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ABSTRACT

AN EXAMINATION OF SELECTED PROBLEMS
ASSOCIATED WITH PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION
IN PAPUA AND NEW GUINEA LEADING TO
SUGGESTIONS FOR POSSIBLE REDIRECTION
IN CURRICULUM PLANNING
By

Frederick Nicholas Ebbeck

The purpose of this study is to advance recommendations
which will lead to a possible redirection in curriculum planning in
primary teacher education in Papua and New Guinea. A number of
recommendations are made which identify specific areas the writer
feels need some adjustment.

The study is essentially a descriptive, analytical, and, to
some extent, a comparative one. It does not claim to be exhaustive
in its treatment of all problems associated with primary teacher edu-
cation. It does, however, take into account the problems associated
with the adaptation of curriculum content and teaching methods as
they relate to the growth and development of the learner, his cultural

background and its influence on his learning, modern educational

technolc

rational

or futur.
of past a
New Gui
which cc

educatim

Frederick Nicholas Ebbeck

technology and the latest thinking on curriculum construction, and
national developmental policy for Papua and New Guinea.
In the absence of statistical data on either past programs
or future policies, current programs have been studied in the light
of past and present curricula; policy statements of the Papua and
New Guinea Department of Education; and the writer' s knowledge,
which comes from personal involvement for ten years in teacher
education in Papua and New Guinea.
Examples from selected UNESCO Reports and from selected
African countries in their quest for better teacher education prepara-
tion have been used to highlight similarities with Papua and New
Guinea where they occur, and where they point toward possible solu-
tions to problems raised. The thinking and current research of
selected American educators in the field of curriculum development
and improvement in teacher education have been utilized.
Recommendations for redirection of curriculum in primary
teacher education in New Guinea include:
1. a. All programs of primary teacher education be of three
years' duration, with the added third year becoming
a year of internship;
b. All students entering a primary teacher training pro-
gram be allowed to choose between Infant teaching and
Primary teaching;

c. Student-teachers be encouraged to participate in the
work of the various social organizations throughout

Frederick Nicholas Ebbeck

New Guinea and receive credit towards certification
for this work;

d. Further exploring of the possibility of changing Depart-
mental and Mission policy for selection and recruitment
of New Guineans into the teaching service;

e. Commencing a program in secondary schools on an
elective basis to enable secondary school students
interested in teaching and in people to participate as
a teaching aide;

a. College programs cease attempting to prepare students
for lower school teaching during the first year of the
two -year program and for upper primary teaching
during the second year;

b. College programs aim to assist the student' 8 General
Education during the first year of the program and
their Professional Education in the second year;

An interdisciplinary approach to course structure be imple-
mented;

College programs be presented in other ways than straight
lecture methods;

Colleges explore the potential of a team -teaching approach
to program organization;

College staff be encouraged to participate actively in the
curricula of schools and in the in-service training of
teachers;

College curricula to include more student experiencing of the
affairs and aspirations of the developing New Guinea society
in order to assist in deepening the student' 3 observations and
analysis of his society in meaningful terms of daily living;

Teachers colleges, in conjunction with the University of
Papua and New Guinea, encourage research into child
growth and development in New Guinea and the influences
of traditional culture upon school and learning. Such
research to include a study of New Guinea folklore, songs,
art and dance;

me on

some to

smctio

Frederick Nicholas Ebbeck

9. a. Colleges aim to encourage each student to experiment
with various approaches to teaching, in order that a
personal method Of teaching will develop;

b. Colleges to place less reliance on set methods and
"college approved" lesson formats;

c. Colleges aim to develop the student' 8 skill in commu-
nication through improving his self -understanding, his
understanding of his society, his oral and written
ability, and his purpose in teaching.

The value of such a study is seen in the stimulus it could

have on the staffs of the New Guinea teachers colleges to help them

come to a better understanding of the principles of curriculum con-

struction.

