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LI.......:(. 4 i) P. ...)).,.rl.,i.z ).1« .x . ,.13.r!.lll({.?ill! tr... . {5.5.3. .\........ .l ./ ;.\\...,. t ((5.1: 3.3.3.3.!!! .I)‘ ..\.:....\(l..l.7..a. 5):): . 5 (:7... .5. x... . .:.\.. tr r if!!! 11...... v {1111 (0:77!!! :91... . 3.... kg... 233.. . ...z........:...! 54.3: If, .7. (r .rfr... 314.1.- I. .11)? 3.319... fly L4.) D it"--l|, . fidhrvaH-flfiflflftll rlvdtlltw... . 3.27. 3.. 2.. b2! .2 “Yuri... .1! 3.575)... 103.!!an ‘ . ,l..us.lflrf{f.$ $17.3.IIf-ilf 1. 11.91.13) 1......) t. .21).. 1.4.2.1.... shift/111:1... (I 5.1)??? .. . 2.. :11: LIBRARY Michigan. 39:2 to University THESIS This is to certifg that the thesis entitled SPATIAL ASPECTS OF WATER RESOURCE PROBLEMS IN THE SAGINAW RIVER BASIN: A CASE STUDY presented bg STUART O . DEN SLOW has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. GEOGRAPHY degree in A--. '~ " Z/f. -.. x. ” \Q - a- L ‘ "';-~;-\ \_,.*. - , '\ ‘ V’ x, l t L , Fst .t ‘) Major professor Date ft. C J. x. / / (C é. 0-169 ROOM USE ONLY ABSTRACT SPATIAL ASPECTS OF WATER RESOURCE PROBLEMS IN THE SAGINAW RIVER BASIN: A CASE STUDY by Stuart Otis Denslow Through the centuries people have applied their creative imagination and utilized their skills and energies to develop facilities and methods through which they might better use the available water resources. The task of finding, developing, and maintaining suitable water supplies has become one of the great challenges of modern times and may well be one of the important keys to continued human advanc ement . Fortunately, nature has provided natural boundaries creating river basins within which water resources can be measured, described, and in some cases controlled. The many roles which man has assigned to water in the process of settling and organizing the landscape of river basins is the basic source of multiple use conflicts which are expressed by polluted streams and lakes, falling water tables, empty reservoirs, and aesthetic losses of natural water bodies. Stuart Otis Denslow The Saginaw River Basin is the largest of sixty-three watersheds which make up the surface drainage system of the state of Michigan. The region consists of all or parts of twenty-one counties which include the semi—circular basin of four million acres drained by the Saginaw River and its four tributaries . From the beginning of settlement, water problems of flooding, drainage, and water supply were an inherent part of basin development. The scope of the water problem was not, in most cases, restricted to the landholdings of a single individual or governmental jurisdiction. This fact tended to direct water management decisions and developments into the governmental arena, However, local self interest on the part of various units of government forestalled a com- prehensive approach to water resource development. Three separate and distinct forms of organization were recognized to exist in the basin. The first, a physical organization, is that which gradually evolved through the various physical processes. The second, is a governmental organization which was developed by society and superimposed on the physical fabric of the basin for ease in administering community functions. The third type of organization is functional, wherein the people used the tools of governmental organi- zation and the resources of the physical environment to build facilities necessary to attempt solutions for water resource problems and Stuart Otis Denslow requirements. Physical, governmental, and functional organizations exist and operate simultaneously within the study area. Solution of water problems is an excellent example of the need to look at all impinging physical and cultural factors. The spatial approach, emphasizing areal or regional differences——physical character and cultural organization, is workable in identifying prob- lems and suggesting certain solutions to them. Occupants of the Saginaw River Basin face, in the near future, a crisis in water resources which will demand their collective action and participation. Greater attention must be focused upon sub- regional divisions of the watershed within the areal organization of the entire basin. Evolving solutions to the inherent water problems must recognize the areal organization of water-related features and facilities representing the accumulative water development decisions of over one hundred and thirty years . Approved: m /2V\ fiKfmp/N/LQ V Date: F C’g 2 \i/l /C/\é C 3 ./ v SPATIAL ASPECTS OF WATER RESOURCE PROBLEMS IN THE SAGINAW RIVER BASIN: A CASE STUDY BY Stuart Otis Denslow A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOC TOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Geography 1966 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express sincere appreciation to all of the individuals and organizations who have contributed to this study. There are several persons who have been especially helpful in ex— tending advice and assistance Who are deserving of specialacknow— ledgment. I am sincerely indebted to Professor Lawrence Sommers, who provided thoughtful guidance and assistance throughout my entire program. I wish to express deep appreciation to Professor Allen Philbrick, whose suggestions, comments, and ideas were extended during the early stages of this work. I owe a special expression of gratitude to my wife, Orriene, who lent enthusiastic support and assistance from the in— ception to completion of the manuscript. Finally, to my children, Brenda Lynn and Mark, my sincere appreciation for quietly relinquishing my presence for holi- days and weekends during the preparation of this study. TAB LE OF C ONT ENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 River Basins Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Reasons for Selecting the Saginaw River Basin as a Special Study Area . . . . . . . . . 9 ApproaCh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 The Study Area and Its Historical Background . . . 11 II. AN APPROACH TO STUDYING WATER RESOURCES WITHIN RIVER BASINS: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE SAGINAW WATERSHED . . 16 Western Great Lakes Region . . . , , , , , , , 25 The Saginaw River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Subsurface and Surface Formations . . . . . . . . 36 a. Subsurface Geology . . . . . . . . . . . 37 b. Surface Formations . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Soil and Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Land Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 III. SPATIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER RESOURCE PROBLEMS IN THE SAGINAW RIVER BASIN , , , 58 Water Resource Problem Areas . . . . . . . . . 58 Sources of Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Flooding................... 72 iii Page Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Land Utilization and Relation to Natural Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Multiple Use of Water Resources Within the Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 IV. AREAL ORGANIZATION OF WATER-RELATED FUNCTIONS AND FACILITIES IN THE SAGINAW RIVER BASIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Subregional Divisions of the Basin Area . . . . . . . 102 a. Eastern Subregion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 b. South-Central Subregion . . . . . . . . . . . 106 c. West— Central Subregion . . . . . . , , , , , 107 (1. Northern Subregion . . . . . . . . . , 109 Areal Arrangement of Water- Related Features and Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Public Water Supplies . . . . . . . . . 115 Areal Arrangement of Natural and Artificial Drainage Areas and Facilities . . . . 119 Organization of Water Facilities Within the Saginaw River Basin and Relationship to Areas Outside the Basin 122 Areal Arrangement of Public Water Supply Sources and Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 V. SUMMARY, CONCULSIONS, AND THE FUTURE . . . 129 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Organizational Programs . . _ , , 132 Physical Limitations Which Motivate Cooperation . . . 135 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Future Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 APPENDIX A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 iv Table 10. 11. LIST OF TABLES The nation's water supply . Manageable water supply, western Great Lakes region 1960-1980 in million gallons per day Forest resources of the Saginaw River Basin Population of the Saginaw Basin by tributary area, 1960 Land utilization in the Saginaw River Basin by tributary areas Surface water areas of the Saginaw River Basin by county, 1962 Growth of irrigation in the Saginaw River Basin by county Saginaw Basin irrigation water withdrawals by river basin Saginaw River Basin irrigation activity by county, 1959 . Forest, conservation, and recreation areas of the Saginaw River Basin Surface water areas of the Saginaw River Basin by tributary . Page 24 27 49 53 57 68 80 82 85 88 91 Figure 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Saginaw River Basin and tributary system . Water resource districts in the United States . Michigan river basins Precipitation regime in the Saginaw Basin . Subsurface formations in the Saginaw Basin Surface formations in the Saginaw Basin . Soil patterns --genera1ized soil types in the Saginaw Basin Forest cover--generalized types of growth in the Saginaw Basin . Population distribution in the Saginaw Basin Generalized land use in the Basin area Water supply problem areas in the Saginaw River Basin Tributary watershed yield in the Saginaw River Basin Irrigation systems in the Saginaw River Basin Forest—-conservation and recreation areas in the Saginaw River Basin . Subregional divisions in the Basin area vi Page 12 20 3O 34 38 41 44 47 51 55 59 66 84 87 104 Figure 16. 17. 18. 19. Areal arrangement of water-related recreation facilities and primary road network in the Basin- area I O O O 0 O C O O O O O 0 0 Public water supplies in the Basin area . . . . Areal arrangement of natural and artificial drainage areas and facilities in the Basin Areal arrangement of public water distribution systems intheBaSin . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Page 113 116 120 125 INTRODUCTION Man's vital concern for water resources is written indelibly across the pages of history. His inability to adequately recognize the problems of intelligent water resource utilization has produced some of the greatent failures in the historical development of civilizations. Human advancement has been greatly facilitated by the technological progress in the use and development of water resources. Through the centuries people have applied their creative imagination and utilized their skills and energies to develop facilities and methods through which they might better use the available water resources. Mr. Bernard Frank, in his article, "The Story of Water as the Story of Man, "1 cites the ancient wells, aqueducts, and reser- voirs of the old world-~some still servicable after thousands of years—- as attesting to the capacity for constructive thinking and cooperative ventures which had such an important part in human development. Despite man‘s dependence upon water for his very existence, he has not always been completely successful in properly utilizing this natural resource for his benefit. 1 Water, The Yearbook of Agriculture (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1955) , p. 1. Recent population growth and new developments in commerce, agriculture, and industry have multiplied many-fold the water require- ments of a modern society. Current estimates indicate that future water needs will increase two to three hundred percent by 1975. Z The imaginative development of water resources may well be one of the im- portant keys to continued human advancement. In this research it was necessary to select an area which was large enough to provide a variety of factors as an adequate sample. This study will be concerned with the development, organization, and problems of one of the most important areas of water resource manage- ment, that of the river basin. This thesis deals especially with the water resource problems in the Saginaw River Basin of Michigan which, more than any other portion of Michigan, symbolizes the complex pattern of water problems as expressed spatially. Purpose The task of finding, developing, and maintaining suitable water supplies has become one of the great challenges of modern times. No longer is water utilization a simple matter as increased demand has created conflicts of interest between domestic, industrial, agri-- cultural, and recreational aspects of water resource use. Evidence 2C. R. Humphrys, The Resource for the Future, Depart- ment of Resource Development, Michigan State University, 1958, p. 3. of these difficulties is expressed in polluted streams and lakes, falling water tables, empty reservoirs, industrial waste effluent; and aesthetic losses of appearance and odor, or recreational usefulness of natural water bodies. Despite Michigan's calling itself a "Water Wonderland, " there exist water resource problems which are an important ingredient or deterrent in the economy of the state, counties, cities, local muni- cipalities, and the lives of individuals. When man first occupied the Saginaw River Basin, the ubiquitous presence of water in its varying forms concealed the multiple use problems which were to face future generations. The many roles which man has assigned to water in the process of settling and organizing the Saginaw River Basin are the basic source of the conflicts which will be discussed in detail later in this study. In attempts to resolve these use conflicts, man occasionally profits from mistakes. In so doing, he has developed methods of area organization designed to ease or eliminate the friction which developed as a result of the multiple roles of water in the evolving environment of the river basin. Three separate and distinct forms of organization have been recognized within river basins. The first, a physical organization, is evolved through various physical processes over a period of time. The second is a political organization which was developed by man and superimposed on the physical fabric of the earth for ease in the ad- ministration of his activities. The third type of organization is the functional, wherein man uses the tools of the political organization and the resources of the physical environment to create workable facilities useful in developing the environment as a place in which to live, work, and seek recreational satisfaction. These three types of organization exist and function simultaneously in a given river basin during various stages of evolution. The study of the total "system" of a river basin is a relatively new conceptual approach in water resource analysis . The question which arises immediately from the examination of the organizational pattern is whether these three types of organization successfully resolve the conflicts of multiple use of water resources. Before such a question can be properly answered, it will be necessary to determine the present pattern of utilization, organization and natural environment which has and is being developed under the impact of present day problems and technology. One might ask at this point, why is the study of water resources in a river basin significant to geography? Fundamentally the answer to such a question lies in the fact that the geographic method provides an effective means to approach the total spatial relationships of a water resource which is an important component of the geography of a region. The correlation between physical and cultural factors under the examination of a phenomenon such as water also provides a means of identifying areas where future conflicts in resource utilization can be anticipated. Virtually every square mile of the continental Unites States (3, 022, 387 square miles) is included within one of the many river basins which make up the twenty-one water resource districts estab- lished by the Water Resource Division of the United States Geological Survey. 3 The exact number and area of the various river basins is subject to change as the peripheral boundaries of the river basins are revaluated through study of watershed activity. The interest of geographers in the natural regions of the landscape has been extended into the subdivisions of the water realm. Resource geographers established an early interest in water policy. One of the major contributions of the discipline was the report of the Mississippi Valley Committee in 19344 in which geographers shared a notable responsibility. Another was the President's Water Resources Policy Commission whose report appeared in 1950. 3Kenneth A. MacKichan, Geological Survey Circular No. 398 (Washington, D. C.: United States Department of Interior, 1957). p. 2. 