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THESIS

I, Amman-mum IMJJS 42W...-

 

This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled
- THE SKEN'E (vi d’Km/vi) -
A UNIVERSAL SYMBOL OF THE DIVINE PRESENCE:
PERSPECTIVES ON THE FORM AND FUNCTION OF A SYMBOL

presented by

Jane Merriam deVyver

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph - D 0 degree in WP]. inary
in

Art History. Religion. Philosophy

MI7J4¢1m

Major professor

 

 

Date 7/31/81

MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771

 

 

MSU

LIBRANES
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RETURNING MATERIALS:
P1ace in book drop to
remove this checkout from
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- THE SKENE (r‘. crrnwi) -
A UNIVERSAL swam THE DIVINE PRESENCE:
PERSPECTIVES ON THE FORM AND FUNCTION OF A SYMBOL

BY
Jane Merriam deVyver

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State university
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Interdisciplinary Doctoral Program
in

Art History. Religion. Philosophy

i981

ABSTRACT
- THE SKENE' (r‘; 01m"? ) -

A UNIVERSAL SYMBOL OF THE DIVINE PRESENCE:
PERSPECTIVES ON THE FORM AND FUNCTION OF A SYMBOL

By

Jane Merriam deVyver

To identify the §g§2§ as a universal symbol and to ex-
plore its symbolic significance in terms of its form and
function is the major aim of this inquiry. The‘ggéng is
shown to be integrally involved with one of the most funda-
mental. universal themes found throughout all the arts. philo-
sophy, and theology -- the conflict and reconciliation of
opposites. The ggégg seems to symbolize the commemoration
of the Divine Presence which manifests Itself by achieving
the victory of good. life, order, and creation over evil,
death, chaos, and destruction. This study offers an under-
standing of the significance of various forms encountered
daily. and in the history of ideas and the arts. It is a
highly interdisciplinary work that encompasses art history.
symbolism, philosophy. phenomenology of religion, Old and
New Testament, early Christian thought and practice, and
general cultural history.

”Tent” is the original meaning of the Greek word. §§§g§5
and a later use is to designate the stage-building of the

Greek theatre. The word subsequently comes to mean taber-

nacle, temple, canopy, and dwelling-place of God, apparently

Jane M. deVyver

as a result both of the translators' choice of the word,
ggégé, to render several different Hebrew words that referred
to the Tabernacle of Moses when the Hebrew Bible was trans-
lated into Greek, and of the word's further use in the Greek
New Testament.

Included in this inquiry is an examination of the forms
of the Tabernacle of Moses and the Greek theatre §g§g§, and
the dramatic and religious functions of each, interrelated
to an expanded concept of the ggéngfs functions to include
liturgy and worship, play. fertility and marriage. order and
royalty, and the Apollonian/Dionysian components of experience.

From an expanded understanding of the gkégg's functions
proceeds a similar expansion of the scope of the gkgggfs
forms: two- and three-dimensional architectural canopies.
the shell and niche, the triumphal arch and portal, the dome.
the Greek temple. the iconostasis, and the ubiquitous curtains.
The various gkggg forms customarily delineate and adorn tem-
ples and churches, palaces and tombs, and sacred play-space.
Approximately half of the study deals directly with art his-
torical monuments, documented by ninety-three photographs.

The major historical focus is the early Christian and
Byzantine periods, through the ninth century, and some of the

contributing Hebrew. Greek and Roman forms and ideas.

Copyright by
JANE MERRIAM deVYVER
i981

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUflION O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Chapter One: ( ,
LINGUISTIC USE OF THE HORD u1<rrqvq . . . .

i. The Greek-English Dictionary-Lexicon
Definition of IE O'KnVrf . . . . . . .
2. The Skene of the Theatre . . . . . .
3. The U—se of the Word vi o’KqVq’ in the
Septuagint, and the Meaning of the
Hebrew Words Translated as SkEnB . .
u. The Use of the Word 4 ckqvfflby
Philo and Josephus e e e e e e e e e
5. The Use of the Word :1; crmwi in the
Greek New Testament. e e e e e e e 0
Chapter Two: _ _
VISUALFORMSOPTHEfl. . . . . . . . .
1. The Theatre Skéné. . . . . . . . . .

2.

The TabernacIe of Moses. . . . . .

Chapter*Threex _ _
FUNCTIONS ASSOCIATED WITHZTHE SKENE . . .

1.
2.
3.

The Dramatic Function of the Classical

Greek Theatre We 0 e e e e e e

The Nature of Classical Greek Drama

According to Aristotle . . . . . .
The Religious Function of the
Tabernacle of Moses. . . . . . . .

a. Commemoration of a Theophany

b. Creation of the Earthly Dwelling-

Place of the Divine. . . . .

c. Liturgical Action as Means of

Recreating Past Theophanies.
d. Sacred Ritual and Worship as
Response to the Divine . . .

17

17
19

20

25
26

so
51
56
75

75
79
81
81
83
85
86

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Chapter Four:
THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE LINGUISTIC_
USE. THE FORMS. AND THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SKENE . . 9O

1. Linguistic Use. Form, and Function May

Be Distinguished, But Not Separated . . . . 91
2. Theatre and Tabernacle: Comparison

of Fame 0 O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O 92
3. Theatre and Tabernacle: Comparison

Of FunCtlonSe e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 93

a. Religious Function. . . . . . . . . . 94

1) Theophany e e e e e e e e e e e 0 9“
ii) Recreation of Past Theophanies. . 96
111) Sficred Ritual e e e e e e 99
iv) Dwelling-Place of the Divine. . . 102

b. Dramatic and Play Functions . . . . . 106

c. Fertility and Marriage. Order
and Royalty e e e e e e e e e e e e e 116

Chapter Five:
EXPANDED FORMULATION OF §§§fl§,FUNCTIONS. . . . . . 122

i. To Manifest the Divine Presence Itself. . . 122
20 To Manifest Truth and Viadom. e e e e e e e 123
3. To Manifest Divine Order on Earth or

in Heaven 0 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 123
b. To Manifest Victory of Life and Order

(e.g. the Good) Over Death and Chaos

(0080 3711) e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 12“
5. To Manifest Divine Play and Creativity. . . 124
6. To Imitate Any of the Divine Activities . . - 125

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Chapter Six:
EXAMINATION OF THE SKENE FORMS THAT CORRESPOND
TO THE EXPANDED FORMULATION OF SKENE FUNCTIONS

1.
2.

OxUnl-fu
o

The Three-Dimensional Architectural
Canopy Skenfi. . . . . . . .
The Shel ll7Ni che/ Two-Dimensional
Canopy Skene. . .

The Triumphal Arch/Portal SkénE
The Greek Temple Skene. . . . .
The Dome Skene. e e e e e e
Curtains: A Common Component of
SkfinEFOMS............

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDIX:

The Ioonostasis SkEné. . . . . . .

BIBLI mmm O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O 0
GENERAL REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGUES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

FIGURES

111

12?

129

150
159

176
182
19“
201
205
210
216
221+

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study is to identify a single form.
which I designate by the Greek word, skénE; to demonstrate

that the skfiné is a previously unrecognized universal sym-

1

bol: to explore the symbolic meaning and function of the

§§§g§3 and to show that a variety of other forms are aspects
and descendents of the original form. function. and meaning
of the £3222, .

In the first three chapters I will seek to fulfill
this purpose by first, establishing the linguistic basis

The essence of the universal experience of symbols
is the basic human encounter with aspects of the material-
temporaldvisible world (objects. relationships, actions.
shapes). and their transference to the spiritual-cosmic-non-
material/nondvisible world, as a means of describing and
referring to the encounter with this latter level of
existence. '

A fundamental example of this symbolizing process is
the basic experience of the sun as the primordial prerequis-
ite for life on earth - without the sun there would be no
light, nor heat, nor. consequently. any life. Since the
sun is the source of the life energy of the material world,
therefore, in the symbolizing process. the material experi-
ence of the sun. light. and heat, is transferred to the non-
material world as the primordial symbol for the Divine
forces (God). Who is the life-energy of the spiritual world,
(as well as the creator of the sun and of all the material
I orld e

Although I maintain that the skEnE is a universal sym-
bol. this study will be concentrating on its Judaeo-Christ-
ian manifestations. It will remain for a future study to
present the documentation for other cultures.

2

and Justification for calling a variety of forms a agggg:
then. by examining the various forms: and finally. by ex-
ploring the meaning of the symbol in terms of its functions.

In the first chapter we will see that the oldest and
primary meaning of the Greek word. Egggg. is "tent." Later
meanings include: booth. tabernacle. dwelling-place. temple,
canopy-like covers, and the wooden or stone stage, stage-
building and "scenery" back-drop where actors performed in
the ancient Greek theatre. (Usually this is the only mean-
ing of the word. Egggg. with which people today may be fam-
iliar.) Host of the variant meanings seem to be due to the
translators' choice of the Greek word. ggggg, to render
three different Hebrew words when the Hebrew Bible was trans-
lated into Greek during the third-second centuries 3.0.
The Septuagint usage was then carried over into the termin-
ology of the Greek New Testament. as well as being used by
Philo in his platonizing of Hebrew theology. we will dIBb
cuss exactly how and why the word. gk§g§g came to mean tab-
ernacle. dwelling-place. temple. booth. especially designat-
ing the Tabernacle of Moses in the wilderness. The use of
the word §§§g§_in the Greek New Testament follows. where we
will particularly emphasize its important use in the three
accounts of Christ's Transfiguration.

In the second chapter we will look at the visual forms
which most closely correspond to the major meanings of the

word as seen in Chapter One: the theatre skénE. and the

Tabernacle of Moses. Initially. we will see that basically
the function of the theatre ggggg is the dramatic function.
and the function of the Tabernacle is the religious function.
within this religious function four elements can be distin-
guished: the commemoration of a theophany: the creation of
the earthly dwelling-place of the Divine: liturgical action
as the means of recreating past theophanies: and sacred rit-
ual and worship as the response to the Divine.

In the remaining three chapters. however. I will pro-
ceed to endeavor to expand our understanding and perception
of the §k§g§_forms and functions. In Chapter Four I will
propose that the linguistic use. forms. and functions can
be distinguished, but not separated from each other. Then.
in comparing the forms of the theatre §k§g§,with those of
the Tabernacle. we will observe that there is considerable
similarity. Furthermore. in comparing the functions of
both. we will find that there is far more than Just a dram-
atic function involved in the theatre gkggg, and far more
than Just a religious function involved in the Tabernacle
g§§g§3 In fact. as I will seek to demonstrate. precisely
the same functions are involved in both gkggg forms. and
these include all four aspects of the religious function.
the dramatic function. which is closely related to the
play function. plus the ubiquitous and interrelated functions
associated with fertility and marriage. order and royalty.

On the basis of the first four chapters' discussion of

u

the functions associated with the ggggg, I will seek in
Chapter Five to summarize and expand our understanding of
the gkgggds functions by formulating six dimensions of
theophanies or divine activity which become. by association,
functions of the §g§g§. These are: to manifest the Divine
Presence: to manifest truth and wisdom: to manifest divine
order either on earth or in heaven: to manifest the victory
of life and order (the Good) over death and chaos (evil):
to manifest divine play and creativity: and for humans to
imitate any of these divine activities.

I will also suggest that usually §§§g§ forms are found
whenever and wherever any of these divine activities or
theophanies are manifested or imitated. I will furthermore
propose the corollary idea. that whenever any divine activ-
ity or theophany is experienced or commemorated, that there
we will also find some ggggg'form. In other words. when a
gk§g§,function is experienced. there we will find a gkggg
form: and when a §k§g§ form is found. there. at least orig-
inally. had been experienced a theophanic gk§g§_function.

In the sixth and final chapter, we will seek to apply
these expanded understandings by examining five further
types of skEnai that correspond to the expanded formulation
of the §k§g§_functions. and we will observe that any or all
of the different gkggg forms can be associated with any or
all of the agggg functions. These five additional categor-

ies of skéni forms are: the three-dimensional architectural

canopy: the shell/niche/two-dimensional canopy: the trium-
phal arch/portal: the Greek temple form: and the dome. In
addition, we will consider curtains. a ubiquitous component
characteristic of §§§§§ forms. For each of these §g§g§
forms I will explain why it is valid to consider them types
of sanai. and present a few of the extant visual examples
of each type. There will also be a short Appendix where
the Iconostasis as a §g§g§ will be briefly considered.

Any study must establish its limits and boundaries.
Although this study deals with what I contend is a universal
symbol. examples in only a few cultures can be considered.
When discussing the Hebrew Tabernacle and Temple. and the
Greek theatre. we are obviously dealing with forms antece-
dent to Christianity. Hebrew. Greek. and Roman forms and
ideas contributed extensively to the synthesis of ideas and
forms of the early Christian centuries, and particularly to
the Byzantine synthesis. In general. however. I have chosen
to emphasize the first nine centuries of the Christian era.
through Iconoclasm (formally ended in 843). This is the
formative Christian period of the seven Ecumenical Councils,
the seventh being in 787. I have chosen, further. to stress
the experience of the Eastern part of the Roman (Byzantine)
Empire during these centuries. but not to the exclusion of
the Western experience, because it was frequently closely
interrelated toths Eastern experience. Since the scarcity

of extant visual evidence is frequently a problem when

investigating early periods. occasionally I use later visual
materials which seem to reflect earlier traditions.

In what ways does this study make contributions? I
believe that recognizing the §k§g§_as an important universal
symbol. and understanding its meaning and significance. can
help people to better understand their role in the cosmos.
and their relationship with the cosmic forces. This can
result in an expanded awareness of who they are. and their
meaning and purpose in life. It can also lead to a greater
understanding and awareness of the significance of forms
which we constantly encounter in our daily lives. as well
as in the history of ideas and the arts. I propose that
these contributions can be achieved precisely because the
g§§g§ is involved with what perhaps is the most fundamental.
universal theme found throughout all the arts. philosophy.
and theology - namely. the conflict and struggle between
good and evil. life and death. creation and destruction.

My basic contention is that the §k§g§ symbolizes the commem-
oration and manifestation of the Divine Presence. which a-
chieves the victory of good. life. and creation over evil.
death. and destruction.

What prior work has been done on the topic of this
study? In one way the literature is virtually non-existent.
because no one has ever before really dealt with the sym-
bolism of the gk§g§. Yet. in another way. the literature

is extremely voluminous. This is because there are so many

countless avenues of inquiry involved: the art historical
style and monuments. the literary. cultural. and intell-
ectual history. and the economic. political. and social
history of the periods: countless studies in symbolism.
mythology. and comparative religion: countless studies of
paricular motifs. be they visual (the dome. the canopy. the
iconostasis, the entrance portal). liturgical and ritual
enactment (the procession. eating. the new year's festival
and other festivals). relationships and activities (mother.
father. son. creation. death and resurrection. play and
fantasy): the psychic-spiritual dimensions (alchemy. I Ching.
Kabbalah. astrology. contact between the material and non-
material realms and their interpenetration): the theology.
philosophy. practices. archeology. and history of the an-
cient Hebrews. Greeks. Romans. early Christians. Byzantines.
and other ancient Mediterranean civilizations. Considering
the vastness of the scope and pertinent areas of investiga-
tion. a review of the literature can mention only a few of
the most note-worthy studies in a few of the areas. Thus I
will deal with the areas that affect the overall general ap-
proach and orientation of this entire inquiry. and consider
some other individual. specific aspects within the body of
the dissertation itself. or in the bibliography.

Perhaps the person to whom a contemporary student of
symbolism must be most indebted is Carl Gustav Jung. He and

his school have established for the modern Western scholar

the validity of the symbolic functioning of the conscious
and unconscious mind. They have shown that the symbolizing
process is basically uniform. consistent. and universal
(when utilizing archetypal symbols). This universal con-
sistency is manifested in the visual arts. fairy tales.
mythology. and other literature. dreams. the inner psychic
world. fantasy and imagination. and children's art. Most
of Jung'snudtings deal with symbolism in some way. and so
we could cite most everything he has written. However. one
more specific and self-conscious examination of symbolism
in the arts is Man and His Symbols edited by Jung. 2 One
of Jung's students. Erich Neumann. has made a distinctive
contribution to man's study of himself and his symbolizing
nature. which has had a significant effect on my own thought.
in his Origins and History of Consciousness. 3

Studies in symbolism. mythology. comparative religions
(or the phenomenology,or history of religion). ritual and
worship. are all quite interconnected. Alan Watts has
written and edited some valuable work in some of these
areas. such as the four book series. "Patterns of Myth.” of
which he was the general editor. and the author of one of

them. 1+

 

2 Doubleday. New York. 196k.

3 Princeton University Press. New Jersey. 1970(195#).
1.:

Alan W. Watts. The Two Hands of God: the M he of
Polarity. Collier Books. New York. 1939 (1933).

Mircea Eliade has done numerous studies pertinent to
our inquiry. including gtages and Sytbols: Studies in Relig-
ious Sytbolism: 5 The Sacred and the Profane: the Nature
of Religion. 6 especially valuable for its discussion of
secred space and sacred time: Cosmos and_History: the Myth
7

of the Eternal Return. and its consideration of the re-
generation of time and cosmos through ritual: and The Two
and the One. 8 with its examination of cosmic and eschato-
logical renewal in different cultures.

E.O. James' Christian Myth and Ritual is a very valu-
able study. particularly in its relating modern "secular"
rituals. such as the New Year's Day football game. to older
rituals. including various new year's festivals. 9

Gerardus van der Leeuw has also made significant con-

tributions in his §acred and Profane Beauty: the Holy in

Charles H. Long. Algha: the Myths of Creation.
Collier Books. New York. 1 9

John Weir Perry. Lord of the Four Quarters: the Myths
of the Ho a1 Father. Collier Books. New York. 19 O 1

Josepfi L. Henderson and Maud Cakes. The Wisdom of
the Ser ent: the M he of Death Rebirth and Resurrection.
CoIlier BooEs. New YorE. i971 (1953).

5 Sheed and Ward. New York. 1969 (1952). (Trans.

Philip Mairet).

6 Harper Torchbooks. New York. 1961 (1957). (Trans.
Willard R. Trask).

 

 

7 Harper Torchbooks. New York. 1959 (19h9). (Trans.
Williard R. Trask).

Harper Torchbooks. New York. 1965 (1962). (Trans.
J.M. Cohen).

9 John Murray. London. 1933.

10

Art. 10 in which he deals with theological aesthetics.

music. dance. visual arts. the House of God. and the con-

cepts of these things in relation to beauty and the holy.

In his Religion in Essence and Manifestation. 11 he con-

siders the countless outward and inward actions of ritual.
and the relationships of the sacred groups and their leaders.
In many of the above books the authors deal with the
king and cosmic renewal. The paradigmatic study of cosmic
kingship is by H.P. 1'Orange. 12 who deals with the sub-
Ject in the ancient Mediterranean world as manifested in
visual forms and ritual. such as the dome and raising the

emperor on a shield.

The practice and concept of self-consciously utilizing
the symbolic process is not new to modern authors. What
modern scholars have done is to make the study of symbolism
a science. and to make it acceptable and respectible in a
scholarly way. This was necessary due to the rejection of
the very concept of universal. archetypal symbolism. and
its manifestations by the eighteenth - nineteenth centuries'
scientific. rationalistic (western) worlddview. Alchemy

was particularly attacked in the seventeenth and eighteenth

 

1° Abingdon Press. Nashville. 1963. (Trans. David Green).

11 2 vols.. Harper Torchbooks. New York. 1963 (1933).
(Trans. J.E. Turner).

12 §ttgtg§on the tgggggtgpty_of Cosmic Kingshit in
the Ancient World. H. Aschehoug & Co.. Oslo. 1953.

11

centuries as unscientific and superstitious. However. al-
chemy is one of the particularly prevalent and enduring

psychic-spiritual arts. and its symbolism is closely rela-
ted to the marriage and fertility rites of the king and

queen in ancient new year's festivals (which will be dis-
cussed in several chapters of this study). The symbolism
of alchemy has been studied by several noted contemporary

1“

scholars. including Carl Jung. 13 Mircea Eliade. and

Titus Burckhardt. 15 A superb comparison of the symbolic
content of alchemy. Kabbalah. I Ching. Tarot. and astrology

is found in Charles Ponefi's The Game of Wizards: Psyche.

ScienceI and Sytbol in the Occu;t. 16

Alchemy traces its descent back to ancient Egypt. from

 

where it spread throughout the Mediterranean world and east-
ward. and then found its way into Byzantium and the Latin
West.

However. the mystical-spiritual process of symboliza-
tion was hardly reserved for alchemy alone. Rather. it seems

that much of the philosophical-theological intellectual life

 

13 Alchemical Studies. Trans. R.F.C. Hull. Princeton
University Press. New Jersey. 1970. (collection of essays
by Jung).

1b The For e and the Crucible: the Ori ins and Struct-
ures of Alchemy. Trans. Stephen Corrin. Harper Torchbooks.
New York. 1971 (1956).

15 A

lchem : Science of the Cosmos Science of the
Soul. Penguin. Baltimore. 1971 (1960). (Trans. Wm. Stoddart).

16 Penguin. Baltimore. 1975.

 

 

12

of the ancient world self-consciously utilized similar con-
cepts. For example. the very fundamental concept of "As
above. so below" is essential to alchemy. but it is also an
essential element in Platonism. nee-Platonism. Christian
symbolism and theology of church architecture and images.
In fact. it is basic to much biblical theology. and further-
more. underlies the very biblical concept of the gkggg as
being the earthly manifestation of the heavenly prototype.
Various early Christian theologians and commentators
about church architecture described. sometimes in detail.
what each of the parts of the church meant symbolically.
such as Eusebius (c.265-3u0). 17 Clement of Alexandria
(c.150-c.215). 18 Maximus the Confessor (c.580-662). 19
and Germanus I. Patriarch of Constantinople from 715 to
730. 2° The most complete theoretical expression of their
symbolizing was in the seventh and eighth centuries. 21
Characteristic of their approach is an often quoted state-

ment by Germanus I in his Historia Mystagogica: "The church

 

17 Historia Ecclesiastica. especially. "Panegyric on
the building of churches." an address by Paulinus. the Bishop
of Tyre. at the dedication of a church at Tyre.

18

19
20

Historia M sta o ica. PG 98. aaurr. (An abridged
English version Is ¥oun§ in the Jounmd of Theolo ical
Studies. IX. 1908. pp. 2h8ff.. by F.E. Brightman.)
21 See Leonid Ouspensky. Theology of the Icon. St.
Vladimir's Seminary Press. New York. 197 . Chapter One.
"The Symbolism of the Church."

Stromateis (Miscellanies). PG IX. 56-68.

13

is heaven on earth. the place where the God of heaven dwells
and moves. It represents the crucifixion. sepulchre. and

resurrection of Christ." 22

Basically paraphrasing the
earlier Byzantine authors. Gervase Mathew. in his Byzantine
Aesthetics. continues in the same vein: .

The church is not only a representation of the

whole world. it also represents the setting of

Christ's life on earth. so that the conch of

the spec is an image of the cave of Bethlehem.

the altar that of the table of the Last Suppgg.

and the ciborium above it is the sepulchre.

A similar symbolic or allegorical approach was utilized
in the interpretation of the Bible. especially the Old
Testament. Much of the Old Testament was interpreted by
the patristic writers in terms of Christian theology. and
for most every major aspect of Christian theology. a proto-
type was sought in the Old Testament. and frequently was
found through allegory or symbolism. Most of the major
Church Fathers. from about the second to the sixth centuries.
included among their writings vast and detailed biblical
exegeses. including the Cappadocian. the Latin. and the
Alexandrine fathers. These latter theologians were greatly
influenced by the Platonism/neo-Platonism of Clement. Plo-
tinus. and Origen. and the Platonizing. allegorical method
of Philo.

Whereas the literature mentioned so far deals primarily

 

22 Quoted by E. Baldwin Smith in The Dome. Princeton
University Press. New Jersey. 1971 (1950). p. 93.

23 Harper and Row. New York. 1971 (196“). p. 106.

14

with symbolism in general. the symbolic approach. and speci-
fic symbolic-ritual-liturgical practices and the concepts
behind them. there is one indispensible study of an actual
§k§g§_form and its symbolic meaning which is of supreme im-
portance - E. Baldwin Smith's The Dome: A Study in the His-
togy of Ideas. 2“ first published in 1950. This study fol-
lowed closely after Karl Lehman's "The Dome of Heaven" in

6. 26 These

i9u5. 25 and Andre Grabar's Martygium in 19“
studies actually necessitated significant rewriting of
Smith's initial manuscript. In The Dome Smith studies the
visual evidence of domical monuments from the ancient near
east. in conjunction with the ideology of the various domi-
cal forms. considering especially the Syrian and Palestin-
ian traditions and their influence on Greek. Roman. and
Christian forms. and the continuity of the symbolic ideas
behind the forms. Smith is the only author I have encoun—
tered who even mentions the idea of the §k§g§ytent form

and some of its symbolic concepts. He does this briefly
primarily in connection with his discussion of the Martyr-
ium of St. Babylas at Kaoussie. completed near Antioch be-
fore 387. It was in this martyrium where Bishop Meletius

(who built the martyrium) was buried along with the relics

 

25 eat—W. XXVII. 1945. pp. 1-27.

26 The subtitle is: "Findings on the cult of relics
and early Christian art." first published in Paris. 1946.

15

of the saint. Smith points out that St. John Chrysostom
d. 404) referred to Bishop Meletius and St. Babylas as
"tent-mates" (duga'quos- homo’skfinos). Smith continues:

Most churchmen accepted both the authority of Isaiah.
who said that God "established heaven as a vaulted
chamber and stretched it out as a tent to dwell in."
and the Hebrew tradition of the tabernacle. or tent.
of Moses. being a replica of the world. As a result.
many theologians conceived of God's universal house.
its domelike celestial roof. and the salvational
abode of martyrs as like a tent. Skene. therefore.
in this cosmic and mystic sense was used for dome.

or heavenly covering ... to designate an ideal and
heavenly dwelling in a blessed hereafter... That

the idea of referring to a double interment as
"tent-mates" was not peculiar to St. Chrysostom. is
proved by Theodoret in his life of Theodosius ...

for he says that when Theodosius died,he was buried
with phraates in the same sk'éne (duos-waves :6 mt

(Snap 0(Pcog- homo’skenos te iii—hemorrhophios) indi-
cating again that skene was a celestial abode. 27

Smith also examines many dome-like and curvilinear
architectural shapes. such as the omphalos. mound. aedi-
cula. tabernacle. ciborium. baldachino. baptistry. church.
mosque. audience hall. hemisphere. beehive. tholos. helmet.
cosmic egg. pine cone. umbrella. and concludes that they
all share a similar ideology. They represent a heavenly.
cosmic. divine house or dwelling (e.g. 92323 means "house").28
He specifically points out that tabernacles. ciboria. and
baldachinos were derived from the tent. 29

I will be mentioning many of these forms as variations

of what I term the skéné. including the dome. baldachino.

 

2?

28 See particularly Chapter One - "The Origin of
Domical Ideas."

29 Ibid.. p. 8.

9.20 Cite. Pp. 109-110.

16

ciborium. baptistry. tabernacle. church. and audience hall.

At this point I wish to express particular thanks and
appreciation to Dr. Molly Teasdale Smith. of the Art History
Department of Michigan State University. for her long. pa-,
tient. and continuing counsel. assistance. and friendship
to me while working on this study. despite her own physical
difficulties. I also wish to thank Rt‘. Rev. Fr. Photius (Dr.
Francis Michael) Donahue. now. Professor Emeritus of the
Religious Studies Department of Michigan State University.
and Pastor of St. Andrew Orthodox Church. East Lansing.
under whose tutelage I learned and grew so much. And fin-
ally. much thanks and appreciation is offered to my friends
and family who supported and encouraged me during the years
spent working towards the completion of my doctorate and
this dissertation.

Chapter One
LINGUISTIC USE OF THE woan .3 6W4

At the first level of our inquiry we shall investigate
five aspects of the linguistic use of the Greek word. q‘mcqvfi .

(1) the Greek dictionary-lexicon definition: 1

(2) the gg§g§
of the Greek theatre: (3) the use in the Septuagint. and the
meaning of the Hebrew words which are therein translated as
gtggg: (h) the use of the word by Philo and Josephus: and

(5) the use of the word in the Greek New Testament. 2

1. The Greek-English Dictionagy-Lexicon Definition of 4 tan5

 

There are five general translations or categories of
meanings in the Greek-English lexicon:
(a) tent (which appears to be the oldest meaning of the

word. the source and root from which later meanings are de-

3

‘ _ ._

rived). booth. tabernacle:

1 Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott. A Greek-En lish
Lexicon. Revised Edition. Oxford University Press. London. 1958:

W.F. Arndt and F.W. Gindrich. A Greek-English Lexicon
of the New Testament and Other Earl Christian Literature. th
ed.. University of Chicago Press. Chicago. 1955.

2 A Hand Concordance to the Sc tua int. Samuel Bagster
and Sons. Ltd.. London. (Reprinted in 1970 following the
1880. 6th edition of the Tischendorf edition.)

3 It is interesting to note that it is believed that the

distinctive onion dome of Russian church architecture is de-
rived from the shape of ancient tents. primarily the tent of

17

18

(b) a wooden or stone stage upon which actors perform:
(c) a dwelling-place. lodging. house. temple: 5

(d) the tilted cover of a wagon or carriage. 6

a bed-tester: 7
(e) an entertainment given in tents. a banquet.

Related variants are:

o’KvTv-qua (skénema) 8 a dwelling-place. nest. abode:
rmfvwaa (skénoma) = a tent. habitation. God's dwelling:
rwqcnq7¢9~(skeop§gi’a) 8 pitching of tents. as in the

Feast of Booths or Tabernacles:

 

the tribal chief. And the dome is a type of skénE. as we
shall see later in this study. In the Russian film by Sergei
Eisenstein. Ivan the Terrible. when the Tzar and his troops
were camped against the Mongol Tartars at Kazan. the Tzar's
tent is portrayed with Just such an onion dome at the top.

a The use of the word. skEnE. to designate the stage
of the Greek theatre seems to be the only meaning of the
word used in modern Western academia. Students of Greek
drama generally learn this term to refer to the Greek stage-
building.

5 In general. tents pre-date permanent dwellings in
much of the Mediterranean. But when mud-brick. or the more
rare wooden or stone temples superceded tents. apparently
the tent-word designation remained.

6 Originally. ancient wagon covers must have been
tent-like. perhaps comparable to the covered wagons of
American pioneer days.

7 A bed-tester. or canopy over a bed with curtains
suspended on each side that can be tied back. appears in
numerous Gothic and Renaissance paintings. such as Jan van
Eyck's famous portrait of Arnolfini and his bride. and in
most portrayals of the Annunciation painted in these periods
in the West. which show the Virgin in her bedroom. I sug-
gest that these comprise a form of skéné. celebrating mar-
riage and fertility in the former. and creating a tabernacle
in the latter.

19

a‘xfivos (skénos) == tent. lodging (referring figura-
tively to the body):

flax/66> (skéno'é) = to pitch tents. to encamp. to live
or to dwell in a tent: to settle or take up one's abode.

In order to develop the fullest possible understanding
of the extremely rich symbolism of the gtggg. it is valuable
to investigate the background and historical development of

these different meanings of skins.

2. The Skéné of the Theatre 8

The early theatre developed and flourished in the fifth
century B.C.. accompanying the growth of rationalism and
humanism in the Greek Golden Age. In the futh century 3.0.
the stage-set structure was a tent consisting of a framework
of pillars with moveable walls. which then became a wooden
structure. Purple hangings were used for tragedy and animal
pelts for comedy. In most plays the ttggg. which usually had
three doors. represented the fagade of a palace. temple or a
house. The stage evdved from that early form into a stone
and masonry building consisting of three parts:

(a) a raised stage on which the actors stood. as opposed
to the circular orchéstra (opxfiwtre) where the chorus sang

and danced:

 

8 Kittels' s Theologicali Dictionar ry of the New Testament.
Vol. 7 -z:. Edited by Gerhardi Friedrich and Gerhard Kittel.
Trans. G. W. Bromiley. Eerdman Publishing Co.. Grand Rapids.
Mich.. 1961:. p. 369: and W. J. Oates and Eugene 0' Neill. Th__e_
Complete Greek Drama. Random House. New York. 1938.1ntroduc-
tion.

20

(b) the scenery. back-drop. stage-setting: 9

(c) a building into which the actors could withdraw
when not on stage and in which they could change and store
their costumes. masks. and props.

As indicated above. the basic original meaning of the
word §§§g§ is "tent." But the Greek theatre witnessed the
same metamorphosis as was experienofl.in various cultures.
namely. the translation into stone of antecedent wooden
architectural forms. In turn. the wooden architecture might
have carried over forms from the regional structure of tents.
such as is found to be true of Russian medieval architectural
forms. However. regardless of the building materials. the
meaning and significance of certain ritual structures remained
unchanged. This unchanged significance of the ttttg structure
is partially conveyed by the unchanged terminology: the word
§t§t§ continued to be used despite the metamorphosis from

tent to wood to stone structures.

3. its Use the 193d rfi a-mgg’ in the Septuagint, and the

Meaning of the Hebrew Words Tran§;ated as Skene
The most fruitful inquiry into the use of the word skéné

 

for this study in symbolism is its use in the Septuagint.
(the Greek Old Testament. translated during the third-second

 

9 Sophocles is credited with inventing scene-painting
(canvorpaqna - skenogggthfa) for his play. Oeditts at
Colonnus. (Sophocles. The Theban Pla s. Trans. E. F. Watling.
Penguin. Baltimore. 197 . Introduction. p. 21.)

21

centuries B.C.). and in the Greek New Testament (see the next
section). Here we see the linguistic evolution of both the
word and the symbolic meaning associated with it. This
evolution also seems to correspond to the evolution of the
visual symbolism. which we will explore in Chapters Two and
Six.

There are three Hebrew words that are rendered in the
Septuagint as gtggg. and which receive a variety of English
translations: tent. tabernacle. temple. curtain. dwelling-

place. booth. 10

Therefore we must ask why three separate
Hebrew words are rendered as one Greek word by the trans-
lators of the Septuagint. These three Hebrew words are:

(a)>nN (’ohel) is the characteristic Hebrew word for
tent. It occurs 330 times in the Hebrew Testament: 245 times
it is translated by §_k§_n_6_: forty-six times by a-xfivoua
(skénoma): nineteen times as ofkos (giggg): four times as
oixia (211(43): and sixteen times as one of nine other terms
that seem less pertinent to this study.

(b) The other major Hebrew word is figajjmishkan).
which means "tabernacle" or "dwelling-place.". In the Septua-
gint. ninety-three times §t§g§ is chosen to translate

mishkan: in seventeen other instances mishkan is rendered

as rw-fivupawkénoma). and once as Kazamcfivwo'ts (kataskénosis).