AN EXAMINATION OF SELECTED PROBLEMS
ASSOCIATED WITH PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION
IN PAPUA AND NEW GUINEA LEADING TO
SUGGESTIONS FOR POSSIBLE REDIRECTION

IN CURRICULUM PLANNING
By

Frederick Nicholas Ebbeck

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
College of Education

1970

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My appreciation is extended to all those who have so freely
given of their time and experience to assist me with this study. In
particular, my special thanks go to Doctor Troy L. Stearns who,
as chairman of my committee, gave so much of himself, his expe-
rience and his talents. It is indeed an honor to have studied with
such a scholarly and humane person. My special thanks go also to
Doctor Louise M. Sause, who guided me through my cognate studies
in Growth and Development. It is rare that one gets an opportunity
to work closely with two such outstanding people as Dr. Stearns and
Dr. Sause. My appreciation is extended to my other committee
members, DoctOr George R. Myers and Doctor Alice M. Davis, for
their personal interest and encouragement.

To my wife, Marjory, and my daughter, Genevieve, for

their love, patience and understanding, I dedicate this study.

ii

CRAFT I

II.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER
I. THE PROBLEM

Rationale for the Study

Definition of Terms

Methodology .

Limitations of the Study .
Overview of Subsequent Chapters

II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .

Papua and New Guinea . . .
Official Reports and Statements
Journals, Articles and Other

Sources . .
Independent Surveys

Anthropological and Sociological

Studies . . .
Developing Countries --Africa .
UNESCO . .
Reports of Conferences .
Other Sources
Summary
Literature from the United States
Curriculum: Design and Con-
struction
Curriculum for Teacher
Education
Summary

iii

Page

HI—s
NHCOQH

15
15

22
26

28
29
32
34
40
43
44

44

56
66

CHIPTE

HI.

CHAPTER

III. BACKGROUND TO UNDERSTANDING
OF THE NEW GUINEA EDUCATIONAL
SCENE .

Geographic, Historic, Economic
and Cultural Background of
New Guinea
Geographic Background.
Historic Background .
Economic Background . . . .
Cultural Background .

A Way of Life-- Two Traditional
Societies
Manus . .
Orokolo of the Gulf Of Paopua

Traditional (Folk) Education.
Education as a Folk Process
The Culture Gap . .

Education in Papua and New Guinea
General Survey
Education Policy
Primary Schools

IV. THE PRIMARY TEACHER AND HIS
I PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION .

Teacher Education in New Guinea
A Brief Review .
Development of Curriculum
Common Problems Relating to
Curriculum in Teacher Education
Finance .
Socio -Cultura1 Factors

The Need for Professionalization

of the Teacher .
How Children Learn
Language--A Problem of Com-
munication . . .

Instructional Methods and Media .

iv

Page

71

71
71
73
74
76

78
78
81
84
84
87
88
88
91
93

102

102
102

105

109
112
114

116
120

126
131

CHIPTE

V.

BIBLICX

CHAPTER Page

V. CURRICULUM FOR PRIMARY TEACHER
EDUCATION IN NEW GUINEA-~SOME
PROPOSALS FOR REDIRECTION . . . . . . . 136
Introduction . . . . . . . . 136
Factors in CurricUlum Change . . . . 140

Recommendations for Redirection of
Curriculum in Teacher Education

in New Guinea . . . . 142
Organization - - at the Policy -Making
Level . . . . . . . . . 142
Organization - - at the Institutional
Level. . . . . . . . . 145
College Programs - - Curriculum
Content and Process . . . . . . . 151
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

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CHAPTER I

THE PROB LEM

I. Rationale for the Stud!)I

 

Most people with more than three or four years of teaching
experience in New Guinea spoke until recently of teacher training,
and training is what they attempted to do. Teacher education as a
concept, and as a term, is less than half a decade old.

Prior to 1955 teacher training was rather haphazard and
unsystematized, but since this date it has become increasingly
organized and standardized. In 1955 it became obvious to the
Australian Government and the Administration of Papua and New
Guinea that the success of the Australian plan for rapid educational
expansion depended upon the rapidity with which a cadre of trained
indigenous teachers could be made available to staff new primary
schools. This plan resulted in a proliferation of small Mission-
sponsored and Administration -sponsored teachers colleges and a
one -year course of training to be given to prospective teachers who

had successfully completed primary (elementary) schooling. As will

be seen,

necessity
The staff
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and mos

teaching

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be seen, the kind of training given in this one -year course was, of
necessity, fairly prescriptive in content and methodology of teaching.
The staff of these many small colleges were, in the main, recruited
from the general New Guinea teaching service, were expatriates,
and most had little or no preparation or apparent vocation for the
teaching of teachers in pre -service training programs.

