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OF SI 1n Par THE IDENTIFICATION OF FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCEPTANCE OF SOCIAL STUDIES AS AN INTEGRATED SUBJECT WITHIN THE CURRICULA OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA FROM 1950 - 1977 BY John Gilding Dunn A DISSERTATION. Submitted to Midhigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 1980 This study 5“ L 5;;1515tudies as a 1 33113 between ‘ L; scisred opporttmit tie control of the o :fScut'n Australia o ‘eieral government 1 Elli-ES COUI‘SES 3Y3 z..: or rejection of 3.1155 course state" ‘- sect“ ”d stage of t :5 indi " ‘ usual school .TiIETEY‘ .ce to the Si? .-..3n employed con" maxi I “8 0f social 5‘ n then- curri .QT‘S tady 0 an accep «.5 rejection of .,_ _ . . LN t.~ “ w t1 - m lm'est lgat‘ lon cords t~'-,~ and policy "‘53 l rey ' ‘L lllfb 48% I'mani age W GPA §//é 5’8 7 5.9% The Problem This study sought to identify the factors affecting the acceptance of social studies as an integrated subject in the secondary schools of South Australia between 1950 and 1977. The first stage of the investigation explored opportunities fer the teaching of social studies and fbcused upon the control of the curriculum in the highly centralized educational system of South Australia during the period in question and examined effects of Federal government initiatives upon curricula. As the nature of the social studies courses available was considered a probable factor in the accept- ance or rejection of the subject, the changing emphases within the social studies course statements issued by the Education Department were examined. Dhe second stage of the investigation sought to determine, at the level of the individual school, reasons fbr the decision to accept social studies in preference to the single disciplines of history and geography. The invest- igation employed convenience samples of ten schools identified as strongly accepting of social studies and ten schools which had little or no social studies in their curricula. In the final stage of the investigation a case-study of'an accepting school and a case-study of a school with long- standing rejection of social studies provided further data. Procedure The historical method of investigation was applied in the first stage of the investigation , using data from government reports, Education Depart ment records and policy statements, curriculum documents, minutes of ‘ meetings of Education Department subject curriculum committees and inter- views with key infbrmants drawn from the local, state, and national level. In the second stage of the study an instrument containing a checklist of factors possibly favoring the acceptance of social studies, arising from ii the literature review and the first stage of the investigation, was applied within the ten schools accepting of social studies and the perceived degree of importance of each factor ascertained. A further checklist of factors possibly serving to dissuade schools from accepting social studies was applied in a similar manner within the ten non-accepting schools. An interview schedule was designed, using Rogers and Shoemaker's paradigm of the innovation—decision process as a framework, to provide background information and data supplementary to that obtained from the checklists. The case-studies involved visitation, observations, and interviews with current and fermer members of the school staff relevant to the enquiry. School records, course statements, and other school publications and materials provided further data. The focus of the case-study was derived from the previous stage of the investigation. Conclusions Stage one of the study revealed the long-standing dominance of the university's Public Examinations Board (P.E.B.) upon all levels of the curriculum, serving to favor the single disciplines of history and geog- raphy. The Alternative Course introduced by the Education Department fer lower ability children brought social studies into many high schools, but confirmed its low status. The concept of a Junior School Curriculum created a climate more favorable towards social studies as did the intro- duction of open-plan schools with emphasis upon subject integration. Policy statements such as "Freedom and Authority" and government reports produced a climate of curricular choice. Federal influences upon curric- ulum emerged in the study as mainly indirect, but considerable. Federal provision of finance fbr social science projects, the establishment of a national committee and state working parties in social science, the produc— tion of social science materials, encouragement of research, and the T l o-vmization 0f W07 “3‘. 23 smart for so; A Tne study to. i l ' gram of either t Factors perceived a cf social studies l3, tissubject, lack c: s:~:ial studies not 2'. 333.5 of senior st; :ature of content of 315380I very stror. s::.'1;sia:n of teache aziect integration S :49 of the SUbject. 5s, ‘~-‘»:§€‘ntlz'}* . “kn ulOTlS Recommendations Home in contini iii organization of workshops and conferences have enabled curriculum guidance and support for social studies within the states. The study revealed that schools tended to maintain their established pattern of either the social sciences or social studies in the curriculum. Factors perceived as strong or very strong influences in the non-acceptance of social studies by individual schools were: teachers not wishing to teaCh the subject, lack of appropriate subject background of classroom teaChers, social studies not being a matriculation subject, a single discipline back- ground of senior staff responsible for school faculties, and vagueness or nature of content of syllabus statements. The accepting schools perceived strong or very strong influences in the acceptance of the subject to be: enthusiasm of teaChers fer the subject, the school philosophy favoring the subject integration, and the influence of senior staff encouraging accept- ance of the subject. Recommendations Recommendations arising from the study included reference to schools' engagement in continuing review-of curriculum in terms of pupil needs, awareness of the fbrces affecting the present curriculum, the preparation and dissemination of a rationale fer social studies, provision for inservice and preservice courses relevant to social studies, and an explor- ation of means of achieving social objectives either through the single disciplines of’history and geography or through the introduction of social studies. Tne aut‘ advice of his. P. ll‘ronski (F Manson and Dr. to Dr. Wrens}... throughout thi The coo; interviewed ir. acknowledged, iv , ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge the constructive advice of his Guidance Committee comprising Dr. Stanley P. Wronski (Chairman), Dr. William W. Joyce, Dr. Gary Manson and Dr. Ted W. Ward. Particular thanks are due to Dr. Wronski for his encouragement and guidance throughout this study. The cooperation of many teachers and other educators interviewed in the course of this study is gratefully acknowledged. ::s:~.'.:;+i5n3*‘1:~xrs :n or ILLusras 3:37er on»: - n: ESTER no - FR Tn The Th: Fa< Fac TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.. CHAPTER ONE - THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM .. CHAPTER TWO - PRECEDENTS IN THE LITERATURE. The Place of Social Studies in the Curriculum The Nature of Social Studies - The United States. The Nature of Social Studies - Australia. Factors Influencing Social Studies Curricula - The United States. Factors Influencing Social Studies Curricula - Australia Summary.. .. CHAPTER THREE - PROCEDURES. .. .. .. .. STAGE ONE - The Recognition of Social Studies Sources of Data.. .. .. .. .. STAGE TWO — School Decision-making in Relation to Social Studies .. .. A Model of the Innovation- Decision Process .. Sources of Data. Data-gathering Techniques Sampling Method... .. .. Administration of Instruments .. .. STAGE THREE - Case- studies of Accepting and Non— —Accepting Schools. . .. . . .. .. .. . . Selection of Case- studies. Case- -study Methodology Sources of Data and Techniques of Data Gathering .. .. .. .. .. CHAPTER FOUR - CURRICULUM CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES SECTION A - Curriculum Policy and Control The Public Examinations Board Some Modifications . .. .. .. .. .. The Technical Schools .. .. .. .. The High Schools Alternative Course. Statements of Policy... "Freedom and Authority in Schools" .. The "Karmel Report".. Open Plan Schools. Page. . iv . viii 12. .. 12 . 16 17 . 18 .. 22 . 24 . 25 .. 25 . 26 .. 28 .. 28 .. 31 .. 31 .. 32 . 33 .. 34 .. 34 . 34 . 35 . 37 .. 37 .. 37 .. 39 .. 40 .. 41 .. 42 .. 44 .. 4S . 46 SECTION vi“ TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) B - Some Federal Influences upon Social Studies The Unesco Seminar.. .. .. .. State Working Parties .. A National Strategy. A National Committee Some Effects The Social Education Materials Project (S. E. M. P. )57 N. C. S. S. T. Research Grants. Publications. . The Australian Council for Educational Research (A.C.E.R.). .. .. .. .. .. The Schools Commission.. .. Influence from Overseas.' . Summary. .. .. .. .. .. .. CHAPTER FIVE - THE CHANGING NATURE OF SOCIAL STUDIES CHAPTER SIX - The New Education Fellowship Conference. SubjectIClaims Upon the Curriculum. Course Developments in Social Studies.. The Technical Schools .. . The Alternative Course in High Schools. Social Studies in the Junior Secondary Curriculum.. Social Studies Courses in the Senior Sohool Further Course Developments. THE ACCEPTANCE OF SOCIAL STUDIES .. Communication Sources .. .. Receiver Variables... Composition of the schools. Social Characteristics .. Social System Variables... Social System Norms of the School .. Tolerance of Deviancy .. Communication Integration Perceived Characteristics of Social Studies Relative Advantage.. .. .. .. .. .. Compatibility .. .. Complexity .. .. .. .. .. .. Trialability. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Observability ... .. .. .. .. .. .. Curriculum Decision-making.. Case- Studies .. 54 .. 71 Q. .. 94 .. 96 .. 97 Page 48 48 SO 52 54 ‘ } . 59 - c 59 o ." 60’ 62 63 63 64 3‘ 64 67 . - . 68 , . 74 75 79 _ 80 5-. 85 ‘ ,~ 85 90 90 92 94 95 97 .. 99 . 100 . 100 ‘ - .. 101 A School Non- -Accepting of Social Studies - Case- Study School A... A School Accepting of Social Studies - Case- -Study School B... . .. .. .. .. .. .. 101 . 102 . 103 . 113 . -‘ 'r" rm SEIEV - c o"-., <'~f-.. PITX ‘.‘—4‘ I 5‘ . . mcanD The Edu Fed: The The The Tea: Chan Libe Disc :jrfl ~1—4 vii TABLE or CONTENTS (continued) Page CHAPTER SEVEN - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .. .. .. .. .. 126 The Public Examinations Board .. .. .. .. .. ...126 Education Department Policies .. .. .. .. .. .. 127 Federal Government Initiatives .. .. .. .. .. .. 127 The Nature of Social Studies. .. .. .. .. .. .. 128 The Status of Social Studies. .. .. .. .. .. .. 130 The Attitudes of Teachers .. .. .. .. .. .. 131 Teacher Background in Social Sciences .. .. .. .. 131 Change in the Curriculum. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 133 Liberalizing the Disciplines. .. .. .. .. .. .. 135 Discussion of Aspects of the Study .. .. -. .. .. 136 The Innovation Mode1.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 136 The Interview Schedule .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 137 The Samples .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 137 The Findings.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 137 APPENDIX .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 139 I A. The Purposes of Schools... .. .. 140 B. Key Infbrmants Interviewed - A Selective List .. .. 142 C. Interview Schedule .. .. .. 143 D. Checklist for Schools Accepting of Social Studies .. 144 E. Checklist fbr Schools Non- -Accepting of Social Studies .. .. . .. .. 145 F. Interview Schedule - for Schools Accepting or Non- -Accepting of Social Studies .. .. .. .. 146 G. Schools in Samples Non- -Accepting and Accepting of Social Studies .. . .. 151 H. ' Interview Schedule - Staff in Schools Accepting of Social Studies .. .. .. .. . . 152 J. Interview Schedule - Staff in Schools Non- -Accepting of Social Studies. .. . 154 K. Composition of Case- -Study Samples - Staff Interviewed 156 L. Public Examinations Board - Subjects Examined .. .. 157 M Public Examinations Board Intermediate Examination 1947- 1968. Students Presented for Geography, Social Studies and History .. .. .. 159 N. Function of the South Australian Secondary Schools Social Science Teaching Project Committee... .. 160 P. Case-Study A - Courses 1968, First and Second Year C1asses.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 161 BIBLIOGRAPHY .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 162 ~figne1. viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS A Model for the Social Studies. Source of Knowledge Model. A Model of the Innovation - Decision Process. .. Factors Perceived by Schools as Contributing to the Non-Acceptance of Social Studies. .. . Factors Perceived by Schools as Contributing to Acceptance of Social Studies. -. .- .. I Page. 29 87 88 The effects sigificance to we :;:':'icu1um but 2115 respect to the fie little systematic aseptance within - .- «was .mtidual school fiver. to this 153 if the United St . \"WT‘; . l '- an} AUstralia' affected the acce] secondary sch! The term, "1 :terpretation. :1 at any one 1301 .l‘;ax ““en t gl‘OUps CHAPTER ONE. THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM. 'The effects of curriculum upon the individual child are of sufficient significance to warrant research directed not only towards the nature of the curriculum but also towards the forces which appear to shape it. With respect to the field cf social studies there appears to have been relatively little systematic investigation of the reasons fbr variations in its acceptance within an educational system over a period of time, or between individual sChools within that system. That limited attention has been given to this issue is evident not only within the context of Great Britain and the United States but also in relation to secondary school curricula in South Australia. The present study seeks to identify factors which have affected the acceptance of social studies as an integrated subject within the secondary schools of South Australia between 1950 and 1977. The term, "social studieS", presents particular difficulties of interpretation. ‘Not only has it been variously understood over the years, but at any one point of time the expression has held different meaning for different groups of people. This ambiguity in definition is apparent 'within the literature of the United States, Great Britain, and Australia. ‘Edgar Wesley, speaking in terms of the American context, highlights the difficulty of arriving at a satisfactory definition: The phrase "social studies" has been defined as social sciences, as social services, as socialism, as radical left-wing thinking, as social reform, as anti-history, as a unification of social sabjects, as a field, as a federation, as an integrated curriculum, as pro-child reform, as curriculum innovation. Elements of truth may be fbund in eaCh of these concepts. No other subject has §7 sufferet areas ma disciplJ that ex] 'fj difficulties 8 5533’s are consi social studieS", i firing conceptual C That difficui scial studies wit.L .54. Bennett and K. 153' claim: More than i this surv. generalisz lack of a; of social‘ major ele: forming :1», courses in suffered such divisive doctrines. While other areas may involve combinations of various disciplines, none of them leads tolthe confusion that exists in the social studies. ’ The difficulties associated with using a word that has acquired a variety of meanings are considerable. The introduction of the expression, "the new social studies", in recent years may, fer example, be seen as an attempt to bring conceptual clarity to one particular interpretation of social studies. That difficulties are experienced in deciding upon the meaning of social studies within the Australian context is illustrated by a report by D.M. Bennett and K.J. Piper on a survey of courses in Australian schools. They claim: Mere than any other of the subjects covered in this survey, social studies is the one in which generalisation is dangerous as there is a fundamental lack of agreement among its exponents on the nature of social studies itself. There are at least six major elements or principles which play a role in fbrming the various concepts of social studies courses in Australia: Integration - ranges from the simple combining of traditional historical and geographical material to the integration of numerous disciplines. Dilution - 'watering down' traditional material for less able or less academic children. Civics - the provision of information about government and training in skills required fer civic duties. Social Adjustment - this approach sees social studies as a means of developing the 'right' attitudes and good social behaviour generally. Social Science - introducing the structures and techniques of the modern social sciences into the traditional curriculum. Concentration on the Immediate Environment - concentration on the child's local environment and on the time in which he 1ives.2° 1Edgar B. Wesley, Foreward to The Nature of the Social Studies, by Robert Barr, James L. Barth, and 8. Samuel Shermis (CalifOrnia: ETC Publications, 1978), p.iv. 2D.M. Bennett and K.J. Piper, "The Present Situation Concerning the Teaching of the Social Sciences in Australian Secondary Schools", Education News 11 (December 1967):9. .. J lil'tjh .r The Challenge of delimiting social studies (or social science) courses to allow a distinction to be made between these and other courses in the curriculum was also faced in a survey commissioned by the National Committee on Social Sciente Teaching and reported upon in 1973. It should be noted that at the time of that survey the terms, "social studies" and "social science", were often used synonymously in some Australian states when referring to a subject primarily concerned with the study of man in society. The characteristics of such a course were reported to include a focus upon the fbllowing: Social Man - A major concern will be with the study of man as a social being, as he has existed through time and as he has been influenced by his culture. Relevance - A major emphasis of the program or unit will be the development of an understanding of the contemporary society and the forces that are shaping the lives of people in that society. Social Competence - A major emphasis will be on promotion of informed and reasonable participation in social processes. Durability 4 A major emphasis will be on the learning process or skill development, with the ultimate aim of creating an independent learner. 3. The National Council fer the Social Studies (N.C.S.S.), the fOremost social studies education body in the United States, issued in 1971 an authoritative and land-mark statement on the nature of the social studies. Social Studies, as considered within the N.C.S.S. Guidelines, is concerned With the human condition and its enhancement. A commitment to the attain- ment of "human dignity” is seen to imply that each child will be given the Opportunity "to know, to choose, and to act"; thus emphasis will be placed “POD rational processes through which such potential may be realized. The \ 3National Committee on Social Science Teaching, Research Paper No.2, Soc1a1 Science Courses in Australia A Correlation Survey (Phillip, A.C.T.: National Committee on Social Science Teaching, 1973), p.v. Guidelines acknowledge the impotency of both knowledge and the exercise of rational processes unless they lead to responsible action. The rationale contained within the guidelines statement emphasised the inter-relationship of the key components of the social studies: It is essential that these four curriculum components be viewed as equally important; ignoring any of them weakens a social studies program. The relationship among knowledge, abilities, valuing and social participation ' is tight and dynamic. Each interacts with the others.4° From the 1971 N.C.S.S. Guidelines statement a model may be derived which will be productive as a standard of reference when specific social studies programs are. referred to in this study. The model has been designed to fOcus upon the key elements of social studies and to demonstrate the inter-relationships which will operate. (Fig.1.) Figure l. A Model for the Social Studies. SOCIAL A 1 1 g ‘ PARTICIPATION ‘ l " VALUING \L ABILITIES ] <—* denotes interaction 4National Council for the Social Studies, Social Studies Curriculum Guidelines, Social Education (December, 1971), pp.853-869. .4- It will be readily recognized that certain components of the model, namely abilities (including researching and other thinking skills), social participation, and valuing may well be characteristic of a course focused upon a single discrete discipline and may not be unique to the subject, social studies, as it has been defined. It is, however, in the component of knowledge where marked differences may be expected between the concerns and sources drawn upon in social studies and those of the single discipline subject Such as history or geography. The N.C.S.S. Guidelines emphasize how the social studies, because of a focus upon man in society, cannot be constrained to limited sources, but will draw knowledge from those sources which are relevant and productive in relation to the issue or topic under consideration. Identified sources include the social science disciplines, the interests and values of students, the humanities, the natural sciences, and the communication media. This distinction is particularly pertinent to the present study in which the Source of Knowledge model, derived from the Guidelines, will be applicable as a base fOr reference. (Fig.2.) The kind of course termed type B in the model below (Fig.2.), which gained favor in the 1960's because of its strong recognition of the struc- tures of the social science disciplines, could be considered less than ideal as a social studies course, drawing as it does upon a limited resource base. The limitations of the single discipline source, as de- picted by type C, are such that the aims of social studies as presented by the National Council fOr the Social Studies statement could hardly be met. A narrow focus upon the concepts and generalizations specific to a partic- ular discipline such as history or geography, will leave many aspects of the human condition unrecognized. y 3,, A, Multiple PE SGCIAL IN T SCIEXCE V AL IISCIPLINES STU stances dram upon studied. 7??? 8. Social S 7:: CORE‘NS AND IIECZPLINES. Exterdisciplinam - .gjae C. Single :3 CEEVLCEPTS A.‘{[ ..:::denta1 re f8] \ In the pr 5 '$ « factors affe .~:.::::=Is Of Sout Figure 2. Source of Knowledge Model Type A. Multiple Source THE SOCIAL INTERESTS 6 THE HUMANITIES NATURAL COMMUNICATION SCIENCE VALUES OF SCIENCES MEDIA DISCIPLINES STUDENTS Sources drawn upon and integrated as relevant to the topic or issue' studied. Type B. Social Sciences as Source THE CONCEPTS AND GENERALISATIONS FROM A RANGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE DISCIPLINES. I Interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary organisation within the subject. Type C. Single Discipline Source THE CONCEPTS AND GENERALISATIONS FROM A SINGLE DISCIPLINE. Incidental references to other sources. In the present study where the primary concern is the identification of factors affecting the acceptance of social studies in the secondary schools Of South Australia it will be necessary to adopt a very broad classification when categorizing a subject as social studies. Those school courses which are concerned with man in society and are not presented in the school as Single-discipline subjects (such as type B model) will be accepted as social studies, while single-discipline courses, as depicted in the above model as type C, will not. It is to emphasize this distinction that reference is made in the topic of this investigation to the acceptance of an "integrated" social studies, with the understanding that "integrated" in this sense is being interpreted very broadly. Specifically, where a school has replaced the traditional history or geography within the second- ary curriculum with a broader subject relating to man as a social being, it is probable that the term, social studies, will be considered applicable. The case fbr all children being exposed to a curriculum which includes courses cOncerned with a study of man in contemporary society has been eloquently argued by advocates fer a less traditionally based curriculum, yet often from different standpoints. Morris Williams and W.F. Connell in a paper prepared fOr.the Burwood Conference on the Social Sciences in Secondary Schools in 1967 pointed towards the "need fOr social studies as a synthesizing discipline to be accepted as necessary fOr all in our schools today". They declared: It is social studies as a discipline in its own right which must be developed to take the place that history has at present in the secondary school .If the task of the secondary school is seen as providing a sound general education, rather than preparing subject specialists, social studies could well be the approach to the social sciences, at least fbr the first fOur years. For it is in social ,studies that recognition is given that satisfactory explanations of both past and present are dependent on historical, geographic, economic, social and political factors. In the process of studying man in society, pupils will develop a familiarity with some of the basic concepts, and gain much of the elementary knowledge of all these disciplines which will prepare them to move out into the specialist 'fields at a later stage. ° 5MOrris Williams and W.F. Connell, "The Aims of Teaching the Social Sciences in Secondary Schools", Education News 11 (December 1967): 17. The official "Purposes of Schools" document issued in 1972 by the South Australian Education Department has important implications with respect to what may be considered the desirable emphasis in the curriculum upon the study of the individual in relation to society. The document appears as appendix A. The "Purposes of Schools" statement would appear to strongly support the Offering within the school curriculum of a social studies approaching the model of the kind presented within the N.C.S.S. Guidelines. Clearly, a compelling, or at least attractive, case can be made fbr the inclusion within the curriculum of a balanced study of man in society, a study in which children are made aware of the changing nature and.needs of society,and of their role within it - a study conducted within an atmosphere of open enquiry and intellectual honesty. The fact remains, however, that social studies has not been universally accepted into South Australian schools. ‘The reasons fer the varied acceptance of social studies are merely matters of conjecture until analytical studies such as the present investigation are conducted. The fOcus of the present investigation will be upon the curriculum within the state-financed educational system, with references made to the private school system where relevant. It is considered that a concentration upon.the state system of secondary education is neCessary both because the majority of secondary pupils are at state-financed schools and because of the need to restrict the scope of the study. It is acknowledged that although the private schools are subject to many of the external influences eXPerienced‘by the state-financed schools, there are some other factors Operating which would make generalizations covering both the private and State sectors of education of questionable validity. School-based curriculum decision-making, mentioned as a trend in South Australian education, suggests attendant responsibilities fOr those engaged in the process. These are markedly different responsibilities from those experienced in earlier years when school staff were simply expected to' implement the detailed courses and syllabi issued from the central office of the Education Department. It is imperative that decision-makers within the schools become aware of the processes by which earlier established courses came into existence and become conscious of the forces which have tended to perpetuate or change them. Current curriculum decisions should be made in the light of a knowledge of the past and a realistic appraisal of the needs of the present and, indeed, the future. That such an issue is of significance was suggested by D.M. Bennett when reporting upon a survey of Australian courses concerned with the study of society: There is no particular virtue in uniformity, and this lack of consensus is not in itself a matter fOr concern., What is alarming is the lack of evidence that these differences in the status accorded to the study of society represent different conscious decisions about the importance of this area. Rather it would appear that the various positions usually represent the fortuitous sum of a whole host of isolated decisions taken over a period of many years by separate authorities, few or none of which are concerned with the fund- amental question: how important in a secondary education is the study Of society? How important is it fOr pupils to become aware of the world they live in, to understand their society and participate intelligently in it?6- 6D.M. Bennett, "The Study of Society in Australian Secondary Schools", Quarterly Review of Australian Education 2 (September 1968): 23. 10 Several basic assumptions underlying the present study should be made explicit. One such assumption is that school curriculum is indeed responsive to influences both external and internal to the school, which can in fact be identified. The influences upon curriculum are complex, often inter-related, and are assumed to operate, with varying effects, at a range of different levels - international, national, state, and local. In this study data pertaining to each of these levels will be examined for their relevance to the problem under consideration. It is assumed that local circumstances will have some effect upon curriculum decision-making within individual sChools. Curricular state- ments from South Australian schools indicate that not all Of these schools currently offer social studies as a subject within the curriculum. In this study reasons fOr such variations between individual schools will be explored through a survey and case-study approach. At the heart of this study is the assumption that the identification of factors which have been, or are currently, influential in the acceptance of social studies will contribute towards more rational decision-making in schools. There are reasons fOr believing that this assumption is not unrealistic in the present educational climate in South Australia. With increased responsibility fOr school curricula resting upon the individual school there has been an increasing acceptance of the accompanying respon- sibilities. This has taken several fOrms, not least important of which has been the appointment of deputy principals to secondary schools in the field of curriculum and the encouragement of each sChool to prepare a statement of sChool philosophy. Curriculum committees have been established within many schools and curriculum evaluation is being actively encouraged at the local school level. 11 As the present investigation is directed towards identifying the factors affecting the acceptance of an integrated social studies in the secondary schools of South Australia between 1950 and 1977, a major part of the study comprises an hiStorical enquiry. Factors currently affecting the acceptance of social studies by individual schools are to be investigated through a survey of accepting and non-accepting schools. Providing an opportunity to further examine the operation of influencing factors are two case-studies, one of an accepting school, and the other of a school non-accepting of social studies within the curriculum. The general area of enquiry has been indicated in the fOre-going discussion. Specifically, the investigation fOcuses upon the fOllowing questions:- 1. What factors have influenced the acceptance of social studies as an integrated subject within the secondary schools of South Australia from 1950-1977? 2. What factors are currently influential in decision-making relating to the acceptance of integrated social studies curricula within individual secondary schools in South Australia? 3. What factors influencing the acceptance of social studies as an integrated subject in the curriculum are evident within the particular case-studies of accepting and non-accepting schools? '3 12 CHAPTER TWO. PRECEDENTS IN THE LITERATURE. The Place of Social Studies in the Curriculum If the community believes that children should be introduced to basic ideas about society during their schooling, then the present investigation of factors affecting the acceptance of social studies into the curriculum assumes considerable significance. Kevin Piper, in an investigation con- ducted in 1975-76, identified thirty three items of social learning which educators and members of the community considered important for all Australian pupils, with twelve of these items being recognized as "essential".1 A total of 1,157 questionnaires was distributed, with a 75 percent response rate.2 Items which were highly favored included those "dealing with inquiry and decision-making skills, personal development, and the skills of social interaction".3 Although items relating to factual and conceptual knowledge were not given the priority of those listed above, items concerned with "everyday living in society" were highly regarded.4 1Kevin Piper, Essential LearningiAbout Society; an Investigation into Learning fOr Social Competence, (Hawthorn, Vic., Australian Council for Educational Research, 1977). 2Ibid., p.46. The ten groups were: teacher educators, curriculum workers, academic social scientists, teachers of subjects in the social area of the curriculum, teachers of subjects other than those in the social area of the curriculum, students, parents, trade unionists, employers, and politicians. A 3Ibid., p.135. 4Ibid. 13 Although articles, reports and official statements from the State Education Department have appeared, relating to the nature of the secondary curriculum in South Australia (including reference to the role of social studies within the curriculum), there has been a dearth of related researCh. Survey data pertaining to the actual subjects offered in the curriculum of individual schools have been collected by the State Education Department over the years, thus providing some indication of the numbers of schools incorporating social studies within the curriculum. These data have not, however, until very recently, given any indication of which particular school classes in fact take social studies, nor the number of social studies classes within the individual schools. At the national level, surveys of "social science" courses available in Australian secondary schools have been conducted in relation to partic- ular projects. In 1967 a national survey was conducted by the Australian Council for Educational Research. D.M. Bennett and K.J. Piper drew upon the data obtained from approximately 1,300 Australian secondary schools in the survey and reported what they considered to be identifiable character- istics of the study of society.5 The survey revealed that in South Australia at the grade eight level approximately half of the schools surveyed offered social studies as the sole social science subject, while history and geography as separate disciplines were Offered in the majority of the remaining schools. Only a few schools offered social studies as sD.M. Bennett and K.J. Piper, "The Present Situation Concerning the Teaching of the Social Sciences in Australian Secondary Schools", Education News (December 1967) pp.7-13. 