4U. S. , Public Works Administration (Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, Oct. 1, 1934). 5 U. S. , Office of the President (4 vols. , Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1950) . The Department of Geography at the University of Chicago is making a more recent concerted effort toward research in the water resource field. The department has research studies of flood plains and irrigation problems; however, broad coverage of water study has been related to policy and decision making in water related programs . While geographers have shown interest in water as a phenomenon, actual research has been limited in the study of those physical regions, river basins, which are an inherent and important part of the water regimen. The presence of various water problems has stimulated some interest in the study of river basins. Numerous writings have appeared in geographic publications which reflect nearly every associated aspect of water resource study. Despite increased interest in water research there have appeared only nine significant papers and articles on water resource study in the Annals of the Association of American Geographers since 1950. Considerable governmental research, with resulting technical reports, has been accomplished by forest and soil specialists. The complex and varied problems of river basins and the water resources lend themselves to geographic research. This study is an example as it examines the relationships of water resource phenomena as they exist in an area. Communication from W. R. Derrick Sewell, Professor of Geography, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, November 9, 1964. The study of a river basin offers an excellent opportunity for examin- ing the triumvirate of organization, physical, governmental and func- tional, as it relates to the use, development and problems of water resources . River Basins Defined The natural characteristics of a river basin such as soil, vegetative cover, rock strata, geomorphic forms, climate and water regime are interrelated and create a natural physical region of the landscape. An appraisal of the water regime of any watershed re- quires that one first acknowledge that efficient usability of water by man is dependent upon knowledge of the hydrologic cycle and ability to capture or control the movements of the mineral. Fortunately, nature has provided natural boundaries creating river basins within which water resources can be measured, described, and in some cases controlled. Some confusion has developed as a result of the inter- changeable use of the terms "watershed“ and "river basin. " A water- shed, like a river basin, is a unit of land, the boundaries of which were originally defined by the natural action of geophysical forces on the land surface. According to Dr. Clifford Humphrys, "The term watershed or river basin may be used interchangeably to describe the extensive area of land drained by a river, or a slight depression in a 'back forty' that is drained by an intermittent stream. " The terms "watershed“ and "river basin" will be used in this manner throughout the remainder of this paper. Since water is a migratory mineral, it will move or flow from one location to another when influenced by gravitational forces or hydrologic pressure. This particular characteristic of water im- poses many complex problems in the study and management of water resources, for geologists inform us that precipitation falling in one watershed may become the streamflow of an adjacent watershed via underground movement and the aforementioned forces of gravity and pressure.8 As a consequence, there is always some question as to the exact subterranean boundary of a river basin. Ground water must be appraised if the water regime of a watershed is to be completely analyzed. 9 The limitation of our know- ledge of subterranean aquifers is the result of limited techniques of examination and the tremendous costs involved in collecting the necessary data for examination. As a result, many of the foremost water management specialists acknowledge readily the absence of accurage and definite data on underground water resources. 7C. R. Humphrys, The Resource of the Future, Department of Resource Development, Michigan State University, 1958, p. 5. 8Ibid. , p. 6. 91bid., p. 5. Until more accurate techniques~-at greatly reduced costs-- are available to examine the subterranean water realm, river basins and watersheds will continue to be defined as natural units of land drained by a river or stream. Reasons for Selecting the Saginaw River Basin as a Special Study Area Early in the study it became evident that one individual could not adequately study all of the twenty—one water resource distrists of the United States. Further, it was impossible to complete an inten— sive study of all the sixty-three river basins of the State of Michigan. As a consequence of the number, size, and varied location factors of the Michigan river basins, it was decided to concentrate on a single one as a study area. There are several basic reasons for selecting the Saginaw River Basin as the study area. First, the Saginaw with its tributary system is the largest in Michigan, enclosing an area of 6, 247 square miles. Uniquely, the Saginaw River, after which the basin is named, is barely twenty miles in length, the smallest stream within the area. 0Several discussions with Dr. Lawrence Sommers, Chairman of the Department of Geography at Michigan State University and Dr. Allen Philbrick of the same Department, led to the selection of the Saginaw River Basin as meeting the criteria established. 10 Secondly, the Saginaw River Basin is characterized by a diversity of land use associations present. It lies across the transition zone separating the intensive southern and extensive northern land utilization of Michigan's lower peninsula. H Thirdly, the northern reaches of the basin are oriented to forest and recreational use of low intensity while the southern sections are heavily populated and well developed both agriculturally and indus — trially. Each identifiable subregion within the watershed has a dis- tinctive relationship to the water resource problem as a result of land utilization differences . The cultural organization pattern on the land- scape is oriented in a southwnorth direction due to the gradual expansion of early settlement from south to north during the pioneering period and the subsequent economic and transportational flow-lines of develop- ment established in the 1800‘s. No other river basin in Michigan has so great a contrast in land utilization pattern, population distribution, and the water re-= source relationships. The competing needs for water by agriculture, commerce, industry, and recreation offer the opportunity for observing the organization and use of the water resources under widely varying conditions. The functional connections of cultural organization 1Robert K. Holz, The Area Organization of National Forests, A Case Study of the Manistee National. Forest, Michigan (Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1963, p. 53. 11 superimposed upon the physical fabric of the water resource realm provide areal patterns ideally suited for geographic analysis. Approach This study will focus on man's use of a resource, water, within the confines of a physical region and examine the appropriate phenomena and their interrelationships as they exist in space. A systematic examination of the water resources of the Saginaw River Basin will be made as they relate to the selected elements of the physical and cultural environment of the region in order to understand how man has organized the river basin into its present pattern of water resource utilization . The Study Area and Its Historical Background The Saginaw River Basin is located on the east central side of the lower peninsula of Michigan (Figure 1) . It is the largest of sixty-three river basins which make up the surface drainage sys- tem of the State. The basin has been described as resembling a butterfly with outspread wings, with its head at the mouth of the 12 Saginaw River. The region consists of all or part of twenty-one ZGale H. Gibson, Executive Secretary, Saginaw Valley Regional Planning Commission (now dissolved), Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of American Society of PlanningOfficials, May 5th through 9th, 1947, p. 142. QB“: n” mm 1 14 htNo . ....... 27.: 45.0.... 8mm 8 . . .¢u>_¢ wuwm<3_¢ 333,55 1: 8 . ...... 52.. 3.26% 39 8. ......... 52¢ .51; 9 n8. 9. ......... 52¢ 36 19.8.. $.14“. xmkmva: xkvfibmkxk oz< L \<\m.v.% %W\_\m\ L \:_\>\\bv.m. 13 counties drained by the Saginaw River and its four tributaries: the Cass, Flint, Shiawassee, and Tittabawassee. Geologically, a major portion of the area is believed to have been part of Saginaw Bay until the late Pleistocene Period some 20, 000 years ago. About one and one -half million acres of predomi- nantly flat, fertile clay loam lands lie adjacent to the lower end of Saginaw Bay. This is surrounded by rolling to hilly clay loam land in the southern parts of the region, and sandy, forested hills and plains in the northern part. With a population of 1,229, 000 and an area of 6,247 square miles, the region is both large and economically varied over its 125 miles south-to —north extent. 13 The economic base and associated land uses change from south-to -north from predominantly manufac- turing; to predominantly agriculture; to nearly complete dependence on tourist, resort, and recreation services. Historical Ba<£ground Prior to settlement by the white man, the Saginaw Basin was the most important center of Indian population in the Middle Lakes 14 Region. An Indian village located at the present site of the city of 3’The political boundaries of the twenty-one counties, which include the study area, enclose 13, 200 square miles with a popu- lation of 1, 849, 000. About one half this total area and eighty percent of the population lie within the drainage basin described above. 1 4Maurice Edron McGaugh, The Settlement of the Saginaw Basin, Dissertation for Ph.D., University of Chicago. 1950, p. 1. l4 Saginaw had an Indian name meaning "The Gathering Place, "15 an index of the importance placed upon the area by oboriginal settlers . The Indians occupied the area under a semi-migratory settlement pattern, taking advantage of the focality of the Saginaw River drainage area and tributary system for the transportation media it provided. Indian population was supported by the available abundant forest, wildlife, and food resources. The fur trade promoted by the European intruders prompted a complete alteration of the livelihood pattern of the Saginaw Basin area Indians. Fur trading posts and the associated commodity ex- change were the first elements of permanent settlement. A series of Indian treaties from 1807 to 1836 succeeded in transferring the ownership of all lower Michigan, including the study area, to the white man and ushered in a new wave of settlement. The next five decades witnessed the rapid growth of agricultural settle— ment, the rise of a booming lumber industry, and the introduction of railroads to support both lumbering and agriculture. Beginning with the first major settlements about 1840, the reclamation by drainage of the flat and fertile clay loam lands adjacent to the lower end of Saginaw Bay developed the area into one of the rich agricultural regions of the United States. From the outset, water was 1 5Ibid. 15 an outstanding factor in the area's economic status. Indians looked upon the swamps, channels and tributary systems which drained the area as an important transportation system, as well as a habitat for abundant fish and wildlife. These same characteristics were the fundamental basis of the fur trade which flourished until 1830. Lumbermen and settlers valued these streams and channels as a means of transportation and for the floatation of logs to downstream mills during the lumbering period. As permanent agriculture ap- peared, drainage and water control occupied the settlers and farmers during every season of the year. Thousands of miles of ditches were constructed, and the result was that rapid release of water runoff from upland areas produced simultaneously soil erosion at the head waters and flooding conditions on downstream lowlands. Some eighty square miles of rich delta land at the confluence of the four tribu- taries of the Saginaw River were inundated by flood water annually. More recently industrialization has become important, as illustrated by the Dow Chemical Company at Midland, Michigan. This specific development is based on the sea of salt brine which underlies the area. Biproducts of this resource development resulted in increased phenol16 pollution of the rivers and the other accompany- ing problems of sufficient fresh water to supply the people and industry. Phenol--any of the aromatic hydroxl derivatives result- ing from processing of the organic resource. 1,;4 16" Because the salt brine is found at shallow depths, ninety feet at Saginaw, Michigan, only limited quantities of fresh water are available. 17 At present, water resource problems in the study area are the cumulative result of settlement and development decisions made during the last one hundred thirty years . Consequently, all of the water resource problems--drainage, flooding, soil erosion, pollution, and limited fresh water supply--exist in association with the confines of the Saginaw River Basin. In the succeeding chapters these prob- lems and related phenomena will be studied, individually and collec- tively, in order to analyze their impact and significance on the spatial character of a selected sample area. 1 7Gibson, Proceedings . . . , p. 143. 7%“ 11. AN APPROACH TO STUDYING WATER RESOURCES WITHIN RIVER BASINS: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE SAGINAW WATERSHED Decisions to take comprehensive looks at the water re- sources of the United States have been repeated again and again throughout our national history. During the last fifty years alone, over twenty federal commissions or committees have looked into 1 national water policies and problems. The fundamental objective 1Select Committee on National Water Resources, United States Senate; Water Resource Activities in the United States; Reviews of National Water Resources During the past Fifty Years; Committee Print Number 2, United States Government Printing Office, October 6, 1959, p. 111. A partial list of commissions and committees which have worked to evolve water resources policy includes: Inland Waterway Commission established by President Theodore Roosevelt, March 14, 1907. National Conservation Commission established by Presi- dent Theodore Roosevelt, June 8, 1908. National Waterways Commission established by the Rivers and Harbors Act of March 3, 1909. (25 Stat. 815) . Waterways Commission created on August 8, 1917, by (40 Stat. 250). ”308" Reports resulting from Joint Resolution request of Congress March 3, 1925, and printed in House Document 308, 69th Congress, lst Session. President's Committee on Water Flow pursuant to Senate Resolution 164 and House Resolution 248, 73rd Congress, 2nd Session, 16 17 of the commissions or committees in every case was to determine needs and evolve a policy framework within which legislative objec- tives, research, and action programs could be developed and implemented. February 2, 1934. Mississippi Valley Committee of the Public Works Administration, Report published by United States Government Printing Office, October 1, 1934. National Resources Board established by Executive Order No. 6777 on June 30, 1934. National Resources Committee established as a recon- stitution of National Resources Board by Executive Order 7065, June, 1935. Select Committee to Investigate the Executive Agencies of the Government, established by Senate Resolution 217, 74th Congress, February 24, 1936. The Commission on Reorganization of the Executive Branch of the Government (First Hoover Commission) created July 7, 1947, by Public Law 162, (61 Stat. 246) . President's Water Resource Policy Commission (Cooke Commission) established by Executive Order 10095 on January 3, 1950. The President's Materials Policy Commission (Paley Commission) created by President Truman on January 22, 1951. Missouri Basin Survey Commission, created by Executive Order 10318, on January 3, 1952. Commission on Intergovernmental Relations was es- tablished by Public Law 109, 83 Congress, (67 Stat. 145) July 10, 1953. Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government, (Second Hoover Commission) established by Public Law 108, 83rd Congress, (67 Stat. 142) July 10, 1953. Presidential Advisory Committee on Water Resources Policy, established by Presidential Order on May 26, 1954, and reported as House Document 315, 84th Congress, 2nd Session. Select Committee on National Water Resources estab- lished by Senate Resolution 48, 86th Congress, April 20, 1959. 