Simon, Organizations (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1958), pp. 36-46. 15R. K. Merton, "The Unanticipated Consequences of Purposive Social Action," American Sociological Review, 1, 1936, pp. 894-904. 18 decreased search for alternatives inherent in the bureau- cratic organization combine to make the behaviors of members of the organization highly predictable, i.e., they result in an increase in the rigidity of behavior of the partici- pants. At the same time, the reduction in personalized relationships facilitates the development of an esprit de gggpg, i.e., increases the extent to which goals are per- ceived as shared among members of the group. Such a sense of commonness of purpose, interests and character increases the propensity of organization members to defend each other against outside pressures. This, in turn, solidifies the tendency toward rigid behavior. 16 wishes to show how the use Like Merton, Selznick of a control technique brings about a series of unantici- pated consequences. Selznick's model starts with the demand for control made by the top hierarchy that results in an increased delegation of authority. Delegation, however, has several immediate conse- quences. As intended, it increases the amount of training in specialized competencies. Restriction of attention to a relatively small number of problems increases experiences within these limited areas and improves the employee's ability to deal with these problems. At the same time, 16P. Selznick, TVA and the Grass Roots (Berkley: University of California Press, 1949). 19 delegation results in departmentalization on an increase in the diversity of interests among sub-units in the organiza- tion. This diVersification leads to conflict between sub- units. This struggle for internal control not only affects directly the content of decisions, but also causes greater elaboration of sub-unit ideologies. Each sub-unit seeks success by fitting its policy into official doctrine to legitimize its demands. In Gouldner'sl7 system, the use of general and impersonal rules regulating work procedures is part of the response to the demand for control from the top hierarchy. The consequences of such work rules decrease the visibility of power relations and decreases interpersonal tensions within the group but also increase knowledge about minimum accepted behavior. Minimum level performance, viewed as unacCeptable by the hierarchy, results in closer super- vision over the work group. Which, in turn increases the visibility of power relations within the organization, raises the tension level in the work group, and thereby upsets the equilibrium originally based on the institution of rules. Thus, the intensity of supervision is a function of the authoritarianism of supervisors and a function of the punitivity of supervisory role perception. 17A. W. Gouldner, Patterns of Industrial Bureau- cracy (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press of Glencoe, 195 ). 20 Contrasting the broad groupings of organizational theory variously labeled bureaucratic, traditional, classi- cal, mechanistic, autocratic, or theory X, is another body of organizational theory categorized as modern, human rela- tions, democratic, participative, organismic, or theory Y. The main thrust of the "human relations" movement over the past twenty years has been toward what Harold 18 Leavitt has called "power equalization," that is toward a reduction in power and status differential between super- visors and subordinates. Strauss19 summarizes the movement as, . . . a continuing reaction against the emphasis of programmed work, rigid hierarchal control, and high degree of specialization which were characteristic of Taylorism and traditional theory. Its goal is to cut back excessive hierarchal control and to encourage spontaneity on the part of subordinates. McGregor20 suggests a different theory of manage- ment and organization, "based upon more adequate assumptions of human nature and human motivation." He identifies management's task in a conventional View as consisting of three propositions that are labeled Theory X: 18H. Leavitt, "Applied Organizational Change in Industry," Handbook of Organizations, ed. J. G. March, (Chicago: Rand, McNally & Co., 1965), pp. 1153-1167. 19G. Strauss, "Some Notes on Power Equalization," Readings ix: Organization Theory: A Behavioral Approach, ed. W. A. HiIl and D. Egan, TBoston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1966), pp. 374-402. 20D. M. McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960). 21 1. Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise--money, materials, equipment, people--in the interest of economic ends. 2. With respect to people, this is a process of directing their efforts, motivating them, con- trolling their actions, modifying their be- havior to fit the needs of the organization. 3. Without this active intervention by management, people would be passive--even resistant to organizational needs. They must, therefore, be persuaded, rewarded, punished, controlled-- their activities must be directed. This is management's task. We often sum it up by saying that management consists of getting things done through other peOple. McGregor further states that behind this conventional theory are additional beliefs and assumptions that are reflected in conventional organizational structures and managerial policies: (1) the average man is by nature indolent--he works as little as possible. (2) He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to be led. (3) He is inherently self-centered, indifferent to organi- zational needs. (4) He is by nature resistant to change. (5) He is gullible, not very bright, the ready dupe of the Charlatan and the demagogue. 22 Theory Y, as developed by McGregor, clearly implies a shift from the all powerful superiorfirelationship with subordinates to a more balance of power. The dimensions of the theory are: (1) Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise--money, materials, equipment, people--in the interest of economic ends. (2) People are not passive by nature or resistant to organizational needs. They have become so as a reSult of experience in organizations. (3) The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity for assuming responsibility, the readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals are all present in people. Management does not put them there. It is a responsibility of manage- ment to make it possible for people to recognize and develop these human characteristics for themselves. (4) The essen- tial task of management is to arrange organizational conditions and methods of operation so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives. Organizational Effects on Individuals The strong, people orientation of educational institutions lends critical importance to the understanding of the effect of structure on human behavior. In this section, consideration will be given to some of the 23 literature relating the interdependence of individuals' interaction with and within an organization. Haire,21 traces the development of realistic accounts of behavior in organizations back to the research begun in 1927 by the Mayo group in the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company and especially to the inter- pretation of this research by Roethlesberger and Dickson.22 Its emphasis on individual needs, informal groups, and social relationships was responsible for the development of a philosophy of management that stressed human relation- ships in organizations. Sullivan's interpersonal theory of psychiatry23 develops the premise that each person's personality is the result of his pattern of accommodation with people who are significant to him. How the individual accommodates is strongly influenced by the social setting in which the interpersonal relations occur. In this context social values and institutions plan a powerful role. He argues that most behavior is the result of the individual's 21M. Haire, Handbook of Social Psycholo (Cambridge: Addison-Wesley, 1954?, pp. 1104¥I1 . 22F. J. Roethlesberger and W. J. Dickson, Manage- ment and the Worker (Cambridge: Harvard University ress, 1939). 23H. S. Sullivan, "Tensions, Interpersonal and International," in Tensions that Cause Wars, ed. by H. Cantrel, (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1960), p. 95. 24 search for relief from tension induced from conforming to 24 in his analysis of the organiza- authority. Presthus, tional society draws heavily on Sullivan's theory. The big organization, Presthus says, induces anxieties in its members simply because of its fundamental characteristics. Specifically, (1) Size becomes a factor when an organiza- tion becomes so large that any given member does not have face-to-face contact with most other members. The larger the organization, the lower morale drops as individuals tend to feel unimportant. (2) As organizations increase in size and complexity, members must begin to specialize. Such divisions of labor has both advantages and disadvan- tages, on the one hand, the technical quality of the work improves. On the other hand, interpersonal relationships deteriorate; so also does the sense of identification with the organization. (3) The main functioning of heirarchy is to assign and validate authority along a descending scale throughout the organization. The hierarchy is of vital importance, since the individual's participation in an organization is always affected by his place in the hier- archy. The weight attached to suggestions and the influence of each member is determined by one's hierarchal position. (4) The importance of status and status symbols 24R. Presthus, The Organizational Society (New York: Random House, 1962). 25 is continually reinforced by the organization by the way it distributes rewards and punishments. (5) Most bureau- cracies are run by a few people; thus they are oligarchies. The "few" are set off from the rest by their "preponderance of power." Their presence in an organization constantly reminds the members that there is a small group with more power than all the others combined. Their presence tends to accentuate the anxieties of the other members. Presthus states that members accommodate to the demands of the organization in three ways--upward-mobility, indifference, and ambivalence. The upward-mobiles are persons who enjoy organization life and reap its rewards and benefits. The indifferent refuses to compete for organizational favors. "He sells his time for a certain number of hours and jealously guards the rest." The ambivalents find it dif- ficult to get along with authority and cannot play the organizational game. Argyris, supported by the empirical findings of 25 26 Farris, and Porter, further illustrates a basic dilemna 25G. F. Farris, "Congruency of Scientists' Motives with their Organizations Provisions for Satisfying Them: Its Relationship to Motivation, Affective Job Experiences, Styles of Work, and Performance," Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, Department of Psychology, November, 1962. (Mimeographed). 26L. W. Porter, "Job Attitudes in Management: Perceived Deficiencies in Need Fulfillment as a Function of Job Level," Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 46 (December, 1962), pp. 375-384. 26 between the needs of individuals aspiring for psychological success and self-esteem and the demands of a pyramidal structure. Identifying the basic needs to psychological success as those concerned with self-concept, a feeling of competence, self-awareness, self-esteem, and conformation, his position is stated in the form of several propositions: (1) There is a lack of congruence between the needs of individuals aspiring for success and the demands of the formal organization. Corollary: The disturbance will vary in proportion to the degree of incongruency between the needs of individuals and the requirements of the formal organization. (2) The resultants of this disturbance are frustration, failure, short-time perspective, and conflict and, (3) Under certain conditions the degree of frustration, failure and short-time perspective will tend to increase. Porter's large study of 1916 persons, in five levels of management and across several types of organizations, supports Argyris' assumption that the probability to experience a sense of self-esteem, autonomy, and self- actualization tends to increase as one goes up the hier- archal ladder and tends to decrease as one goes down the line. In other studies that relate behavior to organiza- 27 tional position, Gurin, Veroff, and Feld found that the 27G. Gurin, J. Veroff, and S. Feld, Americans View Their Mental Health (New York: Basic Books, 1960) Chap. VI. 27 higher up the organizational ladder and/or the greater the professionalism, the higher the probability that people will report intrinsic work satisfaction. Kornhauser,28 validates the dimensions for mental health as (1) an index of anxiety and emotional tension, (2) an index of hostility, (3) an index of social participation and friendly attitudes versus withdrawal, (4) an index of self-esteem, (5) an index of personal morale, and (6) an index of overall satisfaction with life. His findings report a consistent correlation with occupational hierarchy. The higher the level, the better the mental health. Kasl and French,29 in a study of 6,000 employees, found that the degree of stress, as determined by the number of dispensary visits, perceived monotony and dullness of one's job, and feelings of self-esteem, were also positively correlated to organi- 30 report an interesting zational status. Mann and Williams corollary, that while people generally respond favorably to increased responsibility in their work, more feelings of 28A. Kornhauser, "Mental Health of Factory WOrkers: A Detroit Study," Human Organization, Vol. 21, No. 1 (Spring, 1962), pp. 43-46. 293. Kasl and J. P. French, Jr., "The Effects of Occupational Status on Physical and Mental Health," Journal of Social Issues, Vol. XVIII, No. 3, (1962), Chap. III. 30F. C. Mann and L. K. Williams, "Some Effects of The Changing Work Environment in the Office," in Sven Lundstedt (Ed.), Mental Health and the Work Environment, Foundation for Research on Human BéhaviOr, (I962), pp. 16-30. (Mimeographed). 28 tension result. This suggests that need-fulfillment and happiness are not necessarily related. In professional organizations such as educational organizations, conflict between conventional bureaucratic authority and professional authority constitute a basic distinguishing feature. Two studies of public schools, one 31 by waller and the other by Gordon,32 point to the con- flict teachers face between official procedures and the affective, personalistic components of teaching. Naegle33 34 from a theoretical viewpoint, argue that and Wilson, since teaching is a form of socialization, the teacher must, in the nature of the process, interact affectively with students and develop particularistic relations with them. At the same time, his organizational and broader social obiligation to produce competency, and the need for class- room order, impose on him the necessity to punish impar- tially and universally. The teacher is required to be both 31W. Waller, The Sociology of Teaching (New York: Wiley, 1932). 32C. W. Gordon, The Social System of the High School (Glencoe, Ill.: Ffee Press,’I957). 33K. D. Naegle, "Clergyman, Teachers, and Psychia- trists: A Study in Roles and Socialization," Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, 22, (1956), pp. 46-62T7 34B. R. Wilson, "The Teacher's Role: A Sociologi- cal Analysis," British Journal of Sociology, 13, (1962), pp. 15-32. 29 interested and disinterested, concerned and disengaged. The act of teaching is at once compatible and incompatible with the bureaucratic setting. 35 in a study of professional-employee Corwin, tension in public schools, found that schools with higher professionalism rankings also had higher rates of conflict behavior existing between teachers and between teachers and administrators. The findings of this study suggest that there is a consistent pattern of conflict between teachers and administrators over the control of work, and that professionalization is a militant process. The interaction-influence system of an organization consists of those patterns of administrative behavior and dimensions of the administrative process which interacts with the dynamics of organization and people as the organi- zation attempts to pursue its goals and influence its environment.36 Organizations in achieving goals are con- cerned with leadership behavior, group processes, and decision-making. These components are interdependent and permeate and stimulate the interchange which exists between individuals and organizations. 