""“mfib’ifififiéfifikfiém 5 BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS 5N DAlRY CATFLE AS AFFECTED BY MANAGEMENT ' Thesis for the Dogma of PI,» 0.- V . MICHIGAN smmfumvmsm John Page Dietrich 1961 . T'1' F9! C This is to certify that the thesis entitled Behavioral Patterns in Dairy Cattle As Affected by Management presented by John Page Dietrich has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in- Dairy 3:1!” 'It ' ‘:V.R§ 8 Wm 3% BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS IN DAIRY CATTLE AS AFFECTED BY MANAGEMENT by John Page Dietrich This study was undertaken to investigate whether dairy cows enter the milking parlor in an established pat- tern and whether feeding and management practices would change certain behavioral patterns. An effort was made to ascertain the factors which are involved in social domi— nance behavior. Correlations were made between age, body weight, social dominance, and milk production with parlor entrance order in order to determine whether entrance order could be used as a criterion for the selection of dairy cattle. In experiments where a concentrate mix was fed at various'times before or after milking there was no change_ in the order in which the cows entered the milking parlor. Where the cows were milked and fed previous to the regular milking period, there was a significant change in the cows' ' entrance order. One probable explanation for this phenome- non is that there was a decrease in the intra-mammary pres- sure following milking which caused less udder stress to the cow, thus causing her to come into the milking line later. The milking and feeding of the cows once every other day did not change the cows' entry order. John Page Dietrich The daily feeding of thyroprotein at both the 15— and BO-gram levels had no significant effect on the cows' entrance rank. At the lS-gram level, there was a slight but non-significant difference in rectal temperatures and respiration rates between the therprotein-treated cows and those not treated. The cows treated with 15 grams of thyroprotein daily, increased in production approximately 12 percent. Cows fed 50 grams of therprotein daily in- creased in milk production nearly 11 percent. The fact that two cows exhibited moderate cases of mastitis may have accounted for the lack of a greater response in milk pro- duction at the BO-gram level. When the cows received daily injections of a tran- quilizer (Prephenazine) the cows"entrance order was not significantly changed. Neither did the use of this tran- quilizer alter the-expected normal decline of the lacta- tion curve of the cows during this treatment. When a herd of 40 Jersey cows were trained for 25 days to enter the milking parlor in a specific order, ap- proximately 85 percent of the herd responded to the call of their herd number and entered the parlor in their assigned order. At the end of the 25-day training period, the cows reverted back to their original entrance order that they had established previous to the training period. These re- sults indicate that training for 25 days had no appreciable John Page Dietrich effect on a permanent change in the milking parlor entrance order. No significant correlation was found between en- trance rank and social dominance of individuals in a Jersey ‘ and Brown Swiss herd. Correlation coefficients indicate very little association between age and entrance rank. Correlations between body weight and entrance rank, and milk production and entrance rank, were low. The fact that body weight and age were not highly correlated with entrance order indicates that young cows of lighter weights were entering the milking parlor at all segments of the entry order. The data presented in this study indicate that a high correlation exists between age and body weight and age and milk production. There seems to be little as- sociation between age and the order in which the cows entered the milking parlor. A high negative correlation was found between body weight and dominance rank, and dominance rank and age, which indicates that older, heavier cows were the most dominant. The result of a low correlation between milk produc- tion and the order in which the cows entered the milking parlor would indicate that entrance order could not be safely used as a criterion for the selection of high— producing cows. BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS IN DAIRY CATTLE AS AFFECTED BY MANAGEMENT By JOHN PAGE DIETRICH A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Dairy 1961 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere appreci- ation to Professor W. W. Snyder for his constructive guidance, helpful criticisms, and eternal patience in con- ducting this study and the preparation of this manuscript. For the financial assistance and research facili- ties made possible in the Department of Dairy, the author expresses his thanks to Drs. N. P. Ralston and C. A. Lassiter. Thanks are extended to Mr. E. S. Smiley and to Mr. R. N. Slee for their COOperation and assistance in the col- lection of the data for this thesis. Gratitude is expressed to my Guidance Committee, Professors C. A. Lassiter, E. P. Reineke, E. L. Willett, M. L. Esmay, C. E. Meadows, and w. W. Snyder, chairman, for their many valuable suggestions and guidance in this study. Finally, I am deeply grateful to my wife Ruth and to my children, Charlene and Johnny, for their patience and encouragement during this tenure of graduate study. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Feed Intake on Appetite and Behavior. . . . . 2 Physiological Factors Which May Influence Appetite O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O \N Gastric contractions, hunger, and food intake 0 o o o o o o e o o o o o o o 3 Blood glucose level on appetite . . . . 4 The role of the hypothalamus on appe- tite o o o o o o o o o o o _o e o 5 Temperature on appetite . . . . . . . . 8 Dilution and bulk on appetite . . . . . 9 ' The Effects of Metabolic Stimulators on Be- haVior O O C C C C O C O O O O O O C O C O 12 Therprotein on milk production Size of dose. . . . . . . Age and size of animal. . coo. coo. H \1 Individual differences between Breed of cow. . . . . 18 cows . . . . 18 Stage of lactation and level of production . . . . . . . . 19 T. D. N. intake on milk production re- sponse to therprotein . . . . . . . 20 Therprotein on heart rate. . . . . . 21 Therprotein on reapiration rate and body temperature . . . . . . . . . 24 Therprotein effects on weight losses in cows. . . . . 27 Observed harmful effects of thyro- proteinO O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 28 Tranquilizing Drugs on the Behavior of Ani- mal-80000000000000.0000. 29 Prephenazine (Trilafon) . . . . . . . . 50 Effects on behavior . . . . . . . 31 Variations in dosage levels . . . 32 Reserpine (Serpasil). . . . . . . . . . 35 Effects on behavior . . . . . . . 54 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS-~Continued Page Aggression on Social Organization and Be- haVior O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 56 Factors which may influence attain- ment of social status. . . . . . . . 59 Social status and productivity. . . . . 42 Physical alteration on aggression . . . 45 Inheritance and social aggression . . . 45 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Feeding Concentrates and Parlor Entrance order. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 4? Feeding concentrates previous to parlor entrance . . . . . . . . . . 48 Feeding concentrates once daily after milking. o o o o o o o o o o 49 Feeding concentrates every other day. . 49 Milking Practices and Entrance Order. . . . . 50 Milking once daily and entrance order . 50 Time of milking and entrance order. . . 5O Thyroprotein Feeding and Entrance Order . . . Sl Feeding 15 grams of therprotein and entrance order . . . . . . . . . . 51 High thyr0protein level and entrance order...ooo.......... 52 Entrance Order as Affected by a Tranquilizer. The Effect of Training on Entrance Order. . . Factors Which May Affect Entrance Order . . . Age, body weight, and dominance . . . . The effect of age on dominance rank . . Social dominance and entrance order in Brown Swiss cows . . . . . . . . . . Social dominance and entrance order of inbred Jerseys . . . . . . . . . . . 56 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 58 E1 Shfl YE if 13 Feeding Concentrates and Entrance Order . . . 58 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued Page Milking Practices and Entrance Order. . . . . 62 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Feeding 15 Grams of Therprotein and Entrance order. 0 O O O 0 0 O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 65 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7O Entrance Order as Affected by a Tranquilizer. 71 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 The Effect of Training on Entrance Order. . . 73 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . .‘. . 73 Factors Which May Affect Entrance Order . . . 76 ‘ Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 91 TABLE 10 ll 12 13 LIST OF TABLES The Effect of Feeding the Concentrate Mix- ture Previous to Milking, on the Milking Parlor Entrance order. 0 o o o o o o o o o o 'Milking Parlor Entrance Order Rank Result- ing from Feeding Cows a Concentrate Mix Once Daily, After the Morning Milking. . . . The Observed Milking Parlor Entrance Order of Cows Fed a Concentrate Mix Once Every Other Day, and Their Controls Which Were Fed Twice Every Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . The Milking Parlor Entrance Order Resulting from Milking, and Feeding a Concentrate Mix Previous to the Regular Milking Period . . . The Mean Rank and Standard Deviations of Cows Fed and Milked Once Daily in the A.M. but not Fed and Milked in the P.M. . . . . . The Observed Milking Parlor Entrance Order of Cows Fed 15 Grams of Therprotein Daily . The Effect of Feeding 15 Grams of Thyro- protein on Rectal Temperature and Respira- tionRateoooooooooooooooooo The Effect of Feeding l5 Grams of Thyro- protein on Milk Production . . . . . . . . . Milking Parlor Entrance Order Observed When Cows Were Fed 15 and 50 Grams of Thyro- proteinDaily...ooooo........ Milk Production by Weeks of Cows Fed 15 and 50 Grams of Therprotein Daily . . . . . . . Milking Parlor Entrance Order of Cows In- jected with a Tranquilizer . . . . . . . . . The Effect of a Tranquilizer on Milk Pro- duction O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O The Effect of a Trained Order on the Milking Parlor Entrance Order. . . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 59 61 63 66 67 68 69 7o 72 72 74 TABLE 14 15 16 17 LIST OF TABLES-~Continued Page Weekly Entrance Order by Weeks for a Brown Swiss Herd for 44 Consecutive Weeks. .-. . . 77 Thirteen Brown Swiss Cows from a Herd of 25 Are Ranked According to Their Known Dominance Order. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Ten Inbred Jersey Cows from a Herd of 25 Ranked According to Their Known Social Domi- nance order. 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 83 Correlation Coefficients Between Pairs of Factors Which May Influence Relative Social Position in a Herd . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 vii INTRODUCTION The problems which confront the management of a modern dairy herd are phenomenal in scOpe. Dairy herds are increasing in size in the United States, which makes management decisions more difficult. A number of studies are available on the behavioral patterns of small animals, but meager information has been reported on the behavior of dairy cattle. The patterns of behavior in dairy cow groups need further study. The main objectives of this study were to deter- mine (a) whether dairy cows enter the milking parlor in an established pattern, (b) to ascertain whether behavi- oral patterns could be changed by several feeding and management practices, (c) to determine some of the factors which are involved in social dominance behavior, and (d) to ascertain whether milking parlor entrance order was as- sociated with age, body weight, social dominance, or milk production and to determine whether entrance order could be used as a criterion for the selection of dairy cattle. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Feed Intake on Appetite and Behavior Little is known concerning the relationship of ap- petite to behavior in domestic animals. This is particu- larly true in dairy cows with reference to being able to change or modify behavioral habits and patterns by chang- ing the feeding practices. This section of the review of literature deals with some of the physiological factors. within the animal which are thought to affect the regula- tion of appetite and desire for food intake and their rela- tionship to animal behavior. Murray (1926) has defined appetite as an affective state with a natural longing or desire for food. In dis- tinguishing between hunger and appetite, Quigley (1955) pointed out that hunger in humans and animals should be related to disagreeable sensations, and that appetite should be associated with pleasant sensations which influ- ence the digestion of food. He describes hunger as a pri- mitive, unconditioned mechanism which tends to induce the individual to ingest food. On the other hand, he suggests that appetite is founded on learning or memory of (1) the disappearance of hunger sensations and (2) their replace- ment by pleasant sensations associated with the comfort- ably filled stomach; of satiety, well-being, relaxation, and drowsiness. He also concluded that appetite is related - 2 - 5 to the agreeable taste, smell, and appearance of food. In discussing appetite in dairy cattle, Huffman (1959) states that appetite is the total amount of dry mater actually consumed when the animal is offered as much food as it cares to eat. Physiological Factors Which Mg: Influence Appetite Before the twentieth century, a number of theories were advanced to explain the origin of hunger and its ef- fects on food intake. These theories were very vague and many of them without a good foundation. Gastric contractions, hppger, and food intake Investigations by Cannon and Washburn (1912) and Carlson (1916) showed that feelings of hunger pangs in hu- mans were closely associated with hunger contractions of the empty stomach. They suggest that these contractions bring about the feeling of hunger. By surgical techniques in dogs, Sherrington (1900) demonstrated that total denerv- ation or complete removal of the stomach had no dominant influence on the regulation of food intake. Similar find- ings were reported by Grossman and Stein (1948); however, they further stated that hunger'pains could be abolished by total denervation or removal of the stomach of dogs, but even these Operations did not abolish appetite or influence food intake to any great degree. Two inhibitory mechanisms which could influence food intake were reported by Share (1952). The first was initiated by distending the stomach of the dog with a water-filled balloon or simi- lar device, and the second was based on the caloric value of the food ingested. He concluded that gastric distention inhibited the amount