1° Much of this linguistic study is derived from Kittel's

essay on the word. flaw“ in his Theological Dictionary. 92.
212.. pp. 368-393.

22

(c) A third Hebrew word. T135 (sukkah). meaning "a
covering." "covert." or "booth" (as in the Festival of
Booths. Tabernacles. or Weeks). is also translated as Egggg
twenty-six times in the Septuagint.

Thus. of the 370 occurrences of Egggg in the Septua-
gint. 11 245 times it is the translation of ’gtg; (tent).
ninety-three times it translates mishkan (dwelling). and
twenty-six times it is the rendering for sukkah (booth).
Why are these latter two words translated as "tent" when
they do not literally mean "tent"?

In endeavoring to answer the basic question. why three
different Hebrew words are rendered into Greek as §§§g§. we
first look at the word sukkah. In about two-thirds of the
instances when sukkah is used. it is related in some way to

the Tabernacle. 12 although it does not mean the Tabernacle

 

11 There are sixty-five other instances that have no
Massoretic equivalent.

12 The Tabernacle was the portable sanctuary built at
God's command by the Hebrews in the Wilderness after their
Exodus from Egypt. according to the instructions given by
God to Moses. as recorded in Exodus 25—31 and 35-40. The
Tabernacle was known by various names. particularly. the
"Tent of Meeting" or "Witness" because there God met with
and revealed Himself to man. and the "Dwelling of the Lord."
(The words "tent" and "dwelling" are both rendered as skéné
in the Greek Bible.)

The Tabernacle consisted of three parts: the outer court
where animal and blood sacrifices were offered on a huge
altar: the Holy Place. an inner court which contained the
seven-branched Menorah. the Table of the Shewbread. and the
altar of incense: and the Holy of Holies which contained the
Ark of the Covenant in which the Tablets of the Ten Command-
ments were kept.

The Tabernacle was the focal point of Hebrew worship: it
was a daily visual affirmation of the Covenant between the

23

itself. When the translators of the Septuagint chose the
Greek word. skéné. for the Hebrew word. sukkah. it marked
an extremely significant shift in meaning from simply "tent."
to designating the Tabernacle. Although used in relation to
the Tabernacle. sukkah is the term that designates the Feast
of Booths. which is meant to recall the Hebrew people's wan-
dering in the wilderness. when they lived in tents. and when
the Tabernacle also was in the form of a tent. However. the
word. sukkah. itself is never used to refer to the Tabernacle
per gt. which is always rendered in Hebrew as either ’ohel or
mishkan. Kittel suggests that ’ohel remained in continuous
use.

because in the light of the desert wandering. when

all Israel lived in tents. it was hard to think of

the Tabernacle as anything but a tent. If it is

also called mishkan. this expresses a rather diff-

erent view of its character. As >ohel the Taberna-

cle...is not regarded as a place where God resides.

but rather as the place where He may be met with

from time to time. But the term mishkan seems 8°

presuppose that God dwells in the Tabernacle. 1

Once again. why do the translators of the Septuagint
not consider it important to distinguish between the Hebrew
terms. and why do they choose to render several Hebrew words

by the single word. skéné? Furthermore. why are there

Hebrew people and Yahweh: and it was the tangible dwelling of
the Lord among His people on earth. visible in the Shekhinah
the pillar of cloud of the the Divine Presence seen at the en-
trance of the Tabernacle. (F.L. Cross. ed.. Oxford Dictionary
of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press. London.

1958 (1971). and others.)

13 ELEEELL§J 22. t;t.. p. 371. (Kittel uses the actual
Hebrew letters. whereas I am giving the transliteration.)

24

eighty-five instances where ’gtgl is rendered otherwise

than by Egggg? We find only two instances where mishkan is
not translated as ggggg. In II Samuel 7. where both ’gggl
and mishkan are found together in the Masoretic text. in
verse 6 mishkan refers to the Tabernacle. (in distinction to

the Temple as oikos in verse 5). 14

It is mishkan that is
translated as ggggg, whereas forfgggt. tazékuud~ (kataluma)
is chosen. Kittel suggests that the reason for the close
identity between mishkan and §§§g§ is not because §§§g§ had
the meaning of "dwelling." but rather. because the transla-
tors must have regarded ttggé as the natural. inevitable
word-equivalent of mishkan. because. as Kittel points out.
ggtgt and mishkan contain the same three consonants. E §_g.
in the same sequence. Consequently. the Greek term. §t§g§.
assumed the character of what is fixed and constant (e.g. a
permanent dwelling) from its relationship to mishkan. which
is the exact opposite of the original connotation of tent
(’gttl). as the shelter which was mobile. and used while
wandering in the wilderness. .
There are only a few places in the Septuagint. usually
figurative. which mention God dwelling in a tt§g§. either
in heaven or on earth. without any reference to the Tab-
ernacle. One such instance is Isaiah 40:22. where the prophet

praises God Who "...stretches out the heavens like a curtain.

 

1“ The usual meaning of the Greek word ofkos is "house."

25

and spreads them out like a tent to dwell in" (RSV). u35‘rKOVBV
Karma-TV (.1333 skén'én’ katoikein). This reference and analogy
is important symbolically in many visual forms of architec-
ture. painting. and sculpture. as shall be discussed in
Chapter'Six.

Another important symbolic concept is the idea. and its
corresponding image. that the earthly Tabernacle is construc-
ted after the type (tytgg). or pattern. of a heavenly proto-
type (Exodus 26:30. 25:9. 25:40. 27:8. and Wisdom 9:8).

I will return to this concept later when dealing with speci-

fic monuments.

u. The Use of the Word fire-mm: by Philo and Josephus

The Alexandrian Jewish philosopher. Philo. (c. 20 B.C.-
c. 50 A.D.). uses the word. t§§g§. in three ways that are
most pertinent to this inquiry. Besides the usual use in
referring to the Tabernacle. he uses ggtgt in the following
ways:

(a) in the sense of "stage":

(b) to talk of the Tabernacle (§g§g§). not as a place.
but as a symbol or allegory of virtue. in which the fittings
of the Tabernacle are gf74~135 Wuxfis (erga tés psychés'-
works of the soul) (Egggg Allegoriae. III. 95):

(c) in the sense that Wisdom is a "tent" in which the

wise person figuratively dwells (Legum Allegoriae. III. 46). 15

 

‘5 Main. 22. 2143-. p. 373.

26

This association of the ggggt with the stage. Tabernacle.
virtue and wisdom will be important later in our discussion.
By the time we get to the Jewish historian. Flavius
Josephus (c. 37-c. 100 A.D.). we find that the word. ggtgt,
had unquestionably become the customary term for the Taber-

nacle of Moses in the wilderness. 16

5. The Use of the Wgtd. ion-M in the Greek New Testament

The word. ggtgt. occurs only twenty times in the Greek
New Testament:

(a) three times in Acts (7:43 and 44: 15:16). in refer-
ence to the Tabernacle of Moses:

(b) once in Luke 16:9. translated in the King James
Version as "everlasting habitationsN:

(c) three times in the Apocalypse (13:6: 15:5: 21:3).
each having the connotation of God's heavenly dwelling-place:

(d) ten times in Hebrews (8:2. 5: 9:2. 3. 6. 8. 11. 21:
11:9: 13:10). once meaning the tent in which Abraham. Isaac.
and Jacob dwelt. and the rest referring to the Mosaic Taber-
nacle.

(e) three times in the Synoptics (Matthew 17:4: Mark
9:5: and Luke 9:33). in the accounts of the Transfiguration
of Christ. This use is extremely important to this study.
and therefore will be discussed at length below. (Neither

the word skénE. nor an account of the Transfiguration occurs

 

16 Ibid.. p. 373.

27

in St. John's Gospel.

Let us look at the meaning of §§§g§ in each of these
instances.

(a) The three occurrences in Acts are simple references
to the Tabernacle of Moses. following the usual Septuagint
terminology: "ZHV O‘MVHV ‘03 ”MIMI.“ "6 “WW3 393 M’f’wf’foufi’
and "LEV 0"")th Adv“; (tén skénén’ tou MM: h‘e’ sk‘énén tou
martytfou: and tén skénénfiggytgb. meaning. "the Egggg of
Moloch." "the tk§g§_of Witness." and "David's gkéggfl re-
spectively.

(b) In Luke 16:9 the Evangelist uses the words. " 20's
aiwvfous G‘vaés" (tas aib‘ni’ous skénas’- "the eternal taber-
nacles"). By joining the word. eternal. to Egggt. there is
an added connotation given to the word. as being the heavenly
dwelling-place of God. which likewise is the connotation of
Egggt in its three occurrences in the Apocalypse. as we shall
see below.

(c) In the Apocalypse the use of §k§§§ indicates that
the reference is to the dwelling-place of God. not on earth.
but in heaven. Apocalypse 15:15 says: "6 was ZRS TK'WRS
zoG ”peopfov A: 2.8 oépave " (ho naos/t'é's skén‘és_tou martyg-
ibn en tu out§g§’- "the temple of the Tabernacle of Witness
in heaven"). Thus. this usage in Luke and the Apocalypse
seems to present the idea that the §t§g§_on earth is a re-
flection or copy of the true §t§g§ which is in heaven. This

meaning is supported by another example in the Apocalypse

28

(21:3): "I&o:1)r§oaqv:) :06 6605 uez; zu‘Bv 5v Afa’mwv

Ke‘t O'qufioét uéz’a‘ézfiv" (Itdou: h'é' skéné tou Theou’ meta’ ton
anthrapfin kai skénései met' autbn’- "Behold. the Tabernacle
of God is with men. and He shall dwell [tabernacle or gggggj
with them"). which continues. "and they shall be His people.
and God Himself shall be with them and be their God" (AV).

We note here that §g§g§ is used as a verb. skenbsei.
instead of using the customary verb for dwelling or living.
There is no adequate way of rendering this in English. The
same verbal form of gtégg occurs in the Prologue of John's
Gospel: "...and the Word was made flesh and gggtt (eskehosen)
among us (John 1:14). Sometimes this term is translated as
"tabernacled" or even "pitched His tent" among us. !g_might
say "skened" among us. (See footnote thirty-six in this
chapter.) The implication is that in Christ's incarnation.
God was present on earth in the Logos in the same way as He
was present as the Shekhinah in the Mosaic Tabernacle. which
was constructed following the true prototype of the heavenly
§t§t§ of God. Obviously. this is a most significant connota-
tion of the ggtgt. and we shall return to this idea at the ~
end of this chapter. and at the conclusion of our study.

(d) Hebrews 8:1-2 adds a most intriguing dimension to
our study of §t§g§ symbolism. The verses read: "We have
such a High Priest Who sat at the right of the throne of the
Majesty in the heavens: a minister of the Holy Things. and

of the true Tabernacle (Ke‘t zfis oanQs v38 AAnOtvr’is -

29

kai tee skénes’tEs aléthinES3. which the Lord pitched. and
not man." The author of Hebrews is making an analogy between
the High Priest who is a minister of the Holy Things in the
earthly Tabernacle. and Christ. the High Priest. Who is a
minister of the Holy Things in the True Tabernacle in Heaven.
Also. in 9:11 the author further says that Christ is the High
Priest of the greater and more perfect Tabernacle not made
by hand. and not of this creation («1 seAeLosépes ”was 08
Ietponoufimu - g2; teleiotefras skénés gt cheiropoié’tou).
These passages from Hebrews reflect elements of Jewish
theology and practice. The Jewish High Priest was the only
one who was allowed to enter into the Holy of Holies. the
innermost part of the Tabernacle or Temple. where the Ark of
the Lord was kept. and even then. he could enter there only
once a year on the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur) on the tenth
day of the seventh month - Tishri. The Holy of Holies was the
most sacred place. where God's Holy. Mystical Presence dwelt
on earth. above the Ark of the Covenant. which held the Tables
of the Law given to Moses. This Mystical Presence of God is

17

called the Shekhinah. In the Talmud. 13 Shekhinah became a

17 The meaning of fihgkhingh_is discussed more fully later
in this chapter.

18 The Jewish Talmud. considered by most Jews to be an
authoritative guide and companion to the spiritual life. was
compiled and written down (from the oral Tradition) in the
early centuries of the Christian era. It consists of two
Parts: the Mishnah. or oral tradition of teaching that devel-
OPed and was handed down beginning with the time of Moses:
and the Gemara. or lengthy commentary in the form of debate

30

substitute for God's Holy Name. the Tetragrammaton. YHWH. 19

because the reverence for the transcendental Holiness of
God gave rise to the reluctance of speaking God's Holy Name
at all. due precisely to the belief that all of God's Being
and Holiness and Power were contained in His Holy Name.

Thus the Holy Name was too holy to be uttered by mortal

 

and discussions about every possible aspect of the Mishnah.
by the leading rabbis of the late pre-Christian and early
Christian centuries. There are two versions of the Talmud:
the major version is the Babylonian Tadmud. and the second
one is the Palestinian. Beginning with the Babylonian Exile
of the Jews in the sixth century B.C. a significant Jewish
community existed in Babylonia. After the Roman conquest of
Palestine and the destruction of Herod's Temple in 70 A.D..
the Jewish intellectual center was in Babylonia. This is
why the major Talmud originated there. It records the think-
ing of the best Jewish scholars of that period. (B.J. Bam-
berger. The Story of Judaism. Schocken Books. New York. 1972
(1954): J. Neusner. There we Sat Down. Abingdon Press. Nash-
ville. 1972: Baron and Blau. Judaism. Hobbs-Merrill Co..

New York. 1954.) '

19 The Tetragrammaton. which literally means "four
letters." refers to the ancient Jewish written name of God -
YHWH or JHWH. Ancient Hebrew did not write vowel sounds. and
thus "Yahweh" was spelt only with the four consonants. A
system of notating the vowels in the Bible. necessary because
Hebrew was less and less a spoken language. was developed be-
tween the sixth and tenth centuries A.D.. and the result was
the Massoretic test. However. since God's Holy Name was too
holy and awesome to be spoken. the Hebrew word. Adonai. mean-
ing "Lord." was always read in the place of the name YHWH.
Consequently. the Massoretic text used the vowels of Adonai
whenever YHWH's name appeared. The English translators of
the King James Version (AV) of the Bible mistakenly combined
the vowels of Adonai with the consonants of YHWH. and pro-
duced the name. "Jehovah." which doesn't correspond with any
Hebrew word at all. It is generally accepted today that the
proper vowels. and therefore the correct pronunciation of
the Tetragrammaton is "Yahweh." (Cross. The Oxford Diction-
931.... 22. tttu Bamberger. 22. t_i_t.)

49

Having established the linguistic use of the word.
§t§g§. let us now consider in the next chapter the visual
forms which correspond to the word-use. and then. in the
third chapter. proceed to examine the functions that. in

turn. correspond to the visual forms.

Chapter’Two
VISUAL FORMS or THE gm

Some of the forms of the M that correspond to the
lexicon meanings are common-place. ordinary forms. with no
special symbolic meaning or function. A tent is a tent: a
canopy is a canoPY: a dwelling-place is a dwelling-place: a
grass hut is but a hut. But when is a tent more than just
a tent: when is a canopy. dwelling-place. grass hut. more
than the mere everyday. ephemeral forms? My primary thesis
is that these forms become more than ordinary. everyday forms
exactly when their {taction embues them with a cosmic-divine
significance. Then. instead of a lowly tent. canopy. or grass
hut. the forms become the dwelling-place of the Divine Pres-
ence. or the manner of commemorating a theophany. that. in a
way. crystalizes the experience so that others might share in
the benefits of the theophany. The concept of sacred space
is essential to an understanding of the powerful and univer-

1

sal symbolism of the skinfi. In fact. we might keep in

mind as we continue our investigation of the skins. whether

1 s... 14- nude. W- 22- as"
Chapter One. ”Sacred Space and Making the World Sacred:” van
der Leeuw. Religion in Essence and Manifestation. 22. cit..
Vol. 2. Chapter 57. "Sacred Space:” and Gaston BachelaFET

The Poetics of S ce. Trans. Maria Jolas. Beacon Press. Bos-
ton. 1972 (1958).

50

51

most sacred space is delineated and set apart as sacred by a
§t§g§ form. and whether. the more sacred a particular space
might be. the greater the likelihood that there might be some
tkég‘g form associated with it.

What exactly does a gt§g§ look like? (Based on linguis-
tic use. as discussed in the previous chapter. there are
essentially two uncontested gt§g§ forms. only one of which
is generally recognized as such - the theatre agggg. The
second. the Tabernacle of Moses is also an uncontestable
t§§t§_because of the Septuagint translation of ’22:;m gttttgg.
and sukkah. First we will look briefly at the form of the

ancient Greek and Roman theatres.

1. The Theatre skin!

The theatre sk__ent.2 as we mentioned in the previous
chapter. is the stage and stage-building that form the back-
drop against which the sacred dramas of the ancient Greeks
were enacted. Beginning with Sophocles. there was added
painted back-drops used as scenery (called d‘mvorpe ¢fd~o
skSnogggthIE - t§§g§rwritings). and thus the words ”scene."
"scenery." and related words are derived directly from the

word skine. We see in the plans of the theatres at Athens

fi

Since this study concerns the farmland significance
of the skins as a universal symbol. there is no attempt to
present a definitive study of the Greek and Roman theatre.
for the development of the theatre is a complete study in
itself. We here mention only those elements of the theatre
which are pertinent to our study.

52

and Epidaurus (Figure 3) the general plan of the ancient
theatres. The photos of the remains of the Theatre of Diony-
sus in Athens (Figure 93). of thetmeatres at Epidaurus (Fig-
ure 4). and at Priene (Figure 5). plus a suggested restora-
tion of Priene (Figure 6). give a fuller view of what the
theatres might have looked like. There were usually two or
more levels. the lower of which normally had three sets of
doors. the center one frequently being larger. These doors
became a type of ”royal doors." for the basic stage-setting
was usually a palace. and the main characters were members of
a royal or noble family. Thus. the gt§g§ both set the scene.
and provided the sacred space for the royal appearances.
Royalty is frequently associated with t§§g§,functions. as we
shall see repeatedly throughout this study. In the Priene
reconstruction one can see where the painted scenery would
have hung. in the large. blank spaces on both stories. Furw
thermore. in the photo of Priene. the columns across the
front are clearly visible: columns are often closely related

to a variety of skins forms.

In the Roman development of the Greek theatre legacy.
the theatre became an architectural unity of auditorium and
stage. 3 The g§§g§,became a much higher. more architecturally
elaborate form. and was enclosed within a virtual amphitheatre.
as seen in the Augustan period theatre at Orange. in southern
France (Figure 7). There are still the three sets of doors.

 

3 Heinz Kihler. The Art of Rome and Her mtire. Crown.
New York. 1965. p. 26.

53

the row of columns. and the multiple tiers.

However. what did these theatres look like in their
own time? I suspect that the suggested restoration of the
Priene theatre is too modest and restrained. judging from
three paintings at which we will look shortly. and because
the Hellenistic period developed a constantly increasing
taste for the lavish. ornate. colossal. and decorative -
not only in architectural forms. but in all areas of life.

In the fifth and sixth centuries B.C. the gtégg was
quite Simple. and purely a Greek phenomenon. But by the
fourth. third. and subsequent centuries. in the Hellenistic
and Roman periods. the theatres apparently were more three-
dimensional. with the t§§g§,projecting out onto the stage
more than the Priene reconstruction indicates.

The fragment of a Krater from.Taranto. dating from the
mid-fourth century B.C. (Figure 8). shows an architectural
'eanopy projecting out from over one of the doors (possibly
the left door) of the M building wall . This canopy is
supported by four columns: on the underside of the canopy
stars are painted to indicate the heavens: surmounting the
canopy is a triangular gable. typical of Greek and Roman
temple architecture: and. there is a row of columns across
the front. Each of these elements is found in most gttg§
forms. That this krater fragment dates as early as the mid-
fourth century B.C. is of interest. since other evidence is

much later.

54

In the light of the Taranto fragment. the third century
A.D. floor mosaic in Antioch of a drinking contest between
Dionysos and Hercules is more intelligible (Figure 9). In
the mosaic. we have a fully frontal. somewhat stylized por-
trayal of a §t§g§_similar to the Taranto Krater fragment.
There are again four columns that carry a canopy. On the
underside of the curved canopy are what appear to be recessed
coffers. such as are found on the underside of many triumphal
arches. on canopies over baptismal fonts and altars. and
sometimes. on basilica apses. such as the early fourth century
A.D. Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine. I suspect that
rosettes or stars also might have been painted inside each
of the recessed squares. In the ttggg depicted in this floor
mosaic curtains are tied-back across the top of the scene -
another prevalent component of §t§52,forms. The subject mat-
ter is interesting. for it is an appearance of Greek gods.
The gtgtg as a setting for the appearance of divine or royal
figures is a chief function associated with the gtggg.

In the well-known. illusionistic first century A.D. wall-
painting at Herculaneum depicting a Roman theatre ggggg (Fig-
ure 10). we find a much more elaborate and ornate gtggg.
which dates from approximately the same period (Augustan)
as the theatre at Orange (Figure 8). In the Herculaneum
house wall-painting. again we find the four columns support-
ing an architectural canopy over a double doorway. Above

and behind the canopy are painted the architectural columns.

55

pediments and portals of the second tier of the QEQQE. How-
ever. a major change has occurred comparedwith the less
ornate Greek forms: the edge of the curtains shown across
the top of the painting indicates the presence of stage cur-
tains. possibly much like the stage curtains across the front
of the traditional proscenium stage of our own era. An open
theatre. such as those built by the Greeks. did not cordon-
off a stage with curtains. because the singing and dancing
of the chorus in the orchestra was an important and integral
part of the drama. However. the theatre at Orange shows how
the Roman theatre had become enclosed on the sides. Most
likely. the curtain hung across the front of the stage at a
level even with the edges of the side walls of the scaenae
£ygg_. It has been suggested that the stage might have been
roofed in. 4
In the above examination of the visual form of one of
‘the two uncontested skinai. we see most of the fundamental
elements of the gg§g§3 a multiple-tiered. vertical stage-
setting with three doors in the bottom story. In the center
was the largest door. and on each side. a canopy of heaven
projected out from the wall above the doors. supported by
four columns. two of which may be engaged to the walls.
Frequently there was a lateral row of columns forming the
support and basis of the front wall. surmounted by an archi-
trave across the top. Skénogggphih and curtains may have

‘-

4 Herbert Read. ed.. Encyclopedia of the Arts. Meredith
Press. New York. 1966. p. 437.

56

been suspended between the columns of the skin? wall. and
possibly in front of the stage as well (in the Roman thea-
tres). thus enclosing the sacred space where the dramatic

action occurred. 5

2. The Tabernacle of Moses

Let us now consider the other incontestable gt§gt. (in-
contestable due to the Septuagint translation). the Old
Testament Tabernacle of Moses. 6 It is impossible to estab-
lish definitively what the form of the Tabernacle was. be-
cause it has all perished. unlike the architectural and
other remains of the theatre ggtgt. which descended from
earlier examples. the details of which are still in question
in spite of the visual evidence. The account in Exodus 25f.
of the instructions given to Moses stating how to build the
Tabernacle are not sufficiently clear in certain places to
form a complete visual image. Figure 11. from the Encyclo-
pedia Judaica. shows a suggested model of the original t§§§§5

5 For further information. see Roy C. Flickinger. IE:
Greek Theatre and Its Drama. university of Chicago Press.
Chicago. 1913. pp. 57-107 - a very complete study of the
Greek theatre: and a briefer study by Gilbert Norwood. Greek
Tragedy. Methuen and Co.. London. 1948 (1920). Chapter II.
“The Greek Theatre and the Production of Plays.” pp. 49-88.

6 Similarly as for the consideration of the theatre.
this discussion of the Tabernacle of Moses is likewise not
intended to be a complete study. which would be beyond the
scope of this inquiry. Rather. we will mention just those
aspects which are relevant to our inquiry.

57

built. allegedly. according to the instructions given to
Moses. but its accuracy seems questionable. The model
seems excessively spartan. and I wonder whether it reflects
the modern tendency to underestimate the abilities of the
ancient. so-called "primitive" peoples. The Hebrews of

the Exodus were the same people who had seen or built the
very sophisticated. grandiose pyramids. temples. and pal-
aces of Egypt. Moses himself had been raised in the splen-
dor of the pharoah's palace. Even though the Tabernacle
had to be portable. I doubt if they would have been satis-
fied with a Tabernacle of the Dwelling-Place of the Tables
of the Covenant. and of the Lord's fihekhina . that was as
lowly and “primitive" as this proposed restoration suggests.
where. for example. animal skins are simply thrown over a
frame which housed the very Holy of Holies itself.

An alternative reconstruction by Ferguson (Figure 12)
may be more realtistic in some ways. but there seem to be
just as many problems as with the Levine reconstruction a-
bove. I suggest that the Ferguson model is inadequate
primarily because it does not show the relationship between
the parts of the Tabernacle. The Holy of Holies is covered.
according to Exodus 26:14. (indicated by animal skins on
top of the rear section). but the Holy Place. where the altar

7 For detailed discussion of the text of Exodus 25-28.

see The Intertreter's Bible. Vol. 1. Abingdon Press. New York.
1956. pp. 1020-1037.

 

58

was. could not be covered since the sacrifices were burned
there in the open air. And where is the outer court? In
Exodus 26 the directions for making the inner curtains desig-
nate loops on the top where clasps held them onto bars of
acacia wood. The court was formed by linen curtains sus-
pended between twenty pillars on the north and south. and
ten pillars on the east and west. with a screen across the
entrance two-fifths of the width. These things. among others.
are absent from the Ferguson model. In fact. this model
looks suspiciously like a very modern conception of a tent.

Figure 13 shows a basic ground plan for the Tabernacle.
that. although from a seventeenfiicentury manuscript. seems
to correspond with other ground plane. especially the one in
the late seventh century English Christian manuscript. the
Codex Agiatinus. as well as. most importantly. with the bib-
lical descriptions themselves.

What did the Tabernacle look like? Apparently. Jews
and Christians of the early Christian centuries conceived of
the Mosaic Tabernacle as being more sophisticated than either
of these models. as is indicated in the late sixth or early
seventh century A.D. manuscript. the Ashburnham Pentate_uc_h
(figure 14). The bottom scene of this illumination shows
Moses and Aaron (flanked by Joshua. and Aaron's two sons.
Nadab and Abiud). going into the Tabernacle's Holy of Holies.
which is surrounded by columns with curtains suspended be-
tween them. The two outer courts are indicated by the two

successively higher curtain walls. The pointed tents

59

flanking the Tabernacle are labelled as being the tents of
the children (or sons) of Israel. I suggest that this 11-
lumination was more closely based on authentic Jewish Tradi-
tion than the modern models we mentioned above. First of
all. the Agtburnham Pentgtgggt seems to correspond accurate-
ly to the Exodus description. Secondly. it makes sense of
countless little facts. traditions. customs. and visual evi-
dence. Another reason why I contend that this illumination
is accurate is that Jewish life laid enormous emphasis on
Oral Tradition. only a portion of which was eventually writ-
ten down and codified. The enormous importance of the Mos-
aic Tabernacle would clearly indicate. I maintain. that the
oral and pictorial Tradition about it would have been care-
fully guarded. Furthermore. due to the conservative/preserv-
ative nature of the early Christians as well as the Jews.
and to their strict adherence to Tradition. I suggest that
in early portrayals of Old Testament scenes. Christian art-
ists would have used already existing Hebrew visual proto-
types as their models. as they did in music. liturgy and
.worship. architecture. theology. and countless ritual prac-
tices. Iconographic tradition has been extremely strong
throughout the history of the Eastern Church (although
weakened in recent centuries). and Christian iconographers.
similar to their Jewish counterparts. were not permitted to
deviate from iconographic canons. nor to simply invent

scenes from their imaginations. 8 Thus 1 suggest that the

g ; - ’

8 The Quinisext Council of 692 made a number of

60

Christian preservation of Tradition is derived from Jewish
antecedents. and awareness of the more accessible Christian
attitude can help us to better understand the prior Jewish
heritage.

The strongest argument against the Encyclopedia Judaig§_
model of the Tabernacle is the biblical evidence itself.

An examination of the directions given to Moses by the Lord
definitely does not correspond to the model given in either
Jewish encyclopedia. Indeed. the portrayal in the As burn-
ham Pentateuch. as mentioned. appears to correspond quite
accurately to the biblical description.

All the directions in Exodus require only the finest
materials - pure gold. silver. bronze. and fine blue. purple
and scarlet linen - there is nothing at all “primitive." as
the established models suggest. The pattern for the Taber-
nacle and its furniture is the very heavenly dwelling-place
of the Lord Himself. as is frequently explained by the
Church Fathers and historians (Clement of Alexandria. Greg-
ory of Nyssa. and Eusebius of Caesarea). in addition to the
:Epistle to the Hebrews. The Lord tells Hoses: ”You shall

 

:regulations concerning iconography. and then. during and af-
‘ter the Iconoclastic Controvery. it was required that icono-
graphic canons be adhered to strictly. In various regional
councils. different iconographic issues have been dealt with.
‘Hanuals of iconographic patterns and verbal directions for
colors. etc. were established. called in Russian. podlinnik.
and hermeneia in Greek. Due to the theology of the icon. ,
whereby the image is viewed as a reflection of the proto-
.type. and whereby reverence accorded to the image is passed
on to the prototype. strict regulation was necessary to
guard against idolatry and superstition.

61

make me a sanctuary (holy place - eighth-u - h! giasm) . and
I will appear among you" (Exodus 25:8).

Indeed. it is perhaps impossible to really determine
what the Tabernacle looked like precisely. I suggest that
the Ashburnham Pentateuch.visualization might be about the
closest we can get. Certainly the encyclopedia models are
to be rejected. Some scholars say that the account in Exo-
dus is not valid. because it was embroidered several centur-
ies later. On the contrary. I tend to think that something
as crucial as the form of the Tabernacle would be carefully
guarded through the centuries. It is difficult for us today
to comprehend the oral tradition. and how generations of
persons would commit to memory the equivalent of hundreds
of pages of text.

In the process of determining the forms of the Holy
Place of God. let us also briefly consider the portrayal
of the Ark of the Covenant. since that is what was housed
in the Tabernacle. When the Hebrews moved (early nomadic
period). or went to war (later period). they carried the
Ark of the Covenant with them. The mosaic instructions re-
corded in Exodus indicate that rods went through rings on
the Ark so that it could be carried. as is shown in Figure
15. The proportions of the Ark in this manuscript illumina-
tion are too small. but we see that the Ark was conceived of
as a cube with a triangular pediment on top.

The Ark is depicted differently in an early third

62

century A.D. at Dura-Europas Synagogue fresco (figure 16).
where the Philistines are returning the Ark to the Israel-
ites. due to the plagues of death and destruction that rav-
aged the Philistines after they had captured the Ark of the
Lord. Their priests and diviners had instructed that it be
returned on a new cart drawn by two milch cows (I Samuel
5-6). In this fresco. the Ark is not square. but rectangu-
lar. in the 1:3 proportions of the Holy of Holies itself. 9
The Ark has coffered doors. and is curved on top. with a
veil over the top. and with a pointed tent covering the
entire Ark.

Another image of the Ark on a cart (Figure 17). possi-
bly based on a biblical reference to the Hebrews bringing
the Ark on a cart to David (III Samuel 6:3). is found on a
frieze in the Capernaum Synagogue (second-third century
A.D.). Here it looks like a miniature temple. with double
doors with a semi-circular shell over them. It is flanked
by columns. with additional columns along the sides. The
roof appears to be a curved. barrel vault.

Somewhat similar in form to the Capernaum Synagogue
depiction of the Ark is another fresco at Burs-Europas.
showing not Just the Ark. but the First Temple of Solomon

 

9 In the Tabernacle and in the Temples. the entire
sanctuary was in a 3:1 ratio. originally 30 x 10 cubits.
later doubled in Herod's Temple. The curtain separating
the Holy of Holies from the Holy Place divided the space
into a square (10 x 10) and a rectangle twice its size
(10 x 20). respectively.

63

(Figure 18). This fresco is approximately contemporary with
the Capernaum Synagogue. since the former was constructed
sometime prior to 256 A.D.. when the town was destroyed.
This fresco is entitled “The Priesthood of Aaron." and por-
trays the Ark of the Covenant. with a semi-circular top and
coffered doors. standing within the Holy of Holies. which is
in the shape of a Greek temple. with columns and pediment.
Outside the Holy of Holies stands the High Priest. Aaron
(ARON). in the Holy Place or Inner Court. where the Menorah
and the Table of the Shewbread are located. Just outside the
curtains of the Holy of Holies. Also. in the same court are
various animals awaiting sacrifice on the altar which was
also located in the Holy Place. At the bottom of the scene
there are three portals piercing the outer wall of the Temple
precincts into the outer court. These three entrances have
semiecircular shells over them. and the central portal is
larger than the side ones. The curtains at the upper right
and left might indicate that the Holy Place was curtained
off from the outer court. and that the figures beneath the
curtains are inside the inner court.

This fresco of the Temple is most likely intended to be
Solomon's Temple. built in the tenth century B.C. However.
Aaron. Moses' brother. died several hundred years before the
Temple was built. I suggest that the idea being represented
here is that Aaron's priesthood continued unchanged from the
Tabernacle into the Temple. Thus the transference that has

64

occurred is most striking: the gkggg - the Dwelling-Place

of the Lord - has been transformed. According to Exodus.
the skEnE/Tabernacle of the Lord. which housed the Ark
containing the Tablets of the Law. was a §k§§§_made of our-
tains. columns. and tanned animal skins. plus precious
metals. fabrics. and wood. It was here that Aaron served

as High Priest. However. in the tenth century B.C. Solomon
built a permanent dwelling for the Ark. was this Temple
still a gk§g§2 10 I contend that it was. because wherever
the Ark of the Covenant was. there was the Presence of the
Lord. and it made little difference what materials were

used to construct the Holy of Holies. The experience of

the Jews of the third century A.D. (after the final destruct-
ion of the Temple by Titus in 70 A.D.). as reflected in Fig-
ure 18. was that Aaron's highpriesthood. (through his des-
cendants). was no different in the Temple than it was in the
Tabernacle. Both were the Dwelling-Place of the Lord on
earth. within both were housed the Ark. the Mercy-Seat with
its flanking Cherubim. and the continuously burning oil lamp
within the curtained Holy of Holies. Repeated biblical

 

10 There seems to be a change in terminology that ac-
companies the change from the Mosaic Tabernacle to Solomon's
trample. In the Septuagint. the customary term used for the
Temple is Vet o: - naos’ - from the verb V450 - nai’6 - meaning
”to dwell." The Greek-like Temple housed only the Holy of
Holies. with a vestibule in front of it with the Menorah
and Shewbread: there were still the uncovered inner and out-
er courts. Possibly the term naos’referred to the entire
precinct. and skéne would still be reserved for the Holy of
.Holies. Naos'is the customary Greek term to designate a
temple of any kind.