14 well as history and geography. In relation to the grade nine level, it was noted that a significant decrease occurred in the number of schools teaching social studies solely at that level, while schools which in grade eight had taught history and geography now included social studies. With respect to New South Wales, Queensland, and South Australia it was reported: In these three States social studies (or Citizen- ship Education) has largely become a subject for the less academic pupils, while fer the remaining ' majority, including the more able pupils, special- ization within the area has already begun. At year ten level the traditional subjects of history and geography were noted to be even more firmly entrenched. A further survey was carried out in 1973 primarily for the National Committee on Social Science Teaching indicating curriculum emphases in social science courses in eaCh of the Australian states.7 A study compar- ing the data from the 1967 and 1973 surveys resulted in Kevin Piper drawing a number of conclusions concerning changes in Australian social science curricula between 1967 and 1973 which included: 1. The emergence of multi-disciplinary and inter- disciplinary social science courses in all States, varying from well-established courses (Western Australia and Tasmania) to courses still in the early stages of development (New South Wales and Queensland). These courses generally call on the newer social sciences - particularly Political Science, Anthropology, Sociology, and Social 6P.H. Partridge, W.F. Connell, S.W. Cohen, Social Science fer the Secondary School, (Sydney, Ian Novak, 1969), p.34. 7National Committee on Social Science Teaching, Research Paper No.2, Soc1al Science Courses in Australia, A Correlational Survey, (figillip, A.C.T.: National Committee on Social Science Teaching, 3 . 15 Psychology - as well as the traditional subject areas such as History, Geography and Economics. 2. The emergence in the traditional subjects of new syllabuses incorporating many of the elements of the interdisciplinary courses, e.g. a breaking down of traditional subject barriers and a willing- ness to borrow from other fields of knowledge, an inquiry approach and a stress on contemporary social issues. 3. The emergence of the General Studies movement and the "integrated curriculum", especially in Victoria, in which the social scignces play an important contributing part ..... A national Survey into the status of social studies within the school curriculum in the United States was reported by Richard Gross.9 The survey covered 36 state departments of education. The investigator acknowledged the difficulty of drawing generalizations from such a diversity of resp- onses but considered that the figures obtained in the study "clearly (revealed) an invasion of the social studies by the social sciences". Further, it was claimed that "the dramatic percentage increases in student enrollment in separate disciplinary courses as Economics, Sociology, and 10 I The concluSIOn was Psydhology are striking evidence of this trend". reached that the rate of increase in student population in the secondary school has not been equalled by the rate of increase in students taking social studies. It was noted in this study that district requirements did not emerge as a factor influencing change in the acceptance of social studies. Gross referred rather to the decline in social studies as a "grass-roots, Community centred development". 8Kevin Piper, Evaluation in the Social Sciences - For Secondary Schools. Teachers Handbook. (Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service, 1967), p.3. 9Richard E. Gross, "The Status of the Social Studies in the Public Schools of the United States: Facts and Impressions of a National Survey", Social Education, March 1977, 41,3, pp.194-200. 101bId., p.196. b x. fia‘ure Oi Soc: is Uzited States The nature :tented for use ircxski, for exa ii distinction rszzgnize as ha "re designed p siences in so :ctztribute to ssciety, They mfg“ Out Oi ~4ng of . me hai '1 “a fOC‘kS 16 The Nature of Social Studies The United States The nature of social studies has Often been examined in textbooks intended for use in teacher education courses. Edgar Wesley and Stanley Wronski, fer example, explore the concept of social studies, drawing a use- ful distinction between social studies and social science which they 11 The social studies they claim recognize as having different intents. "are designed primarily fOr instructional purposes" and draw upon the social sciences in so far as they provide concepts and modes of enquiry which contribute to an understanding in the classroom, of the individual and society. They consider then that "the justification for the social studies emerges out of the needs of the individual and the imperatives of society".12 The emphasis upon an understanding of contemporary society and the social scientist's mode of enquiry indicates that history considered alone cannot meet present needs. Wesley and Wronski proposed a systems analysis model of the social studies curriculum whereby curriculum construction proceeds from an analysis of contemporary society and recognizes the need to face up to the question of values and to employ the process of valuing. Further, the curriculum decisions which are made are to be influenced by an under- standing of adolescence and related student needs. The National Council for the Social Studies has produced major Bulletins whidh fOcus upon the nature of social studies. In one such Bulletin Robert Barr, James Barth and Samuel Shermis identified three traditions in social 11Edgar B. Wesley and Stanley P. Wronski, Teaching Secondary Social Studies in a World Society, 6th edition. (Lexington: D.C. Heath and Company, 1973), p.5. 12IbId. 17 studies, namely social studies taught as citizenship transmission, as social science and as reflective inquiry.13 Acknowledging the confused state of the field, they put forward their own definition of social studies in an attempt to reconcile various stances. Social studies is seen as "an integration of experience and knowledge concerning human relations for the purpose of citizenship education".14 The objectives that are required to adhieve effective citizenship they consider to be 1) knowledge, 2) skills necessary to process infOrmation, 3) values and beliefs and 4) social participation.15 A major contribution by the N.C.S.S. to the understanding of the nature of and rationale for the social studies remains that of the N.C.S.S. . 6 Guidelines, the elements of which have been referred to In Chapter One.1 Australia There is a dearth of authoritative statement on the nature of, and rationale fer, social studies in Australia. Following a Unesco seminar held in Melbourne in 1967, a book was published reporting the findings of the conference entitled "Social Science fer the Secondary School".17 This represented a major statement on the contribution that social sciences should make to secondary education and drew attention to the relevance of more recent social sciences which had previously had little effect upon 13Robert D. Barr, James L. Barth and S. Samuel Shermis, Defining the Social Studies, Bulletin 51, National Council fer the Social Studies (Arlington, Virginia: National Council fer the Social Studies, 1977). 14Ibid., p.69. lslbid. 16National Council fer the Social Studies, "Social Studies Curriculum Gu1delines", Social Education 35 (December, 1971): pp.853-869. 17P.H. Partridge; W.F. Connell, and S.W. Cohen, Social Science for the Secondary School (Sydney: Novak, 1969). 0‘; 18 school curricula. The case was put fer an integrated social science that would be relevant to the needs of young people in contemporary society. Individual articles have from time to time been published in Australia relating to the teaching of social science or social studies within the secondary school curriculum. Possibly the most widely distrib- uted and influential statement was an article, entitled "What is Social Science in Schools?", prepared by W.F. Connell.18 Connell's paper outlined the nature, content, aims and method of a subject, social science, in the secondary school. The term, social science, was considered synonymous with "social studies" in this context. Connell considered social science teaching to be concerned with social living. Thus social science as he uses the term is: concerned with the social behaviour, social processes, social values, and social institutions which Show man as a social animal. Connell declares the need to educate fer community, fer the unknown, and fer sensitivity with an emphasis in method upon "inquiry, communicating, choosing and acting". Factors InfluencingSocial Studies Curricula The United States The status of history within the social studies was investigated by 20 William Roach. The study was concerned with influences acting upon 18W.F. Connell, "What is Social Science in Schools?" Sydney type— script, n.d. 191bid., p.1. 20W1ll1am E. Roach, "The Changing Status of History Since World War II: An Account of the Major Curriculum Changes in the Social Studles 1n New York State. Including an Examination of the Current Situation in Fifteen School Districts Located Throughout the State". Doctoral thesis, Ann Arbor, Michigan, University M1crofilms International, 1976. 19 curricula in New York State from World War I'to the present time. The investigation revealed the sustained and dominant position of history within the social studies and indicated that, although teachers were aware of the curricular innovations of the 1960's, and indeed expressed their approval of them, these had little impact upon the nature of the courses taught in the schools. Despite influences which could have been expected to modify the central position of history, such as an increasing teacher background in other social studies disciplines and their belief in the poten- tial value of such disciplines, history remained prominent. Roach concluded from the study that "more than any other single aspect the New York State Syllabus is responsible fer the still dominant role of history in the social studies". That federally funded innovative projects have been significant in a less direct fashion is suggested by John Patrick, in reviewing the impact of the federally funded "new social studies" projects of the 1960's and 1970's.21 Patrick reported the direct effects to have been slight in terms of sales figures, but drew attention to "significant and extensive indirect effects on publishers and their products". Patrick refers to a study by Karen Wiley in 1977 in which content analysis of textbooks in economics and political science revealed an updating and development apparently attrib- utable to the project materials.22 A further study by William Fetsko in 21John J. Patrick, "Did the 'New Social Studies' Projects Have an Impact?" The Link Social Science Education Consor ' .9 ____________3 tlum, 3 (March 1980) 1, 3-4. 221bid., p.l. 20 1979 confirmed these findings through content analysis comparisons of history textbooks of the 1950's and 1970's.23 Gerald Marker investigated the abandonment of ”new social studies" instructiOnal materials within a sample of seven Indiana schools which had adopted them several years previously.24 In-depth interviews and a Q-sort instrument were applied to principals, department heads and social studies teachers in the schools concerned. The study revealed that major factors contributing to the decision to abandon the materials were "the loss of an innovation's major advocate, unrealistic expectations on the part of users regarding how an innovation will perfOrm, and problems resulting from the misapplication of the innovation".25 In discussing other findings concern- ing the apparent absence of a relationship between the abandonment of the materials and other factors suggested by adoption literature such as newness, visible pay-off, or incentives, Marker comments that the type of innovation may in itself be an important variable. This observation is pertinent to the present study where a soCial studies course will be the innovation under consideration. Further, Marker notes that situational changes within an institution appeared to have an influence upon decisions to abandon the "new social studies materials". It could be anticipated that this would be the case in the present investigation of the acceptance of social studies in secondary schools of South Australia. 23Ibid., p.3. 24Gerald W. Marker, "Why Schools Abandon 'New Social Studies' Materials", Theory and Research in Social Education, 7 (W1nter 1980): 35-77. 25Ibid., p.55. 0‘; 21 An investigation into factors affecting decision-making in elementary school science within a school district, undertaken by Neila Werner, employed Rogers' "paradigm of adoption (or rejection) of an innovation within a Social system" as an aid in the analysis of data.26 It was fOund that Rogers' paradigm was well-suited to describe the phases of decision- making identified within the study. In the present investigation Rogers' paradigm will serve as a useful basis fOr enquiry into factors affecting decisions relating to the acceptance or rejection of social studies within tsChool curricula in South Australia. Craig Kissock and Dennis Falk report a study, one of the aims of whiCh was to test whether the attributes of innovations defined by Rogers and Shoemaker applied to the adoption of social studies innovations.27 An instrument developed fer a previous study by Hahn was applied to a group of 181 secondary school teachers and social studies department leaders (55.8 percent return) who had attended three National Science Foundation Resource Personnel workshops in 1973, 1974 and 1975. TWO hypotheses of interest to the present study were: (1)There is no significant correlation between Rogers and Shoemaker's attributes (relative advantages, compatibility, complexity, Observability, and trialability) and potential adopters' attitudes toward, and adoption of, _new social studies curriculum. 26Neila A. Werner, "A Case-Study of Decision-making in Elementary School Science Curriculum Improvement. 1961—1974." Doctoral theSIS, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Xerox University Microfilms, 1975. 27Craig Kissock and Dennis R. Falk, "A Reconsideration of Attributes and Adoption of New Social Studies Materials", Theory and Research in Social Education 6 (September 1978): 56-70. *1 22 (2)There is no significant correlation between potential adopters' attitude towards, and 28 adoption of new social studies curriculum. The first hypothesis listed above was rejected fer each attribute except ‘ . complexity. With respect to the second hypothesis the correlation between attitude towards materials and adoption Of materials was significant at the .01 level (using the Kendall rank correlation). In discussing the results {7 ~'x the investigator suggests a note of caution in that only correlational f 3‘ data were reported. The results, however, are supportive of the use of Rogers and Shoemaker's perceived attributes of innovations as fOci within the second stage of the present study. 1 . I s‘ Australia . Colin Marsh reports a study of dissemination activities associated with curriculum change in authority innovation-decision making systems.29 Basic to his study is a clear distinction drawn by the researcher between the decision-making unit considered to be the head office personnel of the Education Department and the decision implementing unit, conceived as com- prising school-level personnel. The study draws upon the five processes 221 c 1 identified by Rogers and Shoemaker as knowledge, persuasion, decision, communication and action. The study by Marsh considers concepts and _;.“. .2 generalizations applicable to curriculum change and dissemination and proposes "exploratory conclusions" as a contribution to theory building in ,' : this area. Marsh's study is of interest in that it represents an attempt to relate Rogers' decision-making model to the dissemination of curriculum InnovatIOn. Trends in most states of Australia during recent years towards ' El 28Ibid. , pp.6l,62. "*4 A. 29 - 3 Colin J. Marsh, "A Study of Dissemination Activities Associated ‘ " glth Curriculum Change in Authority Innovation-Decision Making pystems., Austral1an Association for Research in Education _rpceedlngs of the 1979 Annual Conference, Melbourne. 1979: 380-392 23 school-based decision-making, however, could cast doubt on the basic assumptions of the study with respect to the relationship between the head office of the Education Department and an individual school. Aspects of an investigation of the impact of the Australian-Seience Education Project (A.S.E.P.) materials, conducted by John Owen, are of methodological interest to the present study.30 A variety of data-gathering techniques was employed, including the examination of records, and study of historical documents. Interviews were conducted with teachers and other key people identified as likely to have influence upon the diffusion of A.S.E.P. materials. Further data were obtained by the application of questionnaires to sdhools, resulting in a return rate of 90 percent. The questionnaire data identified clusters of schools with similar characteristics. From each cluster representative schools were selected fer visits by the investigators. In all, twenty-three schools were visited. Data collected from each school included material relating to factors affecting decisions to introduce A.S.E.P. materials into the school. Case-studies were reported for six selected representative schools. The methodology of case-study was in the tradition of M. Parlett and D. Hamilton's "illuminative evaluation".31 In undertaking the case-studies caution was taken to avoid disrupting normal activities. Structured inter- views were conducted with a variety of individuals within the school. _— 30John Owen, The Impact of the Australian Science Education Project on Schools, C.D.C. Professional Series, Canberra, Curriculum Development Centre, 1978. ‘ 31M. Parlett and D. Hamilton, Evaluation as Illumination: A New Approach to the Study of Innovatory Programmes. Occasional Paper 9, Centre for Research in the Educational Sciences Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, 1972. ’ 24 Summary This chapter has presented a review of representative research relating to the place and nature of social studies within curricula in the United States and Australia. Further, attention has been paid to studies which have Sought to identify factors affecting social studies curricula, with particular reference to the acceptance or rejection of innovation. Aspects of the methodology employed within some of the studies referred to are supportive and suggestive of procedures to be fbllowed in this investigation, which are described in chapter three. . l «.4 ——f rev—_i 25 CHAPTER THREE. PROCEDURES. This investigation comprises three distinguishable but closely related stages. The first stage of the study involves the identification of broad factors affecting the recognition of social studies as a legitimate subject within secondary school curricula in South Australia, between 1950 and 1977. The second stage is concerned with the identification of factors influencing the acceptance or rejection of social studies by individual schools. The third stage comprises case-studies of schools which have consistently rejected or have readily accepted social studies. STAGE ONE - The Recognition of Social Studies In the investigation of the factors affecting the recognition of social studies as a legitimate subject within the secondary school curriculum between 1950 and 1977 an historical approach has been adopted. The invest— igation requires that attention be given both to the control of the education system and to the relationship of the changing social structure to the position and nature of social studies within the curriculum. Of importance also is what P.W. Musgrave refers to as the "ideological setting" - the influence of intellectuals upon the curriculum.1 In recognition of the highly centralized nature of policy-making within the South Australian state education system, it is essential that the nature of curriculum control at the state level be examined and that the implications 1P.W. Musgrave, Society and the Curriculum in Australia (Sydney: George Allen and Unwin, 1979). 26 of’policy developments for curriculum during the period 1950-1977 be considered. The possibility of national influence affecting the state system and individual Schools within it suggests the need to extend the context of the investigation. Thus the developing involvement of the federal government in curriculum concerns and the effects of this are included in chapter four of the study. It would be expected that the nature of the subject, social studies, would change during the period 1950-1977 and that the perceived nature of the subject at any point of time could be an important factor affecting its acceptance. Accordingly the first stage of this study includes an investigation of the'changing nature of social studies, 1950-1977, comp- rising chapter five. Sources of Data A wide variety of data sources has been drawn upon in this invest- igation. These sources are acknowledged in the Appendix or the Bibliography as appropriate. Data sources include: a) Government reports at state and national level pertaining to issues affecting educational policy and review. b) State Education Department records. These include: i) courses in social science and social studies recommended or prescribed by the relevant Education Department curriculum committees ii) minutes of meetings of Education Department subject curriculum committees iii) policy documents referring to curriculum recommendations, design and implementation issued by the Education Department d). 27 iv) Education Department and local school records indicating ’ subjects offered in South Australian secondary schools during the period 1950-1977. Published material pertaining to social studies and social sciences within the secondary school curriculum in South Australia‘ (including that emanating from local, state, national and inter- national sources). Materials pertaining to social conditions in Australia. Published material relating to educational thought and practice within and outside Australia. Data from interviews with persons responsible fer, or knowledge- able concerning, curriculum developments affecting social studies within secondary schools curricula during the period in question. These key infOrmants were drawn from the national, state and local level where appropriate. The initial selection of some of the key infermants fer interview was made on the basis of an intensive examination of the literature and study of records. A list of key infOrmants interviewed appears as appendix B. Interviews were Conducted by the investigator personally in Adelaide, Melbourne and Sydney. The interviews were semi-structured, based on prepared key questions. A sample of a schedule applied in an interview with Professor W.F. Connell, fOrmer Chairman of the National Committee fOr Social Science Teaching (N.C.S.S.T.) appears as appendix C. Interviews were tape-recorded and subsequently transcribed, with tapes retained for record purposes. 28 STAGE TWO - School Decision-making_in Relation to Social Studies The first stage of this study is concerned with the identification of broad factors affecting the recognition of social studies as a legitimate subject fer inclusion within secondary sChool curricula. Although the Education Department may approve social studies as a subject that individual schools can select fOr their curricula, the sChools may decide not to include it. The second stage of the study focuses particularly upon the decision- making process of the schools, seeking to identify those factors which appear to fOster or hinder the acceptance of the subject at the school level. Clearly the first and second stages of the Study are inter—related. It is possible that some broad external factors militating against, or promoting, social studies as a legitimate subject will also affect individual schools' decisions as to whether the subject will be accepted in their curricula. A Model of the Innovation-decision Process The model of the innovation-decision process originally developed by Rogers and elaborated by Rogers and Shoemaker has provided a productive framework fer this stage of the investigation (Fig. 3.).2 The model directs attention towards possible factors affecting the decision to adopt or reject an innovation. In the case of many secondary schools in South Australia ‘whiCh at any particular time did not have social studies within the curric- ulum, social studies is an innovation concerning which decisions to adopt or reject have been made. The Rogers and Shoemaker model is suggestive of areas of enquiry which could lead to the identification of factors influenc- 1ng such decisions. Where in some schools social studies has always been 2Everett M. Rogers with F. Floyd Shoemaker, Communication of Innovations: A Cross-cultural Approach, Second Edition, (New York: The Free Press, 1971). p.102. 29 Figure 3. A Model of the Innovation-Decision Process Paradigm of the innontien-leelsion process. (ANIECEDEMS) (PROCESS) (CONSEQUENCES? Continued Adoption Communication Sourres Receiver Variables 1 Personality characteristics 1 a, laccm t Channels - p en (efilibgelli'ai d ‘ ) 2. Disenchanlmenl e l r: ow r change)’ ‘ y ‘ i 2. Social . KNOWLEDGE A PIPSUASION oscisllorr ,1 COllflRilglAllON _,_, _,_ l 7 ll L characteristics (e.g., cosmopoliteness) 3. Perceived need lor the innovation 4. [tcelera {Social System Variables] I Perceived Characteristics of Innovationij 1. Social System Norms l.Relnti-.-e Advantage 2. Tolerance o! Deviancy 2. Compatibility 3. Communication Integ/ation 3. Complexity 4. Etceten 4. Irialebilny Continued “election 5. Observability TIME : 'for the sale at Simplicity we have not shown the consequences ol the innovation in this ”no.“ but only the consequences ol the process. _ Source: Communication of Innovations: A Cross—culturalgApproach by Everett M. Rogers and F. Floyd Shoemaker. (Copyright (c) 1971 by The Free Press, a Division of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.) p.102. Reproduced by permission. part of the curriculum (as in the case of former technical schools), the subject can less readily be conSidered as an "innovation". The aspects of the model, however, remain useful in generating data concerning the contin- uing acceptability of the subject. The present investigation is concerned not only with broad curriculum trends but also with influences affecting the acceptance of an integrated social studies into the curriculum of the individual school. The point of acceptance or rejection of an integrated social studies may be recognized within the above model as phase III, that of "decision". Rogers describes the stages thus: 1.Knowledge. The individual is exposed to the innovation's existence and gains some under- standing of how it functions. 30 2.Persuasion. The individual forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the innovation. 3.Decision. The individual engages in activities which lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation. 4.Confirmation. The individual seeks reinfOrcement fer the innovation—decision he has made, but may reverse his previous decision if exposed to conflicting messages about the innovation.3 It is clear that in the section of this study that fOcuses upon factors relating to schools' acceptance or rejection of an integrated social studies, the model provides not only the framework for the general investigation, but points the direction for the third stage of the inVestigation, that of the case-studies of particular schools. At the level where the investigation seeks to identify factors which influence some schools towards acceptance or rejection of integrated social studies within their curricula, the model directs attention towards "antecedents" which include "receiver variables" and "social system variables". It is expected that variations between schools in these ante- cedents will be amenable to identification both over a period of time and currently. The model also indicates the importance of "processes" whereby the decision-maker receives data by way of various communication sources gaining specific "knowledge" and experiencing the "persuasion" stage where perceived characteristics of the innovation are considered from various points of view. The perceived characteristics of the innovation comprise: a) Relative Advantage b) Compatibility c) Complexity d) Trialability e) Observability 31bid. , p. 103. . . 4! 31 Sources of Data av. As the second part of this study contains an area of overlap with the preceding stage, some of the sources examined in relation to the first stage of the study have been drawn upon. Sources of particular importance include records held by the Education Department. These records include data relating to the curricula offered by individual schools at different periods of time. Further records of a statistical nature, relating to differences between schools, have been used where available. Other sources of data lie within curriculum literature relating to school choice of curriculum and include curriculum syllabus statements and guidelines issued to schools by the Education Department and other disseminating bodies. Data-gathering Techniques a) The Factor Checklist. From the content analysis of documents, reports and the review of the literature, factors likely to affect schools' acceptance of social studies were identified. Further factors were sought through discussions with key individuals and classroom teachers. Two checklists of possibly influential factors were compiled - one list comprising factors likely to have encouraged individual schools to accept social studies, and the other containing factors which appeared to have had a discouraging effect. These lists were sub- sequently considered by the consultant fOr social studies and the Principal Education Officer in social studies in relation to their comprehensiveness. These instruments appear as appendices D and E. Each checklist was designed in such a way that the respondent was able to add any additional factors which were perceived to be relevant. Each factor was to be rated fer the extent of its influence using the categories - very strong, strong, some, very little, or none. To provide opportunities fer any ambiguities to emerge or fer further detail to be supplied, space 32 was provided against each item for supplementary comments to be made, if so desired. For schools accepting of social Studies it was intended that the relevant checklist be completed by the deputy principal of curriculum in cooperation with the senior staff member responsible for the administration of the subject in the school. For schools non-accepting of social studies the appropriate checklist was to be completed by the deputy principal of curriculum in association with the senior in history and geography. After trialling in a non-sample school, the first checklist (appendix D) was applied to ten schools which had been identified as schools in which social studies was well represented. The second checklist (appendix E), after trialling in a non-sample school, was applied to ten schools which had either no social studies in the curriculum or a minimal amount. b) A School's Characteristics Schedule. An interview schedule was designed to provide supplementary data concerning characteristics of the ten accepting and ten non-accepting schools in the samples. This instrument appears as appendix F. It focuses attention upon the components of the Rogers and Shoemaker model of the innovation-decision process as discussed above. This instrument was trial- led in a school not selected in the samples of accepting and non-accepting schools. The instrument was then applied in the ten accepting and ten non- accepting schools. Sampling Method The ten schools accepting social studies within the curriculum and the ten schools which have not generally accepted social studies were sel- ected from a list of subjects being taken in schools in 1977, compiled by the Education Department. As the list indicated the number of classes taking 33 social studies, it was possible to select ten schools which were clearly strongly accepting schools and ten schools which were at the opposite end of the continuum. After this initial selection of schools had been made, the Education Department Social studies consultant was asked to examine the lists of accepting and.non-accepting schools comprising the samples, to ensure that those selected were indeed strong examples of accepting or non- accepting schools. Further, the list of schools was checked to ensure that the schools covered a range of socio-economic circumstances and that where applicable a range of school types was represented, including fer example, open space and fOrmer technical high schools in the list of accepting schools. The composition of the samples is indicated in appendix G. An examination of the distribution of accepting and non-accepting schools with respect to social studies suggested that patterns fOr rural and city schools are not markedly different. Because of their ready accessibility, the schools comprising the convenience sample are those located within the metropolitan area of Adelaide. _flministration of Instruments Each of the instruments described above was taken personally by the investigator to the school concerned, with the exception of one far-distant" Sohool. The purpose of the study was explained to the principal and deputy PrinCipal responsible fer curriculum.. All schools in the samples agreed to participate. It was intended that the interview schedule (appendix F) would be administered by the investigator, but in most cases it was fOund to be more aPPI‘Opriate to leave it fer the deputy principal along with relevant seniors t° cOmplete in their own time. Because of the considerable administrative demand ° 8 made upon schools 1t was stressed that the prime concern was the -c e 4 ' o 'L 34 completion of the checklist and that the second instrument was of a supple- mentary nature intended to provide general background infOrmation. Compe leted Checklists were received from 100 percent of the schools. The second instrument was filled in with varying degrees of completion by schools but with sufficient data provided to enable a comprehensive picture of accept- ing and non-accepting influences to emerge. STAGE THREE - Case-studies of Accepting and Non-accepting schools The third stage of the investigation comprises two case-studies, one of a school with long-standing acceptance of social studies and the other of a school that had traditionally and consistently rejected the subject. The purpose of each’case-study was to generate additional data relating to factors affecting the acceptance of social studies and to further explore influential factors which had previously been identified. Selection of case-studies A school considered to be representative of those schools accepting of social studies was selected from the sample of ten schools considered in Stage Two of this study. This school was of open plan design. A represent ~ative school, generally non-accepting of social studies, was selected from the other sample of ten schools. Further considerations in the selection of the two case-study schools were accessibility and a previously-establish -ed rapport with the investigator. Case-study Methodology_ The enquiry is conducted within the framework of the "paradigm of the innovation-decision process" of Rogers and Shoemaker (Figure 3). Thus each case-study seeks to identify and describe "receiver variables" and "social system variables" as part of the situational analysis. The "communication sources" through which the school receives knowledge of social studies as a 35 possible subject for inclusion in the curriculum are recognized within both the "Knowledge" and "Persuasion" phases of the Rogers and Shoemaker model. The factors in the relevant checklists of possible influences upon the acceptanCe of social studies provide a fOcus for the enquiry (appendices D and E). Sources of data and techniques of data-gatherigg The fOllowing sources of data and methods of enquiry were employed: 1) semi-structured interviews with school staff 2) correspondence and telephone enquiry 3) examination and content analysis of a variety of school records and publications 4) observations within the schools. 