18 The Senate of the United States maintains four standing committees which have primary responsibility for national water 2 . . . . . . resources . From them legislat1on 'LS 1ntroducedwh1ch u1t1mately directs the study and development of our water resources. Obviously, not all of the recommendations have been enacted into law; however, the basic policy framework has been established for studying, organi— zing and planning water resource utilization. On April 20, 1959, the Eighty-sixth Congress, by Senate Resolution 48, established the Select Committee on National Water Resources. The Committee was directed to make studies of water resource activities and needs with projections to 1980 to enable the nation to satisfy water requirements for population, agriculture and industry. Senator Robert S. Kerr, Chairman of the Senate Select Committee on National Water Resources, in summarizing the past results of Congressional efforts in water resourse policy, indicated that the concensus of the many commissions and committees over the years produced two recommendations on organization which stood above all others. These recommendations included the placing of Four standing United States Senate Committees which have responsibility for water resource study include: Public Works, Interior and Insular Affairs, Interstate Commerce, Agriculture and Forestry. 3 Select Committee on National Water Resources, United States Senate, Eighty-Sixth Congress, lst Session, Report of Hearing, Bismark, N. Dakota, October 7, 1959, p. 1. " '.. 19 all federal activities dealing with water resources in the Department of Interior and placing greater emphasis on the establishment of River Basin Commissions for planning and development of each basin area. Neither of these recommendations has been given complete formal adoptive recognition. However, this conceptual approach to organization has been informally adopted by the Congress and the Interior Department and by many states for both present and future programs of water resource study and organization. In addition to the various Congressional actions, the Water Resource Division of Geological Survey, through the United States Department of Interior, has taken the recommendations of the various committees regarding organization under consideration and has established twenty-one water resource districts which corres- pond areally to major drainage regions of the United States. (Figure 2.) 4Select Committee on National Water Resources, United States Senate, 86th Congress, lst Session, Reviews of National Water Resources During the Past Fifty Years, Committee Print No. 2, October 6, 1959, p. 2. 20 L L L L L 1 i 1L1 1 1 1 1r 1 i L L. a, d.o.m we no no no. m: I mwx<4 h.LOU L_. Q(1.: l_ _.ZU.(QI»_U NK(J #43 .\ >»_U ZDmCMUV /_ ”PU—KFMRH , e3; . L uz _ mom—4.0mm: «5.5.3 . «55.32 ,, 1 13. . Ti _\ ov 1 . .i 111 i. 1 . i 1 1 1 4 i . , N. H. 0250»; _ . __ r I a. 9.29 _ .1 (5.2.. x53 .1 on“... 3.0-. L 1.35. 5. 111111 1 252009! 1 f L ZOONKO . 111 1 \ V 50311.: ‘ .55.me ., . x _N 1 ., > mo. m: L L 3L L J. L (L L L 21 WATER RESOURCE DISTRICTS OF THE UNITED STATES The drainage regions as shown in Figure 2 are described as follows: New England-~North Atlantic Slope Drainage from Maine. to Connecticut. Delaware-Hudson—-Delaware River Basin; North Atlantic slope drainage Delaware River to Hudson River and the Hudson River Basin. Chesapeake--North Atlantic slope drainage Chesapeake Bay to York River. South Atlantic-~Atlantic slope from James River to include peninsula of Florida. Eastern Gulf--Gulf of Mexico drainage from the Suwanee River to the Pearl River. Tennessee-Cumberland-—Tennessee and Cumberland River Basins. Ohio--Ohio River Basin exclusive of the Tennessee and Cumberland River Basins . Eastern Great Lakes—St. Lawrence-~St. Lawrence River Basin below the mouth of the St. Clair River. Western Great Lakes--St. Lawrence River Basin above the mouth of the St. Clair River. Hudson Bay-~Portion of United States drained northward to Hudson Bay. Upper Mississippi-~Mississippi River Basin above the Ohio River and exclusive of the Missouri River Basin. Upper Missouri--Upper portion of Missouri River Basin from the Big Sioux River westward. Lower Missouri--Lower portion of Missouri River Basin to interception with Mississippi River. 22. Lower Mississippi--Mississippi River Basin below the Ohio River and exclusive of the Arkansas, White and Red River Basins . Upper Arkansas -Red——Upper portion of Arkansas River Basin including the Red River Basin from Lake Texoma westward. Lower Arkansas ~Red-White--Lower portion of Arkan- sas River Basin including the Red and White Rivers . Western Gulf-=Gulf of Mexico drainage west of the Mississippi delta. Colorado - -Colorado River Basin. Great Basin--The Great Basin (internal drainage) . South Pacific-=Pacific slope drainage in California. Pacific Northwest—-Pacific slope drainage north of California. 5 The Water Resources Division of Geological Survey, Department of Interior, has the unique role of providing a fund of basic information about water and water development in these water resource districts. To fulfill its function the Water Resources Division performs in accordance with the following broad objectives: A. Collects facts concerning location, quantity, quality, movement and mode of occurrence of water resources. B. Studies areas of existing or potential water problems. 5Kenneth A. Mac Kichan, and J. C. Kammerer, Estimated Water Use in the United States 1960, Geological Survey Circular No. 456, United States Department of Interior, Washington, D. C., 1961, p. IV. 23 C. Conducts research to discover fundamental principles of hydraulics, hydrology and related fields of science. D. Publishes the data it collects and the results of its in- vestigation. 6 One of the important continuing functions of the Water Resource Division is maintaining a surveillance over our national water supply. This responsibility is complicated by the wide areal variations in climate and precipitation conditions throughout the country. Rainfall variations are reflected in differences in both potential water supply and manageable water supply among the varied districts . United States Geological Survey indicates that the "long term average runoff of a river basin, with few exceptions, is the upper limit of possible production of the combined surface and ' H7 ground water resources of the basm. The potential water supply is the total of all precipitation, in its various forms, within a specific drainage area. Unfortunately, not all precipitation is available for man's use. Evapotranspiration extracts a large toll from the total precipitation and the remainder, as percolation or runoff, becomes our manageable supply of water. 6United States Geological Survey, Long Range Plan for Resource Surveys, Investigations and Research Programs, U. S. Department of Interior, Washington, D. C., 1964, p. 42. 7Kenneth A. Mac Kichan, Geological Survey Circular No. 398, United States Department of Interior, Washington, D. C. , 1957, p. 16. 24 Table l. --The nation's water supply.a Est . Dependable Area Inche 5 Supply, 1980 Region (1, 000 sq. mi. ) Per Year MgdC Mgd New England 59 24 67, 000 22, 00¢ Delaware-Hudson 31 21 32, 000 24, 00¢ Chesapeake 57 19 51, 000 12, 00¢ South Atlantic 170 14 110, 000 Eastern Gulf 109 19 99, 000 75, 00¢ Tennessee-Cumberland 59 21 .59, 000 22, 00¢ Ohio 145 16 110, 000 40, 00¢ Eastern Great Lakes St. Lawrence 47 18 40, 000 33, 00¢ Western Great Lakes 81 11 42, 000 Hudson Bay 60 1. 6 4, 600 36, 00¢ Upper Mississippi 182 7. 2 62, 000 31, 00¢ Upper Missouri 458 1. 0 24, 000 Lower Missouri 62 7. 8 23, 000 33, 00¢ Lower Mississippi 64 16 49, 000 25, 00¢ Upper Arkansas -Red 153 1. 6 11, 000 Lower Arkansas — Red-White 117 14 79, 000 20, 00¢ Western Gulf 341 3. 52, 000 20, 00¢ Colorado 258 1. 13, 000 15, 00l Great Basin 200 1. 10, 000 9, 00' South Pacific 112 12 64, 000 28, 00' Pacific Northwest 257 13 159, 000 70, 00' United States 3, 022 1, 200, 000 515, 00- aKenneth A. Mac Kichan, and J. C. Kammerer, Estimatfie Water Use in the United States 1960, Geological Survey Circular No. 456, United States Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C 1961, p. 26. b D. R. Woodward, Availability of Water in the United States with Special Reference to Industrial Needs by 1980; Industrial College of Armed Forces, Washington, D. C., 1957, p. 49. CMillion gallons per day. 25 The average annual runoff in the United States varies from less than one-fourth inch in certain areas of the Southwest to more than eighty inches in some areas along the Pac1f1c Coast. This w1de variation in runoff reflects in the manageable water supply of the water resource districts as shown in Table 1. The Western Great Lakes Region The Western Great Lakes Region, of which the study area is a part, includes that portion of the St. Lawrence River Basin lying above the mouth of the St. Clair River not far distant from Detroit, Michigan. As a water resource region the streams of the Western Great Lakes provide plentiful supplies of fresh water which, if not used at the source, flow into Lake Michigan, Lake Superior, or Lake Huron. The thirteen million persons living and working in the Western Great Lakes water district have an industrial establishment using a thousand million gallons of water per day from public water supplies, a rate higher than any other region in the United States.9 Simultaneously, 8Ibid. 9Kenneth A. Mac Kichan, Geological Survey Circular No. 398, United States Department of Interior, Washington, D. C. , 1957, p. 3., Table l. 26 the per capita use of water is two hundred eleven gallons per day from public supplies, a rate exceeded only by residents of the Great Basin and the Pacific Northwest. 10 The manageable supply of water in the Western Great Lakes Region is on the decline. D. R. Woodward has suggested that the water in the area may be reduced to thirty-six thousand million gallons per day by 1980 due to the depreciating effects of pollution, sewerage treatment irrigation requirements and other problems. As was indicated earlier, future water needs may increase by two hundred percent by 1975, advancing withdrawals of ground and sur- face water to thirty-four thousand million gallons per clay° As a result, water demands would actually exceed manageable supplies before 1980 in the Western Great Lakes Region. 10 Ibid. 11D. R. Woodward, Availability of Water in the United States with Special Reference to Industrial Needs by 1980, Industrial College of the Armed Forces, Washington, D. C., 1957, p. 49. 27 Table 2. —-Manageab1e water supply. Western Great Lakes Regiona 1960—1980 Million Gallons per Day Excess Manageable b Of Supply 1960 Est. Demand Est. From With- Over Runoff SUPPIY Supply drawals Supply Region In. /yr. MGD 1980 1960 1980 1980 Western Great Lakes 11 in. 42, 000 36, 000 16, 830 40, 000 4, 000 aKenneth A. Mac Kichan, and J. C. Kammerer, Estimated Use of Water in the United States, 1960, Geological Survey Circular 456, Washington, D. C., 1961, Table 18, p. 26. b Estimates based upon data presented by C. R. Humphreys, entitled The Resource for the Future, Department of Resource Develop- ment, Michigan State University, 1958, p. 3. The region was acknowledged as one of the water resource problem areas of the country by the Senate Select Committee on National Water Resources when selecting locations for hearings on water re- source problems in 1959. The hearings in Detroit, Michigan, in October 1959 focused upon the Western Great Lakes Region, and expert testimony challenged the continued acceptance of the concept of "un- 12 limited water supply" prevalent in the area. Hearings before the United States Congress Senate Select Committee on National Water Resources, Part Seven, Detroit, Michigan, Oct. 29, 1959. pp. 1101-1317° 28 United States Geological Survey water experts have shown that the manageable water supply of the Western Great Lakes is ap- . 13 . prox1mately forty-two thousand Mgd, or the equivalent of eleven . . 14 . inches of runoff and/or percolation water per year. Withdrawals from the supply totaled approximately sixteen thousand five hundred . 15 . . . . Mgd in 1960. Thus, it appears that approx1mately thirty-eight percent of the manageable supply of surface and ground water is now in use in the Western Great Lakes Region. The probability of a water deficit in the Western Great Lakes in the foreseeable future points up the need for a close look at our water resource management programs. Many water problems may be corrected through cultural modification of physical resources and human activities. Before corrective measures can be proposed, or accomplished, a careful description of the existing situation must be provided to understand the setting under which the water problems developed . The study area, the Saginaw River Basin of Michigan, is part of the Western Great Lakes Region and exhibits both the advan- tages and disadvantages of the larger water realm. A careful des- cription of the environment furnishes a necessary insight into the background of the water resource problems . l 3Mgd--Million Gallons per Day. 14 Kenneth A. Mac Kichan, and J. C. Kammerer, Esti- mated Water Use in the United States 1960, Geological Survey Cir- cular N0. 456, United States Department of Interior, Washington, D. C., 1961, p. 26. 15Ibid. 29 The Saginaw River Basin The Saginaw River Basin, the largest of sixty-three Michigan river basins, is located in the east central side of the lower peninsula. It consists of all or parts of twenty—one counties drained by the Saginaw River and its tributaries, the Cass, Flint, Shiawassee, and Tittabawassee. The shape and boundaries of the basin are believed to have been determined by glacial activity in the late Pleistocene period which ended some twenty thousand years ago. As the Saginaw lobe of glacial ice retreated into Saginaw Bay, it left behind a vast lakebed of sand and clay lying adjacent to the lower end of the bay. This flat plain is surrounded by rolling morainic hill —land on the south and the west, and sandy hills and plains on the north. The watershed thus created resembles a butterfly with outspread wings with its head at the lower end of Saginaw Bay, as shown in Figure 3. As the meltwater declined at the close of the glacial period, there was developed an internal drainage system which con- sisted of four tributary streams feeding the main arterial which flowed northeasterly into Saginaw Bay. The dendritic drainage sys- tem developed from the headwaters to the mouth in reverse of normal erosion patterns. The main arterial stream, the Saginaw River, is actually the youngest stream of the river system draining the area. 30 M ICZtiI G A N RIVER BASINS I .uTo A50: l 50» I -,.oa:.-c1 53 L , “— RIVER BASINS LOWER PENINSULA AUGRES BIG SABLE BLACK (PORT HURON) BLACK (SOUTH HAVEN) BLACK (HOLLAND) BOARDMAN BOYNE . CHEBOVGAN CUNTON ELK GRAND HURON JORDAN KALAMAZOO .KAwKAwLm LINCOLN MANISTEE . MAUMEE . MUSKEGON . ocoquc T 3 ' ‘ . PENTWATER ‘ ,u.uw -uu« .PERE MAROUETTE —— —— ——— —iw . PIGEON . PINE (ST CLAIR) . PINE (OSCODA) Rmsm UPPER PENINSULA .RWLE .ROUGE 39.AUTRAm 52.MUNUSCONG .SAGINAw 4o.BLACK 53 ONTONAGON 32A.CASS 4L CARP 5k mNE LELAE;.:=; 328.FL|NT 42.CEDAR 55.PORTAGE " “‘ 32C.SHIAWASSEE 43.CHOCOLAY 56.PRE$QUE ISLE 32D.TnTABAwASSEE 44.DAYS 51 RAND 33. SEBEWAING 45. DEAD 58. STURGEON (DELTA COUNTY) 34.5T JOSEPH 46.ESCANABA 53 STURGEON (HOUGHTON COUNTfl 34A.PAw HMN 47.FORD so.TAHOUAMENON , 35.5TONY CREEK 48.FALLS 6L Two HEARTED 35. THUNDER BAY 49. MANISTIQUE 62. WAISKA 37. wHITE . MENOMINEE 63. WHITEFISH 3a wulow 5|.MONTREAL u»— PPH99§PNT I L s NNNN——-—-————— w-9P~H99+PN-9 29 I u an R 2| museum I NN GUI (A -~ ~2890~A 8 I I S unct DATA 0 I WATER RESOURCES COMMISSION |95° I so 07 as u SO D I 1 31 Uniquely, the Saginaw is barely twenty miles in length and thus linearly the shortest of all the streams. The hill lands which define the outer boundaries on the south, west and north were the moraines created at the glacial ice edge during various advances and retreats of the lobed ice front. Great variations exist in the drainage area of the several tributaries due to the complex of outwash and glacial channels and deltas as well as ground moraines which developed between the rows of morainic hills. Collectively these features create barriers and cause flowing streams to seek a circuitous route to the valley floor. The river system of the Saginaw Basin drains an area of 6, 247 square miles. Climate Climate is important in determining the availability of water to the Saginaw Basin. The area, including the remainder of the northern one —half of the peninsula, is included in the humid mesothermal region of the North American continent which is generally characterized by cold winters, continuous snow cover, a long frost season, and large annual ranges of temperature with 16 relatively short summers . 