35R. Corwin, "Professional Persons in Public Organizations," Educational Administrationguarterly, 1, 36F. D. Carter and T. J. Sergiovanni (Ed.), Organi- zations and Human Behavior: Focus on Schools (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969), pp. 283-284. 30 37 and Gibb38 present complimentary view- Halpin points of leadership behavior. Halpin identifies the two dimensions of leadership as concern for job (as measured by task effectiveness, goal achievement and concern for production) as contrasted to concern for people (as measured by interaction effectiveness, group maintenance, and con- cern for individuals). Through extensive use of his Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire, Halpin found that individuals who exhibited desirable leadership behavior achieved high scores on both task dimensions and person dimensions. Gibb proposes leadership behavior is based upon the leader's concept of self. He argues that the prevalence of a given style orientation will depend largely upon the leader's feelings of openness and self-adequacy. Fiedler39 suggests that effective leadership style depends upon the situation. He identifies three major dimensions that determine the kind of leadership style called for by different situations as: the degree to which 37A. W. Halpin, Theo and Research in Administra- tion (New York: The MacmiIIan Company, 1966), pp. 81-130. 38J. R. Gibb, "In Search of Leaders," American Association for Hi her Education, (Washington, D.C.: N.E.A., 1967), pp. 55-66. 39F. E. Fiedler, "Styles of Leadership," in Current Perspectives in Social Psychology, ed. E. Hollander an R. Hunt, (New York: oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 498-504. 31 the group members like him and are willing to follow his guidance; the degree Of structure present in the task; and the power associated with his position tO hire, fire, pro- mote, demote, tenure, etc. His research findings indicate that both the directive, managing, task-oriented leaders and the non-directive, human relations oriented leaders are successful under some conditions. Generally, the more routinely the organization Operates, the more directive the leadership, but when routines are no longer adequate, the task becomes ambiguous and unstructured. The differences among the democratic, autocratic, and laiSSez faire climates as a function Of style Of leader- ship were specified in the famous experimental studies Of White and Lippitt.40 Groups Of boys in leisure-time activ- ities were exposed tO the three different group climates that were induced through the variable Of leadership be- havior. The democratic group climate produced more favorable responses on the part Of the boys in terms Of reduced aggression, more enjoyment, the absence Of scape- goating, and more imaginative productivity. A study by Bowers and Seashore41 Of seventy-eight sales Offices, Offers evidence that peer-leadership can 40R. K. White and R. Lippitt, Autocracy and Democracy (New York: Harper, 1960). 41D. G. Bowers and S. E. Seashore, Peer Leadership Within Wgrk Groups, paper read at International Congress Of Applied Psychology, Ljubljana, Yugoslavia, August, 1964. 32 make a substantial contribution tO organizational success. They report that the total quantity of peer-leadership is at least as great as the total quantity of supervisory leadership, and, with respect to the issue Of relative potency, the peer leadership variables are at least as potent as supervisory leadership variables, and possibly more so, in predicting group achievement Of goals. Very few studies are available that demonstrate peer-leadership effect (Coch and French, 1948),42 (Morse and Reimer, 1956);43 however, data gathered from companies employing the Scanlon Plan (Lesieur, 1959),44 strongly support its impact. Essentially, the Scanlon Plan is a union-management cooperation plan Of organization that operates on profit- sharing and a system Of work improvement committees that cross organizational levels. Where the plan has been introduced, its impact has Often been very great, not only in efficiency, but on the nature of interpersonal relations between managers and workers and among workers themselves. In general, the direction Of movement is toward greater 42L. Coch and J. R. French, Jr., "Overcoming Resistance to Change," Human Relations, (1948) Vol. 1, (4), pp. 512-532. 43N. Morse and E. Reimer, "The Experimental Change Of a Major Organizational Variable," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, VOl. 52, (1956), pp. 120-129. 44F. Lesieur, The Scanlon Plan, (Cambridge: Tech- nology Press of M.I.T., 1958). 33 responsibility by lower levels and greater sharing Of responsibility by higher with lower groups in the hierarchy. Leadership behavior has a regulatory effect on 45 decision-making in an organization. Griffith's theoreti- cally states, The specific function Of administration is tO develop and regulate the decision-making process in the most effective manner. (An effective manner is one which results in the accomplishment of a stated Objective). Leadership styles will vary in the willingness to allow members to participate in decision-making. For example, Parker46 reports that leadership varied with the needs of 47 also conclude that various the group. Ross and Hendry leadership styles may be effective under different condi- tions. Directive leadership may lead to high productivity but low morale and poor commitment tO work. Also larger groups seem to tolerate and use authoritarian leadership more effectively than small groups. French, Kay, and Meyer48 45D. E. Griffiths, Administrative Theory (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1959), Chap. 5. 46T. C. Parker, "Relationships among Measures Of Supervisory Behavior, Group Behavior, and Situational Characteristics," Personnel Psychology, VOl. 16, (1963), pp. 319-344. 47M. G. Ross and C. Hendry, New Understandings Of Leadership (New York: Association Press, 1957), pp. 47472. 48J. R. P. French, E. Kay, and H. H. Meyer, "A Study Of Threat and Participation in an Industrial Performance Appraisal Program," Behavioral Research Service Report, General Electric Company, (1962), pp. 118-119. 34 found that not all individuals will tend to react in the same manner to the various types Of leadership. An in- crease in the degree of participation will tend to have favorable effects to the extent that, (a) the participants are high on the need for independence, and (b) they are low on a need for authoritarianism. The key to types Of organizational structure is an understanding Of the decision-making processes. Griffith's49 states, A business organization does not differ primarily from a school organization in that one is a profit- making organization and the other is not; the dif- ference resides in dissimilarities in the decision- making process. Livingston,50 using the term management as administration, concurs: If we expand the concept Of decision-making tO include, on the one hand the process by which the decision is arrived at, and, on the other hand tO include the process by which we implement or make the decision "work", and if we further recognize that this is a continuing, dynamic process rather than an occasional event, then decisioning means something quite different than heretofore, and becomes the basis Of all managerial action. The concept that organizations are built in terms Of the way in which decisions are to be made is put tO use by 49Griffiths, Administrative Theory, 78. 50R. T. Livingston, "The Theory of Organization and Management," Transactions Of the A.S.M.E. (May, 1953), p. 659. 35 Dale51 in determining the degree Of decentralization exist- ing in an institution. We may say that the degree Of managerial decentrali- zation in a company is greater: (1) The greater the number of decisions made lower down the management hierarchy. (2) The more important the decisions made lower down the management hierarchy. (3) The more functions affected by decisions made at lower levels. (4) The less checking required on the decision. Many theorists are convinced that questions Of commitment, involvement, consensus, unanimity, and motiva- tion, the humanistic variables in decision-making, are best answered by increased participation across organizational lines.‘ Leavitt52 summarizes this point Of view: (a) Involvement in decision-making yields commitment to the decision, and since most decisions become mean- ingless in their execution unless they are supported, commitment becomes necessary condition for effective decision-making. (b) It is useful to lower decision points in an organization. (c) It is reasonable for groups to make decisions; it is not necessary that decisions be made only by individuals. Much Of the support for such a position are extra- polations from small group theory generalized to organi- zations. Schneider53 calls "participation" one of the most prominent constructs in the group dynamics literature. 51E. Dale, Planning and Developing the Company Organization Structure (New York: American Management Association, 1952), p. 107. 52Leavitt, Handbook Of Organizations, 1165. 53L. A. Schneider, "A Proposed Conceptual Integra- tion of Group Dynamics and Group Therapy," Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 42, (1955), pp. 173-187. 36 Simon54 writes, "significant changes in human behavior can be brought about rapidly only if the persons who are expected to change participate in deciding what the change shall be and how it shall be made." Studies by Radke and Klesurich55 with housewives have shown group decision- making to be more effective in changing behavior and atti- tudes than such techniques as the use of lecture or individual instruction. A study by Hamblin, Miller, and Wiggins56 suggests the importance Of the discussion leader in group decision-making. They noted that group decision- making led to high morale and this in turn was related positively to the "perceived competence" Of the leader. Extended School Literature The concept of the ESY is not new, nor is the idea Of moving toward terms or quarters. Within the State Of Michigan, at least four school districts are currently attempting to vary curriculum patterns, or to improve the 54H. A. Simon, "Recent Advances in Organization Theory," in Brookings Lectures, Research Frontiers in Politics and Government (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1955), pp. 28-29. 55M. J. Radke and D. Klesurich, "Experiments in Changing Food Habits," Journal of American Diet Association, Vol. 23, (1947), pp. 403-409. 56R. S. Hamblin, K. Miller, and J. A. Wiggins, "Group Morale and Competence Of the Leader," Sociometry, 24, (1961), PP. 294-311. 37 organizational concept Of courses and their school year. There is no empirical data on any Of the plans in Operation in Michigan which reflect the overall effectiveness Of their philosophical basis for restructuring their organiza- tional and/or curricular patterns. Attempts to measure the effectiveness of the changes in the Troy, Howell, Albion and Saugatuck school districts where modified quarter systems, term systems, or unit step plans are incorporated, have not been made. Nation-wide, the steps taken toward the ESY concept through a variety Of curricular and/or organizational pat- terns are well published. Unfortunately most Of the literature points toward the failure of the movement as a result Of lack Of funds, lack Of parental support for mandated terms of attendance, or legal reasons, not because the concept was unsound or because the resultant change in the curriculum, if any, was valuable, in and Of itself. In an effort to more clearly organize the litera- ture, this study groups related literature into five categories: 1. Supportive Articles or Reports 2. Non-Supportive Articles or Reports 3. Articles or Reports Recommending Action 4. Articles or Reports of On-Going Programs 5. Articles or Reports Reporting Failure 38 Supportive Articles or Reports Category one, which is designed to examine articles or research in favor Of extending the school year experi- ences for secondary students, includes a report by Andrew Adams who proposes a "sliding" four quarter plan with four twelve week quarters. After each quarter, students would have a week Of vacation and one-fourth Of the student population in any school would be on vacation while three- fourths were in school.57 Bauman examines another quarter plan but within an eleven month time period. He discusses the Pupil Rotation Plan, where students attend six consecutive quarters and vacation for two quarters, and the Constant Quarter Plan, where students attend three quarters and vacation the same fourth quarter each year. He cites an 11.8% reduction estimate in school expenditures by adopting the flexible system.58 Bauman again advocates the adoption Of a four quarter plan tO increase efficient utilization Of 57Andrew Adams, "Look Hard at This Year-Round School Plan," American School Board Journal, (July, 1968), pp. 11-15. 58W. S. Bauman, Flexible System: An Economic Analysis of Advantages OfIEhe_guarterIy‘Calendar in Public Schools, Business Research Center, University Of Toledo (Toledo, Ohio: By the author, 1966). 39 facilities and personnel in an article in Nation's Schools in 1967.59 Argument for year-round schools tO handle increased enrollments and to save the one hundred million dollars worth Of new buildings which must be built in New Jersey alone each year is pointedly made by Bloom60 and Best.61 Further support for the idea that the year-round school can provide an answer for the over-crowded conditions in schools was Offered in School Management where a staggered four quarter plan and the forty-eight week school year are discussed. The article further recommends voluntary sum- 62 mer schools and/or twelve month contracts for teachers. Jeri Engh in Saturday Review reviews the advantages of a rotating four quarter plan as an answer to over- crowded classrooms and the reduction Of construction needs. The author states other advantages to the plan: Opportu- nities for families to schedule vacations at different seasons Of the year; increased program flexibility; 59W. S. Bauman, "Four Quarter Plan Uses Schools All Year Long," Nation's Schools, LXXX (November, 1967), 69-70. 60Arnold M. Bloom, "Let's Use the Eighty Seven Percent that's Now Wasted," American Schools and Univer- sities, (February, 1966), p. 25. 61Leonard E. Best, "The Twelve Month Panacea," Education Summary, (February, 1968), p. 34. 62"Are Year-Round Schools the Answer to Over- Crowding?," School Management, (November, 1960), pp. 25-28. 40 professional status and pay for teachers; the reduction Of the juvenile delinquency rate.63 Childress and Philippi studied the administrative problems involved in a year-round school and concluded they could be overcome, and that by the early 1970's most Of the good school systems in America will have an eleven or twelve month school year.64 An article written by Faunce in the January 1952 Bulletin Of the National Association Of SecondarypSchool Principals discusses the trend in year-round schools and cites the Glencoe, Illinois, program. He points out three principles as the basis upon which to develop a twelve month school: (1) the program must be adapted closely to local needs, (2) the program must evolve from cooperative planning, including the community, and (3) the chief justification must be better education for children.65 The value of the ESY as an aid in solving diminish- ing Opportunities for the poorly educated and as a means 63Jeri Engh, "Why Not Year-Round Schools," Saturday Review, (September 17, 1966), pp. 82-84. 64Jack R. Childress and Harlan A. Philippi, "Administrative Problems Related tO the Eleven or Twelve Month School Year," High School Journal, LVII (March, 1964), 34-380 65Roland C. Faunce, "Twelve Months Of School," Bulletin Of the National Associgtion of Secondary School “Principals, XXXVI (January, 1952), 25-29.