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thesis entitled

A Descriptive Study Of Strategies Used
In Three Dissimilar Communication
Campaigns For The Purpose Of Making
Generalized.Applications To The Field

Of Traffic Safety.

presented by

Richard Phillip DeSantis

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Eh. 1). degree inEdnnaiion

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Date ‘72s6cn 3// /?7€‘
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Michigan State
University

ABSTRACT

A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF STRATEGIES USED IN
THREE DISSIMILAR COMMUNICATION CAMPAIGNS
FOR THE PURPOSE OF MAKING GENERALIZED
APPLICATIONS TO THE FIELD OF
TRAFFIC SAFETY

BY

Richard Phillip DeSantis

The purpose of this study was to examine the communi-
cation approaches used in three dissimilar public informa-
tion campaigns, and unrelated to the field of traffic
safety, for the purpose of making subsequent application of
these approaches to traffic safety public information
campaigns.

The broad areas of investigation included government,
public health and industry. Specificcampaigns chosen were:
(1) the Michigan water Pollution Control Bond Issue of 1968
and its subsequent communication campaign, (2) the Ingham
County Rubella Vaccination campaign, and (3) the Ford Motor
Company Maverick campaign. These specific campaigns were
selected for their unique similarities and dissimilarities.

Investigation of the campaigns was accomplished
through personal interviews with key figures responsible
for the campaign's progress and analysis of both published

and unpublished information surrounding the campaign. Each

Richard Phillip DeSantis

campaign,which began with a description of the issue or
problem, was analyzed from several standpoints. The social
conditions prior to the campaign were discussed and the
organizations of administrative groups was considered. The
strategies which each campaign employed were then cited.
Campaign and strategy success was evaluated in terms of
social change which occurred following the campaign and by
the personal evaluation of those individuals interviewed.

Throughout the discussion of each campaign, generali-
zations were drawn which were based on strategies used
during the campaign. These generalizations were then
specifically applied to the field of traffic safety with "
the recommendation that each generalization be empirically
tested for validity and reliability.

The findings of this study include the following
generalizations and implications.

Michi an water Pollution
Control Bond Campaign
(I;l:IF10)

 

 

 

1-1. The more a communication campaign capitalizes
on a favorable climate for the issue, the
greater the success of the campaign.

1-2. Public involvement in collective decision-making
yields greater enthusiasm and support for the
issue.

1-3. When dealing with the collective decision-making
processes, the more often assistance is solicited
from known opinion leaders who are also financially,
socially and/or politically powerful, the greater
the success of the campaign.

1-4.

1-7.

1-10.

Richard Phillip DeSantis

The more often leadership is represented in a
single figurehead, around which the campaign can
rally, the greater the success of the campaign.

The greater the diversity of interests represented
in a communication campaign, the greater the
success of the campaign.

The more interpersonal communication which takes
place between those individuals knowledgeable
about an issue and those in need of information,
the greater the success of the campaign.

The greater the distribution of information for
the purpose of increasing public knowledge, the
greater the success of the campaign.

The sooner the emergence of,controversy surround-
ing the issue is minimized, the greater the
success of the campaign.

The greater the number of promotional attempts
using the endorsements of admired political
figures who command extensive public attention,”
the greater the success of the campaign.

The more often problems are specifically and .
simply identified for the affected public before
remedies are prescribed, the greater the incidence
of success for the campaign.

Ingham CountyTRubella

 

Vaccination Campaign

 

(2:1:2-2)
2-1.

The more often specific messages appeal directly
to specific characteristics of a particular sub-
audience, the greater the incidence of success.~

The more often communicators appeal directly to
the individual's concern for others and their
welfare, the greater the enthusiasm and support
for the issue.

Ford Maverick Campaign

(3-l:3-2)

 

3-1.

The more a communication campaign utilizes new

and different approaches to affect an otherwise
apathetic public, the greater the incidence of

success for the campaign.

Richard Phillip DeSantis

3-2. The more often full utilization is made of
advantageous situations which arise and are
directly related to the campaign, the greater
the incidence of success for the campaign.

In addition to the generalizations developed from the
foregoing studies, several implications for traffic safety'
communication campaigns were stated. In parentheses
following each statement is the generalization number,
which is the basis for the statement made. The generaliza—
tion number applies to both the original information used

to make the statement in Chapter III and the applications

of the generalization in Chapter IV.

Water Pollution Control

Bond Issue Campaign

 

 

l. The Governor of each state should be approached
and encouraged to endorse and actively support traffic
safety measures. (1-3, 1-4, 1—10)

2. The Governor should not only support traffic
safety from his office but travel to other locations
periodically so as to communicate his concern and support
in an interpersonal manner. (1-4, 1-6, l-lO) A

3. Methods for the systematic studies of successful
campaigns that have been conducted in other states should
occur. By doing so, the exchange of ideas will occur
and precipitate new national guidelines. (3-1)

4. A statewide "Citizens Committee for Traffic

Safety" should exist in every state in the nation. This

Richard Phillip DeSantis

committee's primary responsibility should be to increase
the total involvement of the state in their traffic safety
problems. (1-2, 1-4)

5. Competent.advertising and public relations firms
should be retained. These firms Would address themselves
to minimizing public apathy, maximizing distribution of
information and enhancing the image of traffic safety
personnel. (3-1)

6. A speaker's bureau should be assembled on national
and state levels. Each state should have a designated
number of "experts" available from the field to address
audiences of any size or concern. The national speaker's
bureau should be responsible for state assistance and
formulation of guidelines. In addition, the national bureau
should be responsible for national assemblies. (1-6)

7. Active support should be enlisted from every
industrialist and business enterprise in each state. They
should also be encouraged to develOp and maintain traffic
safety programs for their employees. (1-3, 3—5)

Ingham County Rubella
Vaccination Campaign

 

 

1. Specific appeals should be made to children, con-
cerning two levels of traffic safety measures. First,
messages shOuld seek to affect the child, his opinions and

attitudes concerning proper procedures in traffic.

Richard Phillip DeSantis

Secondly, message content should seek through the child,
a means to affect the driving parent. (2-1)

2. Studies should be conducted to determine where-in
faulty attitudes and beliefs exist, so that conclusive and
correct information may be dispersed to combat the situation.

(1-8)

Ford Maverick Campaign

1. Traffic safety researchers should study thoroughly
specific message receiver groups so that communicators know
exactly what kind of audience they are trying to affect.
(2-1)

2. The entire theme of traffic safety should be
promoted by professional persuaders who are often employed
by advertising agencies. (3—1)

3. The American public might be affected to a greater
degree if traffic safety was promoted as an economic habit
rather than "the right thing to do." The majority of people
today are receptive to money-saving ideas and may be greatly
impressed with the amount of money that could be saved in
terms of insurance rates, medical costs, and automobile
repairs if traffic collisions were reduced or eliminated.
(3-1)

4. Traffic safety communicators should continually
reexamine their methods and approaches, and strive to become

more innovative and imaginative. (3-l)

Richard Phillip DeSantis

5. Traffic safety communicators must acquire more
financial aid and assistance if the traffic collision
problem is to improve in the future. (All of the generaliza-
tions stated in this study imply the need for greater
financial support and all may be used to bring about such

support.)

A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF STRATEGIES USED IN
THREE DISSIMILAR COMMUNICATION CAMPAIGNS
FOR THE PURPOSE OF MAKING GENERALIZED
APPLICATIONS TO THE FIELD OF

TRAFFIC SAFETY

BY

Richard Phillip DeSantis

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Education

1970

"C‘Copyright

RICHARD PHILLIP DESANTIS

”1971‘

DEDICATION

The writer wishes to dedicate this thesis to his
wife, Diane, for her patience, assistance, encouragement,
faith, support and self-sacrifice which were so necessary
for its completion.

The writer also wishes to dedicate this thesis to
his son, Darron, for his inspiration and personality that

was so often contributed.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The writer wishes to express his deep appreciation
and sincere gratitude to Dr. Robert O. Nolan, chairman of
the doctoral committee, for his guidance, assistance and
professional knowledge. The writer also wishes to extend
his sincere appreciation and gratitude to Dr. Dale V. Alam,
Dr. Robert E. Gustafson and Dr. Everett M. Rogers for their
invaluable assistance and guidance.

A special vote of appreciation is extended to all those
who granted personal interviews to the writer so that total

and accurate information could be obtained for this study.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
LIST or TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

LIST or FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Chapter
I 0 THE PROBLEM O O O O O O O O O O O 1
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . 1
Importance of the Study . . . . . . 2
Scope of the Study . . . . . . . . 4
Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . 4
Methodology of the Study . . . . . . 5
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . 10
Organization of Remaining Chapters . . . 12
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . 13
Some Principles of Communication . . . 13
Mendelsohn's Critical Review of the
Literature and a Proposed Theory . . . 21
Past Safety Communication Campaigns . . 25
sumary O O O O O O O O O O O O 27
III. ANALYSIS OF COMMUNICATION CAMPAIGNS . . . 29
Michigan Water Pollution Control Bond
Issue of 1968 . . . . . . . . . 29
Ingham County Rubella Vaccination
Campaign . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Ford Maverick Campaign . . . . . . . 68
IV. APPLICATION TO TRAFFIC SAFETY . . . . . 81

Generalizations Drawn from The Michigan

Water Pollution Control Bond Campaign . 82
Generalizations Drawn from The Ingham
County Rubella Vaccination Campaign. . . 112

iv

Chapter Page

Generalizations Drawn from The Ford
Maverick Campaign . . . . . . . . 118

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 124

Statement of the Problem . . . . . . 124
Definition of Campaign Choices . . . . 124
Findings of the Study . . . . . . . 125
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . 131
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . 132

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Similarities and dissimilarities of the
three campaigns studied . . . . . . . 7

2. Adaptation of Roger's stages of adOption to
traffic safety . . . . . . . . . . 21

3. Support found for generalizations in each
empaign O O O O O O O O I O O O 123

4. Innovative features implied from findings
of study . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

vi

Figure

1.

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Modification of Berlo's communication process
mael O O O O O O O O O O O O O 15

Completed cycle of communication process . . 16
Rogers' model of stages of adoption . . . . 19

Boy in polluted bathtub . . . . . . . . 46

vii

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Statement of the Problem

In 1969 a total of 56,4001 Americans were killed in the
United States as a result of traffic collisions. It is
important that we recognize the value of each life which
was lost in terms of the potentials each might have possessed.
The community at large has become suddenly alarmed about
the condition of the air we breath, the water we use and
our methods of waste disposal but few have taken cognizance
of the 2,000,0002 peOple who were disabled beyond the time
of a motor-vehicle collision. Few have recognized the fact
that in 1969 motor-vehicle collisions cost the American

public $11,soo,ooo,ooo.oo.3

Not included in this figure
are the costs of certain public agency activities such as
police, fire and courts; damages awarded in excess of direct

cost; and indirect costs to employers.

 

1"Traffic Safety,“ National Safety‘Council, Vol. 70,
No. 3 (March, 1970), 30.

21bid.

31bid.

An investigation of traffic records revealed that in
1968, 80.3 per cent4 of the fatal collisions were the result
of improper driving procedures. If all collisions were con-
sidered, including fatal and injury entries, the numbers rise
to 90.6 per cent.5 It is impossible to document the amount
of grief and loneliness suffered by those who were loved

ones of a traffic fatality or a disabled victim.

Importance of the Study

In spite of the social impact, we have interested
only a very small number of people in reducing human loss
resulting from traffic collisions. Perhaps it is unreal-
istic that we expect to eliminate all our traffic problems.
This, in all probability, will never occur. It is also
improper to assume that a single action or remedy will
produce a major reduction in traffic collision losses. We
must then decide what aspects will produce the greatest
return for our efforts and assign priorities to them.

It is theorized by the writer that education might
well be the top priority area, closely followed by engineer-
ing, enforcement, and then automotive design and equipment.
However, this is not to imply that these areas do not share
the burden equally for reducing traffic collisions. It is
extremely important that a total effort incorporating the

five areas mentioned, pursue this objective. This theory

 

4Jennie Spadafora, Aggident Facts, 1969 Edition
(Chicago: National Safety CouncIl, 1§39), p. 40.

5

 

Ibid.

is based on the assumption that a driver's behavior while
driving is partly a result of his attitudes and beliefs
about safety. Further research is needed to determine what
the driver's attitudes and beliefs are before the education
and communication processes are begun, what his attitudes
and beliefs are while the process is under way, and what
they are when the process is completed. Any changes that
may occur in attitudes and beliefs takes place over a
period of time, and therefore, must be evaluated periodi-
cally. We must have more evaluation of communication
campaigns, if we are to gain the needed data about a driver's
attitudes and beliefs which are manifest in his overt
behavior.

It is hypothesized that traffic safety messages are
intended, for the most part, to modify behavior, and yet
almost no information is available as to how we might best
do this. Campbell and Hepler state that "All communicative
activity is directed to changing behavior."6 Communication
campaigns and the attendant educational process included
here as a form of communication, are the possible keys to
changing attitudes and beliefs. More information and
improvement is needed in the area of driver education, as
well as better, properly controlled studies to establish

the effectiveness of the educational program itself.

 

6James Campbell and Hal Hepler, Dimensions in Communi-
cation (California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 19655,
p. 93. ‘

 

In a study done by Arthur D. Little, Inc. titled
The State of the Art of Traffic Safety7,attention is drawn
to the ineffectiveness of some of our communication methods
by the statement, "We have also found no substantive data
on the effectiveness of general safety propaganda; the
limited information available suggests that it is not

particularly effective."8

chpe of the Stud -

It is the purpose of this study to search out new ways
of communicating messages which have been, or seemed to be,
effective in areas other than traffic safety. The specific
campaigns chosen were (1) the Michigan Water Pollution
Control Bond Issue of 1968 and its subsequent communication
campaign, (2) Ingham County Rubella vaccination campaign,

and (3) the Ford Maverick campaign.

Purpose of the Study,

 

Those involved in the task of communicating traffic
safety messages and who attempt to alter behavior must know
more about the process of communication. An investigation
of methods and strategies used in other situations may
reveal new approaches in communication for those concerned

with traffic safety. There are basic processes which prevail

 

7'Highlights of Arthur D. Little Study,” News
(Cambridge: Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1966), p. 3.

8Ibid., abstract, p. 3.

throughout most forms of communication but it is the
techniques and strategies used in these areas which will be
of concern in this study.

Senator Abraham Ribicoff stated,

We are not going to solve even a few of the many

research questions facing us in a two-day period.
But we can make some fundamental decisions about
our needs. I suggest we start from these four
premises:

*First, a knowledge gap exists all the way across
the board with regard to traffic safety.

*Second, we cannot devise a sound and long-range
national strategy for traffic safety without
this knowledge.

*Third, this is a task for both the private and
public sectors of our country.

*Fourth, our lack of hard data is no excuse for
failing to provide those standards of traffic
safety that common sense demands.9

Senator Ribicoff's first premise is especially

germane to the field of traffic safety communications. We
must strive to close the knowledge gap which exists by
using every method and strategy within our power and

cognition.

Methodology of the Study
It is theorized that communicators in various areas
often think of their particular task as a unique and highly
Specialized form of communication. They often overlook the
benefits to be gained by investigating other areas and the
communication methods employed. As stated earlier, there

are basic communication processes which prevail throughout

 

9Hugh J. Miser, Traffic Safety Strategies for Research

ggd Action (Hartford, Conn.: T e Travelers ResearEh Center,
Inc., 1968), p. 28.

 

most forms of communication. In achieving ultimate success
in many communication campaigns, the application and
manipulation of various strategies becomes crucial much of
the time. This study will indicate how strategies used in
three different campaigns might be applied to traffic
safety. When the examination of these three campaigns is
completed the appropriate communication strategies used will
be identified and then modified, if necessary, for use.

The campaigns used as models were not selected at
random, hence the findings and subsequent applications
apply only to the models used.

These specific communication campaigns were selected
on the basis of their unique similarities and dissimilarities
and are shown in Table 1.

Prior to selection of the campaigns, a preliminary
investigation suggested the elimination of other campaigns
which were being considered. One of those eliminated was
the campaign in Michigan to speed the disuse of the chemical
DDT. It was discovered that universal disuse was being
hastened by governmental edict which prohibited the
utilization of DDT. Though communication and public
information techniques were necessary, they were not used
to the same degree as for the other campaigns chosen. The
second campaign eliminated was that which sought to bring
about greater use of fluoride in the drinking water of

Michigan communities. The fluoride campaign had been in

 

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progress since 1950 and had met opposition and resistance
in nearly every attempt to bring about its use. Two of the
primary criteria used to select a campaign were: the
campaign should be recent and successful. The fluoride
campaign did not meet these specific requirements and was
therefore rejected.

Probing questions were asked of key figures responsible
for and associated with the three campaigns designated above.
Information was obtained from materials which were in both
published and unpublished form. Through the establishment
and use of a battery of questions, a commonality of
approach prevailed as examination of the campaigns progressed.

The questions which follow served as an interview
guide, as well as an initial survey and lead to many addi~
tional specific questions that varied with each campaign
studied. Each reply was tape recorded to assure accurate
collection of information.

1. What was the volume of messages used during the
campaign? (large or small)

2. What forms of media were used and encouraged?
(all types of mass and interpersonal)

3. What were the approximate costs of the campaign?

4. Were there politically or socially powerful
people involved in the campaign and how early
in the process were they involved?

5. To what extent and when was the public involved
in the campaign?

6. How often was the campaign evaluated in terms of
progress and success?

ll.
12.

13.

14.
15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Who was the source of the messages? (Where did
the message come from?)

Who was the sender of the messages?
Who actually constructed the messages?

Was he an authority or knowledgable about the
concern?

Who was the intended receiver of the messages?

Were there other groups who accidentally received
the messages and consequently aided or hindered
acceptance? ’

Was there an anti-campaign?
What was the pre-message or pre-campaign condition?

What was the post-message or post-campaign
condition?

Was there a particularly advantageous or detri-
mental situation present at the time of the
campaign?

How was the success of the campaign evaluated,
if at all? (Success will be determined on the
basis of the agency's objectives and not the
researcher's.)