6Finch, et. al., Physical Elements of Geography, (New York: Mc Graw Hill Co. Inc. , 1957) , Appendix E, p. 529. 32 Located in the heart of the Great Lakes Region, Michigan enjoys a climate moderated by them. Since large bodies of water are less responsive to rapid temperature change, they tend to ex- ercise a stabilizing influence over adjacent land areas. The growing season in the study area ranges from one hundred forty to one hundred fifty days. The last killing frost may occur as late as May 20th to June lst. In the fall the first frost can be anticipated from September 10th to as late as October 10th. 17 Snowfall in the winter months averages forty inches per year. However, some of the northern counties in the Saginaw Basin have mean annual snowfalls up to fifty inches . Since temperatures during the snowfall months are generally below freezing, some of the accumulated snow cover can be anticipated as meltwater runoff during the spring warming period. This phenomenon produces annual flood- ing conditions at the confluence of the main tributaries of the Saginaw River. The amount of water, although influenced by season and location, is determined chiefly by the amount of precipitation in the basin area. Mean annual precipitation totals thirty inches (including the water equivalent of snow) . Variations in total mean annual 7United States Department of Agriculture, 1941 Year- book of Agriculture, Climate and Man, Washington, D. C. , 1941, pp. 923—924. 33 precipitation range from twenty-eight to thirty-two inches with a noticeable decrease from west to east and from south to north. (Figure 4) A. D. Ash has estimated that the evapotranspiration losses of plants, soils and surface waters total twenty inches annually in the basin. 18 These losses reduce the potential water supply of thirty inches to a manageable supply of ten inches or 271, 540 gallons of water per acre per year over the 6, 247 square mile area. It is this amount of water that can be manipulated to solve the water problems. Seasonal variations are significant to produce fluctu- ations in runoff after evapotranspiration losses have occurred. The summer months (June, July, and August) are the "wet months" corresponding to increased convectional activity during that period. Brunnschweiler, in studying lower Michigan peninsula precipitation patterns over a twenty-two year period, noted that a conspicuous “dry belt" develops during July which centers in Saginaw Bay and 19 extends diagonally north-west to south-east across the peninsula. 18 C. R. Humphrys, Water Bulletin No. 5, Genesee County, Michigan, Department of Resource Development, Michigan State Uni- versity, February 1960, p. 2. Evapotranspiration includes the combined losses of water through evaporation from saturated soil, lakes and streams as well as transpiration of water vapor from living plants . 9Dieter Brunnschweiler, A Precipitation Regime in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, Michigan Academy, Vol. XLVII, 1962, p. 368. 34 cow >\\m,_\% W)?th \: Y>\\.0 Tm, 20>“ YK\Q.\UN&.Q. .._n.<.u_3ozm J2uisprxZOCQK?=UNQQ .5 suttunzzatu «E 03 u .2 o a L Q. 20_.r<.:n:men_ 4\ ,_ \8 bkxkqw 35 The slight decline in rainfall during July blends into the gradual de- cline of runoff values during the late summer and fall seasons and does not singly have a great importance on the runoff water supply. The winter season (December, January, and February) has the driest months with a composite seasonal precipitation of five inches . It should be noted that approximately seventy percent of the forty-inch mean annual snowfall is deposited during the season. The resulting snow and ice accumulation is normally held in storage on the surface by below freezing temperature conditions with the effect of delaying normal runoff potential. As spring approaches (March, April, and May), rising temperatures and increased pre- cipitation in the form of rainfall combine to amplify and hasten the release of runoff during this season, frequently producing flood con- ditions at the confluence of the four tributaries with the main stream at the so-called "Shiawassee Flats." Approximately eighty square miles of rich delta land southwest of Saginaw are thus annually inundated. As precipitation decreases from south to north, so also do the watershed yields of the tributary system. The Flint River tributary on the south produces annually 11. 01 inches of manageable water runoff. The Tittabawassee and Cass Rivers reflect their northern locations in the basin and have shown annual watershed yields of 9.48 and 9.08 inches respectively. The Shiawassee River 36 Basin indicates its transitional position between the Cass and Flint . . . 20 Rivers With 10. 76 inches per annum. Long term average runoff of the basin marks the upper limit of possible production of both surface and ground water and is, therefore, a significant natural control over the limits of water supply and management alternatives toward solution of the various water problems of the Saginaw River Basin. Since man as yet has not learned to control climate, modification of conditions related to the water regime are limited to other elements of the physical landscape. Subsurface and Surface Formations Subsurface and surface formations, like climate, are not easily subject to cultural modification, yet they are significant to the nature of the water supply. Like most of Michigan, the Saginaw Basin area is covered with glacial drift. Glaciers brought in rocks and soil, as well as grinding and mixing local rock types . Upon their retreat they left the basin covered with an assortment of glacial debris arranged as the surface formations of today. The nature of this glacial drift has a direct effect upon the quality of surface and ground water, the presence of 20A. D. Ash, Annual Rainfall and Runoff in Inches, Surface Water Branch, Water Resources Division, United States Geological Survey, Lansing, Michigan, 1960. 37 lakes and streams, surface runoff, infiltration rates of water into the soil and other related factors. Before surface formations are examined in detail, the impact of the subsurface geology upon the water regime will be characterized. a . Subsurface Geology The subterranean strata of the Michigan peninsula are shaped similar to a vast saucer, with the lip at the outer shores and the depression in part beneath the Saginaw Basin. Rock structures below the basin are the Pennsylvanian series including both the Grand River and Saginaw groups. At the eastern edge, substrata of the Mis~ sippian series emerge from beneath the Pennsylvanian deposit. (Figure 5.) The Grand River group is characterized by both red and brown sandstone, sandy shales, and shales with clay.21 These struc— tures are aquifers for fresh water, but are susceptible to salt brine intrusion from other layers. The Saginaw Group is characterized by sandstone, clay shales and limestone with small deposits of low grade 22 . . . . bituminous coal. Fresh water supplies are very limited from this l 2 Helen M. Martin, Geologic Map of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan (Pub. 39; Geo. Ser. 33; Lansing: Dept. of Conservation, Geo. Sur. Div., 1936) . 22 Ibid. 38 66“. 2 _z.—.z< >¢szam -omo...owm-mo AA 25.3.3.8: B 252445522“: B . 25sz B Smhm>m WU-‘ t:m. m 2 Sills? lei?) 0K 12./,7, ant—.0. s E 44050.83 .l‘bsg‘ Kfi ‘.~R¥N\ §3*:§ Us: kB 20:! . Ike MQ‘KSW h»: \6 R‘ ‘54! .I luau! .Ihl...» 10:103.); >53. 330.500 ii! ‘13.: Ethan E a \1‘ 3.3.00 ihLiNu .E‘l .l 54!. "3:31 uh. _I _ 39 group, but they produce economically valuable salt and sulphate brines at depths as shallow as ninety feet. Deeper drilling into the Missis- sippian series has tapped salt, brine, gas and oil of economically sig- nificant quantities . The entire Saginaw River Basin has limited fresh water supplies at shallow depths, but has the problems of salt water intru- sion into the aquifer as the fresh water is removed. As a result, fresh water production from sedimentary rock aquifers has a limited life expectancy. Other rock layers will continue to produce important salt water, sulphate brine, gas and oil to support petro- leum and chemical industries throughout the region. b. Surface Formations The thickness and character of the glacial drift through- out the Saginaw River Basin has a profound effect upon water resource plans as it is the most extensively developed aquifer in the area, and offers some potential for future development. As salt water intrusion increases, however, ground water supplies must be either supple- mented or substituted with surface supplies. The structure of the surface formations is a controlling factor in the gradient of streams, location of reservoirs, quantity of surface runoff, infiltration rates of precipitation into the soil, and the depth of producing water wells. 40 The Saginaw Basin surface is dominated by the vast one and one -half million acre predominantely flat glacial lakebed adjacent to the lower end of Saginaw Bay. This level and fertile clay loam land covers sixty percent of the area under consideration and is interrupted only by a relatively flat water laid moraine running north- west to southeast near the city of Saginaw. Surrounding this lakebed plain on the south, west, and north, is a series of moraines which developed at the edge of the glacial ice. (Figure 6.) Till plains and outwash channels were created between the morainic hills from rock and soil debris and meltwater deposits at the glacial front. It is only in the moraine hill-land surrounding the lakebed plain that significant topographic variety exists. The depth of glacial drift varies from zero to five hundred feet with the average depth near two hundred feet. 23 The heavy clays and loams on the lakebed floor contrast with the sand, gravel, and boulders in the moraines. The valley floor changes in elevation only two hundred feet from the mouth of the Saginaw River to the west limit of the basin, a distance of seventy miles. At the southern and northern reaches, altitudes reach one thousand feet and provide an elevation difference of five hundred feet from tributary headwaters to the mouth of the Saginaw River . Helen M. Martin, Surface Formations of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan (Lansing: Department of Conservation, Geo. Sur. Div. , 1955) . 41 AFTER: S U I? F A 0 E F 0_R—M_A‘—T”/"0 IV 5‘ SAGINAW BAS‘I/V mm 0" n" Sal/7"!" ”mm! 0’ HIM/Ill. “OLOCICAL "(LII I. IAITII,” 0’ "I JURF‘CI PMLIGAVIOI ”A,“ SPILLWAYS [:1 LAKE BEDS 0F SAND a CLAY. {3' 02 w e. :2 0) d 4:3 So; a) 0 Lu A 5d z 3 ‘5', 02 < E U) w3: 5...: I923 32% >44... 0... 4w>u4 I><._U It; azu._lm!(o.. ><._U 4u>u4 lw2(04 >.5_w m oz_._JO¢ Oh Ju>u4lm2<04 D D 4u>w._ Iwaz13 nvII $3... $6.... omfioxmmzmo . W. ..................... . . TTTTTT m; >\ o. m k k To. onm, MW .......... . .. . , norm :5... 9.35:. $2.24 r . I \ “me I . . .- 222...... 11.15 E IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIHIHIHIHIHIHI . I... . hbatuzs Hakka l<§_xu.l I 20:55 Eulifltlu 3343¥0< N01 2.54.5. 2.0x § V 2 \ b w M: I115...” , .353 5:3 45 and thus provide the smallest pore spaces for the storage or move- ment of water. These characteristics cause water problems in the nature of low infiltration rates, slow movement of water within the ground water table, poor or limited well production and difficult surface drainage conditions. These features are characteristic of more than two and one =-half million acres of basin area soil. In the moraine sections surrounding the valley floor, sand with clay and sandy loam soil conditions dominate. The sandy textural material provides larger interstices between soil particles resulting in good to excellent drainage and infiltration conditions. The added factor of rolling topography complements the drainage characteristics of the soil texture and structure. These hill -land soils are of medium value for agri- cultural purposes. 25 Where climate conditions are favorable the land is used for truck crops and small fruits. Some general farming and dairying exists, but large tracts of these soils are in second growth forests and conservation reserves. 26 Vegetation increases the absorptive capacity of the soil, prevents erosion, slows surface runoff, and helps to maintain a steady flow of water to streams . Vegetation in the study area is 2 51bid., p. 44.. 2 6Elton B. Hill, and Russell G. Mawby, Types of Farm- ing in Michigan, Michigan State University, Agricultural Experiment Station, Special Bulletin 206, September 1954, p. 35. 46 divided into two general categories: (1.) cropland and grassland, and (2) forest land. On the valley floor, approximately two and one ~ha1f million acres of land are devoted to intensive agriculture producing row crops, such as beans and sugar beets, truck crops, and small grains. Since this is one of the productive agricultural regions of the country, the land was cleared of the original deciduous hardwood forest cover, with the exception of an occasional fenceline or farm wood lot. With the forest cover went fifty to eighty percent of the water retentive capacity of the vegetative cover. Barrett has shown that forest cover influences water supply conditions by reducing the erosion of violent rain, retarding the melting snow, increasing the absorptive capacity of soil, prevent- ing erosion, and checking rapid surface runoff. 28 In the basin head- waters more than one million acres of partial to completely forested lands benefit the water inventory. The forest cover today is predomi- nantly second growth stands of aspen, oak, and jack pine in the northern sections of the basin with ash, elm, and northern hardwood species in the South. (Figure 8.) 7Leonard Barrett, Water and Its Relation to Forestry; paper delivered at Water Conservation Conference, Lansing, Michigan, January, 1944, pp. 16-18. 28mm” p. 18. 47 n. .Q .0 .m. aux... -3<_o¢uzzoozoz I 352-2225: a 25c .. oz... I :3... 32.3 300335.. “.2533 239. i 80026.2... 251502 I 3.3 D IkaOQb k0 WNQxC QMNWxVQMZMU QMSQU kWNQQK zapm 31101. 911.23 $25.4 Iowa. . . . mummi- .653 .36 $323 .15 rzim Inga . USE: 38m... Fauna! . 80....<)Iua§ 5° riding 23.10.! {Mtg khgk :Gtfig‘ "Hg (#3 48 The Michigan Department of Conservation has defined forest lands as those lands ten percent or ‘more stocked by forest trees and land formerly forested, but now less than ten percent stocked if not developed for other purposes. 2? During the Michigan forest survey from 1955 to 1957, the areas of commercial forest under this definition were found to be extensive. (Table 3.) Within the basin area the significant forested sections were the hill -land areas in the south and north. It is in these areas where the nature of soil and forest help stabilize the lakes, streams, ponds, and underground water supplies. Flooding, drainage, and surface pollution problems rarely occur. Salt water intrusion into underground aquifers is nearly an unknown phenomena. Forests, lakes, streams, and ponds provide some of the finest recreational environment in the State. On the valley floor, many of these elements of the water regime are in utter conflict, frequently because the balance of soil and vegetative cover has been ignored. Michigan Department of Conservation, Michigan Forest Survey, Mio Block, Lower Peninsula of Michigan, 1957 Appendix 11, p. 49. a Table 3.--Foresi resources oIihe Suginau’River BaSTn. 49 . c 1()rost lAnId b IOIdl \(ni— ( (loniniercial Land.\rea Nonforost Area Pertent (Ruinneruial Forest County Acres Acres Acres Forest .\cres Acres Arenac 235,500 157,400 98,100 41.7 11,700 86,400 Bay 285,400 232,300 53,100 18.6 100 53,000 (Hare 366,100 124,900 241,200 65.“ 4,900 236,300 Clhnon 365,400 332,700 32,700 8.9 0 32,70C Genesee 412,200 352,400 59,800 14.5 0 59.800 Cnadwin 321,900 137,800 184,100 57.2 22,700 161,400 Gratun 362,200 305,500 56,700 15.7 0 56,700 Huron 526,100 413,300 112,800 21.4 1,100 111,700 lnghani 357,800 319,700 38,100 10.6 0 38,100 Iosco 350,100 101,200 248,900 71.1 13,300 235,600 lsabcHa 366,100 260,500 105,600 28.8 0 105,600 Lapeer 421,800 314,900 106,900 25.3 3,100 103,800 livingston 365,400 268,600 96,800 26.5 10,100 86.700 Inaconfl> 307.800 272,200 35,600 11.6 800 34 800 hiecosta 360,300 195,100 165,200 45.8 200 165,000 hffifland 332,800 141,200 191,600 57.6 7,500 184,100 Nknncahn 455,700 346,800 108,900 2 .“ 400 108,500 Oakhuul 561,300 434,100 127,200 22.7 23.600 103.600 Ogenuuv 367,300 93,460 273,900 74.6 2,200 271,700 OsceoIa 371,800 182.500 189.300 50.U 1,200 188.100 Rosconnnon 333.440 28.540 304.900 “1.4 800 304 100 Saginawr 519,700 409,200 110,500 21.3 0 Ih),500 St. Clair 473,600 $67,000 106,600 22.5 1,500 105,100 Saniku: 615,000 526,000 89,000 14.5 0 8“.000 Shiawassee 345,600 306.800 38.800 11.2 0 38.800 luscola 522, 200 3‘39. 700 122,500 2 3. 5 0 122.500 1955-1957.) L1 . . . . Michigan 1" wrest 5111“. eg. Fronuarcas<fl¢hv Inniw SLMCS. 