1) Semi-Structured interviews with school staff The interview schedules (appendices H and J) were applied tova con- venience sample of former and present teachers within each of the two case- studies. Considerations in the 23323 selection of school staff to be inter- viewed were: 1) adequate coverage of the school within the period comprising the fOcus of the investigation (1950-1977) 2) inclusion of school staff representative of the traditional social science disciplines and of social studies 3) inclusion of school administrators within the period under consideration. In the course of the case-study additional teachers were interviewed for the purpose of validation of emerging data and further enquiry. Each of’the case-studies involved a number of visits to the school and also to u‘i 36 other institutions to which former teachers and principals of the case- study schools had since moved. The interviews were conducted individually and.were tape-recorded and subsequently transcribed. In the case-study of the non-accepting school twelve people were interviewed, while in the case-study of the accepting school, eight teachers were interviewed. The composition of the samples appears as appendix K. 2) Correspondence and telephone enquiry Where infermants were not readily accessible, letters were sent con- taining specific questions (fer example, to the first principal appointed to the non-accepting'school). 3) Examination and content analysis of a variety of school records and publications In the case—study of the accepting school detailed documentation of the school's life since its inception in 1973 was available. This included records detailing school courses, a printed review of the school's early years prepared by the first principal, comprehensive reports of the school's residential conferences and infermation booklets fer staff, parents and visitors. In the case-study of the non-accepting school, records of courses and school journals were available. InfOrmation booklets describing the school philosophy and courses were also drawn upon, as were records of staff notices distributed during the period under consideration. 4) Observations within the school Observations were of an infermal nature. These included, in the case of the non-accepting school, attendance at a curriculum committee meeting. 37 CHAPTER FOUR CURRICULUM CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES In this chapter data pertaining to curriculum constraints and opportunities are identified within the state educational system during the period, 1950-1977. The context is widened to include national influences upon the provision of social studies within the curricula of South Australian schools. SECTION A - CURRICULUM POLICY AND CONTROL The South Australian Education Department, headed by the Director- General of Education, administers the state school system. The Director-. General in turn is responsible to the Minister of Education in the State Parliament, but in curriculum matters retains ultimate control. The Public Examinations Board In 1950, within the state education system, secondary education was provided by high schools, technical schools, and area schools. The area schools provided both primary (elementary) and secondary education in rural areas which did not have a school-going population large enough to warrant a separate secondary school. The high schools have traditionally been concerned with providing pupils with an academic education, strongly oriented towards the meeting of university matriculation requirements, although only a very small proportion of the pupils wishes to enter the university. Thus the position in 1950 was that the nature and content of subjects within the high school curriculum for the third, fourth, and fifth years of secondary schooling were established by the Public Examin- ations Board which was controlled by the university. The university .1— 38 established "accepted" groupings of subjects from which selections could be made. Thus, although the Education Department had representatives on the Public Examinations Board and on the individual Public Examinations Committees, its responsibility for the devising of courses was, in the main confined to the pre-Public Examination years of first and second year high school. The influence of the Public Examinations Board upon school courses in effect extended yet further within the high school curriculum. Although the Education Department was responsible for the preparation of curricula fer the first two years of the high school, the impending Public Examin- ation at the end of the third year dictated the content and direction of the courses designed by the Education Department subject curriculum committees under the chairmanship of the relevant high school inspector and with membership comprising specialist teachers in the field and represent- atives from the Teachers Colleges. The school curriculum reflected the disciplines established within the universities. The Public Examinations Board subjects available to schools in 1950 appear as appendix L. Anthropology was introduced into the University of Adelaide as late as 1974 and sociology has never been offered by that university. As indicated by appendix L, at the Intermediate level (third year high school), social studies is listed along with history and geography. The pressure resulting in the introduction of social studies at the Intermediate level in 1948 appears to have come from sources other than the university as the subject was not to be offered at the Leaving or Leaving Honours (fifth year) level. In view of its terminal nature social studies would be taken mainly by students who did not intend to continue with a social science subject in the following year or by those who did not intend 0“- 39 to continue with schooling. Thus in the ensuing years the number of students taking social studies at the Intermediate level remained minimal in comparison with those taking either history or geography. Comparative figures for the years during which social studies was offered as an Inter- mediate subject, namely 1948-1968, appear as appendix M. Some Modifications The constraints upon the high school curriculum imposed by the Public Examinations Board had long been recognized by administrators within the Education Department. As early as 1942 the then Director of Education, Charles Fenner, claimed concerning the high schools that: While their tendency is to develop a variety of different courses, including general, commercial, and agricultural courses, there is also evidence in the classrooms and workshops of a cramping influence that may be due to over-estimation by the public of the external certificates awarded by the Public Examinations Board and to over- emphasis on examinations in general. This is largely a University matter, but under the present conditions it affects the whole high school system. In 1966 the Minister of Education, R.R. Loveday, in his annual report expressed dissatisfaction with the restricting effects of Public Examin- ation courses, thus: Leaving and Intermediate curricula remained basically unchanged. Modifications have been made to the subject content of some syllabuses, but there has been no concerted action by P.E.B. Subject Committees to restate aims and objectives and to revise the content of syllabuses in such a way that all students below Matriculation can study the broader king of courses which are considered desirable. 1Charles Fenner, "Education in South Australia - Present Tendencies and Post-War Possibilities", Education Gazette, 58 (October 1942): 186. 2South Australia, Minister of Education, Report, 1966, p.16. 40 When the decision was taken to discontinue the Intermediate Public Examination in 1968, the South Australian Education Department was provided with the opportunity to develop new courses. Six years later, in 1974, the Public Examinations Board Leaving examination was abolished. The Technical Schools The domination of the high schools' curricula by the Public Examin- ations Board was far less evident in the technical schools. Known origin- ally as Central Schools and later Junior Technical Schools, the schools were intended to meet the needs of pupils for whom the academic courses of the high schools were deemed inappropriate. Some characteristics of the sChools referred to; in 1942, by Charles Fenner, the Director of Education) were that: The Fenner to In the first place, they are usually established fer either boys or girls, in the second they are practically free from the cramping influence of external examinations, and in the third place they bend themselves towards the special needs of the Children of the district or community they serve.3 relative status of the Junior Technical Schools was noted by be low. Thus he commented: From the point of view of the politician and of the average parent, high schools and higher primary schools are held in higher esteem than junior technical or area schools. One marked difference between the curricula of the JuniOr Technical Schools and those of the High Schools was the establishment of social studies in the fOrmer, rather than history and geography as separate disciplines. 3Fenner, p.187. 41bid. , p. 188. ox 41 The High_School Alternative Course Although in the early 1960's social studies was well established in what had by then become known as Technical High Schools, the subject featured in the curriculum of relatively few of the other high schools. Pressure exerted by the changing nature of the high school population, however, forced a reassessment of the curriculum offered to pupils of low academic ability. 1962, stated: The enrolment at the beginning of 1962 was 31,127, a rise of 2,848 on the enrolment at the beginning of 1961 and greater by 600 than the estimates from the schools upon which staffing needs were based. The increase was almost entirely due to an unexpectedly large number of pupils remaining at sChool fer a third, fourth or fifth year.5 Further, the Minister observed that: the proportions of pupils of average I.Q. entering metropolitan High Schools has been steadily rising. It has become increasingly necessary, therefore, to provide courses in the schools to meet the educational needs of these children, and to extend the courses that have been introduced in some schools in the first year classes.6 The report of the Minister of Education for the year, Thus "Alternative Classes" were established on a pilot basis in selected schoOls in 1963 and extended to a total of 27 schools in the following year. The Minister of Education in the 1963 report described the courses as "intended fOr students whose first-year performance at High Schools suggests that they are not suitable for standard P.E.B. courses".7 5South Australia, Minister of Education, Report, 1962, p.12. 61bid. 7South Australia, Minister of Education, Report, 1963, p.16. Social ‘. 'K 42 Studies was provided in the Alternative Courses rather than history or geography. This subject had been feund appropriate in the Technical High Schools for pupils of lesser academic ability. The year, 1963, marked not only the establishment of the Alternative Course in a large number Of high schools, but also the Government decision to introduce the enforcement of the compulsory minimum school leaving age of fifteen years, which meant a continuing Government commitment to cater for increasing numbers of children and a wide range of academic ability. Statements of Policy Because of the highly centralized nature of the South Australian Educational system the policy statements issued to school principals by the Education Department served as directives, exercising considerable influence upon the curriculum of the individual school. The re-orientation in policy, as expressed in such statements, have, in turn, come about as a result of wider external fOrces to which schools have been bound to respond. The influence of such forces was acknowledged in 1972 by the Director of Secondary Education thus: Our changes represent responses to changes evident in culture and society at large, among the most significant and obvious being the tendency to retain all or the majority of members of the age groups 13-17 at schools, the new pervasiveness of mass media and their instant communication with youth, the increasing popularity of ideas of individual involvement in decision-making in the community, increasing recognition that learning occurs in many different ways and even outside schools.8 8K.E. Barter, "Inservice Conference Addresses, Education Gazette 88 (November 1972): 344. fl 43 Following the decision that the Public Examinations Intermediate examination would cease to exist after 1968, the matter of formulating appropriate guidelines for the development of sChool curricula received attention from the Curriculum Board of the Education Department. A curriculum progress report issued as an official Circular to high school principals made reference to the distinction that should be recognized between the first three years of secondary schooling (the Junior Curric- ulum) and the remaining two years. Thus: The junior curriculum, then, should be much more student-centred than would be appropriate for "academic” courses in fourth and particularly fifth year. It should be extremely flexible. It should allow for,differing depth of treatment, amount of enrichment and rate of progress, class by class, according to relative student ability, aptitude and interest, and, one must add, the relative Skill of teachers. The present Alternative Course features methods and a3 approach that could serve as a useful guide. The observation made by the Superintendent of High Schools concerning the Alternative Course is significant. The Alternative Course had paved the way for different methods and approaches in the secondary school. The emphasis upon individual differences which became a feature of Education Department policy statements in the late 1960's was accompanied by revised syllabus statements more suited to meet these needs. The recommended course fer all high school pupils in 1968 included social studies (as indeed would have been expected from public statements made 9South Australian Education Department, Circular to Heads of High Schools, 8:67, The High School Curriculum: 1967 Progress Report, No.l., p.l. 44 10 previously by the Minister of Education in December, 1967). The term, "social studies", is used somewhat ambiguously in the circular to schools. The circular states: For the basic unit of social studies, schools may use the existing syllabuses of History, Geography, or, if approval is given, the new syllabus of Social Studies. The new Social Studies syllabuses have been designed to provide a single unit up to second year level which keeps open the track to separate units of History and Geography at the second or subsequent years. A junior school curriculum freed from the constraints of public examinations was perceived by the Education Department as providing new opportunities for subject integration and new teaching methods. Thus it was claimed that: the field is particularly open fer developments in combining some subject areas or breaking down artificial barriers between them, incorporating elements of art and craft with general subjects, and for the ventures in cooperative or team-teaching necessary to bring these things about. The freedom offered by a student-centred curriculum for the use of liberal and innovative teaching methods is great, and the possibilities as yetvdrtually unexplored. "Freedom and Authority in SchoOls" The Education Department's stated policy advocating the recognition of individual differences called for a greater measure of decision-making by schools than had been customary. In August, 1970, the Director-General of Education, A.W. Jones, issued a document entitled, "Freedom and 10Speech of the Minister of Education at Plympton High School, 11, .December, 1967, The subject of social studies would, he said, "occupy a 'key position' in the new Junior curriculum". 11South Australian Education Department, Circular to Heads of High Schools, 13: 67, The High School Curriculum. 1967 Progress Report No. 2, p. 3. 12South Australian Education Department, Circular to Heads of High Schools, 35:68, Possibilities of Experiment and Innovation in the Secondary Curriculum Further to Circular 33:68, 4s Authority in Schools", establishing that each principal "by delegated authority from the Minister and the Director-General, (is) in undisputed control of (the) school".f FollOwing this declaration the freedoms to be enjoyed.by the principal were elaborated, but, it will be noted, prefaced by a number of constraints: Within the broad framework of the Education Act, the general curriculum advised by the curriculum boards and approved by me as Director—General of ' Education, and the general policy set by the Director of your Division and communicated to you by circular, you have the widest liberty to vary courses, to alter the timetable, to decide the organization of the school and government within the school, to experiment with teaching methods, assessment of student achievement and in extra-curricular activities.13 The "Karmel Report" Of major significance to schools was the report of the Committee of Enquiry into Education in South Australia, entitled, "Education in South Australia" which was published in February, 1971.14 The report, prepared under the chairmanship of Professor P. Karmel, led to major changes in policy and organization. One change of importance to curriculum was the establishment of new Advisory Curriculum Boards which were more widely representative of interested groups than previously. Other developments included the further implementation of co-education and the establishment of comprehensive secondary schools. At the individual school level the reconstitution of school councils was a major development arising from the 13A.W. Jones, Director-General of Education, "Freedom and Authority 1n Schools", Education Gazette, Vol. 86 (September 1970) p.286. 14South Australia, Education in South Australia, Report of the Comm1ttee of Enquiry into Education in South Australia, 1969-1970. Adelaide. Government Printer, 1971. 46 Karmel report. Formerly school councils had been concerned with "questions relating to maintenance of buildings, sanitation and the like", but included in their new role were responsibilities relating to curriculum, suCh as: to consider in broad outline the general educational policy within the school, of which the head teacher shall keep the school council continuously infOrmed, and advise him of the considered view of the local community regarding educational development within the school.1 Open Plan Schools Both the philosophy emphasizing individual differences of pupils and the greater measure of autonomy granted individual schools in matters of curriculum and teaching methods placed additional demands upon existing resources. This was acknowledged by the Director of Secondary Education in a Circular to school principals thus: If the fixed nature of P.E.B. and University requirements are inra sense obstacles, there are also physical limitations standing in the way of our developments. We need many more teachers and more imaginative and innovative 16 teachers. We need more appropriate accommodation. The construction of new open-space schools and the introduction of open plan units to existing schools was in part a response to current educ- ational thinking concerning the desirability of flexibility and diversity in teaching methods. In their turn, once established, the open plan class- rooms and schools influenced developments in school organization, teaching 15cited in: School Based Decision—making, Report on the National Conference held in Sydney, June 1—4, 1977, Part II, Schools Commission 1978, p.73. 16South Australian Education Department, Circular to Heads of Secondary Schools, 4:71, InfOrmation Bulletin: January 1971. p.8. L“ m _.g,- 47 methods and curriculum. Several very significant measures were taken to ensure that the new open-space schools began on a sound fOoting. An unprecedented step was that of staffing the schools by advertising fOr applications, ensuring that only teachers claiming to be in harmony with the underlying philosophy of the new schools and likely to be flexible in approach would be considered for appointment. Further, inservice courses of three days' duration were held fer selected teachers from schools about to receive open-space units. The presentation of the possibilities of open-space schools at the conference of the newly appointed staff to the Para Hills and Para Vista schools has considerable significance in relation to the identification of factors promoting the acceptance of subject integration. The assembled staff had already been identified as willing to work closely with others, keen to innovate, and flexible in outlook. The open plan architecture of the new schools would, they were told: a) b) e) d) e) f) g) h) allow variable grouping of students make maximum use of teacher ability allow non-committal of buildings facilitate the student-centred approach cater for individual differences allow sharing of equipment assist integration of subjects encourage team-teaching.1 As these early schools were to serve as examples for open plan schools which were to be built subsequently, the acceptance of a policy fostering subject integration is of significance within an educational system in which it had been uncommon fOr subject boundaries to be crossed. In both of these initial open-space schools the single discipline sub- jects of geography and history did not feature as such in the curriculum 17These points were included in an overhead transparency forming part of an information kit used by Education Department officers to describe the open-space concept. 48 planning and in the junior school courses which eventuated. Several of the senior social science staff selected for these schools had teaching back- grounds in the technical high schools where social studies had always been the recognized social science subject in the junior school and in many of the senior school non Public Examination classes. The Public Examinations Board and Education Department policies have been identified as major influences upon curriculum within the state educational system. Although each Australian state is responsible for its own educational system, an increasing involvement of the Federal Government in education has necessitated the investigation of possible effects of Federal Government initiatives upon the provision of social studies within the South Australian state system. SECTION B - SOME FEDERAL INFLUENCES UPON SOCIAL STUDIES The Unesco Seminar In 1967 an Australian Unesco Seminar on the Teaching of the Social Sciences at Secondary Level was held at Burwood Teachers College, Victoria, in August—September. The Seminar was organized by the Commonwealth Office of Education (later called the Department of Education and Science) and the Australian Unesco Committee for Education. P.H. Partridge, the Director of the Seminar, described the purpose of the seminar as: broadly to consider the adequacy of present arrangements for social science teaching in Australian secondary schools, and to discuss ways in which it might be necessary fOr it to be expanded and improved.18 The conference was attended by about seventy invited educators, drawn from 18P.H. Partridge, The Teaching of Social Sciences in Secondary Schools, Supplement to Education Gazette, 83 (November 1967):9. r.- 'k 49 the six states. Those attending included key administrators and teachers nominated by the State Departments of Education, soCial scientists from relevant disciplines in the universities, lecturers from Teachers Colleges within the field of social science, some lecturers from university Departments of Education, and some representatives of independent schools. The remarks of the Secretary of the Department of Education and Science suggested that not only was the Commonwealth Government anxious that the seminar have a sustained impact upon social science teaching in the individual states, but also indicated that the Commonwealth Government would be responsive to subsequent requests for support. In opening the seminar the Secretary, Emeritus Professor Sir Hugh Ennor, stated: A major question which emerges is whether Australian education authorities, both governmental and independent, regard the problems you discuss here as important enough to justify their encouraging and supporting the groups that might emerge from your discussions so that we can have sustained collaboration in the preparation of courses, in experimental teaching in these courses and in the preparation of suitable books and materials. I hope the answer to this question will be yes, and I hope we will see requests emerging for cooperation on the part of the Department of Education and Science. I am sure that my Minister would find suCh requests encouraging.19 The suggestion fer holding the seminar arose from the Australian Unesco Committee fOr Education which is one of the twelve sub-committees of the Australian National Advisory Committees for Unesco. Professor W.F. Connell, Professor of Education at the University of Sydney, was a member of the Australian Unesco Committee fer Education and, aware of these 19Hugh Ennor, Secretary Department of Education and Science, in opening address to Australian Unesco Seminar in the Teaching of the Social Sciences, Education News, 11 (December 1967):4. 50 previous conferences and other developments that had taken place in Science education, proposed that the committee turn its attention to the condition of the social sciences in Australian secondary schools. As fOreshadowed in the remarks of the Secretary of the Department of Education and Science, the Burwood Seminar established the machinery where- by some developments in social science teaching could be planned and coordinated at the national level through the fermation of a National Committee on Social Science Teaching. More immediately following the seminar, State Working Parties were established, later to be known as State Advisory Committees. State Working Parties For each state the nucleus of what was to be an informal State Working Party was established at the Seminar, comprising the participants from that particular state, thus facilitating further developments when participants returned to their home States. In the case of South Australia this group was augmented with other persons drawn from the staffs of the universities, teachers colleges and secondary schools to fOrm an informal State Working Party. The Chairman of this committee was W. Thompson, Assistant Superintendent of Secondary Education, who had been one of the fOur Education Department representatives from South Australia at the Burwood Seminar. The fOrmation of this infOrmal Working Party had been assisted by the visit to South Australia of Professor Partridge (who also made similar visits to other states). Although the South Australian Director-General of Education was aware of the fermation of the committee and viewed the venture with approval, it was not until December, 1969, that an official State Working Party was constituted. This fOllowed the September meeting of the Conference of Directors-General at which they had reached agreement on the fbrming of 51 official State Working Parties. The composition of the first official South Australian Working Party demonstrates the significant influence that an initiative at the national level had upon what had been state curriculum committee policies. Whereas the Public Examination Board curriculum (committees, because of their relationship to university entry, had always included university personnel, membership of the Education Department curriculum committees had been restricted to teachers college personnel alone from the tertiary sector. The composition of the Working Party Committee indicates a far wider representation of interests than had form- erly been the case. The approved guidelines stated: The Committee is expected to draw its members from all secondary school and tertiary groups which are concerned to develop the teaching of Social Sciences in secondary Schools. Its membership may therefOre comprise members of Social Science staffs of Universities and Teachers Colleges, practising secondary school teachers of these subjects in Departmental and independent schools, inspectors, subject consultants and administrative officers of the Education Department of South Australia.20 The function of the Working Party is detailed in appendix N. The high status ascribed to this committee is apparent in that its reports were to be made direct to the Director-General of Education. Possibly fereshadowing the later appeals fer Commonwealth funding that were to be made, it was established that findings of the committee would be made available by the Director-General not only to all government secondary schools but also to independent schools. 20These guidelines appeared in a document, "South Australian Secondary School Social Science Teaching Project Committee", prepared by the Interim Working Party and approved by the newly constituted official Working Party. <‘ -. . u . . . , x . s g. . . . . 1 e. . . w .. . . .. .L e u . e - ~ I s o ‘ . . h d . . h e. U . 52 A National Strategy Following the Unesco seminar and the establishment of State Working Parties, meetings were held at the national level, comprising represent- atives from each State Working Party, to consider the planning of further developments. Mr. W.B. Brewer, an officer in the Curriculum Centre of the Tasmanian Education Department, and W.F. Connell were commissioned by this group to produce a "draft plan fer the development of Social Science. Curricula in Australia". The draft plan was to embody "the strategy, principles, and activities foreseen as necessary to any national attempt to influence the teaching of the social sciences in Australian secondary schools".21 This document indicated what would be required in terms of curriculum development, financial support, and committee structures at state and national level if the aim of enabling Australian secondary school pupils to gain an understanding Of contemporary society was to be achieved. Reference is made in the draft report to the need to involve teachers in all phases of the project. This principle underlay many of the activ- ities sponsored by the subsequently fOrmed National Committee. The influence of funding in assuring effective curriculum development was stressed in the draft plan thus: No attempt should be made to devise a structure that will rely on inadequate funds. Educators have recognized and, it is assumed, governments will recognize the deficiencies in the social education of our children, and that it lags behind the physical sciences and mathematics. Upon the availability of Federal and State funds rests the feasibility of the total project. Accordingly the cooperative nature of the project has been given emphasis... 21Australian National Advisory Committee fer Unesco, "Draft Plan fer the Development of Social Science Curricula in Australia", Canberra, 1969. 22Ibid., p.2. S3 A further consideration stated in the plan demonstrated that the sensitivity of individual states concerning their independence was well recognized. Further, it acknowledged that there was no intention to introduce a unifbrm curriculum throughout Australian schools. Thus it was considered essential: That nothing should be done that would infringe upon the autonomy of the State groups. The aim is to provide each State group, through ' cooperative action, with all the infOrmation it needs to develop the curriculum it requires. One of the further considerations listed in the document makes indirect reference to the way in which social studies had been perceived, acknowledging that:. Teachers and academics in the light of past experience are generally dubious about the value of integrating the social scienge disciplines into one course structure. 4 Later in the report the need to present a new image was suggested by the use of the term, "social sciences", rather than "social studies" in order to avoid obvious association with past endeavors and to match the spirit of the project. The Draft Report included a master plan of the kind of organization envisaged as necessary if the hopes of the Burwood Conference were to be realized. The plan included the establishment of an official National Social Science Teaching Project Committee, a National Project Executive Officer, and State Social Science Teaching Project Committees. It was proposed also that each State Education Department appoint a full-time 23Ibid. 24Ibid. .. cl S4 officer "to serve, guide, and assist the State Education Committees”. In South Australia, at the inaugural meeting of the official Social Science State Working Party in December, 1969, the appointment was announced by the Deputy Director-General of Education of a half-time Executive Officer ‘ (Mr. D.G. Tulloch). Thus an aspect of the Draft Plan which had been circulated to Directors-General of Education had been put into effect. At that meeting also, members of the State Working Party were infOrmed that the Conference of the Directors-General had agreed to the formation of a National Committee, an essential element of the Draft Plan. A National Committee In accordance with the strategy devised at the Burwood seminar, the Conference of the Directors-General approached the Commonwealth requesting the fbrmation of an official Committee on Social Science Teaching. The Commonwealth agreed to the establishment of the committee and accepted responsibility for providing funding and secretarial support essential to its operation. The composition of the committee that was finally decided upon was widely representative of interested parties. In addition to representatives of the State and Australian Departments of Education, it included nominees from the Academy of the Social Sciences, the National Council of Independent Schools, the Australian Teachers Federation, the Australian Council fer Educational Research and the Australian Broadcasting Commission. The first meeting of the National Committee took place in November, 1970, under the chairmanship of Professor W.F. Connell. Some Effects The National Committee on Social Science Teaching (N.C.S.S.T.) set out to influence social science teaching in schools through a wide range of carefully planned activities. 