65

references state that the Lord dwells between the Cherubim
over the Mercy-Seat. a reference to the Shekhinah. We saw
in Chapter One that the same three letters. g, k. n. appear
in mishkan, Shekhinah. and skege. which thus linked them
inseparably in the minds of the ancient Hebrews and of the
translators of the Septuagint. which was then transmitted
to the early Christian theologians. One might say. then.
that where the §hekhinah was. there was a §§§§§. since the
Hebrew root of Shekhinah is 53323, which means "to pitch
a tent. suggestive of the Tent of Meeting in the wilderness
where God's glory abode." 11

That this transference occurred is clearly indicated
by a scene in the fifth century A.D. mosaics on the trium-
phal arch of Sta. Maria Maggiore in Home (Figure 19). There
we see Moses and two companions being protected from the
stones being thrown at them. by a cloud. designated as the
Divine Presence by God's hand shown coming from heaven.
The cloud is at the doorway of the Tabernacle to which Moses
is running for sanctuary. I suggest that without a doubt
this cloud is the Shekhinah. because the Shekhinah was fre-
quently visualized as a cloud. and that cloud appeared at
the entrance of the §k§§§. However. we observe here that
the gk§g§_is not a tent. the only form that existed in Moses'

lifetime. but that the skEnE'is an architectural temple

11 J.T. Burtchaell. "Shekhinah." in The New Catholic
Encyclopedia. op. cit.

66

structure with columns. triangular pediment. and steps.
Thus. we conclude that there was a visual transference of
form (from tent to temple). when there was a continuation
of function. i.e.. serving as the Dwelling-Place of the
Divine Presence.

Let us take a closer look at this process of transfer—
ence of function. and consequent transference or even ex-
change of form. such as Just observed at Sta. Maria Maggiore.
and seen previously at the Dura-Europas Synagogue. We will
note that the transference of both form and function first
was passed on to Solomon's Temple. then to Zerubbaberb (the
Second) Temple and Herod's Temple. and then to the Synagogue.

Solomon was the first to build a permanent home for the
Ark of the Covenant (Figure 20). 12 Most everything signi-
ficant about the Tabernacle was transferred to the Temple.
including the religious functions of the Tabernacle. The
very presence of the Ark and of the Shekhinah consecrated
the permanent Temple. With the establishment of the Temple
of the Lord on Mount Zion. Jerusalem became the religious
and political focal point for all the twelve tribes of Is-

rael. Sacred rituals became increasingly developed. As

Jerusalem grew as a political power. the grandeur of the

12 Compilation of sources on the Temple. as discussed
here and following. include: Hastings' Dictionagy of the
gible. Scribner's. 1930 ed.: Cross. Oxford Dictionary of
the Christian Church. 22. g;§,: Alfred Edersheim. The Temple:
Its Ministry and Services. Eerdmans. Grand Rapids. 19 re-
print: Encyclogedia Judaica. 22. 212,: The Jewish Encyclo-
pedia. 22, gi£,: The New Catholic Enc clo edia. 22, g;§,s
and the biblical descriptions themse ves.

 

 

 

67

Temple ritual had to keep pace. Palestine became embroiled
in political intrigues. civil wars. and foreign disputes.
The transference of the Ark and its associated worship to
Solomon's Temple in ca. 959 B.C. was a Jubilant day in a
:mntinuous. unbroken line of Covenant. Presence. and Worship.

What did Solomon's Temple look like? It is impossible
to construct a complete visual image of his Temple solely
on the basis of the descriptions in I Kings 6-7. II Chroni-
cles 3, and Ezekiel h0-h1ff. 13 We know the proportions:
its length was three times its width. This 3 x i rectangle
was comprised of three equal parts. each a square measuring
1 x 1 modules. The square at theheast end constituted
the Holy of Holies. within which two cherubim stood above
the Ark. Each wing of the cherubim was one-fourth the width.
so that wing-to-wing they spanned the entire width of the
Most Holy Place.

The inner court of the Tabernacle became divided in two
when the First Temple was built. The place of sacrifice. of
necessity. remained outside: the square altar was the same
size as each of the three squares of the Temple. The middle
area of the Temple comprised the other part of the Holy
Place: it contained five lampstands and five tables facing

each other on the north and south sides. The square at the

 

13 For fuller discussion. see the appropriate entries
in.The Interoreter's Bible. 22. cit.. and The Inte_preter's

‘Dictionar of the Bible. Vol IV. Abingdon Press. New York.
1932. pp. 555-559. article on “The Temple."

 

68

west end was a vestibule. The walls and ceiling of the en-
tire Temple were lined with gold. However. there is no
mention at all about the shape of the roof - it could have
been flat (most scholars seem to think it was). or it could
have been a pitched roof with a pediment. (Representations
of the Temple made in the early Christian era all show it
with a pediment. but very possibly the current Greek style
was proJected back onto earlier forms in order to demonstrate
the continuity of meaning between the current forms and the
prior ones.) A most prominent component of the Temple
structure were the two pillars in front of the Temple. on
the south side called Jachin. and on the north called Boaz.
These two pillars are always included in any portrayal of
any of the three Temples. no matter how schematic the repre-
sentation might be. The height of the columns was equal to
twice the width of the Temple. However. the biblical narra-
tive indicates that the height of the vestibule was six times
the width of the structure. which would be twice the length.
and three times the height of the columns. (It is not clear
whether the entire building was the same height as the vesti-
bule.) These seem to be most unusual and very strange pro-
Portions. It is possible that the measurements could refer
to the inner dimensions. and that flanking each long wall
there were a series of chambers used for storage. preparation.
and vesting. that added to the exterior dimensions. And it
18 further possible that there might have been some type of

69

' exterior colonnade or porch that might have additionally
resulted in more harmonious proportions. In any event.
Solomon's Temple was renowned as the epitome of a glorious
temple. indeed worthy of the most supreme God. 1“

Sometime before the sixth century B.C. the Ark of the
Covenant disappeared - no one knows what happened to it.

The unbroken line of Covenant. Presence and Worship.
extending for about 600 years. from the Mosaic Tabernacle
through Solomon's Temple. was severed in 587-586 B.C.. when
the Babylonians. under Nebuchadnezzar. captured Jerusalem.
burned the Temple to the ground. and carried off the Jewish
leaders into exile. 15 After the Babylonian Captivity was
over. the rebuilding of the Temple commenced in 520 B.C..
due to the influence of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah.
and to the leadership of Zerubbabel. a leader of the re-
turned exiles and govenor of Judah. This Temple. dedicated
in 516 B.C.. is called the Second Temple. or sometimes.
Zerubbabel's Temple (Figure 21). Much definitive informa-
tion about the Second Temple is lacking. but it is generally

acknowledged that the Second Temple followed the ground-plan

 

1“ So prodigious was the reputation of the glory of
Solomon's Temple. that when Justinian had Constantine's
Church of the Holy Wisdom. Ragia Sophia. consecrated on
Christmas Eve. 537. the Emperor declared. ”Ah-ha! I have
outdone you. Solomon.“

15 For further details about these historical events.
see any standard Old Testament text. such as Bernard W.

Anderson's Understandin the Old Testament. Prentice-Hall.
New Jersey. 1937. or a history of JudEism.

70

of its predecessor as closely as possible. The Second Tem-
ple was then plundered and desecrated in 168 B.C. by Antio-
chus IV Epiphanes. King of Syria. but three years later.
under Judas Maccabaeus. the Syrian rule was overthrown. new
temple sacred furniture was built. and the Temple was recon-
secrated/rededicated. celebrated since then by Jews as the
Feast of Chanukah.

At the end of the first century B.C. Herod the “Great."
last of the legal Hasmonaean (Maccabaean) rulers. and ap-
pointed by the Romans to be the King of the Jews. attempted
to curry Jewish favor by rebuilding Zerubbabel's Temple.
greatly increasing its size. splendor. and lavishness (Fig-
ures 22 and 23). The Temple proper was completed in eighteen
months (ca. 18 B.C.). built by 1000 specially trained priests.
but the rest of the courts. gates. walls. and other Temple
precinct buildings took years to complete: indeed. finishing
touches were still being given six to seven years before its
ultimate destruction in 70 A.D. It was Herod's Temple that
stood in Christ's lifetime. (However. it is interesting to
note that there is not a single mention in any Hebrew liter-
ature of the period that the rebuilding was under the instig-
ation of Herod.)

In 70 A.D. the Roman legions. under the Emperor Titus.
destroyed the Temple. carrying off as booty all of its sa-
cred furnishings. and stripping it of its precious materials.
On the Arch of Titus. which depicts the emperor's "victories.”

71

are portrayed the Temple's great Menorah and its Table of
Shewbread being carried off by the Roman soldiers. The
Temple was never rebuilt. and the Moslem mosque called the
”Dome of the Rock“ now stands on the Temple site on Mount
Zion. After 70 A.D. Jewish worship shifted entirely to the
synagogue and the home. and the Jewish Diaspora expanded
further.

Synagogues first developed. apparently. when the Jews
were in Exile in Babylonia. and the Temple was destroyed:
then continued in the Diaspora (when people had no access
to the Temple). and flourished even in Palestine after Ezra's
reforms in the fifth-fourth centuries B.C. The synagogue
(d'uwtyqu’ - M’- from. the verb meaning Fto assemble'
or 'to gather together“). was a place to meet. in lieu of
the Temple. in order to read. hear. learn. and discuss the
Law (especially in the form of the Pentateuch). and to offer
prayers and hymns and Psalms. but not sacrifices. which
could be offered only at the Temple in Jerusalem. The visual.
focal point of the synagogue was the Torah Shrine. where the
scrolls of the Torah were kept. Paricularly after the final
destruction of the Temple in 70 A.D.. when there was no 9
longer any Holy of Holies. the synagogue's Torah Shrine may
be viewed as a substitute gkggfi. substituting the Ark of the
Law in place of the Ark of the Covenant. The new Ark con-
tained the scrolls of the Law - the Torah - whereas the old
.Ark contained the Tables of the Law. The religion of the

72

synagogue came to be viewed as a more spiritualized religi-
ous manifestation. in contrast to the more gross manifesta-
tion of the animal sacrifices of the Temple. The religion
of the synagogue was (and is) a religion of the Torah. In
the Torah is found the revelation and manifestation of the
Lord. no longer in the visible §hekhinah and stone tablets.
but in the verbal accounts of the Lord's theophanies and
commandments. concerning how He expects His people to live
and act on a daily basis. With the growing spiritualization
of Judaism through the influence of the prophets and the
synagogues. the Jews gradually came to realize that the most
tangible manifestation of the Lord accessible to them was
His Word. Then. the Ark of the Law was placed in the posi-
tion of greatest prominence in the synagogue. and received
the greatest ornamentation. The Torah Shrine was situated
in the front of the synagogue. as the focal point. and would
be oriented toward Jerusalem.

The most interesting point is that the Ark of the Law
has the same form as the Ark of the Covenant: that is. it
looks like a small temple. e.g.. a small g§§g§,(p1gurgs 2h,
25. 26. 27. and 28). In fact. the Beth Alpha Synagogue
floor mosaic (Figure 2“) could equally be either the Ark of

8

the Covenant or of the Law. (Usually the Ark of the Law

8 The similarity. I suggest. is intentional. in order
to purposefully illustrate the close relationship between
the two. to show that the synagogue's Torah Shrine (Ark of
the Law) is the direct continuation of the meaning and sig-
nificance of the original Ark of the Covenant of Moses and
the First Temple. which contained the Tablets of the Ten
Commandments.

73

has circles which represent the Torah scrolls.) The Beth
Alpha mosaic is almost identical with that on a glass dish
in Rome's Museo Borgiano(Figure 25). identified as the Ark
of the Law. and with that on another glass dish from the
fourth century A.D.. found in the Roman Jewish catacombs
(Figure 26). Each of these depict two Menorahs and two
guardian beasts in addition to the Ark. In comparing the
form of the Ark with a detail of the "Priesthood of Aaron”
fresco at Dara-Europas that shows the Ark of the Covenant
inside the Temple or Tabernacle (Figure 27). we find that
the Torah Shrine/Ark of the Law has maintained basically the
same form throughout the centuries. as seen also in the
modern Ark in the Amsterdam Sephardic Synagogue (Figure 28).
All of these were probably considered as forms of the orig-
inal g§§g§. the Tabernacle of Moses. containing the original
Ark of the Covenant. Even in the Second and Third Temples.
after the Ark of the Covenant had disappeared. the Holy of
Holies existed and functioned as though it still contained
the Ark. The function of the central gk§g§;(the Holy of
Holies) continued unabated in the experience of the people.
and still the high priest entered but once a year on Yom
Kippur (to sprinkle the altar with the purifying blood of a
sacrificial animal).

By the end of the fourth century B.C.. with the spread
of Hellenistic culture throughout the Mediterranean after
the conquests of Alexander the Great. it is very difficult

to distinguish native Hebrew architectural forms. because

74

the Greek temple style became so pervasive. Since we have
little of significance prior to that time. all subsequent
conceptions of what prior monuments looked like are first
passed through the sieve of Greek forms.

Regarding the development from Mosaic Tabernacle to
Temple. and from Ark of the Covenant to Ark of the Law. we
see that there was little or no change in the deep under-
lying function of each form. and consequently. there is a
continuity of form. Therefore. I contend that the Mosaic
Tabernacle. the Temple. the Synagogue. and the Arks of the
Covenant and of the Law all can be considered as uncon-
tested skinai.

Furthermore. we note that both the Greek theatre g§§g§_
and the Hebrew Tabernacle g§§g§.(and its subsequent forms)
developed from tents to wood. and then to stone archtitec-
tural forms. and that both of these forms are characterized
by columns supporting either a canopy or a triangular pedi-
ment or gabled roof. and by curtains hung between columns.
which. in both cases. are carried over from earlier forms.

Let us now turn our attention to a discussion of the

functions associated with these skin? forms.

Chapter Three
FUNCTIONS ASSOCIAT- WITH THE SKENE

 

Let us now examine some of the functions associated
with the visual forms of the gkggg discussed in Chapter
Two. the Greek theatre gk§g§. and the Old Testament Taber-
nacle and its related forms. the Temple and the Torah

shrine.

i. The Dramatic Function of the Classical Theatre SkEnE’
The function associated with the gk§g§ of the Greek
theatre obviously is the drama. The classical Greek drama.
it should be recalled. was a sacred performance dedicated
to Dionysos. or Bacchus. who was the god of wine. ecstasy.
and fertility. Closely interrelated to fertility is the
whole cycle of death and rebirth of life. especially of
the seasons. and hence. of the land and crops. The char-
acteristics of what is known as the Dionysian element of
life are all derived from his primary role as the wine- ’
fertility god. The Dionysian dimension of experience
concerns the emotional. mystical. meta-rational. ecstatic.

imaginative. and the unconscious - all traits that are

75

76

l

classified symbolically as earth and the feminine. In

direct contrast to the Dionysian is the Apollonian dimen-
sion of existence. which involves the intellectual. cogni-
tive. rational. controlled. conscious. spirit. will-power.
and Judgment - symbolically the sky and the masculine com-
ponent of existence and personality. 2

It is largely the Dionysian elements that are involved
in the play-activity. and the plays that were enacted in
the Greek theatre were part of the annual religious festi-
vals (of seasons and crops). The major festival was in the
Spring. in honor of Dionysos. called the ”Greater" or "City
Dionysia.“ 3 when the victory of life over death is the
most Jubilant. Thus. as the sacred drama. dedicated to
Dionysos. is associated with the gkggg. so likewise. by ex-
tension. the Dionysian characteristics must be associated
with the gkggg.

Let us examine this thesis a little closer. Is it. in

1 All of these Dionysian characteristics are connected
‘with.the very complex symbolism of the Moon. with its cycles
of waxing and waning (e.g. birth. life. death). its inter-
relationship with biological cycles of nature and of women.
suui thus of fertility or victory of life over death. (See
‘J.E. Cirlot. ictionar of S bols Philosophy Library.
New York. 19 2. essay on "Moon.“ pp. 204-206.)

2 All of these Apollonian characteristics are connected

‘with.the symbolism of the Sun. (See Cirlot's essay on ”Sun."
pp. 302-3015.) Perfection or completeness is the result of
the marriage of Sun and Moon (or Sun and Earth). King and
Queen. brother and sister. (Cirlot. Ibid.. p. 30%.)

3 Oates and O'Neill. pp. cit.. p. xviii.

77

fact. only the Dionysian traits that are to be found in the
Greek theatre? Correspondingly. is it only the Dionysian
elements that are involved in fertility? Common sense indi-
cates an obvious "no." for both masculine and feminine pol-
arities are necessary to create new life. Heaven and earth
must come together in order to have the spring-time fertility.
symbolized and actualized by the rain that comes from heaven
to fertilize the earth. Play. or a play. which is purely
Dionysian would be totally unstructured. chaotic. and random.
The unconscious. imaginative. and ecstatic needs the control
and rational direction and ordering that the Apollonian can
give. The puppy or little child might be purely Dionysian
in the ecstatic abandon of its play. but to be fully creative.
that is. to bring order out of chaos. or to bring forth new
life. be it a creature. a crop. a concept. or a drama. a
delicate balance of the Dionysian and Apollonian polarities
is necessary. Insufficient rain causes drought: too much
rain causes flood: infertility is the result in either case.
How. then. might we understand the central role that
JDionyeos has in the Greek drama. if it is the balance of
JDionysian and Apollonian that is necessary in order to be
fruitful? Possibly the answer lies in a certain dual nature
of the Dionysian symbolism. Perhaps. on the one hand. he
represents all the polar opposites of the Apollonian traits.
where the union of both are necessary for creative life. yet

on the other hand. since he is the god of fertility. he re-

Joices in and symbolizes the union of opposites which is

78

very prerequisite for life. Furthermore. it might be pre-
cisely this paradoxical quality of Dionyan and his dual
role. which finds expression in the. at times. almost an-
drogynous portrayals of Dionysos. “- supporting these ideas
is the modern psychological theory of Carl Jung and his
followers. who maintain that in order to release the creative
energies within a person. both the masculine and feminine
components. the anigg and the animus. Apollonian and Diony-
sian. must be brought together. balanced and harmonized. 5
Consequently. possibly the theatre and its §§§§§_are
not as Dionysian as it first appeared. but rather. are testi-
monies that the affirmation and creation of life is depen-
dent upon the coming together of polar opposites. the pro-
duct of which. in this instance. is the creative life of
the sacred plays that are enacted within the theatre's sacred
space.
Sometimes the plays deal with the ordering. and there-.
fore balancing. of the Dionysian and Apollonian elements.
such as the conflicts between the furies and the rational

social order. I suggest that this may be seen as an allegory

 

a For example. the wall painting at Herculaneum where
Dionysos is covered with huge grapes. which look more like
breasts. similar to the "Diana of Ephesus.”

5 For example: Carl G. Jung. Ed.. Man and His 8 bole.
Doubleday. New York. 196#: Erich Neumann. The Origins and
Histor of Consciousness. 22. g;§.: and C.G. Jung. Aion.
Princeton University Press. New Jersey. 1970 (1959).

 

79

of the process of civilization. The civilizing process as

the affirmation of life. order. and creation is a theme

that appears ubiquitously in connection with the §k§g§.
Let us briefly look at some other elements of the

dramatic function of the theatre skdné.

2. The Nature of the Classical Greek Drama Accordi to
Aristotle

The nature of the classical Greek drama (primarily
tragedy) that was dedicated to Dionysos and performed with-
in the sacred precincts of the m was analyzed by Aris-
totle in his Poetics.‘7 According to him. the excellence
of tragedy is that it portrays the perfection that Nature
((Pfifls - phyéis) intends. but which is usually thwarted in
actual life. Nature is always teleological: it aims at that
state of perfection which is the end purpose for each thing.
each creature. each activity. Tragedy (poetry) imitates

Nature exactly insofar as it perceives the higher universals

 

6 The Dionysian festivals perhaps also served a balan-
cing function for classical Greek life itself. which poss-
essed a dominant Apollonian element. with its philosophical
quests. and its imposition of order over the barbarian chaos.
The Roman ethos. by comparison. seemed to lack the Dionysian
balance. and became almost purely Apollonian. a character-
istic of the West that seems to continue to this day. in
contrast to the Eastern European civilization. One mani-
festation of this contrast is seen in the Dionysian-Apollon-
ian balance of Greek. Byzantine. Slavic Christianity. as
ogposed to the highly Apollonian nature of the Roman Catholic
{C urch.

7 Aristotle's Theo of Poetr and Fine Art. Trans. by
8.3. Butcher. Dover Press. New York. 1931 (1395).

80

and end perfection. (Good) tragedy accomplishes this imi-
tation by eliminating the mundane trivia of historical life
which normally blind us to perceiving Nature's true purpose
and meaning. which is to attain teleological perfection or
excellence. Says Aristotle: “Poetry ... is a more philoso-
phical and a higher thing than history: for poetry tends to
express the universal. history the particular." 8 The
tragedy that achieves its own excellence is both a micro-
cosm and a macrocosm. insofar as it reveals universal real-
ity through particulars (microcosm). yet selects only those
particulars that contribute to the fuller understanding of
the organic wholeness of the universal (macrocosm). 9

Thus the gkégg both sets the stage for the sacred drama.
and shapes the sacred space that delineates the boundaries
of a microcosm wherein the cosmos is made known by means of
sacred play. which in turn. embues the sacred drama with a
cosmic-divine significance.

Let us now consider the function of the second gkggg

that has been discussed.

8 9441.. u. 3: pp. alt-35.

9 Please note that the references to microcosm and
macrocosm are this author's. and not the terms used by
Aristotle in this context.

81

3. The Religious Function of the Tabernacle of Moses

The function associated with the Old Testament Mosaic

 

Tabernacle of Meeting (Witness. or Testimony). Solomon's
Temple. and the Ark of the Covenant they were built to
house. is obviously religious. As suggested above. we may
discern four closely interwoven threads of a single precious
cloth which comprise the religious function of the Egggg.
The four aspects are: (1) the commemoration of a theophany:
(2) creation of the earthly dwelling-place of the Divine:
(3) liturgical action as a means of recreating past theo-
phanies as present events: and (u) sacred ritual as response
to the Divine. Each of these four aspects of the religious
function must be understood as facets of a single. organic.

and meaningful whole. which can be distinguished. but

rarely separated.

a. Commemoration of a Theophany

The first aspect of the religious function of the
Tabernacle M is that it commemorates a theophany (theo-
phanies). Some of the most awesome. moving moments in the
lOld.Testament are the descriptions in Exodus of Moses' en-
counters with God on Mt. Sinai. After being in God's Holy
.Presence. Moses' face shown so brightly that the people
(could not bear to gaze on him: so he had to cover his head
with a veil so that they could see him. The people could
not encounter God as directly as Moses could. yet God wished

to reveal Himself to the people in a manner which they could

82

understand. and to which they could relate. Thus. He in-
scribed His Ten Commandments in stone as a visible sign of
His Presence. and of His Covenant with the children of Israel.
But. Just as Moses had to veil his head so that he might ap-
proach the people. so even the stone tablets inscribed by
God Himself also had to be veiled within a special Ark and
Tabernacle. This was not because the stone tablets had to
be protected. but to protect the people from getting too
close to such a manifestation of God. lest they be burned. 10
There are various biblical references to people dying be-
cause they touched the Ark (e.g. Uzzah. II Samuel 6:6-7).
Also the Ark spread death and destruction when captured by
the unbelieving Philistines.

In addition to receiving the Tablets of the Torah from
God. Moses also received complete instructions about how to
construct a place adequate to house the holy Tablets. We
recall that the model for the earthly Tabernacle was the
heavenly Tabernacle itself. 11 In order to approach the
people in a manner that they could understand. the Invisible

1° In the third troparion of the eighth ode of the
"Canon for Preparation for Holy Communion.” this idea is
clearly expressed in relation to receiving Holy Communion
(the Heavenly Tabernacle): "I tremble. taking fire. lest I
should burn as wax and hay. O dread Mystery. How can I.
who am clay. partake of the divine Body and Blood and become
incorruptible.” (Pra er Book. Holy Trinity Monastery. Jor-
danville. New York. 3rd edition. 1979. p. 316.)

11 Various places in the New Testament. as well as in
the Church Fathers. explain that Christ is the new Tabernacle
on.earth. the prototype of which was Moses' Tabernacle in
‘the wilderness (John's Prologue. and the Epistle to the
Hebrews) .

83
had to become visible. in the form of the Tablets. in the
form of the Ark of the Covenant. and in the form of the
entire Tabernacle with all of its furnishings. The Ark
and its Tablets sanctified the space where they were kept.
and the gkggg. the form of which was given by God Himself.
modeued after the pattern of the Heavenly gkggg. delineates

that sacred space.

b. Creation of the Earthly Dwelling-Place of the Divine

There is a second element of the religious function of
the Tabernacle.gk§g§ closely related to the first. namely.
that it forms the earthly dwelling-place of the Divine
Presence. That the Tabernacle serves this function is also
based on Moses' encounter with God on Mt. Sinai. for the
Lord told Moses to make a Holy-Place for Him. and that He
would appear among them (Exodus 25:8). His Divine Presence.
as outlined in Chapter One. is the Shekhinah (q.v.). visual-

 

ized as a cloud seen at the entrance of the Holy of Holies.
and also covering the Tabernacle. and with Whom Moses con-
versed. It is this same pillar of cloud that led the Hebrew
people by day during their wandering through the Sinai
wilderness. and was seen as a pillar of fire leading them
and filling the Tabernacle by night (Exodus 90:39-38).

Today we seem to have difficulty understanding the
:motivating principle behind the idea of having a Holy-Place
on earth in which God dwells. We question why God needs

such a Holy-Place. and further. how He can be confined to

84

some earthly. temporal place. no less to many temporal
places. I contend that we are not simply dealing with the
”primitive" mind who establishes such holy-places and
(mistakenly) thinks that God somehow resides there. but that
we are dealing with universal. archetypal experiences. but
ones much suppressed in our society.

Of course. it is not God who needs a dwelling-place on
earth. but humans who have the need. It is difficult for
us to deal with and understand the meta-rational. the apo-
phatic dimension of religion and its concept of the other-
ness of God and His unapproachability. or what Rudolf Otto
terms the "numinous" or the ”mystezigg tremendum.” 12

If we endeavor to develop an awareness of the non-
rational or meta-rational dimension of existence. we can
recognize that humans need a specially set-apart space. well.
veiled. so that we will be protected from getting too close
to the Numinous One. closer than we are able to tolerate.
Furthermore. as creatures of the material world. we need a
tangible. visible reality to lead us beyond to the higher.
invisible Truth and Reality.

To help us understand this experience better. I suggest
a parallel with energy. The universe is filled with energy:

perhaps the universe is energy. All living things have

 

12 The Idea of the Holy. Trans. John H, Harvey. Galaxy-
Oxford university Press. New York. 1963 (1923).

85

energy fields around them. although most people cannot (con-
sciously) see the energy until it has been focused in a
light bulb. electrical machinery. lightning. or a laser
beam. Yet. whether perceived visibly or not. the energy

can still affect or even harm persons or things. especially
in the hands of someone who can focus the energy of the uni-
verse. I suggest that God is like energy: He is everywhere.
but most people cannot perceive Hum until His Energies can
be focused in some particular way. in some particular place. 13
Thus. the idea behind God's desire to have a Holy Place
where He might dwell among people. is that He wishes to

communicate with. and be known by people. Thus. He comes

in ways persons can apprehend. if not fully comprehend.

c. Liturgical Action as Means of Recreating Past
Theophanies

In the absence of the on-going. visible Presence of
the Shekhinah. as experienced in the Mosaic Tabernacle and
First Temple. there is a third aspect of the religious
function of the gk§g§ that arises more prominently: that
by means of sacred rituals. the Divine Presence might some-

how be enduced to dwell in a certain place: by ritual

 

13 Numerous Church Fathers discuss the distinction be-
tween God's Energies and His Essence. which might be consid-
ered a parallel to Aristotle's distinction between Actuality
and Potentiality. The discussion is central to St. Gregory
Palamas' explanation that the vision of the Uhcreated Light
of Mt. Tabor refers to God's Energies. and not to His
Essence.

86

commemoration of salvation-history's past theophanies (usu-
ally on feast days). those theophanies might be recreated
(recreation) and re-presents (representation) as present
theophanies. so that subsequent generations of people might
be enabled to encounter the Divine Presence. to the extent

that they are able to apprehend and comprehend. 1“

d. Sacred Ritual and Worship as Response to the Divine
How are people going to react when they apprehend a
theophany or manifestation of the Divine Presence? They
might react as St. Peter did on Mt. Tabor (lgg. g;§.). and
wish to build a ggggg. Coupled with such a response is

commonly the instinct to offer sacrifice. praise.

 

1“ For example. the hymns of many feast days (in the
Orthodox Church's hymnography) clearly state the experience
of the feast as a present reality:

"Today the Virgin gives birth to the Transcendent One...“
(Kontakion. Christmas)

“Today‘Thou hast revealed Thyself unto the universe...”
(Kontakion. Theophany)

”Today is the beginning of our salvation. the revela-
tion of the eternal mystery...”
(Troparion. Annunciation)

"Yesterday. 0 Christ. I was buried with Thee. and
t I I rise again With Th, rlsisss"
(Canon. Ode 3 Troparion. Pascha)

"Today is the prelude of the goodwill of God...

"The most pure Temple of the Savior ... is presented
today to the house of the Lord..."
(Traparion and Kontakion. Entrance
of the Theotokos into the Temple)

87

thanksgiving. and other forms of worship. Whereas one might
worship anywhere. the particular focus of response is likely
to be where the Divine was made known by means of a specific
manifestation. usually in the tabernacle or temple built to
commemorate the theophany. Thus. in addition to the Holy of
Holies where the Divine Radiance was shielded in order to
protect the people. there was the need for a somewhat less
holy place where sacred actions might be enacted. The per-
formance of sacred actions is therefore the fourth element
of the religious function of the Old Testament Tabernacle
smas-

Yet even the formal. public response to the theophany
and the Shekhinah became prescribed and regulated to a
large extent by the Mosaic Law. The nature of Jewish ritual
is a study all its own. but for our purposes here. let it
suffice to indicate that the basic elements of Jewish sacred
actions (as outlined in Leviticus) included: a strong empha-
sis on sacrifice: various rituals of cleanliness: ritual
commemorations of special saving events. the most important
of which was the Passover and Exodus from Egypt: rituals of
repentance and atonement (especially Ygg Kippur): and a
gradual development of hymns. psalms. prayers. Scripture
readings and expositions on them. and rites of daily worship
offerings of praise and adoration. thanksgiving. repentance.
and petition. There was a very long. gradual process of

development of Jewish liturgy and worship. from the

88

Tabernacle. to the Temple. to the Synagogue. Many elements
cannot be dated precisely. and there are differences of
views among various scholars about when certain practices.
prayers. psalms. etc. were developed. as well as conflicting
views regarding the visual forms and Jewish iconography. 15

In conclusion. we see that there is both a dramatic
function and a religious function associated with the pkgpg.
However. these two are closely related. for through the use
of drama. an underlying religious function is expressed in
the Greek theatre. and the liturgical action and sacred
rituals associated with the religious action and sacred
rituals associated with the religious function of the Taber-
nacle are frequently enacted through dramatic action.

In concluding this chapter. let us recapitulate the
four aspects of the religious function of the pkgpg..since
we will be referring back to them later in this study. These
aspects are:

- to commemorate a theophany:

- to create the earthly dwelling-place of the Divine:

- to recreate past theophanies through liturgical

 

15 Based on the following studies of Jewish liturgy:
Frank Gavin.-Jewish Antecedents for the Christian Sacraments.
KTAV Publishing House. New York. 1968 (1928 by SPCK):

A.Z. Idelsohn. Jewish Litur and Its Development. Schocken
Books. New York. 1972 (1932;: Eric Werner. The Sacred Bridge:
.Liturgical Parallels in S agogue and:§arly Churgh. Schocken.
Books. New York. 1970 (1959 3 Louis Boyer. Eucharist:
{Theology and Spirituality of the Eucharistic-PFEyETTTrans.

C.G. Quinn} Uhlverélfy'of'thre'fiEme Pféss. Indiana. 1968.

 

 

89

action. in order to make them present realities for
subsequent generations:

- to respond to the manifestation of the Divine by

means of sacred rituals and worship.

Let us not forget that each of these four aspects are
very closely interwoven and interdependent: that they are
distinguishable. but not separable. Furthermore. let us
recall that we saw in Chapter Two that the functions associ-
ated with Moses' skénE/Tabernacle in the wilderness. continue
in an unbroken line to subsequent skénai. to the three Jewish
Temples. and then to the synagogues.

We will now inquire how the linguistic use. the forms.

and the functions of the crane are interrelated.

Chapter Four

THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE LINGUISTIQ USE.
THE FORMS. AND THE FUNCTIONS OF THE SKENE

In the above three chapters we have considered three
elements of the pkgpg: the linguistic use of the Greek
word: the visual forms that directly correspond to the dic-
tionary meanings: and the functional purposes of those visual
forms. We have already made a few cursory observations about
some correlations between the different elements of the pgfipg.
but now I shall summarize and endeavor to make more explicit

some of the multifaceted interrelationships.

1. Lin istic Use Form and Function Ma Be Distin ished.
But Not Se rated " ""

We must first thoroughly be aware that. although these
three elements may be distinguished. they cannot be separated.
Indeed. one cannot comprehend what the words "tabernacle.” or
"stage" would mean without being able to have some mental
image of what they looked like (regardless of how inaccurate
the image might be). In fact it is common that the very de-r
finition of a noun will include a description of both its
function and its form. For example. if we attemptedeto define
the words knife. chair. cup. or pencil. without describing

their form or function. it then would be clear how inseparable

9O

91

are form and function..

With many everyday words. the particular sound associ-
ated with a particular form/function is rather arbitrary.
and most any mutually understandable sound could represent
a particular obJect. action. emotion. However. when we
move away from concrete everyday words to more abstract
terms and theological-philosophical-psychological concepts.
we find that a study of etymolological derivation and line
guistic use can greatly expand and develop our understanding
of the larger concepts involved. 1

Therefore. by investigating the etymology. form. and
function of the Tabernacle/pkgpg. our understanding of many
phenomena of human existence is being expanded. For example.
we have seen thus far that from the simple. concrete. every-
day Greek word for "tent.“ two maJor variants developed.
whose significance extends far beyond a mere tent. Let us
continue our exploration of these variants. the Tabernacle.

and the theatre skéné.