of food the dog would eat. Further- more, when the caloric content of the diet was increased - over normal, the food intake likewise decreased. Blood glucose level on appetite Carlson (1916) advanced the idea that the fluctu- ating levels of glucose in.the blood controlled appetite. He contended that in monogastric animals, the lowering of blood glucose between meals produced hunger pains which stimulated appetite and induced the animal to ingest food. The work of Bulatao and Carlson (1924) showed that hunger contractions could result from hypoglycemic conditions. They reported that glucose injections decreased hunger con- tractions, while injections of insulin augmented hunger contractions by lowering the blood glucose level. Con- trary to these findings, Scott pp pl. (1938), when.working with human subjects, found that blood sugar levels re- mained constant (within + 5 mg. percent of the normal mean values), and that there was no association between.hunger contractions and glucose levels. Quigley (1955) confirmed these findings in similar studies. Mayer (1953, 1955) and Mayer pp El- (1951) found that glucose injections decreased hunger and food intake in rats, and concluded that there are glucorecepters in the hypothalmus which control hunger and food intake. The relationship of blood glucose levels to the oc- currence of hunger contractions was studied by Grossman and Stein (1948) and Janowitz and Ivy (1949). They con- cluded that there was some fluctuation in blood glucose level during hunger periods but hunger did not set it until the blood glucose level had started to rise. Janowitz and Ivy (1949) showed that hunger occurred, on the average, about 27 minutes after the lowest glucose level was reached. Using medical students as experimental subjects, Fryer pp 21. (1955) showed that satiety values in reducing diets for humans did not agree with blood glucose levels. The highest satiety value was obtained with a diet high in protein and fat, and low in carbohydrate. On the other hand, the poorest satiety values were found in diets high in carbohydrates and low in protein. One possible explana- tion of these findings is that on a high carbohydrate diet, the blood glucose level reaches a peak earlier and is util- ized by the body more rapidly. The role of the thothalamus on appetite At least a century ago, physiologists postulated that a hunger center or centers existed somewhere in the brain and these areas were sensitive to starvation condi- tions of the blood (low blood glucose levels). Hethering- ton and Hanson (1940), while working with rats, demonstra- ted that the area of the brain affected was the hypothala- mus. By inflicting hypothalamic lesions in specific areas of the hypothalamus of rats, they observed a tremendous increase in food intake and obesity. These changes took place within three weeks after the lesions were estab- lished. Investigations by Hetherington and Hanson (1940) and Hetherington (1941) showed that when lesions were es- tablished in some areas of the hypothalamus, a decrease in food intake occurred; in fact, some rats refused to eat. Similar experimental techniques were used on cats by Anand and Brobecker (1951) and with dogs by Heinbecker 23.31. (1944), all showing similar results to those reported by Hetherington (1941) and Hetherington and Hanson (1940). A new experimental technique was introduced by Hess (1952) which made it possible to electrically stimulate different parts of the brain. He found that it was possi- ble to make discrete lesions in different areas of the hypothalamus. By his technique, he made an extensive study of the hypothalamic region in cats. Results of his work showed that stimulation in the area of the momillothalamic tract resulted in a pronounced urge to eat.. This urge to eat not only included natural food, but also indigestible materials. He reported that bilateral destruction of the ventro-medial hypothalamic nucleus resulted in obesity. Similar investigations have been carried out by Hethering- ton (1941, 1944), Hetherington and Hanson (1940), Brobeck gp_§l. (1945, 1948) and Heinbecker pp pl. (1944). All of these investigators reported that the obesity was due to increased food intake which resulted from stimulation or destruction of areas in the hypothalamus. In Experiments with cats, Delanda and Anand (1955) showed that they could increase food intake by electrical stimulation of the same area of the hypothalamus described by Brobeck pp pl. (1945). They reported no significant change in blood glucose levels during these experiments; however, they found that some cats increased their food in. take as much as 700 to 1000 percent over normal intake dur- ing the course of the experiment. After the stimulation period was discontinued at the end of the experiment (usu- ally 5-10 days), the cats returned to a normal food intake level. They reported that during the actual stimulation process the cats exhibited licking movements, swallowing responses, and that respiration rates increased somewhat, but no indication of pain, fear, or rage was observed. By _e1ectrical stimulation of the hypothalamic areas in sheep and goats (M second every 5 seconds for an hour daily for a period of 5 to 10 days), Larsson (1954) observed mastica- tion.and licking movements, increased rumination movements, and in some cases some increased food intake. Tempergture on appetite . The role of the hypothalamus on the regulation of body temperature has been accepted by physiologists. A theory prOposed by Brobeck (1948) suggested that food ins take is also regulated by the temperature mechanism of the hypothalamus. Investigations by Brobeck (1948), using mature male rats, showed that when the rats were exposed to temperatures of 65 to 75° F. they increased their food in- take and gained weight. When similar rats were exposed to 92° F. temperatures, food intake decreased, water intake increased, and the rats develOped a fever and lost weight. He hypothesized that the hypothalamus was the seat of inte- grating factors for not only body temperature control, but food intake. Kennedy (1952) preposed that the role of body fat reserves in rats has a great influence on the amount of food an animal will ingest. He found that young rats adjust their food intake to their energy needs and that the fat reserves remain constant. He readily admits that physio- logical factors such as heat, cold, stress, and hypothalamic lesions may alter normal food intake. He suggests that there are two possible ways the hypothalamus could achieve caloric control of food intake. First, by sensitivity to heat released in the body during metabolism of the food, and second, the indirect caloremity achieved by chemo- sensitivity of the circulating metabolites in the blood. He concludes that there exists the possibility of special- ized cells of the hypothalamus which may control food inp take. In the same investigation conducted by Kennedy (1952), the effect of lactation on food intake at different tem- peratures was studied.. He found that by adding young nurs- ing rats to the litter (up to 10 rats), food intake inp creased and apparently reached a peak under normal tempera- tures. By exposing lactating rats to low temperatures (54° F.), food intake again increased over that at normal temperatures. Thus, as cold temperature was superimposed on lactation, food intake was again increased. When simi- lar lactating rats were subjected to hypothalamic lesions, food intake was not increased. When hypothalamic lesions were established, obesity did not occur during lactation; however, after weaning, the rats became obese. Some rats stepped lactating immediately when hypothalamic lesions were inflicted. Dilution and bulk on appetite A series of investigations from a biochemical stand- point were made by Mayer pp 31. (1951) and Bruce and Kennedy (1951); and they found that food intake was closely correlated with the caloric intake of food by rats. By diluting the rat's diet with inert materials, the food intake increased; conversely, as the caloric content of the 10 food increased, food consumption declined. They concluded that in rats, the food intake was closely related to the caloric requirements of the animals. Adolph (1947) diluted a rat ration with materials such as water, clay, and cellulose shavings. He observed that the rats ate extremely large amounts of the ration; as much as 125 percent of their body weight when water was used to dilute the diet. Adolph (1947) also observed that the rats reduced their food intake when the dilution rate reached a level that the rats could not consume enough calories to supply their physical needs. From this inves- tigation, Adolph (1947) concluded that the caloric content of the ration determines food intake in rats. Kennedy (1952) supports this conclusion. Hoelzel (1950), using himself as the experimental subject, swallowed considerable amounts of cellulose, glass beads, sand, and cottonéwool to help fill his stomach. He found that his appetite still persisted and concluded that the fullness of the stomach and the caloric content, has little effect on the urge for food intake. After finishing a study on food intake in sheep, Blaxter (1960) concluded that in sheep, feed intake inp . creases as the quality of the ration increases. He points out that when the fiber content of the roughage is high, feed intake declines. He further concludes that animals regulate their intake according to their energy needs. ll Balch pp pl. (1955) suggest that appetite may be controlled by the amount of water the animal is allowed to drink. In studying the passage of hay in dairy cattle, he observed that by restricting the water to 60 percent of normal intake, appetite was depressed, but this had very little effect on the rate of passage of the hay through the digestive tract. In a similar study with dairy cows, Balch (1950) found that fine ground hay passed through the digestive tract faster than long or chopped hay. He sug- gested that passage was not correlated with the rate of digestibility. Mfikela (1956) found that roughages, such as hay, remain in the tract a longer time than green roughages, such as grass. He also reported that coarsely ground grains and chopped hay passed along the tract more slowly than finer ground materials. Ewing and Wright (1918) ob- served that when steers were fed long hay or silage, the feed stayed in the second and third stomach longer than when grains were fed either alone or in combination with roughages. Castle (1956) reported that in mature sheep, under normal conditions, material passed along the alimentary tract in a constant pattern. Stained hay, when used as a marker in feed.passage studies, resulted in the smaller fragments being excreted more rapidly than the larger pieces. l2 Dalton (1952), Dalton 21; al- (1953) and Hupp (195s) diluted the grain ration with water and found that dairy cows ate the diluted ration much more rapidly than the dry grain ration. Hillman (1959) in studying appetite fer dry matter in hay with dairy cows, found that when dry hay was soaked for twelve hours in water, the dry matter con- sumption was essentially the same as that from dry hay. He concluded that the moisture content of the hay had no effect on the appetite for dry matter. When comparing ap- petites for dry matter in alfalfa hay versus alfalfa silage taken from the same field at the same stage of maturity, Hillman (1959) found that the cows ate more dry matter in hay than silage. He suggests that these differences in dry matter intake may be the result of a product produced during the fermentation process in the alfalfa silage which could depress the appetite for dry matter. The Effect; of Metabolic Stimulator§_9n Behavigg The literature reveals that the feeding of thyro- protein, thyroxine and thyroid materials exerts multiple stimulatory effects on the physiological functions of ani- mals. The review of literature presented in this section will deal primarily with the effects of these metabolic stimulators on the physiological behavior as it relates to respiration rate, heart rate, and milk production. 13 A number of excellent and authoritative reviews are available concerning the history and develOpment of iodin- ated proteins and their effects on dairy cows. The reviews by Reineke and Turner (1942), Reineke (1946), and Thomas (1955) deal primarily with the effects of iodinated pro- teins on.dairy cows, while the review by Blaxter 23,31. (1949) is concerned with the feeding of thyroactive materi- als to ruminants as well as nonruminants and poultry. prppprotein on.milk production The first conclusive evidence that therprotein would increase milk production in normal dairy cows was reported by Reineke and Turner (1942) and Reineke (1942). The results of their investigations were soon confirmed by many other research workers. Many of the early experiments concerning the stimulatory effects of thyroprotein were carried out on a relatively short-term basis, 14-120 days. A.review-of the investigations to date indicate that the range of change in milk production would be between minus 8 to a plus 61 percent over the pretreatment level, with an average of about 20 percent. In terms of pounds of milk per day, the range would be from a minus five to a jplus 15 pounds of milk. The range in time from treatment to the point of maximum.increase in production may be be- tween five and 60 days. When therprotein was removed from the ration, there was a noticeable decline in.milk production according 14 to Reece (1944, 1947), Booth 2p 21. (1947), Van Landingham 2p 21. (1944), Blaxter (1945b, 1946, 1948b), Gardner and Millen (1950), Hibbs and Krauss (1947), Reineke and Turner (1942). Blaxter (1946) tried_to overcome this drOp in milk production by gradually reducing the therprotein content of the ration. Although he was not completely successful in preventing this decline, he did find that when the cows were fed liberally, during and following the experimental period, this decline was not so sharp. The major portion of the investigations dealing with the feeding of therprotein to dairy cows have been carried out for less than 120 days. Reece (1947), Thomas 22 21. (1949), and Swanson and Knodt (1949) were the first to study the stimulatory effects of therprotein for a com- plete lactation, while Hyatt and Henderson (1948), and .Thomas and Moore (1948, 1949), continued their investiga- tions for more than one lactation. Thomas 22 21. (1949) found that after milk produc- tion was stimulated with therprotein, persistency could be maintained for the remainder of the lactation, if the cow received about 125 percent of the maximum requirements of nutrients. They reported that if this extra feed is not fed, there is a drOp in production, below what would be expected in cows not receiving therprotein in their ra- tions. In the work reported by Reece (1947). and Swanson 15 and Knodt (1949), the thyroprotein levels were too low to expect a stimulation of lactation. The investigations by Swanson and Knodt (1949) did not indicate the amounts of T.D.N. the cows received; however, with therprotein dos- age levels from 0.6 to 5.0 grams daily, no response in pro- duction was obtained. The effect of thyroid-like stimulants on the fluctu- ating changes of the fat content of milk have been exten- sively investigated by Allen 22,21. (1948), Archibald (19451 Blaxter (1945a, 1945b, 1946), Booth 22,21. (1947), Folley and White (1956), Graham (1954), Herman 2pH21. (1937. 