- 41 Of Offering enriched opportunities for pupils is set forth 66 and Fitzpatrick.67 by Hannah In a more extensive review Of programs in Operation in the early 1950's Hartsell examines the year-round school in Aliquippa and Ambridge, Pennsylvania; Beaumont, Texas; Glencoe, Illinois; Decatur, Illinois; and Rochester, Minnesota. The problems encountered in the four quarter plans Of these schools are detailed by Hartsell and he stresses that a voluntary summer school used for enrichment and experimentation are the prime ingredients in these programs.68 Another Bulletin of the National Association Of Secondary School Principals article from the 1950's by R. D. Johnson lists ten arguments favoring a change from the traditional school calendar Of nine months tO sched- uling classes on a year-round basis.69 A good review of five plans following the year- round school concept with advantages Of each can be found 66J. A. Hannah, "How to Escape from a Three-Sided Box," Michigan Education Journal, XXXXII (1964), 8-10. 67W. J. Fitzpatrick, "All Year School: Pro and Con," School and Society, LXXXVI (April 26, 1958), 191-192. 68Horace C. Hartsell, "The Twelve Month School," Bulletin Of the National Association Of Secondary School PrincipaIs, XXXVI (January, 1952), 25329} 69R. D. Johnson, "What are the Evidences Of Need for a Year-Round Educational Program?," Bulletin Of the National Associatipn Of Secondary School Principals, XXXVII (April, 1953), 325-327. 42 in the February 1966 issue of School Management. The continuous school year plan, modified summer school, trimester plan, quadsemester plan, and the extended kin- dergarten to twelve months plan are all explained. In addition, the article speculates that educators will be hearing much more about year-round schools in the future.70 There are many more articles and reviews Of pro- grams which could be cited, but the preceding are fairly representative. Non-Supportive Articles or Reports In an article appearing in Nation's Schools, a survey Of fifty states with four hundred replies from administrators reports that sixty seven per cent were not in favor Of moving in the direction Of the year-round school. The main objection to a staggered four quarter plan was that teachers need a "breather."71 Bullock strongly Opposes the concept Of a four quarter plan and predicts detrimental effects on students, curriculum, and the community should the quarter plan be adopted. He argues that the primary Objective Of those plans is not quality education or enrichment, but economy, 70"This is the Extended School Year," School Management, February, 1966, pp. l7-20. 71"All-Year School Can Wait, Two Of Three Schoolmen Assert," Nations's Schools, LXXIII (March, 1964), 84. 43 and emphasizes that under such plans school facilities are denied to one-fourth Of the students at any given time.72 Calvin Greider in Nation's Schools is opposed tO any four quarter plan and would prefer tO see schools moving to a two hundred day school year with seven hours Of instruction for secondary students. Under this plan more time for instruction, greater plan utilization, and long term employment for teachers can be realized. He considers the adoption Of the four quarter plan as "imprac- tical and unwise."73 (Several school districts or states have conducted studies to examine the feasibility Of moving toward the ESY. Those reports generally not in favor Of moving in the direction Of ESY are included in this section also.) A twelve page report from the Florida State Depart- ment Of Education uses theoretical costs to show that costs outweigh savings for Florida schools. The figures used demonstrate the impracticability Of a four quarter plan in the Florida educational system with the number and size Of schools in the state.74 72Robert Bullock, "Some Cultural Implications Of Year-Round Schools," Theory into Practice, I (June, 1962), 154-161. 73Calvin Greider, "Let's Lengthen the School Year," Nation's Schools, LXII (August, 1958), 28-30. 74All Year School: A Study Of the Advantages and 'and Disadvantages Of the.Twelve Month PIan for the Operation Of the Public School in Florida, (Tallahassee, Florida: State Department of Education, April, 1957). 44 The Cincinnati School District examined a staggered four quarter plan with four quarters Of twelve weeks each and the remaining four weeks utilized either as a general vacation in the summer or as one week Of non-attendance after each term. The plan was never instituted because of a fear Of parent disapproval and lack Of "administrative feasibility."75 The Ann Arbor (Michigan) Public Schools, conducting a feasibility study on the ESY, requested an opinion Of the Bureau Of School Services at the University Of Michigan. Dr. Ray Kehoe, in response, listed seven reasons why Ann Arbor should not consider the four quarter plan Of organi- zation. Included in those reasons are lack Of administra- tive feasibility, cost factors and community attitude.76 In 1955, the Los Angeles (California) Public Schools rejected a plan to Operationalize a four quarter plan and lists "costs and inconvenience" as reasons for the rejection. Another significant reason cited as a seri- ous Obstacle was reported to be community inertia.77 75Four Quarter School Year: A Status Report with Pertinent Applications to Cincinnati (Cincinnati, Ohio: Cincinnati Public Schools, Department Of Research, Statistics and Information, 1958). 76Ray E. Kehoe, A Letter Of Mr. Hazen Schumaker, President Of Ann Arbor Board Of Education (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Of Michigan Bureau Of School Services, March 6, 1968). 77"Los Angeles Rejects Plan for Keeping SChOOlS Open Year-Round," Nation's Schools, LV (February, 1955), 120-122. 45 A recent report prepared by staff members Of Michigan State University for the Utica (Michigan) Public Schools reviews three proposals for extending the school year: (1) the four quarter plan, (2) the trimester plan, and (3) simple extension proposals. The report states that the year-round school will not be enthusiastically embraced by a vast majority Of school districts in America in the near future. It further indicates that to establish the four quarter plan on the basis Of reducing costs is danger- ous. The school district must find stronger basis for adopting a year-round school.78 Millius cites three periods Of time in this century when educators have developed a great deal Of interest in. year-round schools: 1924-1931, 1947-1953, and today. All three booms are related tO growing enrollments and rising school construction costs. He states that there are many economic disadvantages to the all year school movement.79 Articles or Reports Recommending Action A 1954 document prepared by the Los Angeles City School District illustrates several drafts Of calendars for an all year school, considers enrollment problems, 78A Report Prepared for the Utica Public Schools (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, March, 1968). 79Peter Millius, "Ugh! Support is Growing Again for Twelve Month School Year," The Washington Post, March, 1969. 46 transient pupil population, pupil attendance problems, utilization Of school plant, and business and financial Operations. The report highlights the merits Of the plan in light Of well-established educational principles and practices.80 In 1959, the faculty Of Lincoln-Thorburn schools in Urbana, Illinois, recommended the adoption Of twelve month contracts for teachers and a summer program for stu- dents which is independent Of the regular program with a different principal and a variety Of experiences for students.81 Cardozien suggests that ten and one-half month school plans would receive wider national acceptance than twelve month plans. He recommends teachers be employed on a twelve month basis, teaching ten and one-half months, with two weeks for workshops and administrative duties, and one month for vacation.82 The Sacramento, California, faculty proposed in 1961 that their administration support year-round employ- ment Of the faculty. Their report contains thirteen values 80The All Year School, A Report by the Committee to Study the All Year School (Los Angeles, California: Los Angeles City School District, July, 1954). 81The All Year School, A Report Prepared by the Faculty of Lincoln-Thorburn Schools (Urbana, Illinois: Lincoln-Thorburn Schools, 1959). 82. . _ V. R. Cardozien, "For a Two Hundred Ten Day SchOOl Year," Phi Delta Kappan, XXXVIII (March, 1957), 240-242. 47 to the pupils, community, and teachers as a result Of full— time employment.83 Thomas suggests several new and challenging con- cepts Of complete year-round organizations for the state 84 Of New York; few of his concepts have been Operationalized. The Findlay (Ohio) School System has completed a feasibility study Of the quarter plan and trimester plan for their schools. The study was completed in 1968, but no program has been operationalized to this date.85 A study done by the National Education Association in 1961 showed that the four most likely means of extending the school year include: (1) a staggered quarter for all students, (2) a full forth-eight week school year for all students, (3) a voluntary summer program, and (4) a summer plan for professional personnel. Plan one has the most Obstacles. According to the report at that time,-most school districts were likely to move toward the voluntary 86 summer program. 83Merle Chadbourne, Optional Full-Year Professional Employment, A Report for the Sacramento City Teachers Asso- ciation (Sacramento, California: February 2, 1961). 84Economy and Increased Educational Opportunity Through Extended School Year Prpgrams (Albany, New York: The State Department of EducatiOn, August, 1965). 85Feasibility Study for the Findlay Public Schools (Findlay, Ohio: May, 1968). 86"Four Plans for Extending the School Year," National Education Association Journal, May, 1961. 48 A very recent feasibility study from Frankfort, Kentucky, and as yet not acted upon by the school district, covers five plans for the extended school year: (1) summer school, (2) four quarter staggered session, (3) continuous sessions, (4) New York proposals, and (5) the McComb plan.87 Hartford, Connecticut, in May Of 1969, conducted a similar study and, to date, no action has been taken.88 Jefferson County, Colorado, in 1964 completed a citizens advisory committee report on greater utilization Of school facilities. The report studies the four quarter 89 plan and the trimester plan. Higginbotham in Florida Schools in March Of 1969 reviews four plans being considered by Orange County Schools in Florida: (1) shorten the school day and Operate two schools in the building, (2) staggered quarter plan, (3) consecutive quarter plan, and (4) extended summer term 90 plan. Another Florida study, done in 1966 for the Polk County Schools, examined the four quarter plan, the summer 87Feasibility Study Prepared by the Extended School Year Legislative Research Commission (Frankfort, Kentucky: June, 1969). 88A Report Prepared for the Board Of Education (Hartford, Connecticut: May, 1969). 89A Report Prepared by a Citizens Advisory Committee (Jefferson County, Colorado: May, 1964). 90James Higginbotham, "School, How Long?," Florida Schools, March-April, 1969. 49 session plan, and trimester plan. Detailed cost analysis, administrative feasibility, teacher-pupil problems, curric- ulum development and public relations are examined. A poll on public reaction to each Of the plans is reported.91 The National Education Association Research Divi- sion provides an account Of many types Of programs being considered in the area Of the year-round school. The report stresses the need for further study before conclu- sions about the merits and possible implementation can be developed.92 Articles or Reports of On-Going Programs Dr. James Allen, former Commissioner Of Education in New York State, reports on five programs presently in Operation which extend the school year in New York State by twenty-five to forty days. The plans are: (1) continu- ous school year, (2) two semesters plus a modified summer school, (3) trimester, (4) quadrimester, and (5) extendedv kindergarten to twelve months. Dr. Allen compares the all 91Year Round Schools for Polk County Schools, A Feasibility Study Prepared"by the FIOrida Educational Research and Development Council (Gainesville, Florida: UniverSity Of Florida College Of Education, 1966). 92The Rescheduled School Year, (Washington: National Education Association Research Division, 1968). 50 year school with the ESY and points out that the emphasis Of ESY is on quality, not just economy.93 Cline reports on a program begun in 1948 in Gladewater, Texas, to expand the traditional summer activi- ties intO a well-rounded and integral part Of the twelve month school program. The program Offers a wide choice Of electives and activities to compliment the student's aca- demic or vocational program while at the same time providing recreational facilities for the community.94 Cory describes the summer program in Rochester, Minnesota, which Offers eleven month contracts to teachers. Various activities are provided teachers on extended con- tracts. Such activities include teaching in summer school, working on curriculum, attending summer school, attending district workshops, or traveling. Four week enrichment courses or seven week credit courses are Offered in the Rochester voluntary summer school.95 Another study program which tends to extend the school year is reported by Cotton. She highlights the studies Of Dr. Thomas of New York State in which students 93"All Year School: Time for a New Look?," School Management, February, 1966, pp. 86-92 ff. 94Aliese Cline, "A Twelve Month Program in Glade- water High School," Bulletin Of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, XXXII (November, 1948), 79-81. 95Robert T. Cory, "Parents Evaluate an Eleven Month Program," Education, November, 1966, pp. 167-170. 51 involved in summer study were tested to see if learning in air conditioned rooms had a significant, positive effect towards learning. Tests indicated no significant dif- ference between the air conditioned rooms and the non—air conditioned rooms; nor did the results indicate any effect to children's health. The studies also reveal the pre- ference, by teachers, to teaching year-round.96 San Jacinto (Texas) Senior High School adopted a pilot trimester plan. A recent faculty evaluation showed unanimous approval to this program, but emphasized the solution to overcrowded classrooms and utilization of all facilities as the primary reason for their approval.97 Fitzpatrick reviews the history Of the ESY program at Nova High School since 1963. The present two hundred ten day calendar has undergone several changes from two hundred thirty days to one hundred ninety three. Details Of the school calendar are provided.98 Reid Gillis Of Fulton County Schools in Greater Atlanta, Georgia, reports the basic features of their four quarter system. He states that students must attend three 96Marlene Cotton, "The Extended School Year: What's Being Done," Education Summary, July, 1968, pp. 34-36. 97Evaluation Of_Trimester Program, A Report Pre- pared for San Jacinto Senior High School (San Jacinto, Texas: Summer, 1968). 98Dave Fitzpatrick, "Why Nova School Switches to Three Seventy Day Trimesters," Nation's Schools, LXXVII (April, 52 quarters with the fourth quarter Optional. The Carnegie unit Of credit has been abandoned and courses reorganized into quarters. The more flexible course selections and credit system is credited with the program's success. The improvement Of the educational program is stressed as the Objective Of the quarter plan, rather than building and facility economy.99 Articles or Reports Reporting Failure There exists scant data on the successful attempts to implement year-round school programs; those programs which for any number Of reasons failed or were discontinued have even less written about them. Del Camp High School in San Juan, California, reports that the all year high school plans were abandoned by the school board for reasons of insufficient funds, lack Of student interest and poor parent support.100 An article in the National Education Association Journal Of May, 1961, cites two programs operating on a "voluntary" year-round school plan which failed. The Newark, New Jersey, program from 1912 to 1931 and the 99Reid Gillis, "The Twelve Month School Year: Plans and Strategy," Education Summary, September 1, 1968, pp. 5-6. 100"All Year High School: Experiment Ends in Failure," School Management, November, 1966, p. 73. 