AN ANALYSIS OF WORDS AND TERMS RELEVANT AND IMPORTANT TO THE STUDY AND TEACHING OF POLICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT IN THE AMERICAN MUNICIPAL POLICE SERVICE AND RECOMMENDED DEFINITIONS Thesis for the Degree of Ed. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY George D. Eastman 19$?) IHESIS ~._..— .- .._.- - V-_-,_.' L , . ,_ - __. .7. ,A This is to certify that the thesis entitled AN ANALYSIS OF WORDS AND TERMS RELEVANT AND IMPORTANT TO THE STUDY AND TEACHING OF POLICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT IN THE AMERICAN MUNICIPAL POLICE SERVICE AND RECOMMENDED DEFINITIONS presented by George D. Eastman has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ed.D. degree in Administration and Higher Education T/WK JOE/54¢ MaTjror professor ‘ Date November 9, 1965 -~ ~-_“ LIBRARY Michigan ;_~ “ate Univers‘ , y L1 1 —— ( I _._. ABSMCT AN ANALYSIS OF WORDS AND rams RELEVANT AND IMPORTANT 1'0 “DIE STUDY AND TEACHING 01’ POLICE ORGANIZATION m mom IN 133 AMERICAN MUNICIPAL POLICE SERVICE AND “WED DEFINITIONS by George D. Eastman file purpose of this study is: (l) to identify, analyse, end evaluate words and terms of cannon and uncomon usage in the writings on public, business, police, and educational organisation and unagenent that hsve relevsnce end significance to the study of police organization end asneguent; and (2) to deve10p from these analyses and evaluatione definitions of such words and terms so no to make possible improved cos-mication along police administrators , social scientists, instructors, students, and others interested in understanding and improving the police service. the need for this kind of study has been growing at an accelerating pace for note then three decades. During this period literally thousands of nunicipal police departments have begun to provide sue kind of. training to their personnel. the training veries from the nest rudinentary in sales departeents to rather high levels of sephistication and effectiveness in others. Very significant is the fact that more than 100 colleges and universities are today offering police progrens leading to associate, beccaleureate. and neeter degrees. At the seas tine e rather extensive police literature has developed. Inch of the writing has been neither scholarly nor nemingful, although there ere notable exceptions. basic to the development of effective training and educational efforts is effective cousunication. Such commication needs words and terns that are easily understood, simple, and precise in their meanings. 1111.. paper, only in reference to police organization and management, attempts, in a preliminary way, to respond to these needs. ‘fhe basic approach to the study was careful review and analysis of available literature on public, business, police, and educational organisation and management in order to provide the bases for (1) identi- fying already available definitions sufficiently precise and meaningful to serve the purpose of effective co—unication without nodification; (2) synthesizing from two or more available and reasonably apprOpriate definitions, one which would be suitable, and (3) deve10ping de novo definitions wherever the first two processes were not fruitful. 0f the 80 words and term included in the study, only one fell in the first grouping above. Although many fell into the second, most required complete structuring. host "definitions" reviewed and analysed were merely rather general discussions of words or terns and thus did not serve the purpose of this paper nor the needs for precision or adequacy. the study clearly establishes that the kind of work reflected by this paper is essential if there is to be effective and neaningful con- mication among "police adeinietrators, social scientists, instructors, students, and others interested in understanding and ieproving the police service." It further because clear that there is substantial warrant to expand this kind of study for those engaged or interested in large-scale organisational work and professional eanageesnt. AN ANALYSIS OF WORDS AND TERMS RELEVANT AND IMPORTANT TO THE STUDY AND TEACHING OF POLICE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT IN THE AMERICAN MUNICIPAL POLICE SERVICE AND RECOMMENDED DEFINITIONS BY .€) George D?0Eastman A THESIS Submitted to the College of Education Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of . DOCTOR OF EDUCATION College of Education 1965 Copyright by GEORGE DANIEL EAS'JMAN November , 1965 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Credit for this study lies, in large measure, with others. In a sense, it is a product of the friendly personal and professional encouragement of staff of Public Administration Service of Chicago, Illinois, which itself, commits much of its resources to research and publishing in various areas of public administration. The study likewise owes much to the staffs of the Joint Reference Library, which serves a complex of organiza- tions associated with Public Administration Service, the Harper Library of the University of Chicago, and the Library of Congress in Washington, D. C. Special credit is given to members of the faculty of Michigan State University. Principal among these are Dr. Harold Dillon who gave unstintingly of his time and energy, and Dr. Orden Smucker and Dr. E. O. Melby who gave great latitude in materials selection and effective counsel during courses of directed study in the fields of criminology and administration. The most significant credit is reserved for Esther Middleton Eastman who used many persuasive techniques over a period of many years in order to assure that her husband would progress educationally to that point at which this study would be undertaken. ii CONTENTS CHAPTER Page I. INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of the Problem 3 Limitations, Scope, and Treatment 3 II. DEFINITIONS 10 Administration 10 Administrative Processes 12 Assembling Resources 13 Auxiliary Police 14 Auxiliary Services 16 Budgeting 16 Bureau 18 Central Records 19 Chain of Command 21 Clearance Rate 23 Clientele 23 Compliance 25 Controlling 26 Conviction Rate 27 Coordination 28 Crime Prevention 29 Crime Repression 30 Criminal Intelligence 32 Criminalist 33 Criminalistics 34 Department 35 Deployment 35 Discipline 36 Distribution 38 Division 38 Division of Work 39 Element 40 Enforcement Index 41 Esprit de Corps 43 Ethics 44 External Relations 45 Lateral Entry 46 Line Inspection 47 Line Services 49 Management 50 Member 52 iii CONTENTS (continued) Method Morale Nonline Services Officer Organization Organized Crime Patrolman Personnel Administration Planning Plans Police Police Discretion Police-Fire Integration Policeman Police Power Police Responsibilities Policewoman Policy Prevention of Criminality Principles ofi Organization Procedure Process Program Public Education Purpose Rank Rank Order Rank Structure Recruitment Regulation of Noncriminal Conduct Reorganization Research Selection Selective Enforcement Span of Control Staff Inspection Staff Services Tactical Force Title Tolerance Training Unit Unity of Command Vice iv 116 117 CONTENTS (continued) CHAPTER Page III. CONCLUSION 120 BIBLIOGRAPHY 123 INDEX 129 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION American municipal police departments are today tending generally and sometimes striving to better under- stand their own purposes and to seek better ways to mold themselves into effective law enforcement agencies. Progress toward better organization, management, and Operations, however, has been and is uneven from the standpoints of kinds and levels of improvement. Only in the past few years has a rather extensive literature developed. Much of the writing has been neither scholarly nor meaningful, although there are notable exceptions. Speaking in a general sense, effective training has been offered to recruit policemen over a period of but two or three decades, and its utilization has been sporadic and inconsistent. Only infrequently is command or management training provided to in-service personnel. Education, on a preservice basis, has become rather widespread in recent years, in both associate and bacca- laureate programs. Such education has not had a high level of acceptance in police departments and plays no significant role in recruiting practices. Education for officers in service has had little departmental support, although a few departments have established education refund programs. Very few policemen take college or university courses unless partially supported in their effort by some financial assistance, special scheduling, or, at a minimum, administrative interest in their efforts. A combination of education and training is offered by some well—established university-based institutes for in-service Specialists and supervising and command officers, for which university or college credit may or may not be given. Today, more dramatically and urgently than ever, pressures, both internal and external, are building that insist on relief through the develOpment of a police service more professional in nature, more attuned to the times, and with new concepts of reaponsibility and service. Basic to such development is effective communica- tion. Such communication needs words and terms that are easily understood, simple, and precise in their meanings. Not needed, certainly, is a special language that can have no general value to all who must under. stand police organization and management for whatever their valid reasons. It is in the Spirit of better understanding that this thesis is prepared and presented. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The purpose of this study is: (l) to identify, analyze, and evaluate words and terms of common and uncommon usage in the writings on public, business, police, and educational organization and management that have relevance and significance to the study of police organization and management; and (2) to develop from these analyses and evaluations definitions of such words and terms so as to make possible improved communication among police administrators, social scientists, instructors, students, and others interested in understanding and improving the police service. LIMITATIONS, SCOPE, AND TREATMENT Writers in many fields of special interest, law, medicine, sociology, criminology, psychiatry, and others have published books variously described as dictionaries, compendia, and encyclOpedias which purport to serve the purpose of making clear language appr0priate to their areas of specialty. An evaluation of several such books may tend to be more subjective than objective. It tends, nonetheless, to categorize them into three general groupings: (1) those which are deliberately and scholarly written to serve wholly legitimate purposes; (2) those which are superficial and essentially commercial in reward; and (3) those which tend to exoticism in an effort to serve an "in-group" to the exclusion of the uninitiated. Black says (10:viii), in reference to his own work, . . . the dictionary now offered to the [legal] profession is the result of the author's endeavor to prepare a concise and yet comprehensive book of definitions of the terms, phrases, and maxims used in American and English law and necessary to be understood by the working lawyer and Judge, as well as those important to the student of legal history or comparative Juris- prudence. Black's work adequately represents category (1) above within the framework of which this study is attempted. It is not the purpose of this study to produce a police dictionary, compendium, or encyclopedia, each of which, by definition, would include most terminology relevant and apprOpriate to the police service. Instead, its scepe is carefully and precisely limited to basic concepts and practices of organization and administration and to the definition of words and terms pertinent to their full understanding. Inclusion vis-a-vis exclusion remains a difficult problem; it is hOped that final choices appear reasonable. Neither, precisely, is the purpose to produce a glossary, which Webster defines (63:96?), as, "A collection of textual glosses or terms limited to a special area of knowledge." Gloss he defines as, " An expanded interpretation of or commentary on a textual word or expression." An unusual balance is sought in this study and results, generally, in the treatment of each included word in one of three ways. One is that of simple defini- tion, when nothing more is required. Another is that of the glossarist when minimal commentary seems appropriate. The last is closely allied to one purpose of an encyclo- pedia and thus, in a sense, "treats comprehensively . . . a particular branch of knowledge" (63:747). Words and terms treated in the first way are those' of such common usage and clear denotation that their meanings are seldom ambivalent or obscure within the context of their use. Their inclusion is suggested because most will be used occasionally or often in the develOpment of understanding of other less simple terms and will thus serve a Specific purpose. The second kindcpf treatment is given to words and terms that tend to have multiple meanings or interpreta- tions even when used in a specific context. These are susceptible of precise definition but require sufficient commentary to insure their full understanding and effective use. The third method of treatment is especially appro- priate to a number of words and terms which can be fully meaningful only if they are precisely defined, adequately explained, and preperly interrelated. This grouping, including the key words organization and administration, is the one which makes significant this effort. All other included words and terms serve usefully only when they tend, through their own precise use, to promote better understanding of the more complex and important words, terms, and phrases. Black says (10:1x), in explanation of his work, Many of these Judicial definitions have been literally cepied and adOpted as the author's definition of the particular term, of course with a preper reference. But as the constant aim has been to present a definition at once concise, comprehensive, accurate, and lucid, he has not felt bound to copy the language of the courts in any instance where, in his Judgment, a better definition could be found in treatises of acknowledged authority, or could be framed by adaptation or re-arrangement. This statement phrases well the basic concept of this study, Certain words are "literally cepied and adopted as the author's definition of the particular term, of course with preper reference." Others, however, are independently develOped when "a better definition could be found in treatises of acknowledged authority, or could be framed by adaptation or re-arrangement." This study, of necessity, goes beyond mere "adaptation or re-arrangement" in those instances when there are no "treatises of acknowledged authority." Much of this study, then, is a product of three processes: (1) the adaption, with preper reference, of definitions of other authors, literally without change, when, on analysis, they seem fully apprOpriate; (2) the adaptation of definitions of other authors,.or the synthesis of several, when, with adequate explana- tion, this seems to suffice; and (3) the development de novo of definitions and the provision of supporting material when no other recourse is available. All words and terms are listed alphabetically in Contents and appear in the same sequence in Chapter 11, Definitions. Terms of two words or more are listed according to the first principal word, e.g., Span of 'control. In the index, however, this term is listed two ways, Span of control and control, span of. other terms such as unity of command and principles of organi- zation are treated similarly. under.each word or term contained in Chapter II are found three headings: (1) Definition, (2) ggotations, and (3) Evaluation and comment. Following the first is the definition determined to be moSt nearly apprOpriate within the stated purpose of this paper. Infrequently, a definition is followed by a documentation reference in parentheses. In this case, it is considered the best definition available and is a verbatim quotation from the source document. The secOnd is followed usually by one or more quotations from authors liSted in the Bibliography, unless no suitable quotation is available. Each.quotation is allowed to stand independently and is included in a sense of context in relation to the definition. _The third takes whatever courSe seems apprOpriate and relevant to the definition primarily and to the quotations secondarily; however, quotations are included only to facilitate discussion and not in specific reference to the definition. 5 Many words are listed in the Index which are not included in Contents.’ These are words which fall generally into two classes: (1) those which are discussed in the text but which are not listed inde- pendently and (2) those which may be helpful to the reader in locating a particular definition which he cannot find easily by direct reference. A review of the literature is implicit in the nature of this kind of study. More than 100 books, theses, and journals in the fields of business, education, personnel, police, and public administra- tion were reviewed before a final selection of source documents was completed. Next in importance to the literature as a resource for the clarification of the terminology of police organization and management is the day-to-day language of police practitioners, educators, and instructors. Recognition of such people as a resource suggested, in fact required, that many be interviewed in order to make more valid decisions to be arrived at during this study. As a consequence, and as time permitted, police chiefs, command officers, and police professors and instructors were interviewed, during extensive travel, in all parts of the United States. Though none are directly identified, their influence is significant. A composite of priorities of word and team importance, suggested by persons interviewed, and the simple limitation of time available for the study provided the bases on which the final decision was made to include certain words and terms and to exclude others. CHAPTER II DEFINITIONS Administration Definition; Executive action at or near the policy making level of an organization designed to gain its objectives. Quotations: Webster says (63:28) administration is "performance of executive duties: management, direction, superintendence; the principles, practices, and rationalized techniques employed in achieving the objectives or aims of an organization; administrative management: the phase of business management that plans, organizes, and controls the activities of an organization for the accomplishment of its objectives in the long run often as distinguished from operative management." Newman says (43:1) "Administration is the guidance, leadership, and control of individuals toward some common goal." Marx says (39:6) "By estSblished usage, however, public administration has come to signify primarily the organiZation, personnel, practices, and procedures essential to effective performance of the civilian functions entrusted to the executive branch of government." Simon, Smithburg, and Thompson say (54:3) "In its broadest sense, administration can be defined as the activities of 11 groups cooperating to accomplish common goals." Carrell says (18:1) "The role of the chief administrative officer of a city is that of marshalling the resources of the . city government to carry out in an efficient manner the program determined upon by the city's elected officials, . both legislative and executive." Pfiffner and presthus say (46:3) "Administration is an activity or process mainly concerned with the means for carrying out prescribed ends." They later say (46:5) "Public administration may be defined as the coordination of individual and group efforts to carry out public policy." white says (65:1) "Defined in broadest terms, public administration consists of all those Operations having for theirpurpose the fulfillment or enforcement of public policy." Gregg says (15:269) administration may be defined as "the total of the processes through which apprOpriate and human resources are made available and made effective for accomplishing the purpose of an enterprise." Campbell and Lipham say (16:172) "By definition, educational administration is concerned with coordinating the efforts of people toward common objectives." Urwick quotes Fayol who says (29:119) administration is "to plan, organize, command, coordinate and control." Halpin says (30:121)" . . . the central function of administration is directing and controlling the decision-making process." l2 _Eyaluationfiand comment: In common usage it is difficult to distinguish between administration and management. See also: management, organization. Administrative Processes Definition: Collectively, those interrelated means employed on a continuing basis by which an administrator achieves his organizational goals and objectives. ngtations: Newman identifies (43:4) the adminis- trative processes as planning, organizing, assembling resources, directing, and controlling. Gulick refers (29:13) to them as planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Garmire includes (33:78) planning, organization {gig}, staffing, training, budgeting, equipment [gig], coordi- nation [sic], public information [§i£J, reporting, and directing." Salotollo says (51:7) administrative functions are "the tasks of management which are directed toward the effective accomplishment of both the operations or primary functions, and the auxiliary or service func- tions." He lists (51:7) planning, directing, and controll- ing as the primary administrative functions. Appley says (1:9) "Management divides itself into at least two basic functions: planning and control." Gregg says (15:274) l3 " . . . the term [administrative process] may be described in terms of the following seven components: 1. Decision making, 2. Planning, 3. Organizing, 4. Communicating, 5. Influencing, 6. Coordinating, and 7. Evaluating." Evaluation and comment: Writers apparently use functions, activities, and processes interchangeably with regard to performance factors of an administrator. Preference is here given to processes over either functions or activities as a more suitably descriptive word. Preference is also given to Newman's itemization of processes. His single term "assembling resources": provides the basis of choice, and under this term may be subsumed Gulick's "staffing" and Garmire's "staffing" and "equipment." Garmire's "public information" is not, in fact, an administrative process. It may, and usually does, take much of the time of the administrator but is concerned essentially with extra-departmental activities. See also: assembling resources, budgeting, con- trolling, coordinating, directing, and planning. AssemblingrResources Definition: Bringing together essential commodities of personnel, materiel, money, and housing and other real 14 property in such balance as to permit their most ef- fective use for present and anticipated organizational and operational needs. ngtations: Newman says (43:4) assembling resources is "obtaining for the use of the enterprise the executive personnel, capital, facilities, and other things needed to execute the plans." Evaluation and comment: Assembling resources is one of the administrative processes listed by Newman (43:4, 6, 9, 16). This process and the need for it is sound; however, Newman's definition is inadequate because of the restrictions implicit in his terms "executive personnel" and "facilities." Personnel required anywhere in the organization comprise a resource. Materiel more adequately provides necessary support in the way of physical things, except housing and land, than does facilities. Materiel includes, Webster says (63:1392) "equipment, apparatus, and supplies." See also: principles of organization. Auxiliarngolice Definition: A civilian supplementary force organized to assist the police department in certain ways in specific circumstances. l5 _ggotations: Leonard says (38:82) "Many conscien- ‘tious police administrators recognize the tactical advantage of a reserve force [auxiliary police] to supplement the line power resources of the department in emergency situations." Eastman says (23:425) "The auxiliary police organization is separate and distinct from the regular police department and should function only upon the request of the police department or some higher authority and then only under police department control." Eyaluation andcomment: An auxiliary police unit, sometimes called the police reserve, is an outgrowth of the civil defense police service of World War II. Except for certain physical characteristics, the selection process for auxiliary police should be as demanding as for regular policeman. Auxiliary police are normally confined to nonhazardous duties such as assistance to the regular police at special events. They are, normally, sworn or deputized as special police and only have police authority under prescribed conditions of service. 16 Auxiliary Services [Definition: Those nonline functions and activities, other than staff services, which provide technical, Special, and other supportive or facilitative services to all other nonline and line elements of the depart- ment; sometimes called technical services or, simply, services. Quotations: None. Evaluation and comment: The principal functions of auxiliary services are provision of central records (including identification) and communications, laboraé tory services, building and equipment maintenance, and detention services. Occasionally, other functions may be included, such as warrant service and control. See also: nonline services, staff services. Budgeting Definition: The process of establishing provisions for personnel, housing, and materiel needs in relation to anticipated program for a specified period of time in terms of expected cost. Quotations: Holcomb says (33:5) "Budgeting is a distinct phase of planning, for it involves the ability to translate plans, programs, men, and materials into 17 terms of dollars and cents. Furthermore, it is char- acterized by the concept of balance, of the ability to adjust plans and to distribute personnel and purchases so as to get the maximum result." Wilson says (66:94) "The budget is nothing more than the work program of the department stated in terms of the money needed to carry it out. When budgets requests are based on proposed work programs, they will be precise . . . ." Ayars says (3:166) "The budget is the school's finan- cial plan for the year." Evaluation and comment: There is recognition of significant difference between public and private " budgeting. Burkhead quotes (12:34) Colm who says "The essence of the budget principle is that the services in this sphere [the public sector] are deter- mined not by profit expectation and the willingness of individuals to Spend their money for the purchase of such services, but by decisions reached through politi- cal and administrative procedures and based on common social objectives." Burkhead supports this and says (12:35) "The fact that governmental activities are organized in accordance with the budget principle means that the objective test of efficiency which is ever- 1 present in the market economy is lacking here. There are no tangible and self-enforcing criteria for judging -——-- 18 efficiency in the public sector; in fact, there is a great deal of fuzziness in the use of the term in connection with governmental activities." Burkhead perhaps confuses, in the second sentence above, efficiency and profit. In the next sentence perhaps he confuses efficiency and effectiveness. There are criteria to determine effectiveness of police programs and practices. They are not, of course, "self-enforc- ing" and this is not the function of a criterion. Bureau Definition: A principal element of a department and first below it in status. _ggotations: Webster says (63:298) a bureau is "a subdivision of an executive department of govern- ment." Wilson says (67:30) it is "The largest organic unit within a large department." Evaluation and comment: Bureau and division are often used interchangeably but little can be said to justify precedence or choice of one over the other. Bureau has been defined above somewhat arbitrarily on the basis of usage in the federal government and wide- spread acceptance in the police service. Within a particular department, bureau should be used in designating elements of coequal status only. 19 If the police force is a contained element of a depart- ment, such as a department of public safety, it Should be known as a bureau or division, e.g., police bureau or police division, or bureau of police or division of police. Bureau, again, is given preference over division. If the police force is a bureau, by defini- tion, its principal subordinate element is a division. A bureau is not necessarily the largest organic unit within a police department, as Wilson says. One bureau may be, in fact, smaller than a division of another bureau. Functional or other responsibility may be the ,determining factor in the status or designation of an ;element. For example, an inspection bureau may be smaller than a traffic division in a patrol bureau. See also: department, division, element, organic element. Central Records Definition: A nonline element characterized by the functional consolidation of all key aspects of criminal, traffic, and service-to-the-public records under singular command. Quotations: Swanson says (59:2) "Police records are administrative devices for coordinating and con- trolling the various functions of a police department 20 and are used for recording, planning, and executing police operations." Chapman says (33:381) "A central records division to which original and authentic copies of all reports are transmitted without delay establishes the basis for an indispensable form of administrative control . . . . The records will be used by all divi- sions of the police service--investigation, patrol, traffic, vice, and juvenile--but they should be centrally maintained and administered." Leonard says (38:142) "The location of the records function in a police organization is a matter of prime importance. ‘A crime records system can never attain its greatest effectiveness so long as it is operated by a line agency . . . . Operating the Records Division is not a routine clerical duty but an administrative task of the highest order. It is the focal point of all ad- ministrative controls." Wilson says (66:384) "The records system is a tool of the chief and supervising officers to assist them in their tasks of management. It must be developed into a carefully planned, central- ized activity designed to meet the operating needs of the department, and it must be placed in the hands of a competent staff and not left to the whims of the individual divisions." Wilson also says (67:8) "The extent to which the records system facilitates police 21 management . . . depends in large measure upon how it is organized and administered . . . . The records unit is the information center of the police department . . . . All phases of police records work must be fitted together to form an integrated system . . . . A well-administered central records system contributes to the effective operation and management of the police department. A centralized records system places the responsibility for the effectiveness of records work in a single division head." Evaluation and comment: Records constitute the corporate memory of the police service. They must be complete and accurate in every respect and susceptible of immediate retrieval for purposes of management and operations. Complete centralization is basic to the fulfillment of those requirements. Only minimal "working" records should remain elsewhere in a depart- ment. The records element should also contain the personal identification records function. Records and the complementary function of communications should have singular command for purposes of efficiency and control. Chain of Command ‘Definition: A hierarchial arrangement of positions or offices within an organization by level of duty or 22 responsibility which establishes vertical authority relationships in which each level is distinguished from all others by a specific title, rank, or other Special designation. Quotations: Webster says (63:370) chain of command is "a series of executive positions or of officers and subordinates in order of authority especially with _reSpect to the passing on of orders, responsibility, reports, or requests from higher to lower or lower to higher." Salotollo says (51:35) it is "a line or chain of superiors from the top to the bottom." Evaluation and comment: An organization with more than one subordinate rank or level of command or super- vision, if well arranged, has identifiable organic elements established on some basis of division of work (q.v.). The chain of command runs from the administra- tor to the level of execution through prescribed channels. It is not diffused among all subordinate levels from any point or link. Flowing downward from chief of police are several interlocking chains of command; upward from any given point, however, is a single chain. The chain of command provides forithe flow of policy, orders, reports, and information. ' Contrary to Webster, it does not provide for "passing on" of responsibility, either up or down. 23 Clearance Rate Definition: Within a given period of time, the number of cases cleared by arrests or exceptional means per 100 actual offenses. Quotations: None. Evaluation and comment: Clearance rates, as conviction rates, apply to many kinds and classes of offenses but usually to those kinds of offenses re- ported to the police and, also, to those discovered by the police. In traffic their particular application is to hit-and-run accidents. In crime they apply to all Part I offenses and to certain of the Part II offenses. Clearance rates are among the more Significant of police performance indices, but only if a department has full, complete, and accurate reporting and honest classifica- tion of offenses. Whenever a consistent level of reporting is maintained in a particular department, however, clearance rates, on an annual or other time basis, have reasonable value as measurement devices. See also: conviction rates. Clientele Definition: A class of persons directly served by the police or against whom regulatory or enforcement action may be taken; used as one of several bases for organization. 24 pQuotations: Webster says (63:422) clientele is ' and a client is "a person served "a body of clients,‘ by or utilizing the services of a social agency or a public institution." Garmire says (64:46) "Work may also be divided according to the clientele served or worked with." Newman says (43:12?) "Customer [clientele] grouping is sometimes a dominant factor in the organiza- tion of brokerage houses." Gulick says (29:14), in reference to "aggregating the work units" (division of work) that "each worker in each position must be char- acterized by [among other considerations] 'the persons or things dealt with or served . . . .'" Evaluation and comment: Clientele has been adopted by police writers and adapted to their special need for a term or word descriptive of any segment of the public or classification of persons served positively by the police, or in a negative sense. Motorists may be con- sidered as a clientele. Generally, they are served positively by actions taken to relieve congestion and to prevent accidents and through informational services. This is relevant to Webster’s definition above. Many motorists have enforcement action taken against them; they are not served in the sense implied by Webster yet, in police terminology, they comprise a special clientele. Juveniles may also, in effect, be divided into two kinds 25 of clientele. This distinction, however, can never be quite clear; even those who have enforcement action taken against them also are in a larger sense the recipients of the positive service afforded clients. Clientele does not include inanimate things which are a police responsibility, e.g., abandoned automobiles, hazard barricades, and physical evidence. See also: division of work. Compliance Definition: Voluntary public observance of laws and ordinances which prescribe or proscribe certain kinds. of actions; a basic goal of the police. Quotations: Wilson says (66:35?) "Traffic control ~ is effected by persuading motorists and pedestrians to comply with the provisions of traffic laws; safe driving practices are thus ensured. Compliance with regulations is won by public support; the public must understand and approve both the purpose of the regulation and the method used in effecting observance." Holmgren says (34:3) "You have to keep in mind the primary purpose of a police officer in the job of law enforcement. Basically, you want to prevent violations rather than to just make arrests and secure convictions." 