What specific messages were particularly
effective?

Were there any different or unique strategies
used in this campaign which had not been used
before?

Was there a particularly effective person who
because of personality traits, helped bring
about success?

When all the questions, including additional specific

inquiries, had been answered, an analysis was made of the

specific strategies used in the campaign which seemed to

lead to its success. A copy of the written account of each

10

campaign, which appears in Chapter III, was mailed to those
who had been interviewed for information concerning that
specific campaign. They were then asked to identify any
statements or conclusions which were incorrect or mis-
stated and to return these comments so they might be
included in the study. A series of generalizations were
then offered for the purpose of applying them to the field
of traffic safety.

The study was then concluded with a series of impli-
cations for traffic safety and recommendations for future
research.

It is assumed that a broadening of techniques used to
communicate traffic safety information has occurred and that
this form of cross-disciplinary exchange of methods and

techniques will become a new source of effectiveness.

Definition of Terms

 

Throughout this study certain terms will be used to
explain various aspects of the research. These terms are
therefore defined for clarification.

Air Bag: A mechanical device proposed for auto-
mobiles which inflates upon vehicle impact to cushion the
forward force of the occupant.

Change Agent: A person who attempts to influence
innovation-decisions in a direction that he feels is

desirable.

11

‘Collective'Decision: A decision made by individuals
in a social system that is adopted or rejected by consensus,
and all must conform to the system's decision.

Communication: The process by which messages are

 

transferred from a source to a receiver.

 

Communication Campaigg: A connected series of com-.
munications designed to bring about a particular result.

Decode: To convert messages from a particular code
into a familiar language.

Encode: To transfer messages from one system of
communication into another, or simply to convert into a
particular kind of language.

Generalization: A general statement or proposition,
basically theoretical in nature, with a small degree of
factual evidence and a degree of confidence.

Implication: A statement exhibiting a logical

 

relationship between two prOpositions of which if the first
is true, it is most likely the second will be true.

gpinion Leader: A person who has the ability to

 

influence, usually informally, other individual's attitudes
or behavior in a desired way with relative frequency.

Social Change: The process by which alteration

 

occurs in the structure and function of a social system.
Social Climate: The prevailing temper or attitudes

which characterize the social system,

12

Social Cultural Context: Those social and cultural
aspects of an individual which tend to explain the degree
and quality of the individual's actions and reactions.

Social System: A collectivity of individuals, or
units, who are functionally differentiated and engaged in
collective problem solving with reSpect to a common goal.

Strategies: Carefully conceived plans or methods
devised to accomplish a predetermined goal.

Sub-Audience: A smaller group of listeners with

 

specific characteristics differing from the entire public.

Organization of RemaininggChapters
In Chapter II of this study, a review of the related

literature will be made. Chapter III examines the Michigan
Water Pollution Control Bond Issue of 1968 and its sub-
sequent communication campaign, the Ingham County (Michigan)
Rubella Vaccination campaign, and the Ford Motor Company
Maverick campaign. Chapter IV contains a list of generali—
zations made from the three campaigns studied with applica-
tions to traffic safety. The final chapter, Chapter V
restates the problem, defines campaign choices, lists the
findings of the study, summarizes the implications from the
study for traffic safety, and lists recOmmendations for

future research.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The research available on communications and its
effects has reached enormous pr0portions. So that some
degree of this research can be presented in such a way as
to provide a background for the present study, Chapter II
will first refer to some basic principles of communication.
Following these principles is a discussion of Mendelsohn's
safety communications study and some past safety communica—

tion campaign efforts.

Some Principles of Communication
It is recognized that certain basic principles exist
throughout all forms of communication. Past research has
been concerned generally with how peOple communicate.
Fabun states ". . . almost any place you dip into the study
of how people communicate, you will be led further and

further."10

Thus, a deeper understanding of the basic
principles involved in communication is absolutely necessary

if further advances are to be made.

 

10Don Fabun, Communications--The Transfer of Meaning,

Kaiser Aluminum and ChemICal Corporation,NFirsted.
(Beverly Hills, Ca1if.: Glencoe Press, 1968). p. 48.

13

l4

Berlo's Communication Model
A model describing the communication process in simple

form has been devised by David K. Berlo11

of the Department
of Communication at Michigan State University.

The author's modification of Berlo's model shown in
Figure 1, identifies the four essential elements of come
munication as (l) the source, (2) the message, (3) the
channel, and (4) the receiver.

In reference to Figure 1, the source must first possess
certain communication skills if in reality, communication
is to take place. The source possesses attitudes as well,
about what he is communicating and to whom he is communi-
cating. He has a certain degree of knowledge about his
tOpic and this exists in the social-cultural context of the
source. When the source encodes his message, it immediately
assumes its own structure, elements, context and distinct
treatment. The message is then sent and received via some
type of channel. The channel may constitute any of the
senses: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, tasting, or
any of these in combination. The message is then decoded by
the receiver who, like the source, must first possess
certain communication skills and, who has attitudes, as well
as a degree of knowledge about the tapic of the message.

The communication process which takes place between the

 

11David K. Berlo, The Process of Communication (New
York: Holt, Rinehart and’Winston, 196 , p. .

 

15

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16

source and the receiver, occurs within a specific social-
cultural context.

It should be noted that a varying amount of heter0phily12
(differences) exists between the source of a message and the
receiver of that message, thus creating possibilities for
lack of effective communication. Heterophily, which reduces
the effectiveness of the communication process, is the dis-
similar social-cultural context of the source and receiver.

Berlo's model has been criticized because of the
apparent lack of consideration for feedback from the
receiver following his decoding of the message. When a
feedback loop is applied to Berlo's model the communication
cycle is completed (Figure 2). It should be pointed out,
however, that it is possible for the process of communication
to break down at any one of Berlo's elements, whether the
source, message, channel or receiver. In addition, the

model shows a beginning and an end, yet it is intended to

represent a "process"--that is, an ongoing function.

R
I Feed Back T

Fig. 2.--Completed cycle of communication process.

 

12Everett M. Rogers, The Communication of Innovations:
A.Cross-Cultural Approach (New York: Free Press of Glencoe,

1575).

 

 

17

For a deeper understanding of how peOple communicate,

it is helpful to view Berlo's elements while considering the

following principles or guidelines discussed throughout

Fabun's work.

1.

13

13

When communication fails, it is not we who are
at fault, but that some part of the process has
broken down.

When you talk or write about something, what you
are describing is those interactions that
happened inside you--not just what happened
outside you.

Many of our problems in communication arise
because we forget to remember that individual
experiences are never identical.

As far as we know, there are three principle
ways in which human individuals can communicate
with each other: by actual physical touch, by
visible movements of some portion of our bodies,
and by symbols, which "stand for" something we
have experienced internally. These are audible
and visible symbols.

Common words cannot possibly have meanings in

themselves--only people can have meanings.

Fabun, OE. Cite, pp. 4-470

18

6. Although the fabric of our society is woven of
spoken and visual symbols, we also communicate
meaningfully in many non-verbal, non-symbolic
ways.

7. It is the transfer of meaning that is the goal
of inter-human communications.

8. The ability to communicate is not something we
are born with; we have to learn it--often the
hard way.

9. Whenever we talk or write about anything, what
we are talking or writing about is something
that happened inside us--not outside us.

10. If we have difficulty understanding-~or being
understood--it is likely we have ignored some

part of the communications process.

Rogers' Stages of Adoption

 

Having been exposed to a message and made aware of
its presence, the recipient, after decoding it, is often
confronted with numerous decisions. He must determine his
interest in the content, evaluate its worth and eventually
decide to adOpt or reject it. This process has been
researched quite thoroughly by Dr. Everett M. Rogers
(Figure 3). Rogers stated that the adoption process is

"the mental process through which an individual passes from

19

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Adoption
or
Rejection
Trial
Evaluation
Interest
Awareness
TIME
”f;

 

Fig.

3.~-Rogers' Model of Stages

of Adoption.

20

first hearing about an innovation to final adoption."l4

Continuing, he says, "Each ensuing communication about the
innovation cumulates until the individual responds to these

communications, and eventually ad0pts or rejects the

. . 15
innovation."

So that the adoption stages may be better understood,
and their relationship to the area of traffic safety
recognized, Table 2 has been provided. Rogers says,

At the awareness stage the individual is exposed to
the innovation but lacks complete information about
it. He then becomes interested in the innovation
and seeks information about it at the interest
stage. At the evaluation stage the individual
mentally applies the innovation to his present and
anticipated future situation, and then decides
whether or not to try it. The individual uses the
innovation on a small scale in order to determine
its utility in his own situation at the trial stage.
At the adoption stage the individual decides to
continue the full use of the innovation.16

Considering Table 2, if one becomes involved in an
auto collision at the trial stage and escapes injury
because of the use of the auto's restraining belts, a
positive reinforcement occurs and there will, in all
probability, be continued full use of this equipment. If
‘however, he drives for a length of time and does not
(experience the positive effects of restraining belts,

«discontinuance is highly probable.

 

14Everett M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations (New
'Yorkn Free Press, 1962), pp. 76-862

lsIbid.

161bid., p. 119.

21

TABLE 2.--Adaptation of Rogers' stages of ad0ption to
traffic safety.

 

Rogers' Stages Reaction of Motorist to Messages Designed

 

of Adoption to Promote use of Restraining Belts

Awareness Becomes aware of message and content
through a specific medium.

Interest (or Favors content of message in a general

disinterest) way but has not yet come to any decision

about the value of the action which the
message is promoting.

Evaluation Weighs the possibilities of sustaining
injury with and without the use of secure
restraining belts.

Trial To help make decision he accepts content
of the message on a trial basis and wears
restraining belts the next time he drives
his automobile.

Adoption (or Adopts or rejects use of restraining

Rejection) belts depending on previous decisions and
their intensity, as well as previous
experiences.

 

It is important to note that because this process
occurs over a period of time, there is an effect on the
total process of ad0ption.

Mendelsohn's Critical Review of the
Literature and aIProposed TEEEE§_'
Mendelsohn's17 work appears to be a singular attempt

to study specific communication campaigns for innovative

 

17Harold A. Mendelsohn, A Critical Review of the
Eiterature and A Proposed Theory, publiéhed as The Denver
5 osIum on Mass Communications Research for SEIety
(CEicago: NationaI Safety Council, 1964).

 

 

22

techniques used in areas other than traffic safety. He
states, "if we got down to cases and examined a number of
quite dissimilar public information campaigns, we might
derive some guiding principles for mass communication for
traffic safety.“18

The campaigns studied by Mendelsohn were the Kate
Smith War Bond Drive, the Safe Driving Day campaign, public
acceptance of the Salk polio vaccine, and public acceptance
of fluoridation.

Mendelsohn found that these four campaigns offered a
number of "suggestions to note" for the mass persuader.
The Kate Smith War Bond broadcast, for example, suggested
that persuasion is optimized when:

(l) the audience predisposition, the preconditions
which are relevant to the communicator, and the
situation itself converge to make for peak
effectiveness.

(2) the source of a message lends authenticity to the
message when he.physically supports its content.

(3) the audience becomes actively concerned through
involvement.

(4) the audience has an appropriate way to "act out"
its approval.

(5) the messages are directed to specific subtargets
as well as the main theme being pursued.19

The Safe Driving Day campaign on Thursday, December 1,
1955 was considered relatively ineffective. A study of

this campaign revealed that it's persuasive elements, in

 

laIbid., p. 29.

19Ibid.. pp. 30-31.

23

deference to the Kate Smith War Bond Drive, were generally
lacking. Mendelsohn points out that the Kate Smith effort
had at least nine possible persuasive elements in Operation,
the 1955 Safe Driving Day campaign had but two.20
Mendelsohn says the Salk vaccine case "does afford
several important insights into those aspects of mass com-
munication for traffic safety that are particularly con-
cerned with gaining public acceptance of new ideas--for

example, seat belts." He continues by suggesting several

guidelines.

1. Utilization of both mass and interpersonal com-
munication techniques is most effective for the
ad0ption of innovations.

2. Specific messages readily adopted by small
innovator groups should be identified.

3. Mass ad0ption of an innovation is not
instantaneous.

4. A need for the innovation helps speed the
ad0ption rate.21

The final campaign examined was the fluoridation
campaign. Mendelsohn's six major interpretations offered
have been paraphrased to explain the relative ineffective-
ness of the campaign.

1. The public did not consider dental diseases a
crucial threat to their health and under-
estimated its importance.

2. The benefits derived from fluoridation were
indirect and long term, and the scientific

explanations were too complex and difficult
for the general public to fully understand.

 

201bid., pp. 33-34.

ZlIbid., p. 42.

24

The fluoridation issue was a collective
decision process by nature and not one of
individual voluntary acceptance. Political
actions therefore mandated complete acceptance
or rejection.

Political actions mediated complete acceptance
or rejection Of fluoridation through the process
of public referendum. It was also stated that
twice as many communities accepted fluoridation
when referendum was not available.

It was found that at least four kinds of groups
Opposed fluoridation. Those who Opposed it:

a. on principle

b. because of injurious consequences of the
fluoride

c. because of their ignorance and/or
disreSpect for scientific evidence

d. because they saw various political
Opportunities.

The arguments for and against appealed to
different emotions of man. Those for
fluoridation appealed to the cognitive,
rational image of man while those against
appealed to the non-rational, emotional
image Of man.22

Mendelsohn's final chapter describes four general

mass communication principles to be used as guidelines by

practitioners in traffic safety.

1.
2.

22

There are no simple "formulae" for communicating
to mass audiences effectively.

How people react to communications depends upon
a variety of physical, physiological, psycho-
logical and social factors that apply to the
communicator, his content and manner of presenta-
tion, the vehicles used, the situation in which
the communication is noted and received and the
psychological and social frames Of reference
from which the audience perceives, examines,
assesses and uses the communication.

Ibid., pp. 45-480

25

3. . . . personal influence functions more effectively
on a broad scale using the information transmitted
via mass communication.

4. . . . several media combined, when used in con-
junction with interpersonal contact, are, on the
whole, considerably more effective than any of the
media alone.23

Past Safety Communication Campaigns
A review of the literature disclosed a most perceptive
and revealing article written by Dr. Jack B. Haskins of

24

Syracuse University. After reviewing a number of safety

research campaigns, Haskins came to five major conclusions.

1. There has been relatively little research on the
numerous campaigns that have been conducted.25

Little data exists to Show the true effectiveness of most
safety communication campaigns carried out in the past.

2. The research desi n in most of the studies has
been inadequate.2

Because Of the present design methods of most of the
safety communication campaigns, the conclusions drawn are,
for the most part, improper. Many Of these conclusions

are, at best, guesses and should be labeled as such.

 

23Ibid., p. 119.

24Jack B. Haskins, "Effect of Safety Communication
Campaigns: A Review of the Research Evidence," Journal of
§gfety Research, Vol. 1, NO. 2 (June, 1968), 58-66.

251bid., p. 64.

26Ibid.

26

3. In every case uncovered but two, no one knows
whether previous safety communications campaigns
have had any effect in the real world or not.27

An exception was a study done by Kaestner, warmoth and

Syring in 1967.28

Their study involved a controlled
experiment to study the effects of three different versions
of a direct mail campaign. This study has been cited by
Haskins for several reasons. He feels that this is the
only field experiment involving traffic safety which may be
termed truly conclusive in that it shows safety practices
can be affected to a significant degree by the use of
single messages and that direct measures of behavior are
feasible.

Another exception recognized by Haskins is a British

study done by Laner and Sell in 1960.29

This study was
concerned with the effect posters had on the safety prac-
tices of employees in steel plants. "Laner and Sell con-
cluded that the posters had a significant beneficial effect

on safety practices within steel plants."3o

 

27Ibid.

28N. Kaestner, E. J. Warmoth, and E. M. Syring,
"Oregon Study of Advisory Letters: The Effectiveness of
‘Warning Letters In Driving Improvement," Traffic Safety
Research Review, National Safety Council, V01. 11, No. 3,
pp. 67:72.

29$. Laner and R. G. Sell, "An Experiment on the
Effect of Specially Designed Safety Posters," Occupational
Psychology, Vol. 34 (1960), 153-169.

30

 

Haskins, Op. cit., p. 61.

27

4. Available evidence would overwhelmingly favor

the general principle of a "positive" approach,

emphasizing the good effects of actively

following approved practices.31
Malfetti has researched what is Often termed "scare
techniques" and found that this method is generally
ineffective as a means of changing or modifying attitudes
and behavior. His recommendation to driver educators,
which might also be applicable to traffic safety communi-
cators, indicates that the central area of stress should be
self-preservation and personal gain rather than a sense of

fear.32

5. There is evidence that mass communication
campaigns can have a positive effect on safety
behavior. . . . The greatest likelihood of
success is in those campaigns where systematic
use is made of known communications principles
based on existing research, accompanied by
appropriate pre-testing research at various
stages Of the development process.33

Summary

The review of the literature has included informa-
tion which is germane to the design Of this study. The
literature indicated that Mendelsohn's work is apparently
the only research that attempts to study specific communi-

cation campaigns for the purpose of applying dissimilar

 

311bid., p. 65.

32James Malfetti, "Scare Techniques and Traffic

Safety," Traffic Quarterly, April, 1961.
3'3Haskins, Op. cit., p. 65.

28

approaches to the dissemination, diffusion, and adoption
of information in the area of traffic safety.

The research cited in this chapter was discussed
because of its integral nature. The principles of com-
munication, stages of adoption, and results of past traffic
safety communication campaigns are extremely important to
an understanding of the existing position of traffic

safety communications.

CHAPTER III

ANALYSIS OF COMMUNICATION CAMPAIGNS

In the preceding chapter pertinent literature has been
reviewed. This chapter will describe the communication
campaigns allied to the Michigan Water Pollution Control
Bond Issue of 1968, the Ingham County (Michigan) Rubella
Vaccination Program and the Ford Motor Company Maverick
campaign. Individuals interviewed for information will be
cited, pre-campaign cOnditions will be discussed, an examina-
tion of the organization Of forces will be made, campaign
strategies will be identified, campaign success will be
evaluated, and finally, the implications these campaigns
hold for traffic safety will be drawn. Throughout this
chapter generalizations will be stated and later applied

specifically to the field of traffic safety.