1938). Owen (1948), Ralston 22,21. (1940), Reece (1947, 1950), Reineke (1942, 1945), Seath e_t_; 21. (1945), Swanson and Knodt (1949), Thomas 22,21. (1949), and Van Landingham.2p 21. (1946, 1947). Most of these investigators reported an increase in fat test, while only two, Hibbs and Krause (1947), and Leech (1950), found no significant change due to feeding thyr0protein. The following factors have been reported which are 'responsible for variations in response to therprotein treatments in dairy cows. Size of dose. Early work with thyr0protein shows that a wide range in dosage level was dependent upon the potency of the iodinated protein preparation. In recent years, these preparations have become more standardized and the amounts fed have ranged from 0.6 to 50.0 grams per l6 cow per day, depending upon the intent of the investiga- tion. The normal daily dose is 1.0 to 2.0 grams per 100 pounds of body weight. Reineke (1942), Reineke 2p 21. (1946, 1949), Blaxter (1945a, 1945b), and Deansley and Parks (1945) showed there was a relationship between thyroidal activity and the milk stimulating action of various iodinated pro- tein preparations. Reineke 25,21. (1944) showed that there was a direct relationship between the increase in milk production and the amount of therprotein fed. Work reported by Blaxter (1945b) showed that feeding 15, 20, or 50 grams of iodinated protein for a 21-day period gave in- creases in milk production of 17, 22, and 33 percent, re;- spectively; In the same study, a‘14 percent increase in milk production was reported by Blaxter (1945b), when a l5-gram dose was given each cow per day. When Hibbs and Krauss (1947) fed 15 grams of therprotein daily to Jerseys and 20 grams to Holsteins for 41 to 49 days, they received ' a 16 percent increase in production. When 10 and 15 grams were fed cows for 5 to 17 months by Reece (1947), produc- tion increased by 7.6 and 19.7 percent. A five percent increase was reported by Bailey 2p 21. (1949) after feeding 15 grams of therprotein in the ration to cows for 21 days. Nearly 25 percent increase was recorded by Reece (1950) with a 15-gram dose when fed for 90 to 270 days. 1? A.summer study was made by Gardner and Millen (1950), who fed 1.5 grams of therprotein per 100 pounds of body weight. They reported a 52 percent increase in 4 percent fat corrected milk on a 56-day treatment. A 10.5 percent increase in milk production was reported by Reineke and Turner (1942), with a lO-gram per day does when fed for a period of three days. Reece (1944) fed 10 grams to cows for a three-week period and increased produc- tion eight percent. Using 1.0 to 1.5 gram per 100 pounds of body weight, Thomas and Moore (1955) secured a 16 per- cent increase in milk production. 1ge and size of animal. Very little is recorded in the literature concerning the response of a particular size of dose that one might expect on different ages and sizes of animals. Investigations by Blaxter (1940, 1948a), Brody (1945), and Kleiber (1947) suggested that the dose of therprotein should be in preportion to the body weight of the animal since body metabolism is based on a decimal power of body weight. In a field trial carried out by Blaxter (1946), a small difference in response due to age was reported. In reporting work with six breeds of cows, he found that cows that had freshened two or three times gave smaller responses to iodinated protein stimulation .than did older cows. Also, first calf heifers showed a lesser response than cows that calved two or three times. The average response of these cows in terms of pounds of 18 increased milk was 4.5, 5.5, and 6.9 for first calf heif- ers, second and third calf cows, and for old cows, respec- tively. Younger cows gave smaller increases in milk pro- duction than did older cows according to Booth 22 21. (1947). Breed of cow. To date, there seems to be no sig- nificant difference in response to thyroprotein feeding between breeds of dairy cattle. A field trial conducted by Blaxter (1946) showed that breed differences were rela- tively small, but where therprotein was fed in preportion to body weight, he suggested that smaller animals might give a larger response than heavier animals. Although he found no significant difference in response between the breeds studied, there was a trend indicated. When produc- tion records were adjusted for stage of lactation and mean initial yield, Blaxter (1946) found a positive response in pounds of milk for mature cows as follows: Friesians, 5.22; Shorthorns, 5.90; Guernseys, 6.21; Jerseys, 6.41, and Ayrshires, 6.84. Investigations by Archibald (1945) indicate slight_ breed differences, but he points out that individual dif- ferences within breeds are considerably greater than dif- ferences between breeds. Individual differences between cows. Ralston 22 21. (1940), Herman at al- (1957, 1958), Graham (1934). and Hurst 22 21. (1940) were among the early investigators to 19 point out that there was a wide range in response to stimulation by thyroxine and therprotein. The single factor causing the greatest variation among cows, accord- ing to Blaxter (1946), was the yield of milk at the time the cows were,put on experiment. He concluded that milk yield and stage of lactation were the two factors which were responsible for the wide variations in response to milk production when cows were treated with iodinated pro- tein. Blaxter (1946) found that the higher producing cows responded with greater increases in pounds of milk than cows at lower levels of production. In his field trial, Blaxter (1946) reported that the "higher" producing cows produced two pounds more milk per day than the ”lower" producing cows, when comparing the groups at similar stages of lactation. Archibald (1945) and Thomas 22 21. (1946, 1949) reported differences in response between cows of high and low producing abilities. Heifers did not in- crease in yield as much as did mature cows according to Blaxter (1946). He-also reported that thinner cows gave greater responses than cows that were "fatter and more' beefy," but these differences were not significant.. Hibbs and Krauss (1946) also reported wide individual cow differ- ences in response to therprotein feeding. St2ge of lactation and level of production. Inves- tigations by Ralston 22 21. (1940), Herman 22,21. (1958), Graham (1954), and Blaxter (1945b) have demonstrated that '20 there is very little response in milk production when cows are stimulated with thyroidally active materials during the inclining phase or the extreme and of the lactation period. With thyroxine injections, Ralston 22 21. (1940) found a smaller response at the peak of the lactation curve than when the production was declining. His work shows A that after the eighth month of lactation, there was a gradual decline in lactation response. Blaxter (1945b) reported similar results when using therprotein as a stimulant for milk production. When comparing responses at different stages of lactation, Blaxter (1946) found ‘that the cows stimulated with therprotein gave a greater response at the 20th week than cows stimulated at the 14th week of lactation. T.D.N. intake on milk production response to tpyEOprotein According to Moore (1958), the results may be very disappointing if extra nutrients are not supplied the cow when therprotein is fed. Moore (1946) was the first to specifically point out this fact. Hibbs and Krauss (1947) also found that increase in milk production was dependent upon the nutrient intake of the cow. Blaxter (1946), in an English field trial, noted that cows on a lower level of nutrition and poorer management gave smaller responses to iodinated protein feeding. Previous to these experi- ments, Graham.(l954) observed that when dried thyroid was 21 fed to a cow he could check the rapid decline in milk pro- duction from the 19th to 28th weeks by adding sugar, honey, or milk fat to the ration of the cow. Thomas gt 3;. (1949) reported that extra feed must be fed in order to maintain the production level when cows are stimulated with thyro- protein. ggzroprotein on heart rate There seems to be a wide range in normal heart rates of dairy cows. Investigations by Blaxter (1943) in- dicated that the lower range of normal heart rates may be near 40 and he suggested that it was not uncommon to find cows with heart rates of over 100 beats per minute after a large T.D.N. intake. Dukes (1955) suggests that the heart rate of cows at rest should be in the range of 60 to 70 beats per minute. There are many factors which are known to affect the heart rate of dairy cattle. Thomas (1949) reported a number of factors which may affect variations in heart rate in cows. Some of the factors are: level of T.D.N. intake, stage of lactation, stage of gestation, and estrus. Dukes (1955) shows that age has some effect on heart rate. His investigations show that after one year of age, in the normal bovine, there is a general decline in heart rate, but environmental factors Play an important role here also. Blaxter (1943) concluded that there was a significant difference in heart rates of cattle, 5 to 7 beats while standing, compared to lying 22 down. He also observed increased heart rate in ruminating over nonruminating cows. Thomas and Moore (1951) found -that the heart beat in normal cows ranged from 44 to 96 during lactation and 64 to 91 during the last 3 months of pregnancy. The stimulatory effect of thyroxine, thyroid, or thyroprotein on heart rate has been observed by the fol- lowing investigators: Reineke and Turner (1942), Dalston (1940), Jones (1955), Reece (1944, 1947, 1950), Bailey gt g_l_. (1949), McQuillan gt a1? (1948), Booth gt gag. (1947). Van Landingham gt g1, (1944, 1946, 1947), Blaxter (1945, 1945a, 1945b, 1946, 1948a, 1948b, 1948c), Allen gt alo ' (1948), Gardner and Millen (1950), Hibbs and Krauss (1946),_ Seath gt gt. (1945), Mullick gt gt. (1948), Folley and White (1956), Swanson and Knodt (1949), Swanson (1949, 1951), Moore and Sykes (1943, 1947), Sykes gt a_l_. (1948), Owen (1948), Throbeck (1948), Hurst gt filo (1940), Thomas (1949), Hoffman e_t_ 2.1.- (1947), and Leech (1950). Singh gt gl_. (1958), Bindery gt g. (1958), Allen 9.3 g. (1948). Data presented by Bailey gt gt. (1949), Blaxter (1945a, 1945b, 1948), Thomas 22.2l9 (1949), Ralston gt,g;. (1940), and Leech (1950) indicate that heart rate is de- pendent upon fine size of dose given, the age of the animal, the heart rate of the animal before treatment, and the amount of T.D.N. consumed by the cow. 25 Work by Blaxter (1945a), when feeding 50 grams of iodinated protein to cows, showed that the maximum heart rate was reached on the twentieth day; however, no re- sponse was observed when doses at the ten-gram level were fed. By injecting thyroxine, Owens (1948) found that the cows in his experiment reached their maximum heart rate on the nineteenth day, with a range of 6 to 31 days for all cows. Folley and White (1936) observed that thyroxine- injected cows reached their mean pulse rate at the sixth day and exceeded the noninjected controls by 19 beats per minute. They report that the pulse difference disappeared within seven days after thyroxine injections were stOpped. Although most of the investigations in feeding therprotein, which have been reported, were conducted on a short-time basis, usually a few weeks, Thomas gt gt. (1949) was the first to study the effects “thyroprotein for the complete lactation. They reported that only cows which had been supplied with extra nutrients over their daily requirements maintained an increased heart rate. When the cows were limited to their daily requirements, ' the heart rate increased for a short time and then de- clined below the level of the untreated cows. From this work, they concluded that heart rate was in direct prOpor- tion to the total metabolism of the cow. In work with steers, Sykes gt gt. (1948) showed that the T.D.N. consump- tion and therprotein feeding were additive in their effect 24 on.heart rate. ggztgprotein on respiration rate and body temperature Heat produced as a result of body metabolism, plus the effect of high environmental temperature, brings into play the body mechanisms which are responsible for dissi-_ pation of heat from the body. These factors directly or! indirectly affect heart rate, respiration rate, and body temperature and thus, the behavior of the animal is af- fected. Blaxter (1948a,b) and Thorbeck gt g;. (1948) demon~ strated that thyroprotein was a stimulator which increased_' body metabolism and, thus, at adequate dosage levels, an increase in respiration and a possible increase in body temperature might be expected. This may be true especially when the environmental temperature is so great that the cow has difficulty getting rid of excess body heat. According to the investigations by McQuillan (1948), Swanson (1949, 1951), Moore and Sykes (1943), and Ralston gt_g;. (1940), respiration rate was increased in cows when therprotein, thyroid material, or thyroxine was used to stimulate milk production. ‘ ‘ Gardner and Millen (1950) reported no significant difference in respiration rates between treated and non- treated cows when the environmental temperature was 70° F. They did, however, find that at 88° F. the thyroprotein- treated cows averaged 17 more respirations per minute than 25 -the nontreated cows. A study by Blaxter (1945b) indicated that when the cows received a 30-gram dose of thyroprotein,— their>mean respiration rate was 8.7 respirations per min- ‘ute over the control group. . By feeding 15 grams of therprotein to Jerseys and 20 grams to Holsteins, Hibbs and Krauss (1947) found that respiration in the treated cows was increased 5.4 respira- tions over the nontreated animals. When thyroprotein was fed at low levels, 0.6 to 5.0 grams per day, Swanson and Knodt (1949) found no increased response in respiration rate. Using SO-gram doses in cows, Blaxter (1945b) observai an average increase of 6.7 respirations per minute in his treated over his control group. He reported that the maxi- mum increase in respiration rate was reached on the 12th day of treatment. In a similar experiment, using the 50- gram dosage level, Blaxter (1945b) found that the treated 3 cows averaged 12.8 more respirations per minute than the nontreated cows. The stimulatory effect of therprotein on respira- tion has been demonstrated; however, the extent to which this product affects respiration is relatively unknown in 6 dairy cattle since little work has been done where feed intake and environmental temperature has been accurately controlled. A number of investigators, including Blaxter (1945a, 1945b, 1948), Gardner and Millen (1950), Seath 22.2;- 26 (1945), Folley and White (1936), Swanson (1949, 1951), Ralston (1940), and Hindery gt gt. (1958) observed an in- crease in rectal temperature when therprotein was fed. No significant change in rectal temperatures were reported by McQuillan (1948). Allen (1948), Swanson and Knodt (1948) and Jones (1935). In the study by Swanson and Knodt (1948), the dosage was too low to expect a response. Dukes (1955), citing the work of Woolridge, states that the average rectal temperature in dairy cows was 101.5° F. with a range of 100.4 to 102.8° F. A trial conducted during the winter months by Blaxter (1945b) showed that therproteinetreated cows had an increased rectal temperature of only 0.14° F. above the nontreated cows. In a similar experiment where the cows received 50, 30, and 15 grams of therprotein, the treated cows had an increased temperature over the control group of +0.32° F., +0.12° F., and +0.ll° F., respectively. Seath gt gt. (1945) found that cows on a 15-gram dose at a mean ambient temperature of 88.2° F. had an average increased rectal temperature of 0.68° F. over the control group. Gardner and Millen (l950),in studying the effects of thyroprotein on lactation in midsummer, reported that there was no significant difference in rectal tempera- tures between the treated and nontreated groups at the start of the experiment. However, during the experiment when the environmental temperature was 70 to 76° F. and 27 the treated cows received two grams of therprotein per 100 pounds of body weight, the treated cows' average tem- perature was 103.4° F., while the controls averaged 102.8° F. They also found that when the environmental temperar ture was 90° F., the treated cows' rectal temperature aver- aged 105.l° F. while the control group averaged 102.3° F. A two-year study by Swanson (1951) showed a somewhat higher rectal temperature for the thyroprotein-treated cows when comparing them to his control group. gtzrotrotein effects on weight losses in cowg Many of the early experiments with thyroxine, thyroid, or therprotein were carried out on a short-time basis and although, from a visual observation, the treated cows appeared to lose weight, only a few-experiments were ‘conducted wherein body weights and feed intakes were ac- curately recorded. The amount of weight loss that should occur when cows are fed therprotein is dependent on the size of dose, length of experimental-feeding, nutrient in- take and the individuality of the cow. Blaxter (1945b) demonstrated that great losses in body weight could be pre- vented by feeding extra T.D.N. when feeding therprotein to cows. Moore (1946) found that when T.D.N. was limited to Morrison's maximum requirements, the body weight loss would be great. Investigations by Thomas gt gt. (1949) show that the therprotein-treated cow should receive 125 per- cent of her daily requirements if she is to maintain her J . ‘1‘2‘1 ¢ gust-4‘1.) dwarf 2;} 31.; 0?“ («led x. ."ufm: Vic-LP .fr:‘.,-'n;e-1~._-ur.- 1‘, {(033.1 14' 596:3in , ‘.V:.‘11'I‘ 1165 " HOW 3.30.}. 51".?” u. in, buff ,ftnxazfv'ti . "-‘W (95-131: .r: 218-. into-"‘3‘ 17d -. " avenge: 'Jme.;~ 7;" 5..'..;r-_'.', 28 normal body weight. Observed harmful effects of ttyroprotein One of the largest investigations with therprotein feeding was carried out by Blaxter (1946) on farms in England. He noted that when effective doses of thyro- protein were fed, there was an increase in loss of body weight, nervousness, high respiration rates, exopthalmia and diarrhea. These abnormalities were found in greater frequency in the cows that gave the greatest response in milk production. In working with large doses of thyro- protein in sheep, Blaxter (1948a, 1948b) noted a decreased digestibility of the ration, negative nitrogen balance, negative calcium and phosphorus balance, increased heart rate and heart size, decreased body weight, increased res- piration rates, decreased tidal air volume, increased sensitivity to high environmental temperatures. Throxine injection into milking cows by Owen (1948) resulted in an increase in urine volume and feces that were more moist than in the untreated animals. Blaxter (1945b) reported that when cows were treated with 50 grams of thyroprotein they became very irritable; one cow ex- hibited muscular tremors and twitchings, three of the four cows on treatment exhibited sweating and a tired feeling and wanted to lie down during the milking period. Distinct ‘ swelling of the udder was observed when the cows were main- tained on a 50-gram level. Reports by Thomas gt gt. (1954) 29 show that cows on a l5-gram dosage of therprotein tend to be too tired to eat hay. In feeding therprotein to dairy calves, Millen gt gt, (1948) noted abnormally high respiration and pulse rates, high temperatures, some diarrhea and slow body weight gains. Investigations by McQuillan (1948), Blaxter (1945b, 1946) indicate that the animals fed therprotein were more nervous and easier to excite than nontreated ani- mals. In a 3-year study, Leech and Bailey (1953) found that cows on a l5-gram per day dosage level had shortened lactation periods, increased digestive disturbances, and increases in incidences of milk fever and grass tetany. It would appear from the literature, that when thyroxine, thyroid, or thyroprotein is given to dairy cows, they exhibit characteristics of a hyperthyroid animal. At adequate dosage levels, the physiological functions of body metabolism are increased which include respiration, pulse rate, milk production, a decrease in body substance, and in some cases, increased rectal temperature. Tranguilizing Drugs on the Behavior of Animals In recent years, there has been an increased inter- est in the use of tranquilizing drugs as agents for the reduction of anxiety, tension, excitement, fear, and ag- gressiveness in both human and animal patients. The 50 information concerning the effects of tranquilizers on patterns of animal behavior is limited. The review of literature presented here, deals with two specific tran- quilizers, prephenazine and reserpine, and their effects on animal behavior. Prephenazine (Trilafon) . fPrephenazine is a relatively new tranquilizer mar- keted by the Schering Corporation and sold under the label of Trilafon. The chemical name for this drug is 1 - (2 - . hydroxyethyl) - 4 - ['3 - 2 (chloro - 10 phenothiazinyl) - prophlpiperazing7. Perphenazine is an extremely potent drug, a chloro- promazine derivative, which is of phenothiazine origin. This tranquilizer, according to Ibung (1958), apparently acts upon the midbrain by altering the transmission of nerve impulses enroute to the higher cortical centers. Since most behavioral activity requires coordination of several centers of the brain, altered transmission of any impulse may change or eliminate the expected response. Young (l958)concluded that prephenazine reduced excite- ment, anxiety, tension, fear, and aggressiveness and caused the patient to become somewhat indifferent to en- vironmental stimuli and thus more adaptive to its environ- ment. This drug has also been shown by Irwin (1958) to be .particularly valuable in controlling manifestations of :nervousness, viciousness, and psychomotor overactivity. anigeimmsiafi "a .‘fH'auJfiéQ'l teams-5.- I. -OJ£:Te haunt. )né-‘ 31 Under the effects of prephenazine, the patient was still aware of his surroundings and did not lose his appetite according to Irwin (1958). Effects on tehavior. Young (1958) reported that prephenazine was different from many of the sedative drugs in that the patients showed less relaxation of muscles and thus were able to move around and resume normal activity. Crundwell (1958) reported that perhenazine was an excel- lent preanesthetic particularly on aged, fevered, toxic, and excitable animals and where painful conditions of sur— gery were to be practiced. He indicated that this tramp quilizer quieted the nervous, noisy, or unruly animal and reduced the tendency of the animal to resist restraint in preparation for surgery. Crundwell (1958) also suggested that prephenazine inhibited vomiting in canine surgery and had no depressing effects on respiratory and cardiac func- tions as was often.the case with some tranquilizing drugs. Respiration was almost invariably increased in rate and depth when prephenazine was used as a preanesthetic. Irwin (1958) pointed out that prephenazine possessed antishock and anti-inflamatory actions which protected animals from the effects of bacterial infections, or toxins and antishock activity. Folley gt gt. (1958) cited exam- ples of feeder steers shipped by railroad after being treated with 75-150 mg. of prephenazine and showed that the treated group had fewer cases of shipping fever and 52 considerably less loss in body weight. Walker (1958) found that feeder steers lost 3 percent less weight than the controls when treated with 160-175 mg. of prephenazine previous to shipment by rail. Folley gt gt. (1958) and Walker (1958) suggested that this difference in weight loss was due to the treated animals being free from fret- ting, excitement, stress, and fear during shipment. Bailey (1958) also reported less shipping fever in treated than in untreated feeder cattle when trucked for five hours. Bailey (1958) pointed out that with 100 to 125 mg. doses of prephenazine per animal, cattle can be dehorned, treated for various types of teat surgery, the nervous animals broken to the milking machine, and vicious animals. calmed down for foot surgery and pregnancy examinations. He also stated that for major surgery a local anesthetic was needed in addition to the regular dosage of prephena- zine. Variations in dosage levels. Shultz (1958) and Heldlund and Little (1959) found that there was a wide range in response to prephenazine when comparing different species of animals. They reported that sheep required greater doses than cattle, and swine were more sensitive to Smaller doses than either sheep or cattle. High en- vironmental temperatureand excessive excitement seemed to increase the effectiveness of the dose according to Held- 1und and Little (1959). They also pointed out that age 35 and temperament may also determine the dosage level. Youngm: and less aggressive animals took smaller dosage to get the desired effects. Bailey (1958) suggested that age of animal within a species appeared to be the predominating factor in determining prOper dosage level for prephenazine. Snyder (1958) proposed that age, body weight, and degree of excita- tion should be considered when selecting the proper dosage level for prephenazine. He observed that, if the animal was old, the dosage should be decreased, while if the animal was extremely hypertensive, the dosage should be increased. Lethal toxicity levels of prephenazine have been de- termined in small animals, such as mice, rats, and dogs. The lethal dosage levels of"prephenazine when admin- istered intravenously were 37, 38, and 51 mg. per kg. in mice, rats and dogs, respectively. Oral doses required about three times these amounts in order to cause death to these animals. There were no indications as to what might be the lethal dosage levels for large animals such as cows andhorses. Resettine (Segpasil) Reserpine has been studied in this country since the early 1930's but it has come into use as a clinical therapeutic drug for treating schizOphrenic human patients only since the middle 1950's. According to Kline gtggt. (1957), this drug is replacing barbiturates in the treat- ment of highly disturbed psychotic human patients. Accord- ing to Schlittler gt gt. (1955), reserpineis one of a 54 dozen or more alkaloids isolated from the roots of a wild shrub discovered in India about 400 years ago. This alka- loid is an indole derivative with a chemical formula of 053H9009N2. Further investigation revealed that the basic pharmacological action of reserpine is by a sedative hyp- notic effect, antihypertensive activity, increased peristal- sis and hypothermia. Earl (1956) reported that the prOperties of reser- pine were so unique that it could be classified separately from the other drugs normally used as sedatives. Chen gt gt. (1954), Plummer and Earl (1955), and McIlwain (1957), Williams and Ybung (1958) pointed out that the tranquiliz- ing effects of this drug seemed to be mediated through the depression of the central nervous system. Studies by Tra- pold gt gt. (1954) indicated that one of the apparent sites of action for this tranquilizer is the hypothalamus since a lowering of body temperature has been observed when this drug was used at effective dosage levels. Effects on behavior. Although there are isolated reports of the effects of this tranquilizer on large ani- mals such as cattle and horses, the major studies have been with small animals and humans. In general, when high doses of reserpine were administered there was a noticable hypno- tic effect on the animal. In large animals, the legs are spread apart and there seemed to be a complete detachment by the animal from all environmental influences according 55 to Earl (1956). Also, when small animals were under the influence of reserpine, they could be placed in unusual positions in which they remained until they were further disturbed. All patients under the influence of this tran- quilizer seemed to show only a moderate amount of interest in their environment according to Ferguson (1955) and McIlwain (1957). Under normal dosage levels, reserpine has been reported to lower blood pressure inrboth animals and humans as reported by Plummer gt gt. (1955), Schneider and Earl (1954). McIlwain (1957), and Earl (1956). Obser— vations by Earl (1956) indicated that respiratory rate was lowered. He also noted an increased frequency of defeca- tion with softer stools but no diarrhea was observed when the animals were on high dosage levels. In dogs, there. have been reported a noticeable increase in muscular rigidity, tremors, salivation, micturition, emesis, and defecation when single doses at high levels were adminis- tered. Kahan (1955) reported that severe tremors over the whole body for two days were observed in a dog that had taken an extremely high dose of reserpine. Earl (1956) found that high doses seem to produce psychomotor disturb- ances, that is, rhythmic head movements in monkeys and constant chewing and swinging of the head in cattle. In general, when reserpine was used at a therapeutic level, all animals showed a decrease in aggressiveness, and in cattle, a paralysis of the rumen. At high dosage levels, 36 horses showed violent colic and digestive disturbances. tggtession.on Social Organization and Behavior Anyone who has worked with animals for any length of time has probably observed that there is a social order or organization within the group which is based on the domination of One animal by another. The object of the review of literature of this section is to bring together the information concerning the factors which are reaponsi- ble for social deminance in a group and determine their effects on behavior. Studies concerning sexual behavior have been intentionally omitted from this review. ‘ Dominance orders were discovered and recorded by Schjelderup-Ebbe (1913, 1922, 1935). Since these early reports of social organization and dominance, studies have been made in chickens by Allee (1942, 1951), Allee gt gt. (1939, 1940), Allee and Guhl (1942), Douglis (1944), Collias (1943), Guhl and Eaton (1953), Guhl and Warren (1946), Guhl (1949, 1950, 1951, 1958), Guhl and Allee (1944), Hale (1948), Homai gt gt. (1959), Masure and Allee (1934), Murchison (1935, 1936), Potter (1949), Sanctuary (1932), Schjelderupqube (1923, 1924), Vogel (1944), and Wood-Guah (1955); in elk by Altman (1952); in rats by Barnett (1951), and Grant (1958), and Hall and Klein (1942); in mice by Ginsbury and Allee (1942), Scott (1944, 1945); 57 in.turkeys by Hale (1953); in geese by Boyd (1953); in pigeons by Masure and Allee (1934), and Vogel (1944); in dogs by James (1939) and Chambers (1956); in wild rabbits by Southern (194?); in Shrews by Crowcraft (1955); in lizards by Evans (1936) and Carpenter (1960); in chimpan- zees by Crawford (1942); in monkeys by Chance (1956); in , wild birds by Marler (1955); in sheep by Scott (1942, 1943, 1944); in goats by Scott (1946); and Katz (1957); in cattle by Woodbury (1941), Schein and Fohrman (1955). Brownlee (1939, 1940, 1950, 1954, 1957, 1958), and Guhl and Atkeson (1959). Harler (1955) also cites references which indicate that there is-a dominance order in fish. Free (1955) found a dominance order in bees and suggested that this order probably existed in other types of insects as well. Evans (1936) and Carpenter (1960) studied the dominance order in lizards and concluded that a social hierarchy existed in other forms of reptiles as well. From these studies one may hypothesize that there exists a dominance order in almost all types of animals known to man. Since the effect of social dominance on behavior in domesticated animals is the major interest for this review of litera- ture, our discussion in this section will be directed to. that general area of interest. According to Guhl (1953), hens are aggressive and display this trait by fighting and pecking. In a small 38 flock, one hen peeks all of the other hens in her pen.with- out being peeked in return; another hen is peeked by all and peeks none. Other hens in.the group may be arranged in a dominance order between these two according to the number of birds each peeks. This ranking of despotism or "bossism" forms a dominance order known as the "peek- order." Guhl (1953) pointed out that it was not unusual for this hierarchy to deviate from a straight line; that is, there may be peeking triangleS'and in the larger ex- perimental flocks of chickens (10 to 25 birds) there may be minor peeking orders or groups within the flock. Allee (1953) reported that when a number of strange birds were placed together in a pen, fights occurred by twos until each bird had engaged all others. The winner of each contest thereafter had the right to peek the loser. Some individuals gave way without fighting and others often challenged the winner repeatedly before dominance relations were settled. Definite dominance-subordination patterns become habitual, and thus the peek-order is established. Guhl (1958) and Allee (1953) reported that male chicks established dominance-subordination relationships earlier than females. They noted that male chicks in small groups developed a peek-order at about eight weeks of age while the females develOped theirs at about ten weeks. Allee (1932) reported that as a boy on the farm, he was able to rank the individual cows into a herd order _ 59 based on the domination of one animal by another. Woodbury (1941) referred to the herd organization of cattle as a "hook-order" if the cows had horns, and a "bunt-order" if they were dehorned. He observed that in the "hook-order" the size and shape as well as the sharpness of the horns had much to do with the social rank established by the cow. In the "bunt-order" Woodbury (1941) also suggested that strength concomitant with age and deve10pment were the most important factors in aiding the cow to attain and maintain her social rank in the herd. Investigations by Schein and Fohrman (1955) showed that a social organization existed in a herd of dairy cows and reported a number of factors which influenced social dominance relationships. A four-year study by Guhl and Atkeson (1959) showed that dairy cows did organize them- selves into a dominance order of the "bunt-order" type. Fgctors which.ggz influence attainment of social status Guhl (1953) suggested a number of factors which may be involved in the success or failure resulting from fights between birds of the same sex, breed, or species. These factors were first listed by Schjelderup-Ebbe (1935) and reviewed by Allee, Collias, and Lutherman (1939) and Collias (1944). Some of these factors are: (1) body- weight or physical strength of the individuals involved; (2) fear of one individual for another, thus the frightened Opponent gives way without a contest; (5) both contestants . 4 ~ V- . 'n "low“ .1 “3.: L... -1. .__ ,. 177444-4-7‘ .- .- 1. .- ' , . , ‘ a 1'3"} b-U 1*" 5.1.933». may show fear of their Opponent, but the bird which re- covers from fear first may win; (4) birds may differ in state of health, fatigue, or severity of melting; (5) age or its inseparable factor of skill is an advantage; (6) location of contest makes a difference, a bird fights bet- ter in its own home area; (7) even in strange surroundings, a bird is more successful in the presence of its penmates. Some of these same factors have been observed to have an influence of attaining social dominance within other species besides chickens. Schein and Fohrman (1955) found a highly Significant correlation between dominance rank in the herd and weight of the animal. They failed to show that the combination of age and weight were casually or coincidentally related to rank. They did, however, point out that age was a good index of seniority which is based on the length of time in the herd, but they suggested that aggressiveness was probably one of the more important factors in the establishment of social rank. They also pointed out that weight may be an index of strength, but agility was equally important in a contest between cows. Guhl and Atkeson (1959) found that there was a highly significant correlation between bunt-order and body weight and seniority in a herd containing Jersey, Holstein, Guernsey, and Ayrshire cows. They reported that when young cows were introduced into the milking herd, there was the 'usual sparring or fighting but the older cows won the 41 contests, probably because they were heavier or more ex- . perienced than the newcomers. It may be of interest to note that in the animal kingdom at maturity, the male is usually dominant to the female. In species which exist as flocks or herds, there is a division according to sex and there is a dominance order in each sex group. Altman (1952) observed that elk herds divide themselves into two dominance orders accord- ing to sex and the dominance order established within each sex group is usually based on Size and age. Boyd (1953) ‘ also noted a twofold dominance order in wild geese. This dominance order was due to age and sex of the birds. Chance (1956) found that monkeys divide themselves into ‘ two dominance groups according to sex and the establish- ment of a dominance order here was again based on age and weight of the animal. Carpenter (1960) observed that males were dominant to female lizards and weight seemed to be the major factor for attaining and holding the highest social standing in a group. Scott (1942, 1943, 1944, 1946) observed that age and size were the most important factors for attaining social rank in both sheep and goats. Scott (1944), while training mice to fight,found that males do not fight fe- males. Guhl (1949) observed the same when studying domin- ant behavior in chickens. Chance (1956) observed that hungry male monkeys do not fight the females for the food 42 when food is placed in a cage after a fasting period. In contrast to these findings, Crowcraft (1955) found that the female shrews seemed to be dominant to the males except during estrus periods when they then became more receptive to the male advances. The estrus period seems to affect the aggressive action of most females and they become less afraid of their social superiors at this time. Schein and Fohrman (1955) suggested that during estrus, the sex drive in cattle superseded social organization characteristics. Under normal conditions, the subordinate animal will avoid the dominant animals, but when in estrus, she readily ap- proaches and mounts her superiors without fear of punish- ment. Social status and troductivitz The advantages of high social position in a flock of chickens has been noted by Masure and Allee (1934), Guhl gt gt, (1945), and Allee (1953) and have been discussed for vertebrates in general by Collias (1944, 1950). In general, they observed that birds ranking high in the hi- erarchy had precedence at the food trough, the nest, the roost, and the dusting areas and possessed a greater free- dom of the pen. Sanctuary (1932) found that hens in the upper half of the peck-order layed more eggs than those of the lower social order. Studies by Guhl and Warren (1946) showed that the most aggressive cocks have a greater 45 freedom to mate and thus, sire more chicks. On.the other hand, the birds on the lowest position in the social order may be harassed to the point of starvation. Guhl (1953) also obtained statistically significant correlations be- tween rank and the number of eggs produced. Also, there was a statistically significant correlation between the number of eggs produced and the frequency of feeding. Guhl and Allee (1944) demonstrated the value of so- cial order on a flock of hens by regularly removing a bird in longest residence and replacing it with a stranger. By this method, the members of the fleck were undergoing a steady change of membership and were not given an oppor- tunity to formalize their individual dominance relation- ships. They concluded from this investigation that flocks which were well integrated socially peeked less, gained more weight, consumed more feed, and laid more eggs than hens in flocks which were kept in a constant state of re- organization. In a study of social dominance relationships in dairy cows by Schein and Fohrman (1955), the relationship between social rank and milk production was inconclusive. Egzgtcal alteration on aggression Hale (1948), when working with mature White Leghorn hens, performed a series of experiments to determine the effect of debeaking on social behavior. One half or more of the upper beak was removed with an electric debeaker. 44 In one experiment, five unacquainted debeaked hens were placed in a pen and five normal hens placed in another pen to serve as controls. Both groups of hens formed a social order in the usual fashion by fighting and bluffg ing. After the peckeorder was established, the debeaked hens peeked one another at a considerably higher rate than the normal controls. Over a tenpday period, 58 percent of the peeks delivered by the debeaked birds were ignored by their subordinates, whereas, less than 1 percent was ig- nored among the controls. These results indicated that de- beaking does not inhibit pecking nor the formation of a peck-order but demonstrated a decreased effectiveness of the altered beak as a means of exercising social control. A similar experiment by Hale (1948), with a larger group of birds, showed that debeaking did not alter aggressive- ness, but the debeaked birds had a more difficult task of maintaining their social order. There was no indication that debeaking the birds reduced social tension. They ‘kept on fighting to maintain their social position. Guhl (1953) suggested that the existence of a peek- order is evidence that the birds recognized one another. He found that the recognition.of hens in a pen was based essentially on the features of the head, since a subordi- nate bird did not avoid its Superiors until the latter's head was raised and visible. Schjelderup-Ebbe (1922) re- ported that when the comb of a hen was turned to the other 45 side and bound, the hen was attacked as a stranger by its penmates, even by its inferiors. Returning the comb to its normal position restored the former social relation- ships. Guhl (1953) removed the comb from a hen which ranked at the midlevel in the pecking order. When re- turned to her pen two days later She was attacked as a stranger by all the flock. The dubbed bird returned the attack of her inferiors but avoided her superiors. From these investigations, both Allee (1953) and Schjelderup- Ebbe (1922) concluded that the head and neck of the bird, particularly the comb area, was the main feature for recog- nition between birds. Woodbury (1941) observed that when a cow's horns were removed, this cow lost her high social rank because of a lack of proper defensive weapons to protect herself. Dove (1936) suggested that changing the horn from the cor- ners of the head of a bull to the center of the head could give the animal unlimited possibilities when using the horn as a defensive weapon against natural horned animals. Inheritance and social aggression The extent to which certain traits in behavior are either inherited or learned has been in question for some time. Evidences by Thorpe (1948) suggest that certain types of behavior may have a genetic background. Fennell (1945) found that in fighting, gamecocks were shiftier, faster and less clumsy than domestic cocks. He also noted Am «I .1». 46 differences among varieties of gamecocks in their methods of attack. Breed differences in fighting behavior were also reported by Potter (1949). Guhl and Eaton (1948), when studying the problem of the inheritance of aggression in White Leghorns,con- cluded from their results that the evidence for the inheri- tance of aggressiveness was inconclusive. Komai gt,gt. (1959) studied six strains of four breeds of chickens and concluded that social aggression appeared to be genetically variable enough within strains to allow selection for these traits. He found that social standing for six strains had a repeatability of 0.85 which indicated that differences in aggression among strains were largely de- termined by hereditary differences. Hall and Klein (1942) found that aggressiveness in rats seemed to be a very stable trait. Rats bred for ag- gressiveness were found to be more aggressive than those selected for timidity. They concluded that inheritance did play an important role in the aggressiveness of rats. - Hale (1953), when studying mating behavior and ag- gressiveness in turkeys concluded that they could select strains which were more sexually active and less aggressive than is normally found in unselected flocks. James (1939) concluded that genetics played a great role in aggression in dogs and that some breeds have been bred to exhibit aggressive behavior. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE A total of 13 trials were carried out to determine the effect of certain management practices on the order in which cows entered the milking parlor. The Brown Swiss and inbred Jersey herds owned by Michigan State University were used for this study. Both herds were housed in a loose housing system and milked in milking parlors. Each herd was fed, housed, and milked as a separate unit. Pre- vious to milking, both herds were penned in a separate holding area, and two cows entered each time the parlor door was opened. In the normal milking routine, the cows were fed concentrates in the parlor, the udders were washed with warm water, and the strip cup was used to check for ab- normal milk. The order in which each cow entered the milk- ing parlor was recorded at each milking for three years with the inbred Jerseys and for eleven months with the Brown Swiss herd. The weekly entrance order rank was cal- culated by adding the entry order of each cow for the 14 milkings each week. The cow with the lowest total entry score was ranked first and the next lowest second, until all of the cows were ranked. Feeding Concentrates and Parlor Entrance Order Several trials were conducted in which the concen- trates were fed at different times before or after milking. - 47 - 48 Feeding concentrates previous to parlor entrance The purpose of this trial was to determine whether the feeding of the concentrate mix previous to the milking process and not feeding the concentrate mix in the parlor would alter the order of the cows entering the milking parlor. In this trial twelve Brown Swiss cows were selected and paired according to their stage of lactation, age, and on their known rank as determined by their previous order of entering the milking parlor. All of the cows had fresh- ened within 150 days. The two groups were designated as Experimental and Control. The Experimental group was fed (concentrates twice daily in a straw shed which was iso~ lated from the herd. After this group had consumed their concentrates they were let back into the barnyard to mingle with the herd previous to being put in the holding area in preparation for milking. The cows in this group were al- lowed to enter the parlor but no concentrate was fed to these cows in the milking parlor during this trial. The Control group was handled, fed, and milked in the usual manner. This trial was continued for four weeks. The order in which the cows entered the milking parlor both night and morning was recorded for all cows in the herd as was true with all previous and subsequent trials. The weekly ranks of the two groups of cows were compared to 'see if feeding previous to milking affected the order in S e . " - , , A." ‘ V i ‘7 _ “.1 ‘ . I - _.‘_H' e " . ‘ .2: s;.. .c‘Im’ = ‘- ' -Ir exist (16'7735 9a. ~ _-31‘ v.' V ~_r! ".r." ago ~.;,-‘. 13.1 .; a". .1 m .1 _ 3:3?- .lez'?$ aid? tumult "0:14am: - ileum! will Danika 21m; .22; ,'-;- eST .tfibew fie? act ifiby;7u5" sr. ,., 1533/! 1.05854; Humid-1' 91.; :nmrm; 7w... .ss {and ed: n1 ewe: 112 1c: heritv ' . ~ \ -S‘i 4.56:1? 5’17L'CQI'1'IJ‘. 3.1-: a; 1 ‘ »‘ .'_~ .1 'J’J v; 51090;: new: man "m i-I’I'xl? .3' var/7:0 or" 1' so: fills 4!: 1.1.3. .‘v a ' ' t , 49 which they entered the milking parlor. Feedipg concentrates once daily after milking The object of this trial was to determine whether the time and place of feeding the concentrates had any effect on the parlor entrance order of the cows included in this study. Six Brown Swiss cows previously designated as the Experimsntal group were fed the full day's ration of the concentrate mix in an isolated shed after the morning milking. They were allowed to enter the parlor to be milked but the concentrate mix was not fed to these cows in the milking parlor at any time during this trial. This trial was continued for 3 weeks and the entrance order for the Experimental group was compared to their entrance order for the three previous weeks. Feeding concentrates every other daz The primary object of this trial was to determine whether the place and interval between concentrate feed- ings had any effect on the order of cows entering the milk- ing parlor. Six Brown Swiss cows known as the Experimental Group were fed a two day's ration of a concentrate mixture in the milking parlor. This experiment was carried on for two weeks, and their entrance order during this trial was compared with their previous two-week period. 50 Milking Practices and Entrance Order Two trials were conducted to determine whether the interval between milkings would have an effect on the order in which the cows entered the milking parlor. Milking once dailz and entrance order This trial was carried out in order to determine whether the cow pushed to the head of the milking line and entered the parlor ahead of her mates because of an as- sumed increase in udder pressure. Four Brown Swiss cows were selected that were in relatively high production and were milked once daily at the morning milking. The purpose was to build up the in- ternal pressure of the udder. At the evening milking when the experimental cows were not milked they were allowed to enter the parlor but not allowed to enter the milking stall. The mean parlor entrance order rank of these cows was com- pared to 14-day periods pre- and post-experimental. Also, the mean rank and standard deviation were calculated for the A.M. and P.M. milkings. Time of milking and entpgnce ordep The hypothesis was made that the internal pressure of the udder of a cow caused her to push ahead of her stable mates and thus enter the parlor toward the head of the line. This experiment was carried out to test this hypothesis. 51 Four different Brown Swiss cows were selected from the herd that were in high production and ranked among the first few cows to enter the milking parlor. These four cows were fed and milked in an adjacent milking parlor and returned to the Brown Swiss herd previous to the regular milking period. They were allowed to mingle with the herd previous to being penned in the holding area. The] experimental cows were allowed to enter the parlor but not permitted to enter the milking stall or eat any concentrate in the parlor during this two-week trial. The mean en- trance order rank for this period was compared to 14-day pre- and post-experimental periods. szEOprotein Feedingtand Entraneg Order Two trials were conducted to determine whether the feeding of therprotein would alter the entrance order Of the cows entering the milking parlor. These two trials were carried out using two levels of therprotein treat- ment. Feeding 15 grams of tgerprotein and entrance order The hypothesis was made that since thyroprotein was a metabolic stimulant the feeding of this product would cause an increased aggressiveness and alter the order of the cows entering the parlor. The purpose of this trial was to test this hypothesis. 52 In late May the Experimental group of Brown Swiss cows was fed 15 grams of therprotein daily, mixed with their regular concentrate mix which was fed in the milking parlor during the milking process. Respiration rates and rectal temperatures were recorded two hours before the evening milking for both the Experimental and Control groups of cows to determine if the therprotein-treated cows were responding to the stimulatory treatment. This trial was continued for two weeks. The entrance order rank Of the Experimental and Control groups were compared to determine whether there was a significant change in their entrance order during the treatment period. Compari- sons were made of the Experimental cows using a change in rank from a previous two-week period as the criteria for change in entrance order. Higt tterprotein level and entrance order The primary purpose of this experiment was to ascer- tain whether high levels of therprotein would change the entrance order by stimulating appetite and thus cause the cows to enter the parlor ahead of their normal order. Four other Brown Swiss cows were selected which had milked more than 120 days and which had consistently entered the milking parlor near the middle or toward the end of the line. These cows were fed 15 grams of thyro- protein daily in their concentrate ration for the first 53 week and 30 grams daily for the second week. This trial was carried out in August and no additional concentrate was fed during this trial. This trial was continued for two weeks. Milk production response was used as the criterion for the effectiveness of the therprotein treatment; how- ever, changes in each cow's rank when compared to her own 14-day pre- and post-experimental periods, were used as the criteria for change in entrance order. Entrance Order as Affected by a Tranguilizer The purpose of this experiment was to determine 'whether a tranquilizer would alter the order in which the cows would enter the milking parlor. Five cows were se- lected in the Brown Swiss herd on the basis of age, stage Of lactation, and the rank of entering the milking parlor. Intra-muscular injections of Trilafon were administered in the muscular region of the cow's rump, about two hours be- fore the evening milking. During the first three days of treatment 100 mg. per day was administered to each cow. For the next three days 125 mg. doses of the tranquilizer were given.) All cows were milked, fed, and handled in the usual manner. The entrance order for each cow during the treatment was compared to her entrance order a week pre- vious and a week following treatment. The Effect of Training on Entrance Order The purpose of this experiment was to determine whether or not the entrance order could be changed by training the cows to enter the milking parlor in a trained order. By the use of the random number technique 40 cows in the inbred Jersey herd were given an entrance order number and trained to come into the parlor in this order. The training period consisted of 25 days.. In the early part of the training period the cows were called by their herd number and led into their assigned order for entering the milking parlor. Later when most of the cows had learned their order, the attendant called their herd num- ber for the lineup. The entrance order 4 weeks prior to training was compared with the entrance order 4 weeks following treatment. Factors Which Egg Affect Entrance Order The purpose Of these trials was to determine whether age, body weight, milk production, and dominance rank had any effect on milking parlor entrance order. tge, bodz weight, and dominance The hypothesis was made that age and body weight were the prime factors for determining the dominance rank in a herd of cows. This trial was carried out to deter- mine if this hypothesis was true. 55 Five Brown Swiss cows ranging from 6% to 9%:years of age and weighing 1460 to 1630 pounds were paired with each other using the feed pail technique. Five pails of concentrate were tied at one end of the holding area. The six cows were freed and allowed to exert their domi- nance characteristics with each other by dominating the five feed pails. With this procedure one cow, the least dominant of the group, and-one feed pail was eliminated for each contest. This continued until only the most domi- nant cow remained. Later this system was modified and the cows were tied near each other in pairs and tested by set- ting a pail of concentrate between them to determine which of the pair was the dominant animal. Each pair was tested three times during each contest and repeated three consecu- tive days. From these results the dominance order was es- tablished. tpe effect Of_ggg on dominance rank The purpose of these trials was to ascertain whether the age Of the cow was associated with the social domi- nance rank and parlor entrance order. Two separate trials were conducted using six Brown Swiss cows for each trial which were selected on the basis of their age which ranged from 2% to 8% years. They were tested for dominance by using the feeding pail and paired technique previously- described. In the first trial each pair of cows was :iwizsiaaé ; _'-f‘I%‘;.¢¥:;‘iR 23213139655 03 6.1M giggi'fi! g. 95;; elmob 192003 add dirt sséeiaonas 3b" a Kristi: oasxsqpa sci .Tefiwc astrint is; Latin case so? and: aging geezfi xi: ,n, '.y. , ' , « tcgrit defer v3” 150d: 10 class ‘5’ "5 acnsafmob moi becse; ecew , ,i rivsiq 9Upiffivfi3 kaiieq a. 0: Tc izsq dine Esta. 56 tested three times during each contest. This procedure was repeated for eleven days and dominance order of the cows was established. In the second trial each pair of cows was tested three times at each contest for 5 consecu- - tive days. Social dominance and entrance order in Brown Swiss cggg The purpose of this trial was to determine whether the order of entrance into the milking parlor and social dominance among individuals was closely associated. Three pairs of Brown Swiss cows, two from the tOp, two from the middle, and two from the bottom rank of the herd were selected on the basis of their parlor entrance order rank. Each pair was tested three times during each contest. These contests were repeated eleven times during each contest and the cows were ranked according to their dominance. Social dominance and entrance order of inbred Jerggzg The purpose Of this trial was to determine whether social dominance in the inbred Jersey herd of cows was associated with their entrance order. In this trial ten inbred Jersey cows were selected which had been in the milking herd continuously for two or more lactations during a time when entrance order was being recorded. Only 13 cows in the herd met this requirement. They ranged in age from 5'to 12% years and their entrance 4 03 a);1-v;oi agarcst bends! lg metro 5339:? isadeiw safasecea on saw Asia: air: :1 'l > . - - . 3. Saw swno is £142 {523st holder on: 3‘; _ .Gfibdc Dbflbfidce 1" .Eedcefea-exew ewes teameb bezoni as” ”jar ow: til minucynidsus hush gnfilisevt "jvied sew metro 9955133) nedw salt a 32‘ 1. ;.vdensaiupsx std: :em.b1e1 an: a: num: financitnc Ilenf has a;asL Hi; 03 3 «oz: 57 order rank ranged from 3rd to 24th. These 10 cows were paired for similar entrance order rank. The feed techni- que using paired cows at the feed pail previously described was used to determine the dominance of one animal over another. Each cow was paired with each other cow in the group for a total Of 45 paired Observations. Each of the 45 possible pairs of cows contested the feed pail three times each day for a total of 5 days. This means that 675 such contests were used to determine the dominance rank of the 10 selected cows. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results obtained in 13 trials concerning tech- niques used in attempts to alter the milking parlor enp trance order of dairy cows and a discussion thereof will be presented under six main headings as outlined in the experimental procedure: (1) Feeding Concentrates and Entrance Order (2) Milking Practices and Entrance Order (3) Therprotein Feeding and Entrance Order (4) Entrance Order as Affected by a Tranquilizer (5) The Effect of Training on Entrance Order (6) Factors Which May Affect Entrance Order Feeding Concentrates and Entrance Order Three trials were conducted to determine whether the feeding of the concentrate mixture to the cows at various times previous to, or following the milking process, had any effect on the order in which the cows entered the milk- ing parlor. In Table 1, data are presented which show the mean entrance order of 12 cows in a herd Of 25 which are de- scribed in the procedures. The Experimental group received their concentrate mixture previous to the time Of milking and were not fed in the parlor. Even though there are minor changes in the ranks of both groups of cows, these - 58 - 59 TABLE 1 The Effect of Feeding the Concentrate Mixture Previous to Milking, on the Milking Parlor Entrance Order 'Mean Entrance Order 6°" N°° riiiiégt. gf-ggiiod Rank’ Rank‘ ggpt, Group 77 3021 3 S 3008' 19 22 379 ll 13 3002 s 14 3055 15 15 3034 20 ‘21 Control Group 387 5 ' 4 3031 17 16 3019 13 , 12 3010 15 17 3022 l 3036 10 9 ‘ ' This rank is an average entrance order for each cow in a herd of 25 cows. There was no significant change in.the entrance order rank in either the Experimental or the Control group when a 14-day pre-experimental period was used for comparison. 