26 Evaluation and comment: Wilson's observation is directly concerned only with traffic; however, it has broad relevance to regulatory measures other than traffic and, indeed, is applicable to more serious kinds of prescribed and proscribed activities. Wilson further comments (66:358) "The police should win com- pliance (l) by informing the public of the best practices of driving and walking, and of the nature and purpose of the regulation and its effectiveness in reducing acci- dents and congestion; (2) by the use of admonition, as warning and instructions, but not as rebukes and repri- mands; and (3) only if the first two fail to accomplish the purpose, by punishment in the form of revocations of license, jail sentences, or fines." Securing com- pliance should be a basic goal of the police and the responsibility of all its members. It heavily involves public education and the problems of discretion, tolerance, and policy. See also: discretion, policy, public education, tolerance. Controlling, Definition: The process of assuring that programs are achieved, policies implemented, and procedures followed in accordance with planned objectives. 27 _Quotations: Garmire says (33:110) "Control is effected through application of the principle that a person to whom authority is granted shall be held to account by the superior who made the delegation." Wilson says (66:110) "Every delegation of authority Should be accompanied by a commensurate placing of responsibility." Urwick quotes Fayol who says "To control means to see that everything is done in ac- cordance with the rules which have been laid down and the instructions which have been given." Evaluation and comment: Controlling is included or implied by every author quoted in this study as a component of administration or one of the administra- tive processes. It is achieved "in the line" theo- retically. It is relatively assured by staff inspection. See also: administrative processes, staff inspec- tion. gonyiction Rate Definition: Within a given period of time, the number of convictions for each 100 arrests for a kind of offense or a class of offenses. ,Qnotations: Baker and Stebbins say (5:38) the conviction rate is "[Number of] convictions [in con- nection with accidents] per 100 accident citations and arrests." 28 Evaluation and comment: The definition above is unduly restrictive even in regard to traffic enforcement. A conviction rate may be applied to any kind or class of offense whether it is a violation of a municipal ordinance, or state or federal law. It may also apply to a selected group of offenses, e.g., for all hazardous moving traffic violations, all violations of state liquor laws, or all degrees of burglaries. Conviction rates are useful tools for the police administrator in evaluating the work of his department. In a general sense, however, they may lack validity, especially in relation to interdepart- mental comparisons. Such rates are often significantly influenced by the quality of the prosecuting agencies and sometimes even by personal prejudices of a court in regard to a certain kind of offense. In a particular department, the conviction rates of individual officers, in conjunction with other indices of performance, may be used in measuring individual competence, attitude toward enforcement, court room deameanor, or specific or general need for training. Coordination Definition: The process of bringing into mutual relation acts of individuals or groups of persons in such a manner 29 as to provide uniform, effective, and harmonious action to achieve an organization's objectives. Qnotationn: Webster says (63:502) coordination is "a combination in suitable relation for most effective or harmonious results: the functioning of parts in cooperation and normal sequence." Newman says (43:390) "In administration, coordination deals with synchronizing and unifying the actions of a group of people. A coordinated operation is one in which the activities of the employees are harmonious, dovetailed, and inte- grated toward a common objective." Gulick says (29:13) coordination is "the all important duty of interrelating the various parts of the work." Evaluation and comment: Coordination is listed by several, but not all, of the writers on administration as one of the administrative processes. Those who do not list it, however, directly or indirectly subsume it under one or another of the processes. Morphet, Johns, and Reller say (41:58) "Coordination of functions, activities, interests, and assignments is necessary for successful accomplishment of results." Crime Prevention Definition: The acts or processes which aid in bringing the public to some degree of voluntary compliance with 3O laws prescribing or proscribing certain kinds and classes of conduct and informing the public of the means for self protection from criminal depradations; related to but different from crime repression and prevention of criminality and used in a generic sense for any action which tends to minimize the incidence of crime. Quotations: None. Evaluation and comment: The distinction established in the definition above between crime prevention and crime repression and the prevention of criminality is perhaps more subtle and obscure than clear. It is preposed here as a process of interaction between the police and the general public which tends to elevate the general level of security of a community. It is concerned only incidently or peripherally with the special public for which the processes of prevention of criminality and crime repression are developed. It is essentially a product of public education and information. See also: compliance, public education. CrimefiRepression Definition: The acts or processes used to minimize the occurrence of crime by patrol, surveillance, and related 31 activities that tend to eliminate opportunities for its commission. Qnotations: Webster says (63:1927) repression is "the action of repressing or the state of being re- pressed." He adds that repress means "to check by or as if by pressure: Keep or hold in check." Holcomb says (33:7) "This is a function more firmly embedded [than prevention of criminality] in police practice. Adequate patrol plus continuous effort toward elimi- nating or reducing hazards is stressed as a means of reducing the opportunities for criminal activity." Evaluation and comment: Crime repression is the original raison d'etre of the police and continues as its basic responsibility. There are many other police responsibilities which, except for traffic control and other regulatory activities, arise only because of the failure of the police in its efforts to repress crime. There would be no need for criminal investigation elements or those for vice "control" were the repressive efforts totally successful. Wilson reinforces this; he says (66:51) "In creating functional units for the performance of the primary police tasks, the chief must bear the following facts in mind: (1) the patrol force is the backbone of the department, the field army which is responsible for the basic police services; . . 32 (3) the principal purpose of the special unit is to assist the patrol force in the field of special interest and to undertake tasks that it is able to perform sub- V stantially better than the unspecialized patrol force." Leonard says (32:181) "In the attack upon crime and other police problems, patrol service is at once the most important and at the same time, one of the most neglected phases of police management." Note the term "patrol service" in relation to the definition. He says further "All other line units in a police organi- zation, including detective, traffic, and crime pre- vention are secondary and collateral to the patrol division and are only extensions of that division." The commission of crime requires: (1) desire for criminal gain and (2) present opportunity. The police can only have a minor collateral responsibility for the former, but do have, in fact, a basic responsibility to destroy the second. See also: crime prevention, police responsibili- ties, prevention of criminality. Criminal Intelligence Definition: Knowledge of the whereabouts and activities of known criminals and the infiltration into the community of criminals from other areas, especially in regard to 33 efforts to engage in commercialized vice or organized crime. _Qnotations: None. Evaluation and comment: Criminal intelligence is a matter of great importance to a chief of police. In a large department, it should be gathered for him by a special criminal intelligence element which reports to him or the commanding officer of the inspections element. In a small department, it may be gathered by other means and perhaps on an intermittent basis. The criminal intelligence element's responsibility is simply detailed observation, analysis, and reporting. It is responsible for enforcement action only under very unusual circum- stances. Its reports serve the chief in an inspection relationship because intelligence is gathered independently of the operating elements and often without their cogni- zance. Its interest in commercialized vice centers on the latter's potential for developing into organized crime. See also: organized crime, vice. Criminalist Definition: One skilled in criminalistics. Quotations: Webster says (63:53?) a criminalist is "a specialist in criminal law . . . a specialist in criminology." 34 Evaluation and comment: This word, although not new in usage, was formerly differently defined by Webster who said (62:626) a criminalist was "one versed in crimi- nal law,‘ or, again, "a psychiatrist dealing with crimi- nality." It seems clear that the criminalist is a practitioner in the field of criminalistics even though especially proficient in only one or more areas of the field. Wilson puts it in this context when he says (67:8) "The laboratory examiner or analyst, referred to in this book as a criminalist . . . ." See also: criminalistics. Criminalistics Definition: The application of principles and techniques from the physical, medical, and social sciences to the problems of establishing corpora delicti, civil and criminal investigation and identification, preservation and analysis of evidence, and apprehension. Quotations: Webster says (63:53?) criminalistics is "the application of techniques from the physical sciences and psychology to the problems of criminal identification and apprehension." Evaluation and comment: None. See also: criminalist. 35 Department Definition: Usually the designation of that branch of municipal government reSponsible for all police functions. Quotations: Webster says (63:604) that a department is "an administrative division or branch of a national or municipal government" and, also, "a division of a business concern handling a major function." Evaluation and comment: Department is the most common designation for a municipal police force but is used only when its chief executive reports directly to a city manager, a mayor, or a member of the board of city commissioners. If the police force is a contained element of a department of public safety or other department, it then has a lesser status and is usually called a bureau or a division. See also: bureau, division, element. Deployment Definition: The assignment of field personnel on a basis of need in relation to time and area in such a manner as to effectively equalize work loads and re- sponsibilities. ,Qnotations: Webster says (63:605) deployment is "the act or movement of deploying or the state of being 36 deployed." He defines (63:605) deploy as "to extend (a military or naval unit) in width or in both width and depth . . . or, to place or arrange (armed forces) in battle disposition or formation or in locations appropriate for their future employment." Evaluation and comment: Deployment, in effect, refers to the use of field personnel in a tactical sense. It places field personnel in areas at times when their efforts can achieve optimal results under circumstances that provide for reasonably equalized work loads and responsibilities and a more consistent level of general service. Deployment used thus is more precise and meaningful than the more commonly used word distribution which can have no significant relevance to such tactical assignments as those involved in selective enforcement or the use of a tactical force. See also: distribution, selective enforcement, tactical force. Discipline Definition: Psychological condition of readiness and willingness of an individual, group, or organization to conform with rules and regulations and to meet effectively both normal and unexpected demands; process by which the condition above is achieved. 37 Qnotations: Webster says (63:644) discipline is "systematic, willing, and purposeful attention to the performance of assigned tasks." Germann says (26:164) discipline is "group compliance with authority." In the second sense, Wilson says (67:173) "Discipline is a function of command which must be exercised in order to develop a force amenable to direction and control. Webster says (63:644) discipline is "training or experience that corrects, molds, strengthens, or perfects." Evaluationand comment: A high level of discipline, or an optimal condition of readiness, permits a man, a group, or an organization to effectively, efficiently, and economically meet prescribed objectives under routine or emergency circumstances with minimal supervision and direction. Smith says (56:138) "A sound discipline will probably contribute more to the solution of our munici- pal police problems than any other single recourse now available." The process of discipline may be considered from two standpoints: (1) positive (or nonpunitive) and (2) negative (or punitive). The first approach is essentially one of training and supervision and suitable rewards of personal and professional satisfaction. The second is the invoking of sanctions. A department which follows faithfully and enthusiastically the first concept seldom has cause to resort to the second. 38 Distribution Definition: The apportionment of available personnel among the various elements of a department, first by major element and then by subordinate element, based on evaluation of relative importance and need. Quotations: Webster says (63:660) distribution is "a device, mechanism, or system by which something is distributed (as from a main source)." He says (63:660) that to distribute is "to divide among several or many." Evaluation and comment: Distribution has no connotation of tactics and refers simply to allocation of available personnel to department elements on an equitable rather than an equal basis. Empirical judgment, policy determinations, community values, and other factors are commonly used as bases for dis- tribution of personnel. See also: deployment. Division Definition: A principal element of a bureau and first below it in status. 39 Quotations: Webster says (63:664) a division is "a subordinate administrative unit of the executive department of the U.S. government usually ranking below a bureau." Evaluation and comment: Division and bureau are often used interchangeably, but little can be said to justify precedence or choice of one over the other. Division has been defined above somewhat arbitrarily on the basis of usage in the federal government and widespread acceptance in the police service. Within a particular department, division should be used in designating elements of coequal status only. Certain divisions may be elements of a bureau while other divisions report, through their commanding officers, directly to the chief of police. See also: bureau, department, element. Division of Work Definition: The concept that the functional organiza- tion of a department is or should be derived from or modified by the apportionment of work among component elements by purpose, process, method, or clientele and in accordance with need by time and area. Quotations: Gulick says (29:3) "Work division is the foundation of organization; indeed, the reason for 4O organization." Garmire says (33:45) "The need for dividing work among members of the force is recognized by everyone, but the bases on which to divide it are not clear. There are at least five factors on which division of work in an organization may be based-- purpose, process or method, clientele, time, and area." Wilson says (66:35) "Tasks, similar or related in purpose, process, method, or clientele, are grouped together in one or more units under the control of one person. In order to facilitate their assignment, 'these tasks are divided according to (a) time, (b) the place of their performance, and (c) the level of authority needed in their accomplishment." Morphet, Johns, and Reller say (41:59) "The scheme of organiza- tion should provide for maximum homogeneity in the major divisions of work." Evaluation and comment: Many writers include division of work, in one way or another, in their listings of principles of organization. See also: clientele, method, principles of organization, process, purpose, unity of command. Element Definition: An organic component of a department or of one of its bureaus or divisions. 