Since organized teacher education got under way in 1955,
great advances have been made in the total educational scene in New
Guinea. The formal educational background which a student teacher
brings with him to his training program is vastly different today
from what it was in 1955. The course of training is now two years
instead of one for most students. Similar advances have been made
in the modernizing of the student' 8 traditional society. This moderni-
zation has changed his culture so much and so rapidly that educators
and scholars such as Margaret Mead, who have a deep understanding
of the needs of New Guinea and its struggles as it moves towards
nationhood, plead for teachers to become more aware of the wider
New Guinea culture and fOr teacher preparation programs to consider
this aspect of the child' s and teacher' 5 background in order "to give

the new teacher a sense of the pupils he will teach. "1

 

1Margaret Mead, "Anthropology and Education," Papua and
New Guinea Journal of Education, V, No. 4 (June 1968), 12.

 

 

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existing

Classroc

It is argued, however, that teacher education in New Guinea
has failed to innovate and failed to keep abreast of the changing needs
of the student and the changing conditions of his society. Teacher
education in New Guinea is still regarded by many educators directly
concerned with it as the training of young men and women to get
their classes step -by -prescribed step through the factual material
of a syllabus. In many respects this has resulted in teacher educa-
tion programs being an extension of the methods and content of
existing secondary schooling with a little practical experience in the
classroom added.

The greatest single weakness pointed out by those who are
anxious to recast syllabuses is too great a preoccupation with sub-
jects as logically ordered bodies of knowledge, and too little with
the students as they are, and in the New Guinea situation as it in fact
is.

The teacher educator cannot be held wholly responsible.

He is trapped in a situation not of his particular making. He has
been left in no doubt of what is expected of him by politicians,
economists, and administrators: to furnish teachers who will help
young people to move from the very simple culture of their parents

towards a very complex culture in a few years.

continua
he s'noul
e'nenge i
which re
service
in Papua
has seri

The

of c

of (
ten

The staffs of the various New Guinea teachers colleges are
continually in a dilemma about what the student should study and how
he should study it. This dilemma is compounded by the rapidity of
change in the curricula of primary and secondary schools--change
which rarely considers the problems associated with teacher pre-
service and in -service preparation. A recent survey of education
in Papua and New Guinea has stressed this difficulty, a fact which
has serious implications for teacher education programs:

The most striking fact about territory curricula is the number
of changes and the haste of their introduction. The discovery
of competent teachers or their in -service training for compe-
tence, the provision of materials, especially for text books and
other sources, have not, in general, preceded the introduction
of new syllabuses. Just as importantly, teachers have not been
given time to "live with" their courses, i. e. , to master their
content, find interesting and relevant new material, devise
improved methods of teaching, discover the pace at which dif-
ferent elements may best be mastered, before the courses are
scrapped for new ones.

The dilemma is further compounded by the fact that primary
teachers are required to teach all subjects. As a result, primary
teacher preparation programs become fragmented and overcrowded.
Students have little time to develop the ability to study on their own

and are given no time to develop their own particular talents and

interests .

 

1University of Sydney, Adult Education Department, "Edu-
cation in Papua and New Guinea, " Current Affairs Bulletin, XLIII,
No. 6 (February 10, 1969), 95-96.

 

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Even though there has been much discussion about what to
teach and how the student should learn, the process of education
within the colleges themselves has not changed to any great degree,
and such practice as is conducted within almost all colleges is still

repetito mater studiorum. Colleges continue to teach the primary

 

school syllabus content. It is claimed that because of the students'
previous inadequate education, and in order that they as teachers
know what they are talking about, this "content" has to be taught.
L. J. Lewis, Professor of Education in Tropical Areas, University
of London, visited New Guinea in 1968. He commented in a personal
letter ". . . a study on curriculum for teacher education in Papua
and New Guinea is certainly needed and would be very worthwhile. "1
He referred to a statement he had made on the point of teaching
syllabus content in colleges at a conference of teacher educators in
Kenya in 1968:
. . . these are attitudes which lead to attempting to do too much
for the students and not trusting them to do things for themselves,
with the consequential overloading of the time -table and the
insatiable demands upon the time of the staff in preparation,
instruction, supervision and exercise marking so that the latter
have no time for reflection themselves. The answer to this

aspect of the nature and content of the curriculum is to be found
in determining what are the essentials as opposed to the

 

1L. J. Lewis, in a personal letter to the writer, dated

January 9, 1970.