6° changes were not significant for either the Experimental or the Control cows when compared to their mean entrance rank for a previous two-week period. The data for a second trial are presented in Table 2 which indicate the effect of feeding a concentrate once daily on.milking parlor entrance order. In this 21-day ‘trial the mean entrance order rank was not significantly ' different from the mean rank for a 21-day pre- or post- experimental period. TABLE 2 Milking Parlor Entrance Order Rank Resulting From Feeding Cows a Concentrate Mix Once Daily, After the Morning Milking Mean Entrance Order cow No- ”32:33" as; ”223:3“ Rank Rank Rank 3021 6 6 s 3008 19 21 18 579 10 9 7 3002 ll 15 10 i 3033 9 18 19 ‘ 20 3034 ‘ 17 18 18 ‘ 21-day'periOds. Means are not significantly different. In another trial the same group Of cows were fed a concentrate mix once every other day to ascertain whether 61 this practice would affect the order in which the cows en- tered the milking parlor. The data presented in Table 3 indicate no significant difference in the mean entrance rank when comparing the experimental period with 14-day periods pre- and post-experimental, or when comparing the Experimental group with their Control group. TABLE 3 The Observed Milking Parlor Entrance Order Of Cows Fed A Concentrate Mix Once Every Other Day, And Their Controls Which Were Fed Twice Every Day M Mean Entrance Order Pre-expt.‘ Expt.‘ Post-expt.‘ COW NO- Period Period __£22129___ Rank Rank Rank Egpt. Group 3021 8 6 7 3008 21 22 21 379 9 3 8 3002 ‘ 15 10 15 3035 19 23 21 3034 18 18 17 2222221_§£222 387 5 5 5 3031 p '20 . 17 18 3019 13 ll 13 3010 14 15 16' 3022 2 2 3 5036 7 9 ' 9 ‘ Mean rank for 14-day periods. Means are not significantly different from each other. 62 The data taken from three trials and presented in Tables 1, 2, and 3 indicate that the entrance order of the cows in these trials was not changed significantly by feed- ing a concentrate mix at different times before or after the milking process. Milkigg Practices and Entrance Order The object of these two trials was to determine whether milking the cows at different times and intervals had an effect on their milking parlor entrance order. The data presented in Table 4 were taken from a trial where four cows were milked and fed in another milking parlor in an adjacent barn, previous to the regular milking period for the herd. These cows were then returned to the herd, penned in a holding area, and allowed to enter the milking parlor at the regular milking period, but were not allowed to enter the milking stall at any time during the experi- ment. The data presented in Table 4 indicate a significant difference in the mean entrance order when comparing l4-day experimental period with the 14-day pre- and post- experimental periods. The data presented in Table 5 show the mean entrance rank and standard deviations Of four cows that were milked and fed once daily in the A.M. but not fed or milked in the P.M. 65 TABLE 4 The Milking Parlor Entrance Order Resulting from Milking, And Feeding A Concentrate Mix Previous To The Regular Milking Period Mean Entrance Ordep 0.. No; 5233" £32.; “$233" Rank Rank Rank 5012 6" 14 " 5 e 5022 2 9 10 5050 5 10 6 5057 ‘ 1 2 l * Each figure represents a mean of 28 observations for 14 days on each cow. Difference in means are significant at the one per- cent level of probability. TABLE 5 The Mean Rank and Standard Deviations of Cows Fed and Milked Once Daily in the A.M. But Not Fed And Milked in the P.M. - Mean‘ Standard Cow No. Milking Rank Deviation 380 A.M. 12.7 5.28 P.M. 8.7 8.08 3021 A.M. 9.0 2.67 P.M. 10.5 3420 3031 A.M. 7.4 6.75 P.M. 17.0 6.99 3015 A.M. 15.0 3.55 P.M. 12.6 3.79 ‘ Each figure represents a mean of 14 Observations for each A.M. and P.M. on each cow. The A.M. and P.M. mean ranks are not significantly different. Discussion The data in Table 4 suggest that when cows are milked and fed previous to their normal daily milking period, they significantly changed their milking parlor entrance order. One possible explanation for this decline in entrance order, which was exhibited by all four cows, is that when the cows were milked previous to their normal milking routine, there was a decrease in the internal pressure in the udder. This decline in udder pressure could have relieved the udder stress, and thus removed the stimulus for entering the parlor in the usual order. Likewise, the change in location of the milking process from where the cows were normally milked may have altered the normal stimulus for entering the milking parlor in their usual order. Perhaps the vigorous rubbing of the udder during the cleaning procedure and previous to milking gives the cow a great feeling of well being that man has failed to recognize. The same milker milked the cows in \the adjacent barn that normally handled and milked the cows in their regular routine. This milking and udder massage may have lessened or modified the stimulus for the cows nor- mal entry into the milking parlor. The data presented in Table 5 were taken on cows tlaat were near the end of their lactation and thus the 'theoretical increase in the internal pressure of the udder Was not sufficient to cause an increased stress and cause 65 them to push toward the head Of the milking line. Although there was some change in the entrance order, these changes were not statistically significant. It should be pointed out that there were wide individual deviations on entrance ranks. This seems to be characteristic of some cows that do not seem to follow a normal established pattern, while others do. Feedipg 15 Grams of tgerprotein and Entrance Order Two trials were set up to determine whether thyro- protein feeding would change the order in which the cows entered the milking parlor. The data in Table 6 Show the mean entrance rank of six cows for an experimental period of 14 days compared to l4-day pre- and post-experimental periods when 15 grams of therproteinwmne fed to each cow. During this trial 15 grams of thyroprotein were fed each day to the experimental group. The control group 'was composed of cows of the same age, stage Of lactation, and similar entrance order as the experimental cows. The ciata presented in Table 7 show the mean weekly rectal 'temperatures of the experimental and control cows. Rectal temperatures, respiration rates, and milk production were used as a criteria for therprotein stimulation. 66 TABLE 6 The Observed Milking Parlor Entrance Order of Cows Fed l5 Grams of Therprotein Daily Mean Entrance Order 0M0. Egg-3:35 33:, “$233“ Rank Rank Rank 3021 8" 3‘ 8' 3008 20 23 20 579 15 9 15 3002 9 14 9 3035 21 17 21 3034 2 . 1 6 ‘ Each figure represents a mean of 28 Observations for 14 days per cow. ‘ Means are not significantly different. Milk production records were kept on the cows fed 15 grams of therprotein. Weekly production data are pre- sented in Table 8. TABLE 7 The Effect of Feeding l5 Grams of Therprotein on Rectal Temperature and Respiration Rate Mean Rectal Mean Resp. Cow No. Temperature Rate Degrees F. Resp./min., Egpt. Group 3021 101.81‘ 34.3’ 3008 101.75 55.0 579 101.70 27.1 3002 101.55 30.1 5055 101.95 55.8 3054 101.75 28.5 Control Group 387 101.70 26.1 3031 101.68 28.8 3019 101.96 55.5 3010 101.55 52.5 3022 101.85 29.8 3036 101.70 31.1 ' Each figure represents a mean of Six observations. The means for these groups are not significantly different from each other for either the respiration rates or the rectal temperatures. 68 TABLE 8 The Effect of Feeding 15 Grams of Thyroprotein on Milk Production Milk Production in Pounds Per Week . Week Week Previous First Week Second Week Following Cow to Treatment of Treatment of Treatment Treatment 8. w . 158.7wE. 158.7wk. 158.7wk. 3021 133.6 146.4 152.8 160.6 3008 145.4 173.9 164.9 132.1 379 141.3 150.9 177.2 173.8 3002 255.8 300.8 328.0 314.9 3035 212.4 247.7 284.5 266.2 3034 203.0 213.5 242.8 246.5 Total 1091.5 1233.2 - 1350.2 1294.1 P°’§§§fs§§§§§§n§r°” +11.3 . +12.3 +ll.8 A second trial using 15 grams of therprotein for each cow per day during the first week and 30 grams during the second was conducted to determine whether amounts greater than 15 grams per cow per day would have any effect on the parlor entrance order rank. The mean entrance order rank for a l4-day trial and for pre- and post-experimental periods of two weeks are shown in Table 9. 69 TABLE 9 Milking Parlor Entrance Order Observed When Cows Were Fed l5 and 30 Grams Of Therprotein Daily Mean Entrance Order Cow NO. Pre-e :gimental‘ Egpgfitpgptgt‘.Post-egperimental‘ 3002 20 2O 19 3018 l5 l6 ' 13 3014 18 17 16 371 16 11 9 12 ‘ Each figure represents 14 days and 28 observations. NO significant difference between means. Milk production records were kept on the cows re- ceiving 15 and 30 grams of therprotein. Table 10 shows the variation in production for the various weeks under consideration. 70 TABLE 10 Milk Production by Weeks of Cows Fed 15 and 30 Grams of Thyroprotein Daily W ' Week Cow Week Previous First Week Second Week Following No. to Treatment of Treatment of Treatment Treatment 8. wk. 158.7wk.‘ 159.7wk.‘ 158.7wk.‘ 3002 249.6 251.5 271.5 247.4 3018 455.6 475.2 522.5 529.1 3014 452.0 477.8 535.1 521.3 371 372.6 407.6 459.7 465.0 Total 1529.8 1612.1 1788.8 1762.8 Percent Change From ' Pro-treatment +lO.5 +ll.7 +ll.5 ’ Pounds of milk per week. Digcussion The data presented in Tables 8 and 10 indicate a 10 to 12 percent increase in milk production when either 15 or 30 grams of thyroprotein were fed per cow each day. Al- though the roughage intake was not measured, there was no noticeable change in the roughage available to the cows dur- ing the period of these trials. Also, there was no change in the amount or quality of the.c0ncentrate mix. One possible explanation for the lack of an increase in rectal temperature and respiration rate was that the environmental temperature during the warmest part of the 71 day seldom exceeded 80° F. during the time that theSe data were taken. Labored respiration and increased rectal tem- perature would not normally be expected since cattle can readily eliminate their excess body heat at this environ- mental temperature. The data presented in Tables 6 and 9 indicate that at the 15 and 30-gram level of therprotein feeding, the cow's appetite and milk production may not have been suf- ficiently stimulated to cause her to seek a more advanced position in the milking order. Entrance Order as Affected by_g Tranquilizer The purpose of this trial was to determine whether a tranquilizer would affect the animal to the extent that her order of entering the milking parlor would be altered. The data presented in Table 11 indicate the change in weekly entrance order when comparing the week on treatment with a seven-day period, pre- and post-experimental. The data in Table 12 indicate the response in milk production when a tranquilizer was used. Milk production records were recorded for the cows on the tranquilizer treatment. The data found in Table 12 show the weekly production level for each of the cows on treatment and the percent change in milk production from the pre-experimental period. 72 TABLE 11 Milking Parlor Entrance Order of Cows Injected With A Tranquilizer :—: * Mean Entrance Order 0 w No Week of Week of Week of o ' Pre-Treatment Treatment Pogt-Treatment Rank Rank Rank 3036 2’ 1‘ 4' 3037 4 4 2 3038 6 15 8 3031 1 6 11 5054 5 2 l ‘ Each figure represents a mean of 14 Observations for each cow per week. No significant difference between means. TABLE 12 The Effect of a Tranquilizer on Milk Production Cow N Week Previous Week of Week Following 0' to Treatment Treatment Treatment IbS./wk. Ibs.7wk. 1bs./wk. 3036 238.2 254.6 230.9 3037 184.5 174.4 172.1 3038 226.9 217.8 203.1 3031 192.0 191.4 185.5 3034 216.5 224.0 ~ 197.2 Total 1058.1 1042.2 988.8 Percent Change From Pre-Treatment - 1.5 - 6.6 75 Digcussion The data presented in Table 11 reveal no significant change in the order in which the cows entered the milking parlor when injected with a tranquilizer two hours pre- vious to milking. The effect of a tranquilizer on milk production is shown in Table 12. Although there was a small percentage difference in the general decline in pro- duction during the treatment period compared to the week following the tranquilizing treatment, this difference was not statistically significant. The Effect of Training on Entrance Order The object of this trial was to ascertain whether cows could be trained to come into the milking parlor in’ a specific order and if this order would be maintained after the training period was completed. The data in Table 13 Show the trained order, the mean entrance order rank for a four-week period previous to the training period, and the mean entrance order rank for a four-week period following the training. Discussion During the training period an attendant was sta- tioned at the entrance to the milking parlor to call out the cow's barn number and to discourage the more aggressive TABLE 13 The Effect of a Trained Order on the Milking Parlor Entrance Order 74 Mean Entrance Order Cow NO 4-Week Trained Order 4-Week ' Pre-egpt. (tgperimental) Post-expt. Rank Rank Rank 75 ll 1 4 54 18 2 16 42 5 3 5 82 22 4 l9 ' 13 30 5 23 65 15 6 18 45 19 7 52 69 14 8 15 6O 51 9 24 84 25 10 20 3O 28 ll 22 5 24 12 29 71 3 l3 3 37 6 14 2 64 12 15 12 72 l6 l6 8 76 2O 17 21 8O 17 18 6 47 l3 l9 17 86 21 2O 26 24 27 21 5O 73 4 22 14 50 8 25 9 78 9 24 13 83 26 25 28 74 2 26 10 67 23 27 25 40 7 28 7 77 29 29 31 53 10 30 ll 81 l 31 l 14 55 52 55 85 32 33 27 Entrance order was not significantly changed. 75 cows from entering before their assigned order. Between the 10th and 15th day Of the training period, the cows began to respond to a call of their barn number and came to the entrance of the milking parlor when called. About 70 percent of the herd responded when called by the 15th day. Approximately 15 percent of the cows at this time found their places in the trained order without being called. There were, however, approximately 15 percent Of the herd that would not respond to a call of their barn number, nor did not seem to care when they entered the milking parlor. By the 25th day of training, the cows in the first one-third, middle third, and the last one-third of the herd would enter the milking parlor in their respective groups but could not be depended upon to always maintain their trained order. When the attendant was not present at the entrance of the milking parlor, the trained order seemed to disappear and the more aggressive cows entered first. These Observations would seem to indicate that the more aggressive cows enter the parlor first and thus ag- gressiveness has an important influence on social organi- zation in a herd of cattle. The data presented in Table 13 indicate that al- though the cows were trained to enter the milking parlor in a specific order for 25 days, this training had little effect on their subsequent entrance order. 