 

1 For instance. in order to understand the significance
of Christ being called the "Word" (as in St. John's Prologue).
one must have at least a passing knowledge of the use of the
Greek term, e Acres (22 logos). in the philosophical milieu
of the ancient world. as well as of the extensive symbolic
significance of words. names. language both in universal
human experience. as well as in the experience of the ancient
Eastern Mediterranean world.

92

2. Theatre and gabernacle: Comparison of Forms
Both the Greek theatre skéne. and the Jewish Tabernacle.

each of which are originally called a pkgpg. initially were
tents. There is not a great deal of similarity in form be-
tween the Mosaic Tabernacle and the Greek theatre. however.
Yet. by the time that the Tabernacle becomes the Temple. sim-
ilarities develop: emphasis on a facade with grand portal(s).
flanked by columns. frequently with a pediment. Too. the
use of curtains to conceal and reveal is a form common to
both TabernacledTemple and theatre. The Greek theatre was
ither within or adJacent to the temple precincts of Diony-
sos. and early theatres usually had an altar to the god in
the center of the orchestra (the "dancing place”). comparable
in form to the Jewish altar in the sacred space in front of
the Holy of Holies. The sacred rituals were enacted in the
vicinity of the altars in both situations. which included
sacrifices on the respective altars.

The Mosaic Tabernacle was first constructed in the thir-
teenth century. the First Temple in the tenth century. and '
the Second Temple in 520 B.C.. whereas the first Greek theatres
that we know about were in the sixth and mostly the fifth
centuries B.C. There was relatively little interaction be-
tween these two civilizations during these centuries. as far
as we know. But during the fourth to the first centuries B.C.:
the Hellenistic period. Greek culture - thought and forms -
spread throughout the Mediterranean. Roman adaptation or

Greek cultural forms spread Greek influence further. The

93

Septuagint was translated in the third-second centuries B.C..
thus establishing the verbal connection between pkgpg. pppkr
pgpgp. and mishkan. Since most of our early existing visual
representations of the Tabernacle and Temple date from this
period of strong Greek influence. it should not be surprising
to find the Tabernacle and the first two Temples depicted ac-
cording to the Greek forms that were in use at that time.

It was perhaps similar to the Gothic Age convention of por-
traying the Jerusalem Temple as a Gothic cathedral. I suggest
that this transference of forms could occur precisely because
there were similar functions associated with the forms of the
borrowers and the borrowees. This occurred first when Judaism
accepted Greek forms. and again when Christianity accepted
Jewish. Greek and Roman. Syrian. and other forms. Consequent-
ly. a comparison of the functions of the p§§p§jwill provide a
fuller understanding of why various forms can be designated

as skend forms. To this we now turn.

3. Theatre and Tabernacle: ngpgpison of Functions

In the Greek theatre the pk§p§_set the scene and delin-
eated the sacred space within which the sacred drama was en-
acted. For the ancient Hebrews. the gg§p§ was the holy
house within which the Ark of the Covenant was kept. and
where Moses conversed with God. Although the Greek word
changed from p§§p§ to pgpp (dwelling) when the Tabernacle

became the Temple. the function of both remained the same.

94

Seemingly. the function. as well as the form. of the
Greek and Hebrew skénai were quite unrelated. But is the
assumption that the Greek theatre and the Mosaic Tabernacle
had little in common really valid and accurate? I plan to
demonstrate that. on the contrary. the functions of the

Greek and Hebrew skEnai were indeed very similar.

a. Religious Function

We have discussed in the previous chapter four aspects
of the religous function of the Mosaic Tabernacle. which. in
turn. were transferred to the Jewish Temple and Synagogue.
Might these religous functions be applicable to the Greek
drama? I suggest they may.

i) heo

Theophany is basic to the Tabernacle. Do theophanies
occur in the theatre? In answering this question. we must
realize. of course. that the concept of what would constitute
a theophany would be considerably different for the Greeks
than for the Hebrews. Judaic radical monotheism. obviously.
is much different from Greek polythism. The Mosaic pggpg,
commemorated the manifestation of the One God. and of the
Covenant between God and man. and the high moral standards
of conduct expected by God of His people. Greek religion.
on the other hand. was not especially involved with morality.
and rarely possessed the concept of a moral God who expected

humans to act equally as morally as He (according to Judaic

95

moral standards). Nor did the Greeks have a book of Sacred
Scriptures.as the Jews did. which recorded the divine Self-
revelation. 2
What the Greeks did have. though. were the great epics.
(perhaps the Creek's equivalent of Sacred Scriptures). which
were dramatically recited to groups of people by wandering
poets. and which eventually led to the development of the
classical Greek drama. The tragedies are characteristically
"preoccupied with fundamental religious problems - the nature
of God or the gods. the relationship of the human and the
divine. or the nature of God's ways to man." 3 Through the
unified action and character of the persons in the spice and
dramas. h (heroes. noble men and women. and the gods and
goddesses). the divine manifestation of the purpose and
meaning of life were represented. As mentioned above. Aris-
totle says that tragedy reveals the universal. teleological
principles (the gggpgfor excellence) of Nature. which are
usually thwarted. as well as masked. by the plethora of triv-
ial. mundane events. I suggest that for the ancient Greeks.
the discernment of the immutable. cosmic (e.g. divine) order
and significance of events. and of the role played by the-
gods in particular events. was their form of a theophany. In
the (good) Greek drama. everything makes sense, which is a

 

2 For further information. see G. Lowes Dickenson. 2p:
Greek View of Life. Ann Arbor Paperbacks. 1967 (1958). Chapter
One. "The Greek View of Religion.” pp. 1-6“.

3 Oates and O'Neill. pp. cit.. p. xxiii.
Again. see Aristotle's Poetics. pp. cit.

96

type of manifestation of divine purposes. where everything

had a discernible cause and effect. in contrast to everyday
life where cause and effect are so difficult to perceive.

The Greek holy men were "seers" (as were the Jewish prophets) -
they could perceive causes and effects. and see the divine
activity in the lives of men. One might theorize that the
dramatists themselves were types of seers (and theologians).
for through them the cosmic/divine realm was made known to

the people. insofar as they were capable of perceiving it.

I hypothesize that this function of revealing the
divine/Cosmic purposes was the primary way in which the
theatre re-enacted theophanies and revelations by the gods.
and that these repeatable theophanies occurred in. and were
designated by. the £332; form of the theatre. which. in turn.
delineated the sacred space within which the sacred actions
occurred. Thus we see that the Greek theatre shares with
the Tabernacle the first aspect of the religious function
of the ggggg - delineating the place of theophany.

11) Recreation of Past Theophanies

Closely associated with the Greek drama as a mani-
festation of the divine order of the cosmos is the built-in
feature that these manifestations are readily repeatable
whenever they are performed. Thus. by means of the re-.:
enactment of the designated actions. the theophanies may be
recreated. And furthermore. the plays themselves are recrea-

tions of past events and persons. from an ancient. or even

97

alleged "mythical” past. when gods and mortals freely inter-
acted. and when noble. royal heroes ruled. but whose excell-
ence and nobility were marred by a fatal flaw. 5 The divine
activity. and cause and effect. were readily discernible in
the lives of these royal. and sometimes. semi-divine heroes.
When cause and effect are discernible. one can perceive order
and eternal laws. ~The opposite of order and the arrangement
of things and events according to laws. is randomness or
chaos. Creation is traditionally understood as bringing
order out of chaos. Consequently. chaos is the opposite of
life and fertility. We saw in our discussion in Chapter

 

5 Scholars and archeologists. such as Henry Schliemann
and his wife. Sophia. have discovered - in the late nine-
teenth century - that many of the Greek heroes. such as Aga-
memnon. Menalaus. etc.. and events such as the TroJan War.
were. indeed. historical. and not mythological. as had been
previously believed. (Yet the accounts of these historical
events sometimes have been embroidered with some mythical
details and episodes.)

6 For example. in the Oresteian Trilogy by Aeschylus
(#90-060 B. C. ) Agamemnon brought evil upon himself by his
evil act of sacrificing his daughter in order to get a good
wind to sail to Troy. Thus his own act was avenged when his
wife. Clytemnestra. killed him. In turn. her evil act also
brought calamity upon herself. for her son. Orestes. had to
avenge the murder of his father. Going beyond the problem
of evil. Justice and mercy. the action of the triology
basically is a study in cause and effect: morally outrageous
deeds bring their own consequences.

A further example is seen in Oedipus Tyzggpus. Because
the universe is ordered. and not chaotic. there could be
such things as oracles. But Oedipus sought to escape the
ordering of the universe - to escape his own destiny. This
he could not do. despite his efforts. The heinous crime
of patricide. plus marrying one's own mother. albeit unknow-
ingly. brought the natural consequences of the deeds upon
Oedipus. Thus the dramas proclaim: every cause has its ef-
fect - evil acts bring evil consequences - it is a cosmic
law.

98

Three that the Greek dramas were performed at harvest festi-
vals. which themselves are affirmations of life and fertility
and the order of nature. and these dramas were dedicated to
Dionysos. the god of fertility and life and their ecstatic
expression.

The festivals of Judaism are also celebrations of life
and fertility. The central feast. Passover. is a celebration
and proclamation of life: the Hebrews died to the land of
slavery. and passed over into the Promised Land of Milk and
Honey - an image of new and fuller life. Chanukah celebrates
the victory over the death-dealing forces of Syria. and the
rededication of the Second Temple. the visible manifestation
of God's presence on earth. The Feast of Booths (gukkoth)
is both a harvest festival and a commemoration of Yahweh's
giving of the Law to Moses - again. both celebrate fertility
and the ordering of the cosmos by means of law.

We continually find fertility and order (law) closely
associated in various contexts. and we find them both together
as a maJor element of the religious function of the Greek
theatre and of the Tabernacle/Temple. where they were products
of the manifestation of the Divine. and which may be recreated
in order to re-present past theophanies. In Section C of
this chapter we will look more closely at how fertility and

order are related to marriage and royaly.

99

111) Sacred Ritual
Sacred ritual as a response to the manifestation of
the divine. and its role in the Tabernacle. Temple. and Syn-
agogue is undisputed. However. to what extent was sacred
ritual involved in the Greek theatre?

To the “modern mind" drama is not viewed as sacred rit-
ual. On the contrary. it is an entertainment. a diversion.
something to attend on an evening out. and sometimes deals
with important topics. We go to a play. but the play activ-
ity tends not to be regarded as a really important and serious
dimension of life. To a large degree. for modern western men.
work is considered the activity of prime importance - that
which one does seriously. Play might be valuable insofar as
it enables one to relax and thereby return to work more re-
freshed. To play more than is "necessary“ tends to be con-
sidered as a waste of time. as frivolous: and the person who
plays too much is viewed as lazy. or at best. not understand-
able.

Let these few words about the play element in sacred
ritual suffice for now. In the next section we will consider
play further. in the context of the dramatic and play func-
tion that corresponds to the religious function. as twin
dimensions of the function of the pkgpg, For now. let us
accept that the experience of play for the ancient Greeks
was very different from that of our modern age.

I maintain that the Greek drama was exactly that sacred

100

ritual whereby the divine manifestation occurred. It was
through the sacred ritual. or sacred play. that the order
and fertility of the cosmos and therefore. of life itself.
were affirmed. and indeed. perhaps even guaranteed to some
extent. Survival depended upon the crops. which depended

on the order of the seasons. of the rain. and of the sun.
Survival depended upon the fact. and faith in the fact. that
when seeds were buried in the ground.8ymbolizing the earth-
mother). new life would appear. and when seeds were buried
in animal and human mothers. new life would also appear. In
a random universe. there could be no such assurance. Sacred
ritual both celebrates and recreates theophanies. The
sacred ritual that is the Greek drama celebrates and recre-
ates the manifestation of the divine order of the cosmos.

in which each living thing participates. This theophany
affirms that there is nothing random. nothing accidental

in the divinely ordered universe: everything proceeds ac-
cording to fixed cosmological. universal principles of

cause and effect.

One of the most important ways in which this order was
manifested was the structure and ordering of the action of
the plays. as discussed by Aristotle in his Poetics. One
way in which the ordering of the dramatic action was achieved
was by having a clear beginning. middle and end. where con-
sequences follow logically one from another. In our daily
lives. Aristotle ponders (as discussed by Butcher). we rarely

clearly see the ends of our actions. and thus life may seem

101

random. However. good drama extracts the important elements
of action and life. ignoring the trivial and mundane particu-
lars. so that we can clearly observe. within a unity of time.
action. and place. the ends which follow from certain begin-
nings. For example. we see Agamemnon's end which is the
consequence of his killing his daughter. and we Oedipus'

end which is the consequence of his trying to escape his
destiny. of seeking to know what he ought not to know. and
of killing his father and marrying his mother. In both the
Oresteia and the Oedipus trilogies. the second and third
plays primarily deal with the sequence of actions and con-
sequences that proceed from the first play. Aristotle
states that drama is superior to history. because drama re-
veals to us the logical ends of actions and universal laws.
whereas in histOry the universal principles are lost in the
plethora of particulars. and we cannot perceive the logical.
cosmic principles that are essential to nature's operations.
Thus. dramatic order. unity. and logic reveal the underlying
order. unity. and logic of the universe. The driving passion
Of Aristotle's whole system of science-philosophy was to
discover and reveal this precise order. unity. and logic of
the universe. where there is nothing random or accidental.
nor-without purpose or end. Aristotle especially admired
Oedipus Tyrranus for achieving the intended ends of drama. 7

7 Aristotle's Poetics. pp. cit.. pessim.

102

The role of Greek drama as sacred ritual is further
demonstrated by another highly significant factor. namely.
the presence of the various components Of sacred ritual.
(These components are also the same as are involved in the
general play-activity.) These elements include :

- a designated play-space (delineated by the pkgpg

and the theatre's orchEstra): '
- specially trained and set-apart players (actors) who:
* wear special clothes (costumes):
* speak pre-established words:
* perform pre-established actions:
* enact pre-established roles:
* fulfill their roles on behalf of the gathered
community:
* adhere to specific rules governing their activity:
- an audience. gathered to observe. and to vicariously
participate in the entire ritual enactment. 8
The play-activity will be discussed further in Section

b. the "Dramatic and Play Function.”

iv) Dwelling-Place of the Divine
The fourth element of the religious function Of the
Jewish Tabernacle is its role as the dwelling-place of the
Divine on earth. This is the one element that is not fully

8 See Huizinsa. Homo Lad. en, 8. . Beacon Press. Boston. 1955.
(10th printing. 1972).

103

developed in the Greek theatre. at least not when viewed as
a static. constant experience. However. remember that we
saw in Chapter One. Section Three. that the original conno-
tation of ’ple. as the term for the Tabernacle. was some-
thing mobil. not static. and that the static connotation
developed later. As far as I can determine. the theatre
itself was not regarded as a permanent dwelling-place of a
god or gods. although. as seen above. the theatre did become
the temporary dwelling-place of the divine during the drama-
tic enactments which disclosed and reaffirmed the divine
nature and role in life.

In addition. the theatre was in the sacred precinct of
a city. immediately adJacent to the local temple of Dionysos.
and its altar. However. it was the ususal practice to have
an altar in the center of the orchestra circle. upon which
sacrifices would be Offered as part of the enactment of the
dramas.

Even the Greek temples themselves were not consciously
viewed as much as the earthly dwelling-place of the divine
as they were were primarily places to offer sacrifices to
the gods. in the courtyard in front of the temple. and to
house the cult statue. ‘The purpose of the sacrifices was
basically to please and appease the gods. hoping to curry
their favor. 9

9 Dickenson. pp. cit.. Pp. 21-22.

104

It seems that the maJor focus was on the exterior of
the temple and their sacrifices - the public ritual - and
not on the interior. I suggest that the explanation for
this phenomenon is that that Greek religion was predomin-
antly immanent. in contrast to Hebrew transcendentalism.
The Greek gods ”were beings essentially like man. superior
to him not in spiritual or even in moral attributes. but in
outward gifts such as strength. beauty. and immortality.

As a consequence of this. his relation to them were not
inward and spiritual. but external and mechanical.“ 10 Thus
the gods of Greece were readily accessible to man. and
freely dwelt among. interacted with. seduced or even married
mortals. producing half-human and half-divine offspring. It
was this interaction between the gods and mortals that was
the primary subject of many of the dramas. The classical
Greek worlddview. in large part. according to many scholars.
was anthropocentric: ”Man is the measure of all things.“
The Greek gods were also measured by man. whereas in the
Hebrew worlddview. man is measured by God. because the
Hebrews viewed God as far above. beyond. and different from
man. even though man was created in the "image of God."

Because of the Hebrew understanding of the transcen-
dental nature of the Divine Essence. it was necessary to

balance the unknowability and unapproachability of God with

1° Ibid.. p. 18.

105

ways of knowing and approaching Him. Thus. revelation was
an important component of Hebrew religion. as well as the
religious instinct to have a place where God "dwelt” and
could be encountered. Both of these elements are minimized
in an immanent religion. Nevertheless. I postulate that in
reality. the tradition that the Greek heroes of the past
freely interacted with the gods. and the tradition that
Moses. the Patriarchs and the Prophets freely interacted
with God. are very similar and serve similar functions.

Consequently. although the Greek theatre is not cus-
tomarily viewed as the earthly dwelling-place of the divine
in the same. perhaps static way that the Hebraic Tabernacle
and Temples were. I suggest that this difference between
the theatre and the Jewish Temple can be explained by the
basic differences between transcendent and immanent religion.
In both instances. however. both Greek and Hebrew. the func-
tion was to enable the individual to discern his relation-
ship with the Divine and the cosmic forces.

And finally. we are once again reminded that although
not a permanent dwelling-place of the divine in a static
sense. the theatres did serve that function temporarily
during the ritual dramas. when the divine order and purpose

of the cosmos were made more readily discernible.

106

b) ppgggtic and Play Functions

In the above discussion of the religious function of

 

the pkgpg. we have found that. although at first glance one
might conclude that there could be little similarity of
function between the Mosaic Tabernacle and the Greek theatre.
upon closer examination. many of the elements of the primar-
ily religious function of the Mosaic Tabernacle/Temple also
were present as important components of the the Greek theatre.

Let us reverse our inquiry. and question whether the
theatre's obvious :dramatic function is to be found in the
Mosaic Tabernacle. Once again. one might conclude that the
dramatic function has nothing to do with the Tabernacle and
the Temple. However. I contend that the drama function is
indeed common to both.

At the root of the similarity between the Tabernacle
and theatre. and essential to an understanding of the pk§p§.
is the element of play. common to both drama and ritual.
Because play is so important in both. we shall discuss it
in detail. '

There have been several excellent modern studies of
the philosophical-theological-psychological-sociological
perspectives of play. most notably. Johan Ruizinga's ngp

Ludens : A Study of the Play Element MAW.“ and Hugo

 

Rahner's at Pla . 12 Hermann Hesse's aggister
11 22.. cite
12

Herder and Herder. New York. 1972.

107

Ludi. 13 ("The Game Master"). published originally in 1995
as Des Glasperlenspiel ("The Glass Bead Game"). is a most

intriguing fictional exploration of the concepts and meaning

of play. E.0. James' Qhristian Myph and gitual makes signif-

icant contributions to an understanding of ritual play. 1“

And. certainly. throughout Carl Jung's writings and thought.
and that of his followers. is found a truly profound under-
standing of the many faces of play. especially in mythology
and fairy tales (such as the trickster-knave element of the
hero).

Hugo Rahner emphasizes the theological-philosophical
dimensions of play. exploring the concept of play in the
Bible and in philosophers-theologians such as Plato. Arie.
totle. Philo. Plotinus. Maximus the Confessor. and Aquinas.
who. according to Rahner. follow the Old Testament concept
of Hochmah. or Wisdom - the ”little child of God" - and see
the creation of the world as the ”playing of God." especi-
ally as the "dancing and playing of Divine Wisdom." 15
The Old Testament attitudes and concepts are further echoed
by Tertullian: "And so the 'play' or 'dance' which the Cre-

ator of the world regards with such delight is the fullness

of creative thought mirrored in Wisdom. in the Logos." 16

13 Ungar Paperbacks. New York. 191:9. (iuth printing.

 

1968).
1“ 22s Cit e
15 Man at Play. pp. cit.. p. 20.
16

Ibid.. p. 22.

108

Proceeding from the affirmation of the playing of God
is the further premise that man's highest calling is to imi-
tate God (thebsis) and be a creature who plays. 17 Both
Huizinga and Rahner discuss at some length how all of the
different art forms and sacred ritual are play. What ex-
actly are the characteristics of play? Huizinga attempts
to define them in his study about play:

It is an activity which proceeds within certain

limits of time and space. in a visible order.

according to rules freely accepted. outside the

sphere of necessity or material utility. The

plaquood is one of rapture and enthusiasm. and

is sacred or festive in accordance with the

occasion. A feeling of exhaltation and tension

accompanies the action: mirth and relaxation

follow. 13

Other elements of play considered by both these authors
and by 3.0. James in his Christian pan and Ritual 19 are
the “special" quality surrounding much play. including what
one wears. and the play-space where one plays and its visible
delineation. various other scholars of the phenomenology of
religion have studied the concepts and characteristics of
sacred space. a corollary of play-space. It is intriguing
to note that the skin; appears repeatedly as that form which
delineates a play-area. and originally. a sacred play-ground.

Why is there such a close association between play and

 

1?
18

Ibid.. P. 25.
Ibide. pe 132s
19 22s Olte

109

the sacred? Play is sacred for two main reasons. It is
sacred because it is done in proximity to the sacred dwelling
and place of theophany. and it is sacred because it imitates
the divine activity. Sacred ritual usually combines many
types of play. and is perhaps the culmination and apex of
play.

How can sacred ritual be understood as play? Let us
look again at Huizinga's characteristics of play Just quoted.
and think of each element both in terms of God's activity in
creating the world. and in terms of the sacred ritual of
divine services. Both have the restrictions of time. space.‘
visible order. and pre-established rules which are freely
accepted: most importantly. both are not necessary. Char-
acteristic of creation and sacred ritual-play are the feel-
ings of mirth and relaxation. This fact is illustrated in
Genesis. where. after each day of creation. God said. ”It is
good." and on the seventh day He rested. In imitation of
God's activity. after the Divine Services of the Sabbath or
feast day. Christians are supposed to relax and play. not
work.

In the performance or creation of art. the musician.
actor. painter. architect. sculptor. dancer. and those who
vicariously participate in their creative work. share these
very same feelings. In fact. even the results of artistic
creativity can be described in terms of alternating rhythms
of tension and relaxation. In addition. as is true of all

Play. the performing. visual and literary arts also must

110

function within certain boundaries of time. space. order.
and rules.
It is all of these art forms that are the components
of sacred ritual: recitation of poetic visions: enactment
and dancing of various dramas: performance of music (how
can one celebrate without music?): all usually staged within
a monument of an architect's creative vision. surrounded by
paintings and sculpture produced by others' creative in-
spiration. 20
In order to be creative there must be a balance be-
tween the masculine and feminine. between the Apollonian
and Dionysian. Likewise. sacred ritual also requires a
balance between all opposites. and the pk§p§,itself sym-
bolizes that reconciliation of opposites. of heaven and
earth.

I However. I contend that our society is heavily Apollon-
ian. as revealed by its over-emphasis on the 'work-ethic.‘
'success.' and a rationalistic-scientific explanation for
all reality. As a consequence. it is difficult for people
to learn to play creatively. and sacred ritual becomes a
thing one 9223 instead of a creative process that one pp.
and which helps one to achieve one's true pg;_g. Instead.
American passtimes tend to be largely escapist instead of

 

20 Of course there is much sc-called art that is with-

out creative inspiration. but we are speaking of the ideal
toward which we aspire. we who desire to imitate the Divine
Nature through creating beauty. and imitate the Divine
Activity through creative play.

111

re-creative. Such an attitude toward play is antithetical
to sacred play and to the very meaning of the pkgpg. 21'

Apollo 9235; Dionysos pg. Sacred ritual. like all
creative or re-creative play. must combine both. In our
society we are so busy gpgpg. it is hard to learn to pg.
In the fullness of creative sacred ritual. one's being and
doing are one. as is the saint in mystical communion with
God. or the creative performer who virtually becomes one
with his artistic expression. or the creator who is one
with his creation during the creative process.

The dance might be viewed as the most full. complete
expression and imitation of the Divine Activity: the reli-
gious significance of the dance is extensive. David danced

before the Ark of the Lord. Many traditions in philosophy.

 

21 Most creative persons are outcasts and misfits in
a society that escapes through alcohol. drugs and being
passive spectators of T.V. and movies that are themselves
escapist. using violence and sex to escape the boredom of
an uncreative and monotonous society.

Sexuality is another aspect of truly creative play.
and an act that imitates the divine creativity par excell-
ence. and that. too. has become something secularized. banal.
and ordinary - neither sacred nor festive - but a thing to
be used to sell products and escape boredom.

Accompanying the gradual secularization of industrial-
ized society. with its overbalance on the side of the Apol-
lonian character. is the consequent effect on Western sacred
ritual. where divine services are rarely danced. but instead.
where music and liturgical action are commonly lifeless and
lugubrious. rather than being filled with energy and vitality
and Joy. For instance. the very concept of a “low" Mass. as
exists in the Western Church. is viewed by some as inconsis-
tent with the festive. creative nature of the Eucharist. and
does not exist in the Eastern Church. which. perhaps has
managed to maintain a little more of a balance between Apol-
lonian seriousness and Dionysian ecstasy.

112

religion and fantasy understand and utilize this rich imagery
of the dancing of God. from the playfulness of the child
Krishna. to the dancing Hindu god. Shiva. to the Platonic
and neo-Platonic image of Wisdom's (the ppgpp) creation of
the world as His dancing. 22
The idea of the Lpgpg or Wisdom of God singing and
dancing expresses the basic attitude that play is a mystical-
spiritual attitude of childlike simplicity and abandon. Of
Joy and wonder. This concept and attitude is maanested
in Kind David's exclamation. "I will dance and play before
the face of the Lord (II Kings 6:22). 23 and reflects the
spiritual ideal of imitating the Divine Activity.
Holy play and dance both breathe the same spirit as
the contemplation of the deepest mysteries of theology -
contemplation of the essentially paradoxical nature of God.
existence. and the cosmos. One might say that paradox. in

itself. is a form of mental play.

 

22 This ancient image of the dancing of God is echoed
in the words of Sidney Carter's song. “Lord of the Dance."
sung to an Old Shaker melody. which is used by Aaron Cop-
land in his "Apallachian Spring.”

I danced in the morning when the world was begun.
And I danced in the moon and the stars and the sun.
And I came down from heaven and was born on earth -
At Bethlehem I had my birth.

Dance. then. wherever you may be:

I am the Lord of the Dance. said he:

And I'll lead you all wherever you may be.
And I'll lead you all in the dance. said he.

23 The Greek word. pr6s6pon. translated as ”before the
face” also means "in the presence of."

113

The dance held a most important position in the early
period of the Greek theatre. In the sixth century B.C..
prior to the known playwrites whose works are extant. most
of the dramas were enacted by a chorus who sang and danced.
and only in the fifth century were actors added. and the
chorus' role diminished. 2“

Dance deserves to be regarded so highly because it is
the perfectly balanced. ordered. harmonization of soul and
body: it is the marriage between the material body and the
semi-material existence that is music. Dance is the marri—
age of opposites wherein the material body is transfigured
by. and made one with music. Above all other art forms. it
is music's rhythm. order. and harmony that corresponds to.
and is an invisible echo of the rhythm. order. and harmony
of the music and dance of the cosmic spheres.

Temporal music and dance. like the cosmic order and
harmony. are organic processes. not static. crystallized
forms. These cosmic. organic processes are also echoed in
the ordered rhythms of nature - in the procession of the
seasons and of the zodiac reflecting the annual solar cycle.
and in the monthly lunar cycle of nature. the seas. and
women. Ancient man. and cultures and religious sub-groups

not totally controlled by westernizaticn (with its secularism.

2“ Aristotle tells us in his Poetics that Sophocles
raise% the number Of actors to three. (pp. cit.. iv. 13.
pp. 1 -19e)

114

materialism. and rationalism). 25 see themselves as part
of the cosmic order and process. where mankind participates
in the cosmic rhythm. and where nothing happens by chance
or accident. but by divine ordering.

With this expanded concept of the dance. we can see
that all creative artists and performers can be said to
dance their art form: that the person enraptured with the
contemplation of. and communion with. God is dancing before
the face of the Lord: and all sacred ritual. when fully and
truly enacted. is also dancing and playing before the face
of the Lord.

Thus we see that true sacred ritual. like Greek sacred
drama. and like all truly re-creative play. combines the
Dionysian mirth. fantasy. exaltation. and ecstasy. with the
Apollonian restrictions of rules and order within time and
space. Both the sacred ritual of the Hebraic Tabernacle
and Temple. and the sacred drama of the ancient Greek theatre
share this creative play function. In the theatre there

was the combination of music. poetry. dancing. drama - all

 

25 In response to the bifurcation of man and nature of
the scientific age and the second industrial revolution. to-
day there is an upsurge of interest in. and even scientific
study of. such things as : lunar and solar biorhythms: the
auras (energy-fields) that surround all living things: ac-
quapuncture and the meridians of bodily energy flow: homeo-
pathic approach to medicine: psi (psychmn healing: and the
various forms of communication and knowledge that go beyond
material sensory perception. These all reflect the desire
tpdrecapture the concept of human involvement in the cosmic
0 er.

115

within the architectural and sculptural environment of the
sacred precinct and the theatre skéni} to which painting

was also added later. 26

(Painting was viewed as the
lowest of the arts due. in part. to its static nature.)

The fullness of liturgical enactment. at any time or place.
also combines these elements of play. as well as other pro-
ducts of the crafts and ”minor" arts.

In conclusion. we realize that the functions associated
with the pkgpg_in Tabernacle and theatre once again are
found to coincide. as we discover that the theatre's drama-
tic function and the Tabernacle/Temple's sacred ritual func-
tion are both dimensions of play. Because most pggpg forms
are associated with play functions. and the space reserved
fcr*much sacred play is delineated by a pkgp§_form. it has
been valuable to our inquiry into the form and function of
the pk§p§ for us to have made this examination of the
nature of play.

Regarding the space reserved for sacred play. let us
also point out that because play imitates the Divine Activ-
ity. the space in which that play is performed may become
a microcosm. where the ancient maxim. "as above. so below”
is fulfilled. insofar as the Divine Activity within the

cosmos is mirrored and imitated therein. The Greek theatre

and Hebraic Tabernacle/Temple are such microcosms due to

26 Aristotle also tells us that Sophocles was the
first to use painted scenery (skinogpgphis). (Poetics.
22.. 9.1.1:." 1‘0130 PP. 18-19.)

116

both the presence of the skepe and to the sacred creative
play-ritual danced within it.

c) Fertility and Marriage. Order and Royalty
While examining the function of the skini. we have re-

 

peatedly encountered the close association between the
pk§p§,form. and fertility and marriage. order and royalty.
I suggest that this association not only is not accidental.
but. on the contrary. is an essential part of the entire
meaning of the pkgpg. Let us look briefly at how these
four elements. fertility and marriage. order and royalty.
are related to each other. .

For countless centuries. most civilizations have been
dependent upon agriculture for their very survival. The
transition. from a hunting and picking society to the more
stable agriculturally based society inevitably is a part of
the early history of developing civilizations. In such
agricultural societies the people experienced their lives
as integrally connected with the order of the universe.

That the universe is indeed ordered and not capricious has
virtually never been seriously questioned. Modern science.
far from disproving cosmic orderliness. continually discovers
further universal principles that reveal the intricacies of
cosmic order. Yet. contrary to Western industrialized man's
sense of alienation from the natural world and its cosmic

principles. agricultural societies have always been acutely

117

aware of their interrelationship with the cosmic order. for
their very lives depend upon that order. Their whole exist-
ence revolves around and is based upon the truth of the
maxim. "As above. so below.” To survive. the order of the
heavens above had to be reflected on earth. and people had
to constantly reinforce their faith in that order. Without
such order. no one would know when to plant which crops. nor
when to harvest them. Without faith in such order on earth.
the farmers would not have the confidence to bury dead seed
in the ground. with the expectation that new life would
shoot forth from that dead and buried seed. Precisely be-
cause of the order of the universe. readily discerned in

the solar and lunar cycles. it can be relatively accurately
predicted that the buried seed will indeed grow according

to the farmers' expectations.

To help give the members of ancient agricultural socie-
ties confidence that the universe is ordered. that their
crops would grow. and that therefore they would not starve.
as well as to celebrate and reJoice in the life and order
of creation. meet such societies had spring and harvest
festivals.

Paricularly at the spring harvest festival it was com-
mon to have ritual enactments that dramatized the Joy. faith.
and confidence in the divinely ordered cosmos. The Greek

theatre dramas are Just such enactments. 27 In other

—‘_- —

27 Refer above to Chapter Three. Section Two. to the

118

Mediterranean cultures. such as the Egyptian. Babylonian.
and Palestinian. there would be at first a literal. and

then a purely ritual enactment of the slaying of the king.
the crowning of the new king (or recrowning of the former
king at later stages of development). and then. the marriage
of the king and queen and their (explicit or implicit) sex-
ual union. all of which were enacted beneath a canopy. 28
I suggest that such enactments were experienced as micro-
cosms which confirmed "as above. so below." but which may
perhaps also be viewed as macrocosms - "as below. so above."
thus becoming an assertion that what they enacted would in-
deed occur and be affirmed cosmically.

In other words. the fertility of the land was necessary
in order to have life. To be fertile means to produce or
create life. Since fertility of the land depends on the
cosmic solar and lunar order. therefore. order is a require-

ment of life and survival. Throughout the centuries. creap

tion and creativity have been understood as bringing order

 

discussion of Aristotle's explanation of the nature of the
classical Greek drama to clarify the specific ways in which
these dramas enacted the affirmation that the cosmos was
divinely ordered.

28 See E.O. James. ghristian Myth and Ritual. 22, cit..
Chapter One. "The Divine Kingship." pp. 1- 1.

Although there are no extant records to indicate so. it
is very possible that the early Hebrews also had this type
of New Year's festival. as their neighbors did. However.
as Hebrew monotheism developed. undoubtedly such practices

were suppressed as pagan rites. unbefitting the worship of
the One True God.

119

out of chaos. And of course. it is God (the gods - the
Divine) Who is the Creator of all things. and creates the
ordered world by overcoming the primordial chaos. Creation.
in fact. is the paradigmatic Divine Activity.

However. not only does cosmic creation originate as a
manifestation of the victory of order over chaos. but life
is also maintained by order as well. This truth we have
already encountered regarding the fertility of the crops.
However. the regulation of the external existence of society.
without which man's survival is tenuous at best. is also
based on order. That order is invariably derived from di-
vinely given laws and administered by a king and queen. or
comparable figures. In a society without the order that re-
sults from (enforced) laws. people cannot survive. as has
been seen at various times when anarchy has ruled in the
place of a stable. reliable. and Just central authority.