53 Nashville, Tennessee, plan from 1924 to 1942 both failed because they were "too expensive" to Operate.101 Fairfield, Connecticut, reports they estimated an annual savings Of $300,000 by moving to a four quarter plan. The plan never was implemented, however, because Of reported "parental Objections and administrative problems."102 The fourth and final report which suggests the reason for the discontinuance Of many programs comes from the Midland (Michigan) School System. A twelve month trimester school year in Midland was not able tO flourish because its developer and director retired from the dis- trict. With his departure, the program became a summer school.103 In attempting to summarize reasons for the imple- mentation of the year-round school, or for concluding reasons for its demise, it is apparent that decisions are based upon a minimum Of empirical evidence which would support either implementation or abandonment Of the concept. 101"Extending the School Year," National Education Association Journal, May, 1969, pp. 55-56. 102"Year-Round Schools: An Idea That's Coming Back," U.S. News and World Report, XXXXIII (March 1, 1957), 32-34 a 103The Twelve Month Trimester School Year, View- points Of Dr. Britian, former Superintendent, Midland Public Schools (Midland, Michigan: October 19, 1960). 54 The three most commonly held reasons for moving toward the year-round school appear to be: 1. The concept can save a school district and state millions of dollars in tax monies by increasing building and faculty use. It is an effective way tO enriching a student's summer and decreasing delinquency. For some schools, it provides a better educa- tion for students. The literature has also revealed reasons for not supporting the concept as: 1. Administrative inconvenience and lack Of follow-through by key personnel. Theoretically, costs Of maintenance and upkeep Of facilities and more salaries outweigh savings. Fear Of parent or teacher disapproval. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Introduction This study has been undertaken to determine the relationships that exist between student and teacher atti- tudes toward school and the implementation Of a term system organizational pattern as measured by an instrument entitled What DO You Think About Your Schools? and through the collection Of other information related to attitudes Of students toward schools. The study is designed to report and examine the distribution and prOportionality of responses between students and teachers and tests over time. A pre-test administered in September Of 1970 and a post-test adminis- tered in April Of 1971 are compared to illustrate changes in attitude toward school during the time the term plan was in its first year Of Operation. Other related assumptions are considered and are reported in table form. These assumptions deal with stu— dent drop-out rates, attendance patterns, course selections, and grade-point averages. 55 ch (N LC. ‘6. u \..h.1‘ u \U 56 @2223 This study includes all students grades nine through twelve and all faculty in the Okemos, Michigan, High School. The Instrument The instrument used in collecting the data needed in this study was provided through the efforts and coopera- tion of Dr. Herbert Rudman, Professor of Administration and Higher Education, Michigan State University. Over a period of fifteen years he has developed a theoretical model for measuring a school district's educational pro- gram. An important ingredient in measuring that program is the value held by the various members Of the school community. To that end, Dr. Rudman developed an instrument entitled What DO You Think About Your Schools? to measure objectively the values held by elementary pupils, secondary students, parents, patrons, and faculty within a given school district.104 The selection Of this particular instrument was based upon a number of factors. The most important of which is that since this study was designed to measure the change in attitude toward school by selected groups, it is appropriate that an attitude scale be used. Further, the 104Herbert C. Rudman, Evaluating the Curriculum: A Presentation Manual (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, 1969. 57 instrument has been professionally prepared and normed for reliability and validity. This instrument is composed of five batteries: 1. elementary pupils--37 items 2. secondary students--45 items 3. parents--53 items 4. patrons--31 items 5. faculty--60 items This study utilized batteries two (see Appendix III) and five (see Appendix IV). Within these batteries six cate- gories of the school program exist: (1) satisfaction with school, (2) school program, (3) essential services desired, (4) school organization and size, (5) school plant, and (6) community relations. This pencil and paper question- naire allows the respondents to indicate their attitudes on a four point value scale.- The first two responses for every item comprise the "favorable" response being measured. An example, taken from the secondary student battery, illus- trates the point: Item number one asks "How well do you like school?" and the respondent is asked to choose between very well and quite well which are "favorable" responses and very little and not at all, which are not favorable responses. A Pearson's product-moment coefficient was computed for each item by battery for the instrument. This 58 coefficient indicates the consistency of the instrument from test1x>re-test. See Appendix I for reliability coef- ficients.105 How high must the reliability coefficient be in order to be useful? Attitude testing has never shown the high reliabilities Of more concrete measures such as achievement tests. Parten106 investigated the consistency of attitudes from testing to re-testing and reports there was a 24 per cent (reliability coefficient Of 0.50) shift in scores about family data, factual personal data, and subjective personal Opinions. Most Of the shifts occurred with subjective personal opinions. A widely quoted source concerning practical reli- ability coefficients is Kelley. Kelley arrives at the following as minimum correlations for several purposes:107 1. To evaluate level of group accomplishments-- 0.50 2. To evaluate differences in level of group accomplishment in two or more performances-- 0.90 1°51bid., 7-11. I 106Mildren Parten, Surveys, Polls and Samples (New York: Harper and Brothers, I950), p. 500. 107Truman Kelley, Interpretation of Educational Measurement (New York: World Book Company, 1927). 59 3. TO evaluate level Of individual accomplishment-- 0.50 4. To evaluate differences in level of individual accomplishment in two or more performances-- 0.98 Since this instrument is concerned with evaluation Of group accomplishment, in relation to attitudes, a reliability coefficient of 0.50 or higher would produce useful results. The Spearman-Brown formula permits the estimates of total battery reliability from an individual item. The formula for this estimate of battery reliability is: . . . _ (N. of items) (reliability of item) Battery rellablllty ' FI- (N. of items) (reliability'of item) Applying this formula to selected item reliability coeffi- cients indicates that the five batteries range in total. estimated reliability from 0.94 for faculty to 0.95 for secondary students. The norms for the instrument are constructed on the total sample of fourteen Michigan school districts and are established for the five batteries by item. These norms are constructed by computing the standard error of a percentage..108 The scores for the respective batteries are reported in percentage Of favorable response. The question that presents itself is to what degree can the 108Herbert Rudman, Op. cit., l6. 60 sample percentage of favorable response be indicative of the "true score" for the universe Of potential respondents? Or to put it in terms Of an example, is the favorable response to the item "Like School" correct within 3, 5, or 10 per cent? The smaller the standard error, the greater the precision of the estimate. The formula for calculating the standard error of a percentage (6 p.c.) is: (100 - p.c.) n-l 6 p.c. = p.c. n 5::- The multiplier %E% is dropped from the formula because of the large size of the sample. It would not effect the final error term enough to warrant its computation; there- fore, the formula used is: _ 85.4 (loo-85.4) _ 6 p.c. - 882 — 1.18 Therefore, it may be concluded that there are two chances out of three that the estimate of 85.4% from the sample is within 11.18% of the correct value. If the 6 p.c. is multiplied by 2 it is concluded the value Of the standard error is correct 19 times out of 20 for a probability of 0.95. Appendix II presents the standard error range for the sample school districts at the 0.95 probability level rounded to the nearest whole per cent. 61 Collection Of Data A pre-test, post-test situation was utilized with the students in grades nine through twelve and with the total faculty. The pre-test was administered in September of 1970 and the post-test in April Of 1971. A11 faculty were tested within two or three days of the same testing date of students. Because of the district's high student and faculty "turnover" the possible alternative of testing from September 1970 to September 1971 was not employed. In addition to the use of an instrument to collect data on attitudes, this study collected data from sources revealing such givens as student grade-point average (G.P.A.), attendance records, drop-out rate, and enrollment figures. These product tools provided some Of the answers for "general questions to be answered." Analysis of Data The instrument entitled What DO You Think About Your Schools? contains forty-five items for students and sixty items for teachers. In analyzing the test, it was initially felt not all of the items pertained to either students or teachers attitudes, per se, toward school. Therefore, the decision was made to reduce the test to three individual scales or indices of attitude toward school for both the student and teacher battery. 62 This development Of three scales was designed to produce two results: reduce the number of items per test to a more manageable size and eliminate those items within each section not specifically related to a direct index of attitude toward school. Heretofore, only reliability had been established for the total test battery. Since no reliability existed for sections Of the batteries, it was determined that reli- ability should be established for scales. Therefore, a Hoyt Reliability Test was calculated for the items to establish the reliability of specific items within each scale. Table 1 presents the reliability of the scales numbered one, two and three for students.‘ Table 2 presents a similar information for teachers. Table l. Hoyt reliability of three scales within student battery. n=923 Students n=923 Pre-Test Post-Test Mean S.D. Reliab Mean ‘S.D. Reliab Scale 1 2.82 5.09 .7761 2.72 5.86 .8372 Scale 2 2.22 2.45 .6253 2.05 2.74: .7184 Scale 3 3.03 4.77 .6725 2.91 5.67 .7536 63 Table 2. Hoyt reliability Of three scales within teacher battery. n=47 Faculty n=47 Pre-Test Post-Test Mean S.D. Reliab Mean S.D. Reliab Scale 1 3.12 3.84 .6848 3.24 3.55 .6478 Scale 2 3.48 3.11 .6419 2.96 2.86 .6430 Scale 3 2.89 2.75 .2821 2.96 2.43 .2876 The three scales as they are constructed measure attitudes toward school in items one through nine within scale one, items ten through thirteen within scale two, and items fourteen through twenty-four within scale three. They are entitled, respectively, "Satisfaction with School," "How School Compares," and "Satisfaction with School Program." See Tables 3 and 4 for specific questions within each scale for students and teachers. All three scales, when administered to students, indicate a fairly high degree of reliability from pre-test to post-test, leading to the conclusion that the items within a scale seem to be homogeneous. All three scales, when administered to the faculty, again show a degree Of homogeneity from pre-test to post- test. With the exception Of scale three, the reliabilities indicate a sufficiently high enough reliability to proceed 64 Table 3. Student scale items. Scale Item One Satisfaction with School Ql How well do you like school? Q2 DO you feel you are "one of the group" in your school? Q3 Generally, how well do you think your teachers know you? Q4 Generally, do you think your teachers are inter- ested in you as a person? Q5 Generally, do you feel that your teachers are willing to help you when you have a problem? Q6 How proud are you of your school? Q7 How satisfied are you with your school? Q8 How interested are you in the future of your school? Q9 How much of what you are studying in school do you think will be valuable to you? Two How School Compares Do you feel that your school compares favorably with other schools that you know about in: 010 Curriculum? Q11 Teaching Staff? Q12 Building? Q13 Equipment? Three Satisfaction with School Program Q14 How much do you think you are learning from your studies? Q15 Is there a chance for you to attend as many school parties, plays, games and clubs as you would like to? 65 Table 3.--Continued Scale Item 016 How much work do you have to do to "keep up" in your school studies? Q17 How much homework do you have? Q18 Does your school Offer as many extra-curricular activities as you would like to see offered? Q19 Does your school create enough interest in extra- curricular activities? Q20 Does your school Offer a wide enough choice of courses for you to take? Q21 Are there subjects you would like to take that are not Offered by your school? 022 How much help do you get from the librarian when you go to the school library? Q23 How do you feel about the money you have to Spend for extra-curricular activities? Q24 How much of what you are studying do you think will be of use to you? 66 Table 4. Teacher scale items. Scale Item One Satisfaction with School Q1 How well do you think your students like school? Q2 Do you feel that, in general, students in your class accept each other as "one of the group"? Q3 In general, how well do you think you know your students? Q4 In general, to what extent do you show a personal interest in each Of your students? Q5 In general, to what extent are you willing to help students when they have problems? Q6 How much pride do you have in your school system? Q7 In general, how satisfied are you with the schools in your district? Q8 How interested are you in the future Of the schools in your district? Q9 How much of what your students are studying in school is of value to them? Two How School Compares Do you feel that the secondary schools in your district compare favorably with other schools you know about in: Q10 Curriculum? Qll Teaching Staff? 012 Building? Q13 Equipment? Three Satisfaction with School Program Q14 How much do you think your students are getting from their studies? Q15 Is the opportunity made easily available for all students to attend as many of the school parties, plays, games and clubs as they would like to? ‘ 67 Table 4.--Continued. Scale Item Three Satisfaction with School Program Q16 How do you feel about the amount of work assigned to your students in order for them to "keep up" with their class work? Q17 How much homework do you assign to your students? Q18 Does the school Offer as many extra-curricular activities as you would like to see Offered? Q19 Does the school create enough interest in students to stimulate them to partake in extra- curricular activities? Q20 Does your school Offer a great enough variety in the courses it Offers its students? Q21 Are there courses which should be offered your students that are not now being offered to them? 022 How much help do your students get from the librarian when they go to the school library? Q23 How do you feel about the money children have to spend for extra-curricular activities and fees that are required? Q24 How much of what your students are studying will be of use to them after they leave school? 