0‘; A series of research projects was commissioned. The first such project was conducted fer the N.C.S.S.T. by the Australian Council of Educational Research (A.C.E.R.). This project, comprising the production of criterion-referenced test instruments in the social sciences with an (associated teachers handbook, was commenced in June, 1973. The resultant materials and handbook, produced by Kevin Piper, were completed by 1977 and were made available to secondary schools throughout the Australian states.25 Support was provided through inservice conferences. The second major project comprised a national survey of teacher education courses in Australian institutions. This particular project was initiated by Irvine Nicholson who had been one of the South Australian delegates to the Burwood Seminar. Yet another project undertaken on behalf of the National Committee in 1973 was the study of concept formation in the social sciences.26 While recognizing the need to undertake basic research, the National Committee saw its role as also including the sponsorship of conferences at different educational levels. Thus a series of national conferences was held, eaCh conference being directed towards a different sphere of educational influence, such as key teachers, teacher educators, administ- rators and others. The initial conference, held in June 1972, addressed the problem of "the handling of controversial issues in schools" and, as 25Kevin Piper, Evaluation in the Social Sciences for Secondary Schools, Teachers Handbook, (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1976). Kevin Piper, Evaluation in the Social Sciences for Secondary Schools, Criterion Referenced Tests and Attitude Scales, (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1977). 26Margaret Jurd, A Critical Survey of Research on the Development of Social Science Concepts During Adolescence, Report prepared for the National Committee on Social Science Teaching. Research Paper No.1. (Canberra: Department of Education, 1973). 4 --u—. e .-.— .. ._——._-._ _ .....-.—_ -. _fi...‘.-.-. ~,_- "r 56 became the pattern for all such conferences, drew together key people from each of the states. Such conferences and workshops provided the opportun- ity for cooperative efforts between diverse people, Often in the production of guidelines or materials that were later made available to each state education department and to the independent schools. Through the national conferences those attending gained a far wider perspective and deeper understanding of social science teaching than would have been possible through purely local conferences. Further conferences were held in the fellowing year. In 1974 the National Committee sponsored two conferences, concerned with innovative approaches to social science teaching, which were seen as complementary - one relating to preservice education, and the other concerned with in- service education. The purpose of the National Committee in sponsoring these conferences is reflected in the planning of a conference for in-service educators: It is intended that this workshop should consider what could be most productive in bringing about attitudinal change in teachers, particularly in relation to initiatives which have been taken by the N.C.S.S.T. in relation to: integrated social science courses; the handling of controversial social issues; the ruse of teaching strategies involving "new" social research techniques; and the possible outcome of the major research projects on concept fOrmation and evaluation. 7 The National Conferences enabled participants to establish inter- state contacts, both fOrmal and informal. An interaction of some import- ance also occurred between the specialists who were brought in as 27National Committee on Social Science Teaching, Annual Report No.1, Report to Education Authorities, December, 1973, p.7. ti S7 presenters of papers, advisers to workshops, or as general consultants. Through taking an active part in the program of several national conferences, leaders in the field of social science teaching in the various states became well—known to each other and thus the way was paved for further, and often sustained, personal inter-communication. In 1975, after the completion of the series of inter-related national conferences, the National Committee proceeded with another phase of conference activity organized on a regional basis. The emphasis in the new series of conferences was upon the actual teachers-working in the social sciences within a particular region, rather than fOcusing upon key people within the different states. The Social Education Materials Project (S.E.M.P.) The National Committee on Social Science Teaching through national and regional conferences sought to heighten administrators' and teachers' awareness of the purpose and potential of social science teaching. It became clear to the Project Officers in each state that if effective pupil learning were to take place, appropriate resource materials must be made available for classroom use. In 1971 the National Committee had established a subcommittee comprising the State Project Officers. This subcommittee initiated a study of secondary school courses,resulting in a report, entitled "Social Science Courses in Australia - A Correlation Survey". Eighteen topic areas were identified, common to each of the states, in which there were gross deficiencies in the quantity and suit- ability of resource materials currently available. It was feund that: 58 Must of the materials that were available in these areas were merely descriptive and did not provide students with a range of data from which they could draw their own conclusions. Most did not deal with the dynamics of relationships. 28 On the baSis of the findings of the survey, the Committee considered materials development to be a major priority and that there should be a national centre fer the production of such. This need, expressed by the N.C.S.S.T., led to the Australian Government's decision to establish an independent Curriculum Development Centre (C.D.C.) that would fulfil a wide range of curriculum development functions. The Curriculum Development Centre was established with an Interim Council in June, 1973, but legislation to establish the C.D.C. as an independent statutory body was not passed until July 1975. The first national project engaged in by the C.D.C. was the Social Education Materials Project (S.E.M.P.) which had been initiated by the National Committee on Social Science Teaching. Upon the establishment of the Curriculum Development Centre, the N.C.S.S.T. submitted a proposal that eight areas become the fOcus for unit preparation. These areas had been identified as being of high priority by surveys conducted by the Project Officers in their own states. Examples included, "Community Study", "Urbanism", "Government and Decision-Making 29 Processes", and "Social Control and Conflict". As reported in the proposal and in the advertisement for staff in the South Australian Education Gazette: 28Curriculum Development Centre, "The Social Education Materials Project Proposed by the National Committee on Social Science Teaching in Secondary Schools, May, 1974" (Canberra: Curriculum Development Centre, 1974) p.2. 29Ibid. 59 All states in Australia (were) to contribute personnel angoresources to develop particular top1c areas. - Thus the Education Departments of the individual states were committed as partners from the outset, a strategy that facilitated the obtaining of specialist assistance from within each state, ensured continuous and close support, and enabled the involvement of many teachers at the "grass roots" level, which was one of the major aims of the project. The Various phases of the project, which included trialling and evaluation of materials provided opportunities for the involvement of educators from a range of levels. Further, when the finished products were ready fer publication, commercial publishers were involved in the production of materials which were already known to be relevant to schools' needs. N.C.S.S.T. Research Grants In addition to the major research projects sponsored by the N.C.S.S.T the Committee decided to encourage small-scale local research. In 1973-74 $25,000 was set aside in the N.C.S.S.T. budget for grants of up to $1,000. Although this amount of financial support was small, it was sufficient to encourage many teachers in each state to consider the possibility of under- taking projects within their local situations. In each state the Advisory Committee, referred to earlier, played a part in the evaluation of the submitted proposals. Publications The organization of conferences and the sponsoring of research activity in the social sciences have been complemented by the publication and dissemination role of the National Committee. A variety of 30"Social Education Materials Project (SEMP)", Education Gazette 2 (October 1974): 3. ‘1 60 publications was produced, some fOr distribution to libraries Of tertiary institutions, while others were produced for circulation to individual schools. Copies of the reports of the individual conferences were circulated throughout Australia to what were considered to be relevant individuals and institutions. Limited quantities of inservice workshop materials which had been designed at one of the national conferences were produced and distributed to the Education Departments in each state for use with their teaChers. The newsletter, "Social Science", issued several times a year by the National Committees, was designed to inform individual schools of developments in social science teaching and to make them aware of opportunities for involvement. The Australian Council for Educational Research (A.C.E.R.) Some contributions of the Australian Council for Educational Research to the development of the social sciences in Australia have already been identified in this study. The survey commissioned by the Australian Unesco Committee for Education, for example, provided data concerning the teaching and status of the social sciences in Australian schools. The project, "Evaluation in the Social Sciences", was undertaken fer the N.C.S.S.T. Since its establishment in 1930 (as a result of a Carnegie grant) the A.C.E.R. has either initiated or been commissioned to carry out a number of projects which have been directly related to, and indeed had an influence upon, social science teaching in schools. Because of the shared funding arrangements fer A.C.E.R. between the Commonwealth government and the states, the projects are general rather than local in fOcus. In 1969 A.C.E.R. set up the National Information Centre fer Social Studies Education on a grant from the Myer Foundation. The intention was to establish a clearing-house for information on social science curricula t" ’. 61 and teaching. During the relatively short period that it operated (1969- 1971), infOrmation reports and evaluation reports on social science materials were distributed to schools and other relevant educational institutions. The A.C.E.R. has had an indirect effect on social science teaching through its involvement in the mid-1960's in the preparation of examination papers fer the Commonwealth Scholarship Examinations which were taken by children in their third year at secondary school. Because of the marked variation between states in the courses offered in the schools and the need to set a common examination, questions were devised which drew upon a range of abilities other than the mere recollection of memorized material. It is the opinion of the research officer responsible for the Humanities paper at that time that these examination questions "had some influence on what schools did, the way schools thought about what they were teaching, too".31 In Chapter Two, reference was made to Piper's study, "Essential Learning About Society". This research project illustrates some aspects of A.C.E.R.‘s operation and its inter-relationship with other government agencies. The suggestion that such a study Should be undertaken arose from an A.C.E.R. staff seminar concerned with the examination of the nature and implications of the Karmel Report - "Schools in Australia", which was 32 published in 1973. Within the report there appeared fairly continuous emphasis upon the kind of education that children need to enable them to 31Interview with Kevin Piper, Melbourne, 9/6/80. 32Report of the Interim Committee for the Australian Schools Commission, P. Karmel, Chairman, (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1973). 62 become full and effective participants in society., It was recognized that insufficient was known about what the requirements fer full and effective participation in society were. Thus a research proposal was prepared by Kevin Piper who submitted it to the Educational Research and Development Council, a Commonwealth government funding body. The proposal was accepted and the project undertaken. In its turn, the "Essential Learning About Society" project led to a further research project undertaken by A.C.E.R. - "Curriculum Style and Social Learning", published in 1979.33 The Schools Commission As indicated above, the report, "Schools in Australia", published in 1973, was concerned with the nature of the educational opportunity and the kind of education that children were receiving. An important result of the report was the establishment of the Schools Commission in 1973. This became yet another source of Commonwealth funds for individual schools wishing to introduce innovative projects. Many projects were undertaken by schools in a variety of fields including the social sciences, bringing benefit to the schools concerned and having a more widespread effect when the results were appropriate for dissemination to other schools. Among other important effects of the Schools Commission has been the impetus that it has given to the notion of school-based decision-making within the individual states. A national conference relating to this topic was sponsored jointly by the Schools Commission and the state education authorities in June, 1977, reflecting the increased interest of the Commonwealth in education at the local level.34 33Kevin Piper, Curriculum Style and Social Learning, ACER Research Monograph No.4, (Hawthorn, Victoria: Australian Council for Educational Research, 1979). 34The conference, "School-Based Decision-Making", was held in Sydney, June 1-4, 1977. 63 Influence from Overseas Throughout the period under consideration Australian educators have visited and observed other educational systems including those within Great Britain and the United States while others have studied in instit- utions in those countries.35 Noted social studies educators from overseas have visited the Australian states and have consulted with administrators and addressed conferences and other meetings of teachers. In recent years such well-known social studies educators as Lawrence Senesh, Jack Fraenkel and Richard Gross have spent periods of time in Australia. Summary In this chapter constraints and possibilities relating to the place of social studies in the curricula of secondary schools in South Australia have been considered at two levels. AS education is a state responsibility the control over curriculum exercised by the South Australian Education Department has been examined with particular reference to social studies. Recognizing the increasing involvement of the Commonwealth in education, the context has then been broadened to demonstrate national influences upon curriculum decisions both by the state Education Department and by individ- ual schools. It is within the broad field of constraints and possibilities identified within this chapter that individual schools have decided whether or not to accept social studies into their curricula. As the nature of social studies may be recognized as a major consideration in a school's decision to include the subject within the curriculum, its changing nature during the period, 1950-1977, is examined in the fOllowing chapter. 35For example, on return from a visit, an article by K.E. Barter, "Social Studies American Style - What of South Australia?” Education Gazette, 77 (May 1961): 107-108. O 1 cl ‘O . ‘i'e 64 CHAPTER FIVE. THE CHANGING NATURE OF_SOCIAL STUDIES. The present chapter provides data relating to the nature of social studies within South Australian secondary education during the period, 1950 ~1977. The key components of social studies identified by the National Council for the Social Studies will be employed as a standard of reference, namely, Knowledge, Abilities, Valuing, and Social Participation. The New Education Fellowship Conference A consideration of the period 1950-1977 must include the recognition of certain prior occurrences of significance to social studies within the curriculum. One such event, seen by some as "a landmark in the history of Australian education" was the New Education Fellowship conference held in 1937 within each of the Australian states.1 Speakers at this conference comprised twenty-one leading educationists from overseas, including I.L. Kandel and Harold Rugg from the United States of America and Sir Cyril Norwood from Great Britain. In reviewing the effect of the conference, Frank Tate, the President of the Australian Council for Educational Research, commented that the realization dawned that Australia "had failed to keep up with (the) forward movement and to adapt (her) school system to 1The proceedings of the New Education Fellowship conference held in Australia August 1 to September 20, 1937,are reported in: K.S. Cunningham, ed. assisted by W.C. Radford, Education for Complete Living - The Challenge of Today, (Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research, 1938). Frank Tate in the introduction to the report refers to the conference as a "landmark". p.iv. 9 ti 65 . . 2 the necessities of a rap1dly chang1ng world". The conference, taking place at a time of world turmoil, focused upon enhancement of the quality of life within a democratic society and considered the implications for teachers of educating pupils for respon- sible citizenship. An English educator at the conference, F.C. Happold, in calling for a re-examination of the curriculum, considered the "social" as one element needing emphasis.. Thus he claimed that this aspect of curriculum should be: framed to give the pupil a body of essential knowledge about the world in which he lives in relation to its origin, and to train him in mental alertness and clear thinking. It may be called the introduction to heritage and environment, and will supplant that group of kindred studies which traditional practice has divided into history, geography, economics and literature. In a further address presented to the conference Happold considered the nature of social studies and its place in the curriculum: Social studies is not a new subject added to an already overcrowded curriculum, but a fresh orientation and grouping of existing subjects. Its introduction into the curriculum involves the abolition of the old divisions between history, geography, economics, and, to some extent, English literature, and their combination in a new synthesis. ,..... The primary object of social studies is to enable the child to understand the world into which it will go, and is thus fundamentally a training for citizenship. Its concentration is on the present, but, since the present is not understandable except in relation to its origins, also includes a study of the past. 2K.S. Cunningham ed., Education for Complete Living - The Challenge of Today, p.170. 3Ibid., p. 185. 66 Social studies also aim at training in thinking and-in the use of tools. Through them the pupil is trained in oral and written expression, in the use of books, in the collection, correlation and arrangement of facts and ideas, and in clear, logical, unprejudiced thought.4 Although the New Education Fellowship Conference of 1937 did not have an immediately discernible effect upon official courses of the Education Department, it clearly influenced a number of educators who subsequently experimented in freeing up the curriculum within their own schools. D.D. Harris, a teacher at King's College at the time, wrote an article in "New Horizons in Education", describing some of these developments which took place fellowing the conference.5 Harris in later years became well- known and respected fer his contributions to curriculum development and was invited to serve on various curriculum committees. In his article he acknowledged the ideas which had been presented by F.C. Happold at the N.E.F. conference. .Harris argued persuasively for the introduction of social studies, referring to the success of the "Eight Year Study" in the United States which had shown that students were not disadvantaged by undertaking a life-oriented flexible curriculum with social studies a prominent subject. Thus Harris declared: The South Australian experimenters are convinced that the examination system, though often made an excuse, does not prevent teachers doing a great deal more than most of them do at present. A course can easily be planned to cover the first fOur years of high school in such a way that (i) the bulk of the social studies work is allotted to the first two years, and (ii) pupils who do not complete fOur years at high school can still receive a course intelligible and interesting in itself.6 4Ibid., p.344. sD.D. Harris, "Education of a Democrat", New Horizons in Education, 3 (October 1943):23. 6Ibid., pp.24-25. 67 Harris claimed that: two periods daily could be allocated to social studies in the first and second years. These will take the place of history and geography, and may necessitate curtailing mathematics and formal language work as well. Harris referred to the effectiveness of the methods which Happold had described at the N.E.F. conference, commenting that they had "been tried out in South Australia and proved to arouse great interest"? The syllabus suggested by Harris in his article supported his contention that: the aim is to encourage the study of man's environment in such a way that his problems and experience shall be understood in relation to a background of historical and geographical cause andeffect.9 Subject Claims Upon the Curriculum In the years fOllowing the N.E.F. conference the world war heightened educators' awareness of their responsibilities to provide a curriculum appropriate to the needs of the times. An article was included in "The Education Gazette" Of October, 1942, demonstrating how geography could meet the new societal objectives that were generally expected of post-war 10 curricula. The article concluded: By its very nature geography is seen as a fecal subject capable of making a valuable contribution towards the concept of the oneness of knowledge and as a healthy corrective to unrelated specialization. 1 71bid., p.26. 31bid. 9Ibid., p.23. 10"Geography in Schools", Education Gazette, 59 (October 1943):202. 1lIbId. e 0' 68 History also was stoutly defended in "The Education Gazette" through the inclusion of appropriate extracts from other publications. An article entitled, "The Place of History in the Curriculum", in the issue of October, 1949, introduced selected extracts from G.M. Trevelyan's "An Autobiography and Other Essays" in these terms: Because of a general dissatisfaction with the old history courses, schools everywhere have been experimenting with social Studies. There is some uneasiness apparent among the most thoughtful of our teachers. In our haste to study contemporary life, we may have lost something of great value - a knowledge of our inheritance from the past.12 Course Developments in Social Studies That social studies had become Officially recognized as a possible subject for selection in a student's first or second year of high school study was acknowledged by its inclusion as a Departmental course in the relevant section of "The Education Gazette", August, 1944. A brief explanatory statement appended in the following year, illustrated the close relationship that was perceived between social studies and history, and also specified the role of geography: Social studies is an attempt to develop in students an awareness of their own environment through a study of the past, particularly through a picturization of the life of common people in the past and as seen against a geographical background. At all times, therefore, life in the past should be set against life now.1 The emphasis in the course statement lies more in content than in process, with particular attention being paid to the local area and to 12"The Place of History in the Curriculum", Education Gazette, 65 (October 1949): 191. 13”Books for First and Second Year High School Students, 1946”, Education Gazette, 61 (August 1945): 174. a '. er or 69 ancient-modern world comparisons. Although the document declares that "assignments on local topics can_be given or surveys made", there appears to be no deliberate intention that children will develop the enquiry skills of the social scientist or be caused to engage in valuing activities, The potential contributions of literature, art and other fields of know- ledge and expression are not specified in the course notes as sources of ideas and experiences. Until 1948 Social studies had not been available to pupils at the Intermediate Public Examination level. The course statement fer social studies when it appeared in the Public Examinations Board Manual of 1947 indicated that the subject was intended to be more than geography, history and civics. Thus: The course in Social Studies is designed to give the child an insight into the society in which he lives, and to equip him to take his proper place in it. Emphasis will therefore be placed not only upon the privileges which a member of society enjoys, but also on the duties which he owes to that society. Social Studies should not be a mere aggregation of Geography, History, Economics and Politics. The key to Social Studies is social relationships. The function of the special studies of Geography, History, Economics and Politics is to illuminate and explain the social relationships which obtain in the society in which we live; nor should the provinces of Art and Religion be forgotten.14 As in the Departmental courses which led to it, providing the first and second years of social studies, this course accepted that "fruitful lessons can be learnt from the earliest civilizations”. The course drew attention also to the importance of the understanding of how man's basic needs are met, the working of government, Australia's neighbouring 14University of Adelaide, Manual of the Public Examinations Board 1947 Part I, (AdelaidezGriffin Press): p.54. .‘i v, 70 countries, and "a broad knowledge of the special features of Australia, together with the problems they entail".15 Although the course as stated recognized the contributions that social sciences could make to a study of society, the area of ”abilities" as defined in the N.C.S.S. Guidelines referred to in chapter one of this study was not specified as important. Similarly neglected was mention of valuing processes useful in examining problems likely to be confronted when gaining "an insight into the society in which (the child) lives". A report by Ronald Harper provides an insight into the way in which social studies was viewed by at least one South Australian educator in the early 1950's.16 Harper depicted social studies thus: 1) Social Studies is a method which makes use of the fbrce, child interest. 2) Social Studies also involves a content, the integrated body of knowledge concerning man in his full social environment. 3) Its aim is happy, hardworking children who are requiring integrated knowledge, skills and attitudes; who are led by interest to work at the limit of their individual ability, neither in the shadows above or below.17 He acknowledges in his study the importance of the N.E.F. conference held in South Australia and the influences of overseas educators upon his 18 .thinking. With reference to social studies in the curriculum Harper con- siders that "in practice, the specialist is the greatest handicap to social study and integration in the High Schools”.19 151bid. 16T.R.G. Harper, "The Method of Social Studies", A Report in relation to a year's work at the London Institute of Education, 1951, typescript. 17Ibid., p.88. 18Ibid., p.1. and appendix p.2. 19Ibid., p.6. C l I! (Ill "I.lllllrllll .I" 71 The Technical Schools While social studies was far from widespread throughout the first three years of high school, within the technical school curriculum social studies was recognized as an appropriate subject for all students. In many instances, however, it was a combination of geography and history which proved far from satisfying for some teachers, a frustration described by one teacher thus: A lot of us were angry because we were teaching a veiled history course with ”up Britain, wave the flag!" and a bit of geography thrown in on the side.2 The nature of the social studies courses taught depended largely upon the calibre of the individual teachers and the attitudes of the individual senior staff member responsible for the oversight of the subject in a particular school. Thus technical schools from their inception had considerable freedom in the determination of their curricula, a freedom that in the late 1950's led to many teachers ignoring the Departmental courses and substituting other material, with mixed success. David Tulloch in reviewing this period of the late 1950's declared that: . the subject known in Technical High Schools as Social Studies was beginning to get for itself a very unfavourable name, and often as not the teaChers teaching this subject were pleasing themselves as to what they taught, so dissatisfied were they with the subject matter. The course was basically a bringing together Of parts of ancient history and the history and geography of South Australia and Australia, which were, at the best, only slightly related, and at the worst were taken “as completely separate segments of the course. 20Interview with Erica Jolly, Adelaide, 18/5/80. 21David Tulloch, Paper delivered at Education Department of South Australia Inservice Training Conference. No.49. First Year Social Studies, Technical High Schools, March, 1969, p.1. cl 'r' I D ‘ A . n p" U ‘ A 4 l I I ’ n . o 1 O n . o . _ a . ‘ f . Q ~ . . u I . u . u . . . . . . . . s u ‘ P. . . x o \ s m l , . .u . o . Q . SJ \ O u ‘ l‘ v ' 72 TeaChers who had been vocal concerning the inadequacies of the current social studies courses and had put different ideas into practice within their own schools were well-known to the subject inspectors through the regular school visits. Thus when a social studies subject committee was fermed in 1961 on the initiative of M.H. Bone, then Assistant Super- intendent of Technical Schools, it contained several people who had been identified as interested in the furthering of social studies and who remained influential for many years in the development of the subject within technical schools. The committee included Joan Young (chairman), Erica Jolly, David Tulloch, Ron Geekie, Bryce Saint and Ford Lemmey.22 A new syllabus was issued by the social studies committee in 1964. The theme ... was the understanding of the community, how it functioned, and its supporting services and resources. It also introduced the idea, which some teachers had been using privately, of starting from the home area and gradually moving into parts further and further away; i.e. a concentric arrangement of the syllabus. Thus the students commenced by study- ing their own local area, and then progressively moved outwards to a study of the state, the nation and then overseas areas. In terms of the four major components of the N.C.S.S. social studies model the above syllabus was heavily weighted towards knowledge; in fact the crowded nature of the course proved to be one of its major deficiencies in that if all topics were to be covered, this could only be achieved in a superficial way. Far less emphasis was given to the development of abilities than to content in the syllabus. The extent to which "valuing" was engaged in depended largely upon the individual teacher and specific valuing strategies were not delineated. 22Ibid., p.2. 231bid., p.3. .. 