But since. as we have seen. order is a part of creation.

and creation is a chief activity of the divine. then those
who administer and maintain order in the temporal sphere
are performing a divinely sanctioned function. It is pre-
cisely in this parallel between the divine ordering of the
cosmos. and the ordering of the temporal sphere. that divin-
ity has been so closely and intimately associated with roy-
alty throughout so many civilizations and eras. It is pre-
cisely because of this parallel. that the §k§g§ demarcating
the theophany of God can be used to demarcate the theophany

of the emperor.

120

There are several other elements of universal symbolism
involved in the role of the king and qunn. As we saw above.
a king symbolizes man and the masculine elements of the sun
and rain. and a queen correspondingly represents woman and
the feminine element - the earth - which must receive the
nourishment of the sun and the rain in order to be creative
and fruitful. Thus. in the sacred marriage and procreation
of the king and queen. there is to be seen in microcosm the
sacred marriage of opposites that produces life - the marri-
age of heaven and earth that gives fertility to the land.
and the marriage of male and female that produces creativity
in human life.

Another result of such marriage of opposites is peace.
harmony. and balance. or in other words - order. Thus. we
see a further interrelationship between order. life. crea-
tivity. marriage. royalty. and fertility. The concept of
the union of opposites as both a prerequisite and a result
of higher levels of spiritual development can be found in
most religions.

Jung and his school maintain that harmony of the mascu-
line and feminine components within each individual is
necessary for the full development of the personality. and
for the release of the full creative potential.29 In
alchemy the anhngynous marriage of king and queen represents
the ultimate. cromhg achievement and goal of the alchemical

29 See. among others. Neumann. The Ori ins and Histor
of Consciousness. op. cit.. Chapter C71. pp. 195-i19.

 

121

spiritual quest.3°Alchemical gold symbolizes spiritual
knowledge of. and union with. the Divine. because gold. the
color of the sun. is a universal symbol of spiritual know-
ledge and divine life. In turn. gold. of course. is like-
wise associated with both God and king. and thereby. both
palaces and sanctuaries. both of which usually possess some
ggégg form. traditionally have been filled with as much
gold as circumstances would allow.

Thus we see that fertility and marriage. order and
royalty. are all related to divine functions and activities.
and are involved in the victory of order over chaos. of life
over death. And. certainly. life is what creation is all
about. and creation and maintenance of life is the prime
Divine Activity.

Since fertility and marriage. order and royalty are
divine functions. it is logical that their divinity should
be visibly demonstrated by the presence of a Egggg. since
the gkggg represents the dwelling-place of the divine. and
that place where the Divine manifests Itself to humans.

The 51393. in turn. also becomes the microcosm divine play-
ground where humans imitate the Divine Activity of playful

creativity and creative play.

‘f

30 See Burckhardt. Alchemy. o . cit.. Chapter 11. ”Of
the Chemical Marriage." pp. 1 9-15 .

Chapter Five
EXPANDED FORMULATION OF gm FUNCTIONS

If fertility and marriage. order and royalty are divine
functions as we have proposed. then to perceive them is to
perceive a theophany. or at least a partial manifestation of
the Divine. we saw in Chapter Three that the prime function
of the gkggg is to manifest the Divine Presence or commemor-
ate a theophany. The four functions at which we Just looked
at the end of the previous chapter. fertility. marriage.
order. and royalty. are basic to such theophanies. and conse-
quently. are likewise. functions of the gkggg.

On the basis of our above discussions. let us attempt
to summarize and expand our discussion about functions by
formulating six dimensions of theophanies. or divine activity.
that become. by association. functions of the Egggg.

1. To Manifest the Divine Presence Itself
Initially we saw this function in our discussion of the

Mosaic Tabernacle of Meeting in the wildereness. Actually.
the function of manifesting the Divine Presence - its Nature
and Activity - is the prime function of the gkggg. from which
all the other functions proceed. Distinctive of this first

function is the experience of the Divine Presence itself. as

122

123

in the encounter with the Shekhinah. We can therefore expect
to find skén6 forms whenever a church. temple. or other type
of shrine is viewed (or once had been viewed) as a dwelling-

place on earth of the Divine.

2. To Manifest Truth and Wisdom

All truth and wisdom proceed from God and are perceptions
of the Nature and Activity of God and of His creation. We
1 therefore can expect to find gkggg forms whenever a place.
a thing. a building. or a person or office is perceived to
be a vehicle to manifest such truth and wisdom. The proclam-
ation of the Word of God by means of reading the Holy Scrip-
tures. and expounding the Word of God in preaching are exam-

ples of this second function.

3. To Manifest Divine Order on Earth or in Heaven

Since life and creation can be defined as bringing order
out Of chaos. and God is the source and origin of all life
and creation. therefore the ordering of temporal existence
by means of law and stable government corresponds to the di-
vine life-giving and life-sustaining function. This refers
to religious law. such as compiled in the Jewish Torah.
which orders countless aspects of existence. as well as pol-
itical law. such as the manifestation of the emperor as he
regulates and orders the affairs of the realm. thereby ful-
filling the royal-imperial life-sustaining function.

124

Consequently. we would once again expect to find skéne forms
associated with the places. persons or obJects involved in
cosmic or temporal ordering. including government buildings

and law courts.

4. gogManifest Victor of Life and Order e. . the Good)
Over Death and Chaos e. . Evil

The cosmic and temporal struggle between good and evil.

 

life and death. is perhaps the most fundamental aspect of
existence. It is a basic theme of most religions. myths.
fairy tales. and other literature. and the visual expression
of these things. Thus. we would also expect to find egggg
forms whenever there is some proclamation that life. order.
and the Good indeed are stronger and are victorious over
death. chaos. and evil. The ancient Greeks and Romans be-
lieved that spread of their culture and victory over the
barbarians (e.g. non-Greeks or Romans) entailed Just such a
proclamation that order and the Good were stronger than the
chaos of the barbarians. (Misuse of the perception of this
concept can lead to gross atrocities and the attitude that
"might makes right.")

5. To Manifest Divine Play and Creativity
As we saw in Chapter Four. Section 3b. play is one way

in which we can describe the divine attitude towards His
acts of creation-creativity. They are not required acts.

nor are they labor: on the contrary. they proceed freely and

125

lovingly from God's Nature: thus. by definition. they are
play. Consequently. in places where divine play and crea-
tivity is manifested. again we would anticipate finding

skéne forms.

6. To Imitate Any of the Divine Activities
It can be said that to imitate any of the divine activ-

 

ities is one of the highest endeavors to which humans can
aspire. Naturally. any of the above mentioned divine activ-
ities or aspects of the Divine Nature that are functions of
the gkggg would be open to human imitation. For example.
the human search for truth and wisdom; the attempt to create
order on earth: to actualize to some extent the victory of
life and the Good over death and evil. such as in healing:
or to create playfully or play creatively - these would all
be ways in which we imitate the Divine. Consequently. g§§g§
forms frequently would be seen where these imitative actions
occur.

I suggest that whenever any of these six functions are
experienced. that there is a theophany. regardless of the
vehicle of the manifestation. Furthermore. I propose the
corollary idea that whenever a theophany is experienced.
that there we will also find some Egggg form.

With such an expanded understanding of the functions of
the gkggg. we can no longer restrict our inquiry solely to

the Hebrew TabernacledTemple-Synagogue-Ark. and the Greek

126

theatre. for these expanded functions are universal experiences.
In our next and final chapter. we will search for a more
universal encounter with these divine functions and their
corresponding Egg; forms. We will restrict ourselves. how-
ever. to manifestations in the ancient Mediterranean world.
primarily in the Judaeo-Christian tradition. (Inquiry into
other cultures will have to remain for a future study.) We
will find that any or all of the different gas forms can
be associated with any of the M functions.

Chapter Six

EXAMINATION OF THE SKENE FORMS THET_ CORRESPOND
TO THE EXPANDED FORMULATION OF SKENE FUNCTIONS

In our first five chapters we have looked at the meaning
of the word egggg. based on Greek word use. the theatre
gk§g§. and the use of gk§g§_in the Septuagint and in the
Greek New Testament. We then looked at the visual forms that
corresponded to the actual terms. limiting ourselves. there-
fore. to the Greek-Roman theatre ggggg. and to the Mosaic
Tabernacle with its Ark of the Covenant. At that point we
could not discuss Christian forms. because the New Testament
uses refer either to the Mosaic Tabernacle. or to the sksnai
of the Transfiguration (which were never constructed). or
are figurative references. indicating God's heavenly dwelling-
place. Thus. there is no Christian structure customarily
designated as a gkégé.

From there we proceeded to analyze the functions associ-
ated with the Greek theatre Egggg. and the religious functions
associated with the Mosaic.Tabernacle_and Ark of the Covenant.
which were transferred. in turn. to succeeding Temples. and
then to the Synagogue.

Subsequently. we sought to compare linguistic use. the

forms. and the functions of the Theatre and Tabernacle. and

127

128

found that in addition to the religious function of the

gkggg. that there were also dramatic and play functions. plus
recurrent imperial involvement. and association with creation.
life. fertility and order.

Finally. we formulated an expanded concept of the func-
tions of the gkggg. listing six theophanic functions common
to the universal experience of the §k§g§. Now I contend that
whenever and wherever we encounter any of the functions of
theophany. that there will be some gkggg form associated with
it. Furthermore. I maintain that the marriage of the form of
the 333193 with its functions is so indissolubleu that when-
ever one encounters any gkggg form. that. at least originally.
there had been some experience of the agggg functions of
theophany.

Also. I contend that virtually any of the six functions
mentioned in the previous chapter can be expressed by virtu-
ally any of the various gkéng forms.

At this point in our search for an understanding of the
universal meaning and significance of the ggggg. we will now
examine some of the §k§g§ forms that correspond to our ex-
panded formulation of §§§g§ functions.

We will consider five basic gk§§§ forms: the three-di-
mensional architectural canopy: the shell/niche/two-dimen-
sional canopy: the triumphal arch/portal: the Greek temple:
and the dome. Finally. we will consider the role of curtains

as a common. even ubiquitous. component of most skene forms.

129

1. The Three-Dimsional Architectural Canopy Sk§n€

The three-dimensional architectural canopy is the first
form we will look at in this expansion of our concepts and
understanding of the gg§g§ forms that correspond to our ex-
panded formulation of gkggg functions. as formulated in the
previous chapter.

In Chapter Two we considered the two most obvious forms
of the §k§g§. according to linguistic definition: the Mosaic
Tabernacle of the Presence in the wilderness. and its suc-
cessors; and the gkggg stage-setting cf the Greek theatre.
and its Roman successors. We saw in that chapter that the
§g§g§Dforms appeared consistently in order to set apart the
sacred space of the Holy of Holies and the Ark of the Covenant
(and their successors). wherein was manifested the Divine
Presence (the Shekhinah) and His Word of law. order. purpose.
truth. and wisdom - His Word of life and victory over death.
chaos and evil.

I propose that the architectural canopy gkégg. a few
examples of which we will see in this section. fulfills the
same functions. and that the Christian forms are derived
from. and are a continuation of the Jewish prototypes. as
expounded upon by numerous early Church Fathers. including
88. Clement and Cyril of Alexandria. St. Gregory of Nyssa.
and the three Cappadocian Fathers.

Since. after "tent." "canopy" is one of the prime

translations of the word skéné. I commence this chapter by

130

considering the canopy as the firsu,most logical extension
of our understanding of the forms of the §§§g§.

There are three basic forms of the roof of the canopy -
flat. round. or pointed. The pointed canopy will usually
have either four (pyramidal) or eight sides. These canopies
can be either free-standing. or built into a wall. The
latter (invariably curved). can be an actual part of the
three-dimensional architecture.

There are four common uses for gggggrcanopies: over im-
perial thrones; 1 over altars: over baptismal fonts: and
over tombs. There is a close connection between these four
uses. For example. in Byzantine Christian theology. the
altar is not only an altar of sacrifice. but the throne and
tomb of Christ. Also. in Eastern and Western Christian the-
ology. the baptismal font is a tomb as well as a place of
new life. following Pauline theology. Thus. since there is
such a close relationship of functions. it is logical that
the forms would also be closely related.

First we will look at a few examples of a pointed canopy.

and then examine the rounded form.

In an eleventh century Yugoslavian fresco of the

 

1 See Darius. the Persian king. enthroned in audience.
under a flat canopy - a relief carving at Persepolis. 5th-
6th centuries. B.C.. in Ghirshman. Persia. Thames and Hudson.
England. 196b, p. 198. See l'Orange. 22. g;§.. for many ex-
amples. Also see the illustrations of saints and imperial
persons enthroned in Section Two of this chapter. The altar
and baptistry use of the canopy is derived from the prior
pagan forms and symbolism.

131

Communion of the Apostles (Figure 29). we see Christ under

a pyramidal altar canopy. standing behind the altar. serving
the Divine Liturgy. (Notice that there seems to be a low
wall in front of the altar. with double doors in the center:
we will consider this later.) Although this is a later and
a painted example. I suggest that it is intended to depict
the actual types of altar canopies that were in use in the-
early centuries, whose traditional forms were handed on from
one century to the next. Because ciboria are rather perisha
able. and few exist from the early centuries. thus we look
to later and painted portrayals of the forms in use in earlier
centuries.

We also look to early verbal descriptions. such as that
of Paul the Silentiary. about the resplendent altar ciborium
canopy at Hagia Sphia. constructed in the sixth century by
Justinian. in the imperial capital of Constantinople. Paul's
word painting forms a perfectly clear image of what these
early pyramidal canopies looked like. In this case it is an
octagonal pyrgos type pyramid on four columns. with four

arches.

One pyramidal canopy that is extant is part of an ambon
at Kalabaka Cathedral. consisting of primarily early Christian
materials (Figure 30). It consists of a very high platform
with a canopy over it. reached by a steep flight of steps.

gescriptione S. Sophiae. and Descriptions ambonis.
(563). in Cyril Mango. The Art of the Bygantine Empire! 212-
1453: Sources and Documents. Prentice-Hall. New Jersey. 1972.
pp. 72f.

132

(Western comparable forms are known as pulpits. but are
normally located on the side. not in the center of the nave.)

If we were to close in the sides of these pyramidal can-
opies. we would have a form rather like the so-called "Tomb
of Zechariah." built by Herod the "Great" (ruled 37-h B.C.)
in the Kidron Valley outside of Jerusalem (Figure 34).

Let us pause here to briefly examine the basic symbolism
of the pyramid. because its significance is closely related
to the meaning of the §§§p§. (Certainly the most monumental
examples of the pyramid are the Egyptian pyramidal tombs of
the pharoahs.)

I suggest that the pyramid can either designate a dwell-
ing-place of the Divine on earth (as in canopies over an
altar. ambon. or baptismal font). or symbolize the cosmic
divine dwelling. perceived as a microcosm (as in tombs).
where it is hoped and/or believed that the deceased would be
present with the Divine in His cosmic dwelling-place - the
heavens. This hope-belief is also conveyed in the heo-Pla-
tonic and spiritual dictum. "As above. so below." which would
translate in these circumstances. that. as the deceased's
body is beneath the microcosmic pkgp§_on earth. so. in the
same manner. his soul dwells within the cosmic §g§p§ - the
divine realm in heaven.

What gives such cosmic symbolic power to a pyramid?
There are two main reasons for it. First. the general shape

is a mound or mountain. Since mountains reach up into the

133

heavens. and virtually unite heaven and earth. they are the
natural places for theophanies. Most theophanies. in fact.
have occurred on mountain tops: the theophanies to Moses and
to Elias on Mt. Sinai/Choreb: the Transfiguration on Mt.
Tabor: the Crucifixion on Mt. Golgotha: the Ascension of
Christ fromthe Mount of Olives. Most ancient civilizations
have their sacred mountains where their god or gods dwell.
It is also common to build mounds. or temples like the zig-
gurat. which imitate mountains - both physically and sym-
bolically. 3

The second maJor symbolic element of the pyramid is its
number symbolism - four and three. 'Four represents the
earth. because of the four directions or poles. the four
winds. the four seasons. et cetera. and also because a four-
sided figure is unstable. moveable. changeable. as is the
temporal sphere. Many cosmologies envision the earth as
supported on four world pillars. ‘*

If a rectangular structure needs to be stabilized. a
support forming a triangle will be added. because a triangu-
lar shape is stable and immoveable. Thus. the number three

symbolizes the celestial. cosmic order and permanence. An

 

3 For further discussion on the symbolism of the moun-
tain-mound-pyramid. four. three. and twelve. see these entries
in J.E. Cirlot. A Dictionary of Sypbols. Philosophical Library.

New York. 1962: and in G. Jobes. A Dictionary of MyphI Folk-
lore and Sypbols. Scarecrow Press. New York. 19 1.

h See. for example. Charles Long. Alphasthe Myphs of
Creation. Collier Books. New York. 1963.

134

equilateral triangle pointing down represents the Divine mak-
ing Himself known on earth - of coming down to earth - whereas
an equilateral triangle pointing up represents man's ascension

to heaven. or man's spiritual striving upward. 5

A pyramid consists of four equilateral triangles. In
Egypt the great pyramids were built so that the four bases
were aligned with the four compass points. Thus. on the one
hand. a pyramid represents the whole earth ascending to heaven.
Yet on the other hand. since four plus three equals seven.
and four times three equals twelve. both seven and twelve
are cosmic numbers symbolizing the totality of the cosmos -
material and spiritual. temporal and celestial. changeable
and unchangeable. Thus we add to the pyramidal symbolism a
cosmic totality of things and unity of opposites. a perrenial
motif of the pgépé. Consequently. the pyramidal pképg actu-
ally forms a microcosm of man's ascent to heaven. in re-
sponse to God's search for man on earth.

A pyramidal roof might be regarded as a triangular ped-
iment on the front and back. extended to the sides. and
tilted toward the center so that the edges meet. (Naturally.
such a form only works on a square base.) Hence. we might

conclude that the triangular pediment-gable. found in so many

 

5 The Jewish Star of David combines these two triangles.
thus representing the uniting of heaven and earth - of God's
search for man. and man's search for God. and of the restora-
tion of communion. cooperation. and companionship between
God and man.

136

The ambon gképé affirms visually the view that Christ's
Presence in the reading of the Gospel is as fully real as
His Presence at the Divine Liturgy. which is enacted under
the altar canopyepképg. 6 The bishops - and their delegates.
the priests - liturgically represent Christ (play the role
of Christ) in both these functions.

Furthermore. the Presence of the Gospels is a visual
way of indicating Christ's Presence. and effecting that
Presence. This belief is made tangible in the manuscript
illumination of the Second Ecumenical Council at Constan-
tinople in 381. found in the Sermons of St. Gregopy of Naz-
ianzus. a manuscript copied and illuminated in 880. where the
open Gospels are enthroned on an elaborate throne-altar
(Figure 32). An earlier example of the enthronement of the
Gospels is found in the upper wall masaics in the sixth cen-
tury Baptistry of the Orthodox in Ravenna. 7 and probably
in the dome mosaics at St. George's. Salonika. These visual
portrayals reflect the ancient practice which has continued
until today in all Eastern Orthodox churches. where the
Gospels are one of the few items allowed (and required) to

be on the altar.

 

6 At the Seventh Ecumenical Council at Nicaea in 787 it
was declared that holy icons and the holy cross are equal to
the Gospels. and that all three are to be offered incense and
lights (traditional offerings to God). (Quoted in the "Evi-
dence and Documents" section of Kostos Papaioannou. B zantine
and Russian Painting. Heron Books. London. 1966. p. 1&5.)

7 See Grabar. Golden e of Justinian. Trans. Gilbert
and Emmons. Odyssey Press. New York. 1937. P. 21.

137

.(

Because of the functional and liturgical importance of
the proclamation of the Word of God by means of the Scrip-
ture readings and homilies in the church during approximately
the first ten Christian centuries. in early Byzantine churches
the ambon was a very prominent structure which Jutted out
from the p§p5'(pp;§g) into the nave. Just east of the center
of the church. It was usually elevated considerably. such
as the one at Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. where it was
high enough so that singers could stand under it. according
to the description of it by Procopius and Paul the Silene

tlarye 8

Seated at the top of the glorious and resplendent
ambon at Hagia Sophia. St. John Chrysostom. the "Golden-
Mouthed." as Patriarch of Constantinople. daily preached to
the throngs of the faithful who filled the church for Vespers.
‘ There are only a few early ambons extant. and some rem-
nants in Syria and Salonika. but the verbal descriptions of
the one at Hagia Sophia. combined with the ambon at Kalabaka
Cathedral. give a good idea of what they looked like. with

their prominent skénB-canopies.

Another prominent pointed canopy form is the thalos type.
which is a very significant type because the canopy over
Christ's tomb was this shape. There are various extant por-

trayals of it. and since it was the prototype skéni for

 

8 Procopius. De aedificius. I. 1. 6th century: and Paulug

Silentiarius. Descriptions S. Sophiae. and Descriptions am-
bonis. 563. (Found in ango. Sources.... pp. cit.. pp. 72-96.)

llIICt

138

Christians. its form had great influence. One of the popular
"souvenirs" of a pilgrimage to the Holy Land was a silver
vial or ampoule of holy oil. on which was sculpted Christ's

tomb. such as the Bobbio and Monza ampoules. 9

Let us now consider the canopy with a curved top. first
the kind built into a wall. and then the free-standing type.

One of the oldest Christian meeting places used as a
church that has been discovered is the "Christian House" in
Dura-Europas. Syria (several hundred miles east of Antioch).
preserved by sand-bagging against invasion in the year
256 A.D. when the town was about to be attacked. As a result.
it was preserved in the same same way as the near-by Jewish
Synagogue was. Both were accidentally discovered in the
1930's. In that "Christian House" was located a baptistry
(Figure 33) which was transferred to and reconstructed at
Yale University Art Gallery. Although the canopy is not
free-standing. it does have the columns and the curved
(vaulted) roof. with stars painted on the underside of it.
It seems incontravertible that the self-conscious intention
of those who designed this baptistry was to make a model of
the sky. that is. the heavens. for what else has stars and
appears to the observer to be curved? The question is.

however. why portray the sky over a baptistry. which is

9 For example. see Grabar. Golden ége.... o . p;§..
p. 314. Fig. 364 - Monza Ampoule No. 3. ca. 600. Rome's
Museo Sacro's Reliquary Box depicting the Holy Women at
Christ's tomb also clearly shows the thOlos canopy over
the tomb. (Smith. The Dome. pp. 213.. fig. 14.)

139

really the same as asking what the form and function have to
do with one another.

To deal with this question. first let us refer back to
Chapter One (5/c) where we discussed the use of the word
§§§p§ in the Apocalyse. Here we encountered the verse.
"Behold. the Tabernacle (pkgpg)of God is with men. and He
shall dwell with them. ...and they shall be His people. and
God Himself shall be with them and be their God" (21:3. AV).
It was mentioned also in the same section that the use of
the word pk§p§_elsewhere. such as in Apocalypse 15:15 and
Luke 16:9. suggested that the p§§p§ on earth is a reflection
or copy of the true pggpg, which is in heaven.

Liturgically. this is manifested in two primary ways.
in the Divine Liturgy and in Holy Baptism. Just as the
p§§p§ on earth is seen as a reflection of the true pk§p§ in
heaven. so likewise. the liturgical action performed under
that temporal g§§p§ corresponds to a celestial and cosmic
act. We saw this visually in the Ochrid fresco of the Com-
munion of the Apostles (Figure 29). where Christ was depicted
serving the Divine Liturgy in heaven as the High Priest min-
istering the Holy Things in the heavenly Tabernacle. The
liturgical action of Christ in heaven was then reflected on
earth. where the priest visibly serves the Divine Liturgy
(see Chapter One. 5/d). This experience is verbally expressed
in the Hymn of the Great Entrance of the Presanctified Liturgy:

"Now the powers of Heaven do serve invisibly with us. Lo.

140

the King of Glory enters. Lo. the mystical sacrifice is up-
borne. fulfilled."

Holy Baptism is the other main liturgical action where
the temporal and celestial gképé. and the enactment which
occurs there. are viewed as corresponding to each other.
and as proof that God does indeed dwell among men. According
to Christian doctrine. in the rite of Baptism the person
dies to the "old man" and "every dark and evil work of the
devil." and is spiritually reborn. and "puts on Christ."
puts on the "new man." makes a covenant with GOd. and becomes
a member of the Body of Christ(see Romans 6:3-11).

Hence. we should expect to find a p§§p§_form to deline-
ate the sacred space and place where this covenant is estab-
lished - the place which is both a tomb and a womb - such as
we found at the Dura-Europas baptistry.

That the drama which occurs beneath the baptismal pkng,
ritually makes people part of God's people. or God's flock.
is further made quite clear by the painting of the "Good
Shepherd and His Flock" which is found at the Dara-Europas
Baptistry in the semi-circular space formed against the wall
by the curved canopy. and what would be the rear two columns
if the canopy were free-standing (Figure 34).

We can compare this with another portrayal of the "Good
Shepherd and His Flock" in a similar semi-circular lunette.
with a star-studded (999 of them) canopy of heaven in front
of it (Figure 35). which. instead of being a separate canopy.

141

was expanded to become the vaulted ceiling of a building.
But instead of a baptistry. it is part of the so-called
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna. 1° dating from the
second quarter of the fifth century. The forms are similar.
but what is the connection between their functions? One
connection we have already seen: the baptistry is a tomb of
darkness and evil. and a womb of light and life. In the same
way. when a Christian dies (”falls asleep in the Lord"). the
community prays that the soul who has departed from the body
may dwell in the place of the blessed and be numbered among
the righteous . 11

Thus. once again. after considering the function involc

ved. we realize it is natural to see the skénE forms

 

10 This building might have been originally built as
an oratory. which was later converted to a mausoleum.

11 ”With the souls of the righteous departed. give

rest toth'e soul of Thy servant. O Savior. preserving him in
the blessed life which is with Thee. Who lovest mankind."
(Troparion)

"With the saints give rest. 0 Christ. to the soul
of Thy servant. where sickness and sorrow are no more. nei-
ther sighing. but life everlasting." (Kontakion)

”Give rest. 0 Lord. to the soul of Thy servant. and
establish him in Paradise. where the choirs of the saints
and of the Just. 0 Lord. shine like the stars of heaven: give
rest to Thy servant who has fallen asleep. overlooking all
his transgressions." (Troparion on "Blessed Art Thou. O Lord")

"Their souls shall dwell with the blessed."
"Blessed is the way in which thou shalt walk today. 0 soul.
for a place of rest is prepared for Thee.” (Prokeimena)

(Hymns from the Panikhida. OCA Translation. from the service
booklet by Fr. Igor Soroka. 1972.)

142

associated with baptistries. which are both places of burial
and places of new life. It should also be expected that we
find various symbols of heaven associated with tombs. in-
cluding various symbols and forms that represent paradise.
including the pk§p§rdwelling of God. The reason that this
is to be anticipated is that it is prayed for and hoped that
the soul of the departed is. indeed. dwelling in the Presence
of God. Therefore. the realization and actualization of the
prayers is made visible and tangible in the art forms - in
the pkgpé which defines the space where this actualization
occurs.

We should not be surprised. then. to find similar forms
.and portrayals in the early Christian catacombs. Indeed.
there are many niches in these catacombs (Figure 36) where
structures have been dug out. (called aroosolia). similar
to the canopy structure over the Dura-Europas baptisty. con-
sisting of a curved canopy-roof supported by two columns in
the front. forming a lunette on the rear wall. Some of the
favorite scenes depicted on these lunettes are: the GoOd
Shepherd (Domitilla. late second-early third century: S; 9511-
;ppp. early third century): Christ Raising Lazarus (!;g_ppr
pypp. mid-fourth century): Jonah and the figppp/seadmonster
(fig. Pietpo p Marcelino. late third_century: S, Callisto.
early third century): the Three Holy Children (Epippéllg.
mid-third century)! and Daniel in the Lion's Den (the

143

Giordani. fourth century). 12

These subJects correspond to the prayers for the dead.
which. following the Jewish berakah form of prayer. 13
would petition something similar to this:

0 Lord. as You did raise Lazarus from the dead:

as You did save Jonah from the belly of the sea-

monster: as You did save the Three Holy Children

from the fiery furnace of Nebuchadnezzar: and as

You did save Daniel from the lion's den - so now

save Your servant who has fallen asleep: raise

him up. and number him among Your chosen saints.

Andre Grabar confirms and supports the correspondence
between these iconqgaphic themes and the prayers in use at
the time. and accepts the liturgical use as the explanation
for the presence of these themes in the catacombs. He also
suggests that the Christian use was inherited from Jewish
funereal tradition. 1”

These biblical subJects found in the catacombs were
also frequently depicted on sarcophagi. The third century
.Lateran Museum Jonah Sarcophagus (Figure 3?) portrays not

only several Jonah scenes. but the Raising of Lazarus. Noah

 

12 Orpheus. although pagan and non-biblical. is an-
other popular theme. for he was viewed as a pagan prototype
of Christ. both as a Good Shepherd. and as one who tamed
the wild beasts (e.g. Christ's victory over demons). as well
as having gone into hell and returned).

See Grabar. Earl Christian Art. Trans. Gilbert
and Emmons. Odyssey Press. New York. 1968: and Michael
Gough. The Early Christians. Praeger. New York. 1966.

13 Discussed in depthin‘ Louis Boyer's superb study.

Eucharist: Theology and Spirituality of the Eucharistic
Prayer. pp. cit.

1“ Early Christian Art. 22. cit.. F- 103-

 

144

l

and the Ark. and the Good Shepherd. in addition to still
other scenes. On the late third century Ny Carlesberg
Glyptotek Jonah Sarcophagus (Figure 38) the Good Shepherd
flanks the usual three Jonah scenes.'

This same sarcophagus. however. is most note-worthy
due to the tent-shaped p§§p§ycanopy over the ship from
which Jonah is being thrown. (We recall again that "tent"
is the original meaning of pkgpg.) I suggest that there
are three reasons for the presence of this blatantly obvious
p§§p§ form. First. the ship itself represents the temporal
church. and thus has a pk§p§ to indicate that it is the
dwelling-place of God. In the early Christian period. espec-
ially in the West. the ship was a very common symbol for the
Church on earth. as mentioned in the fourth century pppppplpp
Constitutionsisand in Western church architecture. where the
central part of the church building is called the ”nave."
derived from the Latin word for ship. ppyip.

The second reason is that the Jonah story is understood
as a prototype of Baptism. This is because after being im-
mersed three times in the baptismal font. and dying to evil.
darkness and death. the person is raised up anew. born of
the Spirit into the good. light and life. repentent and dedi-
cated to doing God‘s will. as was Jonah at the time of his
rebirth after his three days' sleep in the belly of the deep

 

15 II. 57. 3ff: quoted in Mango. pppuments. pp. p;p..
Also discussed by Ouspensky in Theology of the Icon. pp. p;p..
p. 24. especially that Noah's ark was a symbol and prefigur-
ing of the Church.

145

(another lexicon definition of the word. ggggg). 16

I propose that the third reason that there is a pkgpp
tent-canopy over the ship in the Jonah Sarcophagus is that.
according to the Gospels. Jonah is the prototype of Christ.
Who arose from the dead after three days' sleep in the deep. 17
This biblical belief is reflected in the sixth Ode of the
(Orthodox) Paschal Canon in Matins:

Thou didst descend. O Christ. to the depths of the

earth. Thou dist break the everlasting bars which

had held death's captives. and like Jonah from the
whale on the third day. Thou didst arise from the

grave. 13
Consequently. the skEnS-sail over the ship represents
a witness to Christ's victory over death. and to the faith-

ful's sharing of Christ's death and resurrection by means
of Baptism. The customary time for baptisms used to be

Pascha (Easter). by which the person becomes a member of
Christ's Body. the Church. When a person falls asleep in
the Lord. the Church prays that. like Jonah. he will be
raised up again. as he had been in Baptism. and dwell in the
mansions of God's dwelling-place.

The other variant of the canopy with a curved top is

16 Liddell and Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. pp. cit..
entry for skané.

£7 Mathew 12:40 - "For as Jonah was three days and
three nights in the belly of the whale. so will the Son of
Man be in the heart of the earth“ (RSV).

18 The Paschal Canon. one of the essential parts of
the Easter Vigil. was written by St. John of Damascus.
c. 675 - c. 749.

146

is the free-standing type. frequently called a baldachino
or ciborium. (A ciborium may have any shape canopy top -
round. pointed. or tholos. Thus the word may apply to
those canopies discussed near the beginning of this section.)

We have already considered the nature of Baptism. and
why it is therefore expected that there would usually be
some p§§p§ form associated with the baptistry. At Dura-
Europas we saw a built-into-the-wall type canopy-pkgpp,
over a baptistry. At Jemila in Algeria. North Africa
(Figure 39). there are the remains of a fifth-sixth century
free-standing ciborium over a baptismal font. located in a
round room in the center of the baptistry building. The
font itself is sunk into the ground. as was usual in the
early church when total immersion of the numerous adult
converts was the rule. This ciborium has four rather mass.
ive. short Corinthian stone columns supporting a curved
stone canopy. It is not possible to tell what the under-
side of the canopy had been like.

Another free-standing ciborium-p§§p§. constructed about
450 A.D. is located in the crypt of St. Demetrios in Salon—
ika. Greece (Macedonia) (Figure 40). The over-all shape
seems to be circular. with eight rounded arches. supported
by eight columns. The top of the canopy has been destroyed.
so we cannot determine its shape - it could have been round.
or octagonal and pointed to correspond to the eight arches.

One of the striking aspects of this structure is the

14?

low wall on either side and in between the columns in the
front. Although the original use of this ciborium might
have been over a fountain rather than an altar. the wall
flanking it is similar to early sanctuary screens.

At Hagia. Sophia in Constantinople. according to the
descriptions by Procopius and Paul the Silentiary. 19
there was a similar low marble altar screen. but. in addi-
tion. there was also an architrave (along which the lamp-
lighters walked). supported by a series of beautiful col-
umns that spanned the width of the apse. It probably would
have looked rather like the reconstruction of the pgpp_of
the Aphentelli Basilica on the island of Lesbos. The recon-
struction was made in 1935 by A. Orlando(Figure 41): of
course the one at Hagia Sophia was on a far grander scale.
with an enormous and elaborate ciborium and altar.

The sanctuary screen is appropriately associated with
the altar pkgpg. because it separates the Holy of Holies
from the nave. and corresponds to the screening-off of the
Holy of Holies in the Tabernacle andeewish Temple. (which
itself was a pkppp. according to the Septuagint word use.
as seen in Chapter One). and within which was a further
pk§p§,- the Ark of the Covenant. containing the‘Tablets of
the Law. In Christian church architecture we customarily
also find this multiple use of pkppg forms - the apes itself.
plus the ciborium over the altar. So little architectural

 

19 See Footnote # 7 of this chapter.

148

evidence exists from the early centuries. we have to use
other visual (as well as literary) evidence.