68 with the use of the three scales. The reason for the low reliability of scale three is explored in Chapter Four. Analysis Of variance programs are often used to measure gain scores between pre-test, post-test and estab— 1ished norms for individual items. However, this par- ticular statistical tool was not appropriate in this study as the group norms were not transformable to individual norms upon which individual gain scores could be calculated. The following alternate statistical tool was used to determine if, in fact, a shift in attitude toward school on the part of students and teachers was apparent. A Chi-Square test was applied to individual items to deter- mine any difference in distribution and proportionality between students and teachers and between the pre-test and post-test. The Fisher Exact test of probability was applied to items, collectively, within each of the three scales. The Fisher Exact test is an especially good tool to use when the sample size is less than 20. Since the three scales individually contained less than 20 items, the application Of the Fisher Exact was undertaken to determine the relationship between Observed and expected frequencies of occurrence of questions in the categories for students and teachers. For each scale, the Fisher Exact test was applied to a null hypothesis: 69 "There is no shift in attitude scores, over a period of time, between students and teachers." In addition to the statistical data on survey scores, the analysis of certain other data, which proved not testable but provided the basis upon which the "general questions to be answered" were treated, are presented in table and narrative form in Chapter Four. Summary An attitude survey was selected to test whether any shift in attitude toward school, on the part of students and teachers, occurred over time. The instrument was applied to a total population of teachers and students at Okemos High School in September of 1970 and again in April of 1971. Only two batteries (one for student and one for faculty) of the five battery test were used. Reliability coefficients for each item within each of the two batteries indicate high degree of reliability for a group test and were re-calculated after it was deter- mined not to use all the available items of each battery. The reliability coefficients which resulted from applying the Hoyt Reliability test were high enough to proceed with three scales, totaling twenty-four items. Because of the inability to transform given group norms Of the surveys to individual norms, the technique Of 70 applying an analysis of variance was rejected in favor of applying a Chi-Square test to each individual item and a Fisher Exact test to scale results. Detailed analysis of this technique and other product tools are examined in Chapter Four. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction The statistical analyses of all data for this study were done at either the Computer Center at Michigan State University or the Computer Center at the Ingham Inter- mediate School District in Mason, Michigan. Other information has been provided as a result of specially designed computer programs whose purpose was to extract necessary information from student records at Okemos High School. Analysis of the Data The information provided in this section represents the results Of the application of two statistical tools upon the raw data produced by the survey, What DO You Think About Your Schools? In addition to the use of the Fisher Exact test and the Chi-Square test, certain other information which was not testable nor supported by statistics is analyzed to yield additional information upon which to base conclusions. 71 72 It is because results Obtained in samples do not always agree exactly with theoretical results expected, according to rules of probability, that the Chi-Square (x2) test is used. The measure of the discrepancy existing between Observed and expected frequencies is supplied by the statistic x2. The test was applied to a null hypothesis (HO) which said: There is no shift in attitude scores, over a period of time, between students and teachers. The results of student and teacher pre-test and post-test scores were calculated to fit into Chi-Square contingency tables, and into these two-way classification tables were placed the Observed frequencies (f0) and the calculated expected frequencies (fe). In addition to calculating the Chi-Square by item, by scale, each scale was subjected to the Fisher Exact test of probability to determine the relationship between Observed and expected frequencies of occurrence of responses to questions in the categories for students and teachers. The Fisher Exact test was used because of its suitability of determining probability of occurrence of items when the sample size is less than 20. The results of each of these two tests are pre- sented, by scale first and with specific item analysis following. 73 Scale one, items one through nine contained ques- tions pertaining to student and teacher satisfaction with school. The questions called for respondents to provide some measure of satisfaction with broad questions relating from how well he liked school to how much value the courses had for him. Frequency cells of the Fisher Exact test contingency tables one through three are determined by awarding a score of one to whichever score was highest, pre-test or post- test for students and then teachers. Therefore, for scale one, the contingency cells illustrate there were seven pre-test scores higher for students than post-test and two post-test scores higher than the pre-test. Faculty cells illustrate only two pre-test scores higher than post-test scores and eight post-test scores higher than pre-test scores. The ninth score had no gain or loss from pre-test to post-test and was therefore discounted. Table 5 illustrates the results of the Fisher Exact test applied to scale one. To test Ho, the observed frequencies were compared to frequencies expected under the HO as presented in 109 Siegel's table of critical values for the Fisher Exact test. The significance level Observed was p > .05. 109Sidney Siegel, Non Parametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, (New York: McGraw-Hill,'1956), 256-270. 74 Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected; there is a difference between students and teachers for the proportion of items reflecting a positive attitude shift. In other words, there is a difference between student and teacher for p for those items showing a positive attitude shift. For students, only two Of the items show a positive atti- tude shift while for teachers, all items but one show a positive attitude shift. Table 5. Fisher Exact test--sca1e one. Pre Post Total Student 7 2 9 Teacher 2 6 8 Total 9 8 l7 Within scale one, each Of the nine items were subjected to the Chi-Square test to determine the discrep- ancy between observed and expected frequencies. Table 6 illustrates, by item with scale one, student and teacher pre-test and post-test percentile scores with item x2 significance at p > .05. 75 Table 6. Chi Square analysis Of scale one items. Pre Post X2 Sig Item Stu Tch Stu Tch p > .05 1. Likes School 66.8 63.8 62.5 69.8 .4581 2. Student Feels Part of Group 55.6 83.0 51.4 76.7 .0051 3. Teacher Knows Child 62.5 87.2 64.2 100.0 .2161 4. Teacher Interest in Child 60.3 95.7 65.8 97.7 .1513 5. Teacher Gives Help 83.7 100.0 77.3 100.0 .1676 6. Proud Of School 77.0 85.1 72.1 90.7 .3680 7. Satisfaction with School 74.5 70.2 63.9 79.1 1.3290 8. Interest in School Future 71.4 95.7 65.8 100.0 .0616 9. Value of Studies 58.7 72.3 45.8 67.4 .4631 76 110 "percentile According to Glass and Stanley's points of Chi square distribution," the value of x2 with one degree of freedom at the .05 level of significance, its value must be larger than 3.84 in order to show any relationship between f0 and fe. It can be concluded that no relationship exists between f0 and fe. Therefore, the Ho applied to specific items is not rejected. However, by examining individual table cells and comparing pre-test and post-test scores between students and faculty it can be Observed that with two exceptions, student attitude toward school declined over time. Teacher attitude toward school increased over time except in one item. In addition, the proportion and distance of positive scores between student and teacher appear extreme except for item one. Scale two, items ten through thirteen contained questions pertaining to student and teacher comparisons of their school with other high schools they know. The questions called for the respondents to provide some measure of comparison to questions regarding curriculum, teaching staff, the physical plant and equipment. For scale two, the contingency table cells (Table 7) illustrate there were three questions with a 110G. V. Glass and J. C. Stanley, Statistical Methods in Education and Psychology (New Jersey: Prentice- —II—I_—Ha , 9703, p. 520. 77 higher pre-test score than post-test score. There were no items with a higher post-test score than pre-test. The faculty cells indicate no pre-test scores higher than post- test and all four post-test items in scale two were higher than the pre-test. Table 7. Fisher Exact test--sca1e two. Pre Post Total Student 3 0 3 Teacher 0 4 4 Total 3 4 7 By again comparing fo to fe in the table of criti- cal values for the Fisher Exact test, the significance level observed was p > .05. The HD was again rejected. There is a difference between students and teachers for the proportion Of items reflecting a positive attitude shift. Within scale two, each of the four items were again tested for x2. Table 8 illustrates x2 at p > .05. By examining the table for x2 analysis of scale two (Table 8) it can be concluded that the Ho was not rejected. By analysis of individual cells, and comparing pre- test and post-test between students and teachers, it is 78 (evident that with one exception student attitude toward school has declined over time. The one exception shows no apparent shift for students in the area of curriculum. Teacher attitude in all four items shows an increase in attitude toward school from pre-test to post-test. The distance and proportion of scores between students and teachers appear less extreme than scale one. Table 8. Chi Square analysis of scale two items. Pre Post X2 Sig Item Stu Tch Stu Tch p > .05 .10..Curriculum 82.4 91.5 82.4 95.3 .0102 11. Teaching Staff 78.6 82.2 73.1 86.0 .3193 12. Building 55.8 57.4 42.3 65.1 2.3882 13. Equipment 71.8 53.2 58.7 65.1 2.5049 four except item nineteen which is for students only. Scale three includes items fourteen through twenty- These items deal with student and teacher attitude toward the satisfaction Of the school program. effectiveness Of studies to value Of studies. Questions range from The Fisher Exact test contingency table (Table 9) illustrates nine student pre-test scores higher than 79 post-test, and two post-test scores higher than pre-test. Teacher cells show four pre-test scores higher than post- test and six post-test scores higher than pre-test. Table 9. Fisher Exact test--scale three. Pre Post Total Student 9 2 11 Teacher 4 6 10 Total 13 8 21 Using the table of critical values for the Fisher Exact test, it is apparent, that for scale three p > .05 and therefore HO has not been rejected. There is no dif- ference between students and teachers for the proportion of items reflecting a positive attitude in scale three. For specific items within scale three, each of the eleven items were calculated for x2. Table 10 illustrates x2 at p > .05. Analysis of individual cells indicates a less uni- form shift in attitude between students and teachers from pre-test to post-test. However, it appears as though in at least one critical item, "usefulness of subjects," both students and teachers have shifted their attitude to that of a less positive posture from pre-test to post-test. 80 Table 10. Chi Square analysis of scale three items. 2 . Pre Post X Sig Item Stu Tch Stu Tch p > .05 14. Effectiveness of Studies 78.2 72.3 69.8 90.7 2.2593 15. Part in Extra- Curricular 70.2 80.9 65.4 83.7 .2262 Activities 16' Am°unt 0f work t0 76.0 70.2 69.0 67.4 .0484 Keep Up 17. Amount Of Homework 22.9 27.7 28.0 27.9 .2555 18. Enough Extra- ’ Curricular 78.6 83.0 67.7 90.7 3.3300 Activities 19. School Creates In- terest in Extra- __ __ Curricular 71'4 58'9 Activities 20. Variety of Sub- jects 86.3 89.4 81.0 93.0 .2561 21. Subjects Wanted-- Not Taught 41.0 61.7 23.5 51.2 .8426 22. Help from Librarian 27.5 61.7 23.5 51.2 .0103 23' M°ney Needed f°r 89 1 57 4 85 6 48 8 2246 School ' ' ' ' ' 24. Usefulness of Subjects 78.2 85.1. 68.2 79.1 .0790 81 It can be concluded from scale three x2 scores that HO has been rejected. In addition to the survey used to determine any shift in attitude toward school, certain other information was gathered to deal with general questions to be answered by this study. Although this information has not been sub- jected to statistical analysis, it does present indices Of student attitude toward school and provides answers to questions regarding the purpose of this study. The problem of drop-outs from school has always been a source of concern and embarrassment for educators. The State of Michigan has several categories under which students are classified when they leave school before graduation. Table 11 presents these categories and the number of students, by category, leaving Okemos High School for the year 1969-70, and Table 12 presents similar infor- mation for the year 1970-71. By comparing the two tables dealing with drop-outs, the conclusion is reached that no apparent decrease in the actual "drop-out" rate has occurred. Within the "lack of interest," "employment," "marriage," "absent 10-30 days" and "other" categories, the actual indices of drop-out rate account for 35% of the withdrawals in 1969-70 and 46% of the withdrawals in 1970-71. The 11% increase in withdrawal from 1969-1971 is noteworthy. 82 Table 11. Number and percentage Of students who left school before graduation from Okemos High School--l969-70. Reason for Sex % of % of Total Withdrawal Grade Boys Girls Total Withdr Enrollment Disciplinary 0 Lack of 12th-1 Interest 11th-l 2 0 2 3% '22% Transfers (Mich) 7 13 20 37% 2.2% Transfers (Other) 6 7 13 24% 1.4% Death 1 0 1 1% .11% Employment iitfl:3 9 3 12 22% 1.2% Marriage 11th 1 0 l 1% .11% Absent 10-30 12th-2 days 11th-3 5 0 5 9% .54% Other 0 0 0 Totals 31 23 54 Table 12. 83 Number and percentage Of students who left school before graduation from Okemos High SChOOl--l970-7l. Reason for Sex % of % of Total Withdrawal Grade Boys Girls Total Withrd Enrollment Disciplinary 0 Lack of Interest 1 0 . l 1.8% .16% Transfers (Mich) 9 8 17 30% 1.7% Transfers (Other) 4 7 11 20% 1.1% Death 1 0 1 1.8% .16% Employment 8 7 15 27% 1.5% Marriage 1 l p 2 3.6% .20% Absent 10-30 days 5 1 6 10% .60% Other 2 0 2 3.6% .20% Totals 31 24 55 84 An interesting tool upon which to base a judgment on the effect of the term system is student attendance. Table 13 shows the yearly average number of stu- dents missing, by hour, classes for 1969-70. The rates are given only for students who are unexcused; that is, with no parental permission for or acknowledgment of the absence. Table 13 indicates the totals Of unexcused absences for the 1969-70 school year and Table 14 repre- sents similar information for school year 1970-71. Table 13. Number and percentage of students classified as unexcused absent by class period--l969-70. % of Total Class Period Average NO. Absent Enrollment 1 17.8 1.090% 2 18.6 2.003% 3 18.0 2.003% 4 19.0 2.008% 5 19.0 2.008% 6 18.0 _ 2.003% 85 Table 14. Number and percentage Of students classified as unexcused absent by class period--l970-71. % of Total Class Period Average NO. Absent Enrollment 1 24.2 ‘ 2.540% 2 24.4 2.561% 3 25.2 2.643% 4 25.2 2.647% 5 23.5 2.477% 6 21.8 2.293% By examining the tables carefully it is apparent an increase is unexcused absences developed from school year 1969-70 to school year 1970-71. To say that this was due to the new organizational pattern of the term system would be premature since so many other variables Operate on the unexcused absence pattern. However, with the term system's flexibility there appears to have developed a subtle attitude on the part of students regarding the flexibility Of attendance expectations. Table 15 presents a comparison of the figures presented in the two preceding tables on unexcused absences. A third interesting collection of facts regarding the by-products of the term system deals with the enrollment 86 patterns of students for non-required courses, from 1969-70 to 1970-71. Table 15. Comparison of 1969-70 to 1970-71 percentage of total student body absences by class periods. 