1111100 1' Resources (Midligun Department ()1 (I¢)IIS(‘1'\.IIII)IIZ 1950 I‘wni‘cau of the (:(‘115115. IKHVICSS UHUIIO poriwnn SMMquIIInuI(h\olupodIOr oHnu‘usv. (1 Includes rcsvrn-(I 1.121(1. ) LSlgnIIIvs‘ 1(‘3'3 11mm 1:- ()1 I I‘Lw'LIgIII2ub10 111111. c . . . , Land .11 10.151 10pv1' x'L-xil slnt‘kml In IUI'CSIII'CCSAIHI1.111(1101'11101‘1‘. 1()1'¢‘51(‘¢I but 50 Population Among the cultural characteristics, the distribution and density of population has more problem-creating potential for water resources than any other factor. Growth of population and the indus- trial and service establishments designed to serve the people create multiple demands upon the manageable water supply of the basin area. The Saginaw River Basin contains one-fifth the area and nearly one- fifth the population of the State of Michigan. Of the one and one -quarter million residents, more than half are included in the Detroit to Bay City population corridor which follows generally the Flint River. (Figure 9. ) The cities of Flint, Saginaw, and Bay City are the major urban complexes which anchor the corridor, within the confines of the study area. Population has spilled out from these urban centers to adjacent suburban townships . Population densities vary from six thousand five hundred per square mile in Flint to townships nearly devoid of population in the northern reaches of the basin. Eight hun- dred sixty thousand people live in the Flint and Saginaw watersheds along with the accompanying major water—using industrial concentrations. The distribution of population in the study area indicates some development characteristics of subregions within the basin. The smaller towns and villages are mostly market centers for the agricul- tural areas on the east and west of the urban-industrial corridor. 51 Q6“; umOE mo oomN 393.". 0550382. I 5.02 mo 89 I 33 comm I 84m 83 D 35 8.... D 8.: com D 34 o D n:Iw2>>Ok mud ZO_.r<.5n_On. \\Q\kv..\bo.Qo. 3.— ujSszuo b2<.5§ 8 m>nZUU d4— .WUIDOn <._.Hm $3 $3 on... .332 .33 .88 532...... .3 9.3m amammm 9: mo 8:25.200- .4 223. 54 Population projections indicate that future water demands will extend this trend for "seeking external water supplies" to com- munities in the other tributary watersheds . By 1980 the Saginaw Basin will include a population base of l. 8 million with a water demand ex- ceeding the manageable supply by some four thousand million gallons per day. Land Utilization The surface of the land is the principal recipient of pre- cipitation which in turn creates surface and ground water. The use of the land thus has a major role in water resource management. Land and the cultural uses and facilities in and upon it determine to a great extent the amount of precipitation intercepted, water infiltration into the aquifer, water quality, as well as erosion and flood problems . Despite Michigan's industrial economy, land utilization in the study area continues to be predominantly agricultural. Nearly forty- eight hundred square miles, or seventy—six percent of the Saginaw BElsin area, is devoted to agriculture. (Figure 10.) Urban land uses, which contain the bulk of the population and generates much of the water demand, cover little more than four hundred square miles. These urban uses are distributed mainly along the Detroit to Bay City industrial corridor. Midland, Mt. Pleasant, 55 Iwm .li F2m2a04m>mo Z55... St S was $53 $34556 \1 j 2 _ w 4 m a u > _ m / :5: a mmmqgsxm ... ‘. 5| - 1- . .. .. .. . .. 3. $3 , . J .. 11.1...12 ~ [$03 Emmnggt: . .. m 53,9; .Q 1. . . .3 m. _ k . ...”. .. . . . . 1. n \ .. fl .3..me . .. 2054313... a er \ . . . I . .. . .. ‘ \ x . .. [TELL _ . .. ... . .. . ..l \I ._ . .. . .P ms .... . ..g L h... ... , - .... , :53 (MN; V: 53$:er .. z 3 .. m5vu1} fl} .l— . d“! ...; /\L 222 4. «Ed 33:3 a. rm Elam «5.2. r 5.2% 3.263 3.. J 2: r . 53:52 «63:. 41mm; 0....55 Emcow} _ 23546 “:43 , < 533 33. zoxxoomcx wixuoo L foam—1100 nUUKDOmuz .lliI. Guk<§ ”I... d ZO.»(>¢U$ZOU ZO.ml9 wept/Ohm“ «3mm 80: UoSmEoD o. .omd poauo .HoH pomofiokwop uoc E pvxoopm cam: £93 mmofi 30G udn Umumopom knfinoghom momma pad moo: umopg >9 pmxooum $0M ammofi pm pcmfiuncofimkwhmmdoo mo unmeupdmofl mmmzaudz 3. flow: “mg“ ma. $5.2 among mo Coflfisflofl .m SN .0 mow wmo 02. £2. ..v 288. mm: 33 com .m E. wmm omm N: .z mammaaanatfi 3:; ms 3 2: 3w mammgmfim i; no 0 o mmH gmqflmmm 3m .H SH ow o 2; .z 22m 20 .z om em 0 mos mmso “GRAN aduOH. GNQHD GOHHGQHUQm .mmeHOrm QHDwHSUwwafl mH®>Hflm 0.93:2 mumswm 5 womb U994 . mound >Hd§£pu >o. Gammm wok/Hm 3.93de 93 H: Gofioufifis Budd..- .m @138 III SPATIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER RESOURCE PROBLEMS IN THE SAGINAW RIVER BASIN The water resource, as a spatial factor in a drainage basin, is the result of such variables as the underlying geologic structure. of the region and the activities of man which modity the quality, quantity, or movement of water at any point. The total character of the water resource at any location is a product of the interaction of all factors affecting it. Saginaw Basin's water prob- lems are the product of areal differences in the physical environment and in the human use and management of the water resource therein. Water Resource Problem Areas Several kinds of water resource problems occur in the Saginaw Basin. Some are the result of actions by its occupants. The generalized patterns of water supply problem areas are shown on Figure 11. The problem pattern is more complex than is first apparent. Thus, while salt water intrusion appears to be the dominant problem in the lower portion of the basin, it is also true that surface flooding and drainage problems exist, and that general surface water pollution occurs in this particular portion as well as throughout the basin. 58 59 66%. oua04u>wo ¢w>0 :0 out}... KER? 023010 muUmDOm mU> uU QZDOKO no zO_mD¢._.Z_ muh<3 ...;(m WTMQT EMQQQQQ ¥Ffibw QMRY§ In. m z _ m < m m m > _ z ...,/ ezr/d Mummmssxm mummqumqt: // .... 1 .i41 . w x0; (1 ‘3qu 9.4.3.10 .02.): ‘03! _ . ’l mumm!’ 51.5 manuzuu .<.Xm zorzluml >z_o_:¢o Ezfiim u<.:z722: _ m 95:52. 2:3 1:5 .zoanixou _ 33503.. 3:; 23.5... _ .353 (:3 _ _ _ 60 The ground water immediately adjacent to Saginaw Bay has been extensively intruded by salt. This contamination is the result of penetration of the aquifers by salt wells and coal mining exploration holes.l Failure to adequately seal off these openings upon abandon— ment has allowed leakage into the aquifer. This is an example of an area where lack of knowledge and consequent lack of regulation have caused deterioration of the resource as a result of human activity. Drainage and flooding of surface areas is another problem . which affects the southern portions of the basin. The natural geologic and topographic conditions which make this portion of the basin the most valuable agriculturally also cause it to be the most susceptible to accumulations of run-off water. Stream gradients tend to be very small and the result is a two-fold problem. Drainage of the flat, fer- tile plains areas is generally poor, with water tables near the surface, causing problems for agriculture. 2 Relatively small amounts of pre- cipitation produce local surface flooding and cause damage to crops which are not water tolerant. Further, runoff waters from the upper portions of the basin move through the several tributary streams which join southwest of Saginaw to form the Saginaw River. This juncture 1 Max S. Wehrly, Water for Industry, Urban Land Institute Technical Bulletin 17 (Washington: Nov. 1951), p. 2.5. Michigan Water Resources Commission, Water Resource Conditions and Uses in the Shiawassee River Basin (Lansing: 1960) , pp. 60 $69. 61 area consists of a broad, flat, flood plain extending southwestward from Saginaw to the vicinity of the village of St. Charles and is some- times referred to as the "Shiawassee Flats. “ During periods of heavy runoff this area is habitually flooded. Since a portion of the area con- sists of developed agricultural fens and urban land, any excessive flooding can be expected to cause heavy damage, both to property and crops. The desire of man to best utilize land has resulted in two major efforts in the area of water controls. The efforts, unfortunately, are not always compatible. On the one hand, agricultural users need to have excess water drained from the soil in order to successfully and consistently produce crops. This need has resulted in extensive programs to improve natural drainage channels, construct artificial ditch drains, and lay closely spaced grids of drainage tile throughout the fields. These drainage works have the desired effect of moving surface water from the fields and lowering water tables so that crops can sucessfully be produced. However, the same‘ works contribute to a somewhat intensified flooding problem downstream by assisting in the rapid release of surface water. The exact role of artificial drain- age in relation to flooding is still not definitely settled, according to 3 Ibid., p. 91. 62 the Michigan Water Resources Commission. However, sufficient concern about flooding has been evidenced in several of the lower basin communities to result in court injunctions against further drainage projects at upstream locations . Surface water is much more responsive to fluctuations in the precipitation pattern than is ground water. Since the water appear- ing in the streams is largely the result of runoff from precipitation, any variations from month to month are reflected in streamflow patterns . All of the streams in the basin display similar flow patterns. The typical pattern shows a minimum flowage during the months of June, July, August, and September. Some increase in flow rates will occur during the fall and winter months. Strong peaks in rate of flow occur during the month of March as a result of melting of the winter snows coupled with spring precipitation. Then flow tapers off rapidly during 6 April and May. Michigan Water Resources Commission, Water Resource Conditions f Uses in the Tittabawassee River Basin (Lansing: 1960), p. 19. 5 C. R. Humphrys, Water Bulletin No. 5, Water Resource Analysis of Genessee County (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1960), p. 9. 6U. S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Surface Water Records of Michigan 1962 (Lansing, Michigan), pp. 144- 150. 63 This strong cylical pattern of runoff is reflected in periodic surface water shortages in some parts of the basin. The pattern which appears in Figure 11 indicates those portions of the basin most affected by this condition. Two factors help explain the pattern. First, there is little tributary area in the headWaters to collect precipitation. Second, the heavy demand of the highly urbanized and industrialized southern part containing the cities of Flint and Lapeer. This combination or urban needs and restricted supply area results in general shortages at times. Pollution of surface water sources in general throughout the basin. Pollution will be defined here as any factor which causes any type of reduction in the quality of water for any desired use. Using this guide line, it may be seen that factors of the natural en- vironment such as the erosional processes and wildlife are the first contributors to decrease in surface water quality. Agricultural activities contribute to the quality reduction process in the form of pesticides and fertilizers in runoff water, and by increases in erosional activities. Proceeding from the rural to the urban areas, the quality of water is subject to further decline by the addition of sanitary and industrial wastes . An extra element adding to the complexity of the situation is the need of industry for water for cooling purposes. This category of surface pollution must be seen therefore as a composite of a variety of factors, and as a summation of a variety of conditions 64 existing at various points in the basin. The monolithic surface pollution pattern recorded in Figure 11 is in reality a concensus of a broad variety of quality reducing characteristics . One other potential problem concerning the water resource remains to be considered. In urbanized areas immediately to the south of the basin region, evidence exists of over development of available water supplies. In the Pontiac and Lansing urbanized areas increasing demands for water have resulted in decline of water table levels of ground water sources. 7 Extended periods of water table drawdown in these adjacent areas may have latent ground water effects in the Saginaw River Basin. In metropolitan Flint, limits have been reached for use of the Flint River and added sources of water must be obtained for further development of the region. Sources of Water Supply The water which is found in the basin at any time in any of its varying forms, is inextricably bound to the hydrologic cycle. The amount of water received by the region is substantial. Average annual 7Max S. Wehrly, Water for Industry, Technical Bulletin No. 17 (Washington: Urban-Land Institute, Nov., 1951), p. 25. Michigan Water Resources Commission, Water Resource Conditions and Uses in the Flint River Basin (Lansing, Michigan: 1956). pp. 61 ¢ 62. 65 precipitation varies from 28 inches in the northern portion of the basin to 32 inches in the southern. 9 Not all of the water which is precipi- tated reaches the streamflow stage. Some portions of it are intercepted by vegetation and other surfaces and lost to evaporation. Of that which infiltrates, a large portion is utilized by plants and subsequently trans - pired to the atmosphere. Still other amounts are lost from the sur- face water areas by direct evaporation. The net result of these processes of evapotranspiration is that perhaps two -thirds of the precipitation is dissipated before it can leave the basin. The tributary watershed yields shown in Figure 12 illustrate that no more than 11. 5 inches of water are yielded by any portion of the basin watersheds. This is not a net loss, however, since that portion of the losses attributed to plant transpiration has served its purpose prior to being given up to the atmosphere. That portion of the precipitation which reaches the surface either becomes a part of overland runoff or infiltrates and becomes part of the ground water resource. Some of the overland runoff becomes a part of streamflow and proceeds to follow the descending gradient out of the basin. Another part enters the inland lakes and becomes a part of the surface water resource. In like manner that portion which 9A. D. Ash, Annual Rainfall and Runoff in Inches for Michigan (Lansing, Michigan: Geological Survey, Surface Water Branch), as reported by C. R. Humphrys, Michigan State University, in a paper prepared for Michigan Week, 1958. 66 nv dd.“ ZO_._.<._.m 02.0346 2:.<43230 _ _ 9'6 una— . >u)IDn J3 Emmm H®>Hm Bdcwmom 9: mo moose nous? @0335..- .o 013% 69 5w: HHH Odom; HHH. H..omm.HH EH 9me H. 4.209 m .03 .H .HH. 3830. ms N m.H.HH .H HH mlw o 3.30 .Hm O m O .00 H @0mmdadwfim o .wHNo H Bmemm 05 H o .me .H. w soEEoomom @7000an N .me S o .NNN N H. .o H 3.3me H .S N N.oHH S EHSEOSH OHM N o.mmN .N m 3.882 m .o N o . com H 9:232 H..H.NH NN N .2. m @8832 w . mm H. p .3 m conmcHZH N .E N o ..HNN ON 8&3 0 .mm N mHHmnmmH o .N m o .8 H p .9: HHN 83qu o.m H 05:. NH 8330 o . Hmo .H 5 55.620 Nd H NAVNH o 9me H. 3850 o . H N H m .m N 8330 Hio N on H ONON H 830 >mm O .N M UMGQHAN mmeUaoH. .OZ mOHUAQ. .OZ m®HU< .OZ mOHU< .OZ 98m 5.350 HuconH HHHH>H quHuooHrH HHoEQmBH .3550 .No flaw H3500 m.HHHHUHHB u HHmHm knamdm 033$ $3352 uosufino0l .0 03mm. 7O N.» . NH 0.3. m o.wH 0.0m; om H1 on mH 1H.H N o.N H o.NH H .HHmHU .Hm o.w H 06¢ N mommmgmfim Bmcmem o .om H coaaoumom «HooomO m.m oH wd oH 0.0m mH @cmHvaO o .H H EHmoHGOE H .N H Smoomz H3332 h. H £500.32 0 . Z N copmmaHZq .3234 o .NN N mHHmnHmmH 92 mi N 82mg 0 :vH N HoHHmEU o .om H 236.30 0 . HH M 93930 o .w M CHOEHHU o .3 H mumHD o mN p >mm omcmjw mmpoaoq .02 $334 .02 9:04 moHo/w .oZ mvuodfl .oZ HuconH HuqonH HudonH HHnH Bonuom >uo£ofimeH HmHm H5550 meommHQ “wk/«mm quHtmm .Hmumgumwab mmmgmm 82:300-- .0 Eng M6363 m.HH.o.HH ooH MHN 5 H4909 71 0.000; 0.0 H 0.m H «Hoomsrfi 0.HNm.HH 0.mmw m HHmHD .Hm 0:30 0.mmH m oommmeHHHm m .03 .H m .3 N amaHmmm 0.NmH .mm 0.000 H 0.m H coEEoomom 0.Hw¢.m 0.~.NN m .mHooomO m Jvom .mN H .00N .m 0m @53me N. .mom .N. 0 .Hum N EHmoucov/H m .0Nw .w 0 .Su N m .H H mumoomz N.0mN.N 0.mm H @5332 0.