Michigan Watgr Pollution Control Bond
Issue of_1968

Description of the Issue

The campaign being examined here was mounted to con-

vince the voting residents of Michigan that they should
29

30

vote "yes" for proposal number 3 on the November, 1968
ballot. Basically this prOposal provided for financial
assistance to construct the necessary treatment plants and

interceptors for the control of water pollution in the

state of Michigan. _
The official statement of proposal number 3 was as
follows:
No. 3 Clean Water Bond

For Water Pollution, shall the state of Michigan
borrow $335,000,000 and issue general obligation
bonds, pledging full faith and credit for repay-
ment from the general fund of the State for the
purposes of prevention and abatement of water
pollution by making grants, loans, and advances
to municipalities, political subdivisions and
agencies of the state.34

Mr. Ralph MacMullen35 stated that

The $335 million Clean Water program will be part
of a larger program that will draw funds from both‘
the federal government and from local sources. It
is expected that the state will invest half the
cost of the total program, and that the federal
government will invest another one-fourth in the
program. Local units Of government--towns, cities,
townships, municipal areas--will advance the
remaining one-fourth of the total cost of any
Clean Water project.

This bonding program is big enough to buy 210
new water treatment plants for towns, cities, and
other municipalities throughout Michigan. It will
also pay for 126 improvements to existing plants,
and provide sewer lines for 3,500,000 people.

 

34Water Resources Commission, Clean Water‘ Quality

Recreation for Michigan, Michigan Department 0 Conserva-
EIOn (1968), p. 8.

35Ralph A. MacMullen, Clean nge y Quality Recreation
for Michigan, Michigan Conservation Bulletin, p. 6.

 

31

In a prepared document, financially aided through a
Federal grant from the Water Resources Council,Water
Resources Commission, Michigan Department of Conservation
in 1968, stated that:

The Michigan Clean Water Bonding Program will meet
the state's challenge by providing: one half of
the costs of needed municipal wastewater treatment
facilities, $285 million; (an additional 25% of
treatment costs, or $141 million, is authorized by
Congress).

--$SO million for sewer construction assistance
for communities without sewers contributing to
existing pollution.

--Removal of the inequities of the cost Of pollution
control to citizens of small communities. 5

The "challenge" which is referred to here is "to
.ensure financing of a program that will by 1980:
--construct the 210 new waste water treatment
plants and interceptors.
--provide the needed improvements to 126
existing treatment plants.
The Local Citizens challenge:
--provide collecting sewers for an additional

3 1/2 million people. 37
--provide storm water control.

Individuals Interviewed

 

The nature of the campaign designed for the Michigan
‘Water Pollution Bond Issue in 1968 placed a limiting factor
on the composite information which was Obtained and

analyzed. Hundreds of organizations, civic groups, various

 

36Water Resources Commission, Op. cit., p. 10.

37Executive Office of the Governor, News Release,
June 6, 1968, p. 1.

32

industrial concerns, newspapers, magazines and private
citizens devoted their efforts on a voluntary basis to
help the cause in passage of Proposal Number 3 on the
November ballot. It was, therefore, relatively impossible
to study every publication or personal contact that was
made in support Of the Water Pollution Bond Issue.

The records and recollections of three men: Mr.
William Marks, Assistant Director of the Michigan Water
Resources Commission; Mr. Ralph Purdy, Executive Secretary,
Michigan Water Resources Commission; and Mr. Morey Richmond,
Michigan Department of Health, are the sources of informa-
tion for the study of this campaign. The needed information
concerning the campaign, was gathered by means of tape
recorded personal interviews and an examination of records
and materials kept on file in Mr. Marks' Office. The
materials referred to included newspaper articles, media
releases and magazines, as well as memos sent to and from
the Governor's Office to Mr. James C. Kellogg, director of

the campaign.

Pre-Campaign Conditions

 

An important aspect of any communication campaign is
that of the "pre-message conditions." Accurate evaluation
can be accomplished only after this information has been
examined and influences recognized. One important aspect
of the water pollution bond issue campaign is harbored in

the public attitude which existed before the campaign began.

33

Public attitude was such that interest was high and a
favorable climate for water pollution control was evident.
The possibility of federal money to assist in the attack on
water pollution was present and spurred enthusiasm from
those key figures who could influence such legislation.

In a news release issued June 6, 1968, from the Executive
Office, Governor Romney said, "Combined with federal and
local funds, the bonding program would mount a $1.2 billion

38 The

attack on water pollution in the immediate future."
contribution Of federal money was Of course contingent
upon the state's ability to gain approval of the impending
bond issue proposal number 3.
There was no doubt in the minds of the guiding forces
that the water pollution problem could be solved if the 3
problem Of finances was first resolved.
At the time, a salient need existed for a program
such as the prOposed water pollution control bond issue.
The Governor in his message to the 74th Michigan
Legislature, second regular sessions, stated that
to build a cleaner Michigan, we must provide more
effectively than ever before for the preservation,
use and enjoyment Of our natural resources.39

Later, while signing the Clean Water Bonding Bill after it

had passed the Legislature he said, "I cannot overemphasize

 

38Executive Office of the Governor, News Release,
July 6, 1968, p. 2.

39Ralph W. Purdy,'Communication Techniques--Experience
in a State Water Pollution Control Programf'Speech delivered
to Water Pollution Control Federation, 42 Annual Conference,
Dallas, Texas, October 8, 1969.

34

the importance of Clean Water to the future health and
prosperity of our state and all of its citizens."40
Clearly if the degradation of Michigan's water were
to continue as it had in the past, such conditions as
unsafe drinking water, loss of recreational Opportunity,
loss of agricultural irrigation, higher industrial costs,
decreased land values, and destruction Of natural beauty
could develop. As stated in a pamphlet published and
distributed by the Michigan Citizens Committee for Clean
Water and Recreation, "Michigan has urgent pollution
problems which can only worsen unless corrective action
is taken immediately. Lake Michigan is aging at 300 to 500
times its normal rate."41
Representative Guy VanderJagt, R-Cadillac, cited
testimony before a House Government Operations Subcommittee,
of which he was a member, that at the present rate of
pollution, Lake Michigan ages 300 years with every passing
year. This means, that "in 15 years, or by 1982, Lake
Michigan will have aged 4,500 years and will be a ‘dead

lake.”42

 

40News Release, Op. cit., June 6, 1968.

41Clean Wateg, pamphlet published and distributed by
:Michigan Citizens Committee for Clean Water and Recreation
(No. S), 1968.

42War on Pollution Must be Stepped Up, "Pollution,"
a series of articles by State Journal Staff Writer Norris
Ingells, The State Journal Newspaper, Lansing, Michigan.

 

35

The need for a clean water program was clearly and
soundly established by these and many other peOple speaking
in behalf of the public and government to curb the water
pollution problems of Michigan. The climate in Michigan
was conducive to forthcoming legislation.

GENERALIZATION 1-1:

The more a communication campaign capitalizes on

a favorable climate for the issue, the greater
the success of the campaign.

Organization of Forces

 

The campaign designed for the state on behalf of the
clean water bill showed excellent organization and execution.

In 1967 Governor Romney was informed by representa-
tives of the Michigan Water Resources Department about the
magnitude of the water pollution problem. Particular
attention was drawn to the various sources of municipal
discharges. The Michigan Water Resources Department
launched a study to discover exactly what the municipal
problems were. Their findings estimated that ti would take
approximately $568 million to reverse the pollution trend.
Governor Romney then assumed the initiative in his message
to the Legislature in January, 1968 when he submitted to
them a $335 million Water Pollution Control Program and a
$100 million Recreation Bond Program. These two bills
were introduced in the Michigan legislature in March, 1968.
The bills were passed in the house of origin in April, 1968

and sent on to the Opposite house in May, 1968. Both bills

36

were passed by late May, 1968 and on June 6, 1968 Governor
Romney signed into law two landmark acts in the battle
against pollution in Michigan, subject to ratification by
Michigan voters during the November general election.

At this point it is significant to note a very
important feature Of this campaign. The Governor and the
legislature saw fit to place this issue on the ballot
rather than just pass the issue through the legislature
without a vote of the peOple. In doing so the peOple of
Michigan were automatically involved in "saving" their
state from becoming a near island in a sea of waste.

GENERALIZATION 1-2:

Public involvement in collective decision-making

yields greater enthusiasm and support for the

issue.

In July of 1968 the Governor sent telegrams to the
top twenty industrialists in the state inviting them to a
luncheon in Detroit, Michigan. At the luncheon the Governor
described the water pollution problem and indicated what
his attack would be. He asked and received their talents,
time and money in promoting the issue to the people of
Michigan.

GENERALIZATION 1-3:

When dealing with the collective decision-making

processes, the more often assistance is solicited

from known Opinion leaders who are also financially,
socially and/or politically powerful, the greater
the success of the campaign.

A Citizens Committee for Clean Water and Recreation

was formed with J. Thomas Smith, board chairman of the Dura

37

Corporation serving as its chairman. The honorary
chairman of the board for the committee was Governor
George Romney.

Active support from forty-five different organiza-
tions was then solicited. The Citizens Committee designated
subcommittees to coordinate advertising, finance, clubs
and organizations and public relations. The public rela-
tions firm of Campbell-Ewald Corporation, General Motors
Building, Detroit, was retained for the promotional pro-
gram.

The pre-campaign situation was then analyzed and
strategies were formulated. Messages were constructed
and diffused. Hundreds Of sources constructed messages to
promote the clean water issue. Only a few of the more
unique messages and their manner Of construction will be

cited here as a part Of the campaign strategies used.

Campaign Stratggies

 

As the Governor and his team of planners viewed the
social climate of the state they recognized that public
apathy toward immediate water pollution measures would be
their most difficult problem. Most everyone agreed that
water pollution was reaching serious levels. The task
clearly then was to afford the people a course Of action
upon which to act, namely the vote, so that they might

have a way Of expressing their support of water pollution

38

control measures. An organized, well planned communication
effort would hOpefully promote this desired support.

During the planning stages of the campaign an initial
step called for a survey to study similar situations and
campaigns that had been, or were being held in other
states, as well as the Ontario Water Resources Commission.
Of all the programs studied, New York State's situation
was most like that of Michigan's. Thus Michigan's total
program and campaign resembled New York State's more than
any other. Each state was led by a governor with a strong
personality, who possessed great political acumen. At the
time, Nelson Rockefeller was Governor of New York State
and the Governor of Michigan was, Of course, George
Romney. It is doubtful the water pollution issue would
have passed the public vote by such a large margin without
the initiative and strong support Of Governor Romney.

The feeling Of those who were deeply involved with
the pollution campaign expressed similar feelings concerning
Governor Romney's role. His influence and charismatic
qualities made him, in effect, a strategy in himself. He
was able to enlist powerful forces from most of the state's
principal organizations spanning a cross-section of
Michigan business and industry, organized labor, agriculture,
the professions, public health, conservation, religions

and civic leadership.

39

GBNERALIZATION 1-4:

The more often leadership is represented in a

single figurehead, around which the campaign

can rally, the greater the success of the

campaign.

Earlier, it was related that Governor Romney contacted
the state's twenty leading industrialists to enlist their
assistance in mounting a campaign for the bond issue. All
twenty of these peOple then served on the newly formed
Citizens Committee for Clean Water and Recreation. There
were 66 members on the Committee. It is unnecessary to
list all 66 members, but those who were designated as sub-
committee chairmen should be recognized tO point out the
diversity of interests which were represented. The chair-
man of the Citizens Committee was J. Thomas Smith, Board
Chairman of the Dura Corporation and First Vice-President
of the Automobile Club of Michigan. Thomas Adams,

Chairman of the Board of Campbell-Ewald Company, a Detroit
public relations firm, Served as the Chairman of the
Advertising Committee. The Finance Committee was chaired
by Carl A. Gerstacker who was the Board Chairman Of Dow
Chemical Company. Harry R. Hall, President of the Michigan
State Chamber Of Commerce acted as the Chairman of the
Clubs and Organization's Committee. Co-Chairmen serving
with Mr. Hall were James Rounan, Executive Secretary of the
Michigan AFL-CIO. The final committee chairman was

Theodore H. Mecke, Vice-President Of Public Relations for

Ford Motor Company. Mr. Mecke, Of course, served as

40

Ford Motor Company. Mr. Mecke, of course, served as
Chairman of the Public Relations Committee.43
GENERALIZATION 1-5:
The greater the diversity of interests represented
in a communication campaign, the greater the
success of the campaign.
Active support was solicited from about forty-five
organizations. Representatives of these groups attended
a Special meeting in Lansing on August 21, 1968 to hear
Governor Romney and J. Thomas Smith ask for their help
in putting the bonding program across to the public. Fund
raising, public information, promotional and other efforts
began and gathered momentum as the election day drew
closer. The Governor warned,
The worst hurdle we face is apathy. If we adopt
'the attitude that I don't know anybody who is
against Clean Water and Quality Recreation, so
I don't really need to push these bond issues--
then both issues will sure go down to defeat.
Even the best and most needed programs cannot-

survive the apathy of their supporters. It is
up to us to keep the ball rolling on to victory.

44

The Governor apparently recognized very early that
we Often assume acceptance of a proposal without consider-
ing the possibilities of low saliency, lack of interest

and public ignorance of the situation. To make sure the

bonding program was a "front page item“ a "Bond Blitz"

 

43"Citizens Committee for Clean water and Recreation,"
letterhead, Motor News, Detroit, Michigan, 1968.

44Anonymous, "Bond Campaign Effort Shifts into High
Gear," To ics, Conservation Department, Vol. 5, NO. 19:
Lansing, Michigan (September 12, 1968), p. 2.

 

41

was accomplished on October 10, 1968. The Governor flew
to four metropolitan areas in the state--Lansing, Detroit,
Flint and Grand Rapids--to speak to the peOple about the
pollution and recreation problems of the state. All these
stops were made in one day and seemed to be very effective.

Although the energy and leadership for bond promo-
tional efforts must usually come from private citizens and
organizations, there were actions that the state took to
trigger the desired response. The state had established
a working group of affected state agencies to coordinate
the development and release Of information on the bonding
issues, and coordinated the identification Of speakers
and resource personnel to meet informational requests from
private groups. Service organizations were encouraged to
sponsor community forums throughout the state for public
discussion of the bonding programs among local officials
and citizens.

GENERALIZATION 1-6:

The more interpersonal communication which takes

place between those individuals knowledgeable

about an issue and those in need of information,

the greater the success of the campaign.

Mr. James Kellogg, Executive Secretary to the
Governor and overall coordinator of the campaign, expressed
his feelings in saying that the most likely opposition to
the bonding programs would seem to be a general concern of

the public about government spending and increasing taxes.

.Although there was no data on the saliency of the issue, it

42

appeared that public knowledge of the issue was low.

The proposed strategy was one which would then maximize
the distribution of information to increase public knowl-
edge of the bond issue, minimize the possibility of the
emergence of controversy on the issue, and stimulate
organizations and groups to take the initiative in pro-
moting them.

GENERALIZATION 1-7:

The greater the distribution of information for

the purpose of increasing public knowledge, the

greater the success of the campaign.

GENERALIZATION 1-8:

The sooner the emergence of controversy

surrounding the issue is minimized, the greater

the success of the campaign.

In order to accomplish these goalsjindividuals were
delegated the responsibilities of fund raising, organizing
regional meetings with community leaders, implementing a
public relations campaign in the Detroit area, constructing
a hard-sell campaign for TV coverage, organizing a mass-
media education campaign for TV and newspapers, deve10ping
public service broadcasts, leading local bond drive
organizations, sponsoring state-wide press luncheons, and
the creation Of the Citizens Committee publicity.

The public relations and promotional program utilized
the following prepared items:

a. Letters-to-the-editor (newspapers)

b. Prepared speeches from various sources

c. Fact sheet

43

d. Window posters

e. Easel cards

f. "Snipes" for polling places

g. IBM cards for direct mail bearing a printed
message urging "yes" votes and a covering
letter.

The following sample items were assembled in kit

form and sent to supporting organizations, asking that

they then submit quantity orders:

1. Extra copies of the October issue of Motor
News (Michigan Auto Club Magazine).

2. Reprints of a six-page spread in the September-
October issue Of Michigan Conservation magazine.

3. COpies of the Conservation Department brochure,
"Michigan Needs Clean Water and Quality
Recreation."

Strong promotional attempts were made by enlisting
the aid of political candidates, since this was an
election year and political figures were commanding a
great deal Of the public's attention. Since the bond
proposals were essentially non-political and non-partisan
in nature, it was reasonable to assume that all political
figures would endorse them. To encourage those endorse-
ments a position paper was prepared and distributed to as
many state and local political candidates as possible.
Candidates were also Offered supplies of brochures and
fact sheets to distribute at meetings.

GENERALIZATION 1-9:

The greater the number of promotional attempts

using the endorsements of admired political

figures who command extensive public attention,
the greater the success of the campaign.

44

The mass media was also an integral part of the

campaign.

The Campbell-Ewald Company of Detroit was

responsible for preparing a media advertising campaign in

behalf Of the bond proposal. This campaign was then

complemented with the following publicity efforts:

1.

A prepared series of news releases, aimed
primarily at weekly newspapers and distributed
through the Michigan Press Association service,
to inform the public how the money would be
spent, where it would come from, the condition
of Michigan's water at the time and all the
other facts surrounding the issue.

Daily papers were encouraged to develop stories
on the bond issue and information and art work
was provided as required. The majority of the
stories were to be localized to foster keen
interest Of the local citizenry by pointing out
how they would be affected by the passage of
PrOposal #3.

Suggested editorials for weekly papers were
prepared and distributed. Some were also
geared for specific audiences and then printed
in the apprOpriate section of the paper such as

the sports page, society page, and the editorial

page.

45

4. Daily papers were encouraged to take a
positive editorial stand.

5. A series of releases was prepared and
distributed to radio stations.

6. The television and radio stations which take
editorial stands on the air were encouraged
to come out in favor of the bond proposals.