76 Factors Which May Affect Entrance Order The purpose of these trials was to determine whether age, body weight, milk production, and dominance rank had any affect on the entrance order of the cows into the milk- ing parlor. An effort was made to determine what factors were associated with the expression of social dominance. The data presented in Table 14 show the ranks by weeks for each cow in the Brown Swiss herd, for a 44-week period. This table is presented to demonstrate the con- sistent mean order in which each cow entered the milking parlor each week. The same consistent week-to-week entrance order was observed with the inbred Jersey herd. One cow was observed to enter the milking parlor first for 80 con- secutive weeks in a herd of 30 or more cows. Thirteen Brown Swiss cows from a herd of 25 were ranked according to their known dominance rank and these data are presented in Table 15, page 82. The milk produc- tion for each cow was the actual production for the first 305 days during the time of this study. The entrance rank used in this table was the mean entrance rank for each cow for the 44 weeks of this study. In Table 16, page 83, data are presented that were taken from a trial where 10 inbred Jerseys from a herd of 35 were selected that had been in the milking herd for two or more lactations and that had known entrance ranks. TABLE 14 77 Weekly Entrance Order by Weeks for a Brown Swiss Herd for 44 Consecutive Weeks Part A Cow Weggg NO. 1 2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 Banks 387 1 2 2 3 2 l 2 4 3 380 2 1 1 1 l 6 3 2 2 3021 3 3 4 4 4 2 l 3 4 599 4 4 5 5 5 7 4 6 10 579 6 6 7 6 6 5 5 7 8 5000 5 5 5 2 5 5 6 9 5 3012 7 8 6 10 ll 18 20 21 18 3031 8 15 11 17 l7 13 16 13 13 3030 9 7 8 9 8 8 8 8 9 3016 10 9 9 8 7 10 9 10 11 3010 11 18‘ 18' 18‘ 18‘ 18‘ 21; 20 17 3015 12 13 12 7 9 9 10 11 12 385 13 ll 10 11 12 18 19 19 19 3019 14 16 13 12 10 14 12 14 14 3008 15 12 16 16 14 15 17 17 16 3014 16 14 14 14 16 11 l4 15 15 3018 17 17 15 15 l3 l7 19 18 18 335 18 10 17 15 15 16 15 12 20 3002 4 7 5 6 571 15$ 16! 17e 3022 11 1 l 5055 7 3036 5054 5037 3038 Herd Size 18 18 18 18 18 19 21 21 22 ‘ Dry Cow. TABLE l4--Continued 78 Part B Cow Wegts NO. 10 ll 12 15 14 15 l6 17 18 Banks 387 4 5 2 5 3 7 3 3 6 380 6 l 5 2 1 2 2 2 2 3021 2 2 4 3 4 6 5 5 3 399 8 4 6 6 5 4 4 6 1 379 12 9 9 11 14 10 l5 13 18 3000 3 6 5 4 Sold ---------------------- 3012 11 12‘ 12‘ 7‘ 9‘ 3‘ 7‘ 24 5 3031 13 14 20 17 15 14 l8 18 22 3030 5 7 7 9 7 5 6 7 10* 3016 10 11 10 12 10 13 9" 10 9 3010 18 16 15 15 16‘ 16‘ 16‘ 15‘ 15‘ 3015 14 15 l3 l4 l3 9 8 9 19 385 23 22 22 19 19 19 19 20‘ 23‘ 3019 15 20 18 13 ll 15 10 l2 16 3008 _ 17 17 21 18 25 25 21 25 21 3014 16 18 16 21 18 l2 l4 l6 13 3018 21 21 19 23 17 18 l7 17 20 335 22 22 23‘ 23‘ 24‘ 22‘ 22‘ 23‘ 22‘ 3002 7 8 8 8 12 20 ll 14 12 371 19‘ 19‘ 17‘ 19‘ 8‘ 17‘ 20‘ 4 7 3022 l 3 l l 2 1 1 l 8 3055 9 l3 l4 16 2O 11 12 19 14 3036 2O 10 ll 10 6 8 13 11 11 3034 20 21 21 22 21 17 16 21 3037 8 4 3038 Herd Size 23 24 24 24 23 23 23 24 24 ‘ Dry Cow. TABLE 14—-Continued 79 Part C Cow Week§ No. 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 '“Ranks 387 5 5 5 4 5 4 6 3 2 380 6 4 3 5 4 3 5 6 7 3021 7 9 7 7 6 5 7 8 6 399 3 8 9‘ 10‘ 8‘ 12‘ 11‘ 11‘ 11‘ 379 8 6 6 9 13 8 8 7 8 3000 Sold ----------------------------------------------- 3012 4 2 1 3 2 6 2 5 3 3031 21 24 23 22 20 17 17 21 12 3030 9‘ 13‘ 13‘ 11‘ 10‘ 11‘ 9 10 4 3016 12 11 10 8 16‘ 24‘ 14‘ 12‘ 13‘ 3010 18‘ 16‘ 16 13 14 14 16 19 15 3015 14 14 14 14 11 13 15 13 18 385 23‘ 23‘ 22‘ 23‘ 24‘ 21‘ 18‘ 17‘ 25‘ 3019 15 17 15 15 12 10 10 15 21 3008 19 18 21 20 23 23 22 20 24 3014 17 15 19 18 19 20 19‘ 22‘ 20‘ 3018 22 22‘ 17‘ 21‘ 22‘ 19‘ 20‘ 23‘ 23‘ 335 24‘ 24‘ 24 17 21 16 25 18 22 3002 11 10 11 16 18 18 13 14 16 371 10 7 8 6 7 7 l2 4 9 5022 2 1 4 1 3 2 5 2 5 3035 20 20 18 24 17 22 24 25 17 3036 13 12 12 12 9 9 4 9 10 3034 20 19 20 _19 15 15 21 16 14 5057 1 5 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 5038 25 25 23 24‘ 19 Herd Size 24 24 24 24 25 25 25 25 25 . Dry cow 0 TABLE 14--Continued 80 Part D Cow Weekg» N0. 28 29 30 31 52 55 54 55 56 Banks 587 6 5 9 '6 8 7 14 8‘ 15‘ 380 5 8 2 5 6 12 15 9 8 5021 11 6 10 8 9 5 8 15 11 599 8* 10* 19* 10* 7 10 9 10 10 379 9 14 15 16 25 22 20 22 12 5000 Sold ---------------------------------------------- 5012 2 4 11 9 17 6 6 7 4 5051 19 16 5 15 12 11 7 4 5 3030 10 7 8 7 5 8 5 5 7 5016 15* 19* 18* 18* 18‘ 21* 25* 20* 21* 5010 16 15 14 14 15 16 10 17 16 5015 15 11 12 12 16 15 11 14 15 585 21* 24 24 24 22 25 24 25 25 5019 20 15 15 17 19 20 18 16 18 3008 22 20 21 25 21 24 22 24 24 5014 25* 25* 25* 21* 25* 19 21 21 22 5018 24* 21 17 19 14 15 17 15 14 555 25 25 25 25 24 25 25 Sold ----- 5002 12 12 6 '11 15 17 16 19 20 571 4 17 16 15 10 9 15 12 17 5022 5 2 1 4 4 5 2 5 6 5055 18 22 20 22 20 14 12 11 19 5056 7 5 7 5 2 1 3 6 2 5054 14 9 4 2 1 4 4 2 1 3037 1 1 5 1 5 2 1 1 5 5058 17 18 22 20 11 18 19 18 9 Herd Size 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 24 24 ‘ Dry Cow. TABLE 14--Continued 81 Part E Cow Weeks: No. 37 58 59 40 41 42 43 44 45 Ranks 387 14‘ 9‘ 14‘ 14‘ 12‘ 18‘ 380 13 8 6 11 16‘ 9‘ 7‘ 6 3021 10 10 8 6 13‘ 15‘ 12‘ 10 399 6 5 7 4 5 8 8 12 579 22 22 20 22 18‘ 22‘ 14‘ 17 3000 801d ---------------------------------------- 3012 8 21 4 7 6 10 16 18 3031 4 4 10 13 9 6 1 11 5050 9 12 5 5 4 5 5 5 3016 19 13 12 15 Sold ---------------- 3010 12 11 17 16 17 13 10 15 3015 15 14 16 17 19‘ 20‘ 19‘ 14 385 24 23 23 25 25 17 20 21 3019 18‘ 19‘ 22‘ 21‘ 22‘ 21‘ 22‘ 20 3008 23‘ 24‘ 24‘ 24‘ 24‘ 23‘ 21‘ 22 3014 21 18 19 19 14 16 17 16 3018 16 15 18 18 15 12 13 9 335 Sold ---------------------------------------- 3002 20 20 21 20 20 19 18 19 371 17 16 15 12 10 14 11 7 3022 11 17 11 9 7 7 3 3 3035 5 7 13 10 11 11 9 13 5056 1 1 2 5 5 2 1 4 3054 3 2 3 1 1 3 2 1 3037 2 5 1 2 2 4 4 2 5038 7 6 9 8 8 6 15 8 Herd 24 24 24 24 23 23 22 22 Size ‘ Dry Cow. 82 TABLE 15 Thirteen Brown Swiss Cows from a Herd of 25 Are Ranked According to Their Known Dominance Order Cow Dominance Milk Prod. Body Entrance 371 1 114 13,740 1540 (10)‘ 579 2 102 9,850 1630 8 (11) 585 5 96 10.570 1555 15 (22) 599 4 78 11,230 1460 4 ( 6) 380 5 102 11,720 1520 2 ( 2) 5030 6 36 11,570 1190 5 ( 7) 3036 7 30 11,420 1270 3 ( 5) 3018 8 54 11,990 1320 12 (21) 3012 9 60 10,340 1490 6 ( 8) 5010 10 54 9,710 1540 11 (18) 3015 11 54 8,920 1550 9 (12) 3022 12 48 9,520 1220 1 ( 1) 3035 13 30 9,320 1110 10 (17) ‘ Figure in ( ) indicates the mean entrance rank for 44 weeks for each cow in a herd of 25 cows. The entrance ranks used in this table are the mean ranks for the two or more lactations that they were in the herd. Hulk production recorded in this table for each cow was the actual 305-day production for the last year of the ex- ;periment. The dominance rank was determined by the paired, TABLE 16 85 Ten Inbred Jersey Cows from a Herd of 25 Ranked According to Their Known Social Dominance Order Cow Dominance Milk Prod. Body Entrance 0:8: :8 44—)- :8: o2:: 37 1 92 10,720 1550 ( 4)‘ 27 2 101 8,560 1150 4 (12) 60 5 65 9.590 1070 (24) 15 4 150 9,150 1180 10 (25) 50 5 97 11,160 1090 8 (19) 80 6 55 9,100 1050 2 ( 6) 99 7 41 7,050 1090 7 (18) 50 8 70 8,860 1150 5 (11) 65 9 59 7.870 950 6 (15) 64 10 61 '8,130 950 5 (14) feed pail technique. ‘ Figures in the ( ) indicate the mean entrance ranks for the last lactation during the experiment. Correlation coefficients between pairs of factors which may influence the social position in the herd are shown in Table 17. Discussion Observations during these trials have shown quite clearly that dairy cows organize themselves into an order for entering the milking parlor, and this order is ex— jpressed in a relatively constant pattern of behavior from TABLE 17 Correlation Coefficients Between Pairs of Factors Which May Influence Relative Social Position in a Herd —‘-__ ‘—‘-7 Jersey Herd Swiss Herd n r n r Age: Body Wgt. 55 0.71“ 25 0.68“ Age: Dom. Rank 10 -0.52 13 -0.79“ Age: Ent. Rank 55 0.30 25 -0.03 Age: Milk Prod. 55 0.55“ 25 0.32 Body Wgt.: Dom. Rank 10 -0.79“ 13 -0.63‘ Body Wgt.: Ent. Rank 35 0.25 25 -0.04 Body Wgt.: Milk Prod. 35 0.58“ 25 0.28 Dom. Rank: Ent. Rank 10 0.03 13 0.42 Dom. Rank: Milk Prod. 10 -0.58‘ 13 -0.65“ Ent..Rank: Milk Prod. 35 0.08 25 -0.27 ‘ Significant at the five percent level of probabil- ity. “ Significant at the one percent level of probability. week to week. There does not seem to be a high correla- tion between dominance, as measured by the paired, feed pail technique, and entrance order. Correlation coeffi- cients were calculated for two different breeds of dairy cattle. With the Brown Swiss herd the correlation between (entrance rank and dominance was 0.43 while with the inbred «Iersey herd it was 0.03. Neither of these correlations 85 were significant, however the correlation on the Brown Swiss herd approached significance. Guhl and Atkeson (1959) reported a significant cor- relation between entrance order and social dominance when using the bunt-order technique as a measure of dominance. They also reported that their cows were driven into the barn and not given the choice of entering the barn at will, which may have affected the entrance order somewhat. The cows in our experiment entered the milking parlor from a holding pen and the milker exercised no control over the order in which the cows entered the parlor. Also, Guhl and Atkeson were working with a mixed herd which consisted of Ayrshires, Jerseys, and Holsteins which probably had greater variability in size and nervous temperament than the herds used at Michigan State University. These factors could have accounted for the frequency of butting and thus a high correlation between dominance and entrance order. Correlation coefficients presented in Table 17 in- dicate that a high correlatidn exists between age and body weight and age and milk production of the cows in both herds studied. Also, there seems to be very little associ- ation between age and the order in which the cows entered the milking parlor. Correlations between body weight and entrance rank, and milk production and entrance order are low. The heavi- est, oldest, and highest producing cows tend to rank.highest 86 in the social dominance order. Schein and Fohrman (1955) and Guhl and Atkeson (1959) have shown that body weight and age are closely associated and these were the main factors in determining social dominance in dairy cattle. These same factors have also been reported to have the most influ- ence on determining dominance in many species of birds and wild animals. The fact that body weight and age were not highly correlated with entry order seems to indicate that the younger cows of lighter weights were entering the milking parlor in all segments of the entry order. This also sug- gests that although the older and heavier cows are the most dominant, this dominance is not expressed in the milking order, or that the younger, less dominant cows ignore the butting and pushing and thus enter the parlor in the order of their own preference. Observations in these trials in- dicate that both explanations are correct. Careful observa- tions of both herds indicate that some of the older, more dominant cows were content to wait until near the end of the milking order and enter the milking parlor without the usual pushing and butting. Young cows were observed to push themselves into the milking order and endure the pun- ishment of the older cows in order to maintain their posi- tion in the milking order. The part that habit plays in the formation of a so- cial pattern in cattle is not known. In the experiment 87 reported here, young cows which have freshened for the first time do not seem to have an established pattern of entering into the milking parlor for the first few weeks after entering the herd. Apparently it takes a few weeks to establish an entry order and once this order is estab- lished it is difficult to change. Training cows for an order which is different from one already established was not successful in one of the trials reported in this thesis. How these patterns of behavior are established is not clearly understood. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The results of this investigation have clearly shown that dairy cows organize themselves into an order for entering the milking parlor, and this order is expressed in a relatively constant pattern of behavior from week to week. Feeding a concentrate mixture either before or after milking did not have any significant effect on the order in which the cows entered the milking parlor. Neither did the feeding of concentrates once every other day have any effect on a change in entrance order. Milking and feeding the cows previously to their regular milking period did significantly change the cows' entrance rank. This phenomenon can possibly be explained on the basis of a decreased intra-mammary pressure follow- ing milking which resulted in less stress to the cow, thus causing her to come into the milking line later. The milk- ing and feeding of the cows once every two days did not change the order in.which the cows entered the milking parlor. The daily feeding of thyroprotein at both the 15 and the 30-gram levels had no significant effect on entrance ranks At the l5-gram level there was a slight but non- sienlificant difference in rectal temperatures and respira- tiozizrates between the thyroprotein-treated cows and those not ‘treated. The cows treated with 15 grams of thyr0pr0tein - 88 - 89 daily, increased in production approximately 12 percent when compared to a week previous when no thyr0protein was fed. Cows fed 30 grams of thyroprotein daily increased in milk production nearly 11 percent. Two of the cows on this treatment exhibited moderate cases of mastitis. This may account for a lack of a greater response in milk pro- duction at the 30-gram level. Daily injections of a tranquilizer (Prephenazine) did not significantly change the parlor entrance rank of the cows in this experiment. The use of this tranquilizer did not alter the expected normal decline of the lactation curve of the cows during this treatment. By the use of the random number technique, 40 cows were given an entrance order number and trained for 25 days to enter the milking parlor in a specific order. Ap- proximately 85 percent of the herd responded to the call of their herd number by the end of the 25th day and entered the parlor in their assigned order when called. At the end of the 25-day training period, the cows reverted back to their original entrance order that they had established ;previous to the training period. The results of this trial indicate that training for a period of 25 days had IK’ appreciable effect on a permanent change in the parlor entrance order. No significant correlation was found between en- trauace rank and social dominance of individuals in Jersey 90 and Brown Swiss cattle. The data presented in this study indicate that a high correlation exists between age and body weight and age and milk production. 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