1969-70 1970-71 Hour % Hour % 1 1.090 1 2.540 2 2.003 2 2.561 3 2.003 3 2.643 4 2.008 4 2.647 5 2.008 5 2.477 6 2.003 6 2.293 Students are required, as of the 1970-71 school year, (Class Of 1975), to have earned at least one full credit, or four courses, in each of the following areas: Social Science - 1 credit (4 courses) Science - 1 credit (4 courses) Mathematics - 1 credit (4 courses) English - Instead of four courses, eight courses, or two credits are re- quired for graduation. In addition to earning these credits, over a four year period, students must accumulate twenty-two credits in 87 order to graduate. The only specified courses of the above listed requirements are two courses in government and eight specific English courses. For 1969-70, the only requirements for students, over a four year career, were the government requirement and twenty-two credits. NO specific course or departmental requirements were in effect for graduation, except those which were at the discretion of individual departments for the purpose Of continuity and concept development. With the increase in the number Of individual elective courses available to students, expecially in the areas of non- required courses and departments, a comparison of the student enrollments in departments not specifying gradua- tion requirements from 1969-70 to 1970-71 yields interesting information. Table 16 presents the Offerings in these "non- required" departments for 1969-70 with student enrollments. This is compared with the same date f8}'1970-71. Because the number of courses has increased for 1970-71, the figures for student enrollments are the number Of different students introduced to the department. That is, rather than counting the same student for two or three courses, he is counted once as an enrollee within the department. The findings indicate not as great a proportion enrolling in the Business and Home Economics areas as in the Art and Industrial Arts Departments from 1969-70 to 88 1970-71.: However, there is indicated an upward trend in different enrollees as a result of the increase in offerings. Table 16. Comparison of selected student enrollments for non-required departmental Offerings--l969-70 and 1970-71. 1969-70 1970-71 NO. NO. of NO. of No. of of NO. of No. Of .Dept. Tchrs Courses Enrollees Dept. Tchrs Courses Enrollees Art 2 4 362 Art 2 18 527 Bus. 3 10 356 Bus. 3 26 527 Home Home Ec. 2 9 346 BO. 2 12 368 Ind' 2 7 211 Ind' 2 12 297 Arts Arts A fourth collection of facts related to an attitude toward school centers around the grade-point average (G.P.A.) earned by students. If the term system does improve the attitude of students toward school, then an assumption re- garding a relationship existing between student interest in the term plan course work and academic achievement might follow. As in the three previous indices of attitude toward school, no effort has been made to correlate a given factor or condition with an attitude toward school. Rather, this report of G.P.A. will merely report any shifts from one 89 year to another based upon an assumption that there is a relationship between the given index and school attitude. Table 17 reports a comparison of G.P.A.'s from 1969-70 to 1970-71 using grades nine through eleven for 1969-70 and following those students to grades ten through twelve in 1970-71. In addition, a breakdown by sex is Offered. G.P.A.'s are calculated according to the following: A=4.00, B=3.00, C=2.00, D=l.00. Table 17. Comparison Of student grade-point averages from 1969-70 and 1970-71. 1969-70 G.P.A. 1970-71 G.P.A. + or - Grade 9 2.755 Grade 10 2.769 +.014 Grade 10 2.610 Grade 11 2.615 +.005 Grade 11 2.630 Grade 12 2.625 -.005 Male 2.490 Male 2.471 -.021 Female 2.593 Female 2.633 +.040 By comparing grade-point averages from school year 1969-70 and 1970-71 a generalized statement could be made that the G.P.A.'s did improve because of the term system. However, the distinction between grade levels and sexes is too fractional to conclude that there has been an increase in academic performance as measured by student G.P.A.'s. 90 Interpretation Of the Data The literature on organizations supports the theory that individual accommodation is strongly influenced by the social setting in which interpersonal relations occur. In this context, it is not surprising to find that the faculty, teaching courses they designed, teaching courses in areas Of their interest and expertise, possessing influence as change agents and interacting in a close, closed environ- ment show an increase in positive attitude scores from pre-test to post-test. The Fisher Exact test, used to establish the pro- portion and distribution of scores for pre-test and post- test between students and teachers, illustrates the increase referred to above. By referring to Tables 5, 7, and 9, the contingency tables point out the increase in positive atti- tude responses from the pre-test to the post-test, and also show a disprOportionate number of positive responses between the two groups from pre-test to post-test. It should also be pointed out that the Fisher Exact test and the Chi-Square tests reveal individual items Of «the total survey not discriminating between subjects and tests, while for total scales, the discrimination is taking place except in scale three. The calculation for the Fisher Exact test would support the fact that if you were a teacher, your chances for developing a positive attitude as the school year 91 progresses are high. Calculations for scale two support this same fact. Scale three results would tend to reject the notion that a change in attitude is probable. However, by considering again the low reliability of this scale as measured by the Hoyt Reliability test (.2821 at pre-test and .2876 at post-test) it would appear as though the faculty was less systematic in responding to the questions than were the students. That is to say, the questions were apparently not interpreted, for scale three, the same way by teachers as they were by students. Therefore, this leads to the conclusion that the probability Of teacher attitude becoming more positive could or could not occur. Students who have had little involvement in the curriculum building process and have no authority, no "stake" in the decisions regarding course structure, con- tent, 0: methods show a marked departure from those Of the faculty responses. The Fisher Exact test calculated for the three scales indicates that if you were a student the chances of your responses to all scale items shifting (decreasing) in value (positive attitude) would be greater than that Of the faculty. It may also be concluded that close analysis Of data reveals a wide difference of the perceptions that teachers have of students; wider indeed than the percep- tions students have Of students. This fact reveals that 92 the teachers feel a sense of positiveness for students; a greater sense of positiveness than students feel for them- selves. An examination of four groups of data investigating certain questions proposed by this study leads to the following interpretation: 1. There has been no decrease in the number or per cent of drop-outs from Okemos High School as a result of the term plan. There has been no decrease in unexcused absences at Okemos High School since the implementation Of the term system. Unexcused absences have, in fact, increased markedly over one year's period of time. There has been an increase in the number Of students taking courses from departments where there are no graduation requirements. There has been no significant increase in stu- dent grade-point averages over a year's time either between grades or among sexes. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction In this chapter, central ideas and elements based upon the results of the study are presented in a summary of the purpose, research design, findings, conclusions, and recommendations. Purpose and Design The purpose of this study was to assess the value of an organizational change, referred to as a term plan, within Okemos High School. The term plan altered the tradi- tional organization Of school curriculum and pattern Of subject matter organization. The study was designed to examine the attitudes toward school of students and faculty of Okemos High School as a result Of the introduction Of the term plan. The total population Of students and faculty was utilized. An instrument entitled What DO You Think About Your Schools?, developed by Michigan State University professor Dr. Herbert Rudman, was used to measure an attitude in 93 94 September, 1970 and again in April, 1971. This instrument was used to assess an attitude of: (l) satisfaction with. school, (2) how the school compares with other known high schools, and (3) satisfaction with the school program. The participants were asked to respond to twenty- four items a positive item. The of similar with a four point weight response ranging from attitude to a negative attitude toward a specific test for both students and faculty was comprised questions and percentage of favorable responses for both groups were calculated. The analysis of data was done in two steps: 1. A Chi-Square test of probability was calculated for each item within the test batteries. The purpose in using the Chi-Square test was to determine if any difference in distribution and proportion of responses existed between students and teachers and from pre-test to post-test. A Fisher Exact test was administered to each of the three scales or categories within the test batteries. The test was utilized in order to determine the relationship between observed and expected frequencies of occurrence of responses to questions. Using a collection Of other data, certain effects of student behavior within the organization were Observed. 95 Over a period of time from a traditional school organiza- tional pattern to the end of the term plans first year, the following data were collected: 1. Number and per cent of drop-outs from Okemos High School from 1969-70 to 1970-71, 2. Number and per cent of incidents of student unexcused absences from 1969-70 to 1970-71, 3. Number of students taking courses from depart- ments where there are no graduation requirements from 1969-70 to 1970-71, 4. Student grade-point averages, an index of student achievement, compared from 1969-70 to 1970-71, to determine if student interest was increased as a result of the term plan. Findings The results of this study produced several inter- esting findings. In terms of the review of literature on organizational climate and change, the following points were emphasized: 1. Most large organizations in American society, including schools, are bureaucracies. 2. Organizational structure will influence organizational climate and organizational climate will, in turn, influence the behavior of the members Of the organization. 3. 96 An individual's perception of a situation will influence his accommodation to that situation. An organizational alternative to a bureaucracy should facilitate achievement of stated goals and objectives, and maximize the use of the human resource of its members. An individual's participation in the organiza- tion is always affected by his position in the hierarchy. The more democratically an organization func- tions, the more favorable the responses of individuals will be in terms of reduced aggres- sion, more enjoyment, and more imaginative productivity. Increased participation across organizational lines in decision-making will result in greater commitment, involvement, concensus, unanimity of purpose, and motivation. A review of literature in the area Of the ESY con- cept reveals: 1. The ESY organization can save a school district and state millions of dollars in tax monies by increasing the use of building facilities and existing facilities. The ESY concept is an effective way of pro- viding an enrichment process for students 97 during the summer and it reduces the amount of deliquency in the summer. For some schools the ESY is a means Of changing the organization of the school to provide a better education for students. The ESY has failed in many attempts due to administrative inconvenience and lack of follow-through by key personnel with the organization. Theoretically the costs of maintenance and upkeep and additional salaries outweigh savings. The ESY has failed often due to a perceived rejection Of the concept on the part of parents and teachers. Very little research into the effect Of student involvement and teacher involvement in the planning and implementing of the program has been done. In terms of attitude toward school as a result of the development and implementation Of the term plan it was learned: 1. If you were a teacher in the high school at Okemos, the probability of your attitude toward your school improving, over a period of time from pre-test to post-test, was high. 98 2. If you were a student in high school at Okemos, the probability of your attitude toward your school not increasing, over a period of time from pre-test to post-test, was high. An examination of individual items within the sur- vey revealed several interesting results. However, given the lack of statistical support of the results, the fol- lowing points regarding students and teachers, must be treated as gross observations and not finite facts: 1. Specifically, within scales of the survey there was found for students: a. a decrease in students "liking" school, b. a decrease in a feeling of pride for the school, c. a decrease in feeling satisfied with the school, d. a decrease in feeling concerned for the future of the school, e. a decrease in perceiving courses as valu- able for the student, f. a decrease in perceiving courses as being effective, g. a decrease in perceiving courses as being useful. 2. Specifically, within scales of the survey, there was found for teachers: a. 99 a wide difference in teachers perceptions of students' attitudes toward school as compared to students actual attitude toward school, a change in direction towards a perceived value of studies for students, an increase in positive attitude toward the total curriculum Of the school, an increase in positive attitude toward the effectiveness of the courses, a change in direction towards a perceived usefulness of studies for students. The information collected regarding indices of interest in school from 1969-70 to 1970-71 revealed the following findings: 1. There has been no decrease in the drop-out rate as a result of the term plan. There has been no decrease in the number or per cent Of unexcused absences as a result of the term plan. There has been an increase in the number of students taking courses from departments where there are no graduation requirements. There has been no significant increase in stu- dent grade-point averages as a result of the term plan. 100 Conclusions Literature in the field of organizational research points out the nature Of the organization and degree of involvement for individuals within that organization will have an effect upon the behavior and attitude of its members. The findings of this study represent the percep- tions of individuals within an organization and by impli- cation their attitude toward their involvement in that organization. The following conclusions seem warranted based upon the findings in this study: 1. Teachers, who have been involved in decisions regarding the direction and form Of an organi- zation behave in a positive way as a result Of their involvement in decision-making. Teachers, given the Opportunity to create guidelines for the behavior Of students, will show an increase in positive attitude. Teachers, having Opportunities to develop an organization which better accommodates their needs, tend to behave in ways which will sup- port and perpetuate that organization. Students, having little opportunity for involve- ment in the decision-making process regarding those decisions which affect their time and energy within an organization do not reflect a wholly positive attitude towards that organiza- tion. 101 5. Students, given little or no Opportunity for modifying the controls placed upon them by those in the hierarchy of an organization, over time, tend to show a decrease in positive atti- tudes toward the organization. 6. Students, having little or no opportunities to develop an organization which better accommo- dates their needs tend to behave in ways which show a lack of commitment or a lack of motiva- tion for the organization's development. 