7. Tape-recorded radio spots featuring prominent
persons who supported the proposals were
prepared and distributed.

8. Filmed spots and short features for TV use
were prepared and distributed.

9. Arrangements were made for live programming on
TV and radio, with emphasis on such shows as
"Michigan Outdoors" and the "Michigan Sportsman."

Perhaps the most controversial advertisement used was

the picture of a small boy sitting in a bathtub surrounded
by dirt, filth, dead fish and refuse in the water (Figure
4). This particular symbol carried a very simple,

poignant message to the public. After viewing this picture
there was no doubt in the viewers mind what the problem
was. Any subsequent messages suggesting specific ways to
remedy the problem were not likely to meet Opposition.

GENERALIZATION 1-10:

The more often problems are specifically and

simply identified for the affected public

before remedies are prescribed, the greater
the incidence of success for the campaign.

46

The problem may he us New us
your {(uu‘I-f.‘

'l'ho solution 15 as near us
your voting hoollz.

 

Fig. 4.--Boy in Polluted Bathtub.

xtwt
q. _¢.r

4

 

47

A speaker's bureau comprised of field employees was
”organized by the Conservation Department. The bureau's
primary objective was promotion of the bond issue. To do
this, speaking engagements were solicited as Often as
possible. A prepared speech and a short color slide show,
accompanied by a suggested script was made available to the
participating employees.

In addition to the speaker's bureau, supporting
organizations were encouraged to have competent members
make speaking appearances on behalf of the bond issue.
These two techniques are in support of Generalization 1-6
(p. 41) stated earlier.

Promotional efforts through other channels naturally
existed. Numerous fairs, including the State Fair,
utilized exhibits and this method was extended to the
large shopping centers in the metropolitan areas.
Restaurants were asked to serve water only on request for
one day and with each glass served, the customer was given
a brochure on the bond prOposals. Aerial signs were towed
behind planes over stadiums at the University Of Michigan,
Michigan State University, Detroit Lions home football
games and the WOrld Series home baseball games. As an
added promotional technique, department stores were asked
to post easel cards where sporting goods, plumbing fixtures
and drinking glasses were sold. McDonald Milk Company had

printed supporting information on their milk cartons.

48

Cartoons were circulated depicting dirty water in most
places Of human consumption and use such as bath tubs,
sinks, water faucets, lakes and streams. Captions were
added to the cartoons to draw attention to the urgency
Of the problem.

Earlier in this chapter the enormous volume of
information and promotional material that was developed
and distributed to the peOple of Michigan was alluded to.
A large number of interested groups joined in support of
those who realized the importance of the prOposed

legislation.

Evaluation of Campaign Success

 

Those who acted as the "guiding body" of this
campaign, viewed evaluation almost completely in terms of
how the bond issue fared at election time. The proposal
did pass the vote Of the people of Michigan and therefore
was suggestive of a successful campaign. Beyond the fact
that the prOposal passed was the margin Of "yes" votes
as Opposed to "no" votes. The final vote count was an
overwhelming 2 to 1 margin in favor of the prOposal (2
"yes" votes to 1 "no" vote). This particular fact strongly
suggests the success of the communication campaign.

Some additional factors which might also be inter-
preted as campaign success should be considered here.
Other states, who in the near future would be dealing with

the problem Of water pollution, were interested in the

49

techniques and strategies used in Michigan. Some of these
states sent "study teams" to Michigan to study the approach
which gained Michigan its $335,000,000 bonding program.
Other states had already attempted passage of similar
water pollution bond issues that had met defeat for
various reasons. It is surmised that the most frequent
reason for their failure was an inadequate communication
campaign. The overwhelming degree Of success which the
Michigan campaign achieved seems to signify the importance
Of the methods used. These differences in success point
out that the issue alone was not sufficient to bring about
positive results. The campaign strategies used, most
assuredly had a strong effect on how the Michigan voters
reacted on election day. Finally, it should be noted that
there was at no time Opposition mounted by any group or
organization against the bond issue. When considering
these series Of events, evaluation of the campaign indi-
cates that it was a great success.

Im lications of This Campaign
For Traffic Safety

 

Several outstanding characteristics of the Michigan
Water Pollution Bond Campaign hold basic implications for
those concerned with the task of communicating traffic
safety information to the apprOpriate public involved.

The first and perhaps most obvious strategy was used

by the Michigan Water Resources Commission when thgy

 

50

apprised Governor Romney of the water situation in Michigan
and subsequently enlisted his enthusiastic and active
suppgrt. This strategic move is supported by extensive
research done by Dr. Everett M. Rogers and documented in
his book Diffusion of Innovations: A Cross Cultural
Approach.45 Dr. Rogers describes the Opinion leader as
one who has "the ability to informally influence indi-
viduals' attitudes or behavior in a desired way with
relative frequency." He continues by saying "Opinion
leadership is earned and maintained by the individual's
technical competence, social accessibility, and conformity
to the system's norms."46 Governor Romney acted as an
important Opinion leader for the people of Michigan. The
support gained by the Governor from those present at his
first luncheon suggests this. Many people were immediately
attentive to the bond issue mainly because they felt it
must be important if the Governor was personally endorsing
it. The near unanimous vote in favor of his proposal to
the legislature also suggests this.

The Governor also functioned as a change agent at
this point. Dr. Rogers identifies a change agent as ”a

professional who influences innovation-decisions in a

 

45Everett M. Rogers and F. Floyd Shomaker, Diffusion

of Innovations: A Cross Cultural Approach (New York:
Free Press of Glencoe: 1968), p. 48.

461bid.

 

51

direction deemed desirably by a change agency."47 By

acting as both an Opinion leader and a change agent, the
Governor affected many people who were also cast in the
role of Opinion leaders and change agents within their
respective social systems. The field of traffic safety
often neglects this powerful element of communication.
There are public and political figures who have the
capabilities to act as Opinion leaders and change agents
for traffic safety but are being ignored or not identified
as such. Very few, if any, high governmental Officials:
either on the state or the national level,have become
"crusaders" for an all out attack on our highway problems.
This may be partly the fault of those agencies who are in
the business of promoting better, safer conduct on our
nations streets and highways. A logical approach in the
future might be to convince these Opinion leaders and
change agents at the outset so that their influence and
active support might be utilized to its fullest.

A second approach used by the water Resources Com-
mission was the method Of studying several other campgigpg
which had been conducted in other states for ideas on how
to conduct the Michigan campaigp. Wisconsin, Massachusetts
and several other states subsequently came to Michigan to

study the methods used in hOpes they could apply some of

 

47Ibid., p. 49.

52

those in their own states. This gesture signifies the
respect held by others outside this state for Michigan's
expertise in handling the Water Pollution Bond Campaign.
The procedures followed and strategies devised will
undoubtedly be looked to as models by other states.

This suggests that perhaps an "all out" safety pro-
gram be conducted in one state that could be measured and
evaluated for its degree of effectiveness. Valuable data
would be gathered and modifications could be made in the
program before a subsequent national campaign was launched.

The notion of a "total" effort being mounted is
suggested also. A "total" effort means maximum attention
and tOp priority devoted to the states' highway problems
during a designated period of time by a specific agency or
group concerned with traffic safety, using some of the
techniques employed by the Michigan Water Resources Com-
mission in a comprehensive state wide campaign. This

campaign might utilize such methods as the Governor's Bond

 

Blitz, the enlistment Of active support from all the tOp

 

industrialists and concerns in the state, the employment of

 

a top public relations firm, the use of a speaker's bureau,

 

the formulation of a "Citizens Committee for Traffic

 

Safety in Michigan."

 

Traffic safety is not unlike water pollution control.
The primary enemy of traffic safety is apathy. It is a

very unusual person who does not fear a traffic collision.

53

One method of curtailing public apathy toward our traffic
problems may be the application of the previous strategies
used by the State of Michigan in controlling water
pollution.

Ingham Countprubella Vaccination
campaign

 

Description of the Issue

 

A crippling and damaging disease was apparently
defeated and hOpefully eradicated in Ingham County,
Michigan during the month of January, 1970. This disease
is properly known as rubella but for many years was
unfortunately labeled "German measles." The term "German
measles" seemed to create a false notion or sense of
security and was regarded as a mild, rash-producing
disease which was merely a nuisance to children.

When rubella was studied extensively it was revealed
that many babies were being born with eye defects, heart
conditions, hearing loss and other combinations of
abnormalities. It was also discovered that

Rubella, when contracted by a woman in early
pregnancy, can cause her baby to die, or to be
born with crippling defects. Studies indicated
rubella has probably killed or crippled more
children in recent years than polio, scarlet

fever, chicken pox, mumps, and regular measles
combined.43

 

48"Requiem for Rubella," Michigan's Health, Publica—
tion of Michigan Department of Public Health, Vol. 57,
No. 2 (Summer, 1969): p. l.

 

54

There is a tendency for rubella to reach epidemic
levels every five to seven years. The most recent recorded
epidemics were in 1964-65 and in 1958-59. Available
estimates from the U.S. Department of Public Health,
National Communicable Disease Center indicated that during
the 1964-65 national epidemic 50,000 mothers experienced
abnormal pregnancies which were attributable to rubella.

Of these 50,000 abnormal pregnancies, 30,000 resulted in
death to the infant and the remaining 20,000 were born

with various and combined birth defects. In Michigan

alone it has been estimated that 369 mothers were affected
resulting in 92 deaths to the infant and 277 infants with
birth defects.49

With recognition of rubella's epidemic nature, it
was anticipated by many that a widespread outbreak would
occur in 1970 unless a vaccine became available to curtail
the diesase. In 1967, physicians Of the University of
Pennsylvania introduced live virus rubella vaccine
which ultimately became the answer for the destruction
of rubella.50 With this accomplishment, the next steps
in Michigan to promote a vaccination campaign were the

gathering of information, organization of communication

channels, and dissemination and diffusion of the facts

 

49Michigan Department of Public Health, Information
Packet, Rubella Fact Sheet, 1969.

50Michigan Department Of Public Health, Information
Packet, Background On the Vaccine, 1969-70.

 

 

55

surrounding the forthcoming program. The final phase
would be the administration of the vaccine.

The following discussion is concerned with the com-
munication and information campaign organized to promote
vaccination of all eligible children in kindergarten
through third grade in both public and non-public schools
in Ingham County. It was extremely important to the
success of the vaccination program that a high percentage
of children in the designated age group receive the

vaccine.

Individuals Interviewed

 

Although this segment of the study is concerned with
the Ingham County communication program, it was impossible
to gather necessary information about the campaign without
also briefly examining the efforts put forth at the state
level. Most of the counties of Michigan depended heavily
on the State Department Of Public Health for some degree
of leadership and assistance.

Personal interviews were conducted with Mr. John
Cook, Chief of the Division of Information and Education
at the State Department of Public Health and Mr. Jock
Bliss, Public Information Specialist at the State Depart-
ment of Public Health, also Of the Division of Information
and Education. At the county level, interviews were con-
ducted with Dr. Maurice S. Reizen, M.D., at that time the

Medical Director of the Ingham County Public Health

56

Department, more recently appointed State Director, and
Mrs. Gladys Conklin, the Supervisor of Nurses at the

Ingham County Public Health Department.

Pre—Campaign Condition

 

It was determined at the outset that the general
public was grossly uninformed about the dangers of rubella
and consequently accepted the disease in a rather non-
chalant manner. There appeared to be a lack of knowledge
surrounding the entire question of rubella.

The public was not aware of the fact that the term
"German measles" is a misnomer. The 'so-called German
measles is neither German in origin nor 'measles' in
category--any more than are scarlet fever, or chicken
pox, or any of a number Of other rash diseases."51
Rubella was a relatively new name to most people and it
was not understood that rubella and "German measles" are
the same.

The public was unaware of rubella's impact on society
and the effects it imposed on unborn babies. They were
ignorant of the impending epidemic which threatened during
the spring of 1970 and they were equally ignorant of the
discovery and production of a new vaccine recently marketed

that would help prevent the spread of rubella. In general,

 

1"Requiem for Rubella," Op. cit.

57

the public appeared to be totally unaware of the facts

about rubella.

Organization of Forces

 

Clearly there was a need for education and informa—
tion regarding the rubella problem. In order to accomplish
this goal a number of peOple were engaged for assistance
and support.

The Legislature of Michigan made it possible for the
state to purchase 600,000 doses of the vaccine by appro-
priating the necessary revenue. Ingham County alone
immunized 18,530 children in 96 public and parochial schools
in January, 1970. Without this needed legislation the
rubella vaccination program would surely have suffered
greatly. Every child who was eligible for the rubella
vaccine could receive it free of charge.

Active support of the Michigan State Medical Society
and the State Association Of Osteopathic Physicians and
Surgeons was sought. Frequently this support was evidenced
by doctors voluntarily assisting with the vaccination
clinics in their area.

Several voluntary health agencies helped in various
ways. These agencies included the state chapters of United
Cerebral Palsy, the Easter Seal Society for Crippled Children
and Adults, the Association for Retarded Children, and the
March of Dimes. These agencies helped by contributing

funds to the State Department of Public Health to assist

58

for the payment of costs incurred in production of filmed
announcements for television and for the special "medals"
that were given to the children who had received the
vaccination. In addition to these agencies the Michigan
Heart Association and the Association for Better Hearing
and Speech were helpful in circulating public information
and lending manpower where ever best needed.

Other concerned societies and agencies were the
Michigan Congress of Parents and Teachers, Society for
Mental Health, State Department of Mental Health, and the
State Department Of Education. Generalization 1-5 (p. 40)
should be recalled here in recognition of the large number
of organizations, societies and agencies which assisted
with the rubella campaign. The stimulation of these groups
was indeed essential to its success.

On October 8, 1969, Governor William Milliken held a
news conference in which he disclosed an all-out attack on
rubella. He urged all Michigan parents to give the rubella
vaccination campaign their full support in any way they
possibly could. He stressed the fact that it was a
"concern for others" which would make the campaign a
success.

At this point the State Department of Public Health'
began the task Of developing and disseminating informational
materials for use by local and county health departments,

Boards of Education, the news media, public service

59

directors, voluntary health organizations and other agencies
concerned about the program. This material was produced

for the free use of the concerned and involved groups.

Each local or county agency utilized and added to these
materials as they saw fit.

The County Health directors were made responsible
for their own informational program. In Ingham County,
Dr. Maurice Reizen, Department of Public Health Director,
enlisted the assistance of various agencies involved
through means of personal contacts and interviews when
possible. The vaccine was administered by school nurses
and public health nurses of the Ingham County Health
Department under the direction of physicians. Since the
vaccine was given by injection, it was necessary to conduct
several orientation meetings for those who would be
involved in the actual administration of the vaccine.
During the period that Schools were closed for the
Christmas vacation, the nurses involved met with the
Supervisor of Nurses in Ingham County to discuss their
involvement in the program. An additional meeting was
then called by Dr. Reizen to discuss the approach and

execution of administering the injections.

Campaign Strategies

 

The success of the rubella campaign in Ingham County
was dependent largely on the cooperation Of the parents and

children involved. Perhaps the biggest sacrifice was made

60

by the children because they were the ones who received

the actual vaccination. Of course the parents were heavily
involved in the campaign by virtue of volunteering their
children for the vaccination.

SO that the children would have a reasonably accurate
understanding of why they were being vaccinated the campaign
utilized the "Rubella Hero" concept. "Rubella" was
characterized as a dragon which could only be slain by the
vaccination administered. The child was told that if he was
vaccinated he had done a brave deed and because of his
actions many mothers-to-be and their unborn babies would
consider him their hero. As a tangible reward the State
Department Of Public Health provided "Rubella Hero" buttons
in the form of a medal of honor to be awarded to each child
who had received his vaccination. In addition, newspaper
advertisements and radio and television announcements
emphasized the "Rubella Hero" theme, visually as well as
verbally. It should also be noted that there were two
groups of people involved, adults and children, and the
materials composed were directed to each specific group.
Several items were oriented to the adults, several to the
children, and some were easily applied to both groups.

GENERALIZATION 2-1:

The more often specific messages appeal directly

to specific characteristics of a particular sub-
audience, the greater the incidence of success.

61

The State Department of Public Health prepared a
public information packet for distribution to all the
local health departments which contained the following
items.52

1. A list of volunteer health agencies, professional
societies, and government agencies who were con-
cerned about and involved in the rubella
immunization effort.

2. Material for use in publicizing the program by
inclusion in the regular ads of local pharmacies
and other local businesses. The support of these
businesses was solicited by the health department
directors, and by representatives of the Volunteer
Health Agencies.

3. A sample letter to parents, asking for their
informed consent to immunize their child which
included a permission slip form for them to sign.

4. A news release, with the understanding it was to
be rewritten by the local health department to
include all available local emphasis.

5. A letter of "introductory information" for news
editors intended for all media, outlined the
epidemic threat, immunization program, and
possible local sources of news and human interest

material about rubella.

 

52Michigan Department of Public Health, Information
Packet, Campaign Details, 1969.

 

lo.

11.

12.

13.

62

A fact sheet on rubella, in outline form.

A background sheet on the vaccine, summarizing
its development, federal licensing, purchase by
the state, its testing, recommendations for use,
and some major characteristics.

A vaccine allocation list, showing quantities
supplied to each health department in order to
immunize an estimated 80 per cent of the

eligible youngsters.

A schedule of clinics, indicating the month
during which each local health department was
scheduled to conduct its immunization activities.
An editorial, emphasizing parental responsibility
to their children and to the community, to prevent
a major rubella epidemic and thereby protect the
unborn.

A "classified" ad copy, designed for regular
newspaper use during the immunization program,

in its classified sections, as well as in display
ads.

Display material, designed for display ads in
newspapers, posters (as in schools, for instance),
and TV visuals.

A memo to children's program directors of Michigan
TV stations, called attention to the "Rubella
Hero" concept, and discussed materials provided

for possible use on appropriate shows.

63

14. A memo to public service directors, provided
detailed national and Michigan statistics from
the 1964 rubella-epidemic, for insertion as
desired in broadcast COpy.