41 Qnotations: Webster says (63:734) an element is "one of simplest parts or principles of which anything consists or into which it may be analyzed; one of a number of distinct or disparate units, parts, traits, or characteristics of which something tangible or intangible is composed." Evaluation and comment: Unit and organic element are used almost interchangeably with element in the sense of the definition above. Webster says (63:1590) an organic element is "assigned to and constituting a permanent part of a military organization (as a regiment) under its table of organization and equipment." Generally, the use of element or organic element is preferable to the indiscriminate use of the term division when the latter is also used in a specific sense as an official name or designation in a depart- ment, for confusion might result from its use. See also: bureau, division. Enforcement Index Definition: Within a given period, the enforcement index is the quotient of the division of the total number of convictions, with penalty, for hazardous moving traffic violations by the total number of fatal and nonfatal personal injury accidents, 42 .Quotations: Baker and Stebbins say (5:69) the enforcement rate is the "[Number of] convictions with penalty paid for hazardous traffic law violations per motor vehicle traffic accident resulting in injury or death." Evaluation and comment: Baker and Stebbins refer to "penalty paid." The index (called the "rate" by Baker and Stebbins) does not include the word paid, since this is implied in penalty. The Eastmans say (24:38) "This [an enforcement index of 20] is assumed to be the minimum effective index as determined by the International Association of Chiefs of Police, the National Safety Council, and Northwestern University Traffic Institute . . . . There is nothing magical about the index of 20, it may even be inadequate . . . . The index Should be raised until the total incidence of fatal and non-fatal personal injury accidents starts to diminish. When this occurs, enforcement held at a constant level begins, automatically, to raise the index. It is at this point that thecenforcement need must be re-evaluated." They also say (24:38) "It is important to point out that a prescribed index can only be reached by a certain gross enforcement product. This does not, in itself, nor should it, indicate individual officer quotas." An enforcement index is 43 the only valid criterion available today for measuring gross enforcement effort. It serves no real purpose, however, unless it is a product of selective enforce- ment. See also: selective enforcement. Esprit de Corns Definition: The aggregate of the morale of individual members of a group, reflected in substantial agreement among them on objectives and goals and unstinting and enthusiastic mutual support in their achievement. Quotations: Webster says (63:776) that esprit nn Eggp§_is "the usually selfless and often enthusiastic and jealous devotion of the members of a group or association of persons to the group or to its purposes." Evaluation and comment: Both definitions above suggest an optimal condition, one which does not often prevail. It is assumed, therefore, that levels of esprit de corp§_below optimal are distinguishable. The level of esprit de corpn in a group is usually sub- jectively evaluated. It is a product of many factors: sound recruiting and selection, training, supervision, leadership, acceptance of clearly defined and under- stood goals, and others. It can be negatively evaluated on factors of citizens' complaints, attendance records, 44 appearance, departmental work production and quality, and others. It must be maintained at the highest level possible in relation to the administration's potential to develop it. A department's success in attaining its objectives is, in large measure, determined by the level of gsprit de corpn. Gulick says (29:119) "Esprit de corpn_depends primarily on equity. It enters into process with the enforcement of discipline. Its effect is stability of staff." See also: discipline, morale. Ethics Definition: Principles of conduct and tenets of morality subscribed to without reservation and on which personal and official actions are based. ,Quotations: Webster says (63:780) ethics are "the principles of conduct governing an individual or a profession: (standards of behavior (professional ethics)." Haake says (36:5) "Law and order without loss of indi- vidual freedom can be maintained only as the personal ethics of individual citizens call for and support the law of the state." Wilson says (66:7) "Adherence to such a code [of ethics] is the first step toward true professionalization of police service." 45 Evaluationrpndcomment: The Law Enforcement Code of Ethics was adopted by the International Association of Chiefs of Police in 1957. Were it to have total compliance by all police agencies, public support of the police would rise quickly and substantially. It serves presently aS a goal, no more, for it lacks the efficacy of a true professional code of ethics. External Relations Definition: Those activities which fulfill that re- sponsibility of the chief of police to gain support from and to coordinate with and offer support to other agencies and the general public in the attainment of the police purpose. Qnotations: None. Evaluation and commenn: External relations are not part of the administrative processes. They com- prise, instead, a sort of extra-curricular duty which is, nonetheless, essential to the success of the department. They range from formal through informal activities and relationships and may be considered to be the product of four kinds of contact and activities: (1) the formal relationship of the chief of police with the press, prosecuting agencies, courts, other law enforcement agencies, legislative bodies, and the 46 manager or mayor; (2) the formal relationship of sub- ordinate officers to these same people or groups, usually excepting, of course, the mayor or manager; (3) the informal relationship of all members of the force with all persons with whom they are in daily contact; and (4) the relationship, both formal and informal, of the public education (information) unit with all whom it contacts. External relations do not comprise a police purpose but are essential to the achievement of the police mission, and must be exten- sive, intensive, and effective. See also: administrative processes. Lateral Entnx Definition: The appointment to a position in any rank of a person who is not, at the time of appointment, a regular member of the appointing department; usually considered to apply to positions above patrolman. _Qnotations: None. Evaluation and comment: The practice of lateral entry between patrolman and chief has been and is used infrequently, although lateral entry to the position of chief of police is becoming increasingly common. Germann says (26:118) "The police service of America should either adopt a policy of lateral entrance, or 47 remove some of the bars to rapid advancement-~if a superior type of personnel is to be recruited and utilized to the fullest extent." Leonard says (38:58) "The City of Seattle, on a consultant's [Leonard] recommendation, amended its charter and in 1946 held a national open competitive examination for the position of chief of police . . . . The out- standing record of the Seattle Police Department under [the new chief's administration] more than vindicated the decision of the people in that city to select their police chief executive by open competitve examination." Resultshave not been always satis- factory; however, where great care in recruiting and selecting is exercised, results have been outstanding. For example, several men today are successfully filling their second or third position gained by lateral entry: 0. W. Wilson in Chicago, Illinois, Bernard Garmire in Tucson, Arizona, James F. Bale in Sierra Madre, Cali- fornia, and E. Wilson Purdy of the Pennsylvania State Police. Lateral entry will become common as more police administrators attain professional status. Line Inspection Definition: An inspection, of subordinate elements or personnel, by those in command, to insure that work is 48 performed in accordance with established policies and procedures, that housing and materiel are well cared for and utilized properly and effectively, and that personnel are properly uniformed and in compliance with prescribed rules of conduct. _Qnotations: Wilson uses the term authoritative inspection rather than line inspection and says (66:112) it is "conducted by those in direct control of the persons and things inspected, to see 2232 tasks are satisfactorily performed." Garmire also uses Wilson's term (33:111). Salotollo does not distinguish kinds of inspections and says (51:113) inspection is "Critical review or examination for the purposes of acquiring information relative to persons, places, and things." Haydon says (31:5) "The line inspection is accomplished by the superior inspecting subordinate personnel and equipment." Evaluation and comment: Line inspection is tradi- tional in the police service. It is a daily and continuous reSponsibility of supervisory and command officers. However, it is a self-inspection process which has inherent weaknesses. Line inspecting officers may tend to be self-protective and partial, and not have the broad perspective and department-wide knowledge required for evaluation of their own units vis-a-vis .t\l\. v‘ I 10 49 others. It is for these reasons that staff inspections should supplement the line inspgction process. See also: staff inspection. Line Services Definition: These functions and activities which are basically concerned with fulfillment of the primary police responsibilities, generally characterized by direct contact with the public. Qnotations: Webster says (63:1314) line refers to "the combatant forces of an army as distinguished from the staff corps and services of supply." Leonard says (38:65) "The line translates plans and policies into action in the field; it is the point at which the discharge of police service is made. The ultimate delivery of police protection and the maintenance of law and order is the responsibility of the line." Leonard also says (38:76) "Line operations constitute the field activities which are more immediately directed toward achieving the objectives for which the department is organized." Garmire says (33:78) "As was indicated earlier, those tasks that are not administrative, staff, or auxiliary in nature are line operations. For the purpose of this discussion line shall mean those functions for which the organization exists. A police 50 department exists to patrol, investigate, and enforce; therefore, officers involved in those functions are line officers." Evaluation and comment: Those officers who are directly concerned with and involved in fulfilling police responsibilities are "in the line" and must be members of one of the line elements. The latter may vary in name and importance depending on the structure of a particular organization. In Leonard's type of organization (38:69), all line personnel would be in one of several divisions in the Line Operations Bureau. In another department (33:74) they would be in one of the major divisions reporting directly to the chief of police. Typical line elements are patrol (or uniform), criminal investigations (or detective), traffic, juve- nile (or youth and women, or crime prevention), and vice. See also: police responsibilities. Management Definition: The acts or processes executed by an ad- ministrator, manager, or supervisor in achieving the objectives of an organization through optimum utiliza- tion of total resources. 51 AQuotations: Webster says (63:1372) management is "the conducting or supervising of something (as a business), especially the executive function of planning, organizing, coordinating, controlling, and supervising any industrial or business project or activity with responsibility for results." Appley says (1:8) "Manage- ment is the responsibility for accomplishing results through the efforts of other people." He says (1:9) further "Management is not the direction of things, it is the development of people." Evaluation and comment: Many writers tend to equate management with administration. For example, one book has a chapter titled Police Management; Garmire opens the chapter by saying (64:76) "This chapter will deal entirely with administration . . . ." The die- tinction between management and administration, although perhaps a subtle one, appears to center on two sup- positions: (1) administration lies closer to or is directly involved in policy making, often being closely associated with the superordinate legislative body, and (2) management, while also involved in policy decision making, is more closely related to and responsible for operations. This position in regard to administration, however, is denied by Mort, who says (42:12) "Adminis- tration is not the exclusive preserve of someone 52 carrying an appropriate status title. The duties of administration may be performed by anyone involved in the undertaking." Mort, however, is discussing ad- ministration in an atypical context; he says (42:11) "School administration is the framework and inspira- tion for the core of the school, instruction." The distinction perhaps becomesless subtle when it is recognized that the term "middle administration" is not to be found in current writings while middle manage- ment is frequently found. Marx, for example, refers (39:40) to "neglected topics, such as the role of 'middle management.'" The distinction may be implied by the presence or absence of another term "art and/or science of" which is used in reference to administra- tion, though never in relation to management. See also: administration, organization. Member Definition: A sworn employee of a police department. _Qnotations: None. Evaluation and comment: Occasionally the term member may include all employees; however, it serves a useful purpose when used as defined above. 53 Method Definition: A system or plan for the accomplishment of something; usually implies a logical series of steps. Quotations: None. Evaluation and comment: The essence of method is a plan for action. Method is used improperly by some authors who equate it with process. See also: division of work, process. Morale Definition: An individual's state of well being, physical, mental, psychological, and emotional, that determines the levels of enthusiasm, perseverance, and ambition with which he accepts routine responsibility and unusual challenge. Quotations: Webster says (63:1469) morale is "a state of individual psychological well being and buoyancy based upon such factors as physical or mental health, a sense of purpose and usefulness, and confi- dence in the future." 1 Evaluation and comment: Individual morale of members of a group is the basic component of esprit de corps. It may, to some degree, be separately measured by certain factors such as evaluation of attendance 54 records and other reports, appearance, deportment, and production of work. See also: discipline, esprit de corpe. Nonline Services Definition: Generally, all functions and activities not performed by a line element in the furtherance of the police purpose and which, at the time of performance, do not involve direct confrontation with members of the public, either in the way of service or restraint; specifically, those functions and activities carried out intra-departmentally to serve or assist the line elements, the chief of police, and other nonline ele- ments. _Quotations: Garmire says (33:78)" . . . those tasks that are not administrative, staff, or auxiliary in nature are line operations." Leonard says (38:76) 'h . . he [the chief of police] normally will divide the major tasks of the organization into three major administrative branches: 1. Staff Services, 2. Line Operations, and 3. Inspections . . . . Staff services refer to personnel, materiel, planning, research, public relations, and the maintenance of equipment and build- ings. Staff services strengthen line operations so that the latter may be more productive." Wilson says 55 (66:25) "Police tasks may be classified as line, auxiliary, and administrative" [the second and third are nonline]. He adds (66:26), however, "All services which assist the line officer are designated as auxil- iary or secondary services." James says (35:61) "The organic units of police and fire departments may be conveniently considered in three categories: (1) operational units, that furnish services directly to the public; (2) service units, that give services to the department itself; and (3) administrative or staff units, that furnish assistance to the responsible head of the organization." Evaluation and comment: No police writers dis- agree on the distinction between line and nonline services, functions, or tasks. There is but little agreement, however, on classification of the latter. Four terms are commonly used in attempts to classify them, administrative, auxiliary, staff, and technical, and occasionally simply services. Leonard classifies (38:76) all nonline services except inspections as staff. Garmire is less clear; he says (33:78) "Staff as it will be used here means those people or tasks which are administrative." He does not define adminis- trative but indirectly involves only such personnel in the administrative processes. Wilson belabors 56 distinctions between operational administrative duties and managerial duties within the framework of adminis- trative functions. He adds (66:27) "As used in this book, the terms staff duties and administrative duties are not synonymous." He further says (66:26) "The administrative function includes the tasks of manage- ment, which facilitate and make possible the effective accomplishment of the other two, i.e., line or field operations (primary functions) and services (auxiliary functions)." It is clear that the chief of police has full responsibility for all administrative processes. Which of these he retains entirely himself, which of these he shares with others, and which of these he delegates fully are fundamental questions that only he can decide within the framework of reference of his own peculiar local circumstances. For organizational purposes all nonline functions, responsibilities, and activities appear to fall into three classifications, inspectional services, staff services, and auxiliary services. See also: administrative processes, auxiliary services, staff inspection, staff services. 57 Officer Definition: A sworn member of a police force; a policeman in certain ranks. _Qnotations: Webster says (63:1567) an officer is "one charged with administering and maintaining the law (as a constable, bailiff, sheriff), e.g., officers of the peace." Evaluation and comment: Officer is used as a generalized term of direct address for policemen, commonly in addressing patrolmen though occasionally used for policemen of higher rank when the rank is not known or recognized. It is often used in the third person as a term of respect. It is also used as a general term when referring to policemen in ranks above patrolmen, e.g., supervisory and command officers. Officer has the same application to policewoman as it does to policeman. It does not usually have reference to military terminology such as commissioned and non- commissioned officers or officers of field grade. Organization Definition: The arrangement and utilization of total resources of personnel and materiel in such a way as to 58 facilitate and expedite the attainment of specified objectives in an efficient, effective, economical and harmonious manner. Qnotations: Webster says (63:1590) organization is "the administrative and functional structure of an organization (as a business, political party, military unit) including the established relationships of person- nel through lines of authority and responsibility with delegated and assigned duties." Urwick says (56:209) it is the "subdivision and arrangement of activities to secure economy of effort through specialization and coordination of work, thereby leading to unity of action." Gaus says (65:26) "Organization is the arrange- ment of personnel for facilitating the accomplishment of some agreed purpose through the allocation of func- tions and responsibilities. It is the relating of efforts and capacities of individuals and groups engaged upon a common task in such a way as to secure the desired objectives with the least friction and the most satisfaction to those for whom the task is done and those engaged in the enterprise." Salotollo says (51:158) organization is "A number of individuals united for some end or work; an arrangement of persons with a common purpose and objective in a manner to enable the performance of related tasks by individuals 59 grouped for the purpose, and the establishment of areas of responsibility with clear-cut channels of communi- cation and authority." Barnard says (7:72) a formal organization is a "system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more persons." Simon, Smithburg, and Thompson say (54:5) " . . . by formal organization we mean a planned system of cooperative effort in which each participant has a recognized role to play and duties or tasks to perform." Appley says (1:13) "Organization structure is the medium which makes it possible for individuals to work together in groups as effectively as they would work alone." Evaluation and comment: Organization can be thought of as a process. Webster says (63:1590), in this respect, organization is "the act or process of organizing." The act of organizing is one of the ad- ministrative processes. This has special relevance to the police administrator who often is faced with a need to reorganize. See also: administration, administrative processes, reorganization. 