The Stuma Paten and the Hiha Paten (Figures 42 and 43).
both dating from 565-578. are early examples of the pre-
valent altar-area pk§p§ forms. Each of these patens portray
Christ giving Communion to the Apostles. On the Stuma
Paton He stands under an umbrella-shaped canopy. and on the
Hiha Paten He is under a shell-arch surmounting an archi-
trave supported by columns. where the arch of the sanctuary
screen serves the function of providing a pkpp§_over Christ.

A later Byzantine manuscript gives a more detailed pic-
ture of what these early sanctuary screens and altar ciboria
were like. Although the manuscript. the Menalogion of Basil
II was made around the year 1000. I suggest that these forms
were based on the precedent forms. as was customary in the
Byzantine church with its highly traditional and preservative
attitude. I cite two illuminations from this manscript. be-
cause of the different shapes of the sanctuary and of the
curved ciboria. The one (Figure 44) depicts the Annunciation
to Zachariah in the Temple. and shows the umbrella-like
shape a canopy might have that surmounts eight columns (like
the ciborium in the crypt at St. Demetrios in Salonika).

‘The other (Figure 45) illustrates the Presentation of Christ
to St. Simeon in the Temple. and contains a ciborium with
four columns inside a much larger Holy of Holies. Both of
‘these illuminations depict the Jewish Temple at the time of

149

Christ as though it were a Christian sanctuary. with its
altar and ciborium. thus making visible the theological
understanding that the Christian Holy of Holies manifests
the living Presence (Shekhinah) of God as fully as the
Jewish Tabernacle and Temple had done. Since Christ is the
visible manifestation of the Divine ("He who sees Me. sees
Him Who sent Me” John 12:45). this divine Shekhinah is even
more graphically presented by portraying Christ behind the
altar. serving the Divine Liturgy (Mass). or giving Communion
to the Apostles - a true Theophany.

In the above discussion of the three-dimensional archi-
tectural canopy-pkgpg. we have found that indeed. where
there is the p§§p§_form of the canopy. there exists one or
more of the pkgpg functions.

We have seen that the pggpgrcanopy over the altar and
the ambon. like the Jewish Temple and Tabernacle. mark the
manifestation of the Divine Presence - the Shekhinah - His
Truth and Wisdom. and the divine order on earth. in the
elements of the Holy EuCharist. and in the Gospel Word.

Furthermore. we observed that the pkppprcanopy over
baptistries. in the catacombs. and in such funereal themes
as the Jonah cycle. that the pkppg functions of proclaiming
the victory of life and order over death and chaos.

Similar to the three-dimesional canopy is the two-
dimensional canopy. with its variants. the shell and the

niche. to which we now turn our attention.

150

2. The ShellZNichezggo-Dimensional Canopy Skéné

In Section One we primarily discussed the architectural.
three-dimensional canopy/baldachino/ciborium form of the
pk§p§. including paintings of the architectural forms. In
these. all four columns that support the curved or pointed
canopy are visible or implied. It seems like an easy and
logical step to move from these three-dimensional forms. to
the two-dimensional or baa-relief type canopy. including the
niche and shell.

In the two-dimensional niche canopy form of the pkppp
a shell is commonly found at the top of the arch. There is
a dual purpose to this shell. First. its ubiquitous presence
is closely associated with its universal symbolic signifi-
cance. The second purpose is based on the shell's shape.
whereby. due to its curved form. it frequently comprises the
curved arch which itself constitutes the top of the canopy
or niche. nestling inside a semi-dome. yet at the same time.
forming the semi-dome.

First. let us briefly inquire about the symbolism of
'the shell. What do we associate with shells? Water. And
water is not only associated with life and fertility. but
it is a requirement of life - a fact well appreciated in an
area of the world such as Israel. where the desert encroaches
at emery turn. Without water for humans and animals to drink.
and.to:nourish the crops. everything withers and dies quick-

1y. Almost every creation mythology. as well as evolutionary

151

theory. envisions life as arising from the sea. In both
Judaism and Christianity there are countless examples of
water symbolism: Moses brought forth water from the rock
in the wilderness: God is seen as the Fountain of Life and
Immortality. as are the Communion Chalice and baptismal
font: Psalm 63 says. "My soul thirsts for Thee ... as in a
dry and barren land where no water is.” A whole disserta-
tion could easily be written about the symbolism of water.
but let this be sufficient explanation of why it is so nat-
ural to have a symbol like the shell associated with and
actually form the pk§p§. 20

Because of the universal nature of the symbolism of the
shell. the Judaeo-Christian use of the shell has pagan ante-
cedents. Just one of the countless examples we could cite
of the pagan use of the shell is part of a tomb discovered
in 1939-1940 under St. Peter's. Rome (Figure 46). Due to
the funereal use of the shell symbol. we might suspect from
its presence that it was hoped and prayed that the soul of
the departed would dwell with God or the gods. I maintain
that this conclusion seems logical. based solely on the uni-
versal symbolic meaning of the p§§p§ - the canopy of heaven -
to be the dwelling place of the Divine.

Descending from its pagan antecedents. the shell is

found throughout Jewish. early Christian. Byzantine. and

 

20 See Cirlot. A Dictionary of Sypbols. pp. cit.. and
Jobes. A Dictionary of Myth. Folklore and Sypbols. pp. cit.-

entries for "Shell" and "Water.”

152

Western art. I suggest that there can exist this transfer-
ence of forms to Jewish and Christian art. exactly because
there is a transference of the thought behind it - its uni-
versal symbolism. or its function.

“In the illustrations in Chapter Two of this study. we
found the shell depicted at the top of the Ark of the Gov-
enant in the Capernaum Synagogue frieze (Figure 17). and
also over the Ark depicted within Solomon's Temple. in addi-
tion to being over the three doors of the fapade of the Tem-
ple in the frescoes at the Dura-Europas Synagogue (Figures
18 and 27). Consequently. it is not surprising to find the
actual Torah Shrine at the same Dura Synagogue to be sur-
mounted by a shell also (Figure 47). (We also observed a-
bove that the Torah Shrine in the synagogue is the successor
to the Temple's Ark. as the visible expression of God's
Presence and Covenant.) In this Torah Shrine at Dara-Europas
the shell is situated atop a recessed alcove-niche. and the
shell corresponds to the shape of the semi-dome at the top
of the niche. In case there might be any question that the
shell marks off the sacred space of the pkppp (for the Torah
and its shrine which holds the scrolls of the Old Law. and
therefore represents the Divine Presence that dwells among
man). all doubts are banished by the painting on the wall
above the Torah Shrine. This fresco portrays The Temple.
with its shell-pgppg designating the sacred dwelling-place
on earth of the Divine in the form of the Ark of the Covenant.

153

Just as we saw in Figures 17 and 18).

So important to Judaism. apparently. was the symbol of
the curved shell-like top of the Ark of the Covenant. that
it was used on a Jewish coin in the second century Bic.‘
This coin seems to have sought to inspire. as well as to
symbolize. a resurgence of Judaic spirit during the Second
Revolt in 135-132 B.C. To accomplish that end. the coin
depicts the curved-top Ark of the Covenant between the four
columns Of the Temple. in an almost "short-hand" symbol of
the Temple (Figure 48). 21

The pagan and Jewish use of the shell/niche/two-dimen-
sional canopy is carried over into Christianity. One appli-
cation of such a pkppp form is the representation of the
dwelling-place of God. where God makes Himself manifest.
such as we saw in Figure 44. the “Annunciation to Zachariah
in the Temple." where Zachariah was sensing before a balda-
chino-type canopy. which also seemed to echo the form of
the Byzantine altar-canopy.

However. it is also extremely common to have persons.
usually alone. enshrined under a pkppp. The selected ex-

amples viewed here are but a few of the countless

 

21 It is true that one cannot absolutely determine
that what surmounts the Ark is a shell. However. if one
were to depict a shell over the Ark in the small space of a
coin (this photo seems to be an enlargement). it might ‘
well look like this. The top of the Ark is curved. indis-
putably. and there is a second curved line over it. If it
is not a shell. one must assume that it is a curved canopy
of some sort.

154

manifestations of this fertile and prolific symbol in East-
ern and Western Christian lands. through every century. in-
cluding our own. The saints. standing in tabernacles or
niches. under canopies. shells (or both). line the walls

of numberless Christian churches and baptistries. such as
the magnificent Orthodox Baptistry in Ravenna (Figure 49).
Or. we find an orant figure of a deceased woman sculpted into
a funeral stele (Figure 50). 22 or we find Christ and the
Apostles covering the sides of a sarcophagus (Figure 51).
What is the meaning of the proliferation of these skinai
niches with shells? Since we have more than sufficiently
established that the pggpp form represents the dwelling-
place of the Divine. or where the Divine Presence is made
known. it follows logically that whenever a person is placed
beneath a pkppp. the idea to be conveyed is that this person
is also dwelling with God.

I suggest. however. that when Christ is thus presented.
we go a step further. because according to the Chalcedonian
Definition of 451 (formulated at the Fourth Ecumenical Coun-
cil at Chalcedon). Christ is the God-Man. and therefore.
whenever and wherever Christ appears. it is the same as a
theophany or manifestation of God: "He who sees Me sees Him
Who sent Me.“ (John 12:45) says Christ about Himself and His

relationship to the Father. Concerning the saints. since

22 An orant is a person praying. standing with up-
raised arms. as though standing in the Kingdom of God.

155

they are believed to be dwelling in the Kingdom of God. and
according to the New Testament uses of the word pkgpg. God
dwells in a heavenly pkppp. it follows logically that the
saints who are with God should also be depicted under a
ggggg. Therefore. to carve such scenes on a sarcophagus

or a funeral stele. or to paint them in a tomb. seeks to
convey the hope or belief that they are also in the Kingdom
of God.

The shell. niche. and two-dimensional canopy. as well
as other 2.152% forms (such as the dome). are frequently util-
ized to represent the divine function of imperial persons.
According to E. Baldwin Smith. it was at the time of Nero
(54-68 A.D.) that the basically Eastern ideas of cosmic
kingship had their real impact on Rome. “when the cosmic
tent of Alexander the Great was adopted as an imperial symbol
and heavenly covering over the Roman emperors in their role
of a divine being and cosmic ruler." 23 Most of the ideol-
ogy. along with its cosmic kingship symbolism. was eagerly
received by the Christian successors to the pagan Roman em- '
perors. as seen in the various consular diptychs cf the '
fourth and fifth centuries. 2" and in the Roman Calendar
of 354 A.D. portraying the Consul Constantius II enthroned

23 The Dome. pp. cit.. p. 53. See also l'Orange's
study. pp. cit.: he maintains that the dome is a symbol of

cosmic kingship and originates in the near East.

2“ For example. see two consular diptychs dating from
406 in Grabar’s Golden Age. pp. cit.. pl. 329. p. 285.

156

and haloed. as though he were Christ (Figure 97). 25

Justinian and Theodora eagerly carried on the divine-
imperial traditions. as can be observed by the enormous and
strikingly prominent shell found over the Empress Theodora
(Figure 52). the wife of the Byzantine Emperor. Justinian.
who ruled from 527 to 565. Not only are she and Justinian
under a shellgpkgpg. but they even have very prominent halos
around their heads. 26 in mosaics in the chancel at San
Vitale. Ravenna. consecrated in 547. However. we need only
to reflect back to Chapter Four. 2/C. and our discussion
about “Fertility and Marriage. Order and Royalty" in order
to realize that this manner of portraying Justinian and
Theodora is an expression of the belief that. as God brought
order out of chaos in creating the cosmos. so the emperor
and empress establish order and banish chaos on earth. “Thus.
they are God's agents and representatives on earth in the
political-temporal (versus ecclesiastical-spiritual) sphere.

By no means do all niches and canopies contain shells.
More often the two-dimensional canopies alone serve the

purpose of constituting the skini. One of the frequent

 

25 The importance of the divine-imperial symbolism in
the Christian Roman Empire is well recognized and discussed

by Gervase Mathew in his Byzantine Aesthetics (pp. cit.).
especially in Chapters Two.-Five. an Six.

26 Halos in Christian art develop from their use on
representations of the Roman emperors to express the divine
light/presence which radiated from within them. Thus halos
are used for both imperial Persons and saints.

15?

instances of saints depicted under (usually) shell-less
skEnai are the evangelists. canon tables with authors. the
incipit pages of each Gospel. and the covers which embellish
them. As mentioned above. the Gospels make present Christ -
the ”God-Man” - and thus are a manifestation of the Divine.
Consequently. it is entirely natural to expect skénai to be
associated with the Gospels. Almost all Gospel books have
long been covered with carved ivory or repoussé metal covers.
such as the late sixth or early seventh century Syrian silver
GOspel cover in Figure 58. or the famous and beautiful ivory
bas-relief Lorsch Gospel-covers (Figure 54). Although these
latter covers were carved around 810 in Charlemagne's palace
workshop. a visual comparison of them and Byzantine ivories
suggests that the Lorsch ivories are based on Byzantine
prototypes. such as the Byzantine diptych in Figure 55. or
the Byzantine carvings on Maximian's Episcopal Throne (Fig-
‘ure 56). both dating from the mid-sixth century. Very possi-
bly the Lorsch Gospel covers were created by a Byzantine
ivory carver who moved to Charlemagne's palace workshop in
order to avoid the ravages of the iconoclastic struggle that
was raging in Constantinople and the Eastern Empire at that
time.

The Evangelists were usually portrayed at the beginning
of their Gospels. One of the earliest extant illuminated
Gospel manuscripts is the Rabula Gospels from sixth century
Syria. and it includes Evangelists portraits with Canon

158

Tables (Figure 57). 27 Another illuminated manuscript of
approximately the same period. the Rossano Gospels. which
probably comes from Alexandria. follows a totally different
style. and is much more classical and narrative. This is
in marked contrast to the hieratic and iconic near-Eastern
style of the Rabula Gospels. Evangelists portraits seem to
have become particularly popular in Western manuscripts.
such as the miniature of St. Luke with its prominent pkgpg.
from the Italian Gospels of St. Augustine. from very late
in the sixth century (Figure 58).

Although iconoclastic tendencies are found throughout
the fifth. sixth. and seventh centuries. they erupted full-
force in 726. lasting. with a brief hiatus. until 843.
During this time we have few portrayals of the persons and
events of the Bible and of the saints' lives. for sacred art
became almost entirely symbolic and non-figurative. However.
the ggpgg canopy remained. An excellent example of this is
found in the northern French Sacramentarium Gelasianum of
ca. 750 (Figure 59). which has striking similarities to the
Syrian canon tables.

In conclusion. in this second section of the expansion
of our concept of p§§p§ forms. we have found that when the

skSnE form of the shell. niche. or two-dimensional canopy

 

27 It is interesting to observe that in this Canon
Table the Evangelists are literally portrayed as ”Pillars
of the Church." a common motif among early Christian writers.
such as St. Clement of Alexandria.

159

appears. indeed. the skéné functions are also present.
We will now consider a third form of the skéne. the

triumphal arch and portal skéné.

3. The Triumphal Arch/Portal Skene

We start this third section by looking at the triumphal
arch itself. By this term I designate the free-standing.
highly three-dimensional arch of either one or three arches.
which may occasionally be pierced by arches on the sides
also. Arches such as the Arch of Constantine (Figure 60)
were built mostly by Roman emperors to commemorate their
victories. In later centuries other arches were built by
those who sought to emulate the Roman Empire or its emper-
ors. In these triumphal arches we see the common pkppp
form of triple arches flanked. at times. by pillars (or pill-
asters). similar to what we will see in some of the grand
‘portals of churches. and the audience porticoes of emperors.

If the proportions of the triumphal arches were altered
slightly. and we considered only a single arch; the shape of
‘the triumphal arch would be very similar to the canopy over
the Dura-Europas Christian House Baptistry. as well as
countless ciboria. This is true particularly if we consider
the quadrifons arch. a cube-shaped triumphal arch pierced by
arches on all four sides. such as the Arch of Marcus Aurelius
ixlffripoli (Figure 61). where the four corners almost become

four pillars supporting a canopy. symbolizing the four corners

160

of the earth or four world-pillars. supporting the canopy
of heaven.

Naturally. we must inquire about the significance of
such an obvious pkppg form as the triumphal arch. Actually.
this free-standing imperial monument embodies many of the
pkpp§_functions. including the symbolic significance of the
portal and other triumphal arches. at which we will look
later. All of the imperial-divine cosmic symbolism is
found in the triumphal arch - the victorious emperor mani-
fests the divine order on earth. including vanquishing the
enemies of the empire. who represent the powers of chaos.
destruction. and death. then the emperor would march under
the triumphal arch. (pausing under it to be hailed as_vic-
tor. and perhaps to give a speech and to praise his troops).
he would appear as the cosmic ruler of the temporal sphere.
This ceremony would frequently be repeated annually to cele-
brate the anniversary of the emperor's victories.

This theophanic experience is comparable tothe emperor
being revealed in audience at his palace. The maJor differ-
ence is that in the triumphal arch. the p§§p§_form was sep-
arated from his palace. and transferred to the entrance to
a city (usually the imperial or provincial capital). or to
its central forum or plaza. It was to this central point
that the returning. conquering armies would ritually and
literally return. re-entering into the life of the city.
the center of ordered life. Furthermore. we point out that

161

it was at the central forum. in close proximity to the tri-
umphal arch. where various commemorations and festivals
would be observed. which would serve as an ever-present
reminder of the victorious presence of the divine order
brought by the emperor. whose conquests were seen as bring-
ing order out of Chaos. civilization out of barbarism.

I suggest that the deep power of the imagery of the
emperor's battle with the threatening forces of chaos and
death which takes place “out there.“ in the dark. uncivilized
world. is derived unconsciously from the correspondence with
the individual psychic and spiritual battle between higher
and lower forces. between good and evil. life and death.
Consequently. the individual and the empire collectively
share and participate vicariously in the emperor's conquests.
which become more tangible to the people when depicted visi-
bly on the triumphal arch.

Another type of triumphal arch is not free-standing.
but part of a building. such as is seen at Diocletian's
Palace (Figure 62). Sometimes this type of imperial skini

 

would be transferred into a two-dimensional form. such as
the portrayal of Theodoric's Palace shown in the mosaic at
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna (Figure 63). and the recon-
struction drawing based on that mosaic (Figure 64).

Another famous example of the two-dimensional triumphal
:areh is the fourth century silver plate called the Missorium
of Theodosius (Figure 65). which reveals the emperor in his

162

role as the vehicle of the imperial-divine manifestation of
divine order on earth. embodied in the person (as well as
the office) of the emperor. even to the extent that he is

28 as do the Byzantine

shown with a halo around his head.
mosaics of Justinian and Theodora at S. Vitals in Ravenna
that we mentioned above. We observe in the Missorium that
the emperor is enthroned under the larger central arch of

a triple-arched form. (the so-called {astiggum). surmounted
by a pediment. If. on a closely cropped two-dimensional
surface. one were to portray Theodoric or Diocletian en-
throned in maJesty at his palace audience portico-entrance.
as shown in Figures 62. 63. and 64. I suspect that it could
look much like this Missorium enthronement of Theodosius.
although there are other ways in which this has been ex-‘
plained or described.

Thus. I propose that this triumphal arch form.is a
type of short-hand and stylized portrait of the emperor
actually enthroned in audience at his palace. Furthermore.
we observe that once again we find that where a ggggg
form is encountered. that there we also»find the pkppp
functions are being fulfilled. (in this instance. the imper-
ial functions we have talked about. such as manifesting
the divine order on earth). we will find there some type

of skéne form.

 

28 The imperial use of the halo is derived from prior
pagan Roman practice. developed in conJunction with the
concept of the divinity of the emperor.

163

In considering the Missorium. if we were to remove the
pediment and narrow the side portals. we would have a form
that would look very much like the Jewish Temple (Tabernacle)
on the two seventh century silver dishes from Constantinople.
which show Samuel Anointing David (Figure 66). and the quite
similar plate depicting the nsrrisge of David. 29 In the
former. we know that the manifestation of God's order and
wisdom which is being portrayed occurred in the Holy Place.
Just outside the Holy of Holies. because the Altar of Sacri-
fice. with a lamb and a calf. are depicted at the bottom.
Therefore. the §k_6’;i_§_ triumphal arch simultaneously is the
21.1232 of the Temple's (Tabernacle's) Holy of Holies. plus
the aging of imperial presence and function.

At this point in our discussion. let us consider the
symbolic function of the entrance/portal/doorway which is
so closely associated with the triumphal arch and other
M forms. Christian churches. the Jewish Temple and
synagogues. in addition to pagan temples. are generally
characterized by some 2323 form at the entrances.

Entrances are a fundamental element of the Greek theatre
also. where the practical function of the m was two-fold:
the first was to provide a backdrop against which the plays
were enacted: and the second was to provide a building in
which the actors could put on and store their costumes and
props. with doorways whereby the actors could enter to and

29 See Grabar. Golden as. 92. cit.. p. 308.

16b

exit from the proskenium. Frequently the §§§n§ would be
painted as a palace (as in Figure 8). and the action of the
dramas occurred in front of the palace. with it written into
the script that the royal characters exited from. and re-
entered the palace. Other players. such as a seer. messen-
ger. or shepherd. would enter from the sides. as did the
Chorus. Aeschylus' and Sophocles' plays tend to follow this
pattern. as in gaggemnon and Oedipus Izgggnus.

Moving from the theatre to the Hebrew forms we have
considered in earlier chapters. we note that in all of the
representations of the Jewish Temple (other than modern
models). we have found a g§§n§ form at the entrance. This
concept of entrance is actually a very important dimension
of the g§§n§,forn and of the g§§g§ symbolism. and by no means
accidental nor incidental.

Since universal symbolism is based on human experience
in the material realm. which in turn is used to refer to ex-
perience in the non-material realm. let us first look at the
human encounter with doorways. and then at their correspond-
ing spiritual-symbolic significance.

What is the every-day experience of the doorway? It is
to enter or exit from one area of the material world to an-
other. to enter or exit a building(enolosed). or an out-of-
doors designated area such as a garden-park. a cemetery. a
courtyard. or a collection of buildings. such as a farm. pal-

ace. monastery. estate. or a city or part of a city. What

165

then. is the symbolic significance of a doorway? I suggest
that it symbolizes a passage from one level of existence to
another. Frequently part of the symbolism involves the de-
signaticn of whom may pass through a portal/entrance. and
sometimes. when this passage may occur.

For example. the gkgng doorway/entrance of the Holy of
Holies of the Hosaic Tabernacle or the later Jewish Temple
could be passed through only by Moses. Aaron. and the high-
priests after him. and in later centuries. only on log
5&2222: the Day of Atonement. Another example is found in
Orthodox Christian liturgical practice. where only a priest
or bishop may go through the central ”royal doors“ or "holy
doors." and then. only at a few designated times during the
divine services.

I contend that a doorway has more than the usual signi-
ficance when it is a g§§g§. and a gk§§§,designates the
dwelling-place of God. and/or a place where the Divine. or
some aspect of His Nature or Activities. is encountered and
made manifest. Thus. to pass through a g§§g§ entrance is
to pass through into a higher spiritual level of existence.
or at least. where the opportunity is provided to attain a
higher level. 3° Consequently. I suggest that the m

 

30 Several years ago when I saw a performance in Tole-
do. Ohio. of hozart's The Magic Flute by the Metropolitan
Opera Company. the maJor stage scenery was a giant wall.
pierced by three arched doorways. The portal in the center
was larger than the ones flanking it. and over it was
written ”WISDOM.” The search for wisdom is the maJor theme

166

in its aspect as entrance. indicates the activity of enter-
ing into the presence of God. This significance is a prom-
inent and central element of the rite of procession. and
implies that entrance into the realm of the Wisdom of God
is no static condition. but a vital. dynamic. creative
process.

Do these concepts about the significance of the entrance
apply to the g§§g§_in its two-dimensional form of a niche.
canopy. or tabernacle - commonly found with a saint. or
other holy person or symbol beneath 1tr- such as we saw in
the previous section? I suggest.that the person portrayed
has already entered (processed) into the higher spiritual
state which is a result of dwelling with God in His heavenly
g§§g§jTabernacle. or otherwise existing in the Divine
Presence.

We have been considering the aspect of the entranceway
as a boundary line. or a place where two realms come together
and meet. However. a doorway is also an exit. as well as an
entrance. Therefore. a person appearing in a g§§g§,portal

may be viewed. at times. as someone who has entered the

 

of the opera. as it is also the maJor theme of the Masonic
Order. with its great emphasis on the "Wisdom of Solomon.“
and of Solomon's Temple. Thus the triple doorway could be
understood as a reference to Solomon's Temple. This would
be appropriate since the whole opera is filled with so much
symbolism. In any event. it is stiking to observe this
modern. secular association between the very traditional
skin! form - triple-arched portals - the search for Wisdom.
and the rite of passage in that search.

167

divine dwelling-place (or whose origin is that dwelling-
place of God). but who then returns to the material dimen-
sion of existence to reveal the Divine to the people. A
liturgical example of this is seen when the Orthodox priest
comes out through the iconostasis' Holy Doors (the boundary
between the two realms of heaven and earth). to read the
Gospel and to administer Holy Communion. I propose that
this latter experience of the gkggg.is especially found in
relation to imperial manifestations. by nature of the im-
perial office and function. as discussed above.

Let us look at some examples of this entrance-gkggg,
form and concept in Christian church architecture. One of
the most important churches built after the “Peace of the
Church" of 313 A.D. uas Constantine's Basilica of the
Holy Wisdom -‘fi;gig,§ophi - in.Constantinople (Figure 67).
The Theodosian facade that was added later in the fourth
century is a most superb example of the type of g§§g§_
portal-entranceway that we are discussing. What is interest-
ing to note is the striking resemblance to the three silver
plates mentioned above: the Hissorium.of Theodosius (Figure
65): the Anointing of David (Figure 66): and the Marriage
of David. Could it be that the facade of Hagia Sophia and
Theodosius' palace audience triumphal arch were models of
each other. and that the Hissorium. which depicts Theodosius
in audience. in turn. is a portrait of his actual place of

audience in his palace? These triumphal arches are also

168

similar to the audience portico of Theodoric's and Diocle-
tian's palaces. scaled down to one portal. (The other two
portals might be further to the sides. and thus not visible
in this drawing.)

The triple-entrance facade of church and synagogue is
attributed by Grabar to an earlier legacy from pagan Syrian
31

temples. One Christian example of this Syrian legacy is
the south facade of the fifth century Monastery of St. Simon
Stylites at Kalat Seman (Figure 68). which is characterized
by the ubiquitous triple entrances flanked by pillars. The
doorways into the nave are post and lintel. with arches above
the doors. In addition. there are large open arches which
form the triple entrances into a type of open narthex. Gra-
bar comments that this monastery church "might almost be
taken for a piece of Roman architecture of the first or se-
cond century. or a Romanesque fapade of southwestern
France.“ 32

We find grand. royal portals not only attached to
buildings as part of the facade. but free-standing. such as
the Gateway to the Lorsch Monastery (Figure 69). (That scho-
lars suggest that this gatehouse is based on the Roman tri-
umphal arch further reinforces the close relationship between
the triumphal arch and the portal.) But then. this. too. is

 

31 Early Christian Art. 22. cit.. p. 59.

32 Ibid.. p. 51.

169

to be expected. since it is that very portal which separates
the monastery world from the rest of the material world.

and which is the place where the two worlds meet. We might.
therefore. draw a hypothesis from this. and propose that
wherever and whenever we find the meeting-place between two
worlds. there we will also find a §k§g§ form.

Yet there are more than Just two realms with which to
deal. For instance. the Jewish Temple had three divisions:
the Holy of Holies: the Holy Place or Inner Court: and the
Outer Court. Then there was the rest of the world outside
the walls of the sacred precincts. The same three-fold de-
lineation was carried over into the Christian church archi-
tecture: the Holy of Holies became the Sanctuary. Apse. or
Altar: the Holy Place became the Have; and the Outer Court
became the Marthex. 33 Consequently. in many. if not most
early churches. there were g§§g§,forms at each Juncture.
such as are found at Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. The
large. double central portal (the middle of five entrances)
piercing the west fagade were echoed by the doors leading
inside from the narthex into the nave. and on the outside
into the atrium. In Eastern churches the royal doors of the
iconostasis. in turn. echoed the narthex doors.

Long before the Russians and other Slavs developed

the floor to ceiling five-tier iconostasis. lower sanctuary

 

33 See Ouspensky. Theology of the Icon. 22. cit..
Chapter One. "The Symbolism of the Church."

170

screens were used. As mentioned above. they were com-
prised of waist-high marble slabs. and marble columns sur-
mounted by an architrave. Icons were hung on the pillars
from an early date. Procopius and Paul the Silentiary de-
scribed the sacntuary screen and architrave in their splendid
detail at Hagia Sophia. 3“ The Syrians early adopted the
use of a sanctuary screen. derived from the curtains delin-
eating the Holy of Holies in the Mosaic Tabernacle and Jeru-
salem Temple.

‘Ouspensky discusses the early sanctuary screen and its
development:

It is well known that the original iconostasis in the
form of a screen between the Sanctuary and the nave
has existed in Christian churches from very ancient
times. We find information about ancient screens in
the writings of Church Fathers. for instance Saint
Gregory the Theologian and Saint John Chrysostom.

and in ancient historians. such as Eusebius. The

form and height of these original screens varied.
Sometimes they were solid low walls or balustrades.
the;height of a man's cheat. on which one could lean
one's elbows. at other times they were higher latticed
screens or a row of columns with an architrave. They
were often made of particularly_precious materials

and decorated with sculpture or painted images. On
the inner side. that is. on the side of the Sanctuary.
was a curtain which was drawn open or closed in ac-
cordance with the various stages of the church service.
In this way the sanctuary screen made the Sanctuary
both visible and at the same time inaccessible.

The sanctuary screen began to grow more complex very
early. Even in Byzantium icons of the months ... and
icons of holy days began to be placed there. At first
under the architrave. and later upon it. immediately
over the Royal Door. was an icon of the Savior. and
later a triptych of the Savior. the Holy‘Virgin and
John the Baptist ... the so-called Daisis. 3

 

3” See footnote # 7 in this chapter for citations.
35 The Meaning of Icons. 22. cit.. p. 59.

 

tda'ta

171

Liturgically. the sanctuary represents the dwelling-
place of God on earth. corresponding to the Shekhinah dwell-
ing between the Cherubim above the Ark of the Covenant in
the Jewish Temple and Tabernacle. The Narthex represents
the world apart from God. yet beginning to approach the
Divine. and corresponds to the outer court. And the Nave
represents where the faithful people live. standing between
the two worlds. and corresponds to the Inner Court or Holy
Place. The iconostasis (Figure 70). then. is the boundary
line between the two worlds. and the place where the two
realms. earth and heaven. meet. It is also the vehicle by
which the tworealms can interpenetrate each other. 36 The
iconostasis (see the Appendix) is the gkggg form closest
to the §k§g§ of the Greek theatre: it is a wall pierced by
three doors. the central one called the ”royal" doors: it
forms the backdrop of a sacred drama: it is covered with
painted "scenery” which sets the stage for the dramatic
liturgical action. 37

' The iconostasis shares a similar function with the tri-

umphal arch. for it also makes tangible to the people the

 

36 This understanding of the nature of the iconostasis
underlies much Orthodox liturgical ritual regarding when the
doors are opened or closed. and whom may enter or exit through
which doors. at what point in the service: the Little Entrance.
the Great Entrance. reading the Gospel. preaching the sermon.
and administering the Sacraments are the major times.

37 The west fa ads of Gothic cathedrals served a simi-
lar function as the ckdrop to the Medieval mystery plays.

172

conquests of the higher. spiritual forces of good. life and
order. over the lower. material forces of evil. death and
chaos. achieved by Christ. the saints. prophets and patri-
archs. and angels. One of the chief purposes of making
these victories visible and tangible is that through the
vicarious participation in the victorious experience. the
individual will achieve the spiritual victory that symboli-
cally corresponds to the material. temporal victory.

In the architecture of some Western basilicas. the
sanctuary sacred space was delineated. not by an iconostasis.
or lower sanctuary wall-screen. but by a different §k§n§,
form. the triumphal arch. Two fifth century examples still
standing are seen in Home. at San Paolo fuori le Mura (Fig-
ure 71). and at Sta.Maria Maggiore (Figure 72). These also
make visible salvation-history through their mosaics. and
form a backdrop for the divine drama. in addition to delin-
eating the meeting-place of the temporal and celestial worlds.

In the above. we have inquired into the form and signi-
ficance of the triumphal arch. and found it integrally re-
lated to the symbolism of the act of entrance. We also
have noted that there are various gkggg forms which serve as
entrances. marking the point at which the divine and temporal
worlds meet. although these are basically variations of the
triumphal arch. I contend that the purpose of all these
§§§g§ forms of arches and entrances is to designate the place

of theophany - where God holds audience. so to speak - where

173

one may encounter and even enter into the divine existence.
Therefore. once again. we discover that where there is a
skénE form. there will be a skins function also.

We will now consider the Greek temple form of the skins.

 

b. The Greek Temple Skin?

The Greek temple is a variation of the canopy and tri-
umphal arch m types. 33 It is basically the facade which
exhibits the symbolic form. This form is comprised of two
or more columns supporting a triangular gable or pediment.

I suggest that the triangular form is basically a canopy of
heaven - as though seen in two dimensions - supported by
two of the four world pillars: the other two world pillars
and the rest of the canopy are implied behind the facade.

An additional symbolic element is added by the symbolism of
the three-sided pediment. involving the number three and the
pyramid. which we have considered above. The pyramid and
pediment are also symbols of mountain tops. the paradigmatic
place of theophany (see Section One of this chapter).

We have seen a variety of Greek temple facades in our
above discussions. In Figure 8 we saw the canopy of heaven
gable and columns over the doors of the theatre §§§g§ on the
mid-fourth century B.C. fragment of a krater from Taranto.

8
3 By no means is this brief consideration meant to pre-
sent a definitive study of the Greek temple. which would be a
complete dissertation topic itself. and therefore far beyond
the scope of this discussion of the symbolism of the skana.

17“

The third century A.D. fresco at the Dura-Huropas
Synagogue (Figure 18) depicts the Jewish Temple in the form
of a Greek temple. as do the mosaics on the triumphal arch
at Sta. Maria Maggiore (Figures 19. 85 and 86). and the
fifth century doors at Sta. Sabina. also in Rome (Figure 73).

We have seen several portrayals of imperial triumphal
arches which have basically the same form as the Greek temple
facade: Theodoric's Palace shown in the S. Apollinare in
Classe mosaics (Figure 63) and Diocletian's Palace (Figure
62): the Missorium of Theodosius (Figure 65): and the Theo-
dosian fapade of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (Figure 67).
(In the latter three examples. the curved arch canopy between
the central columns projects up into the triangular pediment.
whereas in the Greek temple there is a flat architrave all
the way across the base of the triangle.) This same imperial
function is Joined with the Greek temple form also in the
drawing of the Roman Calendar of 35k (Figure 87).