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accidentals in the equipment of the teacher, and thereby
applyifig a principle of limitation to the Objective to be pur-
sued.

Dr. G. W. Gibson, Chief Of the Division of Teacher Educa-
tion in the New Guinea Department of Education, questioned the use -
fulness of current teacher education programs in New Guinea when
he wrote: "Should we concentrate on generalizations and the develop-
ment of understanding of the education process or on the development
of teaching skills to meet the present needs in schools?"2 He also
raised the issue of college teaching methods other than the lecturing
which appears to be the most nearly accepted and practiced method
of imparting knowledge in New Guinea.

The purpose of this thesis is to advance recommendations
which will lead to a possible redirection in curriculum planning in
primary teacher education in New Guinea. These recommendations
will be based upon the writer' 8 experience and understanding of the
nature of the teacher education task in New Guinea, the ideals of the

Administration and the peoples of the developing New Guinea, and

selected pertinent examples provided by educators in other countries.

 

1L. J. Lewis, "The Nature and Content of Curriculum in
Teachers Colleges, " New Directions in Teacher Education, Pro-
ceedings of Second Kenya Conference 1968 (Nairobi, Kenya: East
African Publishing House, 1969), p. 61.

 

2G. W. Gibson, in a personal letter to the writer, dated
January 23, 1970.

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11. Definition of Terms

 

An understanding of the terms related to education in New
Guinea is essential if one is to attempt to equate standards and

programs there with those of the rest of the world.

The Territory of Papua and New Guinea is often referred

 

to as "The Territory, " but for the purposes of this thesis it will be

referred to as New Guinea.

 

The Australian Government is responsible for the adminis-

 

tration of Papua and, under the United Nations, for the administra-

tion of New Guinea. It has established an Administration comprised

 

of various Departments which are responsible to an Administrator.

The Department of Education is one department in the Administration.

 

There is a Legislative Assembly of elected politicians. At this stage

 

of New Guinea's development this Assembly has limited powers,
though these powers are increasing as the country moves towards

independence.

Education in Papua and New Guinea until 1970 has been
organized as a dual system: Mission (comprised of the various mis-
sionary bodies involved in the formal education of the people of New
Guinea) and Administration, with overall policy in the hands of the

Administration' 3 Department of Education.

 

oi.

/ ~77 [99/ 47/

The New Guinea School System

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. Organization of Schools
Year of
Grade
Schooling
Form
13 VI Senior
High
Form School
12 V
11 “film High
Schools Technical
Form Second Schools
10 III Stage
9 F011;“! High
Schools Vocational
Form First Schools
3 1 Stage
7 Std.
6
Std
6 I
5
Std
5 0
4
4 Std. Primary
3 Schools
Std.
3 2
Std
2 o
1
1 Std.
Prep.

 

 

 

 

 

 

External Examination

 

University Entrance

Schools Leaving Certificate
(Form IV)

Intermediate Certificate
(Form 111)

Standard 6
Primary Final Examination

2. Examinations: Form IV "Schools Leaving Certificate, "

 

Form III"'Intermediate Certificate, " and Standard 6
"PriInary School Final Examination" are all public
examinations on required subject matter set and
graded under the auspices of the Department of Educa-
tion in New Guinea.

3. Teacher Education Courses--as of 1969:

 

 

 

Educational
Course Prerequisite
Three -Year Secondary
(Administration only) Form 4
Two -Year Primary
F 3
(”C" Course) orm
Two -Year Primary
F 2
("3" Course) orm
One -Year Infant Std. VI plus
("A" Course, Mission Colleges only) Form 1
Three -Year Manual Arts Form 4
(Secondary)
Three -Year Home Economics Form 4

(Secondary)

III. Methodology

 

This study of the curriculum of primary teacher education

in New Guinea is essentially a descriptive, analytical, and to some

extent a
treaunei
cation, 1
te one;
relate II
ground 2
oology a

national

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10

extent a comparative one. It does not claim to be exhaustive in its
treatment of all the problems associated with primary teacher edu-
cation, but it does take into account the problems associated with
the adaptation of curriculum content and teaching methods as. they
relate to growth and development of the learner, his cultural back-
ground and its influences on his learning, modern educational tech-
nology and the latest thinking on curriculum construction, and
national developmental policy for New Guinea.