4:! up "n 73 Although minor modifications were made to the 1964 syllabus, it remained fairly unchanged until a revised syllabus was presented to schools in 1969. As had been the case with respect to the high schools, the Burwood Unesco conference, referred to in chapter four, had a major impact upon curriculum thinking. The conference had examined ways by which a wider range of social science disciplines could contribute towards the secondary curriculum through an integrated social science subject. Concepts from sociology, economics, politics and social psychology, for example, along with the already established geography and history, could be employed in the pursuit of a theme such as "Man in the modern, democratic, industrial society"., David Tulloch, the Chairman of the Technical High Schools Curriculum Committee at the time, attended this conference and later suggested to the committee that a re-orientation of focus from "community" to Australian society and the introduction of case-studies rather than attempts at complete coverage of countries would solve many curriculum problems currently being faced by the existing social studies course.24 In 1969 a new curriculum was issued,constructed on an essentialy’ sociological framework and drawing upon concepts from a range of other social science disciplines. Focused upon the structure and function of 'society, the course proceeded by the examination of groups of differing size and complexity. This kind of approach was very similar to that adopted by the high school courses which had also been strongly influenced by the Burwood conference through the contributions of state representa- tives who had attended it. Irvine Nicholson, a lecturer in social science at the then Western Teachers College, one of these representatives, acted 24Ibid. 74 as an adviser to both the Technical School Social Studies Committee and the High School Committee of which he was a member. With a background in sociology he was able to provide essential curriculum guidance and support through inservice activity. The Alternative Course in High Schools As indicated in chapter fbur a major development in high schools with respect to social studies (apart from that in the Public Examinations Intermediate) was the Alternative Course Social Studies introduced in 1963, essentially fer children of lesser academic ability. The nature of the course recognized that the background of many teachers was limited to the disciplines of history or geography or to both of these subjects. Compulsory sections on Government and the Local Area were established, but fer the remaining section of the course the school could select either a history-biased or a geography-biased component. The history section comprised a Choice of Australian or British history. In either instance the aims were to study the development of community life and to relate this to present day circumstances. The geography section focused upon the relationship between the community and the environment. With the introduction of the Alternative Course social studies now became recognized as a sUbject within the curriculum of many high schools. It became an accepted responsibility of the senior master or senior mistress in history or geography to oversee the teaching of the subject in the school, whereas previously the senior's subject responsibility had not extended in the social science area further than the narrow subject discipline. A direct effect of the Social Studies Alternative Course upon the High School Curriculum was the recommendation in 1964 that the Government section from that course become part of the curriculum for all pupils in 75 their First and Second Year course. This was made mandatory in the fellowing year. The Government course could be covered either in a concentrated series of lessons or spread out throughout the year. It was generally intended that the course be associated either with the history or geography courses currently being taught in that year. Thus in a number of schools the concept of the narrow single subject discipline was, of necessity, modified to some extent. Social Studies in the Junior Secondary Curriculum The decision to discontinue the Public Examinations Board examination at the third year level of high school, announced to take effect from 1969, meant the removal of what had often been claimed as a major obstacle to curriculum development in the early years of high school. A further effect of all courses becoming internally examined in the first three years of high school was that the previous distinction between Alternative and Public Examination courses would no longer apply. The Education Department's newly fermulated concept of a Junior Secondary Curriculum as distinct from a Senior School Curriculum, which was discussed in chapter four, was conducive to the introduction of social _studies in the early years of the high school. W. Thompson, Assistant Superintendent of Secondary Education at the time, when speaking about the Education Department's new social studies course, referred to how the Junior Secondary Curriculum "endeavours to avoid subject specialization in the first three years (although it is acknowledged that this is not completely possible in (the) present situation)".25 Thompson described the 25W. Thompson, Inservice Course, May 20-21, 1968, Sociology for Teachers of Social Studies, Western Teachers College. In High Schools Social Studies News Bulletin, No.2. p.3. .. ‘1 76 emergence of social studies within the Junior Secondary Curriculum in these terms: It is understandable that in this kind of educational climate and in our current world situation there is a realisation that people need a better understanding of the communities in which they and other men live and consequently there has been a renewed interest in the subject which we have to date called Social Studies. 6 Thompson's statement that "social studies" may not necessarily always be the most appropriate name for the course indicates the very considerable influence of the Unesco Conference of 1967 upon the new social studies course as it was being developed during that year. The Unesco Seminar, at which Thompson had been one of the South Australian representatives, had emphasized the contribution that a range of social sciences could make to the study of society and, as reported by Thompson: decided that it was possible and desirable to teach more of this subject matter in secondary schools and that it was possible to integrate or fuse these elements into a single subject called "Social Science" which will be a richer study of social issues and will have a genuine claim to be considered a science because of the methods used. Although the name, "social science", did not replace "social studies", the .South Australian course did draw upon a range of social science disciplines and stressed the method of enquiry adopted by the social scientist. This represented a re-orientation in the way social studies was perceived and presented in curriculum statements. As was the case with the new Technical High School social studies course, which had been subject to similar influences, sociology provided the framework upon which the course was constructed. 26Ibid., p.4. 271bid., p.5. .. £1 77 An early statement of the proposed high schools social studies course as distributed to schools in 1967, declared as the aim of the course to: encourage students to enquire into and appreciate their roles as responsible Australian citizens: to develop attitudes, skills and interests basic both to this purpose and to further studies in Social Sciences. Further work by the curriculum committee led to subsequent revisions of the course which reflected a more tightly organized sociological framework. As in the case of the Technical Schools, the course fecused upon groups and followed a concentric pattern, considering the family, the local area, a country town, the country region, the metropolitan area, the state, Australia (which comprised the second year of study) within a world setting and finally, the world setting. The course that developed had within it a good measure of the components identified in the N.C.S.S. Guidelines model which is being con- sidered as a frame of reference in this study. It is evident in the curriculum statement that Knowledge, Abilities, Valuing and Participation were recognized as important by those responsible fer the development of the curriculum .Although it was left to the National Workshop on Handling Controversial Issues to demonstrate specific techniques for examining value questions, the responsibility fer facing them within the course was openly acknowledged. Thompson, at the inservice conference for teachers of the new social studies course declared: The introduction of some Social Studies items will bring us into the realm of controversy because we shall at times be compelled to deal 28Social Studies Syllabus for First and Second Year High School Students. typescript. p.1. .. ‘1 78 with topics which are matters of opinion, rather than objective fact or basic community responsibilities.29 ‘ He then proceeded to suggest how such topics could be approached in the classroom, including the advice that the teacher must ensure: that the students are given the right to form their own opinions and are not asked to accept the teacher's or to feel themselves under pressure to accept a class finding that appears popular and accepted on an emotional rather than a rational basis.30 Reorganizations of the structure of the South Australian Education Department in 1969 brought the High Schools, Technical High Schools and Area Schools under a single control. An amalgamation of the curriculum committees of the High Schools and Technical High Schools was accompanied by the production of a common social studies course for secondary schools. This was facilitated by the similarity of the courses in both aims and approaCh. In the fellowing years intensive course development was undertaken by the social studies curriculum committee, resulting in the distribution to schools in 1974 of a very detailed statement of intention for social studies in secondary schools. It is clear from the curriculum statement that social studies was envisaged to impinge upon all four components of the model incorporated within the N.C.S.S. Guidelines. Social studies was seen to have the following characteristics: Social Man: The major concern of the subject is with man as a social being, as he has existed through time and as he has been influenced by his culture. 29W. Thompson, Inservice Course, May 20-21, 1968, p.6. 3olbid. ct .4 79 Relevance: The major emphasis of the subject is, the'development of an understanding of contemporary society and the forces that are shaping the lives of the people in that society. Seeial Competence: A resultant, secondary emphasis is the promotion of an informed and reasonable participation in social processes. Durability: A third important emphasis is on the learning process or skill-development, with the ultimate aim of helping to create an independent learner.31 A feature of the course statement was the prominence given to key ideas from a range of social science disciplines. The concepts and generalizations considered relevant to the course Were listed in relation to anthropology, economics, geography, history, politics, psychology and sociology. Also emphasized was an enquiry approach with a very detailed specification of requisite skills. Social Studies Courses in the Senior School Following the abolition of the Intermediate examination and the introduction of a three year social studies course for high schools it was apparent that a feurth year course should be provided fer students who were not continuing on to take the Public Examinations Board Matriculation Examination in their fifth year. Thus a course was introduced and the current Fourth Year Alternative Course was discontinued. The new fourth year social studies course focused attention upon three major themes, namely, urban Societies, World Food and Population, and Emerging Nations. With increasing numbers of students staying at secondary school fer a fifth year, it became necessary for some individual schools to offer a fifth year internal course. In 1975 a Year 12 Secondary Schools Certificate (S.S.C.) course was develOped by a group of teachers. It was 31South Australian Education Department, Syllabus of Social Studies fer Secondary Schools, 1974. Preface. ti 8O claimed that: Basically, the course seeks to help (students) to develop the knowledge and skills necessary for them to more comfortably and more actively participate in the "outside world".32 Areas of objectives were those of: 1) identifying and clarifying values and attitudes 2) developing social skills (in the areas of decision-making and group process) 3) developing enquiry skills necessary to acquiring an understanding of society.3 By October 1977, this course existed in some form in as many as thirty—two South Australian schools.34 The question of a Public Examination course in Social Science arose several times during the 1970's, but was not I resolved. Further Course Development Following the introduction of the revised syllabus of social studies for secondary schools in 1974 the curriculum committee produced an accompanying teachers handbook which was designed to: give practical assistance to the teacher by making suggestions concerning methods which could be used, ways of developing course segments, and resources which are available and suitable for use.35 In 1976 a Principal Education Officer, Dr. Malcolm McArthur, was appointed by the Education Department and given responsibility for the 32Extract from a statement issued by The State Project Office, "A Year 12 P.E.B. Social Science”, typescript, October, 1977. p.1. 33Ibid., p.2. 34Ibid., p.1. 35South Australian Education Department, A Teachers Handbook on Social Studies for Secondary Schools, 1975. p.2. 0‘; 81 oversight primarily, of Social Studies, Religious Education and Health Education. He considered that the Social Studies Curriculum Committee lacked a unified position concerning the primary aims of social studies. Within the committee he identified what he called firstly, the concepts people; secondly, the values people; thirdly, the keep it simple people (the practitioner stance); fourthly, the sequence people (related to the previous group); and finally the skills people who felt that a curriculum statement should comprise a list of skills.36 The difficulty lay not in the nature of the beliefs but in the conflicting emphases which made consensus decision-making difficult or well -nigh impossible. Reflecting the fact that no one consistent approach was advocated by the committee was the production in 1976 of the book, "Three Interpretations", which demonstrated to teachers alternative ways of preparing a program of study. These comprised: Intercultural Studies - designed to bring students to an awareness of lifestyles other than their own and to help students appreciate the variety of solutions to basic human problems. Multidisciplinary Approach - perspectives on social functions and problems from a range of social sciences including, among others, anthropology, politics, history and sociology. Fused Discipline Model - The fusion model is study built upon essential concepts of the social sciences.37 Although these books were widely distributed to schools, they were not widely used.38 36Interview with Dr. Malcolm McArthur, Adelaide, 12/5/80. 37Education Department of South Australia, Three Interpretations: High Schools Social Studies Junior Curriculum, Adelaide, 1976, p.3. 38Interview with Dr. M. McArthur, Adelaide, 12/5/80. .. ‘1 82 The Social Studies Curriculum Committee recognized the need for a revised curriculum. The Chairman of the committee described the situation thus: There was a clear consensus that we needed clear guidelines which the ordinary teacher in a school could understand. We needed to think in terms of Year 8 to 12 continuity so we had a clear picture linked to kids' growing needs - that is social studies over a five year span, with a strong emphasis upon developmental tasks and social development. We hadn't looked at it this way before.39 It was recognized that there was a need fer one clear statement and an acknowledgement that although concepts and skills would still be emphasized, the framework should contain sufficient content for teachers to understand the overall pattern. In October, 1977, a draft statement was issued of a "suggested interpretation of the existing Secondary Social Studies Syllabus".40 In this document social studies was stated to be ”concerned with the social behaviour, social processes, social values and social institutions which show man (women and men) as a social animal". The "recommended emphases" in the curriculum guide are in harmony with the N.C.S.S. model, used as a frame of reference in this study. These emphases included: 1. The inquiry approach is basic to the study of society. 2. Skills and values are an integral part of the Studies undertaken at each year level. 3. An intercultural approach to the study of society (using infermation about other cultures as a lever toward understanding our own) should be strongly emphasized throughout. 39Ibid. 40 . . Secondary Soc1al Studies Course Outline Years 8-11, South Australian Secondary Social Studies Curriculum Committee. October, 1977, p.3. I‘i or. u u ‘D OJ 4. It is hoped that the learner may move from a basic egocentric, individual perspective toward an integrated "world view". 5. It is hoped that the learner will move from a position of "passive" social observation toward 41 becoming an active participant in his/her society. (The kind of program organization suggested in the guidelines document was thematic, focusing upon "basic human activities" and contain— . . 42 ing particular year emphases. Under the heading of "Social Education", a term that was to become far more prominent in curriculum development in the following year/the committee's guideline document declared: The content of many existing curriculum areas must eventually be coordinated to overcome repetition and inconsistency. Social Studies may accommodate many areas of study currently ferming parts of English, Home Economics, Geography, History, Health Education, Religious Education, Commerce, Career Education and Aboriginal Studies courses. Liaison between all these areas is encouraged, but, particularly to the end that Social Studies is a way of presenting many areas in an integrated, holistic way, instead of arti- ficially compartmentalising information and hence, the learner's perception of reality.43 In August of 1977 the Curriculum Directorate of the Education Department officially approved the exploration of means of closer coordination of sudh areas of the curriculum as Social Studies, Health Education, Religious Education, Consumer Education, and Career Education?4 411bid., p.9. 421bid., p.11. 43Ibid., p.9. 44M.A. O'Brien, in Preface to : Patterns. A Guide for Curriculum Planners of Programmes in Social Education, Adelaide, Department of Education, 1978. .‘Zt '84 With pressures for the introduction of new areas it could be expected that a philosophy allowing these to be readily accommodated within the curriculum would find support not only within the Curriculum Directorate of the Education Department, but within individual schools, if they could be shown how this could be achieved. In 1978 a five-year curriculum, "Learning and Living", was produced?5 It is perhaps appropriate that the period of consideration in this study ends at 1977, for it is possible that when reflected upon in the future, the "Learning and Living" curriculum could be seen to mark a significant turning point fer social studies in secondary schools. Certainly it demonstrated a wider recognition of social education and the needs of the learner, and represented an attempt to provide coherence and structure within a five-year curriculum. 45Education Department of South Australia, Learning and Living: Learning About Society Through Enquiry, Adelaide, Department of Education, 1978. 85 CHAPTER SIX. THE ACCEPTANCE OF SOCIAL STUDIES. As outlined in chapter three the nature and intensity of the factors operating in schools which accepted social studies in the curriculum and those which did not was explored through the application of a questionnaire to appropriate samples of accepting and non-accepting schools. In the compilation of the general questionnaire Rogers and Shoemaker's model depicting the innovation decision process (Fig.3.) offered some appropriate feci and serves as an aid in the presentation and discussion of the find- ings in this chapter. The two case-studies presented within this chapter explore the operation of factors affecting the acceptance of social studies within particular schools. Communication Sources The decision to include social studies, rather than history and geography, has been the prerogative of the school. Responses received from the schools in the survey conducted in this study indicate that they do not perceive themselves to have been subjected to any direct pressure from the Education Department to incorporate social studies within the curriculum. "Accepting" and "rejecting" school groups indicated that the .Education Department had, however, kept them informed concerning develop- ments in social studies. News-sheets from subject consultants were reported to be received regularly by the schools, one "rejecting" school {claiming to have been "snowed under" by them. Teachers have also had the opportunity to attend inservice conferences. 86 Considerable variation was reported between the "accepting" and "non-accepting“ schools in relation to the frequency of visits from the Education Department subject consultant in social studies. This is not surprising as the role of the subject consultant is considered to be that of providing assistance to those desiring it, rather than acting as a "salesperson" for the subject.1 Responses of "non-accepting" schools to the checklist item, "lack of advisory back—up for social studies (e.g. consultants)", indicated that this was not a factor affecting their decisions (Fig. 4.). Equally, "availability of advisory services" had very little influence upon the inclusion of social studies within the curriculum of "accepting" schools. (Fig. 5.). A proportion of non-accepting schools was not aware of several major publications of the National Committee for Social Science Teaching having been received by their schools, whereas schools with social studies in the curriculum indicated that such material was accessible. On the other hand, possibly reflecting the involvement of commercial publishers in the production of materials and also the provision of adequate funds for publicity purposes, all schools knew that they had received information concerning the Social Education Materials Project (S.E.M.P.) which was funded by the Curriculum Development Centre of Australia. Another potential source of information and influence concerning social studies is that of the Social Studies Teachers Association of South .Australia. The association sponsors inservice conferences (some jointly ‘with the Education Department) and supplies member schools with information and resource material related to the teaching of social studies. The 1Interview with Social Studies Consultant, 5/12/79. .\ 87 Figure 4. Factors Perceived by Schools as Contributing to the Non—Acceptance of Social Studies FACTORS EXTENT OF INFLUENCE very strong some very none strong little 1. Social studies not being a Matriculation 4 3 2 1 0 subject. 2. A single discipline background (eg. Hist. or Geog.) of Seniors 5 2 2 1 O responsible for school faculties. 3. Principal's preference for Hist. or Geog. as l 2 3 3 1 separate disciplines. 4. Vagueness or nature of content of syllabus 2 5 1 1 1 statements 5. Lack of appropriate textbooks. O 2 4 4 0 6. Lack of appropriate subject background of 2 6 2 0 O classroom teachers. 7. Teachers not wishing to teach the subject. 3 6 1 0 0 8. The belief that social studies is not approp- 0 1 1 7 1 riate for other than low ability children. 9. Lack of advisory back-up for social studies (eg. 0 O 1 5 4 consultants). (n=10) 88 Figure 5. Factors Perceived by Schools as Contributing to Acceptance of Social Studies FACTORS EXTENT OF INFLUENCE very strong L some very none strong little . l. The school philosophy favour- . . . . 1 6 O 2 1 ing subject integration. 2. Qualifications of staff in areas complementary to Hist. 0 2 S 3 O 6 Geog. (eg. Sociology). 3. Single disciplines of Hist. G Geog. viewed as too narrow 3 2 S O O fer Jnr. School curriculum. 4. Changes made in pattern of school organisation (incl- 1 2 2 2 3 uding timetable). ' 5. Principal's personal pref— 0 1 3 2 4 erence for Social Studies. 6. Influence of senior staff encouraging acceptance of 3 3 3 l 0 Social Studies. 7. An increased availability of textbooks and other 0 4 2 4 0 resources in Social Studies. 8. If formerly Tech. School, existence of Social Studies 2 2 - - - within original curriculum. 9. Decreased emphasis upon * exams with discontinuation O 1 2 4 2 of P.E.B. Inter. 5 Leaving. 10. The nature of the Depart- 0 2 4 2 ment's syllabus and guides. 2 ll. Enthusiasm of teachers for the subject. 3 4 3 0 0 12. Availability of advisory 0 2 1 services for social studies. 6 1 13. Architecture of school. 2 2 1 0 5 (n=10) * omitted by one school. 89 majority of the "non-accepting” schools reported that the school was not a member of the association. On the other hand, the sample of ”accepting" schools also indicated a low level of school membership. Because some individual staff members belong to the association, however, teachers would have varying degrees of access to the material. That infermation is received by someone in authority within a school does not necessarily mean that all staff will become aware of it. Deputy principals responSible fer curriculum within their schools were asked to indicate how information received concerning social studies developments would be passed on to general staff within their schools. In most cases the material is passed on to the senior master or senior mistress respon- sible fer social studies, if that subject exists within the school, and to the senior in geography or history if it does not. The senior then may communicate the ideas or distribute the material through the regular faculty meeting. Under this arrangement if the senior neglects to pass on the infermation, the teachers are unlikely to learn of its existence. Where social studies is not part of the school curriculum and history and geography are the traditionally established subjects, it is quite possible for social studies infermation to remain undisseminated within the school. In schools in which social studies is not currently taught, the seniors' willingness to familiarise themselves with newly received material relating to the subject and the likelihood of their disseminating it to teachers would be affected by their attitude towards social studies. Responses from the schools in the non—accepting sample indicated that the general attitudes of the history and geography seniors towards social studies were unfavorable. In the non-accepting schools few seniors in history and geography expressed familiarity with the recent social studies curriculum document, "Learning and Living", although they were aware that it had been received in the school. 90 Receiver Variables Composition of the Schools The schools in the samples selected vary considerably in the socio- economic areas from which their pupils are drawn. The schools are located throughout the metropolitan area and include former technical high schools, traditional high schools and recently-constructed high schools of open- space design. The schools from which data were collected in this study differ considerably in size, ranging from 460 pupils in the smallest school to 1,500 in the largest. Within the twenty schools considered in this study, the social science subjects in which teachers had academic background were most commonly geography, history and economics. In some of the schools included in the sample there are teachers with background in politics. Sociology, a focal discipline in the structure of recent social studies courses, is not well represented in the academic background of school staff. In one of the accepting schools included within the sample the amount of social studies in the curriculum had diminished in recent years, with the qualif- ications and interests of staff being suggested as an important reason. This particular school currently had no staff member with a background in sociology, no-one with a background in politics, only one with background in economics and the majority of teachers of social science having back- ground in the traditional disciplines of history and geography. The deputy principal of curriculum considered that if the school were to have on its staff an enthusiastic teacher who had been trained in sociology, then social studies would possibly not be declining in popularity within the school. In the sample of non-accepting schools eight out of ten responses indicated that lack of appropriate subject background of classroom teachers was either a strong or very strong influence in the non-inclusion of social 91 studies in the curriculum. Figure 5 indicates, however, that where social studies has been accepted into schools the qualifications of the staff in areas complementary to the areas of history and geography - for example, sociology, were indicated by only two out of .ten schools as a strong or very strong factor affecting their inclusion. Nearly all schools in both accepting and non-accepting samples indicated that there was alow rate of staff turn-over each year. With recent trends towards the declining enrollments in secondary schools and low rates of teacher resignation, it is not expected that this situation will change in the near future. Thus through lack of employment opportun- ities the recent graduates in sociology will be unlikely to markedly affect existing school curricula. Figures 4 and 5 suggest that teachers' attitudes towards the teaching of social studies play a major part in the acceptance of the subject within the school curriculum. Figure 4 indicates that fer the sample of _non-accepting schools the factor most commonly mentioned as a strong or very strong influence was that of "teachers not wishing to teach the sUbject".' Within the sample of accepting schools the factor of "teacher enthusiasm for teaching social studies" was indicated by two-thirds of the schools to be a strong or very strong influence. Within the non-accepting schools a high proportion reported that the seniors in history and geography were not in favour of subject integration, wishing rather to retain the discrete disciplines. Two-thirds of the accepting schools claimed that their school philosophy favoring subject integration was a strong or very strong factor in the acceptance of social studies. Because within the South Australian educational system senior masters and senior mistresses have traditionally been allocated the responsibility 92 fer subject faculty areas within the school, they may be considered significant influences as far as the nature of the curriculum is concerned. The "single discipline background of seniors responsible fer school faculties" was indicated by non-accepting schools to be a factor of} considerable importance (Figure 4). The influence of the senior is further demonstrated by the responses from the accepting schools. Social Characteristics The non-accepting schools, in general, claim to have a conservative tradition and in many cases acknowledge their schools to be recognized history or geography schools of long standing. Some accepting schools indicated a strengthening trend towards conservatism. One accepting school stated that it considered itself to be attuned to, and guided by, the changing needs of the community that it serves. A clear-cut distinction arose between accepting and non—accepting schools in their adoption or non-adoption of integration of subjects. The non-accepting schools claimed to have no tradition favoring subject integration. With reference to the curriculum within schools an inertia factor should be acknowledged, tending to preserve the established pattern. Several examples of this emerged in the study. One principal, for example, commented that he personally did not favor social studies but had been appointed to the current school in which it had long been a recognized subject. He was prepared to go along with it rather than attempt to bring about changes. With respect to the likely views of his staff he commented: If we were starting from scratch teachers may say that they'd prefer to teach history, geography or economics because they are graduates in these subjects. However, as social studies was well established in the school, he believed that staff simply accepted that they had a responsibility to teach it. 93 The established curriculum within a school is also perpetuated by the staffing policy that has been operated by the Education Department. When teachers have resigned or have been transferred to other schools they have been replaced, where possible, with teachers able to teach the subjects in which the vacancies have occurred. Within the sample of accepting schools, four schools were of open plan design. Of these four schools, three claimed that the architecture of the school, in fact, exercised a strong or very strong influence upon the acceptance of social studies as a subject, and the fourth school indicated that it had some influence. A considerable variation exists between the socio-economic levels of the communities which the individual schools serve, ranging from a working class to middle class. Some of the schools have particular demands made upon their curriculum by virtue of the variety of ethnic groups that they are required to serve, whereas in some others the composition of the school community is remarkably uniform. In terms of the suitability of the present curriculum to the perceived needs of the pupils both the sample of accepting and the sample of rejecting schools believed that they were in fact achieving this. In the case of some of the non-accepting schools the adherence to the single disciplines of history and geography was seen to be meeting the requirements of the parents. One deputy principal reported "to some extent pupils are sent to this school because of the academic disciplines". Another commented: "Pupils come from a wide area. Parents generally are seeking conservative schooling". The schools accepting social studies similarly expressed satisfaction with their curricula. 94 Social System Variables Social System Norms of the School Schools were asked whether they would consider their institutions to have been generally viewed over the years as conservative or innovative in their curricula. The responses from the sample schools indicated that the majority of the accepting schools in the sample considered themselves to have been innovative, whereas the schools non-accepting of social studies described themselves as generally conservative. The non-accepting schools in the sample attached a very high level of importance to the Public Examinations Board examination and,further, parents of childrenzin those schools were generally considered to also regard it as a high priority. The comment was made in one particular school that although the Public Examination Board is regarded within the school as an important curriculum determinant, only a minority of the intake actually enters the matriculation course. With respect to the accepting schools, a number of them indicated that the Public Examinations Board was considered important. In one particular school, however, situated in a low socio-economic area, the school claimed to attach little importance to the Public Examinations Board and indicated that only a very small percentage of the children at the school actually took the P.E.B. examination. The high proportion of the non-accepting schools attaching importance to the Public Examinations Board is consistent with early specialization in the discrete disciplines of history and geography, rather than the acceptance of social studies in the Junior School. Seven out of ten of the non—accepting schools indicated that social studies not being a matriculation subject was a strong or very strong factor in its not being included in the curriculum of the school. 