6O Organized Crime Definition: Two or more persons acting in concert, usually on a continuing basis, to gain financial return from criminal activities. ,Qnotations: Wilson says (66:299) organized crime is "the combination of two or more persons for the purpose of establishing, in a geographic area, a monopoly or virtual monopoly in a criminal activity of a type that provides a continuing financial profit, using gangster techniques and corruption to accomplish their aim." Evaluation and comment: Wilson refers above to a kind or level of organized crime and thus does not use the term in a general sense. Wilson's definition more nearly applies to racketeering or to syndicated crime (not to be confused with criminal syndicalism). Certainly, neither monopoly or near monopoly nor corruption are essential to an organization engaged in criminal activities if it is of a kind that can operate relatively successfully without it. Wilson says (66:299) "These huge and continuing criminal profits are found in the field of vice, ile., in gambling, prostitution, and in the illegal sale of narcotics and liquor. Organized crime seldom concerns 61 itself with other criminal activities such as robbery, theft, and fraud because the profits are neither large nor continuing, and monopolistic control cannot be established over criminal operations not conducted in an established location." Here Wilson obscures the issues and is self-serving in support of his definition. Perhaps he is attempting to distinguish between organized crime and crime that is organized. Certainly the recent great train robbery in England was well organized, and probably did not involve corruption of public officials; the Insull empire was well organized and gained huge profits; stock frauds do not involve monopoly; organized auto theft rings are not necessarily confined to geo- graphic areas; and so on. Organized crime may vary from an ad hoc organization to that kind defined by Wilson. Salotollo somewhat supports Wilson and says (51:161) organized crime is "An organization of criminals formed for the purpose of controlling crimes of certain types in a given geographic area, thus creating a monopoly on crime." Salotollo is self-contradictory. Compare his two phrases "formed for the purpose of con- trolling crimes of certain types? and "thus creating a monopoly on crime." The second does not naturally follow from'the first. Many other writers are not so precise, certain, nor dogmatic as Wilson and Salotollo 62 and are inclined to discuss rather than define. Sutherland says (58:207) "Organization develops in the interaction of criminals. This organization may be a formal association with recognized leadership, under- standings, agreements, and division of labor, or it may be informal similarity and reciprocity of interests and attitudes." He adds (58:208) "Protection against arrest and conviction is a necessary part of organized crime." This latter statement supports Wilson but is true only in the relative context of Wilson's defini- tion. Reckless (50:179) says "Organized crime pene- trates those illegal activities that have possibilities for big monetary returns and, at the same time, have possibilities for survival. In the United States today, the criminal fence, commercialized vice (the business of prostitution), drug traffic, gambling, and racketeering (both business and labor rackets) are the chief areas of activity for organized crime. In some parts of the world, smuggling and contraband may become the chief areas of organized crime." He adds (50:180) "Perhaps one of the oldest manifestations of organized crime has been the criminal fence . . . ." Certainly the criminal fence falls outside Wilson's definition. Barnes and Teeters do not discuss the terms organized crime. They say (8:29), however, 63 "Crime syndicates are of two kinds: (1) aggregates of criminality, nationwide in scope; and (2) local gangs of predatory criminals engaged in fraudulent schemes to get something for nothing." They add, "The nation- wide syndicate is the perverted epitome of the large- scale business concern." The simple definition above stands, and within it can be classified all crime that is organized. See also: vice. Patrolman Definition: A sworn member of a police department at the lowest level in the chain of command, excluding nonsworn personnel. gQuotations: Webster says (63:1656) that a patrol- man is "a rank-and-file policeman: one without super- visory rank or authority." He further says that a patrolman is "a policeman on patrol duty." The Eastmans say (24:8) a patrolman is "A sworn member [of the de- partment] whose duties are the basic functions of the police service." Evaluation and comment: Patrolman is not a synonym for policeman. The rank of patrolman, in many frames of reference, is the most important within a department. 64 The patrolman's work lies almost exclusively at the level of execution and his department cannot be success- ful in achieving its objectives unless he does it well. Thus, essentially, the department's organization and administration, its personnel practices, and its operational policies, programs, and procedures are all geared to make him effective. See also: policeman. Personnel Administration Definition: All processes involved in (l) recruitment, selection, placement, and utilization of personnel, (2) provision of employment benefits such as compensa- tion, leave days, insurance, and pensions, and (3) direct employee relations on negotiations, grievances, and other matters. ,Quotations: Webster says (63:1687) personnel administration or personnel management is "the phase of management concerned with the engagement of and effective utilization of manpower to obtain optimum efficiency of human resources." Stahl says (57:48) "The modern emphasis on training and the human aspects of management recognizes personnel administration as a positive force in developing leadership, in achieving the most productive efforts of workers, in fostering 65 stable, democratic employer-employee relations, and in evolving the most effective relationships at all points in a work situation." Stahl says (57:24) his book "makes no pretense of being definitive about subjects [certain aspects of personnel administration] which by nature are amorphous and evolving . . . ." Pigors and Myers say (47:6) "The essence of what we mean by person- nel administration is contained in the following definition, the considered opinion of Thomas G. Spates, a leader in the profession, 'Personnel administration is a code of the ways of organizing and treating individuals at work so that they will each get the greatest possible realization of their intrinsic abilities, thus attaining maximum efficiency for themselves and their group, and thereby giving to the enterprise of which they are a part its determining competitive advantage and its optimum results.'" The Eastmans say (24:92) "Although technological improvements are increasingly important to effective police operations, the greatest gains yet to be made in improved service lie in better personnel management practices." Evaluation and comment: Costs for personal services in today's municipal police departments usually exceed 85 per cent of total budget allocations 66 and occasionally may reach nearly 90 per cent (24:92). This gives credence to the Eastmans' statement above. Orientation of the police is almost entirely to people, most often on a basis of face-to-face confrontation. To make police service both effective and acceptable to the public, police personnel administration and practices of the highest order are essential. Planning Definition: The process of defining administrative and operational goals and objectives and of devising the means best suited to their achievement. _Qnotations: Webster says (63:1731) planning is "the act or process of making or carrying out plans; specifically: the establishment of goals, policies, and procedures . . . ." Newman_says (43:15) "Speaking generally, planning is deciding in advance what is to be done; that is, a plan is a projected course of action." Wilson says (67:89) "Planning involves finding facts and analyzing them to determine present and future needs and developing procedures and resources to meet these needs." Leonard says (32:139) "Planning is the working out in broad outline of the things that need to be done and the methods for doing them in order to accomplish the purpose set for the enterprise." 67 Salotollo says (51:173) planning is "Devising a method or course of action; arranging means or steps for the attainment of an objective." Millet says (40:55) "Planning is the process of determining the objectives of administrative effort and of devising the means calculated to achieve them." Again he says (40:55) " . . . planning is preparation for action." Simon, Smithburg, and Thompson say (54:423) "Planning, in our psense, is that activity that concerns itself with proposals for the future, with the evaluation of al- ternative proposals, and with the methods by which these proposals may be achieved." Baker says (4:89) "Planning is laying out a course of action or method of accomplishing objectives." Parker quotes (44:74) Hayek who says "Planning simply involves the process of securing all of the facts within the limits of time, distance, and the powers of man and bringing these facts to bear upon the administrative problems concerned." Brunton and Carrell say (11:38) "Adminis- trative planning is the determination of specific steps to be taken in order to put into operation and bring to a successful conclusion a policy already agreed upon." Evaluation and comment: Planning is an important and never-ending process in any large-scale organization, 68 particularly in one so complex and people-oriented as the police. Most writers on administration give first emphasis to planning in detailing the administrative processes. See also: administrative processes, research. fleas Definition: Programs or procedures for the attainment of prescribed objectives and the means to achieve them, established on the basis of analyses; usually classified, under varying circumstances, as short, intermediate, or long-range plans. ontations: Webster says (63:1729) a plan is "a method of achieving something: a way of carrying out a design; a method of doing something; a detailed and systematic formulation of a large-scale campaign or program; a proposed undertaking or goal." Leonard says (32:139) "From an administrative point of view, a plan of operations is a synthesis of various plans: annual, long-term, short-term, and Special." Newman says (43:18) "Plans may be divided into three broad groups: 1. Goals, 2. Single-use plans, and 3. Standing plans." Wilson says (67:93) " . . . the planning unit will direct its attention to three broad areas of planning, i.e., to management, operations, 69 and procedures although at no time will any one of these stand isolated from the other two; plans developed in one area will inevitably affect the other two." Evaluation and comment: Plans are classified in various ways in addition to those listed in the defi- nition, and may be described also as standing, project, operational, administrative, management, procedural, special event, tactical, and in other ways. See also: planning. Police Definition: The executive arm of government, municipal, county, or state, charged with responsibility for pre- servation of the peace, protection of life and property, and enforcement of criminal laws and certain regulatory statutes and ordinances; to perform the functions of the department that provide direct service to the public in such a way as to effectively discharge the depart- ment's responsibilities. Quotations: (a) Webster says (63:1753) police is "The department of government having as its principal function the prevention, detection, and prosecution of public nuisances and crimes." Fosdick says (25:4) "Today we mean by police the primary constitutional 70 force for the protection of individuals in their legal rights, or--to use M. Louis Lepine's definition--'an organized body of officers whose primary duties are the preservation of order, the security of the person, and the safety of property.'" Black says (10:1316) "The police of a state, in a comprehensive sense, embraces its whole system of internal regulation, by which the state seeks not only to preserve the public order and to prevent offenses against the state, but also to establish for the intercourse of citizen with citizen those rules of good manners and good neighbor- hood which are calculated to prevent a conflict of rights, and to insure to each the uninterrupted enjoy- ment of his own, so far as is reasonably consistent with a like enjoyment of rights by others." (b) Webster says (63:1754) to police means to "perform the functions (as regulation or protection) of a police force." Evaluation and comment: The definition above is 'generic and treats in a broad sense the responsibilities of the police. It may be more relevant to the under- standing of a lay person than to one with a more specific police orientation. Responsibilities are usually put in more precise focus in delineations of the police purpose. 71 To "police a community" in reference to the activities of a police department should apply only to the pro- vision of police services. Police Discretion Definition: Generally, a value judgment on the part of the chief of police in determining priorities of enforcement and other activities that will most nearly fulfill the department's total responsibility; the exercise of a judgment to take action less than arrest when an offense has been committed, adequate evidence is available, and the violator is known. .Quotations: Webster says (63:647) discretion is "ability to make decisions which represent a responsible choice and for which an understanding of what is lawful, right, or wise may be presupposed." La Fave quotes (37:63) Roscoe Pound who defines discretion as "an authority conferred by law to act in certain conditions or situations in accordance with an official's or an official agency's own considered judgment and conscience. It is an idea of morals, belonging to a twilight zone between law and morals." La Fave also quotes (37:63) Judge Bristol who says it is "the power to consider all circumstances and then determine whether any legal action is to be taken. And if so taken, of what kind and degree, and to what conclusion." 72 Evaluation and comment: La Fave, above, and in the balance of his work, discusses police discretion essentially as an extension of police power subject to exercise in the courts and proseduting agencies as well as by the police. He says (37:71) nonetheless "the exercise of police discretion seems neCessary in the current criminal justice system for reasons un- related to either the interpretation of criminal statutes or the allocation of available enforcement resourcesl" Understanding and acknowledging the need for police discretion should be one of the fore- most concerns of police administrators today. Goldstein strongly urges this and says (28:143) "This need for discretion was acknowledged in at least one case ad- judicated in 1909 in the State of Michigan. The Michigan Supreme Court held 'The police commissioner is bound to use the discretion with which he is clothed. He is charged not only with the execution of the liquor laws of the State within the city of Detroit, but he is likewise charged with the suppression of all crime and the conservation of the peace. To enable him to perform the duties imposed on him by law, he is supplied with certain limited means. It is entirely obvious that he must exercise a sound discretion as to how those means 73 shall be applied for the good of the community.'" Vollmer says (61:437) "The short-sighted policy of observing only the symptoms of social ailments and of giving the same treatment, namely, punishment, to every person who violates the law is costly and useless." Police officials are usually willing to acknowledge the use of discretion in certain traffic violations but adhere in premise if not practice to full enforcement of vice regulations. The exercise of discretion is not a problem of the police in major felonies, rather it is one of concern to the prosecutors and the courts. Police discretion needs definition and reasonably consistent application, but should not imply partiality. Police have generally acknowledged the use of discretion in one area only: the application of selective enforce- ment to traffic regulation and accident prevention. See also: selective enforcement, tolerance. Police-Fire Integration Definition: The merging of a community's police and fire services into a single force, usually a department of public safety. ontations: Wilson says (66:254) "A practice not yet adopted by municipal administrators but under serious consideration by several that gives promise of 74 great economy in manpower is the integration of some police and fire services in such a manner as to in- crease substantially the effective patrol force on the street and correspondingly diminish the fire- fighting force unproductively held at a fire station between runs." Weiford says (64:58) "Much discussion has developed recently over the feasibility of con- solidating police and fire departments whereby the same men would serve both as policemen and firemen." Leonard says (38:83) "Confronted by the increasing cost of police and fire services on one hand and by public demand for more effective protection on the other, a growing number of American communities have [eiej moved toward the merger of these two municipal functions." Evaluation and comment: Integration, sometimes called consolidation, holds much potential for small communities. There is no present basis for measuring its service potential in larger cities with complex police and fire protection problems. The International Association of Chiefs of Police has taken no stand on integration. The International Association