In the absence of statistical data on either past programs
or future policies, current programs have been studied in the light
of past and present curricula; policies as proclaimed by the Depart-
ment of Education; and the writer' 5 knowledge which comes from
personal involvement for the past ten years in teacher education in
New Guinea.

Further, similarities exist in the growth and development
of formal education in English speaking Africa and New Guinea.
Both areas are products of a colonial administration and have, as
a result, an educational system which is more a replica of the
educational system of the colonizing country than of the recipient
country. In this sense education is a "foreign" system and has

inherent cultural discontinuities.

“Stet

1131c

11

The examples of selected African countries in their quest
for better teacher education preparation have been used to highlight
these similarities, where they occur, and to point to possible solu-
tions to problems raised. UNESCO has done much work in advancing
educational practice in developing countries and its recommendations,
also, have been considered. Probably the most important compara-
tive development is the change in curriculum made in these developing
countries to provide a more realistic education for the majority of
primary school students for whom primary education is a terminal
education. This has major implications for the preparation of
primary school teachers.

A third area of research included in this study is that of the
current thinking of selected American educators in the field of

curriculum development and improvement in teacher education.

IV. Limitations of the Study

 

This study limits itself to primary teacher education in New
Guinea, though many of the problems associated with primary teacher
education are also to be found in programs preparing secondary
teachers.

Any change made in programs of teacher education in New

Guinea must consider national goals as exemplified and incorporated

inthep<

Inf rem

tauve w

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12

in the policies of the Department of Education. This limits somewhat

any recommendation for radical change in current programs.

A further limitation to this study is the absence of authori-

tative writing on education in New Guinea.

V. Overview of Subsequent Chapters

 

Chapter Two will be a review of the literature including:

 

available current data on education in Papua and New Guinea
from official reports and statements; journals, articles and
other sources; independent surveys; anthropological and
sociological studies;

materials from developing countries exemplified by

English -speaking Africa; from UNESCO on teacher education;
reports of educational conferences in Africa; and writings

of educators concerned with children's learning in Africa;

literature from the United States of America on curriculum
construction, development and design for teacher education.

Chapter Three presents background information to assist

 

in understanding the New Guinea educational scene. The chapter is

divided into four parts:

1.

A brief Geographic, Historic, Economic and Cultural back-
ground of New Guinea to set the scene for an analytical dis-
cussion of existing school and college curricula in New
Guinea and to provide a criterion for basing projected
curriculum innovations;

A brief survey of two traditional New Guinea societies to
serve as a vehicle of contrast between the traditional and
modernizing societies;

Guinea

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13

3. A discussion of education as a folk process and of the
culture gap existing between the traditional and the emerg -
ing New Guinea cultures;

4. A brief survey of primary education in New Guinea including
a discussion of the role of the primary schools and the
variety of educational standards existing in schools.

Chapter Four concerns the professional education of the New

 

Guinea primary teacher. The Chapter is divided into two parts:

1. A brief review of the growth of teacher education in New
Guinea including comment on the development of Mission
teacher education. The development of curricula in teacher
education is shown to explain current training programs and ‘
to indicate the framework in which any change must take
place;

2. An outline of selected problems relating to curriculum in
teacher education in New Guinea including: finance; socio-
cultural factors; the need for professionalization of the
teacher; how children learn; language and communication;
instructional methods and media.

Chapter Five is concerned with curriculum for primary

 

teacher education in New Guinea and offers some proposals for
redirection of curriculum. The chapter is introduced by a brief
summary of teacher education in New Guinea. A statement of the
writer' 3 concept of teacher education and his understanding of the
process of curriculum change is included in the introduction.
Recommendations for redirection of curriculum‘in teacher

education in New Guinea are made under three headings:

The pre

14

1 . Organization - - at the policy -making level;
2. Organization - - at the institution level;
3. College programs -- curriculum content and process.

The proposals are then summarized in the form of a conclusion.