7. Traditional indices of interest in school have not shown significant change to warrant con- cluding that the term plan has created more interest in school for students. 8. The first step toward the implementation of the ESY for Okemos has not indicated an in- crease in positive attitude towards school for students. 9. The implementation of a new organizational pattern will not, by itself, effect positive gains for the organization. Recommendations Perhaps the most striking conclusion reached as a result of this study is the fact that organizational change 102 by itself will not appreciably alter the behavior of all the members of that organization in a positive way. With this fact in mind, the following recommenda- tions are made: 1. The results of this study suggest further study into the organizational processes of Okemos High School for the purpose of maximizing human resources. The time table of movement toward the ESY, with its specific goal Of improving the educational program, should be re-examined to provide for new organizational processes to be developed. A broader decision-making and involvement process for both students and faculty should be developed. This process should include: (a) an opportunity for all members of the stu- dent body and faculty to be involved in the organizational processes of the school, (b) in- service training for students and teachers regarding decision-making processes, (c) a vehicle for interaction between teachers, stu- dents, and administrators. A decision-making process should be implemented which provides both students and teachers the Opportunity to: (a) identify problems, (b) set problem priorities, (c) diagnose problems, 103 (d) develop and share data concerning problems, (e) institute joint action planning with several alternatives developed, (f) implement and test selected alternatives, and (g) periodi- cally review implemented plans Of action. The creation of a representative, all-school government where student and teacher concerns can be acted upon by the total school community could serve as the vehicle mentioned in recom- mendation three. This government would have the power to enact changes reached through the decision-making process outlined in recommenda- tion four. The development of a decision-making and decision-sharing process should be accompanied by a heightened awareness on the part of teachers that student attitudes toward school may be improved by allowing for more inter- action and involvement in the classroom. A simple, short survey instrument should be developed or adapted to periodically assess student and teacher attitude toward their school. 104 This study has focused primarily on the atti- tudes of students and teachers toward their school. A second, more definitive study should be undertaken to assess the actual effective- ness Of courses within the term plan. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbott, M. G., and Lowell, J. T., eds. Charge Perspectives in Educational Administration. Auburn, Alabama: Auburn University, School of Education, 1965. Adams, Andrew. "Look Hard at This Year-Round School Plan." 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Feasibility Study, A. A Study Prepared for the Findlay Public Schools. Findlay, Ohio: May, 1968. Feasibility Study, A.: Year-Round Schools for Polk County, Florida. A Study Preparedlfor Polk County, Flofida. Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida College of Education, 1966. Feasibility Studerroposal, A. A Study Prepared for the Ann Arbor Public Schools. Ann Arbor, Michigan: January, 1969. Fiedler, F. E. "Styles of Leadership." Current Perspectives in Social Psychology, New York: OxfOrd University Press, 1967, 498-504. Fitzpatrick, Dave. "Why Nova School Switched to Three Seventy Day Trimesters." Nations Schools, LXXVII (April, 1966). Fitzpatrick, William J. "All Year School, Pro and Con." School and Society, LXXXVI (April, 1958), 191-192. "Four Plans for Extending the School Year." National Educa- tion Association Journal, (May, 1961). Four Quarter School Year. A Status Report with Pertinent Application to Cincinnati. Cincinnati, Ohio: Cincinnati Public Schools Department Of Research, Statistics, and Information, 1958. French, J. R. P., et al. "A Study of Threat and Participa- tion in an Industrial Performance Appraisal Program." Behavioral Research Service Report. General Electric Co., 1962, 118-119. Gerth, H. H., and Mills, C. W., trans. and eds. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1946. 109 Gibb, J. R. "In Search of Leaders." American Association for Higher Education, (1967), 55-66. Gillis, Reid. The Twelve Month School: A New Approach. Atlanta, Georgia, 1969. . "The Twelve Month School Year: Plans and Strategy." Education Summary, (September 1, 1968), Glass, G. V., and Stanley, J. C.- Statistical Methods in Education and Psychology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1970. Gordon, C. W. The Social Syerem of the Hi h School. ‘ Glencoe, Illifiois: Free Pressfll9 7. Gouldner, A. W. Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press OfiGlencoe, 1954. Greider, Clavin. "Let's Lengthen the School Year." Nations Schools, LXII (August, 1958), 28-29. Griffiths, D. E. Administrative Theory. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1959. Gurin, G., et a1. Americans View Their Mental Health. New York: Basic Books, 1960. Halpin, A. W. Theory and Research in Administration. New York?* MacMillan Co., 1966. Hamblin, R. S., et a1. "Group Morale and Competence of the Leader." Sociometry, XXIV (1961), 294-311. Hannah, J. A. "How to Escape from a Three Sided Box." Michigan Educational Journal, XXXXII (1964), 8-10. Hartsell, Horace C. "The Twelve Month School." Bulletin 9f the National Association of Secondary SCHOOI Principals, XXXVII YDecember, 1953i, 18-33. Hicks, Maynard. "The Stevenson Story." 229 American School Board Journal, (August, 1964), 57-58. Higginbotham, James M. "School, How Long?" Florida Schools, (March-April, 1969). 110 Holmes, G. W., and Seawell, W. H. "Extended School Year, Is It Administratively Feasible?" High School Journal, XXXXVII (1964), 224-229. "Increased Interest in Longer School Year." School and Society, March, 1969. Jensen, George M. "Year-Round School: Can Boards Sidestep It Much Longer?" American School Board Journal, July, 1969. Johnson, R. D. "What Are the Evidences of Need for a Year- Round Educational Program?" A Summary of a Presentation. Bulletin of the National Association of Seeendary School Principals, XXVII (April, 1953), 325-327. Kehoe, Ray E. A Letter to Mr. Hazen Schumaker, President Of Ann Arbor Board of Education. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Bureau of School Services, University of Michigan, March 6, 1968. Kornhauser, A. "Mental Health of Factory Workers." Human Organization, XXI (1962), 43-46. Kosl, S., and French, J. P. "The Effects of Occupational Status on Physical and Mental Health." Journal of Social Issues, XVIII (1962). Lambardi, J. "Los Angeles Study of Year-Round Operation." Theory Into Practice, 1962, 131 ff. Leavitt H. "Applied Organizational Change in Industry." Handbook Of Organizations, eg, J. G. March. Chicago: Rand, McNally and Company, 1965. "Lengthening the School Year." Nations Schools, LXII (December, 1958), 6. Lesieru, F. The Scanlon Plea. Cambridge: Technology Press of M.I.T., 1959. "Los Angeles Rejects Plan for Keeping Schools Open Year- Round: Calls It Costly, Inconvenient." Nations Schools, LV (February, 1955), 120-122. MacGregor, D. M. The Human Side of Enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960: MacPherson, Vernon D. "Keeping Schools Open All Year." Nations Schools, LVI (September, 1955), 51-54. 111 March, J. G., and Simon, H. A. Organizations. New York: Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1958. Merton, R. K. "The Unanticipated Consequences of Purposive Social Action." American Sociological Review, I (1936), 894-904. Millius, Peter. "Ugh! Support is Growing Again for Twelve Month School Year." The Washington Post, 1969. Morse, N., and Reimer, E. "The Experimental Change of a Major Organizational Variable." Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, LII (1956), 120-129. Naegle, K. D. "Clergymen, Teachers, and Psychiatrists: A Study in Roles and Socialization." Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, XX (1956), 46-62. Oldham, Francis H. "Length Of the School Day and the School Year." Bulletin Of the National Association of SecondarySchooliPrincipals, XXXXVI (September, 19627, 194-198. Parker, T. C. "Relationships Among Measures of Supervisory Behavior, Group Behavior and Situational Character- istics." Personnel Psychology, XVI (1963), 319-344. Parsons, Talcott. "Pattern Variables Revisited." American Sociological Review, XXV (1960), 481-482. . Structure and Progess in Modern Societies. Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1960. , et a1. Working Papers in the Theory Of Action. Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1953. Patterson, Carl Emmanuel. The Extended School Year inthe State of Utah. A Study Prepared By the Utah State Boara of Education. Salt Lake City, Utah: Utah University Department Of Educational Administration, June, 1966. POrtery L. W. "Job Attitudes in Management: Perceived Deficiencies in Need Fulfillment as a Function Of Job Level." Journal_of Applied Psychology, XXXXVI (December, 19627, 375-3847 PreSthus, R. The Organizational Society. New York: Random House, 1962. 112 Quick, Gordon L. "The Advantages of Extending the School Year." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska, 1966. Radke, M. J., and Klesurich, D. "Experiments in Changing Food Habits." Journal Of American Diet Association, XXIII (1947), 403-409. Report Prepared by a Citizens Advisory Committee, A. Jefferson County, Colorado: May, 1964. Report Prepared for the Board Of Education, A. Hartford, Connecticut: May, 1969. Report Prepared for the Utica Public Schools, A. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, March, 1968. Rescheduled School Year, The. A Report Prepared by the National Education Association Research Division. Washington: 1968. Roethlesberger, F. J., and Dickson, W. J. Management and the Worker. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1939. Ross, J. G., and Hendry, C. New Understandings of Leader- ship. New York: Association Press, 1957. Schneider, L. A. "A Proposed Conceptual Integration Of Group Dynamics and Group Therapy." Journal of Social Peychology, LII (1955), 173-187. Selznick, P. TVA_andrrhe Grass Roots. Berkley, California: University of California Press, 1949. Siegel, Sidney. NonParametric Statistics fer the Behavioral Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1956. Simon, H. A. Administrative Behavior, 2nd ed. New York: MacMillan Co., 1957. . "Recent Advances in Organization Theory." Brookings Lectures. Washington, D.C.: Brookings, (I9557, 28-29. Sternig, John. "Roundup on the Year-Round School." National Education Association Journal, XXXXVII (January, 1958). 113 Strauss, G. "Some Notes on Power Equalization." Readin s in Organizational Theery: A Behavioral Approach. Ed., W. A. Hill and D. Egan. BostOn: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1960. Sullivan, H. S. "Tensions: Interpersonal and Interna- tional." Tensions That-Qause Wars. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1950. "Superintendents Reject All Year School Plans: Teachers and Buildings Need Three Months to Recoop and Repair." An Opinion Poll Reported in Nations Schools, LV (May, 1955). "This is the Extended School Year." School Management, February, 1966. Thompson, V. A. "Hierarchy, Specialization and Organiza- tional Conflict." Administrative Science Quarterly, V (1961), 485-521. "Trimester Plan Moves Nova Novel." Nations Schools, LXXVII (April, 1964), 84-87. Twelve Month Trimester School Year, The. Viewpoints of Dr. Brittan, former Superintendent of Schools. Midland, Michigan: Midland Public Schools, October 19, 1960. Vescaloni, Fred, et a1. "History Of the All Year School." A Portion Of a Paper Prepared for the Utica Public Schools Reproduced in the Feasibility Study for the Okemos, Haslett, and East Lansing School Districts, Okemos, Michigan, 1969, pp. 268-269. "warren Schools Drop Year-Round Studerroposal." The Macomb Daily, (Macomb County, Michigan), February 15, 1968. Waller, W. The Sociology of Teaching. New York: Wiley, 1932. wenger, Marjorie A. "Glencoe's Summer Program Has Two Aims: Competence and Enrichment." Nations Schools, LXIV (October, 1959), 58-63. "What One Town Learned in Ten Years of Year-Round School." U.S. News and World Report, XXXXIII (August, 1957), 48-51. 114 White, Richard E. "A Board Member Looks At the Extended School Year." Education, March, 1968, 245-248. White, R. K., and Lippitt, R. Autocracy and Democracy. New York: Harper, 1960. Wilson, B. R. "The Teacher's Role: A Sociological Analysis." British Journal Of Sociology, XIII (1962), 15-32. Year-Round Education for Public Schools. A Report Pre- pared by the Charles E. Kittering Foundation, April, 1969. "Year-Round Schools--An Idea That's Coming Back; Way to End Overcrowding, Cut Need for New Buildings." U.S. News and World Report, XXXXII (March, 1957), 32-34 0 APPENDICES APPENDIX I .uomeneooo lee one .noseoeeoo Ame .uumun searches INC .EOHOOflHHDO AHV "How msoflumaouuoo onaomum>m an Om>wuoo mum as can « .. am. am. we. as. ‘nmeue>euu< HMHSUHHHSUIMngm CH “Hmm .. es. om. mo. om. noeosum mo nuosmeeuommum Emnmoum Hoonom mm. no. no. on. om. eunuch .maoonow ca ummHODsH mm. an. mm. mm. he. mHoonOm nufl3 sowuommmfluom mm. mm. «tom. tmb. ow. NHQmHO>mm mummeou maoonom II mm. mm. on. mp. OHHQU :« umouousH Honomoa mm. mm. mm. on. on. Hoonom mo odoum (I mm. me. mm. mm. mmflosum mo OsHm> II mm. mm. Hr. vm. mama mm>Hw Honomoe In mm. mm. hm. mm. oHfino msosx HOQOMOB u- on. mo. mm. me. noose mo sumo memos usmoonm it we. on. we. om. Hoonom oxflq maoonom nufl3 sofluommmflumm conumm usmumm auasomm usmozum Hamsm Houomm mumocooom humuswanm .ZMBH mudm mom Hmmafiflm Mm mmqoomum MOON Boomfi MZHmB DOM OD Blowosm omnwmoo moow>uom Hmfiusmmmm mm. om. mm. mm. ov. muomflnsm mo mmmsasmoma .. em. mm. mm. as. Hoosom pom ooomoz sumo: .. as. oo. we. em. consensus some news nu mm. om. on. mm. sesame nos pauses somehow I: no. mm. om. we. muOOMQDm mo humanm> :1 mm. mm. mm. on. mmfluw>wu0¢ HmasowHuOUImnuxm ca umwumusH mmumwuo Hoosom In mm. mm. on. Hm. moauw>wu04 HMHSOHHHDUumuuxm nonocm In mm. mm. mm. on. xuozmaom mo unsOEm II mm. an. em. mm. on mmmx Ou xuoz no #:5084 coupon usmnmm huaoomm usoosum Hanan Houomm whoocoowm mumucoewam .UmscflchUIlmBzmHUHmhmOU NBHAHmfiqum mmB 117 II II on. I: In mosmumwmmé >HOmH>Hom5m I: an. mm. mm. mm. omosonoum>o Hoonom wuflm pom cowumuflsmmuo Hoonom mm. mv. om. em. I: mcflsflmue HO>HHO me. no. he. on. mm. Hoonom HoEEsm mm. mm. on. Hm. Hm. mmfluw>fluo< HmHOOm on. Hm. mm. vm. II Emuoonm OHSuHOOHHmd mm. om. mm. mm. II sowumooom pasos vm. mm. mm. mm. om. :OHuMOSOM HOfloomm am. we. om. mm. mm. ocfiommm Hugomfiom mm. om. mm. mm. mm. Oficflau nuamom Hmucmz mm. Nm. Hm. mm. mm. sofluoouuou noommm no. Hv. mw. om. I: mocmoaso mu. av. mm. mm. II ucofioomam non me. mm. up. an. we. cowumcwfioxm amazon Odo HMOflmwnm on. mm. mm. mm. mm. gonna uom couumm usmuom huasomm usoosum Hamsm Houomm humocooom humusosmam .UOfiCflflGOUIImBZmHUHhEMOU MBHAHdeHmm mmB 118 I- on. mm. as. mm. noeue>epom HOOSUW CH muhnmhmm MO #mmhmfifiH mm. mm. mm. II II coflpmsuomcH auwssEEOUIaoonom II mo. mm. II II ucmumm HO umcomoe m.oHH£O 30cm mm. on. II II II moxme ommmuOcH ma. mm. mm. II II owumocmm mmow>nmm Ugo moxma II mm. Hm. II II mmmso>fluoommm «em II no. we. II II moosonomsou MonomOBIusoumm II mm. mH.I II II mcowumamm HonomoeIusmumm mm. mm. mm. II II ooamfianom mousse: Hm. mm. om. II II uOMEMOmcH mm Hoonom mm. mm. on. II II muwcsfifiou cw msumum muasomm we. as. mm. II II msowamaom MHHGOEEOUIaoonom msOfiumaom NuHGOEEOU II mm. mm. as. we. moauwaflomm pom ucmsmflsom oumoomos noose Hoosum couumm usoumm muasomm unopsum Hausa Houomm humocooom mumusoEOHm .UOfiGHUCOUIImBZmHUHhmmoo NBHAHmfiHAmm mmB APPENDIX II 119 I- amuse emume mmumm moumm do some on race mo ussosa II HmImb mmIvm thmm mmImm mmflufl>flu0¢ MMHOOflHHOOImuuxm ca pumm II mmImm mmIHm mmlom mmINm mowosum mo mmmsm>flpoommm Emnmoum Hoonom hmlmm ooaImm mmIom mhImn mmlmm unsusm .maoonom cw “monoucH nmIHm Hmlnm mmImm thHh mmImm maoosom sues :Oflpommmfiumm hmIHm mmumm mthe thon mbImm ,manmno>mm mummfioo maoonom II mmINm mmImm meon mmImn UHHQU ca ummumusH genomes vaom mmIHm mmIvm hmIHm omImm