of Fire Chiefs has, by resolution, rejected it. 75 Policeman Definition: A sworn member of a police agency. Qnotations: Webster says (63:1754) that a police- man is "a member of a police force." Evaluation and comment: Note the inclusion of the word "sworn." Policeman is a generic word em- bracing incumbents of all ranks. In certain specific instances, the term may be accompanied by modifying adjectives denoting temporary, Special duty, or part- time status or less than full police authority. See also: auxiliary police, member, officer. Police Power Definition: The power vested in the legislature to make, ordain, and establish all manner of wholesome and reasonable laws, statutes, and ordinances, either with penalties or without, not repugnant to the con- stitution, as they Shall judge to be for the good and welfare of the commonwealth, and of the subjects of the same. (10:1317) Quotations: Webster says (63:1754) police power is "the inherent power of a government to exercise reasonable control over persons and property within its jurisdiction in the interest of the general security, 76 health, safety, morals, and welfare except where legally prohibited (as by constitutional provision)." Garmire says (33:21) police power is "that inherent power by which a state exercises supervision and control over matters involving the peace, good order, health, morals, and general welfare of the community." Perkins says (45:vii) "The word 'police' in its broad sense means the regulation and control of a community especially with reference to the maintenance of public order, safety, health, and morals." Evaluation and comment: Police power is most broad at the level of federal government and is narrowed at each successive level of lesser jurisdiction. The police power of a state is very broad in relation to that of a village. The essence of police power is the legal authority of a jurisdiction to make and enforce statutes, laws, and ordinances. Police power has no other legitimate meaning. It is not to be confused with either police authority to enforce the law or police tactics. Police Responsibilities Definition: These functions and related activities inherent in the basic police obligation to protect life and property, preserve the peace, and maintain 77 law and order, i.e., the police (1) prevent criminality, (2) prevent crime, (3) repress crime, (4) apprehend offenders, (5) recover stolen and lost property and return it to its owners, (6) expedite the flow of traffic, (7) prevent accidents, (8) enforce regulatory measures, and (9) provide miscellaneous routine and emergency services. Quotations: Garmire says (33:7) "But the police department is more than a law enforcing agency--it has broader responsibility with regard to the offenses mentioned above. Police activities involve: l. .222 Prevention of Criminality, 2. Repression of Crime, 3. Apprehension of Offenders, 4. Recovery of Property, and 5. Regulation of Noncriminal Conduct." Evaluation and comment: Fulfillment of police responsibilities is the primary mission of the "line." Staff and auxiliary services elements have an interest in them and support the line services but do not carry out any themselves directly. They serve only in a supportive or facilitative capacity. Heustis (32:73) says "The role of the police officer may be divided into three separate and yet related activities. First, the serving of processes issued by the court; second, the investigation of violations of the law to ascertain and apprehend the guilty persons; and third, the maintenance 78 of law and order in the community in which he operates. This is an unusual statement of responsibilities and does not reflect thoughtful analysis of the police service. See also: auxiliary services, line services, staff services. Policewoman Definition: A woman who is a sworn member of a police agency. Quotations: Webster says (63:1754) a policewoman is "a woman who is a member of the police: a woman doing police duty." Evaluation and comment: The term policewoman has the meaning of patrolwoman (the counterpart of patrolman), as well as the broader meaning connoted by policeman. Policy Definition: Generally a planned course of action to achieve certain predetermined objectives, usually stated in broad terms. Quotations: Webster says (63:1754) policy is "a definite course or method of action selected (as by a government, institution, group, or individual) from I 79 among alternatives and in the light of given conditions to guide and usually determine present and future decisions." He further says (63:1754) it is "a Specific decision or set of decisions designed to carry out such a chosen course of action." Newman says (43:43) "A 'policy' typically covers a broad area or basic issue, whereas 'method' normally deals with the way a policy is carried out." Black says (10:1317) in definition of policy, "The general principles by which a government is guided in its management, or the legislature in its measures." He further says (10:1317) "This term, as applied to a law, ordinance, or rule of law, denotes its general purpose or tendency considered as directed to the welfare or prosperity of the state or community." Pigors and Myers say (47:35) policy is "a statement of intention that commits management to a general course of action in order to accomplish a specific purpose." Evaluation and comment: Policy may be placed in two general contexts, legislative and administrative. It may be said, in fact, that the United States Con- stitution and the constitutions of the states largely are comprised of policy statements. State laws, whether criminal or merely regulatory in nature, are also statements of policy. The same may be said with equal force of municipal ordinances. The definition of due 80 process in the several constitutions is a statement of policy, as are state laws against burglary and munici- pal ordinances prohibiting disorderly conduct. When a chief of police prescribes a code of ethics, he is establishing policy even though, in large measure, the attainment of such policy is based on devising and implementing rules, regulations, and procedures. Likewise, he is defining policy when he prescribes a certain level of functional specialization. On occasion, it is difficult to fully separate policy and procedure. AS Newman says (43:41) "The distinction between policies and methods or procedures is useful, although it is not clear-cut." See also: planning, plans, procedures, program. Prevention of Criminalipy, Definition: A programmed effort to identify, locate, observe, evaluate, and correct incipient conditions, both physical and personal, which, if such action is not taken, will tend to develop into conditions con- ducive to crime and overt criminal activity. Quotations: Holcomb says (33:7) "This [the prevention of criminality] is one of the newer respon- sibilities of the police. It is being more and more 81 clearly realized that a constructive approach to the crime problem must go to its very roots--to the factors in community life which create criminal tendencies and lead the criminal to indulge in antisocial behavior." Evaluation and comment: It is not denied that the police have a responsibility for the prevention of criminality. The questions that arise center on the nature and extent of police participation. Many hold that police responsibility extends only to identifying, locating, observing, and referring such conditions to other nonlaw enforcement agencies, better able to take effective steps. All police personnel have a responsibility for identifying such conditions and referring them to specialized youth units of the department. Controversy centers on the scope of responsibility and kind and degree of action the latter unit should take. Informed persons largely hold that the latter should be minimal and extend largely to appropriate service to and cooperation with social and other agencies. See also: crime prevention, crime repression. 82 Principles of Organization Definition: A set of concepts or propositions believed by many to be the basis for effective organization. Quotations: None. Evaluation and comment: The term "principles of organization" has two key words of very common usage, in one context or another, that are apparently Simple of understanding. But little attention will be given to organization at this point and greater attention to principle. Webster says (63:1803) a principle is "a general or fundamental truth: a comprehensive and fundamental law, doctrine, or assumption on which others are based or from which others are derived: elementary proposition." Mooney says (29:91) "The word principle signifies something fundamental." Garmire says (33:44) "Out of the experiences of hundreds of administrators in all forms of endeavor, there appear to be at least Six principles [of organization] . . . ." Morphet, Johns, and Reller say (41:52) "These principles [of organization and administration] are equally appli- cable to all forms of govennment regardless of political philosophy and to both authoritarians and democratic administrators." Simon says (54:20) "The present chapter will first undertake a critical examination of these 83 ll 'principles' [of administration] . . . Smith says (56:208) "The broad principles of organization that have won such wide acceptance in military and industrial circles find ready application to the structure of police forces." The authorities above have referred to principles of administration, principles of organi- zation, and principles of organization and administra- tion. In effect, however, each discusses, to a greater or lesser degree, the same terms. Some have more relevance to administration than to organization, and some more relevance to the latter. The "principles" so commonly accepted at face value are, on the whole, not so fundamental as to be accepted as tenets or doctrine. More than one author has referred to them as proverbs. Simon says (53:20) "It is a fatal defect of the current principles of administration that,lllke proverbs, they occur in pairs. For almost every principle one can find an equally plausible and ac- ceptable contradictory principle." He says (53:35) further "The difficulty has arisen from treating as 'principles of administration' what are really only criteria for describing and diagnosing administrative situations." Morphet, Johns, and Reller add (41:53) "Many commonly accepted principles of organization seem 84 to be contradictory." Several of the commonly accepted "principles" are treated elsewhere. See also: administration, authority, coordination, division of work, organization, responsibility, Span of control, unity of command. Procedure Definition: A prescribed way or manner of doing some- thing or a series of methodical steps to complete a certain action. AQnotations: Webster says (63:1807) procedure is "a particular way of doing or going about the accom- plishment of something." Newman says (43:46) ". . . in the present study 'procedure' will imply a series of steps, often taken by different individuals." Evaluation and comment: Much instruction given in police recruit training classes is directed to defining, explaining, and practicing procedures. When a department adopts the use of one-man patrol automo- biles as a policy, special procedures are provided for communications between the dispatcher and the patrol- man, and the steps to be taken by the patrolman under many circumstances are carefully prescribed. See also: policy. 85 Process Definition: A continuing activity or a series of steps leading the doer from a point of beginning to a point of completion. ‘Quotations: Webster says (63:1808) process is "the action of moving forward progressively from one point to another on the way to completion; the action of passing through continuing development from a beginning to a contemplated end; the action of con- tinuously going along through each of a succession of acts, events, or developmental stages." Evaluation and comment: The essence of process is flow, movement, and activity. Process is used improperly by some authors who equate it with method. , Garmire says (64:46), for example, "The second basis for division of work is 'process or method.‘ A process unit is organized according to the method of work, all similar processes being in the same unit. A common police example is motorized patrol, which is separate from the rest of the remainder of the department principally because it uses a separate tool or method, regardless of purpose." He says above that "a process unit is organized according to . . . method . . . ." Although process and method are 86 interrelated, it is assumed that a process unit is organized according to process. Aside from the dis- cussion above, he is also in error in saying, "all similar processes being in the same unit." This does not reflect reality in most organizations and is not practicable. For example, in a large department, with or without a planning unit, planning may be carried on in several elements. Dactyloscopy is identification of people by comparison of fingerprints; this is a method. There are several processes involved in the latter: (1) fingerprinting, (2) classifying, and (3) comparing. Motorized patrol is a method of operation, and differs from the method of foot patrol. Many of the processes of both methods are similar, such as checking doors, observing and reporting hazards, and interrogating suspicious persons. Wilson suggests the above distinction when he says "Tasks, similar or related in purpose, process, method, or clientele are grouped together in one or more units under the control of one person." See also: division of work, method. 87 Program Definition: A planned course of action to implement policy and to secure the achievement of determined goals or objectives. Quotations: Webster says (63:1812) a program is "a plan of procedure: a schedule or system under which action may be taken toward a desired goal." Evaluation and comment: Although Webster lists (63:1729) only design, plot, scheme, and project as synonyms of plan, the latter word and program are apparently used interchangeably by many. For example, Newman says (43:30) "There are several kinds of single- use plans that almost every executive finds useful sooner or later. Important in this regard are (1) major programs, (2) projects, (3) special programs, and (4) detailed plans." Webster also suggests this when he says (63:1812), in defining program further, "a plan determining the offerings of an educational ' and again "a plan of study institution: curriculum,’ for an individual student over a given period: schedule." The apparent lack of distinction between plan and program is illustrated in another statement by Newman. He says (43:33) "Frequently these are parts of a general program that are relatively separate 88 and clear cut, and can be planned (and executed) as a distinct project." In this sentence, plan could be substituted for program and programmed for planned. See also: planning, plans, policy. Public Education Definition: A process used by the police to inform or instruct the public in traffic safety, self- protective measures to be taken to avoid criminal depredations, and corrective measures to combat juvenile delinquency, and to gain public support for programs and policies. Quotations: Webster says (63:723) education is "the act or process of providing with knowledge, skill, competence, or usually desirable qualities of behavior or character or of being so provided especially by a formal course of study, instruction or training." Wilson says (66:350) "A program of public education in delinquency prevention will assist in winning essential support from the public, the social agencies, budget makers, and other public officials . . . . Public education in all fields of police activity should be planned, directed, and supervised by the public- information unit serving all the operating divisions, but the youth-division staff must be utilized in 89 carrying out the program." Peterson says (34:v) "Greatly needed is a sympathetic public understanding of the multitudinous problems confronting the law enforcement officer. To secure this necessary under- standing, sound public relations are essential." Evaluation and comment: The police do not, in fact, engage in public "education" in any strict sense. They do have, and often exercise, a responsibility for informing the public, and to a certain extent providing nominal instruction on the need for traffic safety and ways to achieve it; of providing information on ways to provide measures of personal and property protection; of clearly defining to the public police program, policies, and many procedures; and of explaining police needs and problems. This has the important ancillary benefit of gaining public support and confidence. These services are usually provided by a public infor- mation unit, which is considered to be a more appro- priate title than public relations unit or public education unit. See also: compliance. 