95 Some schools reported that parents expected a curriculum comprising the traditional disciplines. One deputy principal indicated that the expectation of most parents was "the Public Examinations Board along with the 'hidden curriculum' of discipline, manners and sport". In one school in a working class area the feeling was that parents considered that the main function of the school was to "look after their kids". From both groups of schools there was an indication that the sChool perceived itself to have considerable autonomy in decision—making, reflecting the changes in policy in recent years consistent with the "Freedom and Authority" document referred to in chapter four. Tolerance of Deviancy Despite the increased emphasis given to school councils as a result of the Karmel Committee report referred to in chapter four, the majority of schools in the accepting and non-accepting samples indicated that the amount of direct involvement of the school council and parents in curric- ulum matters is minimal. Individual schools consider that they have a fairly high degree of autonomy with respect to their curricula. Both in the accepting and non-accepting schools individual teachers work within the general guidelines which have been established by the senior or by the subject faculty, meeting as a group. Within these general guidelines the teachers are able to modify their programs. The extent of consultation with the senior varies from school to school. Particularly within the Junior School it would not seem difficult for teachers, if they so desired, to incorporate a social studies type unit within an individual program where it was related to the general theme or topic prescribed for that term's work. Any large-scale change from geography and history subjects, as mentioned by one deputy principal, would present for seme schools consider- 96 able problems because of differences in the resources that would be needed. A further consideration is that of the scheme used in many schools in recent years involving the bulk purchase and ownership by the school of text-books fer specific subjects. These books are hired by the individual pupils and are retained within the school for a considerable period of time This system tends to militate against curriculum change. Communication Integration The most common procedure for disseminating material received from the Education Department throughout the school to the teachers who may be concerned is through the seniors responsible for their particular faculties, In some schools where a defined curriculum committee exists information concerning the material may be made available to the committee members so that they have an overview of curriculum materials received by the school. Some infermation of a general nature is disseminated to staff through staff meetings. In some schools the curriculum material is displayed on staff library shelves and on staff display boards. Information is also received by the school through the visits of subject consultants and principal education officers in their contacts with the seniors and other individual staff members. One of the accepting schools within the sample indicated that it has been a pilot school for many curriculum projects and, as such, has been well aware of developments in those fields and has been able to keep other staff members abreast of progress in those areas. Schools with members of staff occupying positions on the Education Department subject committees considered that this increased their access to curriculum information. Responses of the schools in the samples indicate that a range of opportunities is provided for school staff and the community to share opinions. Many schools have curriculum sub-committees of their council, 97 comprising parents and staff. The schools have open nights at which 115 parents_are able to view the work carried on by the school and to discuss 'courses and pupils' progress with teachers. There are other parent and teacher nights, where the work of a particular faculty is highlighted. Newsletters, circulars and the seeking of parent opinion through questionnaires are features of many schools. Perceived Characteristics of Social Studies Relative Advantage' In the sample of ten rejecting schools, seven schools claimed that social studies not being a matriculation subject was a strong or very strong factor in its'non-acceptance. When non-accepting schools were asked what advantages or disadvantages their staff have considered social studies to have had as compared with history or geography in the past, .2 . several replied that this issue had not been seriously considered within their schools. The vagueness or the nature of the content of the syllabus statements was indicated by seven of the ten non-accepting schools to be a very strong or strong influence upon the non-inclusion of social studies within the .. curriculum. A response from one school indicated that social studies was I considered to be "not rigorous - too vague". Yet another comment was that I} ; "greater academic rigor attaches to history and geography. Social studies °i tends to be regarded a second rate subject". A further criticism levelled . at social studies by one respondent was that it "lacked existence as a ;:.:. discrete area of knowledge as compared with the disciplines of history and geography? Accepting schools were able to cite advantages that they considered '4':, social studies to have over history and geography. One such example was the viewpoint that social studies "considers the individual and the X 98 affective domain and is more closely related to life needs". Other perceived advantages included that of the "integration of ideas with less rigidity" than portrayed by history and geography and "greater relevance". That social studies is viewed with considerable suspicion by the occasional school administrator may be illustrated by reference to one deputy principal's observation concerning "the susceptibility of social studies courses to political and educational bandwaggoning". This sentiment was echoed by a school principal who considered that social studies was the "first of the play subjects" and that in his experience it seemed to attract the most radical and uncooperative of teachers. In answer to this suggestion yet another principal in whose school all policy decisions are made by staff consensus declared that it should not be surprising that teachers who are deeply concerned about humanity and social issues will wish to teach social studies with its focus upon man in society. A possible factor operating against social studies, not directly included on the original checklist to which schools were asked to respond, ‘was that of'the perceived positive qualities of the single discipline of Iristory and geography, causing these subjects to be preferred. This was listed as an additional factor in some responses from the schools. Some senior staff referred to the need for pupils to gain a solid background in time skills characteristic of history and geography. They felt that these skills were best acquired during the study of these particular disciplines, rather than through an integrated subject. Several schools referred to the relative disadvantages that social stmuiies suffered with respect to resources, although suggesting that the position had improved in recent years with the arrival of such materials as tfliose produced by the Social Education Materials Project (S.E.M.P.). Altjuaugh lack of resources in social studies was not seen as a major factor at 99 in its rejection by the non-accepting schools, a number of accepting schools noted that an improvement in resource availability had been a positive influence. Four out of ten accepting schools claimed that an increased availability of textbooks and other resources in social studies had been a strong contributing influence in the acceptance of the subject within the school. Compatibility The schools included in the samples appeared generally satisfied with their present condition of acceptance or non-acceptance of social studies within the curriculum. In general the schools which had not accept -ed social studies but had preferred to retain the traditional disciplines of history and geography claimed to have a strong academic emphasis in their curricula. Some non-accepting schools considered that social studies ‘would be reasonably compatible with the general spirit of the school. The ‘majority of accepting schools expressed enthusiasm for social studies, considering it very compatible with the values and norms of their schools. Non-accepting schools were asked to indicate what difficulties would ‘be anticipated in introducing social studies into the school curriculum. It was claimed that considerable adjustments would be necessary. Views expressed by individual schools included the need to remove history and geography from the Junior School and timetabling difficulties that would resrflju It was considered that the investment in present resources would In: lost and expenses would be incurred in obtaining further materials and books. A commonly mentioned problem that would have to be faced if social :studies were to be introduced was that of staff attitudes towards the sxflxject. This is reflected by the responses of non-accepting schools to tins checklist, indicating that nine of the ten schools rated as a strong or 100 very strong influence the factor, "teachers not wishing to teach the subject". Thus one school response referred to "insufficient motivated and competent teachers", while another indicated that staff training would be necessary. In individual interviews opinions have been expressed that many teachers lack confidence in their ability to teach social studies, because of their restricted academic background and their lack of training in the skills necessary fer successful teaching in an integrated way. Complexity As has been indicated earlier, social studies has often been viewed by teachers from what seem to be entirely different perspectives. The fact that the subject has often been given to lower ability classes would suggest that it was seen as lacking difficulty and sophistication. On the other hand, some respondents indicated that social studies was not intro- duced into their schools because it was seen to be too complex in the light of the teachers' academic background. The opinion has been expressed by some teachers and administrators that social studies, if considered in its ideal form, would be more appropriate to senior rather than junior classes because of the complexity of the concepts involved. Trialability Most of the non-accepting schools in the sample had not trialled social studies on a widespread basis, with some schools having introduced courses on a limited trial basis. Trialling of individual social studies units had occurred within other subject courses in some schools. Reasons offered for not trialling social studies courses included the absence of any perceived need and lack of demand. With respect to the reluctance to experiment with individual units of a course one of the schools in the sample indicated that "parts of the course may have appeal, but to intro- duce bits and pieces is divisive and fragmentary". As far as the accepting '101 schools are concerned particular examples of trialling included units fer new courses, where, because of the involvement of a particular staff member on the Education Department Curriculum Committee, or by special request, the school had agreed to be involved. Observability Only a small proportion of the non-accepting schools claimed that the decision to try out social studies or not to try it out had been influenced by any felt lack of evidence (or evidence) of its success elseWhere. Fear of observed failure in teaching social studies was suggested by one respondent as a possible reason for some teachers being reluctant to teach I the subject. Curriculum Decision-making In the schools where social studies is well established, one of the influencing factors for the subject's acceptance has been identified as that of the "enthusiasm of teachers for the subject". Several schools in the sample indicated that there were on their staff individuals who could be recognized as opinion leaders regarding the introduction or rejection of social studies. The opportunities for opinion leaders to influence school curriculum decisions vary according to the type of decision-making proced- ure established within the particular school. Different patterns of decision-making emerged from the survey. The more traditional pattern of curriculum decision—making described by some sChools was that of the principal and his senior staff forming a committee that assumes responsibility fer making curriculum decisions. Decisions are communicated to the teachers through staff and faculty meetings. To introduce an idea for consideration by this committee, an individual teacher approaches his or her senior who then brings the matter t o u 9. . q 1 . s . § 5 . - ‘Q . 6 p I u . \ n . 102 up at the senior staff meeting. Alternatively an idea may emerge from a faculty meeting and then be conveyed by the senior master to the decision- making committee. The procedure in one of the schools in the survey was described thus, including a reminder that curriculum changes are not lightly made: The principal and senior staff decide curriculum, but inevitably there is a high level of "momentum" for existing subjects - once the curriculum is established, a commitment exists to carry this through to twelfth year level. A far more open ferm of curriculum decision-making than that described above was referred to by many of the accepting and non-accepting schools in the samples. The school has a curriculum committee comprising staff representing each of the major subject areas within the school. The staff member in some cases is appointed by virtue of a position of responsibility held or in some cases is elected. Usually the curriculum committee meetings are open and may be attended by any other interested staff. Matters arising from this committee are referred to a whole staff meeting for a decision. There are many variations of this pattern. Thus in recent years there has been a trend towards far more democratic decision -making within schools, covering a range of concerns, including that of curriculum. CASE-STUDIES TWO case-studies were conducted to provide additional data relating to therfactors affecting the acceptance or rejection of social studies by iJuiividual schools. The first case-study is that of a traditional second- ary school, non-accepting of social studies. The second case-study comp- rises an open plan secondary school in which social studies has been readily'accepted. Through these case-studies, which cover the period of 103 each school's existence, influential factors are identified and their meaning explored. A SCHOOL NON-ACCEPTING OF SOCIAL STUDIES CASE-STUDY SCHOOL 'A' Introduction This school is a coeducational secondary school with an enrollment of 1,152 pupils and a staff of 71 in February, 1978. The locality in which the school is situated is described as "generally a comfortable middle class area but contains its small percentage of problem students and problem homes".2 The school opened in 1966 with an enrollment of 105 pupils and a staff of four full-time teachers. The school population contains a high proportion of children from the United Kingdom, reported in 1970 to be as high as 80-85 percent. Since its inception the school may be described as conservative rather than trend-setting. The headmaster of the school from 1967 to 1976 commented in 1970 that: ' .. g. ; In many ways we may be regarded as a fairly conventional High School in the light of t . 0 some experiments that are being done in ..- ;i other places. ‘ i The general policy of the school, published in a schools information book .- for parents seeking advice on where to send their children, suggests that - g 'g . .‘ the school upholds many of the values which have had a long tradition in f '. zfiu; described in an Education Department Schools Information Booklet. 3A statement appearing in an information sheet issued to staff . members of a Teachers College associated with the school. 'f.’ 104 the high schools of South Australia and are likely to find support in .;;. this community. Thus under "General Policy" is included the following: Homework timetables are arranged for all classes. Diaries are kept and checked. Parents strongly support uniform and the standard is good. Staff/ student relationships are warm and friendly but discipline is strict and supported by caning and suspension where these become appropriate. There are four assessment periods for the year. Mid- year exams are conducted for years 11 and 12 and a final exam for year 11. ..... t.¢‘ ' The school has only a few clubs and societies. The ~ Student Representative Council occupies an important place in the philosophy of the school and everything is done to encourage it. It is active and effective. This school tolerates nothing less than a high . standard of morality, behaviour and effort. The ' students are in no doubt about what is expected. -, ‘ I Establishing the School Curriculum The first intake of pupils; in 1966, was streamed and three classes - :}f of different levels of ability were fermed. In this first year of the school the curriculum was influenced by the subject strengths of the staff available. This was the reason for French f.’ being included rather than German and, as further reported by the head- master concerned, "certainly this is the reason why we did Geography rather than History". He continued: I. . In any case, I would have rejected Social Studies (in favour of Geography or History, or both), as ..1 it was a most ill-defined subject in those days. L -‘ } Perhaps it still is - I know that I am relieved ' ‘ . to find that Social Studies has not been taught fl ~_,i at (my present school), nor will it be while I am Headmaster. I believe that both Geography and _ _ History are better defined, are better disciplines ' _,.. and have been proved by traditional experience to be " more worthwhile subjects than Social Studies. I have no doubt, of course, that an excellent teacher can teach Social Studies we,, but I do know from years of experience that an inexperienced teacher or even , one who is experienced and competent, finds great ;- difficulty in making the subject of Social Studies ' relevant or interesting to students.4 4Correspondence from the former headmaster, dated 12.6;80. 105 Early Developments within the Curriculum In 1967 the school had a new headmaster and an increase in staff along with the new intakeof pupils. The growth of the school allowed the offering of a wider curriculum. The subjects available in 1968 for First and Second Year courses are listed in appendix P. It will be noted that according to policy that had been instituted by the Education Department a few years previously, all First Year students were introduced to a brief study of Government, in this case as part of their history course. History was taken by all First Year pupils. The chart also reveals that the school followed the traditional pattern of giving the "brightest" children two languages in their first year. Further down the academic scale of the school the number of languages diminished. As indicated in chapter four, the Education Department had issued an important circular (Circular 29:671in 1967 setting out expectations that schools would offer general rather than specialized courses in the follow- ing year. It will be noted from the subject chart (appendix P.) that the conditions of the circular were not completely met. Social studies had been recommended as a subject for all high schools as part of the First Year curriculum. The headmaster's correspondence with the Education Department raised the issue thus in the preceding year: This leaves the difficulty of Social Studies. This could prove most exacting to my present staff and I recommend that it should not be introduced until 1969.5 In 1969 in accordance with the above assurance that had been given the Education Department, social studies was introduced into the First Year course. It was, however, in the following year, continued into Second Year in only two classes. 5Letter written by the Principal to the Education Department dated 20.12.68. 106 Some Staffing Effects Social studies remained in the First Year curriculum from 1969 to 1972 inclusive. Its displacement by history and geography as separate disciplines can be attributed to the strong pressure exerted by senior staff appointed to the school in 1971 and 1972. Having responded to the Education Department Circular introducing social studies into the school in 1969, the headmaster appeared content for it to remain. Certainly he believed that social studies was more readily managed by the lower ability children than history which he considered to be suited only to the more academically able. Following the resignation in 1970 of the senior master who had been responsible fer geography, history and social studies within the school, two history senior masters were appointed, but no geography senior. Geography was to be supervised by the present Commerce senior who, although having some academic background in geography, did not consider this to be one of her major teaching subjects. The newly-arrived history seniors were strong advocates for their subject, one at the time being on the History Curriculum Committee of the Education Department and involved in the preparation of’new history courses. One of the history seniors was given the responsibility of supervising some history year levels and the social studies. The First Year social studies courses, over a period of time developed a fairly strong history orientation. Thus a staff member of the time commented that "the nature of the course probably changed before the title of it did". During their first year at the school the history seniors put forward to the headmaster arguments for the replacement of social studies with history. (Geography was already being taken by the lesser ability classes, alongside social studies). One of the senior masters concerned recalls: 107 Neither of us had much experience in social studies, not having taught it. We didn't think it had muCh to offer. We had a decided preference fer history rather than social studies. We were aware that, in general, teachers didn't 'get on as well with social studies as they did with history. Probably they hadn't been trained in social studies. A lot of the schools had had difficulties in getting teachers who were able to enthuse classes.... Similar reasons were advanced by the other senior who stressed that the inadequate training of teachers for the teaching of social studies and the fact that the teachers on the staff had expertise in the areas of history and geography tended to favor the inclusion of these latter disciplines in the curriculum of the Junior school. A further practical concern was the relative lack of resources available in social studies. An argument that proved convincing to the school principal was that the introduction of history in First Year would lead to more coherent and rational curriculum planning over a sequence of years than the current social studies—history-geography combinations. It was further claimed that pupils of lesser ability could derive benefit from history. In 1972 a geography senior was appointed to the school. It will have been noted (appendix P.) that geography had been considered to be a less academic subject than history, or certainly better suited to the lower stream classes. The newly appointed geography senior recalls: I was insistent that Geography got up to the top streams. Geography strengthened, and if so, Social Studies tended to get squeezed. Tlua geography senior had little respect for social studies as it existed at that time, and lent his weight to the changes that were afoot. In 1973 social studies disappeared from the First Year curriculum, to be replaced by history and geography. . . . o . . . J . c - .1 p . .. . . . I . 9. . n . '4 o . o o . . a . l a . o . . . .0 ‘ . - . . O b o n I . . . . . . I s a . u — .. no ‘ o J 4 ¢ 0‘ . . c n a . t . . u . ~ . u r I C n .5 5 . . c A u D O . . I- to . A o . n v . . I9 . . . g \ . . u s . . ..v ‘ Q . \ q. s . . e . R . . . . . . l \. . . . ‘ D ‘ y ‘ K . . u . n1 l x . II II . I «II 108 Syllabus Statements in Social Studies The first headmaster of the school, in his statement quoted above, commented on the "lack of direction" that he found characteristic of social studies courses in the mid-sixties. This sentiment has been echoed by others within the school over an extended period of time. The current principal considers the vague nature of the syllabus statements to have been a very strong influence upon its rejection by many schools, claiming that this "above all has been the killer of social studies". In 1971 when the history seniors were seeking to replace social studies they felt that the syllabus statements provided too little detail to give a reasonable expectation of sound teaching. Thus: the success or failure of social studies in the classroom depended too much upon the individual teacher and while it could be very successful, it was more likely not to be successful for that reason. An important consideration emerging in this case-study in relation to the nature of syllabus statements is that of the positive advantages that the courses in geography and history were perceived to have in comparison with social studies. The history senior referred to above saw the following attractions of history as decisive: the success that history had enjoyed, the value that students had derived from the study of history, the service and organisation that was available to history teachers, the courses that were being produced, the textbooks that were becoming available, the topic books etc., the resources; there was a consultant in the subject.... 'Fhe geography senior appointed to the school in the fellowing year, 1972, considered the social studies syllabus statements to be very vague "with :not much guts". He recalled that most of the teaChers were history and geography teachers and "when they were asked to teach social studies they didn't know where they were". He expressed strong criticism of the 109 structure of social studies as it was generally conceived, considering that history°and geography were different disciplines and that social studies "has tended to be an admixture of the two" - a mixture that he believed to produce nothing very satisfying. A teacher who was given the responsibility for teaching a Year 11 (terminating) course in social studies commented thus about the syllabus statements: This really antagonised me about teaching social studies. There was not any kind of syllabus that you could find. It was absolutely chronic that you had to find all your own material and if you were teaching a lot of lessons .... That was something that really put me off. I'd rather have taught history..... Yet another teacher, currently teaching geography, when questioned about the nature of social studies syllabi, suggested that this had possibly been the reason fer the term, "social slops", which had been a derogatory term used to describe social studies. He had noticed a change in recent years: It has tightened itself up quite a lot, but its sort of got this reputation for being a wishy washy course fer the non-achieving kids. Whether that's valid or not of course is a moot point. Possibly one of the strongest statements against social studies as it lias been taught in the past was made by the current school principal whose experiences with the subject in previous schools suggested that vague syllabi along with weak teachers led to unfertunate classroom situations. lie considered that many incompetent teachers had taught the subject: ... in a manner that alarmed (him) - with no achievement, no discipline, no organisation to it, no purpose in it. They as much as anything else have alienated (him). 1\ problem that the principal saw concerning the open nature of social studies was the opportunity that it could provide for exploitation by an intresponsible teacher. Such an example, he cited, was.the possibility of 110 a teacher presenting an unbalanced viewpoint concerning an alternative life style that the teacher may find personally attractive. Thus he considered the subject to have a far higher risk potential than history and geography and a far greater likelihood of alienating parents. Social Studies within the Curriculum Currently the school has only three classes in social studies. Two of these classes are at Year Eleven level and taking courses which do not lead to Matriculation. At Year Ten Level a non-academic class was given social studies because there were insufficient students to ferm two separate groups for history and geography. Social studies, therefore, appears to have been selected mainly as an expedient, rather than for educational reasons. Although social studies as a subject is poorly represented in the school curriculum, there is a recognition by the seniors responsible for history and geography courses of the need to offer courses within their disciplines which recognize man as a social being. In fact, the history :senior indicated that the more liberal interpretation of history, for example, could well be a factor operating against the introduction of social studies in a school such as this, where the separate disciplines of Iristory and geography are firmly established. Thus she comments: If the history and geography teachers are willing to consider the social needs of students and adapt their courses and make them more socially oriented, that may stop social studies coming 1n. 'Fhe: trend towards history becoming more socially oriented in the school was confirmedby another teacher when asked whether she had perceived any changes in staff attitudes towards social studies over a period of time: ., 11.]. Well, I've noticed in the history area, for example, we have begun talking about things like the needs of the kids.... what kinds of things should we be incorporating into the course. So, we are not aware of it, but we are . incorporating social studies type areas into the history course. Recent curriculum developments in the school have included the broadening of the curriculum by introducing additional discrete subject areas such as outdoor education and health education. Religious education is being considered as a further possibility. It is interesting that the school is referring to these areas by the term, "Social Education", while retaining history and geography as separate disciplines. In many schools social studies is the focus of Social Education with varying degrees of integration with these more recently introduced subject areas. Faculty Organization The organization of the school into faculties with different seniors ‘being responsible fer individual subjects such as history or geography tends to perpetuate a single discipline emphasis, rather than encourage Siflxject integration. The responsibility fer the supervision of the few social studies classes in this school lies with the history senior. The geography senior, although sympathetic towards a social dimension in geography, expressed unfamiliarity with the recent social studies courses, suggesting that intercommunication between the history and geography faculties may not be strongly developed. Some teachers within the geography or history faculties tend to identify very strongly with the discipline in which they have received 1j1ej;r academic training. The history senior, when asked whether she felt tfluatz staff would be in favour of social studies being introduced more widely into the school, commented in relation to the Humanities staff: 112 I think you'd get a pretty even split. I have come across the insecurity bit - when teachers don't feel secure enough to change even within history and geography. They've only been secure enough to change their approaches and not the content. They won't go bolus-bolus and change the content and the methods. There's the insecurity thing. Curriculum Decision-making Curriculum matters within the school are raised at meetings of the school curriculum committee. The curriculum committee is chaired by the deputy principal of curriculum. The nucleus of the committee comprises the seniors who are regular members and are responsible for the individual subject fields within the school. The seniors are expected to attend all meetings, while other staff may attend any meeting that they consider could 'be of interest to them. All present at the meeting have equal voting rights. Often, however, the decision is taken to refer the curriculum committee's recommendation to a full staff meeting. The principal, who is a member of the curriculum committee, reserves the right of veto concerning curriculum decisions. The current principal has not yet found it necessary to exercise this right. He firmly believes, however, that a principal Should assume responsibility for curriculum decisions. Thus he comments: In a lot of schools the principal has abdicated (his curriculum responsibility). I think that one of the principal's distinguishing character- istics is his determination of the curriculum in a school. All curriculum decisions are presented to the School Council for ratific- ation. The staff of the school considers that the curriculum committee structure provides ample opportunity for them, either individually or through their faculty senior, to raise matters of concern in the area of curriculum. o .. . a o o a ..- . s t . s . $ t t c \ . 113 A SCHOOL ACCEPTING OF SOCIAL STUDIES 'CASE-STUDY SCHOOL 'B' Introduction This school was one of the first secondary schools of entirely open plan in the state. It is a coeducational school with an enrollment of 1,111 pupils and a staff of 79 in February, 1978. It opened in February, 1973, with 612 pupils and 39 staff. The Year 8 pupils came from the primary schools in the area, Some of which were of open plan, while others were net. The Year 9 pupils had spent the previous year at high schools within the zone. The school is set in a local community described as: "predominantly from British Isles; a residential suburb with some peripher -al light industry". Establishing the School As with the other newly-established open plan schools the staff was selected by the interviewing of teachers who applied fer the advertised fipositions. Thus the staff team comprised a group of people who were generally compatible in terms of their philosophy of education and their aspirations for the school. One of the original staff in reflecting on the period captures the spirit of the time in discussing developments that took place in the lhnnanities area: In the early days we saw ourselves as being a new approach to Education. It wasn't so much a matter of being flexible design, but a real opportunity to do something completely different. We were influenced by the Open education concept of freedom of choice as far as the kids were concerned — by what they wanted to do. The concept of a general education being of very much more value than a very specific one. 1 114 A further feature of the staffing was the deliberate attempt to include on the staff both teachers who had taught in technical high schools and those who had been in high schools. The technical high schools had a strong tradition of social studies within the curriculum. The seniOr master appointed to this school and another key teacher in the social sciences had both come from the same technical high school where social studies had been well established. As was the situation with respect to the "sister" open plan school which was to open some months before this school, the majority of staff positions was filled well in advance of the commencement of the school year, enabling residential staff planning conferences to take place and policies and priorities to be established. In commenting upon the outcome of one such conference in July, 1972, the principal notes: I believe that we agreed the curriculum to be of central importance, that integration of subjects should eventuate arising from natural rather than artificially created needs, and that timetables and school organisation should be geared to provide flexible groupings of pupils fer the maximum deployment of teacher strengths and maximum use of the physical facilities of the school. Certainly, without being radical, we had long passed any lingering desires to retain a traditional school organisation in what was a totally new concept of a school as far as we were concerned. Rather we wished to find new ways of making the best use of the then lavish and novel facilities provided.6 Determining the Curriculum In keeping with the possibilities that a new open plan school seemed to offer, there was a concern that the curriculum should be broadly-based 6Extract from a booklet written by the Principal describing the origins of the school. 