15. TV spots, working drafts, included one 30-second,
and three 60-second production spots. The 30,
and one 60 used a narrator to develop empathy
between viewing parents (and youngsters) and the
mothers depicted in the film. Their approach
was straight-narrative, seriously pointing to
the importance of "Rubella Heroes" and of the
parents whose approval is essential to "Rub-Out
Rubella."

16. A twenty-minute speech, with slides, on TEE

Rubella Problem was made available, on request,

 

through a return postcard in the packet. Also
available were extra copies of any items included
in the packet.

The list of prepared public information materials tend
to support Generalization 1-7 (p. 42) stated earlier. The
information materials attempted to increase public knowledge
to a maximum degree.

The Governor's endorsement of the rubella campaign on
October 8, 1969 lends support to Generalization 1-3 (p. 36)
stated earlier. The governor of any state is inherently

considered by many to be an Opinion leader of high esteem

64

and therefore commands a great amount of influence pursuant
to an endorsement of this nature. Governor Milliken in

his news conference also expressed to the people of
Michigan an attitude which he hoped all would adOpt when

he said, "The success Of this program depends to a large
extent on concern for others."53

GENERALIZATION 2—2:

The more often communicators appeal directly

to the individual's concern for others and

their welfare, the greater the enthusiasm

and support for the issue.

A number Of the suggested advertising COpies used the
theme that parents could help prevent possible tragedy by
authorizing the vaccination for their children. In effect
they would be saving the lives of many unborn babies.

Dr. Reizen was perhaps the most instrumental person
in Ingham County in motivating all those concerned about
the problem Of rubella. He personally contacted public
service directors of the media and described to them what
they could do to help. By doing so, Dr. Reizen's actions
tend to support Generalization 1-6 (p. 41) stated earlier
which points out the value of interpersonal communication
and its effect on the promotion Of an issue. He was also
responsible for many interviews with the media which

afforded the public the Opportunity to receive accurate,

knowledgeable information from a local figure.

 

3"Requiem for Rubella," Op. cit., p. 8.

65

Evaluation of Campaign Success

 

The success of the Rubella Campaign must be con-
sidered at two levels; first, the state level and, secondly,
the county level. Mr. Cook and Mr. Bliss of the Public
Health Department view its success through a number of
"informal" indications.

The actual use of the vaccine over the state was far
beyond the expectations Of the Michigan Public Health
Department. The original Objective was to administer
600,000 doses of the vaccine. This figure was surpassed
by 30,000 additional doses, which had to be ordered from
the drug company who was the sole producer.

Many counties were forced to buy supplementary
vaccine with their own funds because of the excessive
demand. There were, in fact, some requests for the
vaccine that could not be filled.

The State Health Department received numerous
requests from various sources throughout the state for
additional promotional materials to be used in the local
and county campaigns.

It should be recognized also that Michigan is one of
the very few states which had mounted a "campaign" against
rubella and since this concerted effort was introduced,
several other states have inquired about the organization

of the campaign for possible use as a model.

66

An evaluation of the Ingham County campaign success
revealed several interesting facts. The County exceeded
its 15,530 quota of doses by 3,000. The final tally of
immunized children reached 84.6 per cent, one of the
highest in the state. A news article termed the response
to the program "fantastic."S4 In the same article Dr.
Maurice Reizen stated "he had not seen evidence of an
epidemic in Ingham county this year, and cases were
running about the same number as last year."55

With the absence of statistical data it is necessary
to use the available indications to ascertain success. All
these indications are highly suggestive of that success.

Implications_of This Campaign
FOr Traffic Safety

 

 

In addition to lending support to several of the
generalizations made during the examination of the Michigan
Water Pollution Bond Issue, the Rubella campaign suggested
a number Of additional strategies to be tested in the area
of traffic safety.

Perhaps the most evident strategy was that of

utilizing the approach often used by most commercial adver-

 

tisers in appealipg specifically to the parents of young

 

children and to the children who were directly involved in

 

 

4"Response Fantastic," The State Journal, Monday,
February 16, 1970, Lansing, Michigan.

SSIbid.

 

67

the ultimate success of the campaign. The two groups

 

existed as mutual influences upon one another. The
children were Often carriers of the messages they saw on
television and received in their schools, while the parents
were responsible for the final decision as to whether the
child would receive the vaccination or not. This process
resembles the methods used by breakfast cereal companies.
The advertising copy is aimed at the child with full
knowledge that it is the parent who will make the actual
purchase acting through influences presented by the child.
A second strategy used in the rubella campaign which

holds implications for traffic safety was that of awarding

 

the "Rubella Hero" button to each child who participated

 

in thegprggram. The button served as a tangible reward for

 

"doing the right thing." Desire for reward is universal
and is important to adults as well as children. It should
be remembered that reward can be expressed in many ways.
It was essential to the campaign that information
related to rubella be presented to everyone directly or

indirectly involved in the program. Conclusive informational

 

materials corrected faulty attitudes and knowledge and

 

gained support for the campaign.

 

It is highly probable the average driver does not
have enough, and is unaware of, the information available
to make the prOper decisions for safe Operation of his

vehicle. It is therefore up to the traffic safety

68

communicator and educators to see to it that all those

affected are thoroughly infOrmed.

Ford Maverick Campaign

 

Description of the Issue

 

The automotive industry is perhaps the most com—
petitive industrial complex the world has ever known. It
is of the utmost importance to each corporation that their
market analysis be as accurate as possible so as to remain
competitive. In recent years the Ford Motor Company has
capitalized on its market research and produced two of the
most successful automobiles in history, the Mustang and
the Maverick. It is the Maverick campaign which is Of
concern to this study.

Maverick was officially introduced by Ford Motor
Company five years to the day after the Mustang was ushered
into the compact market. The date Of introduction was
April 17, 1969 and extended into a three day event which
attracted an estimated two and one-half million people to
Ford dealer showrooms. Market reports showed Maverick to
be the second best selling car in the Ford line as of
May, 1970.

Ford, of course, had its reasons for creating this

entirely new line. In a corporate studies report56 it said,

 

56"Introduction of the Maverick," Ford Corporate
Studies (Dearborn, Michigan: Ford Motor Company, Educational
Affairs Department), Number 7, p. l.

 

69

"A market for it, or something close to it, existed to the
tune Of one to two million cars a year. . . . A second
factor calling for creation of a new car was the relative
decline in sales of American compact cars." It was
therefore reasoned that Ford could capture this market for
very small cars by creating a model which stood between the
Volkswagen, the leading compact import, and Ford's own
Falcon.

This new model was to possess most Of the satisfactory
features of the small imports but would eliminate the major
criticisms cited such as inadequate space, low stability
and insufficient power for passing. To this end, Maverick
has been successful. The car has proven to be durable,
dependable, stable and responsive, as well as spacious.

Maverick was unique in that it had no direct com-
petition from any other company, domestic or foreign. At
the same time the nation's economy had slowed to a point
which prompted a greater demand from the public for economy
cars. Despite these advantageous situations it was
necessary to build a rapport for Maverick with the public.
The remainder of this chapter discusses the communication
or advertising campaign launched by Ford Motor Company to

bring about this rapport.

Individuals Interviewed

 

Several people were interviewed for their personal,

first hand knowledge of the Maverick campaign: Mr. John J.

70

Morrisey, Director of Advertising and Sales Promotion for
Ford Motor Company; Mr. Jerry McMechan, Manager of Corporate
Advertising and Sales Promotion; and Mr. Dave Kerr, assigned
to the Ford Maverick account at J. Walter Thompson Company,
an advertising agency in Detroit. In addition to these
personal interviews Mr. William Murphy, also of the J.
Walter Thompson Company was assigned to collect and compile

pertinent information to be used and analyzed for this study.

Pre-Campaign Condition

Through analysis Of the automobile market Ford
detected certain trends developing in 1967 which indicated
the desirability of a car the size of Maverick. It there-
for seemed the right time for development of such an
innovation because of the known demand. Imported auto-
mobiles appeared tO be enjoying a considerable segment of
the compact market and Ford was determined to share this
segment. The import buyers had expressed discontent with
several facets of their imported compacts. This suggested
the need for a better compact, but not necessarily from the
foreign market.

Though it was not conceived and produced for direct
competition to Volkswagen, the leading import, it was
realized that the Maverick would offer an unknown amount
of competition in its particular market. This prompted a
study of total sales Of the imports for later comparisons

which might indicate the actual amount of competition being

71

57 conducted also

generated by Maverick. The studies
showed that import buyers and American compact buyers
agreed that the essentials they required of a car were:
economy of Operation, agreeable purchase price, and

durability. Neither group considered powerful engines

and peak performance an important issue.

Organization of Forces

 

As the car was being designed, consideration was
given to the advertising and communication campaign deemed
critical in creating a public awareness of this new
product. Information was released at definite time inter-
vals. The J. Walter Thompson Company of Detroit, which
handles all of Ford's advertising, began to work in con-
junction with the people at Ford. A theme or direction,
which the Maverick campaign would follow, was determined.
The agency recommended and composed the messages subject to
approval by the Ford Division. After they were approved,
the messages were then released by the Ford Division.

In comparison to the two previous campaigns studied,
the Maverick campaign was able to capitalize on existing
constructs within the Ford Motor Company, J. walter Thompson
and society. The constructs were evident in the mere
existence of Ford's advertising department, J. Walter
Thompson's possession Of the account for all the Ford lines

and the various channels of media which already carried

 

57Ibid.

72

large numbers of Ford's messages to the public. NO new
channels or groups of people were necessary to accomplish

this new task.

Campaign Strategies

 

The strategies used for the campaign surrounding
Maverick were decided upon by the Ford Motor Company in
conjunction with J. Walter Thompson Company. Before the
campaign was begun, a considerable amount of research was
conducted to determine the prime market for the Maverick.
Ford realized that prospective buyers would come from a
variety of sources, but evidence did exist that indicated
the largest segment of the market to be reached were the
potential buyers of foreign economy cars and domestic
compacts. It became very important then to know the
characteristics of these small—car buyers so that specific
strategies could be designed. This technique lends support
to Generalization 2—1 (p. 60).

The research conducted showed that the typical
import buyer is younger than most car buyers, more active
and college educated with an above average income. He
often owns more than one car and is quite economy minded.
Economy to him means many things: original price, gas
mileage, repairs, reliability and durability. Style,
comfort and performance of the car are not as unimportant

to him as are engineering and workmanship. He is cautious

73

of new products on the market and usually lets others try
them first before buying.

The domestic compact car buyer, on the other hand,
is Older than his counterpart, has a below average education,
below average income and is often a one car owner. He
feels style and comfort are important. Economy to him
usually means "low original price." It was also found
that twice as many women buy domestic compacts as do men
when they were compared to import buyers.58

The Maverick was a car which seemed to fit nicely
into the market of both these prospective groups of buyers.
With this information Ford and J. Walter Thompson Company
determined that there would be three main advertising
objectives: (1) the Maverick would be established as an
entirely new kind of American economy car, (2) the Maverick
would be shown as a desirable alternative to the import
economy cars and the current "old fashioned" domestic com-
pacts, and (3) establish with everyone, the Maverick's base
purchase price of $1,995.

The general attitude at Ford was that the Maverick
did not represent a revolutionary new product. The Maverick
was simply produced because of the existing market. It was
necessary, therefore, to create innovative advertising which

would draw attention to the Maverick.

 

58J. Walter Thompson Company, "Profile Of Prospects,"

Detroit, Michigan, 1968, p. 2.

74

GENERALIZATION 3-1:

The more a communication campaign utilizes new

and different approaches to affect an otherwise

apathetic public, the greater the incidence of

success for the campaign.

The campaign was able to benefit largely from the
purchase price of the car. This particular strategy was
quite foreign to Detroit's auto industry. Until this time,
the industry advertised physical features and advantages
of their products but traditionally did not dwell on price.
The period following World War II was a very prosperous
one for the auto industry and nearly every car made was
quickly sold. There was no need to advertise the product
on a price basis because of the overwhelming demand which
existed. In recent years, however, because of a very
different national economic position the consumer has
become extremely price conscious.

GENERALIZATION 3-2:

The more Often full utilization is made of

advantageous situations which arise and are

directly related to the campaign, the greater

the incidence of success for the campaign.

A second strategy used was the advent of five new
paint colors with names to match. In addition to the
actual name of the car being somewhat new in approach, the ,
names of the paints were also designed to attract attention.
The names "Anti-EstablishMint," "Hula Blue," "Original
Cinnamon," "Freudian Gilt," and "Thanks Vermillion," served
to brighten and intensify the entire image of the car.

When the subject Of a communication campaign is a

product to be bought and sold, the advertisements pertaining

75

to the product become quite important. The advertisements
for Maverick varied greatly as far as presentation is
concerned, but all could be categorized into one of three
basic phases: the complex, the endorsement, or the
inflationary. In the complex phase, the ads discussed a
number Of items which were outstanding features of the car.
In the endorsement phase, contented Maverick owners were
pictured and quoted praising diverse features of the
Maverick. The inflationary phase reemphasized the low
price of the Maverick by comparing the rate of increase

of some other goods as Opposed to the stable price of the
Maverick.

All Of these advertisements were exposed to the
public through various media at different times. Nearly
all forms Of media were used at one time or another but
basically those used were television, radio, newspapers,
magazines, billboards and performance events. Perhaps
the most unique strategy used occurred in the area of
television. On the eve of the formal announcement and
Official showing of the car, segments Of nearly every
program's sponsor time was purchased, every half hour
during the prime hours of viewing on the three major
networks. This time was devoted to registering the name
of the car, the look of the car, and the major character-
istics of the car with those who viewed any of the programs

on television that particular night. This method was

76

extremely expensive but considered necessary and worthwhile.
The diversity and extent to which media was used suggests
support for Generalization 1-7 (p. 42) stated earlier,
which concerns the effectiveness of maximum distribution

of information so as to increase public knowledge.

A wide variety of magazines and newspapers ran
advertisements on selected dates with other advertisements
to be printed whenever space and time allowed.

The performance events used consisted of the Atlanta
500 Motor Car Race, the Michigan International Trans-Am
Race, the Michigan International 500, and the Charlotte 600.

The day the Maverick was introduced is of particular
significance. The date April 17, 1969, was five years to
the day from that date on which the Mustang was introduced,
as was pointed out earlier. However, the time of year the
car was presented is of additional significance. The con-
ventional time Of year for new automobile presentations is
the fall season, but with Maverick appearing in the early
spring, total attention was captured. This particular
strategy lends support to Generalization 3-2 (p. 74) which
refers to full utilization of advantageous situations.

The final strategy that will be discussed is in
support of Generalization 1-3 (p. 42) which states that
controversy should be minimized from the outset if such
controversy threatens the campaign objectives. Shortly

after the introduction of the car, it was taken to

77

Washington, D.C.,for inspection by a group of Congressmen
who saw the car dismantled and then reassembled. The Ford
Motor Company wanted to make several points clear: (1)

the car was extremely easy to service, (2) a certain amount
of do-it-yourself potential existed for the owner, which
cut down service charges, and (3) that the Ford Motor
Company was acutely aware Of the first two elements and

now Maverick existed as proof that these problems had been
solved. The car was promoted as an example of what the
automobile industry can do to simplify and reduce mainten—

ance .

Evaluation of Campaign Success

 

Several measures have been used to determine the
effectiveness of the Maverick campaign. The most Obvious
for industry is that of total sales of the unit produced.
Maverick has proven to be one of the most successful auto-
mobiles in history. Three hundred forty thousand Mavericks
were sold the first year. The car has become the second
best selling car in all of the auto industry. General
consensus is that the Maverick lacks classic design and is
only moderately attractive. The tremendous success of the
car then can be attributed to the promotion campaign which
surrounded it.

In addition to impressive sales the Maverick has
proven to be a good "conquesting" car. That is to say,

many buyers were nearly ready to purchase another product

78

until the Maverick appeared. This includes those who
were first car buyers, second car buyers and those who
would have bought an imported product.

It is also apparent that there is a great "name
awareness" associated with the Maverick. Nearly everyone
is aware of the Maverick. This can only be attributed to
the thorough, seemingly successful campaign which was
conducted.

Im lications of This Campaign
for Traffic Safepy

 

It is readily apparent that the corporate advertising
approach to the communication process is somewhat different
from the approach most Often used by traffic safety organi-
zations. The area of traffic safety would do well to study
and utilize the apprOpriate methods being used in industry
today. This study of the Ford Maverick campaign reveals
several implications.

1. It should be recognized that prior to any form

of communication the Ford Motor Company
thoroughly researched the prospective markets
and subsequent messages were developed in light

Of the research findings. If traffic safepy

 

messages are to be more effective it would also
seem necessary to research specific message
receiver groups and construct and direct the

messgges specifically for them.

79

The point has been made several times that the
Maverick was largely successful because of the
communication campaign around which it was
organized and not because of its engineering
beauty. It is strongly implied that perhaps E§g_

entire theme of traffic safety should be promoted

 

by the professional persuaders who are employed

 

py advertising agencies.

 

The Maverick was created so that those in the
economy market would have a product available to
purchase. Since the advent of the Maverick the
decline of the nation's economy has caused nearly
everyone to become cost-conscious. This may

imply that traffic safety would be in a better

 

position if it were considered as an economic

 

way of life rather than only as the safe way of

 

The Maverick could have easily been advertised as
just another model in the growing Ford line but,
because of imagination and innovativeness, it

became extremely successful. Traffic safety

 

communicators might do well to reexamine their
methods and approaches to communicating and strive

to become more innovative and imaginative than is

 

the present case.

 

80

Ford Motor Company allocated a great deal of
money for the Maverick campaign and success was
realized because of this expenditure. For the
car to have been successful without this massive
campaign would have been impossible. Traffic
safety communicators must acquire more financial

aid and assistance if advances are to be made.

CHAPTER IV

APPLICATION TO TRAFFIC SAFETY

In the previous chapter, generalizations were drawn
from three communication campaigns designed for the Michigan
Water Pollution Control Bond Issue, the Ingham County
(Michigan) Rubella Vaccination campaign, and the Ford
Motor Company Maverick campaign. Chapter IV will make
specific application of these generalizations to the field
of traffic safety communications. Each generalization will
be listed with its application immediately following. A
table will be included showing support of certain gen-
eralizations in more than one campaign.