>0N .H Husvmm. H» £800.32 0 HS .3 H. .wwN .H m ququHZq m .000 .m H .NmVN w .HmmanJ 0 .mHum .H mHHmnHmmH m .mho .H 845de m.wHH.H H.Hm m .6520 w .Humm .h GHQ/v.30 w.mmH .m 0.mmN m mmmmch HiHHm .H 99:. N o H H coEHHU m.0H>.m 0.Nw¢ n m.m N mHmHU m6? mdm N m.m H 0% w.mNm 095.74. moho< . .oZ mopoaq. .02 003.25 93.35 mo mvamA 13.3334 HuconH mcHHumman HHmHLH1 H3550 Ammuoaoav dohxw H.309 HuoHEHEoo- - .o 3an 72 Flooding The capacity of a stream to carry water is a function of its channel depth within banks; its channel width; and its slope, or gradient. This basic capacity is then subject to temporary or permanent modifi- cation by constrictions or improvements in the channel. Ice or other natural blockages may constrict, while channel straightening and other clearance projects may increase the capacity to carry water away. Whenever the capacity of a stream to carry water is exceeded, the water surface level rises above bank level and the excess spreads be— yond the channel limits onto the adjoining flood plain. The relief of a major portion of the Saginaw Basin is such that gravity assists little in the movement of water. The profile of the Shiawassee tributary shows it to have an average gradient of only 3. 5 feet per mile. 13 Comparatively, an analysis of topographic profiles shows the gradient of the Cass River to be only 2. 2 feet per mile and the Tittabawassee 3. 3 feet per mile respectively. These low gradient streams all flow into the Shiawassee Flats area. Downstream from this point the Saginaw River exhibits a near zero gradient to its outlet at Saginaw Bay. 1 2Arthur N. Strahler, Physical Geography, 2nd ed. (New York: John Wiley ¢Sons, Inc., 1960), p. 334. Michigan Water Resources Commission, Water Resource Conditions and Uses in the Shiawassee River Basin (Lansing, Michigan: October, 1963) . 73 The area of confluence is essentially a flat plain. When the right combination of conditions occurs to send water downstream faster than it can be carried away, the excess tends to crest in the Shiawassee Flats and spread over the plain and into the village of St. Charles. In addition to this flooding, other problems exist along the tributaries . Inadequate channel capacity and encroachments upon the natural floodplain cause periodic problems at several locations, and occasionally such combinations as frozen soil, heavy rains, and channel ice jams result in excesses severe enough to cause damage. 14 At Midland, in the Tittabawassee Basin, a persistent problem exists due to the juncture of two tributaries, the Chippewa and Pine Rivers, with the Tittabawassee; coupled with the existence of a broad, flat flood plain which is subject to overflowing. Consequently, Midland has experienced periodic flooding damage whenever those combinations oficonditions favorable to production and retention of water have occurred. Recently the Midland area has been free of serious floods. During the 1940's, however, flooding stages occurred nine times, with l4The U.S. Geological Survey reports that on February 16- 17, 1954, an ice jam, coupled with rains and meltwater, which formed in the Cass River channel immediately below the village of Frankenmuth, caused water to be impounded and overflow into the Central Business District. Summary of Floods; 1954; Water Supply Paper l370-C, (Washington, D. C.: 1959), p. 207. 74 1 a reported annual damage of $69, 000. 5 Further partial records indi- cate at least thirty-eight additional instances of flood flow, several exceeding the magnitudes of those of the forties, in the period of 16 record from 1904 through 1957. Similar flood conditions to those at Midland prevail at Owosso and Corunna in the Shiawassee Basin. Inadequate channel capacity at both locations results in overflow of low areas. This channel inadequacy has been increased by construction of dams with inadequate spillways, and buildings and bridges with foundations jut- l ting into the channel. 7 Similar encroachments have occurred on the flood plain of the Flint River Basin with resultant possibilities of heavy damage from severe flooding. A record flood on this tributary . . . . 18 . in 1947 caused an estimated four million dollars damage. As might be expected, much of the flooding within the basin is primarily a springtime phenomenon resulting from combinations of equinoctial Michigan Water Resources Commission, Water Resource Conditions and Uses in the Tittabawassee River Basin (Lansing, Michi- gan: 1960), p. 105. 1 61bid., p. 106. Michigan Water Resources Commission, Water Resource Conditions and Uses in the Shiawassee River Basin (Lansing, Michi- gan: 1963). pp. 90 $91. Michigan Water Resources Commission, Report on Water Resource Conditions and Uses in the Flint River Basin (Lansing, Michigan: 1956), p. 35. 75 rains and melting snow. Records on all tributaries confirm, however, that severe summer storms can and have produced substantial flooding. The flood problems of the basin have been recognized for some time. Professors Wisler and King of the University of Michigan reported on "Floods in Saginaw County" in 1920. 20 The Corps of Engineers of the United States Army began, at Congressional authori- zation, to study the basin in 1937. The results of the exhaustive Corps studies were finally approved by Congress, and federal support of improvement projects was authorized in 1958. The participation de- pended, however, upon the conclusion of agreements with local units of government and these agreements have not been forthcoming. Colonel R. C. Pfeil, District Engineer of the Corps of Engineers, Detroit, Michigan, reported to Mr. Milton Adams, Executive Secretary of the Michigan State Water Resource Commission, on June 28, 1961, that the Saginaw Basin watershed program had not received the local cooperation . . . 23 . necessary for its implementation. Flint and Frankenmuth were the 9Michigan Water Resources Commission, Flint, p. 35; Shiawassee, pp. 35 ¢ 94; Tittabawassee, pp. 100 $ 102. Michigan Water Resources Commission, Shiawassee, p. 91. 21 Ibid. 22Ibid., p. 92. 23 L. M. Reid, Dis ~Integrated Resource Development, A Case Study of the Saginaw Valley Watershed Development Plan (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan, March, 1962), p. 10. 76 only communities expressing a positive interest in a comprehensive water resource development program. In the Midland area, subse- quent to Corps of Engineer studies, some diking has been provided by the City and by the Dow Chemical Company to protect special high . . 24 , value areas against moderate flooding. Humphrys pomts out that in many areas the problem is not yet severe enough to force action. Only when danger to life or crippling economic costs mount will the proposed solutions be accepted and implemented. Drainage The record of the settlement of the Saginaw Valley is re- plete with reference to water problems. As indicated in the previous discussion of topography and resulting flooding on the flat plain, the low gradient produced swampy conditions where agriculture was virtually impossible. Gradually, as the value of the fertile plain Michigan Water Resources Commission, Water Re- source Conditions and Uses in the Tittabawassee River Basin (Lans- ing, Michigan: 1960), p. 107. 25 . C. R. Humphrys, Water Bulletin No. 5, Water Re- source Analysis of Genessee County, Michigan (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, February 1960) , p. 9. 26 . . . In 1815 the CommiSSioner of the General Land Office is reported to have said that there "would not be more than one acre out of a hundred, if there would be one out of a thousand . . . suit- able for cultivation. “--George Nowman Fuller, “An Introduction to the Settlement of Southern Michigan from 1815 to 1835, " Michigan 77 came to be recognized, effort was expended to reclaim it for produc- tive uses. The first attempts were individual projects involving surface ditching. By 1839, legislation had been passed to allow pub-=- 1ic participation in drainage projects. 27 It was not until after the Civil War, however, when real activity began on organized programs, and subsurface methods were developed.28 The bulk of the Saginaw Basin is now interwoven with drainage improvement projects. Natural channels have been improved and supplemented with constructed ditches, to act as a collector sys— tem for excess water. Small ditches and/or networds of subsurface tile, constructed of clay or concrete sections, lead the water from individual fields to the collection system. The drainage program has been in progress for more than a century now, and the results are re— flected in the extensive network of drains. Records of the Michigan Water Resources Commission reveal that a large portion of the land within the Shiawassee Basin has been modified by artificial drainage 29 . . . improvements, while in the Tittabawassee BaSin, some fifty percent Pioneer and Historical Collections, Vol. XXXVIII (1912) , p. 546. (Reported by Maurice Edron McGaugh) , The Settlement of the Saginaw Basin, Dissertation for Ph.D. , University of Chicago, 1950, p. 40. Z7lbid., pp. 85 $86. 28 . Ibid., p. 87. Michigan Water Resources Commission, Water Resource Conditions and Uses in the Shiawassee River Basin (Lansing, Michigan: 1960), p. 70. 78 of the land is served by a drainage system. 30 Renewal of existing drains and expansion of the system is continuing. Drainage of the land was the key to settlement of the basin. Without artificial control of the water level, agriculture would have been impossible over much of the region. Drainage technology has been a boon to the agricultural industry. Outside the sphere of agri- culture, however, some doubts still remain about the effect of drain- age programs . Not all of the questions concerning the role of drainage in relation to flooding have been answered. With increasing amounts of urbanization concentrated along the rivers, some resistance is occurring to any additional projects . 3 Drainage works may also lower the water level of nearby lakes and marshes, as well as that of the area they were intended to drain. Thus conflicts arise between wildlife, recreation, urban and agricultural interests. Detailed study and coordinated plans for the whole of the basin will be required in order to reconcile the conflicting interests. Michigan Water Resources Commission, Water Re- source Conditions and Uses in the Tittabawassee River Basin (Lans- ing, Michigan: 1960), p. 21. 31 C. R. Humphrys, Water Bulletin No. 5, Water Resource Analysis of Genesee County, p. 9. 79 Land Utilization and Relation to Natural Characteristics The patterns of distribution which have been previously examined indicate the variety of conditions existing within the basin. Large quantities of water are available, and if properly utilized can meet much of the foreseeable need. In practice, it is found that the actual distribution of water is such that supply and demand do not coincide areally. Water utilization will now be examined to determine some factors affecting the natural state of basin developments. Irrigation Augmentation of the natural precipitation supply for agri- cultural and other purposes is not an activity widely recognized in Michigan. However, supplemental water for agricultural use is commonly accepted and the amount of acreage under irrigation is rapidly increasing. (Table 7.) In addition to agriculture there are a number of municipal irrigation uses for water to maintain ceme- teries, parks and golf courses. In the beginning, irrigation was pro- vided only as a supplement to correct any deficiencies in the natural rainfall. Now, however, there is some tendency for a pattern of regularly scheduled irrigation to be followed with the natural rainfall 80 Table 7. -—Growth of irrigation in the Saginaw River Basin (by county) .a Acres Irrigated (By Yr.) Prior to 1930 - 1958 County 1930 1944 1958 Percent Increase b Arenac 170 Total Bay 64 64 1,192 1, 763 Clare 6 7 16 167 Clinton 0 O 0 O Genesee 52 52 450 765 Gladwin 0 O 0 0 Gratiot 1 3 515 51, 400 Huron 36 36 41 14 Ingham 250 251 995 29 Iosco O O 92 Total Isabella 24 31 528 2, 100 Lapeer 44 139 819 1, 761 Livingston 126 141 564 348 Macomb 333 444 l, 864 460 Mecosta O 33 590 Totalb Midland 0 6 5 3 2 5 Total Montcalm 167 187 2,866 1,616 Oakland 1,356 1, 576 1,990 47 Ogemaw 0 3 3 Totalb Osceola O 5 118 Total Roscommon 3 3 9 200 Saginaw 130 264 398 206 Sanilac 6 6 40 567 Shiawassee 3 3 216 7, 100 St. Clair 212 229 745 251 Tuscola 3 3 328 10, 833 TOTAL 2,818 3, 550 15,224 551 8'Adapted from Mich. Water Res. Comm. , Water Use for Irrigation, Lan., 1959, App. A. Table 3. No Acreage recorded at beginning period. 81 being viewed as supplemental. 32 It is not necessary to apply the large amounts of supplemental water for crops in this climate as is required for crops in the arid regions. The survey conducted by the Water Resources Commission indicated that the average rate of application was about 4. 3 inches per acre per season. Much of the water for irrigation purposes in Michigan is withdrawn from the many sources of surface water which are available. Within the Saginaw Basin this pattern is also followed. The data in Table 8 indicates that some seven times as much land is irrigated from surface sources as from ground water. Since it is typically cheaper to pump directly from a surface source than to dig wells and pump the water up from an underground aquifer, it was to be expected that most of the original irrigators would draw on available surface water. So long as the amount of water withdrawn from a source was insignificant there was little possibility of complaints from other riparians. Now that the amount of irrigated land is increasing, however, there is beginning to be some question about the potential effects of diversion. This is a valid concern since most of the water utilized for irrigation purposes is not returned to the watershed, but is lost to the atmosphere. As a result of these concerns and because of uncertainties about the Michigan Water Resources Commission, Water Use for Irrigation (Lansing, Michigan: 1959), p. 8. 33Ibid., p. 3. 82 .No AH .momH .mHHHmHHmJ .HHHmmmH H6>Hm 666663.685 9.3 5 666.3 n 9833300 moHDOmom H363 . ..EHQHOO .mom .333 in 0mm; EOHH owmonom Ho 6660.35. Havonom H.0HH .m. .mgoumkm 0% >6. poudeuhH mopom 00w mBOHHm HooH HHH HoopooHHoo damp Houmdn .HN 6390 :44. @676. .mmmH HHonmHEQHoO moouHHOmom H6663 603dean How omD H6336 mmm .N SH EN HN oHH N NNH. HVN N3 .N om 43.09 New .H 0% mmH m n .. mmH m mHHN .H 0m oommNBNQdfiHH HHHom AHMN N N m H 0m N. HNNm mH ommmmspmHHHm EN S 2: HH - - mH N H6 H. Bafiwmm 3.0 mm «N N .. .. mHNH w NHH. wN HGHHh EN HNH m H m0H H 01v m HNH 0 mme mono/w mgoumlnm mmpoafl mgopmknm monoaaa maoumlnm mopod. maoumunm 66.34 mamumknm H3309 NCHO 0936.800 HoHHDOHO oommndm 5.9mm .GHmdn no>HH >6. mHHNBdHHoHHH—HB Hook? GoHHdeuHH HHHmmm qudem... .w oHnHmH d 83 rights of the irrigator if his diversion were to be challenged, many operators are now taking steps to secure their future supplies by con- verting to ground water sources . 34 The patterns appearing on Figure 13 indicate widespread irrigation. Most of the municipalities are irrigating where desirable to maintain public facilities, and other operators have begun to irri- gate where it appeared advantageous to do so. The data presented in Table 9 indicates quantitively the amount of land involved in irrigation projects for each county which is represented within the Saginaw Basin. More than fifteen thousand acres of land are served by five hundred twelve irrigation systems in the study area. Several counties are only partially within the basin; therefore, these figures must be used as a relative indicator of the amount of irrigated land within the basin compared to the balance of the state. As was noted in the first portion of this chapter, many Michigan streams experience wide variation in flow—-from flooding in the early spring to extremely low water in the late summer. Where these conditions exist in the basin, and where suitable sites are avail- able, it would be possible to construct storage facilities to conserve and utilize water for irrigation which is now lost during floods . Con- versely, some portions are well supplied with water from lakes or Michigan Water Resource Commission, Water Use for Irrigation (Lansing, Michigan: 1959), pp. 10 $ 13. 84 6.0m. nlllll l'll -II" III'II 4(13PJDU_¢O( . . . . 33.6.22: . . . 4 W\ _ m Buwwmwhfixmfl 1. . ummw<3HHHHHoO .mHHHH .mHHHH H.308 .mHHHH H.308 .HHwHNN .HHHHHHZ H.308 >HEHHoO HUGNHNHOHO HHH .HumdN .HHHDHZ 663m Ho H.308 33m Ho Ho ”:50qu pdemonO «GounonH “:80qu 8.304 296me .>Hcsoo >6 1513.606 HHoHHmmHHHH HHHmNmH Hoe/HM BNGHMNm11 .0 3an m 86 larger streams and foresee no shortage of water. One factor does ' appear certain: the use of water for irrigation purposes will increase, along with other competing demands for water. Wherever and when- ever these conflicting demands begin to present a problem, it is to be expected that operators will become interested in storage of the excess surface water for use during the dry season, or in developing their own sources of water from ground resources. Recreation Abundant opportunities for outdoor recreation occur within the basin. These facilities, located throughout the region, range from relatively highly developed spots designed to serve the metropolitan communities to streams and forest areas which have undergone little or no development. The type of recreation available within the area is a direct function of the type of physical facilities available. Recreation activities range from family picnicing at one end of the scale to primi- tive camping and large game hunting at the other. The pattern which appears in Figure 14 and which is identi- fied in greater detail in Table 10 gives an indication of the variety of locations and recreation activities which the region provides. The names of the facilities do not always reveal the involvement of the water resource. In point of fact, however, the value of water is implicit in practically every recreational use. 