Sometimes. instead of a curved canopy. a pointed gable
forms the top of niches within which saints or others stand.
as in the orante figure seen in Figure 50. or in the semi-
stylised pointed niches which alternate with the curved niches
with saints which encircle the drum of the dome of Ravenna's
Orthodox Baptistry (Figure #9).

On several Jonah sarcophagi - for instance. the one in
the Lateran Museum (Figure 37) - the church with the sheep
emerging (upper right). and the ehureh-sepu-lehre with Lazarus

175

emerging (upper left). are both portrayed in the Greek temple
form. In the early church's funereal art. representations
of Christ resurrecting Lazarus were quite common. and the
sepulchre is virtually always depicted as a miniature church
in the form of a Greek temple. This pedimental form was
commonly used for tombs in the West. The ambiguity - is
Lazarus emerging from a church or a tomb? - reflects the
dual nature of the church as a tomb and the dwelling-place
on earth of the Divine. This is found even in a highly
schematic late third century painting in the Catacomb of Se.
Pietro e Marcellinc (Figure 7“). in the fourth century bas-
relief carvings of the Brescia Museo Civico ivory casket
(Figure 75). and the fifth century mosaic at S. Apollinare
Muovo in Ravenna (Figure 76). Later Eastern iconography
depicts Lazarus emerging. not from a church-tomb. but from
a cave in a mountain. 39

The functions associated with these forms are the con-
stantly recurring gk§g§,functions - the dwelling-place or
manifestation of the Divine. the imperial manifestation.
and the victory of life over death. understood as the resur-
rection of the dead.

Now we will briefly consider another form of the ggggg -

the dome.

39 For an example. see Onasch. Icons. 22. cit.. pl. #5.

176

5. The Dome sxene

The dome is really an extension of a curved canopy.
supported on four columns. “0 such as we have seen in the
form of the baldachino-canopy ever the altar. over the em-
peror's throne. over the ambon. over the baptismal font.
over a tomb. over the Ark of the Covenant and Torah Shrine.
over the Evangelists or other saints and prophets: sometimes
the curved canopy was given a squared top over it to form a
triumphal arch. with its various comparable uses.

It is a fairly simple. and perhaps obvious. transition
to expand the smaller architectural curved canopy - usually
found within a building or over an entrance - into a dome
covering an entire building. The earliest examples of domed
structures were used to assert the divine authority and the
nature of the imperial office - the divine regent on earth.
Particularly in the official exercise of the imperial power
is that divine quality manifested. and thus the dome (or the
I g§§g§,carries that same significance.

Domes can assume a variety of forms. The dome can
basically cover the entire structure. like the skull covers
the head. or a dome can be raised up on a cylindrical drum.
The shape of the dome can likewise vary. It can be curved
at the top as in the Byzantine dome and its variations and

 

#0 It is far beyond the scope of this inquiry into the
nature and significance of the skEne to attempt to present a
definitive examination of the dome. which various fine studies
have already done. (See the Introduction. p. 13 ff.)

177

precedents. Or it can be pointed at the top. as are the
Russian "onion” domes.

One early example of the rounded dome is the Mausoleum
of Thecdcric (the Arian ruler in Italy in the late fifth-
early sixth century A.D.). built in Ravenna in the early
sixth century (Figure 77). Instead of being square. this
building is octagonal. which therefore combines the universal
symbolic significance of the canopy of heaven dome-gk§g§_with
the symbolism of enant Eight is seven plus one: therefore.
since seven represents the cosmic totality of creation (e.g.
four signifies the earth. and three represents the heavens).
then one more symbolizes a renewed cosmos. a new beginning.
(Thus octagonal buildings are appropriate for both baptistries
and tombs.) The dome. or canopy of heaven. denotes that this
new beginning is a cosmic event. and that the earthly g§§2g_
is a microcosm.

An early example of the pointed tholos type does. sup-
ported on a drum rising above a rectangular building. is the
late first century B.C. so-called “Tomb of Absclom." (erected
by Herod the Great in the Hidron valley near Jerusalem
(Figure 78).

One of the most spectacular domed structures ever built
is Justinian's magnificent Church of the Holy Wisdom - 35313,
Sophia - consecrated in 5a? in Constantinople - the Dyson-
tine Empire's capital (Figure 79). It had been the largest
dome ever built. and had retained that pro-eminence until

178

modern centuries. Justinian had sought to re-establish the
glories of Solomon's Temple and build a monument worthy of
what he considered to be the glories of his own empire. of
his own office as emperor. and of his magnificent capital.
Such a worthy monument would combine the functions of cosmic
kingship with the divine attributes of truth. wisdom and
splendor. figgig,Sophia was one of three churches dedicated
to an attribute of God: Holy Wisdom. Holy Peace (Hagig_
Eireni). and what is believed to have been Holy Might or
Holy Power (Hsgios Ischzgcs).

Almost all Byzantine churches built after Justinian had
domes. Baptistries also frequently were domed buildings.
commonly over octagonal structures. such as Ravenna's Ortho-
dxxBaptistry (Figure 80). The symbolism of sight as a new
beginning corresponds to the theology of Baptism. The neo-
Platonic concept of ”as above. so below'I is reinforced by
what is depicted in the occulus of the cosmic dome: the
Baptism of Christ. This signifies that when a person is
baptized in the font beneath the occulus. that he shares
and participates in Christ's own Baptism. which becomes.
‘therefore. a cosmic event by being depicted in the eye of
the cosmic canopy or canopy of heaven. Furthermore. the
occulus is also rather like a mirror which reflects what
takes place beneath it and projects it as a cosmic event.

One of the most famous of all tombs is the tomb of
Christ - the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Among the

179

earliest extant portrayals of the Resurrection of Christ are
several which depict the Maries at the empty tomb. and an
angel talking to them.‘ These works date from circa #00 and
from the latter fifth century. Each of them show Christ's
tomb as a small domed building. sometimes on a single level.
and other times on two levels with the dome raised on a cy-
lindrical drum (Figures 81. 82. 83. and 84).

After the Constantinian Churches of the Holy Sepulchre
and Anastasis were constructed. any portrayal of Christ's
tomb was customarily patterned after the twin monuments.
However. in the fourth and ealy fifth centuries. sometimes
pre-Constantinian models still prevailed in areas far-removed
from Jerusalem's influence.

In S. Apollinare Mucvo. Ravenna. there is a mosaic of
the two Maries at the tomb which is almost diagrammatic in
its simplicity (Figure 81). I think that it is possible
that this representation was based on pro-Constantinian icono-
graphic precedent. an example of which is seen in the fresco
in the Dura-Europas baptistry. Nevertheless. we note once
again that we have a standard g§§g§,form of an entrance
flanked by four columns. surmounted by a dome - the canopy
of heaven - in both the Ravenna mosaic (Figure 81). and an-
other representation of the Resurrection on the Munich ivory
(Figure 83). On two ivory panels dating from about #00
(Figures 82 and 83) we have what appears to be a more com-
plete portrayal of the Holy Sepulchre. with six panels shown

180

on the sepulchre's doors. depicted on the Castello Sforesco
ivory. These door panels illustrate three scenes in the

life of Christ. including the Resurrection of Lazarus in the
top two panels (Figure 82). The Munich ivory is distinguished
by a rather detailed upper story (Figure 83L “1 In the latter.
Christ's Ascension has been combined with His Resurrection.
These two events are sometimes viewed theologically as two
dimensions of the same experience. The tree growing out of
the dome undoubtedly is the tree of the cross. which. because
of the Resurrection. nou blossoms as the Tree of Life. and

the Tree of Paradise. “2

 

“1 See also the Pilgrim's Ampulla showing the Holy Ana-
stasis. circa 600. in the Monza Treasury. in Grabar. Golden

Age of Justinian. 22. cit.. p. 314.

“2 Many of the texts for the feast of the Elevation of
the Cross. September inth. convey the significance of the
holy tree of the cross. and its relationship to the tree in
Paradise from which Adam and Eve ate. thereby chosing their
own will rather than God's will. and thus bringing death and
sin to humanity. Here are two of the many texts that present
these ideas.

How strangely wonderful that the Cross which bore the

High One as a cluster of grapes full of life. appearing

today elevated from the earth. through which we were.

all drawn to God. and death was swallowed unto the end.

0 what a pure Tree through which we have received the

nondmortifying food of Eden. glorifying Christ.

(Stikhera on the Praises: Matins)

Let all the trees of the wood. planted from the begin-

ning of time. rejoice: for their nature hath been sanc-

tified by the stretching of Christ on the Tree...
(Ninth Ode of the Canon: Matins)

(Texts translated by Seraphim Nasser. Divine Prayers and
Services of the Catholic Orthodox Churc of Chris . Syrian
Antiochan Orthodox Archdiocen=of New York and All North
America. 1961 (1938). pp. 303 and 302. respectively.)

181”

In the Milan ivory diptych seen in Figure 8# we have
many events portrayed: (starting with the upper right) -
Christ washing the Apostles' feet at the Last Supper: Christ's
trial before Pilate: and four Resurrection experiences. end-
ing with Doubting Thomas - all squeezed into a small space.
Consequently. the people and buildings are naturally limited
in detail. Yet the Church of the Holy Sepulchre looks like
itself. and is very similar to the two previous ivories seen
in Figures 82 and 83. Also. whereas the Holy Sepulchre is
a small domed building. as shown in Christ's burial (bottom
right and upper left scenes). the church built on the site
of the Holy Supper is a basilica. as is portrayed in the
first and last scenes. In Egeria's diary of her pilgrimage
to Jerusalem in the fourth century. she describes these
Constantinian churches. as well as their liturgical role in
Holy Week. “3 .

In most extant representations of Jerusalem. such as
5the apsidal mosaic of the Heavenly Jerusalem at Rome's fifth

century Sta. Pudenziana. M

we have actual "portraits" of
the buildings on the holy sites associated with Christ's

Passion and Resurrection. In fact. although the Temple did

not have;a.d:me. in latter icons showing Jerusalem or the Tem-
ple. the dome of the Anastasis church replaces the pediment
of the Hercdian Temple.

L

“3 ngria's 215;: of ;.Pilgrim. Trans. R.M. French.
London. 1951;.

““ See Grabar. Golden Age of Justinian. 22. cit.. p. 135.

182

These dome-pkgpg forms asserted the divine. and at times.
priestly. nature of the imperial personage. Christ was the
divine-king-priest par excellence. after the order of Mechi-
zedek. Therefore. it is only to be expected that Christ's
tomb should be a pggpg par excellence - the domed building.

Now we turn to the last segment of this chapter. where
we shall inquire about the use and significance of curtains.
as an element that is so frequently a component of most

sk6n6 forms.

6. Qprtaips: A.Common Component of Skine Forms
Curtains are a significant and ubiquitous component of

p§§p§ forms. including the Mosaic Tabernacle and the Jewish
Temple. the three-dimensional architectural canopy. the
carved niche and two-dimensional canopy. the triumphal arch.
and the iconostasis.

Due to the obvious perishability of cloth. we have no
existing architectural examples of the use of curtains in
the early centuries. But we do have manuscript paintings.
mosaics. and has-relief sculptures. in addition to literary
references. such as Paul the Silentiary's ppscription of
Hagia Sophia “5. which give us some idea of the extensive
use of curtains in the early Christian period by both
Christians and Jews.

“6 See Footnote 2 in this chapter.

183

Actually. if we did not find curtains. it would be most
surprising. since according to the directions given to Moses.
recorded in Exodus 26:1-6. it was the ten inner curtains that
really constituted the actual Tabernacle (pkgpg) of the Lord.
Whose Divine Presence was manifested in the Tables of the
Ten Commandments. which were kept in the Ark of the Covenant
which resided within the Tabernacle - behind the veil (cur-
tain) of the Holy of Holies. Probably the clearest repre-
sentation we have of the use of curtains for the Tabernacle
is in the Ashburnham Pentateuch (Figure 1“). In another
(rather schematic) portrayal of the Tabernacle in the Dura-
Europas Synagogue fresco seen above in Figures 18 and 27.
the central entrance to the Temple precincts (shown at the
bottom) is behind a blue and pink (scarlet) curtain. and the
Ark of the Covenant is shown at the top. veiled by the cur-
tain of the Holy of Holies. but here depicted behind the
Ark so that the Ark itself would be visible. I would specu-
late that one possible alternative meaning. in addition to
those mentioned above. is that the curtain behind Aaron's
head indicates that in his role as High Priest. he is the
only one allowed to enter into the curtained-off Holy of
Holies in the Tabernacle of the Lord.

Further examples of the curtains of the Tabernacle are
seen at Rome's Sta. Maria Maggiore. seen above in Figure 19.
In this scene the Tabernacle is visible in the upper right

and loner left. where. in both instances. the curtains are

184

tied back to reveal the interior of the Holy cf Holies with
the hanging lamp which was always kept burning.

In Figures 85 and 86. which are also from the mosaics
at Sta. Maria Maggiore. we see the Temple in Christ's time
(the Hercdian Temple) portrayed almost the same way as was
Moses' Tabernacle of Witness in the wilderness from the same
mosaic series. with the exception that the Hercdian Temple

“7 and has ornamentation

has four columns instead of two.
around the pediment and roof. This similar portrayal conveys
the belief that the Mosaic Tabernacle and its subsequent
Temples were experienced in the same manner. as making pre-
sent the same reality - the Dwelling-Place of the Divine on
earth.

Why. precisely. should curtains be so prevalent and
important a component of the gggggy According to Exodus.
the earthly Tabernacle is patterned after the heavenly proto-
type (flepeSstfg'M gradei’gp. Exodus 25:9: or 86003. t_u'p9_s.
Exodus 25:40. both translated as ”pattern"). revealed to
Moses on Mt. Sinai. Consequently. we should expect to find
curtains. used in conjunction with various pk§p§,forms. to
be associated with the heavens. Psalm 104 (103 in the Septua-

gint) gives verbal expression to this idea: "...Who spreads

out the heavens as a curtain.“ (translated in the New English

 

47 According to the reconstruction of Herod's Temple
(Figure 23) there were four columns: the biblical descrip-
tion of Solomon's Temple mentions just two columns.

185

Bible as ”... as a tent?). The same imagery is found in
Isaiah 40:22: “... Who stretches out the heavens like a
curtain. and spreads them like a tent to dwell in (RSV).

As we recall from our first chapter. "tent" is the original
meaning of the word pkgpg. But a tent without sides is
really a canopy. Thus one might translate the Psalm verse
"Who spreads out the heavens as a canopy.“ From there it is
but a simple step further to the idea that the sky. or the
heavens. is the canopy or tent (the 9339;). which forms the
dwelling-place of God. Therefore. in answer to the question.
what does the dwelling-place of God look like. we answer
that it-looks like a giant canopy or tent with curtains.
Consequently. it is perfectly logical that since ancient
times. whenever the earthly dwelling of God was to be delin-
eated. described. depicted. or built. that it would look
like a canopy or tent with curtains. such as the Hebraic
Tabernacle of Moses. I

The use of curtains is found in conjunction with another

 

maJor function of the sk5n3'- the imperial function - to
represent and symbolize the divinity of the emperor. as uas
the case with the later Roman emperors. or to convey the
concept that at least the office. if not the person. of the
emperor was divine.

An early Christian/Roman expression of this divine-
imperial function is seen in the Roman Calendar of 354 (Fig-
ure 87). showing the emperor (in this case. the Consul

186

Constantius II) as though a god. distributing his largesse

of gold(the most divine of all materials) coins. signifying
physical and spiritual blessings. In this drawing the cur-
tains are hanging from an architrave. tied back to reveal

the haloed divine emperor (consul). who sits enthroned under
a 2§§2§rtriumphal arch. comprised of a triangular pediment
with a shell in the center. supported by two columns. The
form is quite similar to portrayals we have seen above of

the Tabernacle-Temple. Canon Tables. and other two-dimensional
canopies and niches.

Another example of this symbol of the curtains pulled
back from a 2§§p§_to manifest and reveal the divine cosmic
order or presence through the person of the imperial majesty
is found in Ravenna. at S. Apollinare Nuovo. built by the
Arian Oetrogothic king. Theodoric (Figure 63). Originally.
Theodoric and his chamberlains were depicted beneath those
curtained arches. (parts of the hands remain in the mosaic
of the columns). but were removed when Ravenna was recaptured
by the Orthodox Emperor. Justinian. and Theodoric's church
was reconsecrated as an Orthodon,rather than as an Arian.
temple.

The Calendar of 354 and the S. Apollinare Nuovo mosaic
are just two early examples that illustrate how much of the
universal and cosmic symbolism used by the pagan emperors

was adopted and adapted to Christian imperial needs. 48

 

48 See H. P. L'Orange. 2p. 222.. ppssim.

187

It is due to the influence of such symbolism that the Empress
Theodora. surrounded by her retinu. is depicted with a giant
halo under a shell-22§2§_at S. Vitale in Ravenna (Figure 52).
One of her ohamberlains is pulling back the curtains as the
Empress is about to make her entrance. bearing her gifts.-
and thereby manifesting herself to the people. It could

Just as easily be the reverse. that she is shown already in
theophany. and is about to withdraw behind the curtain to
reeveil herself after revealing herself. Her husband is
sumilarly shown opposite her.

There are also numerous has-relief ivory imperial and
cunsular diptychs which use similar symbolism. such as the
two early sixth century diptychs of Empress Ariadne (d. 515)
in Figure 88. depicted in the full imperial regala and
splendor of her imperial office. She is standing. enthroned
under an architectural 22222. with a shell that looks like
a dome. with the curtains tied back as though to reveal a
manifestation of the Divine Wisdom to the world. which. of
course. mas the precise intention. To further emphasize
the importance of her office. her humanity is minimized to
the extent that it is virtually irrelevant. What is relevant
is the message : Just as Christ invisibly reigns in heaven.
so His appointed and anointed regent and representative vis-
ibly reigns on earth. Thus. I contend that the tied-back
curtains symbolize the curtains of the heavens which are

drawn back to reveal the Divine Nature and Activity.

188

These divine-imperial cosmic kingship ideas also found
expression in the West. by the successors of Charlemagne's
attempt to re-establish the Roman Empire in the West - the
“Holy Roman Empire." Although there was not much communi-
cation between the East and West in the ninth century. Char-
lemagne was well aware that the Roman Emperor was on the
throne in the imperial capital of Constantinople. It was
thus all the more important to assert the divine right of
the Holy Roman Emperor in the West by graphically portraying
the emperor surrounded by symbols of his divinity. One
striking illustration of this is a miniature (from about
856). of Charlemagne's son. Charles the Bald. who is en-
throned under an architectural canopy. and under a curtain
draped across the heavens (Figure 89). That the curtain
and canopy indeed represent the heavens - God's dwellings
place - and that Charles is His regent. is furthermore
made absolutely certain by showing the hand of God protruding
from a cloud. flanked by the same vigil lights (and/or cen-
sor) seen in the Holy of Holies. and which are also used in
the Christian sanctuary to indicate the Divine Presence.

The hand of God shown in this manner is a pro-Christian con-
vention to show the Presence and Activity of God in the
event portrayed. Hence. Charles the Bald was seeking to
communicate the concept that in his actions as king. he was
making known the Divine Presence on earth. by means of the

divine sanction. To further express this intention. the

189

clergy. arrayed across the bottom. much smaller in import-
ance compared to the king. are readily acknowledging his
divine right as king. As audacious as this scene appears

to us now. there was considerable precedent in pagan Roman
and Byzantine imperial symbolism for Charles' extremely bold
presentation. as we have already seen.

In Chapter Four. 2/c we discussed the important relation-
ships between "Fertility and Marriage. Order and Royalty."
where we saw why it was seemingly such a natural affirmation
to maintain that the king indeed did manifest the divine
order on earth. Charles the Bald is a graphic example of
such ideas.

That there is such a close interrelationship between
the Divine and the law. order. and wisdom. (which the emperor
represents and disseminates). is clearly shown on the Brescia
Museo Civico ivory casket (Figure 90). Here we see a mani-
festation of Divine Wisdom. as Christ. the Divine L2g2p,and
Wisdom incarnate. is unequivocally revealing to His Apostles.
the Divine Law. Order. and Wisdom. symbolized by the open
scroll. This manifestation occurs under a dome-like struc-
ture within two columns with curtains. I supect that the
structure might have been intended to be a church. possibly
even the apes or altar canopy of the church. where curtains
were commonly used. in which case. a further idea would then
be expressed: it is within the Church (and perhaps specifi-
cally in the Eucharist which is enacted within the apes).

190

that this Divine Word (22522) of Law. Order. and Wisdom

was manifested. Christ. as the 22522. or rational principle
of creation. is Himself the personification and incarnation
of the Divine Wisdom.

So established does this 2222§'symbol of columns. archi-
trave. and curtains seem to be. that a jeweled cross on a
mound. under a 23222 (Figure 91) can be substituted for
Christ. Yet the meaning remains clear: by means of Christ's
cross on Golgatha (the mound). and His Resurrection (the
empty cross: and jeweled. indicating glory and victory). the
Divine Law. Order. and Wisdom are revealed (curtains of the
Tabernacle pulled back). “9

Just as the curtains - the canopy of heaven - was an

essential element of the Mosaic Tabernacle and the Temple's

 

“9 It appears from the existing evidence that it was
customary up until the fifth and sixth centuries to portray
Christ's cross empty. The oldest known cross with Christ on
it is on the wooden bas-relief doors of Sta. Sabina. Home.
dating from ca. 430. Apparently it was in response to the
Monophysite heresy of the fifth-sixth centuries that the
Orthodox started to portray Christ on the cross. Monophy-
sitism contended that Christ had only one Divine Nature.
as opposed to the Chalcedonian Decree (Fourth Ecumenical
Council at Chalcedon in 451) that Christ was the “God-Man.”
with two Natures ( h sis). Divine and Human. equal and unde-
vided in One Person. I Christ were only Divine. as the
Monophysites contended. He could not have died on the cross.
for God could not die. Thus to portray Christ on the cross
asserts the Orthodox view of the Chalcedonian Decree. that
Christ is fully human as well as fully Divine. Again. it
was customary. however. to show Christ alive. The first
time. at least in the East. that Christ is depicted dead on
the cross seems to be in the narthex mosaics at Hosios Loukas
in Phocis. Greece. dating from around 1000.

191

Holy of Holies. and of the Greek and Roman theatre's stage
23222 (Figures 9 and 10). so likewise. they apparently were
attached to the architrave of the sanctuary screen forming
the Christian Holy of Holies in early church architecture.
in addition to the curtains which were suspended from the
ciborium over the altar. Two modern forms of these curtains
are the stage curtain across the front of the traditional
proskSnium stage. and the curtain behind the Holy or Royal
Doors of the Orthodox iconostasis. each of which is opened
or closed at times appropriate to the drama enacted.

Let us reflect momentarily upon the human experience
of the phenomenon of the curtain or veil. We are familiar
with the public ritual of the formal unveiling of something
new - a painting. a status. a car. etc. - where. once people
have gathered. and after the appropriate preludes. there is
the special moment when ... 12;;§’- there it is - the veil
is removed or pulled back. and the object is revealed. This
ritual involves an object in the material plane of existence.
However. when dealing with the spiritual plane of existence.
I suggest that sometimes we need a veil precisely to enable
us to perceive something on a very high spiritual level.
(It is rather like putting on sunglasses - veiling one's
eyes - in order to see in the glare of the sunlight.) An
example of this spiritual experience is Moses. who. after
he had been on Mt. Sinai in the Presence of the Lord. had
become so physically and spiritually transfigured that his

192

head shone like the sun with brilliant rays (not horns as
the Vulgate translated it) emanating from his head. However.
in order that the children of Israel might look on him after
he came down from the mountain. he had to veil his head
(Exodus 34:29-35). 50

At the Transfiguration on Mt. Tabor the brilliance of
the Uncreated Light around Christ knocked the three Apostles
to the ground. and they had to cover or veil their eyes to
shield themselves from the blinding Light of the Divine
(see Figures 1 and 2).

In fact. the word ”re-veal" or "re-veil" implies the
very experience we are talking about - that in order to be
revealed. the Divine must be reeveiled. or hidden. It is
as though by divine condescension (or imperial condescension).
that the curtains will be drawn back at certain times so
that the select or the initiates might perceive the divine
radiance - but only insofar as they are capable of tolerating

51 In the early church the catechumens

the experience.
(those who had not yet been initiated or illumined) left the
church before the Holy Mysteries were revealed. because
during the Anaphora (the Consecration and Epiclesis) the

Holy Doors remain open. with the curtains drawn back.

 

50 I suggest that the figure in the Dura-Europas Syna-
gogue frescoes simply called “a prophet" who has a black
square behind his head. might be a portrayal of Moses with
his head veiled.

51 See the hymns for the Transfiguration referred to
in Chapter One. Perhaps it was this spiritual experience
that Plato had in mind. among other things. when he composed
his "Allegory of the Cave.”

193

Similarly. the imperial majesty and glory were revealed un-
der the 25222 at appointed times when the curtains were
drawn back to reveal in audience the symbol. and even the
embodiment. of the divine order on earth.

With this discussion of curtains. we bring to a close
our exploration of the form and significance of the 25222.
In the following Summary we shall attempt to summarize our

findings e

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Let us now attempt to summarize what we have done in
our inquiry. and draw some conclusions.

We have come a long way from our first encounter with
the 22222 in the Greek theatre and the Mosaic Tabernacle.
where we saw that they were closely parallel in meaning and
function. The purpose common to both theatre and Tabernacle
was to make manifest the Divine Presence. and the conse-
quences of His Presence (e.g. His Activity): creation. life.
order. the good. and the Divine victory over destruction.
death. chaos. and evil. This Divine victory constitutes a
reconciliation of opposites. a universal and perennial theme
of spiritual striving. Thus. in the 22222. which represents
that Divine victory. Presence. and reconciliation. heaven
and earth are united. The canopy or tent (22222) of heaven
that touches earth on its four earth pillars visualizes this
reconciliation.

In the 22222 the Invisible One provides a visible mani-
festation of Himself on earth. where the earthly 222p2_is
patterned after the invisible. heavenly prototype. Just as
heaven and earth unite in the Divine victory of life and
creation over death and destruction. so likewise the rain

and sun fertilize the earth. bringing forth the crops which

194

195

sustain life. Just as creation brings order out of chaos.
so the exercise of the imperial office on earth establishes
and maintains order and overcomes chaos.

The purpose of the Divine Self-manifestation is that
mankind might respond to. and participate in the Divine Na-
ture and Activity. and thereby participate in the reconcilia-
tion of warring opposites. and champion life and good over
death and evil. The 222p2_marks off the sacred space where
this human response to. and participation in the Divine vic-
tory and Presence occurs. This response has several names.
among which are: liturgy. ritual. worship. creativity. play.

As we have seen. one of the many ways of expressing this
experience is the balancing and harmonizing of the Dionysian
and Apollonian components of existence and personality.

This may be viewed also as the civilizing process of mankind -
the affirmation of life. order and creation. The Dionysian
is the emotional. mystical. meta-rational. ecstatic. imagina-
tive. unconscious - symbolized by the earth and the feminine.
The Apollonian is the intellectual. cognitive. rational.
controlled. conscious. spirit. will-power. Judgment - and is
symbolized by the sky and the masculine. The extreme of the
Dionysian element is lack of control or order: in other words.
chaos. The extreme of the Apollonian is such restriction and
order that there could be nothing new. and no creation. In
either extreme life could not exist and be renewed and main-

tained. The balance and harmony of the two opposing dimensions

196

of life is required to have creation. Humans participate in
and imitate this Divine Activity by means of creative play.
playful creativity. ritual. worship and liturgy.

Similarly. Beauty is an allegory or symbol of the Divine
Nature. Thus. humans imitate the Divine Nature by means of
creating beauty. In so many cultures and civilizations the
highest efforts of its artists and patrons have been channeled
into creating beauty to adorn its skénai - temple. church.
palace. tomb - by creating beautiful architecture. sculpture.
painting. music. poetry. drama. and dance. It is these monu-
ments that are created to last through the centuries.

An important result of the unification. reconciliation.
harmonizing and balancing of opposites. which is an essen-
tial dimension of the 22222. is the spiritual dictum. "as
above. so below." which reflects the concept that the 22222
forms a microcosm. But I suggest that there is an important
corollary - "as below. so above." which indicates that the
22222.also forms a macrocosm. I contend that this two-way
mcyement is not only possible. but an essential result of the
22222. which unites heaven and earth. the above and below.
so that movement is possible in either direction.

The Hebrew Tabernacle of Witness of Moses. as we have
seen. was patterned after its prototype. the heavenly 22222
(E1. 26:30. 25:9. 25:40. 27:8. and W8. 9:8). It was in the
.heavenly and temporal 22222‘ that the Shekhinah dwelt and

 

manifested Himself. As we saw in Chapter One. there is a

19?

close linguistic connection between Shekhinah. 22222. and
mishkan. because they each have the consonants 2_2,p. and
therefore they have a corresponding close connection in
meaning.

Philo was the first to move away from viewing the
Mosaic Tabernacle as a place. and saw it as an allegory of
virtue and wisdom. Wisdom. Philo allegorizes. is a tent
(22222) in which the wise person dwells. This allegorical
and symbolic method greatly influenced Christian biblical
exegesis. but the basis of it is already discernible in the
New Testament. We saw above that in the Prologue of John's
Gospel the evangelist uses a verb form of 22222_- “and the
Word was made flesh and 22222}(esk3nosen) among us (John
1:14). This term could be translated as "tabernacled." or
qntched His tent" among us. The implication is that in
Christ's Incarnation. God was present in the Logos (the
Wisdom or-Word of God) in the same way as He was present
in the Shekhinah in the Mosaic Tabernacle. If Christ's Body
is the dwelling-place of the 2hekhina . then He Himself is
a 22222. and His Incarnation could truly be described as
pitching His tent/skini/tabernacle among us.

St. Paul calls ‘the Church the Body of Christ (Col. 1:18.
24: I Cor. 12:27: Rom. 12:5). If Christ's Body was the
(dwelling-place of the Shekhinah. then the Church must like-
wise be the dwelling-place of the §hekhina . And indeed.
Just as the Mosaic Tabernacle was the prototype of Christ.

198

as the new Tabernacle on earth. so likewise. the Church. as
the Body of Christ. continues to manifest the Divine Presence
on earth as God's 22222. as did the old Tabernacle. And.

of course. we have seen a host of 22222,forms associated
with church archii:ecture. painting. and furnishings: the
dome. apse. baldachino.-canopies of various types. taber-
nacles and niches. pediments. the iconostasis. and triumphal
arches. Curved spaces supported on columns are patterned on
the heavenly model - the tent or canopy or dome of heaven
(the sky) supported on the four earth pillars. The dome of
Byzantine churches forms a microcosm as the canopy of heaven.
but it is also the cranium of Christ. But then. again as
St. Paul says. Christ is the 2222 of the Church (Eph. 5:23).
Thus Christ as Pantocrator (Creator of All) is usually de-
picted in the occulus of the dome.

But St. Paul also states that we humans - our bodies -
are also temples of God - temples of the soul or Holy Spirit
(I Cor. 3:16-17. 6:19). This is appropriate because God
made us according to Him Image (Kar’ sirévm - _k_a_2' eikona)
and Likeness (KeLG’ cfauoiwmv- 5222' M22). Thus. since
Christ made the Invisible One visible. and Christ was a 22222.
therefore we must also form skihai. Perhaps our dome-shaped
heads are reminders of our true nature. where our bodies
form a 22222 for the divine spark within us a the soul.

Haloes around the heads of saints. I suggest. are a

reflection of at least an unconscious awareness of the head

199

as the celestial dome of the soul while it resides in the
body. Jill Purce says in her intriquing book. The gzstic
Spiral: Journez of the Soul. "The head is the inner sanc-
tuary of the temple of man's body." 1 I suggest that in
many other societies people can perceive more readily the
energy patterns and their corresponding colors which emanate
primarily from people's heads. One of the most sacro-delic
and psycho-delic visualizations of this experience of the
sanctification of the body/temple centered about the head is
the illumination of an Evangelist (probably St. John) from
the Book of Kells (Figure 92). We notice here that he seems
to be within a body. for the hands and feet protrude. I
suspect that this might be the Body of Christ - the Church -
from which he is born into the illuminated life and Presence
of God.

Because the Church is a tomb. womb. and temple. it is
intimately involved with rites of passage. by means of which
souls attempt to process from tomb to womb to temple. that
is. from death to life to dwelling in the Presence of God.
The 22222_as an entrance portal signifies and delineates
the sacred space where the passage or procession from one
level of existence to a higher spiritual level occurs. We

(recall that the original meaning of the word skini wag

 

"tent." which connoted a readily transportable dwelling. The

 

1 Avon Books. New Iork. 1974. p. 98.

200

Jewish Feast of Booths tries to maintain this dynamic qual-
ity of the 22222. The sense of liturgical movement and
procession also is an attempt to maintain the crucial con-
cept and awareness that to enter into the Presence of God

is no static condition. but a vital. dynamic. creative pro-
cess. Sacred ritual and liturgy is a creative process that
one _i_2. not a static thing that one 9222. The 232g is a
universal symbol of that creative process - the Journey of
the soul - and the realization of the goal of that spiritual

PIOOOSB e

APPENDIX

APPENDIX
The Loonostasis Skin?

The full iconostasis of the Eastern Orthodox Church was
developing in Russia during the eleventh to the thirteenth
centuries. and thus. strictly speaking. is beyond the scope
of our study. However. since it is the most direct descen-
dent of the actual form of the 22222 of the Greek theatre.
one of our original two forms. it seems too significant to
omit altogether. Thus. a very brief discussion is included
here as an appendix. This supplements what was said in
Section Three of Chapter Six. but in no way is it intended
as a definitive study. but only to present a few observations
insofar as the iconostasis pertains to our study of the 22222.

The Russian development of the iconostasis proceeded
directly from the sanctuary screens and curtains of the
earliest Christian centuries. and in fact. according to
Ouspensky in his The 2eanin5 of Icons. the sanctuary screen
finds its clearest and fullest development in the iconostasis. 1
He continues to say that the sanctuary screen. according to
the Church Fathers. is a boundary between two worlds. the
Divine and the human. the permanent and the transitory. the
spiritual and the sensory. Furthermore. he says. "although

 

1 2p. c;t.. p. 60.
201

202

on the one hand. it is a screen dividing the Divine world
from the human world. the iconostasis at the same time unites
the two worlds into one whole in an image which reflects a
state of the universe where all separation is overcome.

where there is achieved a reconciliation between God and the
creature. and within the creature himself. Standing on the
boundary line between the Divine and the human. it reveals
by means of images as fully possible the ways to this recon-
ciliation." 2

This idea of a 22222_form separating. yet providing the
means of communication between the divine and the secular.
we have repeatedly encountered. especially prominently in
the discussion of the portal 22222.