The generalizations and their applications which
follow may be utilized for all forms of traffic safety
campaigns. This includes such campaigns as might be
developed on the community, county, state or national level.
The campaigns might be ones originated and implemented by
private safety councils and organizations, by government
institutions or by the college and university sector. The
campaigns might be of a continuous, on—going nature, of a
seasonal nature (such as winter driving tips or holiday
traffic reminders), or periodical “spot" campaigns

81

82

conducted for specific segments of society (such as motor-
cyclists and truck drivers). In short, the term "traffic
safety campaign" includes the very massive, all inclusive
types, to the localized, specific, poster or bumper-
sticker types of campaigns.

Generalizations Drawn from the Michigan water
POllution Control Bond Campaign

 

 

GENERALIZATION 1-1: The more a communication
campaign capitalizes on a favorable climate
for the issue, the greater the success of the
campaign.

Existing78ituation

 

It is important to note that a public climate, com-
pletely conducive to the promotion of the traffic safety
theme, has apparently never existed. The public has been
universally Opposed to stringent enforcement and legal
measures as a means of reducing the yearly fatality rate,
and yet has reacted apathetically to educational methods
used in the past.

The National Safety Council in testifying on May 23,
1968 before a Subcommittee of the House of Representatives
said

the national community was told that no one had
done enough for traffic safety. . . . The traffic
safety acts are sound public policy, but they are

going nowhere--and they are going nowhere because
there is insufficient public support for them.59

 

59Howard Pyle, "Creating a Public Demand for Safety,"

Speech presented to the National Extension Homemakers
Council Leadership Conference on Highway Safety and Health,
Michigan State University, February 3, 1970.

83

It is apparent therefore that communication techniques
should seek to apply this generalization by systematically
and swiftly creating a more favorable climate or attitude

toward the traffic problems which exist in this country.

Organization and Implementation

 

When the nation's attitude becomes one of concern
rather than apathy, subsequent communication campaigns will
perhaps be more successful. Such is not the case today.

In order to bring about this favorable climate or attitude
toward our traffic problems, a national commission should
be appointed by the President of the United States to study
existing attitudes Of the public toward traffic safety.
When these attitudes have been determined, the commission
and the National Highway Safety Bureau should prescribe
specific programs designed to bring about a favorable
climate for traffic safety. The remaining generalizations
and their applications discussed in this chapter should
become an integral part of such a design. These programs
should then be implemented through the combined forces of
the two agencies cited with sufficient funds to accomplish
their objectives.

Because there are no national, in-depth studies
available which reveal the reasons why traffic safety is
not considered an urgent social problem, it is impossible
to prescribe specific methods for bringing about a more

favorable climate. However, if the generalizations

84

discussed in this study are utilized, a more favorable
climate for traffic safety may result. Hence, the
achievement of Generalization 1—1 will depend upon the
accomplishment of those generalizations which follow.

Innovative Features
To Be Recognized

 

 

 

Although the national climate for traffic safety has
never attained a completely favorable position, it does
appear that an enthusiastic, beneficial public climate
could be created at the local or county level. When such
a climate has been developed by means discussed in the pre-
vious section, it should be preserved at all costs. Though
a favorable public climate has heretofore been recognized
as an important asset to traffic safety campaigns, it has
not been the primary Objective of these campaigns to
create such a climate. This then is the neoteric feature

of Generalization 1-1 which states that a continuing,

 

favorable climate must be the foremost objective of every

 

traffic safety communication campaign conducted and must
be created without fail.

GENERALIZATION 1—2:

Public involvement in collective decision—

making yields greater enthusiasm and support
for the issue.

Existing Situation

 

When the public is excluded from.making some of the

important decisions which directly affect them, it is

85

inevitable, in time, that a sense of alienation results,
apathy appears or a feeling of helplessness and frustration
becomes the norm. The issue of traffic safety, which
includes a vast number of related topics, is traditionally
the main concern of only those who are the "experts" in

the field. This generalization indicates and represents
evidence that greater involvement of the public in the
decision-making process would result in a reduction of

loss from traffic collisions.

The collective decision-making process reaches into
governmental control, standards of highway safety, the auto
industry's involvement and construction of its product, the
responsibility Of insurance companies and the entire

educational system.

Organization and Implementation

 

Once the public has been adequately informed and
aroused about their traffic problems (by means discussed
in the remaining portion of this chapter) they should be
given the Opportunity to make the decisions which
ultimately and directly affect them. They should be able
to express their desires, probably by way of a vote, as to
what priority national, state and local administrators
perceive traffic safety needs. They should be involved in
determining what role the auto industry should play in
producing a safer automobile for consumers. They should

also be involved in determining whether insurance companies

86

should afford unsafe drivers the same insurance rates as
those who have proven themselves to be safe, risk-free
drivers.

The U.S. Department of Transportation recently
released an announcement60 describing the proposal of a
new motor vehicle safety standard which would make passive
protection systems, such as air bags, Optional equipment
for passenger cars produced after January 1, 1972, but
mandatory equipment for those manufactured in 1973.

Using this proposal as an example it can be illus-
trated how the public can be involved to a greater degree
than is the present case. The U.S. Department of Transporta-
tion should see to it that this proposal is publicized
heavily through various forms of media to state governmental
representatives. They, in turn, should utilize the media
to inform the state's residents of the proposal and urge
them to make their feelings known concerning such aspects
as: (1) should the air bag be Optional or mandatory
immediately on current models being produced instead of
1972 or 1973, (2) should the air bag be mandatory for
Older model passenger cars, (3) should trucks, busses and
other vehicles be included in this proposal? Newspapers
should be asked to publish voting ballots in daily editions
so that they may be torn out and mailed to governmental

representatives. Television and radio stations should be
I
/

60Department of Transportation, "News," (DOT--9770),
May 7, 1970.

 

87

asked to urge the state's residents to exercise their

right by mailing their responses to their representatives.
When each representative is aware of the feelings of the
people in his state, he will then be in a position to affect
change in the traffic safety policy set forth by government,
and the people of the state will have gained a degree of
involvement in the decision made.

Innovative Features
to Be Recognized

 

At this time it appears that public involvement in
traffic safety campaigns has not been totally developed.
The Michigan Water Pollution Control Bond Issue campaign
was partly successful because of the Opportunity given
people to decide the fate of Michigan's waterways.
Generalization 1—2 stresses the need for mprg public
involvement, on a national basis, than has been the case
heretofore. Traffic safety communicators must build into
Eggp campaign a greater Opportunity for the public to

become completely involved in determining how our traffic

 

safety problems should be attacked.

GENERALIZA TION 1 -3 :

When dealing with the collective decision-

making processes, the more often assistance

is solicited from known opinion leaders who

are also financially, socially and/or politically
powerful, the greater the success of the campaign.

 

.
’ 1- .,
._ "‘4'-

88

Existing Situation

 

Rogers61 cites several studies which provide
evidence that Opinion leaders are extremely important to
the communication process. Accordingly, the Opinion
leader's attitudes and beliefs are extremely important to
the success of traffic safety measures. The Michigan
Water Pollution campaign utilized the influence of the
Governor and the top twenty industrialists in the state.
The Ingham County Rubella campaign utilized the influence
of the Governor and the Ingham County Director of Public
Health. The field of traffic safety could utilize many
different types of Opinion leaders to tremendous advantage.
Sources from which these leaders might come would include
government officials, celebrities associated with diverse
mediums, religious leaders, renowned educators and
researchers, "super-stars" of the sports world, profes-
sional organization representatives, trade union Officials,
family physicians and persons from other occupations which
tend, in any way, to influence the public's life style.

These Opinion leaders should be identified from many
Sources so that they may be employed by the media and safety
organizations to add their assistance and endorsements.
They should be asked to inform the public of our traffic

problems and how they, the public, might assist in

 

61Rogers, Op. cit., p. 218.

89

eliminating some Of these problems by wearing safety belts,
becoming better informed about Operation of their vehicles
and how to help other motorists on the highway avoid

collisions.

Organization and Implementation

 

TO implement Generalization 1-3, it is imperative
to identify Opinion leaders who will be agreeable to
assisting and working for more effective traffic safety
measures. A research project should be proposed by state
safety organizations that could be conducted by a qualified
private research firm or a university department. The
research project must have as its primary goal the identi-
fication of specific opinion leaders within a predetermined
geographical location. A national survey may prove dif-
ficult to control for such an original project and thus
geographical confines ought to be limited to statewide
surveys at first. When experience is gained from such
state surveys a national project might be instigated.

When this information has been gathered, a qualified
agency or university should be contracted by the state,
or a combination of all the state's safety organizations,
to complete implementation of this generalization.

The organization then in charge should contact the
opinion leaders identified in the survey and employ them
at a financial rate compatible with available funds and the

individual's demands. Actual messages Should be constructed

90

by the communication and information specialists using the
technical assistance of traffic safety experts within the
organization. All forms of media should be used, including
the electronic and printed forms. Therefore, special crews
of practitioners should be acquired to film, record and
print the messages in all the mediums used.

The opinion leaders previously identified should be
cast as the central figures in the message. The message
should be of the single concept type, concentrating on one
aspect Of safe driving practice such as urging the use of
restraining belts, describing correct driving techniques,
or discussing defensive driving tips. Current information
and research concerning each aspect of driving, to be
discussed in the messages, should be researched and
screened for accuracy by the traffic safety experts within
the organization. If this procedure is followed, there will
be assurance that the Opinion leaders will be drawing
attention to accurate information.

Such messages employing many forms of media should
be used as often as possible.

Innovative Features
to Be Recognized

 

 

Generalization 1—3 is unique in approach when one
considers the necessity for a massive increase in total
utilization of these Opinion leaders and the many fields

of endeavor they represent. Though Opinion leaders have

91

been utilized before, the emphasis on massive and pppnguse
is innovative.

It is imperative that many different Opinion leaders
be sought from all sources cited earlier. One or several
Opinion leaders would not be as effective as many from as
great a variety of fields as possible.

It is important that those Opinion leaders identified
be utilized to a point of saturation. The messages and media
used, which cast the opinion leaders as the central,
authoritative figures in the message, should be distributed
and utilized to a maximum degree. Electronic media should
air the messages at least on a daily basis during "prime"
times and, if possible, several times daily. The printed
media should follow suit and print the messages daily. An
entire campaign should involve the full and complete
penetration of messages carried by opinion leaders to all
members of society.

If this technique were followed, most everyone would
become aware of traffic safety measures. It is critical
that there be massive and E9331 utilization of key persons.

GENERALIZATION 1-4:

The more Often leadership is represented in

a single figurehead, around which the campaign

can rally, the greater the success of the

campaign.

Existing Situation
Traffic safety communicators would do well to select

one prominent figurehead in each state around whom an

92

entire theme and campaign could be mounted. There exists
evidence from the Michigan Water Pollution Control campaign
that the problem Of water pollution was more readily
identified by persons because Of the deep concern and
involvement Of Governor Romney. The Governor was cast as
the person who was leading the campaign for cleaner water
while those associated with the campaign served as his
vehicles.

Traffic safety could benefit greatly by using a
similar strategy. This could be done by asking the Governor
of each state, or a similar well known figure, to serve as
the honorary chairman of a Citizens Committee for Traffic
Safety, or similar organization. By so doing the figure
chosen would have created a central focal point around which
the campaign can flourish and progress. In most states
at the present time there is no single figurehead to Offer

leadership.

Organization and Implementation

To create this single figurehead a Citizens Committee
for Traffic Safety ought to be formed in each state. This
committee should be formed through the efforts and initia-
tive of the existing safety organizations in the state. Act-
ing as a sponsor, one of the safety organizations should take
it upon itself to instigate such a committee within the state.
The original Citizens Committee for Traffic Safety should
consist of traffic safety educators form the secondary,

college and university levels, representatives from the

93

state, county and local enforcement agencies, prominent
television, radio and press representatives, representa-
tives from a youth organization who express interest in
the problem of traffic safety, representatives of every
traffic safety organization in the state, and the presi-
dents Of large businesses and industries in the state.

Each of these individuals should be approached by
the organization sponsoring the Committee and asked to
serve on the Committee for a period of two years or as long
as the individual desires. It should be made clear that
there would not be an honorarium for those who wished to
serve and that their service would be entirely voluntary.
The Committee would be divided into subcommittees for
advertising, finance, clubs and organizations, and public
relations. After the formation of the Citizens Committee,
it should be their task to select a prominent person whom
they feel would act as a voluntary leader for traffic
safety. This person should have the ability to enlist
powerful forces for additional support.

The Committee should then invite this leader to
discuss with them the state's traffic problems and how he
might be of assistance. He should be acquainted with
statistics representing death and injury by traffic in the
state, factors causing traffic collisions and the means by
which the Citizens Committee expects to help reduce the

traffic toll. The methods used to accomplish this goal

94

should be advertising and the dissemination Of traffic

safety messages constructed by an organization such as

that described in Generalization 1-3 (p. 36), by working

with and assisting the clubs and organizations working

for traffic safety and by soliciting financial contribu-

tions from prospective contributors to be used for future i a

traffic safety campaigns. 7
The person selected by the Committee should be

informed that his primary function is to act as a titular %-

figurehead and that his association with the traffic safety 3

problem will be a cause for greater public attention. His

secondary function would be to enlist support for traffic

safety from as many sources as possible within this state.

The methods or techniques used by him would be left to his

personal discretion. Caution should be used when selecting

such a figurehead so as to insure selection of one who is

familiar to most all of society in the state.

Innovative Features
to Be Recognized

 

 

Most traffic safety communication campaigns appear
to be conducted under the sponsorship of a council,
association, organization, or educational institution.
These groups are also usually recognized by the public as
the focal point responsible for the campaign. If for some
reason they are not recognized by the public, there is
Often pg_identification made as to the source of the

campaign.

 

95

Generalization 1-4 presents a new approach for traffic

safety campaigns by identifying the need for a single person

 

to act as a figurehead and not a group Of people representing

 

an organization. The public can identify much more readily

with one person than with many.
GENERALIZATION 1-5: - a
The greater the diversity Of interests '

represented in a communication campaign,
the greater the success of the campaign.

Existing Situation

 

'{ifiq

Support for this generalization exists in the Michigan
Water Pollution Control campaign and the Ingham County
Rubella Vaccination campaign. It is apparent that no
organization has the total resources needed to accomplish
the task of promoting traffic safety. It is therefore
important to enlist the aid and support of as many organiza-
tions and groups as possible. The task of promoting traffic
safety rests with everyone because we are all directly
affected by the problem in various ways. The more diverse
the sources of promotion and assistance, the smaller the
total task becomes. Every organization or group should be
encouraged to carry on continuous efforts in the promotion
of traffic safety.

This generalization emphasizes the fact that an
intense interest in traffic safety could be cultivated so
that a variety of organizations and groups might take it

upon themselves to champion the cause of traffic safety.

96

It Should, however, be left to the professional communi-
cators to determine how this interest can best be brought
to bear upon the problem.

At the present time the greatest involvement in
traffic safety rests in those areas which deal most
directly with the problem. The Michigan Water Resources i 1
Commission and other agencies directly concerned with the I .
problem of water conservation, were not the only sources

that were informed, and who were motivated to assist with

 

the problem. Active support was solicited from approxi-
mately forty-five organizations of various types. Because
this nation is dependent upon the automobile to a great
extent, the widest range of interests possible should be

actively involved in decreasing the traffic safety problem.

Organization and Implementation

 

An interest in traffic safety communication campaigns
should be cultivated within business and industry, organ-
ized labor, agriculture, the professions, public health,
conservation, religious denominations, government, and
civic groups. The Citizens Committee for Traffic Safety,
discussed in Generalization 1—4, should designate the
subcommittee for clubs and organizations as the group
responsible for creating interest in traffic safety within
the state. To do this, it would be necessary to employ a
professional public relations firm to prepare a concentrated,

persuasive campaign designed to incorporate the firms

97

communication talents in conjunction with the traffic
safety experts identified in Generalization 1-3.

The campaign should also be designed to reach as
many areas as possible. Following organization of the
campaign and formulation of strategies, it should then be
the task Of the subcommittee for clubs and organizations
to implement the campaign to the best of its ability.

Innovative Features
to Be Recognized

 

 

At the present time the greatest involvement in
traffic safety rests with those in areas which deal most
directly with the problem. This new approach calls for
the intense and massive use of a variety of organizations
and groups, instead of limiting the involvement to only
those concerned with traffic safety.

Because most people drive an automobile in our
society and because most are pedestrians at one time or
another, it should be understood that priorities cannot
be set with reference to which areas become more involved
in traffic safety measures. One must not be considered
more vital than the other.

It is important that gyg£y_possible enterprise in the
state be considered an ally for traffic safety. It is
logical to assume that the more interest generated from
the greatest possible variety Of sources, the more success-

ful future traffic safety campaigns will be.

'_Tfi i'>fi

 

I?

 

98

GENERALIZA TION 1-6 :

The more interpersonal communication which takes
place between those individuals knowledgeable
about an issue and those in need of information,
the greater the success of the campaign.

Existing Situation

 

The water pollution control campaign made very
effective use of speakers and resource personnel to meet
informational requests from various groups. Interest and
concern about traffic safety would increase if more inter-
personal communication was established. When traffic
safety campaigns are designed, a greater degree Of inter-
personal communication should be included in the form of
speakers and knowledgeable resource people. Experts in
traffic safety should be called upon to address and carry
on discussion with civic groups, P.T.A. groups and school
classes to a much greater extent than is the case today.
They should talk with service station attendants, auto-
mobile dealers, and clerks from the automotive departments
of large department stores. Their influence would also be
helpful if they were to speak with Boy Scout troops, Girl
Scout trOOpS, the Y.M.C.A., the Y.W.C.A., and religious
clubs. These discussions should be designed, of course,
so that correct and pertinent information is dispersed for
further relay to the general public through these selected

interpersonal contacts.