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It is absolutely essential, of course, for those whose recreation goal is fishing, boating, or .swimming; and water is needed even in the hunting areas if the game sought is to reproduce and thrive. Fortunately, water is well supplied to the basin, and most of the wildlife and recreation areas shown have been selected because the necessary water was present. Approximately twenty—four thousand acres of lentic water surface exist within the defined watershed of the Saginaw River, while more than one hundred forty-four thousand acres are found within the total area of the twenty-one counties situated wholly or partly Within the basin. Some of the surface water bodies are entirely natural in character, while some are partly or completely artificial. The water- shed of the Saginaw River is the only area of the basin totally without natural or artificial lakes. (Table 11.) Hydro-electric reservoirs are the largest class of impounded surface water available for recreation use in the study area. Nearly ten thousand acres of surface water are created by hydro dams primarily on the Tittabawassee River. Unfortunately, nature did not evenly distribute the available features and facilities for water-related recreation. Aside from the main tributaries and their feeder systems, large sections of the basin are nearly devoid of such natural resources. The East Michigan Tourist and Resort Association indicates that the superb highway system of the 91 N6N .6N 666 .NH 66N .6 66 666.6 6HN .N H4606. 06H 0H6 0 mm 00 0 mHHPA. Bounom .HmHNBHopHHD 6H H 6 6 6 6 66666666 62...... N 6 6 6 6 N 6.32660 0 mHHnuH Hm>mHU N6N 66 66 6 N6H 6 66.86 HHHH>H 66N .H 6 6 6 66N .H 6 28:66.36 63666 .8663 #3565ch 0 333632 NN6 .6 HN6 .N N66 6 H6N 66N .H 65.66on oHHHHUHHHs N 62.6 06m .0 00H .0 H0 0 0 00 mHHoNYHommMH UHHHUOHH1OHU>TH N66 .N 6N6 666 .H 6 N66 666 68:3 H3603“... H6N .6 6HN 666 .H 6 666 .N NNH 6860 .HH... mmdeiH Haydn—NZ m0HU< mOHO< mQHU< mQHUAQ. mOHUMN WORD/Na HON—d; QUQHHSW H.808 oommNBMNHdHBHH. mmmmdBMHHHm BdGdem uQHHrnH 66.60 mo mom>H 46.335693 >6. GHmmmH H6N/Hm BmQHmdm 9H6. HHH mmonm H6603 00.6.2651 1 . H H oHan 92 basin enables the population centers to distribute water-oriented re- creation demand over a wide area both within and outside the basin. The highway system is the single organization thread which ties the forest, conservation, and recreation areas into a network of facilities. Some surface waters have been developed primarily for commercial purposes, such as power production; some for improved wildlife habitat, and some with recreation directly in mind. In most cases recreation has been a by-product of natural and artificial sur- face water, whether intended or not. In southeastern Michigan, in— cluding the study area, the water—oriented activities of fishing, swimming, boating, or hunting are given higher opportunity values which apparently reflect the desirability of the available water—related recreation facilities. 34 It is anticipated that the use of these waters will continue to increase in ratio to the expected increase in population and income and resultant increases in demand for recreation. Water Quality Contamination of water supplies is a factor which exists to varying degrees at locations throughout the basin. Contamination for this purpose will be defined as anything which exists naturally or 4 . . 3 Outdoor Recreation Resources ReView Com— mission, Prospective Demand for Outdoor Recreation, Study Report 26 (Washington, D. C.: 1962), p. 23. 35Ibid. 93 is introduced into the water to reduce its quality for a specified purpose. Using this criterion, it is possible to classify waters as contaminated which have been merely warmed above temperatures which will support game fish. Other water exists naturally with high saline content in strata underlying portions of the region. Conversely, some waters are polluted by introduction of residential, industrial, or agricultural wastes. This latter type of contamination is what is commonly en- visioned when the word pollution is mentioned. Since introduction of waste products is only a part of the total water quality problem, the word pollution-contamination will be used in all references to water quality. In studying the quality of water resources of the basin, it is helpful to consider the several factors in relation to both surface waters and to ground water. Several problems exist within the ground water, some of which are natural and others are caused or intensified by man's activities . Within the Saginaw lowlands, saline, highly minera- lized water is found at shallow depths. This mineralized water occupies some shallow aquifers and sometimes discharges into surface streams. 36 Man, as he has explored, settled, and intensified his use of the region, has compounded this problem. During exploration for coal, oil, and 36 Morris Deutsch, Ground Water Contamination and Legal Controls in Michigan, U.S.G.S. Water Supply Paper 1691 (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963, p. 49. 94 other minerals which are found in the study area, a great number of holes have been drilled. These holes have been sunk to appreciable depths in many cases, and have penetrated successive layers of the underlying geological strata. The drilling of these holes, and their subsequent abandonment, left channels through which waters could move vertically from one stratum to another. Before the problem came to be recognized, and legislation was passed‘to control it, many of these test holes were left without being sealed. The result has been that a considerable amount of pollution-contamination of the fresh water aquifers has occurred due to upward migration of the saline waters which were tapped. This upward migration has been hastened by over-pumping from the upper aquifers in some cases. In the Flint area, for instance, increasing chlorides in the fresh water aquifers are attributed to this action. 37 Penetration and with- drawal of brines from the deep aquifers has developed into an impor- tant industry at Midland and other locations within the basin. However, it has been subsequently found necessary to go back and plug many of the Wells which had been abandoned without being properly sealed to protect the integrity of the aquifer. 38 Legislation now requires seal- ing of abandoned holes, but the virtual impossibility of finding and 3711316... p. 58. 3 81bid., p. 53. 95 capping all abandoned wells will be a great detriment to reclamation of the aquifer. Drilling, mining, and lagoon storage of surface wastes are the principal culprits of ground water pollution-contamination and quality reduction in the Saginaw Basin. Such lessor factors as hard- ness or taste which reduce quality are normally related to subterranean conditions over which man has no control except through artificial pro- cessing, with special equipment, at surface locations. Surface seepage of undesirable substances together with saline water intrusion may, over a period of time, destroy the ground water aquifer beneath much of the lowland areas of the basin, placing great limitations on local water supplies. Surface waters in the study area suffer some pollution- contamination due to such factors as temperature increases, turbidity, discoloration, acidity, or bacterial infestation. Examples of each of these problems may be found which reduce water quality in the basin. Industrial cooling activity has reduced oxygen content and increased temperature levels in streams at Flint, Saginaw, Midland, Mt. Pleasant, Alma, Owosso, and Bay City. These temperature in- creases destroy fish habitat, but more importantly, reduce the sewage dilution capacity of the stream. Secondarily, the water supply value of the stream is reduced by the increased content of undigested solids due to lack of oxygen to support decay bacteria. 96 Turbidity of surface waters caused by material in suspen- sion is related primarily to clay and silt resulting from soil erosion conditions. The introduction of extensive tile and ditch drainage sys- tems has increased the turbidity factor of all surface streams in the basin. The Tittabawassee, Cass, and Flint Rivers are cited by the Michigan Water Resources Commission as streams with turbidity conditions, particularly during the spring season. Suspended material will settle out if the water is impounded in a reservoir or pond for a period of time. Flint's Holloway Reservoir is an excellent example of successful turbidity control of a surface water supply. Discoloration, acidity, and bacterial infestation are problems introduced by human activities . Many industrial processes or waste disposal techniques produce undesirable side effects which reduce water quality. Industrial activity in Flint, Saginaw, Bay City, and Midland produce dyes which are not easily removed from the dis- posed water. Sugar beet processing establishments at several loca- tions in the downstream areas of the Saginaw River add discoloration and objectionable odors simultaneously into the surface water at points of disposal. Acidity in the surface water has resulted from the use of stream waters as a universal solvent or for dilution of toxic liquids of an acidic nature. The petro-chemical industries in Mt. Pleasant, Alma, Midland, and Bay City have faced problems of dilution to neutralize acidic conditions resulting from chemical 97 processes. The Tittabawassee River and its tributaries which pass through these urban communities do not have sufficient flow to absorb the acid conditions which continue to plague the watershed. Infestation of surface waters by pathogenic bacteria is a constant threat in high density population areas where water supplies may actually become disease carriers. Water processing through public water supply systems has reduced this problem in recent years. The exposed nature of surface supplies, however, greatly increases the possibilities for infection under uncontrolled conditions. Testing of water supply sources by the Michigan State Health Depart- ment has reduced to a minimum the threat of spreading infestation. Contamination of surface or underground water supplies exists to varying degrees throughout the study area. Though the problems vary, the collective impact reduces the quality of the total water supply available to the residents of the basin. Salt water intru- sion of ground water aquifer and general pollution-contamination of surface sources are the greatest reducers of water quality at this time. Multiple Use of Water Resources Within the Basin A spatial analysis of water resource problems in the Saginaw River Basin indicates an increasing amount of interaction between problem-producing factors and expanding water demands. Since the total amount of manageable water available within the basin 98 cannot exceed the long term average annual runoff of the basin, the concept of using the same water in several ways can serve to expand the usable capacity of the fixed supply. The multiple use of water resources has been an espoused theory for many years; however, as a management practice it has been difficult to execute. 39 To maintain a sustained yield of manage- able water resources in the study area requires that no particular utilization overuse the resource to the extent of impairing uses for other water demands. Multiple use of the water resources for the greatest benefit of all concerned is only possible with full cooperation of water-using groups. Thus far, the water resource users of the Saginaw River Basin have not created a viable water management program to implement the conceptual form of multiple use of the water resource. In 1960, the Michigan State Water Resources Commission sponsored a meeting at Frankenmuth for purposes of reviewing local interests in a comprehensive water management program for the basin. 9Credit for the theory of multiple use management is given to Mr. Carl Schurz, Secretary of the Interior in the early 1870's, who publicly espoused the now established theory of optimum use for the greatest public benefit--Multiple Use of Land and Water Areas, A Report of the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission (Washington, D. C.: 1962), p. 1. Leslie M. Reid, Dis -Integrated Resource Development, A Case Study of the Saginaw Valley Watershed Development Plan (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, March, 1962), p. 20. 99 During this session, numerous local communities reported they were not interested in participation. 41 Apparently, individual communities within the basin have great difficulty in comprehending the relation- ship of their water problems with those of other communities in the watershed. The various water problems previously discussed are the results of conflicting demands upon the water resources of the study area. Since collective action for resource management on a basin- wide basis has not evolved, the separate communities throughout the basin have sought individual action. The resulting pattern of develop- ing water-related facilities and features by the separate communities has created an areal organization which utilizes both the natural water resources and man—made facilities . 1 41bid., p.21. IV AREAL ORGANIZATION OF WATER-RELATED FUNCTIONS AND FACILITIES IN THE SAGINAW RIVER BASIN In an earlier chapter, it was noted that three separate and distinct forms of organization exist in the Saginaw River Basin which relate to the water resources therein. The first, a physical organization, is that which evolved through various physical pro- cesses such as climate, topography, soils and vegetation over a period of time. Second is a political organization which was, developed by man and superimposed on the physical fabric of the basin for ease in administration. The governmental organization and responsibili- ties assumed under such organization are simple enough in concept; however, the complex network of governmental units results in a jurisdictional morass burdened by invisible boundaries and inflexible structures. On charts or tables of organization the relationship of federal, state, county, township, city, village, special district or ad hoc agency, all seem amazingly clear cut with logical lines of authority and responsibilities. However, from the everyday operational world, one finds more discords than harmony and the problem solving needs of water resource management in the Saginaw River Basin are entwined in a governmental maze. 100 101 The study area contains more than five hundred and seventy units of government which have water resource management responsi- bilities of one form or another. These include twenty-one counties, four hundred and fifty-eight townships, ninety-one cities, twenty-seven villages, thirty special districts and nine ad hoc agencies. These groupings do not include the federal government through the Corps of Engineers or the Interior Department; Michigan State Government through the Water Resources Commission, the Conservation Depart— ment, or the Department of Health. The net result of this organiza- tional pattern is an institutional handicap preventing an integrated approach to the water resource needs of the area. Under this confusing governmental organization, areas of the basin with no immediate local water problems are reluctant to cooperate in planning or financing projects in other areas of the watershed which do not provide direct or obvious benefits to them. As a result, the spatially varying organi- zation of type of government becomes part of the problem rather than a means of solution. The third type, functional organization, emerges from the relationships between cultural facilities and natural features coupled to satisfy water needs. The encumbrances placed upon known water management procedures to solve water problems in the Saginaw River Basin reflect the several subregional divisions in the basin area and the diverse demands placed upon the water resource inventory within 102 these subregions. Water needs are generally based upon cultural and economic patterns of development and the smaller the area of consi- deration, the greater uniformity in problem characteristics. Although watersheds are natural units of land area, the development of cultural features and facilities frequently ignores the natural boundaries and follows economic and transportation trend lines, thus creating a functional organization of facilities to satisfy water resource needs. Such is the case with the Saginaw River Basin. Develop— ment during the 1800's grew from southeast to northwest diagonally across natural divisions of the watershed. As the settlements increased in size and number, and roads and railroads were established, the patterns of land utilization developed divisions in the basin area quite distinct from the natural boundaries of the watershed. Subregional Divisions of the Basin Examination and classification of characteristic develop- ment patterns and associated water problems indicate that four sub- regional divisions can be identified. Each such subregional division has distinctive characteristics in water needs which are expressed in Various combinations and intensities in the areal arranagment of water- related facilities and features. 