115 and allow fer individual differences. This, of course, was also very much . ;;. in the spirit of Education Department Circulars which acknowledged the concept of a Junior School unfettered by too early specialization and examination constraints. It was decided that the curriculum would comprise Core studies and Electives. The Core studies were Art, Craft, English, Mathematics, Music, Physical Education, Science and Social Science, while Electives included German, French and Indonesian, Commercial Education, 2a;‘ and Art and Craft Studies. In establishing the curriculum a prime concern . was that the excellent school facilities servicing such areas as Craft should be used to advantage. A necessary consequence of deliberately exposing children to a range of experiences was that a traditionally sen- sitive issue in schools, the allocation of time to individual subjects, had to be faced. The principal commented in relation to this issue: During the July Conference, when we had met as a school group, I was very impressed with the way in which all seniors were prepared to consider the total school picture as having importance over and above the individual subject programme. This was not a matter of paying lip-service to an ideal. In 4 z. a very practical way it became obvious when we . . considered subjects' time allocation needs: "empire-building" to use a then popular term, was out. Subject seniors were prepared to consider minimum subject needs rather than maximum, so that a very heartening sense of working-together was quickly established.7 Social Science within the Curriculum ' Social Science was a core subject in the curriculum for the Year 8 and.Year 9 students in the first intake of the school in 1973, rather than .. the separate disciplines of history and geography. No factor emerges as 8 the single determinant in this decision, but several strong influences were undoubtedly operating. The amount of time that could be offered to the social sciences in a broad curriculum was limited, thus an inte- 7Ibid. 116 grated subject including both history and geography had much in its favor. :; Further, the school was commencing at a time when comprehensiveness was 7 being actively advocated, and social science as a subject, drawing as it did upon a range of disciplines, was in tune with this kind of thinking. Of importance also was the background and influence of the senior master in the social sciences. He, along with at least one key teacher in the area had come from the technical high schools where social studies was well ' .4?" established, and was a member of the Education Department Social Studies Curriculum Committee. As noted by the school principal, there was also no history senior on the staff to promote any single strong discipline argu- ..i ment fer the existence of that subject in its own right. Further, the . principal claimed that the senior responsible fer social science in the school was able to "argue most plausibly a case fer social sciences which ‘f would protect history skills and geography skills". Yet another reason fer social science being offered in the Junior School curriculum was identified by the principal as that of the nature of the school clientele ‘ I as perceived at the time. ~ I. 'i Social Science Developments In 1973, the concept of vertical integration of first and second . 4:: year students was accepted throughout the school. A development that affected social science some months after the commencement of the school - year'was the decision to combine social science with English and form a 'if liumanities subject. This was done for several reasons, including the jpragmatic fact that it solved the staffing problems associated with servic- ing the two floors of the school in English and social science separately. Further, it was intended to reduce the amount of unnecessary duplication d,’ between the subject areas. Through exploring a topic such as "remote communities", fer example, English skills would be used in association with a . . o . . a . . o . n . A a o u o . . . . . . . . . . s . . . \ a ‘ ‘. . . s Q s n \ . s C s a o \ i u . Q. i n so u t . Q o .. ‘ o . . Q I . \o \ o . . . . ‘ . a u . . a o - t ‘ .Q 6 § . . . . W 117 skills and concepts from the social sciences. The objectives of the humanities program were stated in 1975 to: include the acquisition of increased proficiency ,in basic skills, the development of creative and imaginative potential and the deeper understanding of self, society and the world. After the humanities courses had been operating for a year or two and with the introduction of some new staff, their direction changed towards place- ment of strong emphasis upon values and feelings. At the same time there 'was an attempt to meet an ideal of producing an individual program for each child. Some of the staff involved were strongly committed to their approach while others in the school were strongly critical. One teacher, reflecting on the teaching commented: It was nebulous. It depended on the individual (teacher), his style, his commitment to whatever, .... the individual's values. There didn't appear to be any framework, any background experience that kids were expected to acquire, to formulate their attitudes to all sorts of things. In commenting upon the philosophical differences that emerged between staff concerning the emphasis within the humanities, the principal noted: Some of us believed that insufficient emphasis was being placed on the skills and that the values emphasis was too much fer children of that age. As perceived from the viewpoint of one of the humanities team of the time, the situation was quite different. He recalls: The philosophical differences weren't part of the subject - rather the whole philosophy of what teaching and learning was about. That's where the split came. The humanities people 8Extract from a School Information Booklet issued in 1975. I; 118 were dealing in an almost one to one situation and many of the humanities people had thirty different kids doing thirty different things in their classes. He claimed that the school administration was very concerned that children were "doing their own thing". In order to demonstrate that effective work was in fact taking place, the humanities staff kept detailed records of pupil activity. Thus he claimed: We felt that we could fairly quickly justify what we were doing. In that year, 1976, more paper was wasted on documenting our work than would have occurred in any other school. At a school residential conference in 1976 it was decided to discontinue the humanities program in the following year. The above account includes reference to some curriculum problems faced in a particular section of the school, the Junior School catering for Years 8 and 9. Within the Middle School social science had been established as a subject within its own right with the first Year 10 class commencing in 1974. The school course-information booklet of 1975 defines social science as "fundamentally concerned about man, his relation- ships with other human beings, and his environment". The booklet claims that the social science courses at the school aim to help the student to develop: 1. in his ability to recognize and observe concrete evidence related to a concept, to make inferences, and to generalize from that evidence about the nature of man and his social world. 2. in his ability to empathize with other people, observing their behaviour as evidence of their concepts and values, and to make such observations from different perspectives. 3. in his ability to recognize the involvement and obligation of individuals to each other in everyday human situations. 91bid. 119‘ The senior staff members responsible for social science within the school attach considerable importance to students gaining an awareness of the individual social science disciplines in the early years so that they can make infermed choices when later selecting a subject fer specialization in the Senior School. Thus in the social science course in the Middle School attention is paid to the nature of the contribution of particular disciplines. Within this School many of the difficulties that other‘ schools were facing in relation to Education Department Syllabus statements were apparent. The 1974 document which had been issued by the social studies curriculum committee was found by the social science staff of the school to be vague and unhelpful.10 A senior master in social science at the school recalled that: We had this incredible involvement in concepts, skills, attitudes and a deference to all of these, but a lack of preparedness to define content areas. And so, you had in this school, a whole range of new teachers trying to cope with this conceptual balance which hadn't been given to them in College because they were basically history and geography, and at the same time trying to work out what content to use. .4 That the Education Department was aware of problems that teachers ‘were finding with the social studies syllabus statements emerged in chapter five of this study. An attempt to straighten out teachers' difficulties by demonstrating various approaches that could be workable was made in the Inflalication, "Three Interpretations", which was issued to schools, but, in the event, was not widely used.11 In this school, however, the document 10South Australian Education Department, Syllabus of Social Studies fer Secondary Schools, Adelaide, 1974. 11Education Department of South Australia, Three Interpretations: High Schools Social Studies Junior Curriculum. Adelaide: Education Department of South Australia, 1976. 120 was considered helpful and formed the basis for developing new Year 8, Year 9 and Year 10 programs. -Thus in Year 8 an interdisciplinary approaCh uses "aspects from all the-social science disciplines integrated to form a study of some key aspects of man and his activities". In Year 9 the social science course is based upon inter-cultural studies. The course in Year 10 "adopts a multi-disciplinary approach in that the basis fer each unit is discipline oriented instead of theme oriented". It is of some significance that two staff members from this school who had had the responsibility fer organizing the social science courses were also members of the Education Department Social Studies curriculum committee. One had participated in the development of one of the three 'interpretations' used in the handbook distributed by the committee. Yet another teacher, appointed to the school in 1976, was also on the committee and has had a major effect on the direction of social studies in this state The close contact of the school with developments at the Education Depart- ment curriculum committee level has obviously affected its program in social science. In 1975 the school had its first Year 11 group of students. Those students who intended to move on to the Public Examination Board Matric— Iilation examination in the following year took up the individual social :science discipline in which they intended to specialize - fer example, geography, economics, or a history. For students who intended to leave at the end of the year or to continue to the Year 12 internal course (Secondary Schools Certificate) social studies was offered. In the follow- ing year, 1976, Year 12 social studies was provided for the non-matric- ulating students as a Secondary Schools Certificate course. "In 121 Resources and Support In 1973 when the school was established it was lavishly provided with equipment such as projectors, television sets, over-head projectors and other teaching aids. Although plentiful funds were provided to enable the school to become well established, there were few materials published which could be adopted in their present form to provide the kinds of learning experiences which were considered desirable for the integrated courses which had been planned. Probably the enthusiasm and dedication of the staff showed itself no more dramatically than in the way in which during the first couple of years of the school they set to and produced learning materials fer use in their courses. In the early period many materials were produced in association with the staff from the nearby flexible-plan school which had somewhat similar needs. This inter-school cooperation during the years was a strong feature of its development. As commented upon by one of the teachers on the staff in this initial period, the kind of development that took place would not have been possible if .’ q the school had not been provided with excellent printing facilities. Thus . ‘ ‘because of the direction in which the humanities (and some other subject 1 areas) in the school chose to move, commercially produced resources played .L a minor role, because of the unavailability of appropriate materials. One of the most significant resources associated with this particular _ school is that of its flexible design which has facilitated a variety of ~ I teaching approaches and learning experiences. Not only was the school provided with flexible teaching space, but also with a well-appointed Resource Centre. Certainly the architecture of the school contributed ... ~ txnvards the development of the humanities program in the early years of the 1.; sciuaol and has facilitated cooperative planning and teaching. 122 Commonwealth Funds This case-study demonstrates how Commonwealth funding has made an impact upon some individual schools. In 1975 one of the key teachers in the humanities team was successful in an application for a Schools . Commission Innovations grant which provided funds fer a research assistant and an artist. Thus the ability of the humanities team to sustain its program was enhanced by these additional resource people. A further grant was obtained in 1976. Yet another grant of Commonwealth money was made to the school in 1975-76 through the State Education Department. The Principal Education Officer in social studies was aware that the school was carrying out curriculum work in Intercultural Studies and considered this to be within the category for which the funds were to be allocated. Thus the school was able to purchase $1,000 worth of Asian Studies materials. Decision-making As in all South Australian schools the principal is expected to accept responsibility for decisions made within this school. It has been :noted.that in the early planning of the school senior staff were very much iJrvolved in the decision-making process concerning guidelines for its (havelopment. The principal has considered the senior master or mistress t1) be responsible fer his or her particular faculty area and the direction .that it took. Within the faculties there has been a high measure of cooperative planning and consensus decision-making. That all has not been plain-sailing has been apparent in the tensions which arose between hinnanities and other social science staff coming to a head in 1976. On the one hand this illustrated the very close relationship between a group of teachers committed to a particular viewpoint. On the other it demonstrated a cxniflict situation between these teachers and senior staff members of the school. 123 The belief that teachers should maintain a total perspective of the school and have an opportunity to feed in their ideas on a wide range of matters, feund expression in annual residential staff conferences which have been a feature of the school. The occasions where the school admin— istration has been autocratic concerning curriculum matters have not been frequent. When difficulties associated with the humanities program were perceived to be causing disharmony within the school staff, the administ- ration exercised strong influence through a staff conference to revert to separate social science and English programs. In recent years there has been a movement away from full staff involvement towards more executive decision-making. This has been brought about by changes of personnel, growth in numbers of staff and a feeling that too much time had been wasted in committee meetings concerned with routine matters. A curriculum committee has been established, comprising seven elected members representing various faculties and "faculty combinations" and two deputies (one of whom is chairman). The committee receives submissions from faculties, initiates enquiries itself, makes recommend- ations to faculties and to the Planning Meetings (which are open to the 'whode staff). Recommendations from the Planning Meeting are made to the Ixrincipal who is responsible for the final decisions. The Case-Studies The case-studies have identified within specific school contexts a ‘variety of'influences upon the acceptance of social studies. By providing .additional data they have clarified and helped to explain some of the iJrfluential factors which had emerged from the surveys of ten accepting and txni‘non-accepting schools. Further, the in-depth studies of particular 124 schools have revealed factors affecting the acceptance of social studies which had not previously been recognized in the study. The case-study of the accepting school revealed at the out-set a unique example of cooperative curriculum planning, facilitated by the newly adopted concept of open plan schooling and special selection of school staff. In the case-study of the non-accepting school, subject faculties remained distinct and there was no evidence of attempts to produce integrated programs. The influence of senior staff responsible for individual social science disciplines emerged as very important in the non-accepting school. In both case-studies some senior staff were members of Education Department curriculum committees. This appears to have had a reinfOrcing effect upon the respective subject within the school. _ The case-studies highlight and explain how the perceived nature of social studies is a major factor affecting its acceptance, as was indicated by the comments of the principals and teachers of the non-accepting school. Even within the accepting school which had representatives on the Education Department Social Studies Curriculum committee, difficulties in inter- preting social studies course statements were reported. An important finding not previously recognized in this study emerged from the case—study of the non-accepting school. This was the deliberate widening of the scope of the school history curriculum to include social objectives more commonly characteristic of social studies courses. Such a development has a bearing upon the significance of subject provision. The case-studies of the accepting and non-accepting schools do reflect many of the influences which have been revealed in the previous sections of this study and thus tend to validate those findings. 12S Summa . i This chapter has examined the reasons for secondary schools deciding PA to accept or not to accept social studies within their curricula. The investigation proceeded through the study of a sample comprising ten _ schools which are accepting of social studies and a sample comprising ten schools which are non—accepting of the subject. The primary means of collecting data was that Of a checklist of factOrs considered likely to be relevant to each group of schools, supported by a questionnaire, completed by deputy principals of curriculum along with relevant senior staff. The data Obtainedenabled the identification of factors which have been 1 stronglyinfluential,in the acceptance or non-acceptance of social studies. ' In the obtaining of data and presentation of the findings Rogers and Shoemaker's model of innovation-decision making provided a useful framework. f Through a case-study of a school non-accepting of social studies and a case-study of an accepting school, further data were obtained. The case- studies demonstrated that even in schools considered to be at extreme ends of an acceptance - non-acceptance continuum, the interplay of forces may be complex and variable over a period of time. 126 CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The findings of this investigation into factors affecting the accept- ance of social studies within the curricula of secondary schools of South Australia from 1950-1977 lead to a series of conclusions which are provided in this chapter. Where appropriate, some of the implications arising from these conclusions are presented as recommendations. In a final section some aspects of the design and implementation of the investigation are commented upon. 1. The Public Examinations Board In the survey of the period 1950-1977, the Public Examinations Board emerged as a major influence upon school curricula. When social studies was introduced into the high schools as a Public Examinations Board sub- ject, it was offered only at the Intermediate (third year) level and within specified subject groupings that did not favor its general acceptance. As social studies has not been offered as a Public Examinations Board subject at the feurth and fifth year level many schools tended to provide history and geography in the early years to enable pupils to commence these sub- jects in which they would later specialize. In the checklist of factors applied to non-accepting schools and in the accompanying survey, social :rtudies not being available as a P.E.B. subject in the later years of schooling emerged as a dominant factor in the non-acceptance of the subject. Con clus ion 1. The Public Examinations Board has had a limiting effect upon the acceptance of social studies within the secondary school curriculum. ‘ \ .\ ’i 127 2. Education Department Policies This investigation has revealed that reorientations in Education Department policy have provided opportunities for the acceptance of social studies, generally by making a greater flexibility possible within the curriculum. Increasing numbers of pupils of lower ability in high schools resulted in the Education Department introducing a non-Public Examination Alternative Course (which included social studies). With the discontin- uation of the P.E.B. Intermediate examination, the Education Department established the concept of a broad, flexible Junior School Curriculum which was well-suited to the introduction of social studies to all Junior School classes if schools so desired. The commitment of the Education Department to open plan schools, along with a philosophy promoting subject integration was identified in chapter four and also in the case-study as facilitating the inclusion of social studies within the curriculum. Conclusion II. Changes in Education Department policy have influenced schools in decisions relating to the inclusion of social studies within the curriculum. 3. Federal Government Initiatives This study has revealed the considerable contribution toward the teaChing about society made through Federal Government initiatives. The Burwood Unesco conference in 1967 focused attention upon the social sciences and provided support fer curriculum workers in the individual states who at the same time were preparing courses in social studies. The formation of the State Working Parties in Social Science and the National Committee on Social Science Teaching, along with national conferences, researCh reports, varied publications, and the Social Education Material Project has done much to improve the status of social studies. 128 Conclusion III. Federal Government initiatives in recent years have made significant contributions towards teaching about society. 4. The Nature of Social Studies A finding of this study emerging from chapter five is that the nature of social studies in South Australian courses has changed over the period of time under consideration. This was demonstrated using the key compon- ents contained within the National Council for the Social Studies Guide- lines as a standard of reference. At different times, for example, social studies has been presented as a combination of history, geography and civics; as a study of groups of varying size and complexity within society; as an understanding of society through concepts from contributing disciplines; as a study fecusing upon social living. Several related observations can be made in relation to this, arising from the study. Many teachers and principals are not well aware of the nature of the current social studies course issued by the Education Department subject curriculum committee. It appears probable that they are also unfamiliar with the changing nature of social studies over the period of time covered in this investigation. In view of the fact that few respondents in the study had any difficulty in stating whether or not they approved of social studies it is likely that their judgements are based on memories of courses which would now be considered outdated and irrelevant by the present curriculum committee. From the findings of this study it is likely too that the courses would be perceived somewhat hazily, fer a common criticism of social studies, and a factor strongly hampering its acceptance was claimed to be the vague and ill-defined nature of the subject. It would appear that too little consideration has been given in the prepara- 129 tion of curriculum documents and course guidelines to the need to provide ; detail, not only fer the classroom teacher, but fer the senior staff and - school principals responsible fer deciding whether or not to introduce the subject into the school curriculum. - Related to the above comments is the lackof a comprehensive statement of rationale fer the teaching of social studies that could be drawn upon by curriculum writers and used to support course statements and units of work. The absence of such a document framed within the Australian context has meant that there has been no adequate standard of reference for use in social studies curriculum develOpment. By way of example it may be noted 'I\ that fer this particular study, in the absence of an appropriate Australian ' standard, the National Council for the Social Studies Guidelines served as a helpful reference point. In this context it is relevant to note that ° there is not an Australian association of social studies teachers, although suggestions fer the fermation of such a body have been made from time to time fellowing the Unesco seminar of 1967. The National Council for the Social Studies in the United States, through its various publications and subcommittees,provides a useful illustration of how a national association can contribute to the clarification of the nature and appropriate role of - social studies. Conclusion IV. Emphases within social studies have changed in the period, 1950-1977. During this period the nature of the subject has generally been regarded by teachers as vague and ill-defined. Re commendat ion A rationale for teaching social studies, including a consideration of :its nature and significance to the needs of the child should be prepared by f 130 a working party comprising academics, teachers and others with necessary knowledge and expertise. Such a statement should be widely disseminated and serve as a standard of reference in curriculum development. 5. The Status of Social Studies The findings of this study reveal social studies to have been a subject of low status. It was found to have been allocated traditionally to students of low academic ability or to non-Public Examination classes. It has never been accepted as a subject fer P.E.B. classes at the senior level. When social studies was made available in high schools on a wider scale, it was as a subject fer the Alternative Course to be taken by pupils who were considered not to have the ability to cope with P.E.B. subjects. After the discontinuation of the P.E.B. Intermediate Examination, the Education Department introduced a general Junior School Curriculum and social studies became a possible subject for sOhools to offer to all pupils. The earlier established status of the subject could be considered a possible reason for some schOols choosing not to introduce social studies into the Junior School curriculum. Commonwealth Government initiatives in recent years in the area of social education have been supportive of courses concerned with teaching about society. Conclusion V. Social studies has held a low status in the secondary schools of .South Australia during the period under consideration. Recommendation As the status of social studies could affect curriculum decision- making, the historical reasons for its status should be taken into consideration in any curriculum review. 131 6. The Attitudes of Teachers This study has revealed that teachers and school principals hold strong attitudes towards social studies, although they may not always be well-infermed concerning the current aims of the subject. Teacher . enthusiasm has emerged as a strong factor in the acceptance of social studies, whereas in the non-accepting schools "teachers not wishing to teach the subject" was strongly influential. The case-studies demonstrated an intensity of feeling among teachers towards the issue of social studies. Teachers' attitudes towards social studies may be related to many other factors suCh as their perceptions of the nature of the subject and their background in social science disciplines. Conclusion VI. TeaChers' enthusiasm for, or lack of interest in, social studies is a strong factor affecting its acceptance in schools. Recommendation Teachers' attitudes towards social studies should be further explored through an empirical study, using a random sample from a population comp- rising teachers in all secondary schools who are currently teaching, or have taught, any of the social science disciplines or social studies. 7. Teacher Background in Social Sciences The specialized academic background of teachers in certain of the social sciences was identified as a strong influence against the acceptance of social studies in the curricula of non-accepting schools. Thus the factor, "single discipline background of seniors responsible for school faculties", in the checklist that was applied to non-accepting schools was considered important, and was exemplified in the case-study. Further, "the lack of appropriate subject background of classroom teachers", #- X. h a o I c O . t D . ‘ o .o . I c . \ a . I c . s OH: ,132 emerged as strongly influential in the non-acceptance of social studies. Despite these findings in non-accepting schools, it was revealed that accepting schools did not consider the background of teachers in subjects complementary to history and geography to have been a major reason fer social studies appearing in their curriculum. Only two schools considered "the qualifications of staff in areas complementary to history and geography" to have been a strong influence upon its acceptance. It would appear that if teachers are predisposed towards social studies they do not consider their lack of subject background to be a major deterrent to its introduction into a school. As this study has revealed the influence of teacher background and interest upon the kind of social science in the curriculum offered within a school, the nature of teacher training courses emerges as an important factor affecting the acceptance of the subject in schools. Many teachers currently lack appropriate background for social studies teaching and express diffidence concerning their ability to teach the subject effective— ly. As the composition of the staff in schools is unlikely to change markedly in the near future there appears to be a need for inservice education, providing both courses related to a range of social science disciplines and in the methodology of teaching social studies. In view of decreasing funds being made available for inservice education it is probable that teachers will need to undertake evening courses at Colleges of Advanced Education or universities. Diminished promotion opportunities in schools in recent years, however, appear to have affected enrollments in such courses. The needs of the pupils require that teachers improve upon their basic qualifications, in some cases gained many years ago. 133 Conclusion VII. The academic background of teachers has been strongly influential in schools' nonwacceptance of social studies. Recommendations 1. There is a need for the conducting of a survey of courses currently offered in Colleges of Advanced Education and universities relevant to the teaching of social studies in secondary schools. . 2. It is considered desirable that the needs of pupils in the area of social learning be identified and that pertinent detailed information be made available to prospective teachers concerning the range of social science subjects at'universities and Colleges of Advanced Education that would be supportive of effective teaching to meet these needs. 3. Increased provision of inservice opportunities is necessary to assist teaChers in the acquisition of the knowledge, skills and confidence necessary for effective teaching in the areas of social studies and social education. Change in the Curriculum The picture that has emerged in this study has been that of individ- ual schools tending to maintain their existing curricula unless strong pressures arise to cause them to bring about changes. It is recognized that curriculum changes are not easily made because of the long term sequential implications, timetabling restraints and the considerable costs which may be involved in relation to the purchase of new resources. In many of the schools covered in this study the inclusion or exclusion of social studies has not been a live curriculum issue during the last few years. Staffing policies of replacing teachers leaving a school with those of similar backgrounds have tended to maintain the status quo. 134 It should be noted, however, that in seme schools the emphasis upon social studies has fluctuated according to the arrival or departure of individual staff who are strong advocates fer the subject. With the trend towards declining numbers of pupils in schools and decreased transfer and promotion opportunities for staff, it would seem that any moves towards the acceptance of social studies would have to come from teachers currently in the school, rather than from new appointees or transfers. The emergence of a wider range of social science subjects in teacher preparation institutions is not likely to have a direct effect upon schools if the trainees are unable to gain employment. It will be recalled that lack of l appropriate subject background of classroom teachers had been considered a major factor in the non-inclusion of social studies within the curriculum. It was noted in this study that schools which were accepting of social studies also had a favorable attitude towards subject integration, while the situation was the reverse in the case of the non-accepting schools. In as much as the acceptance of social studies involves a measure of subject integration, the wider issue may be a relevant consideration in the schools' likelihood of adopting the subject. Within this study, apart from a few exceptions, it was feund that the -f' principal has far less direct influence over the curriculum than was the . case earlier in the period under consideration. Teachers now are far more likely to assert their subject preferences and to affect decisions. Where :. teachers feel comfortable within a chosen subject field they may not look fer new challenges. It will be recalled that the enthusiasm of the individual teachers for social studies or their antipathy towards the subject has emerged consistently throughout the study as a major influence , upon its acceptance or rejection by schools. 