99

Organization and Implementation

 

The public relations subcommittee of the Citizens
Committee for Traffic Safety, described in Generalization
1-4, should be given the responsibility for creating a
state-wide Speaker's bureau. This bureau should consist
of traffic safety experts from the fields of education,
engineering, enforcement, and medicine. There should be
no limit set as to length of service or number of members.
The bureau's primary objective should be the promotion of
ways by which traffic injury can be avoided. Members of
the bureau should solicit speaking engagements as often as
possible. A five man panel should be selected from the
bureau's four main areas, to prepare and construct a
speech and short color slide program discussing ways by
which traffic mishaps can be reduced. This prepared talk
and slide program can then be made available on an Optional
basis, for use by other members of the speaker's bureau.

Innovative Features
to Be Recognized

 

 

Interpersonal communication has Often been termed the
most valuable form of communication available. The fresh
approach suggested in this generalization concerns the
Eppal amount of interpersonal communication which must
occur. Though interpersonal communication is not particu-
larly a new approach in traffic safety campaigns, a 22331

and more thorough attempt at this face-to-face communica—

 

tion would be unique. The state-wide speaker's bureau, as

100

described in the section above, must be in operation on a
full-time, year-round, continuous basis. This daily,

year-round exposure and personal contact should be viewed
as one type of traffic safety communication campaign which

must develop into a continuing practice.

 

GENERALIZATION 1-7 :

The greater the distribution Of information

for the purpose of increasing public knowledge,
the greater the success of the campaign.

Existing Situations

 

The three campaigns studied each Show evidence sup-
porting Generalization l-7. Success of a campaign is con-
tingent upon public awareness. The publics to be affected
cannot be expected to make informed decisions and choices
without full and proper information with which to do so.
The basic problem underlying the lack Of restraing belt
usage could be largely overcome if greater, more intensive
distribution Of current information was accomplished. If
this particular campaign has failed, it was due largely to
misinformation and lack Of distribution of empirical
evidence. The author theorizes that the public generally
would admit to the fact that they would rather be belted
safely in an automobile during a collision than not, but

the possible time, place and severity Of such a collision

occurring has not been impressed upon them. The collection

of such evidence should be more widely and frequently

distributed, so as to increase public knowledge.

 

 

101

Lying dormant and relatively unused in the film
libraries of the automobile manufacturing test laboratories
is one such example of factual evidence. The so-called
"big-three," General Motors, Ford Motor Company and
Chrysler Corporation, have all spent a great deal of
money and time filming simulated crashes using their “a
product and anthropomorphic dummies. These films have .
recorded the severe impact received by dummies who did not
use restraining belts, in test crash situations at various r:
speeds. The films also show that there is a sharp reduction w
in bodily injury when restraining belts are used during
test crash situations at various speeds. This form of
communication, while very impressive and effective, has

not been used enough to achieve its potential.

Organization and Implementation

 

These films should be televised state-wide and
nationally on a periodic basis so that the general public
may benefit from the message contained in them. Still
pictures could be clipped from these films for poster use
and in addition, slide programs could serve as visual aids
for use in discussion groups and meetings. Information of
this kind should be more widely publicized and generally
available to the public, so that they are able to make
better, more informed decisions about their driving habits.

Representatives of the press, radio and television

industries who agree to serve on the Citizens Committee for

102

Traffic Safety, discussed in Generalization 1-4, should
assume responsibility for greater distribution of avail-
able information. To accomplish this assignment the sub-
committee should gather information from automobile and
traffic research centers, university libraries, safety
organizations and additional sources where such information
might be found. This information should then be presented
in its entirety by means of mass media and the speaker's
bureau described in Generalization 1-6. The following
publicity efforts should then be utilized:

1. A series of news releases prepared by the
public relations subcommittee of the Citizens
Committee for Traffic Safety should be distributed
to the press through the state Press Association
service. News releases should describe and
discuss research which reveals something about
our traffic problems, such as the restraining
belt films discussed earlier.

2. Daily papers should be encouraged to develop
articles concerned with research findings. The
majority of articles should be localized to foster
keen interest. For example, the restraining belt
films could easily be used in conjunction with
data depicting traffic fatalities and injuries
within the community. "John Doe probably died
last Monday because he was thrown from his rolling

automobile. Had John seen 'Test Film 100' he

 

Information considered necessary to the driving public

103

would possibly have been wearing his restraining
belts and most likely would be alive today to
tell us what a life-saver they were."

Daily newspapers should be encouraged by the
subcommittee to take a positive rather than a
negative editorial stand regarding this type of
information.

The news releases used for newspapers should be
adapted for radio use.

Information gathered should be shown as often

as possible on all television stations.

by the subcommittee should be condensed and adapted to fit

some of the following forms of media:

1.

Display advertisements designed for regular news-

paper use that would contain the information in
question.

Display material for posters, billboards,
bulletin boards and magazines.

Letters of information to school principals,
public service directors, clergyman and
politicians.

Prepared speeches with slide pictures to be
used by the speaker's bureau as discussed in

Generalization 1-6.

 

I r: A ‘~

104

Innovative Features
to Be Recognized

 

 

The operation of a motor vehicle is a very complex
and often dangerous task. So that the public can minimize
the dangers and understand the complexities involved, it is
necessary that all forms of traffic safety information, !
referred to in the previous section, be distributed to a g 1
much greater degree than has heretofor been attempted.

All traffic safety information, regardless of the specific .

 

topic, must become general knowledge to everyone, so that ‘ 9
there will eventually be a common level of awareness and
knowledge that does not exist at the present time.

GENERALIZATION 1—8:

The sooner the emergence of controversy

surrounding the issue is minimized, the
greater the success of the campaign.

Existing Situations

 

The application of Generalization l-8 to the field
of traffic safety might be better made by recalling past
incidents rather than hypothesizing new problems. Evidence
for this generalization can be found in the Michigan water
Pollution Control campaign and the Ford Maverick campaign.
Perhaps the most evident example which might be used to
illustrate this generalization is again the subject of
restraining belts and their usage. There are some who
maintain that restraining belts contribute to fatalities
in a burning automobile or that direct cause of death can

some times be attributed to being unable to "fly" free on

105

impact. This incorrect thinking could easily have been
minimized and perhaps totally eliminated by meeting the
issue very early. Attempts to convince the driving public
to use restraining systems should have included complete
information with accurate facts from the outset, thereby

minimizing this particular point of controversy. It is

 

important to correct false information by publicizing
factual evidence and thus disproving existing false

theories.

 

Organization and Implementation

 

Traffic safety experts should be urged to reveal to
the public, through national television and local newspapers,
accurate information needed to convince skeptics that their
conclusions about restraining belts are not accurate. This
task may be accomplished by using methods and channels
already outlined in the implementation of Generalizations
l-3, 1-6 and l-7.

In the future, every traffic safety communication
campaign should concentrate on minimizing the emergence of
controversy due to misinformation and lack of sufficient,
correct information.

It should be recognized by the planners of such
campaigns, whomever or wherever they might be, that points
of controversy surrounding the issue must be discovered

before damage is done and not merely ignored. In the

106

planning stages of the campaign, those involved should
consult with traffic safety experts, communication experts
and sociologists to determine what factors, if any, in the
campaign might bring about negative results rather than the
positive ones desired. After these expert opinions have
been considered, the planners should then seek to minimize ”t
those points of controversy by greater distribution of
accurate information, as discussed in Generalization 1-7, '

more interpersonal communication, as discussed in Generali-

 

zation 1-6, and by including those opinion leaders identi- L

fied in the discussion of Generalization 1-3.

Innovative Features
to Be Recognized

 

 

Controversy and skepticism occur in many communica-
tion campaigns. This tends to lessen the effect and often
hampers the accomplishment of pre-determined objectives.
So that traffic safety communication campaigns of the
future do not experience controversy, such as that
associated with restraining belts discussed earlier, this
generalization states that controversy mgst_be identified
and minimized sooner than has been the case in the past.
Controversy should be anticipated in every campaign and
discredited from the outset.

GENERALIZATION 1-9:

The greater the number of promotional attempts,

using the endorsements of admired political

figures who command extensive public attention,
the greater the success of the campaign.

107

Existing Situations

 

Strong promotional attempts from political candidates
and incumbents, would create a great deal of awareness, and
command attention, so that information could be better
distributed. Each congressman, representative, and senator,
should be encouraged to fully endorse traffic safety
campaigns in operation. As inherent opinion leaders,
political figures should be convinced of the importance of
traffic safety for all whom they represent. It should also
be recognized that supporting traffic safety would perhaps
afford them a number of promotional possibilities for re-
election. Certain groups might be interested in hearing
a political figure discuss traffic safety, rather than hear
a politically oriented speech. Politicians would be more
apt to crusade for traffic safety if they understood the
vote winning potentials. It is quite obvious that only a
very small number of political figures have become interested
in the traffic injury and fatality problem. Those who have
become concerned, have usually done so on their own

initiative.

Organization and Implementation

 

Since traffic safety is essentially a non-political,
non-partisan issue, it is reasonable to assume that political
figures would react favorably to its promotion as they did
to water pollution control. To encourage this promotion

the Citizens Committee for Traffic Safety, described in

 

108

Generalization 1-4, should prepare a position paper and
gather the printed materials described in Generalization
1-7, for use in a Traffic Safety Information Packet.

These packets could then be reproduced in large quantities
for distribution by the political figures in question at
political rallies, speeches and personal appearances.

The Citizens Committee should point out to each
political figure that he would not only be doing his state
a service by assisting in the reduction of death and
injuries which occur each year, but will in the process
also be creating a humanitarian image for himself that
demands admiration from the public and thus influences
positive votes.

Innovative Features
to Be Recognized

 

 

In this generalization, the extremely beneficial
assistance of admired political figures becomes the focal
point. In the past, political figures have assisted
traffic safety campaigns in a limited way and most often
during election years. In contrast to this practice, the
purpose of Generalization 1-9 is to bring about more_

extensive assistance from all admired political figures

 

on a regular basis. Election years perhaps appear to be
the most logical time to request assistance from such
political figures because of their increased public expo-

sure. However, it is entirely proper to predict some

 

109

degree of increased success for future traffic safety
campaigns if an increased number of messages are delivered
by a greatly increased number of admired political figures.

GENERALIZATION 1-10:

The more often problems are specifically and

simply identified for the affected public

before remedies are prescribed, the greater
the incidence of success for the campaign.

Existing Situations

 

Few people realize that more men, women and children

 

‘1’?“ A.!.' A.

were killed on this nation's highways in 1969 than the
total number of United States combat personnel killed in
Viet Nam during the past seven years. The problem of
traffic safety has obviously reached a plateau of apathy
which is untenable. The public (youth specifically) has
become actively concerned about numerous social ills but
has neglected the problem of death on the highways. It is
consequently of great importance to the success of traffic
safety campaigns that the problems which precipitate
collisions be specifically identified and publicized.

Many traffic safety messages prescribe conduct
before identifying the problem. An example of this can be
found in the slogan, "If you drink, don't drive, and if
you drive, don't drink." The slogan has relatively little
effect on the public because there exists no tangible
evidence of the problem. A driver will be much more

receptive to facts which point out to him that consumption

 

‘-

110

of two twelve-ounce bottles of beer within one hour will
impair his judgment to a dangerous level. Before the
public is asked to conform to legislation which would
enforce prohibition of drinking while driving, they should
first be informed of the high rate of involvement of
alcohol in auto collisions.

It is therefore necessary through research to more
clearly define our traffic problems and make the public }

aware of them before we seek to attack them.

 

I‘.‘
..

Organization and Implementation

 

So that specific traffic safety problems, or the
"reasons" collisions occur, can be more easily and readily
identified for the public, the Citizens Committee for
Traffic Safety, described in Generalization 1-4, must again
assume a leadership role. The Committee must first compile
monthly information from the State Police Agencies
describing the following:

1. The total number, names, and occupations of

people killed in automobile collisions during
the past month.

2. Which of these people were wearing restraining

belts at the time of the collision and which
were not.

3. Which category or categories of improper driving

contributed to the collision?

a. Excessive speed for conditions

111

b. Failure to yield

C', Ran stop sign

d. Disregarded traffic signal

e. Drove left of center

f. Improper pass

g. Improper turn

h. Following too closely. *
4. The situation at the time of the collision

a. Light condition

 

’Di-SI'QE". If'll .‘ ."
‘.

b. Type of road surface

c. Location of the collision

d. Was consumption of alcohol a contributory
factor to the collision?

When this information has been gathered it should
then be made available by the Committee to the public
through as many channels as possible. Newspapers should
be asked to print the information in a prominent section
of the paper. Radio stations should devote air time to
relaying the information to its listeners, and all local
television stations should be asked to devote a portion of
their newscast to the topic.

Innovative Features
to Be Recognized

 

 

Traffic safety communication campaigns of the past
and present have attempted to modify driver behavior by
publicizing general remedies, such as "Slow down," "Don't

drink and drive,“ and "Buckle up for safety."

112

In contrast, Generalization l—lO advocates a greater
use of messages which identify a specific problem, such as
"If you've had three drinks during the past hour, you are
impaired and are in danger of losing your license, or your
life--or both." Before remedies are suggested, traffic
safety campaigns must identify the specific driving problems '”
which exist.

Generalizations Drawn from the

Ingham County Rubella
Vaccination Campaign *

 

GENERALIZATION 2-1: -r
The more often specific messages appeal directly

to specific characteristics of a particular sub-

audience, the greater the incidence of success.
Existing Situation

Those having the responsibility for communicating
messages of a traffic safety nature, often construct those
messages as though the driving and pedestrian public is one
audience with the same characteristics. Most would agree
that the driving and pedestrian public is actually made up
of a number of complex and complicated social systems who
are motivated in a variety of ways. It is the task of
researchers to determine what needs and desires exist
among the many groups making up the driving and pedestrian
public, so that future message content may capitalize on
these needs and desires.

Traffic safety messages should be constructed for

specific kinds of peOple. Distinctive characteristics

113

about specific social systems should be determined so that
message content may directly appeal to these characteristics.
Social systems differ widely and consequently demand
differing approaches of communication. The characteristics
of an academic university social system will differ greatly
from that of the labor force employed in an automobile
assembly line. Those who enjoy outdoor sports and activities
will differ somewhat from those who enjoy indoor activities.

The combinations of social systems becomes endless, but the

.VJW ' F-fi' a '

 

a1IO‘I l-
‘J

fact that different characteristics of social systems

exist should be recognized and treated accordingly. There
is a distinct advantage in knowing the homogeneous sub-
division of the public. With this understanding, conscious
discrimination should occur in the construction of various
messages.

It is quite apparent that the needs and desires of an
eighteen to twenty year age group differ in a number of ways
from the forty to forty-five year age group. Consequently,
the message content used for each age group should also
differ and become more specialized. It is unrealistic to
imagine an unwed, childless eighteen year old driver being
deeply affected by a message which might dwell on the
reasons why a father, for the sake of his family, should
reconsider his driving habits.

It is often necessary to utilize specialized channels

to reach the many sub-audiences which exist. School aged

114

children can be reached mainly through the schools in the
form of quality driver education programs. However, this
channel is generally unavailable to the middle aged driver.
Certain television programs and popular magazines appeal
more to a specific sub-audience than others. The Sunday
afternoon professional football games, and "Sports Ffi
Illustrated" magazine represent two examples.

It is, therefore, important to determine specific

sub-audiences and seek to affect them through the appro-

 

priate channels. r

Organization and Implementation

 

To gather information needed for recommendations to
be made concerning traffic safety messages, an agency with
the apprOpriate qualifications should submit a proposal to
the National Highway Safety Bureau in Washington, D.C. for
such a study. The National Highway Safety Bureau can then
award a contract to a qualified agency for the purpose of
conducting the study. The objectives of the study should
be to determine what major sub-audiences exist in our
society, what their outstanding characteristics are, and
what forms of communication affect them most. The final
objective of the study should be recommendations for
future message format in traffic safety campaigns. When
the objectives have been accomplished it should then be the
responsibility of the agency which conducted the study to

publish its findings in traffic safety journals, magazines

115

and in book form. Traffic safety communicators can then
utilize this information in future campaigns by means
already discussed in Generalizations 1-3, 1-6, 1-7, 1-8 and
1—9.

Innovative Features fl
to Be Recognized E

 

 

It is common knowledge that society can be broken
into a variety of sub-audiences in regard to like interests P

and characteristics. In order to capitalize on this fact,

 

E“

Generalization 2-1 seeks to bring about a vast increase in

 

the number of specific messages that appeal to specific
characteristics of certain sub-audiences. Thus, in the

future, the large majority of traffic safety messages must

 

appeal to the widest variety of sub-audiences possible.

 

GENERALIZATION 2-2:

The more often communicators appeal directly
to the individual's concern for others and
their welfare, the greater the enthusiasm
and support for the issue.

Existing Situation

 

Few traffic safety messages contain themes which
emphasize the importance of the interdependency of man upon
man. The public needs to understand that concern for the
welfare of others does not end when one gets behind the
wheel of his automobile. Everyone is bound to make mistakes
at one time or another. It is therefore the communicator's
task to promote an attitude of concern for others and their

welfare.

116

Organization and Implementation

One way to promote an attitude of concern for others
might be the greater use of the church and its clergy.
Through means of mass media and interpersonal communication,
the theme "I am my brother's keeper" should be struck by
clergymen of all denominations. The clergy should be
encouraged to make traffic safety a regular topic of dis-
cussion. Local television, radio and newspaper statements
from them, should also be utilized. "I am my brother's
keeper," as a theme should permeate the entire gamut of
communication techniques.

Because traffic safety relates to most religious
precepts, it is reasonable to assume the clergy would
react favorably to a plea for their increased involvement
in attacking our traffic problems. One way to foster this
increased involvement would be to employ the public rela-
tions subcommittee of the Citizens Committee for Traffic
Safety, described in Generalization 1-4. The subcommittee
could meet with members of the clergy throughout the state
and point out to them that they can be of great assistance
by devoting at least one Sunday each month talking to their
congregations about the traffic problem in their community.
They should be asked to use, as an initial theme, the
concept, "I am my brother's keeper."