J

CHAPTER 11

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The review is divided into three sections:

1. Papua and New Guinea:

 

A. Official reports and statements

B. Journals, articles and other sources

C. Independent surveys

D. Anthropological and sociological studies A

II. Developingfountries — - Africa:

 

A. Materials produced by Unesco on teacher education

B. Reports of selected Afro -Anglo -American and Kenya
Conferences

C. Other Sources: Writings of educators concerned with
African education

D. Summary

111. Literature from the United States

 

A. Curriculum design and construction
B. Curriculum for teacher education
C. Summary

I. Papua and New Guinea

 

A. Official Reports and Statements

 

The Department of Education' s "Confidential Report of the

Joint Working Party on Educational Policy, " which was presented to

15

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Mmhnn
Year Pia!
andexpla
unanon

"Five Ye:

16

the Administrator of Papua and New Guinea in 1968, contained the
Departrnent' s policy and projections to 1972. 1 This was the source
of information on education leading to the more comprehensive "Five
Year Plan" mentioned next. It is a particularly valuable document
and explains fully enrollment statistics, costs, buildings and admin-
istration of all Divisions of the Department for the extent of the
"Five Year Plan. "

The Report indicated that by 1977, if primary school
enrollment targets are to be met, 1000 two —year trained teachers
will be required annually to staff the schools. 2 In this regard Mis-
sion authorities were urged to consolidate further their smaller
colleges "so that there will be fewer, better staffed, better equipped
colleges from which better trained teachers will graduate. "3 It
indicated that by 1972 the target for indigenous staff in teachers
colleges, both Administration and Mission, is to number eleven.

This represents no increase on the 1969 figures. 4

 

1Administration of Papua and New Guinea, "Confidential
Report of the Joint Working Party on Educational Policy, " Port
Moresby, March, 1968. (Duplicated copy.)

2Ibid., para. 79.

3Ibid., para. 81.

4Ibid., para. 87.

preiunina'
systems (

authority,

and pohgi
"Five Ye
planning

W46 n
defined t

mm film

17

Another feature of this Report is that it outlined the
preliminary considerations for nationalizing the educational
systems (Mission and Administration) under one controlling
authority. This will be referred to in Chapter Three.

The most informative document available on Current plans

and policies for New Guinea is the Programmes and Policies for

 

Economic Development of Papua and New Guinea, 1 known as the

 

"Five Year Plan. " This document, although covering policy and
planning for all sections of the Administration, clearly stated the
long -term objectives for Education in New Guinea. In addition, it
defined the present position in all Divisions of the Education Depart-
ment and projected educational targets to 1972.

The document stated that primary education will be a
terminal education for many students. 2 Primary school enrollment
is to continue to increase by an estimated 41, 000 children by 1972.

It is planned to reduce the length of primary schooling from Seven to
six years beginning in 1970. This, it is anticipated, will allow more

children to obtain a primary education and ". . . make maximum use

 

1’Territory of Papua and New Guinea, . Programmes and
Policies for Economic filgcevelopment figf Papua and New Guinea (Port
Moresby; Government Printer, 1968).

21mm, p. 98.

 

of the tear
responsib.

will be 1m

House of

Emited d.
represen-
Australia
Why ur.
such as 1
Reports

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S’tateme

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18

of the teachers available. "1 The program envisaged that ". . . local
responsibility for the management and upkeep of primary schools
will be increased" through self -help construction schemes. 2

Other policy statements are made from time to time in the
House of Assembly (elected representatives of the people but with
limited decision -making powers), by the Director of Education who
represents the Administration of Papua and New Guinea, and by the
Australian Government. It is difficult to keep account of educational
policy under these circumstances in a rapidly developing country
such as New Guinea. The official Australian Government Yearly
Reports for the Territory of Papua3 and the Yearly Reports for the
Trust Territory of New Guinea4 also provide policy statements and
statistics; but because of the rapidity of change in New Guinea, these
statements and statistics are often out of date by the time they get

into print.

 

1Ibid., p. 99.

21bid.

 

3Commonwealth of Australia, Annual Report of the Terri-
tory of Papua for the Period 1 July 1965 to 30 June 1966 (Canberra:
Government Printer, 1966).

 

 

 

4Commonwealth of Australia, Annual Report of the Trust
Territory of New Guinea Er the Period 1 July 1965 to 30 June 1966
(Canberra: Government Printer, 1966).