135 COnclusion VIII. Schools have tended to maintain their established curricula with respect to the social studies or social sciences. Recommendations 1. Schools ought to engage in continuing curriculum review, including in their considerations the needs of pupils in the area of social learning. 2. Alternative forms of staff grouping, other than within subject faculties, could be explored with a view towards promoting a more integrat- ive approach to learning in the Junior classes of secondary schools. 9. Liberalizing the Disciplines During the course of this investigation it was discovered that some schools, as a result of curriculum review, have approached history or geography from a broader perspective than that contained within the curriculum guidelines issued by the relevant Education Department curriculum committee. A dimension of social living has been incorporated which appears to embrace many of the aims that are held for current social studies courses. These schools feel comfbrtable in that they consider the course to gain an identifiable structure from the discipline with which teaChers, from earlier training, identify, and to meet the perceived needs of the pupils through not being too narrowly prescribed. One effect of the recent curriculum document issued by the Education Department, "Into the Eighties", could well be fer many schools to continue with the current subject disciplines contained within the school curriculum, but with a revision of content and skills to embrace what could have been thought of as characteristic of social studies. In other schools the current specification of essentials of the school curriculum in terms of broad areas of learning experience may lead them, in reviewing their curricula, n . c I I - . . ... . Q n . t o _. ‘ o .. \I v i ‘ Q ‘ 136 to adopt social studies as a subject, or the broader "social education", as a means of accommodating and integrating a number of smaller subject areas currently claiming a place in the curriculum. Conclusion IX. Opportunities exist fer the incorporation of a social-living dimension in established disciplines in schools non-accepting of social studies. Recommendation It is considered desirable that schools which do not intend to introduce social studies into the curriculum review their existing geography and history courses to enable relevant social aims of the second- ary school curriculum to be achieved through these courses. DISCUSSION OF ASPECTS OF THE STUDY The Innovation Model In this study Rogers and Shoemaker's model was used as a framework fer the collection and presentation of data. It was recognized that as the nature of social studies changed over a period of time it is not the same innovation that at different points of time schools would consider accept- ing or rejecting. Further, it was feund convenient to modify aspects of the model in the preparation of the interview schedule used in the study. Thus "Observability" in the sense that Rogers and Shoemaker use the term was considered indirectly within other sections of the schedule. The heading, however, was preserved to cover opportunities for the innovation to be observed elsewhere as a factor in deciding whether or not to intro- duce it. Thus the model served only as a useful framework, providing a facilitating structure for a stage of the enquiry. 137 The InterView Schedule As indicated in chapter three it was intended that the interview schedule on which headings from the Rogers and Shoemaker model appear would be personally administered by the investigator. The intention of this instrument was to provide useful background infermation supportive of the checklist which was considered to be of primary importance. In the event, because of the obvious pressures acting upon school administra- tive staff, the instrument in most cases was left for the relevant school staff to complete if they were prepared or able to spend the necessary time on it. Because of the importance attached to the checklist, less stress was placed upon the accompanying document. Thus it was returned with varying degrees of completion, but provided sufficient data for the purpose intended. As indicated in chapter three the checklist was compl- eted and returned by 100 percent of the schools in the samples. The Samples In the study convenience samples of schools identified as strongly accepting and strongly rejecting of social studies were used as it was considered that if the suggested factors of influence were to be found . operating, it would be in these schools. A further dimension of interest would have been the drawing up of a convenience sample of schools in the middle of the accepting - non-accepting continuum, where the process of decision-making concerning social studies acceptance or rejection may be more currently active. In such settings an interplay of forces could be further explored. The Findings In considering the results of this study it is important to note that the sChools considered were selected from the Adelaide metropolitan area 138 and that they were government schools only. It was assumed that the situation would not be markedly different in the case of country secondary schools. This, however, could be open to question. The private schools were not included in this study. These schools, most of which are church sponsored, are not so readily compared with the government secondary schools, although they have been subjected to the same kind of Public Examinations Board pressures. The findings of this study should not, then, be considered to embrace the private school sector. 139. APPENDIX 140 APPENDIX 'A' The Purposes of Schools Schools should assist every child: To acquire the greatest possible understanding of himself and an appreciation of his worth as a member of society. To acquire understanding and appreciation of persons belonging to social, cultural, and ethnic groups different from his own. To acquire understanding and appreciation of his cultural heritage and that of other people. To acquire to the fullest extent possible for him mastery of the basic skills in the use of words and numbers. These basic skills fall into four categories: (1) The ability to acquire ideas through reading, listening and observing. (2) The ability to communicate through writing and speaking. (3) The ability to handle mathematical operations. (4) The ability to reason logically, and to use evidence and to make individual value judgements. To acquire a positive attitude towards the learning process. To acquire the habits and attitudes associated with responsible citizenship. These should include at least: (1) A set of personal values which include honesty, compassion fer the less fortunate, a respect fer the individuality and rights of others and a habit of fair dealing. (2) A readiness to join with others without thought of personal gain, either as leader or participant, in activities designed to improve community living either within the family or in a wider group. (3) An acceptance of the need to operate within institutions and customs observed by the majority, even while thinking and acting as an individual and bringing rational criticism to bear upon them. To acquire good health habits and an understanding of the conditions necessary for the maintenance of physical and emotional well-being. 'To have opportunity and encouragement to be creative in as many fields of endeavour as possible. 141 To give equal opportunity to each child to obtain an education that will enable him to develop fully abilities and skills which will give him satisfaction in occupying any position, commensurate with those abilities and skills. To understand and to appreciate human achievement and failure in the past. To prepare for a world of rapid change and unforeseeable demands in which continuing education throughout his adult life should be a normal expectation. Ehource: Education Department of South Australia, The School's Curriculum 1. Adelaide, 1976, pp. 37-38. .l‘i’l. APPENDIX 'B' Interviews with Key Infermants - A Selective List The dates of interviews are as indicated. Mostyn Coleman William Connell Ken Drury David Dufty Nick Hardie Ronald Harper Don Harris Judith Hill Erica Jolly Malcolm McArthur Roland Nicholas Irvine Nicholson Kevin Piper - Max Reynolds Dennis White (5:12:79) (Melbourne, 9:11:79) (11:6:80) (Sydney, 28:10:79) (29:11:79) (19:6:78) (14:11:79) (2:11:79) (18:5:80) (12:5:80) (28:4:80) (7:11:79) (Melbourne, 9:6:80) (26:6:78) (25:6:80) 10. 143 APPENDIX 'C' Interview Schedule W.F. Connell,Former Chairman N.C.S.S.T., 9:11:79. What gave rise to the 1967 Burwood Unesco Seminar? (Who first identified the need for such a seminar and who brought the idea before the Unesco committee?) Whose idea was it that this conference should establish the machin- ery fer the Federal Government to become involved with the States in curriculum development in the Social Sciences? (To what extent was the Department of Education and Science responsible for the set of hopes for the conference as outlined in the opening speech by the Secretary of the Department of Education and Science, Sir Hugh Ennor?) How were the participants fer this conference chosen? What kind of spread was intended and for what purpose? I How were the speakers from overseas and Australia decided upon? The term, "social sciences", rather than "social studies" appears to have been used at the conference. Were there reasons fer this? As Geography and History are well-established subjects in schools it could be expected that representatives of these disciplines could feel their subjects to be threatened by the possibility of further social sciences being recognized in the curriculum. Did any defensiveness of this kind emerge at the conference? What do you consider the impact of the Burwood conference to have been? Prior to and fellowing the Burwood conference a number of articles were written relating to the place of the social sciences in the curriculum. Was this a coordinated activity? What was the intention behind the National Conferences and Workshops sponsored by the N.C.S.S.T.? How successful were these? It appears that the State Advisory Committees functioned with varying degrees of success. Can you comment on the work of the South Australian Committee? ~. 144 APPENDIX 'D' Checklist for Schools Accepting of Social Studies Please indicate the extent to whidh you feel that the fellowing factors have contributed towards social studies becoming readily accepted as a subject within your school. FACTOR EXTENT OF INFLUENCE ANY VERY VERY COMMENT STRONG STRONd SOME LITTLE NONE l. The school philosophy fav- oring subject integration. 2. Qualifications of staff in areas complementary to Hist. 8 Geog. (e.g. Sociology). 3. Single disciplines of Hist. 8 Geog. viewed as too narrow fer Junior School curriculum. 4. Changes made in pattern of sdhool organization (inc- luding timetable). 5. Principal's personal pref- erence fer Social Studies. 6. Influence of senior staff encouraging acceptance of Social Studies. 7. An increased availability of textbooks and other resources in Social St. 8. If formerly Tech. School, existence of Social Studies within original curriculum. 9. Decreased emphasis upon exams with discontinuation of P.E.B. Inter. 8 Leaving. 10.The nature of the Depart- ment's Syllabus and Guides. 11. Enthusiasm of teachers for the subject. 12.Availability of advisory services for social studies. 13.Architecture of school. 14.0ther influences - Please add: ................ CONTINUE ON BACK IF NECESSARY. 145 APPENDIX IE! Checklist fer Schools Non-Accepting of Social Studies Please indicate the extent to which you feel that the fOllowing factors have contributed to social studies not being included in the curriculum of this school. FACTOR EXTENT OF INFLUENCE ANY VERY ‘ VERY ’ COMMENT STRONG STRONG SOME LITTLE NONE . Social studies not being a matriculation subject. . A single discipline back- ground (e.g. Hist. or Geog.)of Seniors respon- sible for school faculties. . Principal's preference for Hist. or Geog. as separate discipline. . Vagueness or nature of content Of syllabus statements. . Lack of appropriate textbooks. Lack of appropriate sub- ject background of class -room teachers. . TeaChers not wishing to teach the subject. . The belief that social studies is not approp- riate fer other than low ability children. Lack of advisory back-up fer social studies (e.g. consultants). 10.0ther influence? (Please add) ............ 146 APPENDIX 'F' Interview Schedule for Schools Accepting or Non-Accepting of Social Studies COMMUNICATION SOURCES 1. 10. Has the school received approaches in the past encouraging the accept- ance of social studies into the curriculum? Source? Education Dept. Official request (nature of?) Subject inspector or P.E.O.? ................. Other? ....................................... . How has the Education Department kept the school informed over the years concerning developments in social studies? Department course outlines ............... News sheets from consultants ............. Other? e.g. Inservice conferences ........ I Visits from Consultant in Social Studies? Frequency? Reason? . Social Studies Teachers Association - Is the school a member? Is literature from the Association disseminated within the school? . What literature associated with the National Committee for Social Science TeaChing has been received over the years by the school? e.g. The News-letter (blue colour - see sample) .................. Reports from National Conferences e.g. see samples .......... "The Study of Society" — Victorian Adv. Comm ................. Other? . 4 Was publicity material concerning S.E.M.P. received in the school? . When the new Social Studies course, "Living and Learning", was offic— ially launched at a conference at Flinders Street, did a representative of your school attend? ...... ' ........................................... . Does the school have a copy/copies of the "Living and Learning" syllabus? ............... . ................ .... .......................... . How familiar would the Geography and History staff be with the "Living and Learning"? ......................................................... . Are any staff-members members of:- a) The Social Studies Teachers Association? ......................... b) The History Teachers Association? ................................ c) The Geography Teachers Association? .............................. d) Other Social Science associations? ............................... In what ways would information received concerning Social Studies developments be passed on to general staff in this school? ............. 5A 147 11.In what other ways do staff in the school receive any infOrmation concerning social studies? ....... . .............. . ........ . .............. 12.What opportunities exist to receive infOrmation concerning social studies from other schools either local or elsewhere? .................. ANTECEDENTS Receiver Variables l. Attitude towards Social Studies? Favorable, Neutral, Unfavorable. Principal ............... ......... Seniors in History and Geography ...... . .......................... 2. Attitude towards subject integration? Principal.... .......... . ....... .. Seniors in History 8 Geography ................................... 3. Seniors membership of subject Associations. History Senior ................. ..... ...... Geography Senior .......................... Social Studies Senior.... .............. ... 4. General staff attitude towards social studies? ............ . ............ 5. Is there a belief in the school that social studies is best suited to low ability children? ..... ......... .............. .... ..... ...... ....... 6. Have any staff requests for social studies introduction been made? ..... 7. Background of staff in Sociology, Politics, Economics etc? ............. 8. Turn-over in staff in the social science area - slight, moderate, high? any effects?. ................................... . ...... ..... ........... Social Characteristics 1. Has the school a conservative tradition in terms of preservation of the disciplines? ................................. . ........... . Is the school a "recognized" history or geography school Of long standing?..... ......................... ... ..... . 3. Was the school fOrmerly a Technical High School? Has this had any effect on the introduction, continuance, or removal of social studies? OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 148 4. If the school is an open-plan school, has the architecture and Open philosophy associated with this type of Sohool favored the introduction Of social studies into the school?...................................... 5. Location of the school - origin of pupils? Is the curriculum matched to the perceived needs of the pupils re: Soc. st., Hist., Geog.?.s...... 6. Perceived need for Social Studies - How would staff feel about any proposal to introduce the subject? ....................... .. ..... .. ...... SOCIAL SYSTEM VARIABLES Secial System Norms 1. Over the years would this school have been generally viewed as conserv- ative or innovative in its curriculum?.................................. 2. How much autonomy does the school perceive itself to have in curriculum ‘ deCiSion-making?O..............COOOOOOOOOOOOOOIO.......OIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO -o l 3. How importantly is the P.E.B. viewed; a - within the school? b - by parents? i.e. relevant to early specialisation. 4. Is the fact that Social Studies is not a P.E.B. subject a possible reason for its lack of acceptance within the curriculum? 5. Do parents have certain expectations of this school concerning the type of curriculum offered? Telerance of Deviancy_ 1. If the school was formerly a Technical or High School what were the pressures on the curriculum when the school became more comprehensive in its intake — i.e. with particular reference to social studies?.......... .1 2. How much interest does the school council/parents take in the nature Of the curriculum that is offered?......................................... 1 3. How free does the individual teacher feel to vary his/her program?...... f, 'ngmunication Integration 1. What mechanisms exist within the school to receive infOrmation relating to curriculum from various sources?..................................... 2. How "available" are consultants and other advisory services in the area ofSOCia-l Studies?.OOOOOOOOOOOCI0.0.0.000.........IOOOOOOOOOOIOOOO...... 3- What opportunities exist for school staff and the community to share Opinions?cooooooooo 00000000000 o 00000 o 00000000000000000000000000 000000000 149 4. Are there any individuals on the staff who can be seen as "opinion leaders" regarding the introduction or rejection of social studies? OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo PERSUASION Relative Advantage_ 1. What advantages/disadvantages have staff considered social studies to have compared with History and Geography? a) in the past? ........................................................ b) at present? ......................................................... 2. What opinions have staff held regarding the nature and availability of resources in social studies as compared with History and Geography? Has the situation changed recently?..... ..... . ..... . ......... . ......... 3. Did the removal of the P.E.B. at Intermediate and Leaving level remove much of the disadvantage that social studies suffered as a subject? gempatibiligy_ 1. How compatible is social studies with the general spirit of the school - i.e. in terms Of the school values and norms etc.? .................... 2. How well would social studies fit in with the present curriculum? What adjustments would be necessary? ........................................ (i.e. what difficulties would be anticipated in introducing the subject? .............................................................. ) C¥omplexi ty ‘ 1- Was perceived difficulty or vagueness of'the social studies curriculum a factor in not accepting it within the school? ......................... 2. Was the social studies course not introduced because it was seen to be too complex in the light of the teachers' academic background? ......... 3- “mat have teachers felt about the Education Department's syllabi and Guidelines in social studies? .......................................... Trialability 1- I‘Iave social studies courses been trialled in the school on a limited S<:ale? .................... On a widespread scale? ..................... 150 2. How about individual social studies units? ............................. 3. Was there thought to be any risk in introducing social studies on a limited basis?..... ............ . ........................ . .............. Is there thought to be a risk now if the school does not currently have it?OOI. 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 OBSERVABILITY 1. Has the decision to try out social studies or not to try it out been influenced by any felt lack of evidence (or evidence) of its success elseWhere?ooooo 00000000000000 O ...... 0.00.00... ...... O ..... O 000000000000 Is social studies (the "Living and Learning" course) felt to be too new at the present time with too little evidence available upon which to base a judgement?....... ............... ..... ............. . ...... .... If social studies has been accepted in the curriculum, on what basis .was the decision made? ............ ...... ..... . .............. .. ......... . Have there been opportunities for your staff to view social studies programs operating in other schools? ....................... ... ......... CURRICULUM DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES WITHIN THE SCHOOL 1. 2. What were these some years ago? What changes have taken place? . What is the present position? . What is the role of the School Council re curriculum? What is the role of each Of the following in relation to curriculum decision-making (with any particular reference to social studies if possible). a) the Principal b) the Deputy Principal Curriculum c) the Faculty Senior d) the Subject faculty ' e) the School Curriculum Committee (if school has one) f) the individual staff member .L- g! . . u a i ‘ I ' . ' 1‘ _ . o , I . . . I . . In t a y . I . . o l ,. I I o I I h ' l 4 c I n . l I C . I - . ' a o . . . O . . I d n . a a l c I . . . . o u . u . u 9 . O O .l! . a n . o . . . . . . a . O . a . C p c u .0 .c . . 1 n . . . c . . . . ... . 4 . . c O o. . .. . l . . . . I. . q _ . s. O . Q . . .- . . . .V . . s . . . . . . .- . . . I g. . c. . .. \ . a c v . . s . Q o o a .. , o I - . c c . . . . .u c . O Q .q o u. a. . I ‘ Q t. .. t I \ . t I . . u \ . \ . n. c .0- . h ‘ b . O . . s v 1 t! . Schools in Samples Non-Accepting and Accepting of Social Studies 151 APPENDIX '6! Non-accepting Schools Former Technical Open Plan Traditional High Size 1020 1000 1180 1380 460 <5 «I <. ‘x <- ‘~ 1050 610 1180 ‘DCDNO‘UIhMNi—I 1150 H O §\\ 1230 Accepting Schools Former Technical Open Plan Traditional High Size \/ 870 940 ‘\ 710 720 1130 480 1500 1111 'OOOVO‘UIAOINH 960 H O 750 (Size of schools indicated to nearest 10 pupils) E ‘2‘ .\ 10. ll. 12. 13. 14 .Do you consider any of the factors on the accompanying checklist to have .Have you heard anything in the last couple of years of the success or 152 APPENDIX 'H' Interview Schedule Staff in Schools Accepging Of Social Studies . Name:., .................................................................. . Less than 10 years teaching experience? ....... Number? ....... More than. Number of years teaching at this school? ................................ Currently teaching which social science subjects and at which level? . In which of the following have you ever taken methods courses? .......... " History ..... ..... Geography ............ Social Studies ................ I . Are you a member of any social science teachers association (e.g. Geography Teachers ...... History Teachers ...... Social Studies ...... . Which of the following subjects have you taught in the past? History, Geography, Economics, Social Studies and at which levels? . Did you have any choice as to whether you taught social studies this year? ......... If so, why did you choose to teach it? ................... ‘ Why, in your opinion, is seeial studies taught in years 8 and 9 in the Junior School (rather than History and Geography)? been influential in the decision to accept social studies in the '{ curriculum of this school? Which of these? j‘ Do you think that staff as a whole would feel favorably towards social studies being introduced more widely in the school? Why? Are there some staff who would prefer to see some of the social studies courses in the curriculum of this school replaced by single discipline social science subjects such as History and Geography? Why? How would you feel personally about the idea of this school changing to History and Geography (i.e. instead of Social Studies in the Junior School)? failure of single discipline social science subjects (History or Geography) in other schools? 15. 16. l7. 18. 153 In your social studies teaching is there: a)deliberate integration with other subjects in the school? b)any team teaching? At the moment social studies is not a Public Examinations Matriculation subject. Do you think that it should be? Why? If a teacher in this school felt that Social Studies should be replaced within the Junior School curriculum by Geography and History how could that teacher go about influencing school policy? What difficulties may be encountered? What do you find difficult about teaching social studies? What satisfaction do you derive from teaching the subject? b. 154 APPENDIX 'J' ' Interview Schedule Staff in Schools Non-Accepting of Social Studies 1. Name ......... . ............................ . ............................. 2. Less than 10 years teaching experience? ..... Number? ........ More than. 3. Number of years teaching at this school? ................................ 4. Currently teaching which social science subjects and at which level? 5. Which social sc1ence subjects did you study at tertiary level? 6. In which of the following have you ever taken methods courses? History? ........... Geography? .............. Social Studies? ............ 7. Are you a member of any social science teachers association (e.g. Geography Teachers ...... History Teachers ...... Social Studies ....... 8. When did you last teach Social Studies? ......... Where? ................. At what level? .................... 9. When was the last inservice conference that you attended related to social studies? ......................................................... 10.Have you heard of any of the fellowing: 11 12. 13. 14. 15. 16 17 a) SEMP b) LEARNING AND LIVING c) STUDY OF SOCIETY. .Why, in your opinion, is social studies not taught in Years 8 8 9 in this school? Do you consider any of the factors on the accompanying checklist to be important influences? Which? Do you think staff'as a whole would feel favorably towards social studis being introduced more widely in the school? Why? Have you noticed any changes in staff attitude to social studies over a period of time? Do you personally consider that social studies should be introduced to further classes in the school? Why? If so, to which? How would you feel about the idea of taking a Year 8 social studies class if the opportunity were to arise? .Have you experimented with individual social studies units within any history or geography course that you teach? .Have you heard anything Of the success or failure of social studies in other schools? _ ‘n. 155 18.What is your attitude towards: a) subject integration? ‘ b) team teaching? 19.If a teacher in this school were to feel that social studies should be - included within the Junior School curriculum, what would be the proced- ure to try to bring this about? What would be likely to make this easy or difficult? 156 APPENDIX 'K' Composition of Case-study Samples - Staff Interviewed Case-study School A - A Non—Accepting School 12 teachers interviewed, comprising:— Principal, appointed 1977 Deputy Principal . Senior in History and responsible for Social Studies Former Senior in History (two) Senior in Geography Former Senior in Geography Geography teacher (two) History teacher Social Studies teacher (two) In addition, correspondence (dated 12:6:80) with the initial school principal (1966). The principal 1967-1976 is deceased. Case-study School B - An Accepting School 8 teachers interviewed, comprising:- Principal (1973-1977) Deputy Principal Senior in Social Studies Former Senior in Social Studies and Geography (two) History teacher Social Studies teacher Former Social Studies teacher 157 APPENDIX 'L' Public Examinations Board - Subjects Examined, 1950 The subjects of the examination shall be the fellowing: (a) INTERMEDIATE Group A Group D English Literature Physics Chemistry Group B Geology Botany Greek Physiology Latin Agricultural Science French General Science (two subjects) German Geography History Social Studies Group E Geography ’ Music Group C ' Drawing Book-keeping Arithmetic Shorthand Mathematics (two subjects) Typewriting Craft Subjects: Woodwork Sheetmetal Work Home Science Needlework N.B. Mathematics will count as two subjects and candidates must take two papers, but a pass in one subject may be awarded on the work presented. The same conditions apply to General Science. (b) LEAVING 1. English Literature 12. Modern History 2. Greek 13. Economic History 3. Latin 14. Economics 4. French 15. Geography 5. German 16. Geology 6. Arithmetic 17. Botany 7. Mathematics, Part I 18. Physiology 8. Mathematics, Part II 19. Agricultural Science 9. Physics 20. Music 10. Chemistry 21. Drawing 11. Ancient History 22. Book-keeping (a) Greek and Roman History 23. Shorthand (b) Early General History. '. (c) LEAVING HONOURS Source: OOVO‘U'I-huNr-A English Literature Greek Latin French German Ancient History Modern History Economics. Part I. 158 . Geography 10. 11. 12. l3. 14. 15. 16. Mathematics (two subjectsO. Physics Chemistry Geology Botany Physiology. Manual of the Public Examinations Board, 1950, Adelaide: University of Adelaide, 1949. Year 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 History 818 881 951 1018 1158 1319 1517 1629 1552 2021 2268 2525 3261 3914 4922 5769 6010 6348 6201 7129 7307 6908 159 APPENDIX Social . Studies 115 115 ISO 237 300 374 443 449 483 436 454 432 334 396 ,538 398 462 468 341 480 491 IMI Geography 1227 1354 1371 1301 1345 1555 1915 1905 1993 2250 2583 3045 3488 3787 4299 4890 5282 5653 5933 6501 7087 7616 Public Examinations Board Intermediate Examination, 1947-1968 Students presented for Geography, Social Studies and History. Total NO. of Candidates 3224 3264 3317 3335 3650 4145 4788 5141 5362 6211 6811 7684 8910 9967 11577 12988 13450 13860 13887 13845 (13849 13881 Source: Public Examinations Board, South Australia. 160 APPENDIX 'N' Function of the South Australian Secondary School Social Science Teaching Project Committee On behalf Of the Director-General of Education the Committee shall undertake the following tasks in the field of Secondary School Social Science teaching and shall report the results Of its work to the Director- General of Education in order to make its findings available to all secondary schools (both departmental and independent). 1. To review the present teaching of Social Science subjects in SOuth Australian secondary schools. 2. To receive and suggest uses for the material which will become available from the seven projects which it is proposed (in Stage I of the Draft Plan of the Unesco Committee) that the National Social Science Teaching Project Committee will authorise. 3. To prepare and,as far as possible evaluate new curriculum units which will be incorporated in appropriate syllabuses in selected pilot schools. 4. To devise new syllabuses which could be used to extend Social Science courses in secondary schools beyond the present terminal points of Social Studies courses - and in particular to consider the develop- ment of suitable syllabuses which could be used in senior classes, either as single Social Science subjects or as integrated subjects. 5. To suggest and develop suitable materials for use by students or teachers in the study Of approved Social Science syllabuses or curriculum units. 6. To encourage, receive and evaluate suggestions from teachers for new curriculum units or study materials. 7. To survey tertiary resources in the Social Sciences in South . - Australia in order to advise on ways of best providing secondary school teachers with suitable background knowledge for Social Science teaChing. It is understood that in seeking to test any units or materials in pilot schools, the Committee shall first Obtain written approval: 1) from the Director-General Of Education for departmental schools. 2) from the Head Of the school in the case of independent schools. 161. APPENDIX 'P' -- Case-study School A IA Courses 1968, First and Second Year Classes FIRST YEAR COURSES 18 IC ID-IE-IF English 5 English 5 English 5 English 6 Latin 5 Latin 5 French 5 Hist/Gov. 5 French 5 French 5 Hist/Gov. 5 Geography 4 Hist/Gov. 4 Hist/Gov. 4 Geography 4 Maths. I ) 8 Maths. I) 8 Maths.I ) 8 Maths.I ) 8 Maths. II) Maths.II) Maths.II) Maths. II) Science 4 Science 4 Science 4 Science 4 Craft 3 Craft 3 Craft 3 Craft 3 Art 4 Music 1 Music 1 Music 1 Music 1 Phys. Ed. 2 Phys. Ed. 2 Phys. Ed. 2 Phys. Ed. 2 Assembly 1 Assembly 1 Assembly 1 Assembly 1 Library 1 Library 1 Library 1 Library 1 Relig. Inst.l Rel. Inst. 1 Rel. Inst. 1 Rel. Inst. 1 SECOND YEAR COURSES IIA IIB IIC IID English 5 English 5 English 6 English 6 Latin 5 French 5 History 5 Geography 5 French 5 History 4 Maths. I ) 8 Maths. I ) 8 History 4 Maths. I ) 8 Maths. II) Maths. II) Maths. I ) 7 Maths. II) Science I ) 8 Science I ) 8 Maths. II) Science I ) 8 Science II) Science II) Science I ) 8 Science II) Craft 4 Craft 4 Science II) Craft 4 Art 4 Art 4 Art 2 Art 2 Phys. Ed. 2 Phys. Ed. 2 Phys. Ed. 2 Phys. 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