Hoonom mo ononm II mmImm NmImm hoIHm mmIvm moaosum mo wsam> I- amuse ooH monmm ooumo deem no>eo apropos II Hthm mmIHm omIvn Hthm pawno m3OGM Honomoa II mmIHm mthm mmImm thHb mmoouo mo pumm maoom unwosuw II mmIHm vaom thHn nmImm Hoonom oxen mHoonom spas sofiuommmwumm coupon ucmumm muasomm ucoooum Hamom Houomm humocooom wnmucoEmHm .Qm>mq NEHHHmdmomm mm.o mmB Bfl mmzomwmm mam¢m0>¢h m0 mwdezmummm m0 m02¢m d ZH Qmmmmmmxm mQOOmUm mmB Ebomfi mMQDBHfifid mBUHmBmHQ mqmzuoeos< oouflmoo mmOH>uom Hafiusmmmm sends emuoo mouse omumm sauna upcomosm no unmeasumno maueo meuae Neuoo mouse house Hoosom now “8682 mono: I- mouem mouem oouem msueo possesses soup name I- oeumm moumo Heueo amuse prunes so: ounce: somehow I- «mums Heumo mmumm mouse upcomosm no suoeuo> I- meume meumo Heumo mouem noeue>eso< uoasoeuusoumuuxm cfl umonmusH mmumono Hoonom I- mmumm mmuoe meneo mmumm noeseeeuoa HMHDOHHHOUImnuxm nonocm I- souom Neuoo amumm omuee ruozosom mo sauces souumm ucmumm muasoom unmosum menm Houomm mumocooom humusoEOHm .UODGHHGOUIImMQDBHfifid mBUHMBmHQ mam2¢m 121 II mmlom ovIvm mmImm mmImm mmsusssomm paw usoemwsom mumsoood usmsm soonom II II welsh II II oosmumsmms muOmflbsomsm II wamm mhImn omIvm smlmm omo30sono>o soosom ouwm pom cosponssmmso soonom sense mmumm manor omuem I- ossssoue possum Nthm thsh NmImb smImn mmImm soosom seesaw mmIvn hmIsm mmIsm smInm mmImm mmwus>suo< smwoom meumo oeueo reuse sense I- smuoonm unsusoosuos onINm smIbm mthb omlvw II coaumosom usoos mmImm shImo mmImm omem mhIme cosponsom smsommm omImm vaom mmIbm emImh emImn mssommm smsoosmm mmImh mmIom mmImm mbImh thmm Osswso nusmom spasms mouse mouse mouse mmumm mouse oosuomusoo summon mthm mmImm cos nmImm II moswossw memm mmImm mhImb mmImh II usosmomsm non conumm acoumm mussoom usmosum ssmsm Houomm msmocooom msmusmewsm .wmficflucOUIIwMODBHBBd mBUHMBmHQ mflmzfim 122 II mmImm mnIhm mmIom mmlsm mosus>suo¢ Hoosom as mucmsmm mo ammumusH Hvam mmIvv ooIvm II II cofiumEHOmsH muwssEEOU Hoosom II vamm mmlmm II II usoumm so sonomwe m.OHw£O 30cm omIom smImm II II II moxme ommouosH HmImn meom mhlmh II II omuoocom moos>nww UGO mmxoa II mmImm mmem II II mmmco>suommmm «an II mmImn mmImb II II moosouomsoo sonomoaIusmHmm II omImm mmlmm II II msosumsom HonomoeIucwumm mmIvh thsh NmImh II II omsmflsnsm mousse: mmImv mmIom NmImv II II ucmfisomcs mm Hoonom sbImm smImh mnImm II II SUACOEEOU as msumum Sassoon house mouse moumm I- I- nsosuosom sususssouusoosom maowumsmm MusGDEEOU couumm ucoumm wussomm ucoosum Hamsm Houomm msmosoomm humusmEmHm .UODGHHGOUIImmDDBHafid mBUHMBmHQ mam2¢m APPENDIX II I WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT YOUR SCHOOLS? (c) Herbert C. Rudman, 1967 This questionnaire represents one of several methods being used to analyze your school situation. Faculty mem- bers, parents Of school children, other adults, high school students, and grade school students are being asked to com- plete similar questionnaires designed to measure the reaction of the community to its schools. YOUR ANSWERS WILL BE COMPLETELY ANONYMOUS. DO NOT WRITE YOUR NAME ANYWHERE ON THIS FORM. Please check the statement that comes closest to answering each question. After completing this form, please return it to a proper collection point. Thank you so much for taking the time to complete this questionnaire. We need to know how you feel about your schools so that they can be made even better than they are today. 1. School District 2. Check one: Elementary Student 1. Secondary Student 2. Parent Of Student Enrolled in Public School 3. Patron (NO Children Enrolled in Public School) 4. Faculty Member 5. 123 124 Secondary Student Questionnaire How well do you like school? very well 1. _____ Quite well 2. _____ Very little 3. _____ Not at all 4. DO you feel that you are "one Of the group" in your school? Yes 1. _____ Usually 2. _____ Sometimes 3. ______ No 4. Generally, how well do you think your teachers know you? very well 1. _____ Somewhat 2. _____ Little 3'._____ Not at all I 4. Generally, do you feel that your teachers are interested in you as a person? Yes 1. _____ Somewhat 2. _____. Little. 3. ______ Not at all 4. Generally, do you feel that your teachers are willing to help you when you have a problem? Yes 1. Sometimes 2. 12. 125 Secondary Student Questionnaire Little 3. NO 4. How proud are you of your school? Very 1°._____ Some 2. ______ Little 3. _____ None 4. Do you feel that your school compares favorably with other schools that you know about in: Very Slightly Favorably Favorably, Favorably, Unfavorably Curriculum 1. _____ 2. _____ 3. _____ 4. ____ Tezigyf'g 1. _ 2. _ 3. __ 4. __ Building 1. ____ 2. ____' 3. ____ 4. ____ Equipment 1. 2. 3. ____ 4. ____ How satisfied are you with your school? Very satisfied 1. _____ Satisfied 2. ______ Dissatisfied 3. _____ Very dissatisfied 4. How interested are you in the future of your school? very interested 1. Interested 2. Disinterested 3. Very disinterested 4. 13. 14. 15. 16. 126 Secondary Student Questionnaire How much of what you are studying in school do you think will be valuable to you? Practically everything 1. Most 2. Half 3. Very little 4. How much do you think you are learning from your studies? A great deal 1. ______ Something 2. _____ A little 3. _____ Very little 4. Is there a chance for you to attend as many of the school parties, plays, games, and clubs as you would like to? ‘ Always 1 . __ Most of the time 2. _____ Once in a while 3. _____ Never 4. How much work do you have to do to "keep up" in your school studies? TOO much 1. About right 2. Not very much 3. None at all 4. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 127 Secondary Student Questionnaire How much homework do you have? None at all 1. _____ Little 2. _____. About right 3. _____ More than I can do 4. Does your school Offer as many extra-curricular activities as you would like to see Offered? All that are needed 1. ______ Most that are needed 2. _____ Few that are needed 3. _____ None that are needed 4. Does the school create enough interest in extra- curricular activities? A great effort is made 1. An effort is made 2. Little effort is made 3. NO effort is made 4. Does your school Offer a wide enough choice of courses for you to take? Wide choice 1. _____ Enough choice 2. _____ Little choice 3. _____ NO choice 4. Are there subjects that you would like to take that are not Offered by your school? Many 1. Some 2. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. Few They now have enough How much help do you get from 128 3. 4. go to the school library? All I need 1. Most of the help I need 2. Some of the help I need 3. I never use the school 4 library Secondary Student Questionnaire the librarian when you How do you feel about the money you have to spend for extra-curricular activities such as ball games, proms, yearbooks, and clubs? TOO much money About right Very little We don't have to pay How much of what you are studying do you think will be of use to you? Most About half Less than half Very'little Check the activities and services that you feel are essential to a good school curriculum? Not Waste Essential Essential Essential of Time Very Audio-visual 1 aids ' — Physical 1 Education ———— 129 Secondary Student Questionnaire Very Not Waste Essential Essential Essential of Time 27. Field Trips 1. 2. 3. 4. 28. Music 1. 2. i 3. 4. 29. Art 1. 2. 3. 4. 30. Hot lunch 1. 2. 3. 4. 31. Physical and dental exams 1' ———— 2' ———— 3' ———— 4‘ ———— 32. Job placement 1. 2. 3. 4. 33. Guidance 1. 2. 3. 4. 34. Speech correction 1’ ———— 2' ————> 3’ ————' 4' ———- 35. Mental health 1. 2. 3. 4. serVices ———— ———— ———— ———— 36. Remedial l. 2. 3. 4. reading — —— — -—- 37. Special education 1' -———- 2‘ ———— 3' ———— 4' ———— 38. Adult education 1. 2. 3. 4. 39. Agriculture 1. 2. 3. 4. programs —— —— — —— 40' S°°la¥ . . 1. 2. 3. 4. actiVities —- — —— —— 41. Summer school 1. 2. 3. 4. 42. Driver training 1. 2. 3. 4. 43. Is your school overcrowded? Very crowded Crowded Enough room k L» h) H C EXCESS space 44. 45. Does your school have all of the playground, laboratory, and classroom equipment that you feel it ought to have? All we need Adequate Could use more Lacking 130 1. Secondary Student Questionnaire How much interest do your parents show in your school work and related activities? A great deal Somewhat Very little None APPENDIX IV WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT YOUR SCHOOLS? (c) Herbert C. Rudman, 1967 This questionnaire represents one Of several methods being used to analyze your school situation. Faculty mem- bers, parents of school children, other adults, high school students, and grade school students are being asked to com- plete similar questionnaires designed to measure the reaction Of the community to its schools. YOUR ANSWERS WILL BE COMPLETELY ANONYMOUS. DO NOT WRITE YOUR NAME ANYWHERE ON THIS FORM. Please check the statement that comes closest to answering each question. After completing this form, please return it to a prOper collection point. Thank you so much for taking the time to complete this questionnaire. We need to know how you feel about your schools so that they can be made even better than they are today. 1. School District 2. Check one: Elementary Student 1. Secondary Student 2. Parent of Student Enrolled in Public School 3. Patron (NO Children Enrolled in Public School) 4. Faculty Member 5. 131 132 Faculty Questionnaire How well do you think that your students like school? Very well 1. _____ Quite well 2. ______ very little 3. _____ Not at all 4. Do you feel that, in general, the students in your class accept each other as "one of the group"? Yes 1. ______ Usually 2. ______ Sometimes 3. _____ NO. 4. In general, how well do you think you know your students? Very well 1. _____ Somewhat 2. _____ Little 3 . __ Not at all 4. In general, to what extent do you show a personal interest in each of your students? Much l. ______ Somewhat 2. ______ Little 3. _____ Not at all 4. In general, to what extent are you willing to help students when they have problems? Much 1. Somewhat 2. ll. 12. 13. 14. 133 Faculty Questionnaire Little 3. Not at all 4. How much pride do you have in your school system? Very much 1. ______ Some 2. ______ Little 3. _____ None 4. DO you feel that the elementary schools in your district compare favorably with other schools that you know about? Very Slightly Favorably Favorably Favorably Unfavorably Curriculum 1. 2. 3. 4. Teaching 1 2 3 4 staff '— ‘— '— '— Building 1. 2. 3. 4. Equipment 1. 2. 3. 4. Do you feel that the secondary schools in your district compare favorably with other schools that you know about? Very Slightly Favorably, Favorably Favorably Unfavorably Curriculum 1. 2. 3. 4. Teaching 1 2 3 4 staff ° ——-—- ' ————- ' ———— ° ———— Building 1. 2. 3. 4. H o N 0 LA.) 0 sh 0 Equipment 134 Faculty Questionnaire 15. In general, how satisfied are you with the schools in your district? Very satisfied 1-._____ Satisfied 2. _____ Dissatisfied 3. _____ Very dissatisfied 4. 16. How interested are you in the future Of the schools in your district? Very interested 1. _____ Interested 2. _____ Disinterested 3°._____ Very disinterested 4. 17. How much of what your students are studying in school is Of value to them? Practically l. everything -———— Most 2. Half 3. Very little 4. 18. How much do you think your students are getting from their studies? A great deal 1. Something 2. A little 3. Very little 4. 19. 20. 21. 22. 135 Faculty Questionnaire Is the opportunity made easily available for all stu- dents to attend as many of the school parties, plays, games, and clubs as they would like to? Always l. ______ Most of the time 2. ______ Occasionally 3. _____ Never 4. How do you feel about the amount of work assigned to your students in order for them to "keep up" with their class work? Too much work 1. _____ About right 2. _____ Not very much work 3. _____ Too little 4. How much homework do you assign to your students? None at all 1. ______ Little 2. _____ ApprOpriate for 3 class work ' -————- A great deal 4. Does the school offer as many extra-curricular acti- vities as you would like to see offered? All that are necessary 1. Most that are necessary 2. Few that are necessary 3. None that are necessary 4. 136 Faculty Questionnaire 23. Does the school create enough interest in students to stimulate them to partake in extra-curricular activities? All that is necessary 1. Most that is necessary 2. Little that is necessary —————- None that is necessary 4. 24. Does your school offer a great enough variety in the courses it offers its students? Wide variety 1. _____ Enough variety 2. ______ Little variety 3. _____ No variety 4. 25. Are there courses which should be offered your students that are not now being offered to them? Many l. ______ Some 2. _____ Few 3. ______ They now have enough 4. 26. How much help do your students get from the librarian when they go to the school library? All they need 1. Most of the help 2 they need ' -————- Some of the help they need .————— We have no library 4. 137 Faculty Questionnaire How do you feel about the money children have to spend for extra-curricular activities and fees that are required for books, gym, laboratories, and the like? Too much money 1. About right 2. Student's could 3. pay more —— We don't levy these 4. charges How much of what your students are studying will be of use to them after they leave school? Most l. _____ About half 2. _____ Less than half 3. _____ Very little 4. Check the activities and services that you feel are essential to a good school curriculum: 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. Very Not Waste Essential Essential. Essential of Time Audio-visual aids l. 2. 3. 4. Physical education 1' 2' 3' 4' ———— Field trips 1. 2. 3. 4. Music 1. 2. 3. 4. Art 1. 2. 3. 4. . H°t lunCh 1. 2. 3. 4. program ———— Physical and l. 2. 3. 4. dental exams 138 Faculty Questionnaire Very Not Waste Essential Essential Essential of Time 36. Job placement 1. 2. 3. 4. 37. Guidance l. 2. 3. 4. 38. Speech . 1. 2. 3. 4. correction -———- ———— ————» -———- 39. Mental health 1. 2. 3. 4. serv1ces -———- ———— '———- '———- 40. Remedial 1. 2. 3. 4. reading — —— —-—- -—— 41. Special education 1' — 2' — 3' — 4' —— 42. Adult education 1. 2. 3. 4. 43. Agriculture 1. 2. 3. 4. programs -———~ ———— —-——- ———— 44. Social activities l°-———— 2°-———+ 3' -——— 4"———— 45. Driver training 1. 2. 3. 4. 46. Summer school 1. 2. 3. 4. 47. Do you feel that the schools in your district are overcrowded? Very crowded l. Crowded 2. Enough room 3. Excess space 4. 48. Does your school have all of the playground, class- room, laboratory equipment it needs to enable you to do your best work? All we need 1. Adequate 2. 49. 50. 51. 52. Could use more Lacking 139 3. 4. Faculty Questionnaire Do you feel that you are getting enough supervisory assistance? Very much Adequate Little None Do you feel that there is a good relationship between the schools and the community? Very good Good Could be improved Poor 1. What is your estimate of the social in your community? Very good Good Could be improved Very low status Do you feel that the schools inform adequately about the school and the Excellent Good Fair POOI status of teachers the community school program? 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 140 Faculty Questionnaire Do you feel that the school board should publish the minutes of their meetings in the local papers? Always l. ______ Sometimes 2. _____ Occasionally 3. _____D Never 4. To what degree do you feel parent-teacher relation- ships are satisfactory? Very good 1. _____ Good 2. ______ Poor 3. _____ Very poor 4. To what degree do you feel parent-teacher conferences are desirable? Very desirable 1. _____ Desirable 2. _____ Some help 3. _____ Waste of time 4. To what degree do you feel PTA's are effective? Very effective 1. _____ Effective 2. ______ Slightly effective 3. _____ Waste of time 4. Do you feel that the school tax rate compares favorably with the level of services rendered? Very favorably 1. Favorably 2. 141 Faculty Questionnaire Unfavorably 3. Way out of line 4. 58. Do you know your students' parents as well as you would like to know them? Very well 1. _____ Well 2. _____ Little 3. ______ Not at all 4. 59. Do you feel that there is adequate communication between parents, administration, and school board? Excellent 1. ______ Good 2. ______ Fair 3. _____ Poor 4. 60. Do you feel parents show much interest in the school work and related activities of their children? A great deal 1. Somewhat 2. Very little 3. None 4.