There is much similarity between the iconostasis and
the Greek theatre 22222. in both form and function. In both
instances there is a free-standing vertical wall separating
off the place from which the actors (clergy) emerge. and
into which they re-enter. during their ritual dramatic en-
actments of life and death. and the manifestation of the
Nature and Activity of the Divine. The means of communica-
tion between the two realms are three doors. the central one
‘being the largest. Emerging through the central "royal"
doors liturgically is comparable to a theophany.

Just as there was "scene-painting“ on the ancient thea-

tre skéné. so. likewise. the icons of the iconostasis may

 

2 gbid.. p. 60.

203

also be regarded as "scene-painting." because they set the
stage for the liturgical drama by portraying the saints al-
ready in the Kingdom of God. and by depicting scenes of the
revelation of the Nature and Activity of God. and His purposes
for mankind.

As seen in the diagram of the full iconostasis (Figure
70). there are (up to) five tiers with icons. each level
being of a different size. with the largest on the bottom.

If we compare this diagram.with a photo of the Theatre of
Dionysos in Athens (Figure 93) we see that the theatre also
has five tiers. each level lined with niches. I speculate
whether there might have been originally a scene-painting

or a statue in each niche. There is evidence of at least
statues being used in Roman theatres. as seen in Figure Seven.
Of special interest is the second row. which has twelve

(a cosmic number symbolizing the totality of heaven and

earth) small niches. because it seems so similar to the icono-
stasis' feast-day tier. which also commonly has (at least)
twelve icons of the twelve maJor feast days. (There can be
more on a particularly large iconostasis.)

I contend that both the form and the function of the
Greek theatre §k§g§,and the iconostasis are basically the
same. In addition to the functions of the theatre's 55§g§
(discussed in previous chapters) which correspond to the
significance of the iconostasis. are the functions of the

Hebrew Tabernacle and Temple. especially that of the

20h

separation of the Holy of Holies from the place where the
people stood. This is Just one more way in which the icono-
stasis is an expansion of the waist-high sanctuary screens
of the earlier centuries. and corresponds to the rocd screen
and Communion rail in western church architecture.

In conclusion. I suggest that the iconostasis fulfills
all six functions of the §k§g§_enumerated in Chapter Five.
and is the closest direct descendant of the Greek theatre's

skins.

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Armstrong. A.H.. An Introduction to Ancient Philoso h .
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Bieber. Margarete. The Histor of the Greek and Roman
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Bowra. Cecil Maurice. he Greek Ex rience. Neidenfeld and
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Bréhier. inn. The Ph1losophy of Plotinus. Trans. Joseph
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Brooks. N.C.. “The Sepulchre of Christ in Art and Liturgy.
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Burckhardt. Titus. Alche : Science of the Cosmos Science
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Cavernos. Constantine. Eyzantine Thomght and Art. Institute
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Cross. M.F.. ”The Tabernacle: a Study from an Archeological
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Daremberg and Saglic. Dictionnaire des Anti uitSs e ues
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Davies. J.G.. The Origin and Development of Early Christian
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Demus. Otto. Byzantine Mosaic Decoration: Aspects of Monu-

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Dickinson. G. Lowes. The Greek View of Life. university of
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Dicnysius the Pseudo-Areopagite. M stical Theolo and
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Dicnysius the Pseudo-Areopagite. On the Divine Names. SPCK.
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Dix. Dom Gregory. The Shape of the Liturgy. A. s C. Black.
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Donahue. Francis M.. The Influence of Platonism in Russian

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Eliade. Mircea. Qosmos and Mistory: The Myph of the Eternal
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Eliade. Mircea. The Forge and the Crucible: The Origins and
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Eliade. Mircea. Tmages and Symbols: Studies in Religious_

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Eliade. Mircea. The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of
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Eliade. Mircea. he Two and the One. Trans. J.M. Cohen.
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Engnell. Ivan. Studies in Divine Kin shi in the Ancient
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Eusebius. Epclesiatical History. Trans. Kirsopp Lake. Putnam.
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Flickinger. R.C.. The Greek Theatre and its Drama. university

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Frankfort. Henri. The Art and Architecture of the Ancient
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212

Gage. Jean. ”La Théolcgie de la Victoire Impériale." Révue
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Grabar. AndrS. Christian Icono h : a Stud of its Ori ins.
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Hamilton. J. Arnott. zantine Architecture and Decoration.
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213

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215
Widengren. George. The King‘and the Tree of Life in Ancient
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Wigoder. Geoffrey. ed.. Jewish Art and Civilization. 2 vols..
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Xydis. Stephen G.. "The Chancel Barrier. Solea and Ambo of
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LIS'I| OF FIGURES

2.

3.

9.

10.

11.

LIST OF FIGURES

The Transfiguration. Russian Icon. Theophanes the Greek.
and 19th century. in Tretiakov State Gallery. Moscow.
(From: Onasch. Tcons. Harry N. Abrams. New York. 1966.
pl. 91.

The Transfiguration. Russian Icon. Novgorod School.
15th gentury. 1n Nngorod State Museum. (From: Ibid..
pl. 3 .

Plans of the Theatre of Dionysos in Athens. and of the
Theatre in Epidaurus. both 9th century B.C. (From:

Boardman. The and chitecture of cient Greece.
Thames and Hu3son. Lonson. 1%7. p. 39.)

Photo of the Theatre in Epidaurus. (From: Tbid..
pl. 32.

Two Photos of the Theatre in Priene. (From: Ibid..
pl. 31.

Restoration of the Theatre in Priene. Hellenistic form.
after von Gerkan. (From: Ibid.. p. 51.)

Photo of the Roman Theatre in Orange. France. Augustan
Period. 27-B.C. - i9 A.D. (From.Toynbee. The Crucible

of Christianit . World Publishing Co.. New York. 1939.
p. I33.)

Fragment of a painting on a Krater. from.Taranto. mid-
9th century B.C. (From: Read. Ed.. Enc clo die of the
Arts. Meredith Press. New York. 1966. pl. 7. p. 929.)
Two views. Floor Mosaic. in the House of the Drinking
Contest. Antioch. 3rd century A.D. (From Kitzinger.

B zantine Art in the Makin . Harvard University Press.
Cambridge. Mass.. 1977. p18. 87 and 88. p. 50.)

Wall-painting of a Theatre. in a house in Herculaneum.
before 79 A.D. (From: Read. pp. cit.. pl. 16. p. 936.)

Suggested Model of the Tabernacle. taken from M. Levine's
Mlechet Hamishkan. Tel Aviv. 1968. (From: Enc clc edia
Judaica. Vol. 15. Macmillan Co.. New York. pp. 379-330 )

216

12.

13.

19.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

217

Suggested Model of the Tabernacle. by Ferguson.

(From: The Jewish Enc clc edia. Vol. 11. Funk and
Wagnalls. New York. 1913. p. 359.)

Ground-plan of the Tabernacle. Title-page from Yom-Tob
Zahalon's "She'elot u-teshubot." Venice. 1699. (From:

Ibid.. p. 655-)

Moses Receiving the Law on Mt. Sinai: Moses Bringing
the Law to the People: Moses and Aaron Entering the
Holy of Holies. from the Ashburnham Pentateuch. late
6th - early 7th centuries A.D.. in the Bibliothaquo
Nationals. Paris. (From: Beckwith. Early Christian

and B zantine Art. Penguin Books. Baltimore. 1970.
pI. I21.)

The Priests Carrying the Ark Across the Jordan. from a
12th century Spanish Bible. Leon. S. Isidore. ms. 3.

fol. 93v. (From: Encyclopedia Judaica. pp. cit..
V01. 3' PP. 461-962.

The Philistines Returning the Ark of the Covenant.
fresco. in the Synagogue at Dura-Europas. before 256
A.D. (From. Toynbee. 22, Cite. P. 6“.)

The Ark of the Covenant on a Cart. a frieze in the
Capernaum (Tell Hum) Synagogue. 2nd-3rd century A.D.

(From: Enc clo edia Judaica. pp. cit..‘Vol. 3.
pp. 9613932.)

The Priesthood of Aaron. showing the Ark of the Covenant
in the Temple. in the Synagogue at Dura-Eurcpas. before
256 A.D. (From: Ibid.. Vol. 6. pp. 277-278.)

Moses and the Spice: Moses being Stoned Outside the
Tabernacle Protected by the Shekhinah. on the Trium-
phal Arch at Sta. Maria Maggiore. Rome. 5th century

A.D. (From: Karpp. pie Fruhchristlichen und Mitts;-

alterlichen Mosaiken in Ste. Marie Ma iore zu Rom.
pI. 113.) ‘

Plan of Solomon's Temple. according to C. Watzinger.
Denkmaeler Palaestinas. 1933. (From: Encyclopedia
Judaica. 22c Cite. V01. 15. PP. 943-9 e

Suggested Plan and Restoration of the Second Temple.
based on the Atlas of Israel. Jerusalem. 1970. (From:

Ibzdeg vals 15' PP. 961-962.)

Reconstruction of Herod's Temple. after M. de Vogfié's

Le Temple 1 Jérusalem. (From: Toynbee. pp. cit..
pp. 90-91e

23.

29.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33!

218

The Entrance to Herod's Temple from the Inner Court-
yard. detail of Michael Avi-Yonah's Model of Jerusalem.

(From: Encycloppdia Judaica. pp. cit.. vol. 3.
ppe 511-512e

Floor Mosaic. showing either the Ark of the Covenant
or the Ark of the Law. Beth Alpha Synagogue. Hefzibah.
Israel. 6th century A.D. (From: Cabrol and Leclercq.

Dictionnaire d'Archéolo ie chrétienne et de Litur ie.
vol. 1572. p. 1323.)

Symbolic Representation of an Ark of the Law. on a
glass dish. in the Museo Borgiano. Home. (From: The

Jewish Encycloppdia. pp. cit.. vol. 2. p. 108.)

Symbolic Representation of an Ark of the Law. on a
glass dish. 9th century A.D.. from Roman Jewish cata-
combs. in Israel National Museum. (From: Toynbee.

22- 0.1.2" P- 99-)

The Temple and the Ark of the Covenant. detail of The
Priesthood of Aaron. fresco in the Dura-Eurcpas Syna-
gogue. before 256 A.D. (From: Ibid.. p. 78.)

Ark of the Law. in the Sephardic Synagogue. Amsterdam.
Holland. 17th century. (From: The Jewish Encyclopedia.
pp. cit.. vol. 2. p. 108.)

Communion of the Apostles. apse fresco. St. Sophia
Cathedral. Ochrid. Yugoslavia. early 11th century.

Tm situ. (From: Talbot-Rice. Ed.. Dawn of Euro can
Civilization. McGraw-Hill Books. New York. 1933.

p. 119.

Ambon in Kalabaka Cathedral. mainly of early Christian
material. (From: Mango. B zantine chitecture. Harry
N. Abrams. New York. 1976. p. 122.)

Tomb of Zechariah. Kidron Valley. reign of Herod the
Great. 37-9 B.C. (From: Toynbee. pp. pr.. p. 51.)

The Gospels Enthroned at the Second Ecumenical Council
of 381. from The Sermons of St. Gregory of Nazianzus.
Byzantine. ca. 880. in the Bibliothaque Nationals.
Paris. ms. grec. 510. (From: Rice. pp. pr.. p. 87.)

Baptistry. from the Christian House. Dura-Europas.
before 256 A.D.. at Yale University Art Gallery.
(From: Grabar. Early Christian Art. Trans. Gilbert and
Emmons. Odyssey Press. New York. 1968. p. 69.)

39-

35-

36.

37.

38-

39-

90.

41.

92.

93.

an.

45.

96.

219

The Good Shepherd and His Flock. painting above the
Baptistry. in the Christian House. Dura-Europas.
before 256. at Yale University Art Gallery. (From:

Ibid..: p0 690)

The Good Shepherd and His Flock. mosaic. Mausoleum of
Galla Placidia. Ravenna. second half of the 5th century.
Tm situ. (From: n.a.. Ravenna Felix. Edizioni A.

Longo. Ravenna. n.d.. p. 2 .

Room N. Via Latina Catacomb. Home. 9th century. Tm.
811311. (””3 Grabar. 22c 013.. P. 2080)

Jonah Sarcophagus. 3rd century A.D.. in the Lateran
Museum. Sarcophagus # 119. Vatican. Rome. (From:
Ibide' p0 1u30)

Jonah Sarcophagus. 3rd century A.D.. in the Ny Carls-
berg Glyptothek. Copenhagen. (From: Ibid.. p. 131.)

Cibcrium over a Baptismal Font. Jemila. Algeria. North
Africa. 5th-6th centuries. (From: Grabar. The Golden
Age of Justinian. Trans. Gilbert and Emmons. Odyssey
Press. New York. 1967. p. 30.)

Cibcrium in crypt of St. Demetrios. Salonika. ca. 950.
(From: Mango. pp. cit.. p. 79.)

Reconstruction of Bema (after A. Orlando. 1935) of
the Aphentelli Basilica. Lesbcs. (From: Mango. pp.
cit.. p. 70.)

The Stuma Paten. Byzantine. 6th century. (From:
Grabar. Justinian. pp. cit.. p. 319.)

The Riha Paten. Byzantine. 6th century. (From:
Ibid.. p. 315.)

Annunciation to Zachariah. from the Menalogion of
Basil II. Byzantine manuscript. ca. 1000. in the
Vatican Library. ms. grec. 1613. f. 61. (From:

Lazarev. Me‘roma pgim'runckon xnsonncn. Tstoria

Vizantiiskoi Zhivo isi . Iskusstvo. Moscow. 19 .
pl. 79;.)

Presentation of Christ in the Temple. from the Mena-
logion of Basil II. Byzantine manuscript. ca. 1000.
in the Vatican Library. ms. grec. 1613. f. 365.
(From3 lbidee ple 728a)

 

Tomb of the Caetennii. in St. Peter's NecropOIis. Rome.
Roma: Tomb. 2nd century A.D. (From: Toynbee. pp. cit..
p. 1 1.)

47.

98.

99.

50-

51.

52.

53-

59.

55-

56.

57.

220

Torah Shrine. Synagogue. Dura-Europas. before 256 A.D.
(From: Perkins. Dara-Eurppas. Oxford University-
Clarendcn Press. London. 1973. pl. 20.)

The Reconstructed Temple showing the Ark of the Coven-
ant. on a Jewish coin. 133 A.D.. in the British Museum.
(From: Toynbee. pp. cit.. p. 93.)

Upper Wall. Baptistry of the Orthodox. Ravenna. first
quarter of 5th century. in situ. (From: Bovini.
Ravenna. Harry N. Abrams. New York. 1971. p. 19. )

Funeral Stele with Orante. Egypt. 5th-6th centuries.
in the Coptic Museum. Old Cairo. (From: Grabar.
Justinian. pp. cit.. p. 29?.)

Christ Delivering the Law. Sarcophagus. 9th century.
San Francesco. Ravenna. (From: Ibid.. pp. 251-252.)

Empress Theodora and Her Retinu. south choir wall
mosaic. S.Vita1e. Ravenna. 532-597. in situ. (From:
Ibid.. pp. 161-162. )

Silver Gospel Book Covers. depicting two saints. late
6th-early 7th centuries. found near Antioch. in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York City. (From:
Beckwith. pp. pr.. pls. 98 and 99.)

Ivory Cover of the Lorsch Gospels (Codex Aureus). de-
picting the Virgin and Child Enthroned between Ss.
John the Baptist and Zachariah. Charlemagne's Palace
School. ca. 810. in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
London. (From: Hubert. Porcher and Volbach. Carolin-

ian Renaissance. Trans. Emmons. Gilbert and KIlen.
BrazIIIer. New York. 1970. p. 231.)
Virgin and Child Enthroned between Archangels. and
Christ Enthroned between Ss. Peter and Paul. ivory
diptych. Constantinople. mid-6th century. in the Ehe-

mals Staatliche Museen. Berlin. (From: Beckwith. pp.
cit.. pl. 67.)

St. John the Baptist between the Four Evangelists.
detail of Bishop Maximian's Throne. Ravenna. ca. 597.

(From: Kitzinger. B zantine Art in the Makin . Harvard
University Press. Cambridge. Mass.. 1977. pI. 172.)
Canon Table with Two Evangelists. Rabula Gospels. Syria.
586. in the Biblioteca Laurenziana. Florence. Plut. I.

Codex 56. f. 10. (From: Grabar. Justinian. pp. cit..
p. 209.

580

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

69.

65.

66.

67.

68.

221

St. Luke in a Tabernacle with Scenes of the Life of
Christ. from the Gospel Book of St. Augustine. Italy.

(late 6th century. in the Corpus Christi College

Library. Cambridge. England. ms. 286. f. 129v.
(From: Grabar. Justinian. pp. cit.. p. 213.)

Frontispiece. Sacramentarium Gelasianum. Northern
France. ca. 759. in the BIinoteca Apostolica. Vatican.
Rome. Vat. Reg. Lat. 316. f. 3v. (From: Hubert. Por-
cher. and Volbach. Europe of the Invasions. Trans.
Gilbert and Emmons. Braziller. New York. 1969. p. 169.)

Arch of Constantine. in the Forum. Home. before 315.
gm situ. (From: Toynbee. pp. cit.. p. 399.)

Arch of Marcus Aurelius. Tripoli. North Africa. ca.
160-180 A.D. (From: Frova. L'Arte di Roma e del Mondo
Romano. Unione Tipografico-Eaitrice Torinese. Italy.

1931. . 631.)

Diocletian's Palace at Spalato. main entrance preceded
by an arcaded portico. Split. Yugoslavia. ca. 300 A.D..

Tm,situ. (From: Grabar. Mprly Christian Art. pp. cit..
p. 152.)

Theodoric's Palace. nave mosaic. S. Apollinare Nuovo.
Ravenna. early 6th century. Tm_situ. (From: Rice. pp.
cit.. p. 161.)

Theodoric's Palace at Ravenna. reconstructed according
to the mosaic at S. Apollinare Nuovo. Ravenna. (From:

Tbld.. p. 171.)

Missorium of Theodosius I. silver plate. Constantin-
ople (7). 379-395. in the Academia de la Historia.
Madrid. Spain. (From: Grabar. Justinian. op. cit..

p. 305.)

Samuel Anointing David. silver plate. Constantinople.
610-629. found in Cyprus. in the Metropolitan Museum
of Art. New York City. (From: Beckwith. pp. cit..

pl. 89.)

Constantine's Basilica of Hagia Sophia. Theodosian
Facade with Portico (reconstruction). Constantinople.
earéy 9th century. (From: Grabar. Justinian. pp. cit..
p. 2.)

Monastery of St. Simon Stylites. Kalat Seman. Syria.
South Facde. ca. 980. (From: Ibid.. p. 51.)

69.

70.

71.

72.

73-

79.

75-

76.

77-

78.

79. '

80.

81.

82.

222

Lorsch Monastery Gateway. West Facade. near Worms. Ger-
many. 778-789. (From: Grabar. Carolingian. pp. cit..1a 61.)

Diagram of an Iconostasis. showing fully developed. five
tier program. (From: Ouspensky and Lossky. The Meaning
19 9: Po 0)

of Icons. Boston Book and Art Shop. Boston.

San Paolo fuori 1e Mura. Home. Interior looing East.
showing Triumphal Arch and Apse. 386-ca. 990. Tm situ.
(From: Grabar. Justinian. pp. cit.. p. 7.)

Sta. Maria Maggiore. Home. Interior looking East. showing
Triumphal Arch and Apse. 932-990. (From Ibid.. p. 8.)

Annunciation to Zachariah in front of the Holy cf Holies.
detail of bas-reliefs on wooden doors of Sta. Sabina.
Rome. ca. 930. (From: Volbach.

rl Christian Art.
Harry N. Abrams. New York. 1961. pl. 103.)

Resurrection of Lazarus. catacomb painting. Catacomb of
Ss. Pietro e Marcellinc. Chamber XIII. Rome. late 3rd
century A.D.. Tm situ. (From: Grabar. Mprly Christian
L11: 22- 2232-. 1:723?)

Resurrection of Lazarus. Ivory casket. second half of the
9th century. in the Museo Civico. Brescia. Italy. (From:
Volbach. pp. cit.. pl. 88.)

Resurrection of Lazarus. nave mosaic in S. Apollinare
Nuovo. Ravenna. 5th century. Tm.situ. (From: Bovini.
Mosaici d1 S. A ollinare Nuovo di Ravenna: Il Ciclo
Cristologico. Arnaua. Florence. Italy. 1933. p. VIII.)

Mausoleum of Theodoric. Ravenna. early 6th century.
(From: Grabar. Justinian. pp. cit.. p. 18.)

Tomb of Absalom. Kidron Valley. reign of Herod the
Great. 37-9 B.C. (From: Toynbee. pp. cit.. p. 51.)

Hagia Sophia. Interior locking East. Constantinople. reign
of Justinian. 532-537. (Grabar. Justinian. pp. cit.. p. 9.)

 

Baptistry of the Orthodox. Ravenna. 6th century. view
of the dome. depicting the Baptism of Christ. (From:
Ibide e P. 1230)

Two Maries at the Empty Tomb. nave mosaic at S. Appolinare
Nuovo. Ravenna. 5th century. Tm situ. (From: Bovini.
Ravenna. pp. cit.. p. 89.)

Two Maries at the Empty Tomb. leaf of an ivory diptych.
ca. 900. at the Castello Sforzesco. Milan. (From:
Grabar. Justinian. pp. cit.. p. 288.)

83.

89.

85.

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

93-

223

Three Maries at the Empty Tomb. and Ascension of Christ.
ivory panel. ca. 900. at the Bavarian National Museum.
Mani-Che (From: Ibide' P. 288a)

Scenes of the Passion and Resurrection of Christ. ivory
diptych. early 9th century. in the Cathedral Treasury.
Milan. (From: Hubert. pp pT.. Carolingian Renaissance.
pp. pr.. p. 221.)

An Angel Appearing to Joseph Outside the Temple. Telling
Him to Flee to Egypt. and other Scenes of the Early Life
of Christ. Triumphal Arch mosaics. Sta. Maria Maggiore.

Rome. 932-990. Tm_s1tu. (From: Karpp. pp. pr.. pl. 13).

Detail of Figure 85. showing the Temple's Holy of Holies.
(From! Ibide' ple 17c)

Consul Constantius II Enthroned. from the Roman Calendar
of 359 (after a drawing by Peiresc). Home. 359 A.D..
17th century coPY. in the Vatican Library. Home. (From:
Grabar. Early Christian Art.. pp. pr.. p. 18.)

The Empress Ariadne. panels of two imperial diptychs.
ivory. Constantinople. early 6th century. in the Museo
Nazionale. Florence. and the Kunsthistorisches Museen.

Vienna. (From: Beckwith. The Art of Constantino le.
Phaidon Publishers. London. I93I. p. 37.)

Charles the Bald Enthroned in Audience. miniature in The
First Bible of Charles the Bald. Tours. ca. 896. f. 923r.

1n the Bibliothéque-Nationale. Paris. Lat. I. (From:
Hubert. pp’pT.. Cablingian Renaissance. pp. cit.. p. 139.)

Ivory Casket of the Museo Civico. Brescia. Italy. with
scenes from the Old and New Testaments. early Christian.
second half of the 9th century. (From: Volbach. pp. cit..

pl. 85.)

Ivory Gospel Book Cover. with Jeweled Cross. and Scenes
from the Life of Christ. Italy. 5th century. in the
Cathedral Treasury. Milan. (From: Grabar. Justinian.
pp. pr.. p. 288.)

An Evangelist (St. John 7). miniature from The Book of
Kells. Irish (Celtic). 8th century. (From: Hubert. pp

pT.. Europe of the Invasions. pp. cit.. p. 15?.)
Theatre of Dionysos. Athens. 9th century B.C.. photo.

FIGURES

 

1. Transfiguration. Russian. 2. Transfiguration. Russian.
Theophanes the Greek. Novgorod School. 15th c.‘
. end 19th c.

 

3. Plan of (a) Theatre of Dionysos. Athens. 9th 0. B.C.
(b) Theatre at Epidaurus. 9th c. B.C.

229

9. Theatre in Epidaurus.
photo. 9th 6. B.C.

 

5. Theatre in Priene.
2 photos. 9th 0. B.C.

 

225

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6. Theatre in Priene. Hellenistic form.
restoration after von Gerkan.
226

photo. Augustan Period. 27 B.C.-19 A.D.

7. Roman Theatre in Orange. France.

 

 

8. Krater painting fragment.
from Taranto. mid-9th c.
B.C.

 

9. Floor mosaic. House of
the Drinking Contest.
Antioch. 3rd 0. B.C.

10. Wall-painting of a Thea-
~ tre. Herculaneum.
before 79 A.D.

 

227

         
 
 
 
  
 
  

11. Model of the Tabernacle.
suggested by M. Levine.

Ground-plan of the Tabernacle.
title page frOm Yom-Tob Zahalcn's
“She'elot u-teshubot." Venice.
1699.

12. Model of the Tabernacle.
suggested by Ferguson.

 

19. Moses receiving the Law on Mt.
Sinai. and bringing the Law to
the people (above): Moses and
Aaron entering the Holy of
Holies (below). Ashburnham
Pentateuch. 6th-7th cs.

15. Priests carrying
the Ark across the
Jordan. 12th c.
Spanish Bible. Leon.

 

229

The Philistines return-

ing the Ark of the Cov-
Dura-Europas

Synagogue. before 256 A.D.

enant.

6
1

 

 

.D.

A

Capernaum Synagogue.

2nd-3rd c.

17. Ark of the Covenant on a cart.
frieze.

230

  

18. Ark of the Covenant
in the Temple.
Dura-Europas Synagogue.
before 256 A.D.

 
 
 
  
 
 
 
   
  
 
  

19. Moses being stoned
outside the Tabernacle.
protected by Shekhinah.
Sta. Maria Maggiore.
Home. 5th 0. A.D.

20. Plan of Solomon's
Temple. according to
Watzinger. 1933.

231

21.

22.

23

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. "

   

£5
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“firfifi* at
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Plan and restoration ,_
of 2nd Temple.Atlas of
Israel. 1970.

Reconstruction of Her-“
od's Temple. after M.
de Vogfié.

Michael Avi-Yonah's
model of Jerusalem.
detail of entrance to
Herod's Temple from
Inner Courtyard.

 
  
   

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A.D.

6th 0.

floor mosaic. Beth Alpha Synagogue. Hefzi-
Israel.

Ark of the Covenant. or Ark of the Law.

bah.

21+

representation on a glass
dish. Museo Borgiano. Rome.

5. Ark of the Law. symbolic

2

 

symbolic
Roman Jewish

representation on a
catacomb, #th e. A.D.

26. Ark of the Law.
glass dish,

233

     

2?. The Temple and the Ark of the Covenant.
detail of The Priesthood of Aaron. Dura-
Europas Synagogue. before 256 A.Dg

 

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"ll“. MO... ,.. ' .1" '1’ I“. ,, 7*
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fig

28. Ark of the Law, Sephardic Synagogue.
Amsterdam, 17th c.

234

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29. Communion of the Apostles, “”', 1‘ s 1 - .1
apse fresco. St. Sophia 4’7 - ~~w -
Cathedral. Ochrid. 11th c. 30. Ambon in Kalabaka Cathe-

dral. mainly early
Christian material.

r

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...- _ ~._‘

 

‘ .'~' #:711“"‘_"4..n_" ’ ,‘ J; ' H .
,. . . .m§w~fi$§ 32. The Gospels Enthroned at
A ‘. _ hfm the second Ecumenical

31. Tomb of Zechariah. Kidron Council of 381. from The

Valley, reign of Herod the Sermons 01' St- Gregory
Great, 37-h B.C. Nazianzus, Byzantine. 880.

235

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F

35.

 

  

Baptistry. Christian :~ vuee',- ~ ..- u,,-::
House. Dura-Europas, 4 . * 7 ,
before 256 A.D.

Good Shepherd and
His Flock. abOVe
Baptistry. Christ-
ian House. Dura-
Europas. before
256 A.D.

Good Shepherd and
His Flock, mosaic.
Galla Placidia.
Ravenna. 2nd i 5th 0.

 

 

36. Room N. V18 Latina Cata-
comb. Rome. ath c. A.D.

 

37. Jonah Sarcophagus. 3rd 0. A.D., in the
Lateran Museum. Home.

   

e-

 

38. Jonah Sarcophagus. 3rd 0. A.D.. in the
Ny Carlsberg Glyptothek. Copenhagen.

no.

«i

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7‘7. ,_‘
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Cibcrium in crypt of St.

39. Cibcrium over baptismal #1.
Salonika.

font, Jemila. Algeria, Demetrios,
5th'6th OS. ca. 450'

238

 

41. Bema of Aphentelli Basilica. Lesbos.
reconstruction after A. Orlando, 1935.

 

#2. Stuma Paten. Byzantine.
6th c.

 

43. Biha Paten. Byzantine.
6th 00

 

##. Annunciation to Zachariah. from the Mena-
logion of Basil II. Byzantine manuscript.
ca. 1000 A.D.

 

#5. Presentation of Christ in the Temple.
from the Menalogion of Basil II. Byzan-
tine manuscript. ca. 1000 A.D.

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#6. Tomb of the Caetennii. #7. Torah Shrine. Dura-Europas
St. Peter's Necropolis. Synagogue, before 256 A.D.
Rome. 2nd 0. A.D.

 

#8. Jewish coin showing reconstructed Temple
with the Ark of the Covenant, 133 A.D.

2#1

  

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WT,
.I.

. 99‘.“ ,

   

ante. Egypt, 5th~6th cs..

#9. Upper wall. Orthodox Baptis- 50. Funeral Stele with Or-
try. Ravenna. ist } 5th c.

Cairo.

in Coptic Museum,

 

Sarcophagus.

Ravenna.

in San Francesco.

Christ Delivering the Law.

#th e.

51

2#2

      

mosaic.

.

Empress Theodora and Her Betinu
San Vitale, Ravenna, 532-5#?.

52.

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Charlemagne,

Virgin and Child..enthroned
810.

Lorsch Gospels cover. ivory.
between 2 saints,
ca.

5n.

2#3

with two saints.
Ant loch.

SiIVer Gospel Book cov-
th cs..

. ers.
6th-?

53

 

55. Virgin and Child Enthroned between Arch-
angels. and Christ Enthroned between Saints.
ivory diptych. Constantinople. mid-6th c.

 

 

 

56. St. John the Baptist between the Four
EVangelists. detail of Maximian's Throne.
Ravenna. ca. 5#7.

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Frontispiece. Sacramentarium
Gelasianum, northern France.

5

750.

ca.

 

2#5

ch of Constant
in the Forum. Home,
before 315.

Ar

60.

 

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Theodoric's :
Palace. mosaic.:f
S. Apollinare
Nuovo. Ravenna.fa,
early 6th 0. 1

6# Theodoric's

Palace. recon-
structed according
to mosaic in Raven-

na (see figure 63).

65 Missorium of Theodo-
sius 1. silver plate.
Constantinople (?).

379-395.

2#7

   

66. Samuel Anointing David.
silver plate. Constan-
tinople. 610-629.

6?. Constantine's
Basilica of =E
Hagia Sophia. ”"
Theodosian
facade. Con-
stantinople.
early #th c.."
(reconstruce

tion).

 

 

68. Monastery of St. Simon Stylites. Kalat
Seman. Syria. south facade. ca. 80.

2#8

69. Lorsch Monastery Gate-

70. Diagram of an Iconosta-

71. San Paolo fuori le Mura.

   
   
 
  

way. near Worms. Germany.?
778-78go

sis. showing fully devel-
oped. 5-tier programme.

Home, interior looking
East . 386-ca.41+0.

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Sta. Maria Maggiore. Home.
, #32-##0.

triumphal arch

72.

Rome.

doors of Sta. Sabina.

73. Annunciation to Zachariah.
ca. #30.

 

Catacomb
Home.

Pietro e Marcellinc,

Resurrection of Lazarus.
late 3rd 0.

of Ss.

74

250

 

75. Resurrection of Lazarus. Brescia
Ivory Casket, 2nd g of #th c.

" :31-
h x,

5%!!!‘Er

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‘3!

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11““
9.3%2595

 

76. Resurrection of Lazarus. nave mosaic
in S. Apollinare Nuovo. Ravenna.

5th c.

251

 

7?. Mausoleum of Theodoric.
Ravenna. early 6th 0.

78. Tomb of Absalom. Kidron
Valley. reign of Herod
the Great, 37-4 B.C.

'79. Hagia Sophia. Constan-
tinople. reign of Justin-
ian. 532-537.

 

252

 

80. Baptism of Christ. dome mosaic. Baptis—
try of the Orthodox. Ravenna, 6th 0.

 

81. Two Maries at the Empty Tomb, nave mos-
aic. S. Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, 5th c.

253

In.
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1'
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£4
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82.

83.

84.

Two Maries at the Empty
Tomb. Castello Sforzesco
Ivory Diptych. Milan.
ca. 400.

Three Maries at the Empty
Tomb and Ascension of
Christ. Bavarian National
Museum Ivory Panel. Munich,
ca. 400.

Scenes of the Passion &
Resurrection of Christ,
Milan Cathedral Treasury
Ivory Diptych. early 9th c.

85.

86.

N“““"‘"‘"9-~La-.-_ 5:
1

' ‘ e

_ 4

 

An Angel Appearing 7 .
to Joseph outside -._ ..
the Temple, and oth- ngfi 3“
er Scenes from the §¢§u1#:‘~
Early Life of Chr1st...'i‘(f~ut
Triumphal Arch mos- “ "* '
aics, Sta. Maria
Maggiore. Rome.
u32-uuo.

   

Detail of Figure 85.
Showing the Holy of
Holies.

 

8?. Consul Constantius Enthroned. from
the Roman Calendar of 354 A.D.

 

88. Empress Ariadne. two ivory imperial
diptychs. Constantinople. early 6th 0.

256

 

89. Charles the Bald Enthroned in Audience,
from The First Bible of Charles the
Bald, Tours, ca. 846, f. 423r.

 

90. Museo Civico Ivory Casket, with scenes
from the Old and New Testaments, Brescia
Italy, 2nd % of 4th 0.

257

«‘60 .

....
"* .
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s

ain‘9'?r7‘9!j

_.

 

91. Ivory Gospel Cover, with

92. An Evangelist (St. John?).
Jeweled Cross, and Scenes Book of Kells. Irish,

from the Life of Christ. 8thc.

Italy. 5th c.

 

93. Theatre of Dionysos. Athens, 4th c. B.C..
photo.

258

      

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