 

 

Chef of
and circ
and one
"The D!
cators

prograi
ofmad
raising
basing
ditions
We 0:
enced

with a
03’ tea

effect

Staff ;

of the

DeVej
theD

19

Policy for teacher education is mainly the concern of the
Chief of Division of Teacher Education who, through personal contact
and circular letters, directs the work of the three Administration
and twelve Mission colleges. One recent circular letter, entitled
"The Development of Teacher Education, "1 challenged teacher edu—
cators in New Guinea to review their pre -service and in-service
programs. It made proposals for increasing the quality and output
of teachers by increasing the length of the program to three years;
raising the academic prerequisite for entry into training to Form IV;
basing college programs on an accurate assessment of needs, con-
ditions in the schools, the type of person entering training, and the
type of college staff available; recruiting well qualified and experi-
enced staff; influencing local teachers to undertake advanced studies
with a view to appointment in teachers colleges; undertaking studies
of teachers during their early teaching years to determine me
effectiveness of work done at colleges; increasing the number of
staff and bettering facilities in colleges. 2

Beginning in 1968, an annual conference of the Principals

of the three Administration and twelve Mission colleges is held.

 

lPapua and New Guinea, Department of Education, "The
Development of Teacher Education, " undated circular letter from
the Division of Teacher Education, 1968.

2Ibid.. PP. 10-13.

The ”Repo
1%8,"1iu
ooHeges ar
within the

Ehmahon'

. 1
ground

1. Th
3. Th

for
in-

3. Th
ma
an:

 

20

The "Report on Conference of Teachers College Principals-~Goroka,
1968, "1 illuminated current practices and problems in the several
colleges and pointed to possible changes in curriculum and methods
within the individual colleges. The Report noted the Director of

Education' s introductory comment:

. if we are to set our discussions against a realistic back-
ground we will need to remember:

1. The relationship between education and politics.

2. The fact that minimally qualified teachers may be necessary
for many years to come. This would emphasise the need for
in-service courses.

3. The need to know where we are going and why, in terms that
make for appropriate action. What we do will be cgnfused
and uncertain if we lack clearly defined objectives.

At the 1968 Conference of Teachers College Principals,
Ernest Roe, Professor of Education at the University of Papua and
New Guinea, advocated better staff in Primary Teachers Colleges.
An interesting recommendation he made concerning college staff,
and one which has not, apparently, received much attention by other

teacher educators in New Guinea, is that of the great need for local

(indigenous) staff for colleges. He said:

 

1Report on Conference of Teachers fCollege Principals--
Goroka, 1968, Department of Education, Port Moresby, 1968.
(Stencilled copy.)

2Ibid. , p. 3.

A It
haw
edu:
Pro
star
esse
role
use
be a

of existir
Teacher
1955 TWC
Method a;
curricula

\

Weses j
Uflees F
11.. '.

W980)"

21‘

A further problem faced by the Territory is the urgent need to
have academically qualified primary teachers for teacher
education who "know" the culture of Papua and New Guinea.
Probably only indigenous staff are really capable of fully under-
standing the problems faced by Territory teachers. It seems
essential to increase the number of such personnel even if their
role is largely one of tutors or assistant lecturers. As colleges
use more tutorials and small group discussions, so there will
be an increasing need for such staff.

Available for study to assist in developing an understanding
of existing curricula in the light of older models are the Departmental
Teacher Training Syllabuses, for 1950, 2 1962 "A" Course, 3 and
1965 Two Year Course. 4 These syllabuses showed the content,
method and organization of previous teacher training programs. The

curricula for teachers colleges are now the responsibility of the

 

1Ernest Roe, "Ideas Guiding the Development of University
Courses in Teacher Education, " Report on Conferegnce of Teachers
Coll—ege Principals;Goroka, 1968, Department of Education, POrt
Moresby, 1968, p. 16. (Stenci‘fied copy.)

 

2Papua and New Guinea, Department of Education, "Teacher
Training Syllabus 1950, " Port Moresby. (Stencilled copy.)

3Papua and New Guinea, Department of Education, Teacher
Training Syllabus--One Year Course (Port Moresby: South Pacific
Post Print, 1962).

4Papua and New Guinea, Department of Education, "Syllabus
for the Two Year Course of Teacher Training," Port Moresby, 1965.
(Stencilled copy.)

individual
Teachers <
Handbook3
current co
Chapter F
colleges.

3. Jourr
%

Guinea ha
aInherits,-

153% of

22

individual college. Handbooks for 1970 of the Goroka1 and Madang2
Teachers Colleges and the 1969 Port Moresby Teachers College
Handbook3 have outlined the academic and practical aspects of
current courses. These syllabuses and handbooks are used in
Chapter Four to discuss the development of curricula in teachers
colleges.