9O Pugpose Definition: The reason or reasons for being of a department, or of certain elements of it; used as one of the bases for organization. Quotations: Webster says (63:1847) purpose is "something that one sets before himself as an object to be attained: an end or aim to be kept in view in any plan, measure, exertion, or operation." ‘Culick says (29:15) "The major pugpose he [the worker] is serving, such as furnishing water, controlling crime, or conducting education." Garmire says (64:46) "There are at least five factors on which the division of work in an organization may be based--purpose, process or method, clientele, time, and area . . . l. Pugpose. Probably the most common method of dividing work is to unite into one unit all activities directed toward a certain objective." Evaluation and comment: Garmire says (64:46) "The police department itself is segregated from - other city departments because it fulfills a specific purpose--1.e., the protection of life and property, the apprehension of criminals, and the maintenance of public order." He adds "Police departments are created for the purpose of performing certain tasks and these 91 are called primary tasks, and the divisions of a department created for their performance are called line or operating divisions." He then says "All tasks that do not fall in the category of line are administrative because it is management's responsi- bility to support and supply the line. However, to Simplify division of function, management responsi- bilities shall be divided into two categories: secondary, or auxiliary police tasks and administra- tive police tasks. Police departments are not created primarily to perform the secondary tasks; these duties are performed because they aid in the accomplishment of the primary tasks." This is in contradiction to his statement "As the department becomes larger, separate units may be created to maintain records, to deal with juvenile delinquency, or to cope with organized vice. The number of purpose units generally increases with the size of the department." This not only exhibits contradiction but finds Garmire in error in his reference to a unit that maintains records as a purpose unit. A records unit, or any other secondary unit, is organized on the bases of clientele and process or method; essentially, the line elements of the department are its clientele, although its services are extended to 92 other elements as well. The police purpose has several factors which are identified elsewhere as police re- sponsibilities. See also: division of work, police responsibilities. Rank Definition: Generally, a designation of a specific level of responsibility for execution of work, super- vision, command, or management or administration specifically distinguished from other levels by class specifications and name. Quotations: Webster says (63:1881) rank is "a position or order in relation to others in a group." He also says (63:1881) it is "a grade of official standing" as well as "a grade in the armed forces." Evaluation and comment: The relation of one rank to another is usually defined in a particular depart- ment by tradition, regulation, or ordinance or other legislation. The relationship, when it embraces all ranks in a department, is established as a rank order. Rank (e.g., Captain) should not be confused with title (e.g., Director of Records). A specific rank in one department does not necessarily equate in responsi- bilities or duties with the same rank in another 93 department; one captain may be in charge of a major division while another only supervises a small platoon or unit. See also: rank order, rank structure. Rank Order Definition: The vertical relationship of the several ranks of a department in respect to levels of authority and responsibility. _Quotations: Webster says (63:1881) rank order is "arrangement according to rank (as the highest to the lowest)." Evaluation and comment: The vertical relationship of the several ranks from the lowest to the highest usually also establishes increasingly higher levels of remuneration and status. See also: rank, rank structure. Rank Structure Definition: The hierarchial arrangement of ranks within a department. Quotations: None. Evaluation and comment: While rank order estab- lishes vertical relationships of each rank to all others, rank structure establishes the number of levels 94 of authority and responsibility, prescribes titles, and establishes chains of command. Most departments requiring four levels of supervision or command use the ranks of sergeant, lieutenant, captain, and chief. Use of ranks other than these, or titles designating ranks, varies widely among municipal departments and is often at variance with what is found in the rank structures of state police agencies. The department laead may be known by such titles as chief, superin- tendent, director, commissioner, or colonel. In the latter case, colonel and chief are often used inter- changeably in reference to the same person. At the next lower level, in a department requiring several ranks, assistant or deputy chief, superintendent, director, or commissioner may be used. The latter may be referred to as lieutenant colonels. Major is often used as a rank between captain and lieutenant colonel or colonel. Several common designations are intentionally omitted from the above, e.g., inspector, corporal, detective, and investigator. See also: rank, rank order, title. 95 Recruitment Definition: The process by which potential employees are brought to the initial point of the selection process. Quotations: Webster says (63:1899) recruitment is "an act of offering inducement to qualified person- Iiel to enter a particular job or profession." Germann says (26:27) "Recruitment is the process by which jpotential employees are attracted to the agency, and is strongly influenced by the philosophy of personnel Inanagement adopted by the agency." Evaluation and comment: Numerous authors writing on personnel management discuss recruitment and fail to define it, for example, Wilson (95:66), Millet (40:314), Brunton and Carrell (11:144), Smith (56:128), Nemetz (33:130), Stahl (57:51), Pigors and Myers (47:201), Coppock and Coppock (20:5), Carrell (18:156), Weiford (64:82), Leonard (32:127), and others. Pigors and Myers ask (47:201) "What is the purpose of the three principle hiring procedures, recruitment, selec- tion, and placement?" This statement properly estab- lishes that the process of recruitment is different from the process of selection, and precedes it in implementation. Coppock and Coppock confuse this 96 concept and sequence; they say (20:1) "Generally speaking you will do well to plan the selection pro- gram to attract men who will not only be successful policemen and firemen but who have the qualifications and the characteristics of successful higher level officers." They later say (20:3), however, "The ‘use of proper techniques for attracting the best candidates possible is known as 'positive recruiting.'" Germann says (26:27) "Effective recruitment must involve itself with: 1. Increasing the prestige 'value of a police service career, 2. Eliminating the unrealistic pre-employment residence requirement, 3. Utilizing every productive device available to attract qualified manpower, 4. Conducting continuing research to determine the best techniques and sources." Recruiting must be applied to a broad base, extending whenever possible to anyone of United States citizen- ‘ship regardless of present residence. Recruitment needs to be aggressive, using every possible ethical means to reach prospective applicants. See also: selection. 97 Regulation of Noncriminal Conduct Definition: Police effort involved in the control of non- and quasi-criminal activities which results in a more orderly and safe community. Quotations: Holcomb says (33:8) "Many police activities [regulation of noncriminal conduct] are concerned only incidently with criminal behavior. Their main purpose is regulation, and apprehension and punishment of offenders are means of securing obedience. Other methods used to obtain compliance are education of the public in the dangers inherent in the disobedience of regulations; and the use of warnings, either oral or written, which inform the citizen of the violation but do not penalize him." Evaluation and comment: The term noncriminal conduct has reference largely to the control of the movement of people such as those in attendance at Sporting and other special events, parades and motorists and pedestrians who need guidance to assure safe and efficient flows of traffic. Quasi-criminal conduct involves actions controlled or prohibited by ordinance, violation of which tends to cause conges- tion, inconvenience, and hazards to health and safety. These are known generally as regulatory Esau; 98 ordinances and encompass such matters as traffic control, posting of signs, animal licensing, regis- tering of vehicles, and many othensof a minor nature. Clift says (19:17) "A chief difference in today's police operation over yesterday's is the great emphasis on miscellaneous public services. Today, an officer may be called upon to do anything related to public safety . . . . Many well-meaning citizens still cling to the notion that policemen are, ex- clusively, 'thief takers.’ Yet, inconsistently, these same people, with the telephone literally at their elbows, will summon an officer in almost any emergency." Reorganization Definition: The processes of breaking down all police functions and activities into their smallest identifiable components and regrouping them according to certain guidelines to effective organization and within a new framework utilizing the total resources of personnel and materiel in such a way as to facili- tate and expedite the attainment of specified ob- jectives in an efficient, effective, economical, and harmonious manner. _Quotations: None. 99 Evaluation and comment: Much is said in the literature about principles of organization, often, however, out of the context of reality. Seldom does a chief of police have an opportunity to establish, and thus organize a new department. Most every chief has some need to reorganize; for some the problem is a very real and serious one. It is for this reason that the word is defined in this study. See also: organization, principles of organi- zation. Research Definition: Studious inquiry into, intensive ex- amination of, and experimentation with present policies, programs, and procedures involved in organization, management, operations, and materiel utilization, in order to confirm their efficacy, or to abandon or reorder them, or to develop new concepgs and practices in order to best meet the objectives of an organization. _Quotations: Webster says (63:1930) research is "A studious inquiry or examination; especially: critical and exhaustive investigation or experimenta- tion having for its aim the discovery of new facts and their correct interpretation, the revision of 100 accepted conclusions, theories, or laws in the light of newly discovered facts, or the practical applica- tions of such new or revised conclusions, theories, or laws." Wilson says (66:90) "The need for research must be emphasized. Industrial organizations in order to survive in a highly competitive area, carry on intensive studies to discover new and improved procedures and to evaluaterthe effectiveness of their advertising, selling, and production methods; they make similar studies of their personnel administration. The police executive should do the same; some of the techniques and equipment used in industry will be found useful." Garmire says (33:85) "The planning process includes research. Facts in a wide variety of forms must be discovered; they must be compiled in an orderly, systematic fashion; and they must be critically analyzed to discover the need and to develop the details of the proposal." Evaluation and comment: It is not uncommon today to find planning and research units in police departments. Most are so rudimentary as not to warrant recognition; some, nonetheless, are serving very usefully. Planning, as an activity, takes pre- cedence over research although neither is well under- stood and, consequently, often not accepted. A 101 common problem is expressed by Van Dalen who says (60:2) "Because of vested interests in the statuo_quo or a fearful distrust of new ideas or developments, some individuals and groups do not want scientists [police researchers] to jar people [policemen] out of their traditional patterns of thought and behavior. To them, change is unnecessary and undesirable; hence, they rudely reject or ruthlessly repress researchers who present ideas or inventions that depart too far from prevailing beliefs or practices." Puttkammer puts this very simply. He says (29:46) "But the dead weight of opposition to new methods is especially an obstacle when the resistance comes from the commanding officers . . . . What was good enough for them is good enough . . . from all the grades, both the rank and file and the higher ranks, city police adminis- trators often face a great mass of intradepartmental hostility toward modernization." Acceptance of the purpose and value of research, and its extensive pursuit, is important to the development of the police service. See also: planning. lO2 Selection Definition: The process following that of recruiting, established, in a positive sense, to make eligible for permanent appointment applicants of outstanding potential and, in a negative sense, to declare ineligible those lacking one or more of the basic requisites of the position to be filled. Quotations: Leonard says (38:92) "A satisfactory personnel program in any enterprise requires the estab- lishment of entrance standards that will bring into the service men and women equipped to meet successfully the tasks they will be called upon to perform." Wilson says (66:143) "Neither expense nor effort should be spared in selecting the best qualified candidates for appointment." Germann says (26:37) "The screening [selection] of entrance level people between submission of application and final certification is most important, for any lanity can result in great embarrassment to the agency, and the needless expenditure of money, time, and personnel." Nemetz says (33:134) "The purpose of the selection process is to secure those candidates who have the highest potential for developing into good policemen." Stahl says (57:67) "The cornerstone of the public personnel program is the process of selection by means 103 of competitive examinations, a process that had its origin at the very beginning of the merit system." Eastman says (23:18) "No department regardless of size can afford at any time to depart from the [selection] standards once they are established." Evaluation and comment: The selection process for policemen has several steps, each of which must be fully and effectively used. These include (1) review of preliminary (if one is used) and regular application form to (a) identify the applicant, (b) determine prima facie eligibility based on certain factors, e.g., age, weight, education, and citizenship, (2) written examination that tests intelligence and levels of general knowledge, e.g., social sciences (Should not include specifics on police matters, local geography, and so on), (3) agility tests to determine general levels of strength and coordination, (4) oral interview by a board of perhaps three competent persons, (5) medical examination, (6) psychological testing to determine stability, erotic tendencies, and other disqualifying factors, (7) intensive background investigation, (8) polygraph examination as a matter of standard practice, or when apparently necessary, (9) successful completion of recruit training, and (10) successful completion of the probationary period served under rigid controls. See also: recruitment. 104 Selective Enforcement Definition: The proportional application of traffic enforcement effort against the types of hazardous moving violations which are causing accidents at the times and places when and where they are occurring; less frequently used against miscellaneous other types of violations to prevent or reduce congestion. Quotations: Leonard says (38:243) "Analysis of accidents and congestion, according to time, place, and nature, form the basis for selective enforcement pro- cedures and makes possible the application of the line resources of the department when and where the need is greatest, and where they will accomplish the best results." Caldwell says (33:329) "AS defined in the Enforcement Report of the President's Highway Safety Conference: 'Selective enforcement is enforcement which is proportional to traffic accidents with respect to time, place, and type of violation.'" Salotollo says (51:210) "It is the concentration of police enforce- ment on the more serious traffic violations on [egej those that account for the frequency and seriousness of traffic accidents." Evaluation and comment: Selective enforcement has so demonstrated its efficacy that it could be termed a principle of effective traffic law enforcement. Caldwell 105 says (33:329) "It is not only logical and efficient; it is necessary. Police manpower is so limited that it is impossible to give adequate attention to all times and places." The Eastmans say (24:38) "Selective enforce- ment is essential to (1) make most effective use of available personnel, (2) minimize the incidence of traffic accidents, and (3) gain public support. This will require Specific line and beat assignments for the moving enforcement section, enforcement bulletins to all uniform division personnel, and rigid control." Selective enforcement involves deployment on the basis of the greatest potential for return, the reduction of I traffic accidents, and the most efficient use of manpower. Selective enforcement programs should be based on com- prehensive and detailed analyses of data derived from competent accident investigation efforts and other factors. Quantitative measures are essential also; the one most commonly accepted as valid is the enforcement index. It Should be noted that selective enforcement is an exercise of police discretion. See also: enforcement index, police discretion, tolerance. 106 Span of Control Definition: (a) A theoretical or practical limit to the number of units or subordinate personnel who can be effectively supervised or controlled by a particular individual under circumstances extant at a particular time, and (b) the number of units or subordinate person- nel reporting to a Single person. Quotations: Salottolo refers (51:219) to span of control as "the limitations placed on the number of men a supervisor controls and supervises." Garmire says (33:55) "the third principle [of organization] is that there is a limit to the number of subordinates who can be effectively supervised by one officer and that this limit should not be exceeded." Wilson says (67:67), by way of definition, "the ability of one man to direct, coordinate, and control immediate subordinates--his span of control--has physical limits, because he can be in only one place at one time, and he cannot work 24 hours each day." Leonard says (38:66), "the executive of any enterprise can personally direct the activities of only a few persons." Smith says (56:217) "The term 'span of control' is applied to a principle--the con- cept that one supervisor can control only a limited number of subordinates directly." Morphet, Johns, and 107 Reller say "One executive can only deal effectively with a limited number of persons." Evaluation and comment: All references above support substantially the first definition, under- standing of which is essential to an administrator as 5 he organizes and reorganizes his department and as he considers reassignment of key personnel. Many writers include span of control in their listings of principles s {ff—‘1‘“? - of organization. Span of control is most commonly used in the sense of the second definition. It usually has reference to a de facto situation involving the actual number of reporting personnel or units and seldom to principles involved. For example, Wilson says (67:69) "The span of control may be reduced by the use of additional levels of supervisory officials, thus lengthening the chain of command." Leonard says (32:67) "In general the executive span of control should, if possible, be limited to the direct super- vision of three individuals . . . ." See also: principles of organization. Staff Inspection Definition: A staff inspection is one which is con- ducted outside the normal lines of authority and re- sponsibility and is a'detailed observation and 108 analysis of a line or nonline unit designed to inform the chief of police of the performance of the unit. Quotations: Haydon says (31:6) "Staff inspections are those inspections of personnel, facilities, equip- ment, and operating procedures and results made by an individual who has no control over or responsibility for them." Evaluation and comment: Leonard says (38:76) "The inspectional branch [staff inspections], as the word implies, is that division of the administrative unit which evaluates performance in the staff and line in the discharge of their responsibilities." The Eastmans say (23:19) "The staff inspection process is designed to answer important questions: 1. Are established policies, pro- cedures, and regulations being carried out to the letter and in the spirit for which they were designed? 