1An excellent discussion of this settlement pattern in the Saginaw Basin is presented by Maurice E. McGaugh in his doctoral dissertation from the University of Chicago entitled: The Settlement of the Saginaw Basin, 1950. 103 The subregional areas are defined by land use and water use characteristics unique to particular sections of the basin through a series of interconnections between unlike water-related activities and facilities. The first subregion includes urban-industrial dominant areas where agricultural activity is subordinate, but together create the greatest water-using portion of the study area. In the second sub- region agriculture is dominant with minor service subcenters of urban- industrial growth. A third northern subregion consists of forest, recreation, and agricultural area where the least intensive water uses are identified. (Figure 15.) Each subregional division is discussed separately to clarify the areal variations and interconnections and relationships of water-oriented features . a. Eastern Subregion Agricultural activity interspersed with subcenters of urban-industrial development dominates the eastern subregion of the study area. Level to rolling fertile loam soils facilitate an agricul- tural focus. The large industrial centers to the south provide market demands which encourage dairying and general farming, yet as em- ployment centers, they are not close enough to encourage large num- bers of farmers to engage in non-farm industrial employment. ZElton B. Hill ¢ Russell G. Mawley, Special Bulletin No. 206, Types of Farming in Michigan (East Lansing, Michigan: Michi- gan State University, Agricultural Experiment Station, 1954) , p. 34. 11: 104 11: ._.Z(z_100 35.530511: oz<.ZOFuo 1.5th652.15an 1.5 mxwhzunvuman 1.53 25.530ng , UKDFJDUEO< u!0m....zuo 1_<.¢._.maoz_12<9.5 .6.me T >\\.m,v.% 90R >\\ WZQ\W\\_\Q NTZO\0M&$SW 206m 6216:; . 61.2.. r 6 uwmm; 29:36. 666 6:66 11:6 . . .1 623x60 I431! (id 526 RBI: 8:45 52.36 336201 63246 1862 ux<66 5d 1363 2616669. L . iiiuao ii) 20131 h¢0¢ zo_0u¢mam w . zzukm¢umzou ....mumO... El 352.3% 533. .H 55; 23532. a 2.5.2:: G 329". .....z e 32500.: $33.; a 1m: 6 ._ $62.32. o_5ou..u-0¢o>: 9 _ 353 432.222 0 ,H W. 2.20 5.; «.32.. .2352 ® . _ 3:5 45552 O J... 521;... ~25 III 7 2396 352.32. ..... _ hqcmk‘xh o _ O tkoksz ,1 58¢. Erika a 3:385. tot cookout of 3.3.. «E 3: LGSHQEQV «Suki 02¢..qu ....z. :4: : mXOudl mummdi - 20...? .3 1 La 330 -<.Im 1.. 9.2.. F: , 6.35 G )JGUFIO} ‘d?..,.d.i. ”23:3 38m? .'1 QJanqu. did JO.) 39 «5(3) ude U 259.6 < 533 , z 83. 201188: 338 m udZuad «.9. .rk.u¢u>.83 Uni...“ 2(O=_.U.I Plu184u>uo NUCSQUC no h8UIh¢¢tuo . 80_h<>¢un—.OD LO htuahlttflo 8(0.20-I .UUCDOQ (P3 114 hydro-power at four sites in the Tittabawassee watershed. Unlike many other uses of water, hydro-power does not change the natural physical properties of water to diminish its value or usefulness. Simultaneously, with the production of hydro-power are the as soci- ated benefits which dam facilities provide in reducing flooding and erosion problems . The relationship between these surface water features and the ground water supply is, at first glance, not too self-evident. Lakes and streams are basically depressions in the surface of the landscape that are filled with ground water. The voids and pore spaces of the soil beneath the land surface are saturated with water which has either percolated from the surface or flowed there from another location where surplus water was temporarily available. Although this saturated zone is commonly referred to as ground water, certain geologic depressions in the form of lakebeds and streams may extend downward intersecting the ground water zone to appear as a surface water source. This concept emphasizes the fact that surface and ground water are closely related. Many wells have been drilled to utilize the available ground water of the Saginaw Basin. The rates of ground water with- drawals by wells have exceeded the rates of water flow from the upland recharge areas to replace those quantities removed. Salt brines from lower levels have migrated upward to replace the removed 115 water, thus destroying the value of some of the natural ground water. To overcome this problem, collective action has been necessary to develop public water supplies from sources that are not affected by these physical limitations . Public Water Supplies An "adequate water supply" is a relative term which underlines the necessity to provide enough water of the right quality and at a reasonable price to meet the needs of citizens for both domestic and economic purposes. If water supplies cannot be pro- vided from local sources, or made satisfactory by appropriate treat- ment, then a supplementary supply must be provided from more distant sources by pipeline or aqueduct. The quest to provide an ade- quate water supply for population clusters in the Saginaw River Basin has resulted in the creation of more than two hundred and twenty- seven public water supply systems with water sources ranging from wells to the Great Lakes . Approximately eighty percent of the basin population is served by public water supply systems, as are nearly all industrial facilities. (Figure 17.) During the course of the study, the writer made numerous field trips into the basin to inventory public water supply systems and to examine various natural and cultural features related to the water regime. Combined with information provided by the Michigan 116 .Q .0 m. 3 I .I. u | lllllllllllllllll Ill .. In I IJ -d- l ...olo a”. o o 4 4 A mluhmrn l 6 O O .. . -11 - 1111i, 30:.(1333 xuomouo oz< ® 0 O O .00.. O O O O O .0 I _ a a 6 O O I . . £55 .2550 2. 3.63 I . Mo 0 _ o o o .. . 4 4 _ 3.30... e e o .. . ... 4 _ 59.93 2. 3.5; 4 4 e 4 o .. .. 4 4 _ O O O O 4 Ifil - r 6 O I I l_ bum—mo J(—U\ \ .0 Y M; M . _ $2-4333z o _ _ 2:33.. u3kww39§ -I-!-I-I-I-I-_f-I-I-I-I-I-_I-I-I-Io ..... I_ 63:5... (.56 no no _. H . 117 Department of Health, the tabular results of the water supply inventory are provided as important supplemental information in Appendix A. One very important feature resulting from the inventory is that the total of used and unused capacity of water supply equipment and storage facilities exceed the present estimated potential of surface and ground water supplies available in the Saginaw BaSin. Significant amounts of the equipment have design capacity to handle water supply needs for some years in the future. The actual source of supply, however, is not clearly determined and must be assumed to be from a. source presently outside the basin. Despite the vast quantity of well water surving private and public systems in the study area, (Appendix A) an important trend has developed in the use of surface water to satiffy needs. The larger urban complexes such as Saginaw and Bay City have developed water supply facilities to tap the great surface sources of Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair. Both Flint and Mt. Pleasant, on the other hand, are using some local river supplies to supplement water production; how- ever, the recent low rainfall cycle reduced stream flows to levels which rendered them undependable as supplementary sources and caused these urban complexes to look toward the Great Lakes for future 5 upplies . 7 D. R. Woodward, Availability of Water in the United States with Special Reference to Industrial Needs by 1980, Industrial College of Armed Forces (Washington, D. C.: 1957) , p. 49. 118 Public water supply systems are oriented to the local water source, be it wells, rivers, or lake. Improved technology of pumps, pipes, filter systems and storage facilities has expanded the alterna- tives for securing adequate water supplies from further distant sources. The resulting functional organization creates four levels of responsibility in supplying water needs. The first level is at the source of supply, where measures must be taken to insure that there are no conflicts in the use of the water at the source. This may involve legal activities to secure the supply at the source or may merely represent an engineer- ing problem to construct water intake equipment and facilities. At the second level a transportation system is required to move the supply of water from the source to the processing and distribution system. This function may involve the acquisition of rights ~of-way for pipeline or adueducts, or their construction over already available rights —of-way. Third level functions include processing and treatment of the supply and the development of an adequate distribution system to serve the water users of all types. Such facilities may include standard filtra- tion, chlorination, fluoridation, and softening equipment in connection with pumping and storate equipment and an intricate system of distri— bution mains connecting the water users . The final level of organization introduces the problem of disposing of large quantities of "used water" through an equally com- plex system of collection, treatment, and disposal facilities. Since 119 water is the vehicle commonly used to get rid of waste matter, the methods and order for disposing of water become as important as was the organization for supplying the water in the first instance. Areal Arrangement of Natural and Artificial Drainage Areas and Facilities Drainage and sewerage treatment are an aspect of water resource study that is seldom included as relevant to the water regime. In the study area, nearly two wthirds of the land surface is controlled under artificial drainage conditions, and storm and sanitary sewerage treatment facilities have been constructed at thirty—eight locations in the basin which feed into the existing natural river drainage system. The areal arrangement of the natural and artificial drain- age features creates a functional organization similar in character to the water supply system, previously discussed. The principle differ- ence lies in the fact that drainage facilities collect the water rather than dispersing it. (Figure 18.) Three functional levels have been developed by communal action to provide the response to drainage and sewerage treatment requirements. The first level of organization is a collection system consisting of storm and sanitary sewer lines in urban areas where the heaviest concentration of water uses and waste disposal requirements is located. The second level includes the several multi-stage sewerage 120 m as“. .m 2wkm>m m0m >m<._._zm >m>wm >mm\\ v63 vaUxKRst Q\u§<.wb\_m mwmdgflxm .2. 3 mmmwdgdmdkk; \ mm .mdeJu3 OZ( . ZO_._.¢umZOU ...Ow .UUCDOm (P40 44".. 121 treatment plant facilities found at thirty-eight important locations throughout the basin. At these treatment facilities, the sewerage wastes are removed from the water, neutralized, and placed in bulk storage fields for other purposes. The water is chlorinated and returned to the nearest natural drainage feature, normally a stream. The final, or third level of the drainage system, is the natural tributary system of the Saginaw River which ultimately de- livers the water into Lake Huron at Saginaw Bay, thus completing the cycle which began with the water source in the water supply function. One important deviation of functions in the first level of the drainage system is provided by the tile fields and drainage ditches in the agricultural areas of the two and one -half million acre lakebed plain. Farmers in this great agricultural area lay tile lines across their fields to accelerate the removal of water from the heavy clay soils. The tile lines normally feed the water to drainage ditches by natural gradient flow. The drainage ditches in turn move the water along to the nearest natural tributary outlet, ultimately leading to the Saginaw River. This accelerated removal of excess surface waters from agricultural areas has been contested at numerous locations and times, by court injunctions or threats of injunctions, by down- stream interests who are fearful of aggrivated flood conditions. 122 Public concern for this problem was sufficient to motivate a request to the Detroit District, Corps of Engineers, in 1947, for an investigation of flood and drainage problems at the site of seven cities and villages and two highly fertile farm areas within the basin. The resulting report and plan presented a multi—million dollar flood con- trol and watershed management program which would be a basis for all water resource development objectives within the basin for many 8 . . . . years . The adoption and implementation of the recommendations outlined would alleviate many of the legal and technical difficulties now prevalent in the rural sections of the study area. Despite institutional handicaps the present areal arrange- ment of natural and artificial drainage and sewerage facilities provide a functional organization utilizing a given natural environment and recognizing cultural needs to resolve many of the drainage and sewerage requirements of the area. Organization of Water Facilities Within the Saginaw River Basin and Relationship to Areas Outside the Basin The importance of the areal arrangement of public water supply sources and distribution systems to water resource manage- ment is emphasized in contrast by Mr. Bernard M. Conboy, Director 8Saginaw Valley Regional Planning Commission, Progress Report, October 1951, p. 3. 123 of the Michigan State Department of Economic Expansion who says ”We're spoiled, California brings water to some communities from sources four hundred miles away, while there is no place in Michigan more than eighty-five miles from the Great Lakes and yet we can't manage. "9 With this statement Mr. Conboy was both acknowledging a fact and pointing to a trend that has developed in the arranagement of water supply sources and distribution systems. Areal Arrangement of Public Water Supply Sources and Distribution Systems In 1946 the citizens of Saginaw and Midland saw the suc- cessful conclusion of a forty-year old dream of tapping Lake Huron for their water supply. They marked the first instance where two Michigan cities developed a joint water supply from distant sources outside their normal watershed area. The communities joined forces to construct an eighty-mile concrete pipeline beginning two miles offshore in Lake Huron near Whitestone Point and connecting both Saginaw and Midland. Costing twelve million dollars and with a pumping capacity of 70 mgd, the system, including reservoir and 9Barbara Stanton, Water, Water--Everywhere (Detroit, Michigan: Detroit Free Press, March 8, 1964), C-l. "80 Mile Pipeline Taps Lake Huron, " Engineering News- Record (April 29, 1948), p. 100.. 124 filtration plants, insured an adequate water supply for both urban areas for at least fifty~ years. 11 (Figure 19.) Whitestone Point, sixty—three miles northeast of Saginaw, was selected as the water intake point, primarily to establish a water source outside the effects of pollution from the Saginaw River that are prevalent in the Saginaw Bay. This pollution is caused chiefly by sugar beet processing wastes, chlorides and brine from chemical plants, and from the petro—chemical by-product of oil fields and re- finning facilities to the west. For more than seventy-five years Saginaw had obtained its water supply from the Saginaw River, but gradual contamination from industrial and domestic wastes forced the seeking of another water source. Midland had taken its water from the Chippewa and Tittabawassee Rivers, both of which suffered destruction as potable water supplies due to domestic and industrial pollution. The results of the Saginaw and Midland cooperative effort produced the first major water supply system in the study area with a source outside the Saginaw River Basin. This system was only a beginning for the new areal arrangement of public water distribution systems in the basin. In the Detroit metropolitan area problems of water supply and pollution, similar to those of Saginaw and Midland, have presented themselves. 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