The Citizens Committee should distribute to the clergy

all available informational materials as discussed in

 

 

117

Generalizations l—7 and 1-10, so that correct information

is used. The information would also provide the "tools"
needed by the clergy to construct appropriate sermons for
delivery to their congregations. Methods and techniques

used to deliver such sermons should be left to the discretion
of individual clergymen. fin

Innovative Features
to Be Recognized

 

 

During 1957 in Oklahoma City, Mr. Dan Hollingsworth,

 

manager of the Oklahoma City Safety Council, asked religious F
leaders in the community to emphasize to their congregations
their moral responsibility concerning traffic safety. They
were asked to point out that the commandment, "Thou shalt
not kill," applies to the Operation of an automobile just
as it does to any other situation.
Based on evidence from the Ingham County Rubella
Vaccination campaign, Generalization 2-2 advocates an
approach similar to the one employed by Mr. Hollingsworth,

but on a much greater and much more diversified scale. A

 

 

perpetual nationwide campaign must be undertaken and
carried on in the future. Every traffic safety organiza—
tion in the nation should inaugurate an on-going campaign

to foster concern for others.

 

118

Generalizations Drawn from the
Ford Maverick Campaign

 

 

GENERALIZATION 3-1 :

The more a communication campaign utilizes new
and different approaches to affect an otherwise
apathetic public, the greater the incidence of
success for the campaign.

Existing Situation

 

It is clear that a large portion of the traffic
safety problem stems from public apathy. The problem is
not considered an urgent one by most and is indeed rarely
thought of as a problem which can be eased or eliminated.
To attract new life and enthusiasm, those working in
traffic safety should begin to search out and employ new

and different ways of communicating its body of information.

Organization and Implementation

 

To accomplish this task, advertising, public relations
and media professionals, who specialize in or have become
recognized for their creative, unique methods, should be
consulted and employed to design campaigns whose objectives
would be the elimination of public apathy.

A traffic safety agency or association should submit
a proposal to the National Highway Safety Bureau in
Washington, D.C.,which would seek to utilize a different
approach to traffic safety campaigns. This proposal should
state that a combination of three professional enterprises

will occur consisting of a traffic safety agency, an

 

119

advertising agency and a public relations firm. By drawing
these three enterprises together, a significant step would
be taken toward utilization of a different approach to
traffic safety campaigns. The objectives of the project
should be to empirically evaluate the techniques devised by
this new coalition and determine which of them were the most r2
successful.
Each enterprise should be responsible for contributing E

its talents, ideas and resources to the formation of a L

 

traffic safety campaign. The traffic safety agency involved L
should act as the guiding force for all three and function
as the final "screen" for accuracy.
Traffic safety is an "old" problem which must be
dealt with through the use of new approaches. Hopefully,
a combination of three creative enterprises, such as have
been suggested, will result in new and different approaches.

Innovative Features
to Be Recognized

 

 

Since in the past public apathy has been a problem
and those approaches suggested for solution have not been
totally effective, Generalization 3-1, based on evidence
from the Ford Maverick campaign, underlines three necessary
details which must occur in traffic safety campaigns as
innovations.

1. Those approaches being used in traffic safety

campaigns today must be identified and empirically

120

evaluated for their worth. Following this
evaluation, only those approaches which have
proven to be successful should be continued.

2. New approaches must be discovered and used so as
to reach and affect those members of society who
are apathetic toward our traffic problems. Such
new approaches will not come about easily.
Carefully designed studies and campaigns must be
executed to determine where these new approaches
might be found and which ones are successful for
traffic safety campaigns.

3. Eyg£y_time a traffic safety campaign is organized
or messages of any kind are constructed, the use
of a fresh delivery or new approach should be
considered from the beginning. This new approach
may differ only slightly from a previous approach,
but it should be given the Opportunity to prove

its worth.

GENERALIZATION 3-2 :

The more often full utilization is made of
advantageous situations which arise and are
directly related to the campaign, the greater
the incident of success for the campaign.

Existing Situation

 

Situations frequently arise which can be used to
advantageously further the cause of traffic safety. The

most obvious example that has occurred is the sudden and

 

121

sincere concern of the youth in this country about
existing social ills which threaten all of us. Their
participation and persistence has brought such topics as
environmental pollution, racial injustice and poverty into
national focus. Because of this movement these problems
are being seriously examined and attacked. The situation fin
existing now should be cultivated so that traffic safety
becomes an additional social ill to which youth may

address itself.

 

Youth should be reminded that traffic collisions
foster a level of violence more terrifying than the present
Viet Nam war. They should be reminded that inoperable or
"junk" automobiles, contribute to the earth's pollution
problems in terms of their not being aesthetic, occupying
space and their eventual deterioration to rust. They should
also understand that auto collisions have a direct, negative
effect on the nation's economy. They should be reminded
that there would be no need to tolerate the ill effects of
traffic collisions, if a sincere, concerted effort was put
forth to ease the problem.

It is of great importance that traffic safety com-
municators attempt to identify and utilize such an advan—
tageous situation, so that full utilization of the

situation may be realized.

122

Organization and Implementation

 

So that full utilization can be made of advantageous
situations which occur in society, such as that discussed
in the previous section, the subcommittee for clubs and
organization's of the Citizens Committee for Traffic
Safety, described in Generalization 1-4, should be
utilized. The subcommittee should assume responsibility
for the recognition of social trends and social changes .
which indicate promise for traffic safety promotional
efforts. To assist the subcommittee in this recognition,
regular meetings should be held with sociologists, psychol-
ogists, economists and educators from universities in the
state who are attuned to the changes taking place in
society. When trends have been identified the sub-
committee should then meet with a select group of traffic
safety experts who will recognize in these trends future
implications for traffic safety campaigns.

Groups with a cause, such as those who strive for
less environmental pollution and those who urge society
to "make love--not war",should be considered strong
political allies for the traffic safety cause.

Therefore, the promotional efforts and techniques
described in detail in Generalizations 1—3, 1-6, 1-7, l-9,
l-lO and 2-1 should be used to illustrate for these groups

wherein traffic safety becomes a part of their cause.

 

123

Innovative Features
to Be Recognized

 

 

Advantageous situations continually occur which
could well be used to assist traffic safety campaigns. It
appears that in the past, these advantageous situations
have not been fully identified and utilized. Eyggy time
such situations make themselves known, an entire campaign
should be quickly developed around each situation so that
there will be full_utilization of its characteristics. As

the situations change, so should the campaigns change.

TABLE 3.--Support found for generalizations in each
campaign.

lvA Ll";’:

 

 

Michigan Water Ingham County Ford

Generalization Pollution

Control Campaign Campaign

Rubella Maverick
Vaccination Campaign

 

1-1

1-2

1-3

1-4

1-5

1-6

1-7

1-8

1-9

1-10
2-1 X (S)
2-2 X

3-1 X

>4

(8)

(S)
(S)
(s) (S)
(S) (S)

><><><><><><><><><

3-2 X (S)

 

Key: X=Evidence
(S)=Support

'f'lhur.‘ -'

M1

1...

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

Statement of the Problem
It was the purpose of this study to examine the com-
munication approaches used in three dissimilar campaigns
unrelated to the field of traffic safety, for the purpose

of subsequent applications to the field of traffic safety.

Definition of Campaign Choices

The three campaigns chosen for this study were (1)
the Michigan Water Pollution Control Bond Issue of 1968
and its subsequent communication campaign, (2) the Ingham
County Rubella Vaccination Campaign, and (3) the Ford
Motor Company Maverick campaign.

These three specific campaigns were chosen because
of their unique similarities and dissimilarities. All
three campaigns were recent, successful, public in nature,
well planned, unique and accessable for study. The major
dissimilarities represented differing geographic confines,
differing disciplinary spheres and differing evaluation
methods.

124

Fbw"~u~. IL}! .7. a. ‘2'

 

125

Findings of the Study

 

An examination of the three communication campaigns
described in the previous section has gleaned the findings
below. Following the name of the campaign is a list of
the Specific findings from the campaign, along with the
generalization number in parentheses, which is the basis
on which the statement was made. The generalization number
applies to both the original information used to make the
statement in Chapter III and the applications of the
generalization in Chapter IV. A list of the generalizations
follow for the reader and Table 4 is included as an aid for
the reader's recognition of each finding's innovative
approach.

Water Pollution Control
Bond Issue Campaign

 

l. The Governor of each state should be approached
and encouraged to endorse and actively support traffic
safety measures. (1-3, 1-4, 1-10)

2. The Governor should not only support traffic
safety from his office but travel to other locations
periodically so as to communicate his concern and support
in an interpersonal manner. (1-4, 1-6, 1-10)

3. Systematic studies of successful campaigns, which
have been conducted in other states, should occur. By,doing
so, an exchange of ideas will occur and precipitate new

national guidelines. (3-1)

 

126

4. There should be a statewide "Citizens Committee
for Traffic Safety" in every state in the nation. This
committee's primary responsibility should be to increase
the total involvement of the state in their traffic safety

problems. (1—2, 1-4)

 

5. Distinctive advertising and public relations :i
firms should be retained. These firms would address
themselves to minimizing public apathy, maximizing dis- ;
tribution of information and enhancing the image of traffic 1
safety personnel. (3-1) #4

6. A speaker's bureau should be assembled on national
and state levels. Each state should have a designated
number of "experts" available from the field to address
audiences of any size or concern. The national speaker's
bureau should be responsible for the formulation of guide-
lines and for providing assistance to those states seeking
aid. In addition the national bureau should be responsible
for national assemblies. (l-6)

7. Active support should be enlisted from every
industrialist and business enterprise in each state. They
should also be encouraged to develop and maintain traffic
safety programs for their employees. (1—3, 1-5)

Ingham County Rubella
Vaccination Campaign
1. There should be specific appeals made to children

concerning traffic safety measures on two levels. First,

127

messages should seek to affect the child and his opinions
and attitudes concerning proper procedures in traffic.
Secondly, message content should seek to affect the driving
parent through the child. (2-1)

2. Studies should be conducted to determine where-in
faulty attitudes and beliefs exist, so that conclusive, and

correct information may be dispersed to combat the situation.

“damn: m. V: 'A . .3

(1-8)

3. Tangible rewards should be divised and presented

 

to those who prove themselves to be responsible, safe *

drivers. (2-1, 3-1)

Ford Maverick Campaign

 

1. Traffic safety researchers should research
thoroughly specific message receiver groups so that com—
municators know exactly what kind of audience they are
trying to affect. (2-1)

2. The entire theme of traffic safety should be
promoted by professional persuaders who are often employed
by advertising agencies. (3-1)

3. The American public might express greater concern
for the traffic safety problem if it was interpreted as being
an individual burden, rather than "the right thing to do."
The majority of people today are receptive to money-
saving ideas and may be greatly impressed with the amount

of money that could be saved in terms of insurance rates,

128

medical costs, and automobile repairs if traffic collisions
were reduced or eliminated. (3-1)

4. Traffic safety communicators should continually
reexamine their methods and approches and strive to become
more innovative and imaginative. (3-1)

5. Traffic safety communicators must acquire more
financial aid and assistance if the traffic collision
problem is to improve in the future. (All of the generali-
zations stated in this study imply the need for greater
financial support and all may be used to bring about such
support.)

The list of generalizations which follows, represents
the generalizations made in Chapter III and later applied
to traffic safety campaigns in Chapter IV.

Michigan Water Pollution Control
Bond Campaign (l-l:l-10)

 

 

1-1. The more a communication campaign capitalizes
on a favorable climate for the issue, the greater
the success of the campaign.

l—2. Public involvement in collective decision—making
yields greater enthusiasm and support for the
issue.

1-3. When dealing with the collective decision-making
processes, the more often assistance is solicited
from known opinion leaders who are also financially,
socially and/or politically powerful, the greater
the success of the campaign.

1-4. The more often leadership is represented in a
single figurehead, around which thecampaign can
rally, the greater the success of the campaign.

1—5. The greater the diversity of interests represented
in a communication campaign, the greater the
success of the campaign.

 

 

91.“. ‘R

1-9.

1-10.

129

The more interpersonal communication which takes
place between those individuals knowledgeable
about an issue and those in need of information,
the greater the success of the campaign.

The greater the distribution of information for
the purpose of increasing public knowledge, the
greater the success of the campaign.

The sooner the emergence of controversy surrounding
the issue is minimized, the greater the success of “
the campaign.

The greater the number of promotional attempts
using the endorsements of admired political
figures who command extensive public attention, w
the greater the success of the campaign.

.A

 

The more often problems are specifically and
simply identified for the affected public before
remedies are prescribed, the greater the incidence
of success for the campaign.

Ingham County Rubella

 

Vaccination Campaign

 

(2-1:2-2)
2-1 0

The more often specific messages appeal directly
to specific characteristics of a particular sub-
audience, the greater the indicence of success.

The more often communicators appeal directly

to the individual's concern for others and their
welfare, the greater the enthusiasm and support
for the issue. '

Ford Maverick Campaign

 

(3-l:3-2)

 

3-1.

The more a communication campaign utilizes new

and different approaches to affect an otherwise
apathetic public, the greater the incidence of

success for the campaign.

The more often full utilization is made of
advantageous situations which arise and are
directly related to the campaign, the greater
the incidence of success for the campaign.

130

TABLE 4.--Innovative features implied from findings of study.

 

Generalization Apparent Existing Situation

Innovative Feature For Future Campaigns

 

l-l Favorable national climate absent.

1-2 Public involvement not totally
developed.

1-3 Small numbers of opinion leaders
from several areas used.

1-4 Leadership represented by safety
councils, associations, organiza-
tions and educational institutions.

1~5 Greatest amount of involvement in
traffic safety resting with those
directly related to the field.

1-6 Limited interpersonal communications.

1-7 Distribution of selected information
limited.

1-8 Controversy allowed to lessen the
effect of campaigns

1-9 Admired political figures lending
endorsements on a limited basis.

l-lO Remedies given but problems rarely
identified.

2-1 Few messages constructed for
specific sub-audiences.

2-2 Limited, isolated attempts to
emphasize moral responsibility
attached to driving an automobile.

3-1 Most current approaches lacking in
innovativeness.

3-2 Most advantageous situations not

recognized as potential aids to
traffic safety.

 

Implementation of Generalizations 1-2
through 3-2 to create a favorable
national climate.

More public involvement on a national

basis ~
Massive increase and total utilization -
of opinion leaders from wider variety ; g
of fields. H

 

Leadership represented by one
individual.

Greatly increased involvement of wide
diversity of groups and organizations.

Increased and continuous interpersonal
communication at all levels.

Distribution of all information to
everyone in society.

Identification of controversy and
minimization of it as early as
possible.

All admired political figures asked
for assistance on a regular basis.

Greater use of messages identifying
specific problems.

Large majority of specific messages
constructed for all sub-audiences
identified.

Continuous, more diversified attempts
on a national level.

Continuing identification of useful
innovative techniques for use in
every traffic safety campaign.

Recognition of all advantageous situa-
tions so that campaigns are constructed
around them and full utilization of
their characteristics can be made.

 

131

Recommendations

 

A reexamination of the terms generalization and

 

implication indicate that future research should follow the

results of this study. A generalization is a statement or

 

proposition, basically theory in nature, with a small degree

of factual evidence and a certain degree of confidence. An r1

 

implication is a statement exhibiting a logical relation- é
ship between two propositions of which if the first is true, ;
it is most likely the second will be true.

1. The findings of this study have been applied to '4

 

the field of traffic safety. Each of them must be tested
for additional factual empirical evidence, so that evalua—
tion of worth may be determined. Each finding should be
tested and evaluated separately by designing a campaign
around it.

2. Other specific communication campaigns, unrelated
to the field of traffic safety but within those fields
chosen for this study, should be examined for additional
generalizations which might conceivably be made and applied
to traffic safety.

3. Campaigns from other fields should be examined.
The three campaigns studied here were drawn from the fields
of government, public health and industry, but many other
fields exist which await a simdlar investigation as was

conducted in this study.

132

4. There is a need for specialized training and
preparation of those people who will be involved in the
business of constructing and implementing traffic safety
communication campaigns.

5. Institutions of higher learning have a
responsibility to provide curricula, for students of F?
traffic safety, which would include basic training in
public relations, advertising and communication arts.

6. Those who are now professionally involved in the

 

broad field of traffic safety communications should be .e'
urged to evaluate their own level of knowledge in traffic

safety as well as communication arts. Deficiencies may

then be eliminated through further education. The future

must yeild a "new breed" of traffic safety communicator

who possesses knowledge from a combination of the two

fields he represents--traffic safety and communication arts.

Discussion

 

The author feels a number of changes will occur in
the future as a result of the findings from this study.

1. An extended investigation will occur within the
broad areas of government, public health andindustry to
search out additional innovative communication techniques
for traffic safety campaigns. Because the campaigns studied
here were selected from the areas of government, public
health and industry, and were fruitful, other specific

campaigns in these same areas of interest should be

133

investigated. Such investigations are needed so as to lend
added support to this study and add new data to the field.

2. The findings of this study imply that areas and
disciplines, other than those of government, public health
and industry, should be investigated as possible sources of
information concerning communication techniques which might
be applied to the field of traffic safety.

3. As those responsible for communication in business
and industry become aware of those concerned with traffic
safety communications and their desire to investigate other
approaches, a sharing of communication techniques and
methods will occur, to the benefit of all.

4. An increased rapport for traffic safety will be
created in a way not heretofore considered. The process of
investigating other areas and asking for assistance requires
interpersonal contact. This sort of contact cannot help but
foster better relations.

5. Each finding stated in this study will bring
about some degree of change in the methods used to develop
successful traffic safety campaigns.

6. A closer, more critical evaluation of present
methods and techniques used in traffic safety campaigns
will occur.

During the progress of this study, thousands of
people havralost their lives on this nation's highways.

Even greater numbers have been injured and disabled. The

 

7‘. J I

‘ae.._..

134

entire country has been directly or indirectly affected

by the staggering costs associated with traffic collisions.
Had the findings of this study been available and in use
at an earlier date, some of those who were killed and
injured would surely have been spared. Clearly, the task

which lies ahead is enormous and challenging. Though the

 

generalizations and statements which appear in this study
are not intended to be considered as the only answer to

the reduction of traffic collisions, they are offered as a J

 

significant new approach to meeting this future challenge. F:

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135

 

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