2. Are these policies, procedures, and regulations adequate to attain the desired results? 3. Are the resources at the [department's] disposal, both personnel and materiel, utilized to the fullest extent? 4. Are the resources adequate to carry out the mission of the [department]? Ewhmmfi-h—HJ E, II“; KB? 71‘. _‘s v. 109 5, Does there or could there exist any deficiency in personnel integrity, training, morale, supervision or policy which should be corrected or improved?" Staff inspection provides an impartial, objective appraisal by persons not part of the unit being in- spected and, thus, is an important control function, serving the chief of police. The Eastmans say (23:19) "Staff inspection is a standard practice, in one way or another, of the military and several federal agencies, and is a cornerstone of good [department] practice although not yet commonly used or understood by many American police forces." Staff Services Definition: Those nonline functions and activities Which serve the purposes of developing personnel into effective patrolmen, supervisors, commanding officers and administrators, and of developing the department to most effectively meet its responsibilities in ful- filling the police purpose or mission. AQuotations: None. Evaluation and comment: Staff services are essentially oriented to people, in their recruitment, selection, training for the present and the future, and discipline; their integration into a well-organized, i.-K‘-I-L__&‘ ‘- —.___..._...= W?) 3 c ’ ’ F 1 110 operationally sound department capable of optimal service; and the department's relationships with the public. Staff services have logical functional groupings which may be the bases for element organi- zation in a department large enough to suggest or require it. These would include planning and re- search (including crime and traffic analysis), personnel and training, staff inspections, and public information services. A staff services element directly serves the chief of police, all line ele- ments, and other nonline elements. See also: auxiliary services, line services, nonline services. Tactical Force Definition: An element designed to serve as a compact, mobile, and effective operational striking force in given locations at times where the record indicates the need for a special concentration of enforcement pressure. ,Quotatione: None. Evaluation and comment: A tactical force, some- times called a flexible unit or by another name, is usually and properly a part of the patrol force (bureau or division), and reports to the patrol -._-_-_ ——.l ‘q Jan‘s-5- O . (HA-rt :_ 111 commander. The patrol force is usually fully committed and its activities rather rigidly circumscribed by time and area in its regular assignments. This precludes any real flexibility and establishes the need for the tactical force. Title Definition: The designation of a particular position, or the incumbent of a position or office not neces- sarily part of the rank structure. Quotations: None. Evaluation and comment: In general, one who holds a position in the rank structure of a department is known by his rank; if he holds a position or office outside the rank structure, he is known by the posi- tion's title. See also: rank structure. Tolerance Definition: The degree of severity of certain viola- tions of the law within which police may not take enforcement action although they have the authority to do so; an exercise of the responsibility for use of discretion, 112 Quotations: Webster says (63:2405) tolerance is "the act of allowing something; the allowable deviation from a standard." Evaluation and comment: Application of toler- ance is an exercise of police discretion. Under some circumstances, tolerance may be prescribed by the chief of police if he fully understands it and its implications, and he has the courage to publicly position himself. Most tolerance is unplanned, how- ever, and is thus an exercise of uncontrolled indi- vidual discretion; this is not desirable for it tends to unequal enforcement and partiality. Tolerance is generally less broad than discretion; it normally applies to a face-to-face situation, e.g., the motorist exceeding a speed limit in the presence of an officer. Discretion includes this but extends to the chief's distribution and deployment of manpower which tends to concentrate effective strength against certain violations vis-a-vis others and to make less likely the arrest of violators at certain times of the day and in certain places. Most police writers beg the issue, taking, in effect, two stands Simul- taneously (l) letter-of-the law enforcement and (2) exercise of good judgment. Under many circum- stances, these positions are not only not compatible, .':&A‘—i‘-\|w\ do- ‘- . 113 they are mutually exclusive. Note the inconsistencies in théistatements of Germann, Day, and Gallati (27:29): (1) "can the law be enforced exactly as on the books, or is toleration to be allowed: Here we deal with exemption from the force of law and preferential treat- ment." (2) "The law enforcement officer must at all times perform his sworn duty and he has no right to ignore any violation of the law." (3) "To attempt to enforce e;l_the lung e;1_the pine, with respect to 5;; citizens would result in utter chaos . . ." (4) "It is the responsibility of the chief of police or other top law enforcement administrator to set the enforce- ment policy [discretion? tolerance?] for his juris- diction, acting with the advice and counsel of the legislative body, governmental executive officers, prosecutors, and courts. It is the responsibility of the individual law enforcement officer to implement that policy [discretion? tolerance?] with wisdom and objectivity." Note particularly that the chief of police is "to set law enforcement policy." Note also that the individual officer is "to implement that policy with wisdom and objectivity." Both imply the use of discretion and thus tolerance at (1) the executive level, and (2) at the level of execution. [If n 114 It should be noted that Wilson uses enforcement tolerance in a very different sense than described here. He says (66:361) "The enforcement tolerance of a community is the amount or degree of enforcement that may be maintained indefinitely with public ac- quiesence." This is also the definition of Salotollo (51:76). See also: police discretion. Training Definition: The process by which persons are brought to an adequate level of competence, skill, and under- standing to properly perform work expected or required of them. Quotations: Webster says (63:2424) training is "development of a particular skill or group of skilTs: instruction in an art, profession, or occupation." Evaluation and comment: High levels of training and education for police personnel of all ranks and categories are requisites of good individual and group performance and the development of the police service. Generally speaking, adequate training is not now offered, in the framework of its broad needs, for recruit policemen, in-service training for experienced policemen, specialists, supervisors, commanders, or .:—~ min-r. fitnibu . ‘.. 115 administrators. Posey says (48:8) "Cadet training denotes the same type of initial police education [egej as recruit training, and the two are used inter- changeably in this paper." This is not usually so as cadet has a different meaning normally in the state ..1 police than in the municipal police. Almost entirely neglected is the practice of exchanging specialists armhflmo'm' .I V and supervisory or command officers between depart- twt‘ . ll. ments for training purposes. Smith said (55:2), in 1957, "Training for the police has moved so far and so fast that it now stands breathless and fatigued with it all. A brief rest would do it good, while plans for fresh advances towards a vastly improved police pedagogy can be contrived and perfected. We shall continue to need more and more police training for some time to come-~especia11y in the smaller forces--but the greatest need is for better training and a better grade of police teaching." Unit Definition: An element of a department, generally of less than bureau or division status. _Quotations: Webster says (63:2500) a unit is "a single thing or person or group that is a con- stituent and isolable member of an aggregate that is 116 the least part to have clearly definable separate existence and that normally forms a basic element of organization within the aggregate." Evaluation and comment: Unit is used in two senses: (1) any organizational element and (2) an organizational element of a particular level of responsibility and status. Designation of elements below division is not clear, and they are variously called sections, offices, units, or squads. If unit is a designation of particular status, its use should be consistent throughout an organization. Unity of Command Definition: In an organization, the concept that, at a given time, no one should report to more than one other person and that only one person Should have charge of any situation or activity. Quotations: Garmire says (33:57) "The principle of unity of command . . . is that an employee should be under the direct control of one and only one supervisor . . . . An operation requiring the action of two or more policemen must be under the direct control of only one immediate superior officer." Salotollo says (51:245) "The organizational principle that a subordinate should be under the direct control nuns—"a w“ Rm 4 x41 0 u i’ 117 of only one immediate supervisor." Wilson says (67:65) "In police service it is important (1) that only one man be in complete command of each Situation and (2) that only one man be in direct command or supervision of each officer." Evaluation and comment: Many writers include unity of command in their listings of principles of organization. See also: clientele, division of work, method, principles of organization, process, purpose. Vice Definition: A kind or class of personal or group conduct or activity declared by public policy through legislation to be inimical to the public welfare, subject to commercial exploitation,and usually con- sidered to embrace prostitution, use and sale of illegal narcotics, illegal gambling, and use and sale of illegal alcoholic beverages. Quotations: Webster says (63:2549) vice is "moral depravity or corruption; evil conduct or habits; indulgence of degrading appetites; a wrong, degrading, or immoral habit or practice." Holcomb says (33:12) "Perhaps the most difficult of all police problems is the satisfactory control of prostitution, gambling, 118 liquor, and narcotics. It is made especially difficult by the pressure of one or both of two factors: offi- cials and the public who countenance crime, and a close-knit syndicate which dominates vice operations." Wilson says (66:298) " . . . violations of the laws regulating or prohibiting prostitution, gambling, and the sale, possession or use of narcotics and liquor are referred to collectively as vices, . . . ." Evaluation and comment: Although vice may be considered basically as a problem of personal morality, immoral actions become special and continuing matters for police attention and repression when they (1) are declared illegal by legislative action, (2) are pro- fitable in a general commercial sense, and (3) sus- ceptible to syndicate control. Whenever a vice becomes commercially profitable, there may be, and if syndicated, certainly, derivative problems of serious social concern which demand police attention and repression: (1) corruption in the department and other government agencies, and (2) venal political power and control of policies and programs of law enforcement. The latter results in unprofessional, inefficient, ineffective, and uneconomical police operations and a lowering of personal and public security. Many personal and group actions are immoral, and thus vices, as a matter of 119 public policy, but are not matters of immediate, serious, or continuing concern to the police inasmuch as they meet none of the above conditions except ille- gality and do not by their nature or scope tend to endanger the public welfare. There are interesting and Significant differences in public attitudes on the four areas of vice. Prostitution in the United States is universally illegal, but as a misdemeanor. Narcotics, also, except when medically prescribed is everywhere illegal. Both prostitution and narcotics are commonly held to be repugnant within the mores of our time, and enforcement of these has general support, it may be assumed because the "average" citizen has no interest in participation. Gambling and liquor, however, stand in a different relationship. They are legal at certain times and places in most states and, thus, only "vices" at certain times and places. That this is so is a peculiar commentary on our times and standards of conduct. From this contradiction arise many serious problems for the police. See also: organized crime. CHAPTER III CONCLUSION Four important conclusions were reached during the course of this study. The first is that many words found in the literature of police organization and management are nowhere defined within the context of their use. The second is that many words are used improperly. The third is that many writers are not sufficiently thoughtful and sometimes apparently careless as they discuss the processes and problems of the police service. The fourth is that this study only begins to answer the need for a clarification of the terminology of police organization, management, and operations. Some writers who profess to be defining words and terms merely discuss them, often with an unusual lack of precision. This applies not only to the more complex terms such as police discretion but to such simple words as method and process. Thus many words which seem appropriate to the writers are apt to mislead or, at a minimum, confuse the reader. A common fault of many writers is the improper use of a word when another is available which, by definition, is correct and appropriate. Distribution, 121 for example, is used by some when the relevant word is deployment. The first simply connotes allocation of personnel whereas the second has reference to the tactical use of personnel. This problem may arise from simple carelessness and lack of thoughtful con- sideration, or it may be that precise and appropriate definitions are not, in fact, available. The need for clarification of terminology became so apparent during the course of this work that the present effort now appears inadequate except as it points out the need and suggests an appropriate approach to its solution. The number of words and terms to be included in an expanded or new study should be perhaps doubled. Omitted because of the limitations of time are such key words as direction, command, supervision, and others of equal significance. It is suggested that this study or, more properly, one similar to it but of greater scope, could serve as a basic reference for those interested in the pro- fessional development of the police service. It should provide definitions on which consensus can be achieved, a source document of references to important texts, and meaningful discussions that give significance to the words and terms and their definitions. 122 In the above context this study, especially when expanded, should serve well those who are in the field as professional practitioners, those who are teaching and writing in the area of police organization and management, and those who are students with aspirations to become either practitioners or educators. 10. 11. BIBLIOGRAPHY Appley, Lawrence A., The Human Element in Personnel Management, Washington, D. 0.: Society for ‘Personnel Administration, 1941. Ayars, Albert L., Administering the People's Schools, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957- Ayers, Archie Raymond and Russel, John H., Internal Stfucture; Organization and Admin- istration of Institutions 6THigher‘Education, washington,D. 0.: United States Department7 of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1962. 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INDEX Administration Administration, Personnel Administrative Processes Assembling Resources Auxiliary Police Auxiliary Services Budgeting Bureau Central Records Chain of Command Clearance Rate Clientele Command, Chain of Command, Unity of Compliance Conduct, Regulation of Noncriminal Control, Span of Controlling Conviction Rate Coordination Crime, Organized Crime Prevention Crime Repression Criminal Intelligence Criminalist -Crimina1istics criminality, Prevention of Department Deployment Discipline Discretion, Police Distribution Division Division of Work Education, Public Element Enforcement Index Enforcement, Selective Entry, Lateral Esprit de Corps Ethics External Relations Force, Tactical Index, Enforcement 130 INDEX (continued) Inspection, Line Inspection, Staff Integration, Police-Fire Intelligence, Criminal Lateral Entry Line Inspection Line Services Management Member Method Moral Noncriminal Conduct, Regulation of Nonline Services Officer Order, Rank Organization Organization, Principles of Organized Crime Patrolman Personnel Administration Planning Plans Police Police, Auxiliary Police Discretion Police-Fire Integration Policeman Police Power Police Reserve Police Responsibilities Policewoman Policy Power, Police Prevention, Crime Prevention of Criminality Principles of Organization Procedure Process Processes, Administrative Program Public Education Purpose Rank Rank Order 131 INDEX (continued) Rank Structure Rate, Clearance Records, Central Recruitment Regulation of Noncriminal Conduct Relations, External Reorganization Repression, Crime Research Reserve, Police Resources, Assembling Responsibilities, Police Selection Selective Enforcement Services, Auxiliary Services, Line Services, Nonline Services, Staff Span of Control Staff Inspection Staff Services Structure, Rank Tactical Force Title Tolerance Training Unit Unity of Command Vice Work, Division of