B. Journals, Articles and
Other Sources

 

 

Generally, most of the writing done on education in New
Guinea has been descriptive in nature. Perhaps the most recent
authoritative writing is The Australian Journal of Education, March
1968, issue entitled "Education in Papua and New Guinea. "4 This
issfie of the journal is devoted entirely to education in New Guinea,

and articles by experienced New Guinea educators cover a variety

 

1Papua and New Guinea, Department of Education, Hand-

book, 1970:1Goroka Teachers Collegg (Port Moresby: Government
Printer, 1970).

 

2Papua and New Guinea, Department of Education, Hand-

book, 1970: MadangTeachers Colleg_e_ (Port Moresby: Government
Enter, 1970).

 

3Papua and New Guinea, Department of Education, Hand-
book and Calendar: Port Moresby Teachers Collegg (Port Moresby:
Government Printer, 1969).

4

 

The Australian Journal of Education, XII, No. 1 (March

 

1968).

of topic
”Curret

sor of I

tothist

New Gu

this
10 Pt
pro
put
owr
valt
soc

Second,

It to
thee
low
m0]
gen
and
tinc‘
or j
in t
lum

23

of topics from a historical survey by the Director of Education to
"Current Directions and Future Challenges" by Ernest Roe, Profes-
sor of Education, University of Papua and New Guinea.

Two points raised by the Director of Education are pertinent
to this thesis. First, discussing the ideal of a blending of cultures,

New Guinean and Western, in New Guinea, he said:

. . there are many factors which preclude the realization of
this idea in a viable educational programme. . . . It has, there-
fore, been necessary to abandon the idea of the educational
programme "blending" the cultures. What we hope to do is to
put before Papuans and New Guineans the choices from their
own and western culture, so that they may choose ideas and
values which enable them to live successfully in their own
society.

Second, specifically on teachers and teacher education, he stated:

It would be foolish to assert that the relatively narrow and
mechanistic approach to teaching necessarily adopted for the
lowest level of teachers is satisfactory. Using teachers in this
monitorial way has, however, laid a foundation for the next
generation of students. In common with other countries, Papua
and New Guinea has the problem in the immediate future of
finding ways, by means of in -service training, either on the job
or in institutions, to increase the flexibility with which teachers
in the2 service can handle the requirements of a modern curricu-
lum.

An article in this journal by J. R. Prince, of the University

of Papua and New Guinea, entitled "Science Concepts in New Guinean

 

1K. R. McKinnon, "Education in Papua and New Guinea:

The Twenty Post -War Years, " The Australian Journal of Education,
XII, No. 1 (March 1968), 6.

21bidos pp. 10-110

and Europ
developme

concluded

quant
slow?
fines
auri
reap
sonu
does
distt
educ
hili

llhese f

toned la

w'i'ar'ch

"i?

.fi0n

1&th

Y).

I :

“\TIT
\ y,

24

and European Children, "1 which describes a survey of the conceptual
development of selected Papuan and New Guinean school children,
concluded:

. in New Guinea the attainment of conservation of physical
quantities is achieved by indigenous children considerably more
slowly than by children of European origin. This finding is in
line with those from other parts of the world, and is no doubt
attributable to the different ranges of experience to which the
respective cultures subject children reared in them. There is
some evidence that the conceptual development of conservation
does not necessarily generally occur in members of a little
disturbed New Guinean culture, but that intruding western style
education is responsible for conceptual developments which are
in line with western thought patterns.

(These findings are parallel with those of Greenfield in Africa, men-
tioned later in this chapter.)

There have been two recent Current Affairs Bulletins pub-

 

lished by the University of Sydney entitled ”Education in Papua -New
Guinea"3 and "Language in Papua-New Guinea. "4 The first of these

givesa frank description of the present educational scene in New

 

1J. R. Prince, "Science Concepts in New Guinean and
European Children, " The Australian Journal of Education, XII,
(March 1968), 88-89.

2mm.

 

3University of Sydney, Adult Education Department, "Edu-
cation in Papua- New Guinea, " Current Affairs Bulletin, XLIII,
No. 6 (February 1969).

 

4University of Sydney, Adult Education Department,
"Language in Papua- -New Guinea, " Current Affairs Bulletin,
XLIII, No. 7 (February 1969).

 

Guinea, inc
preparatior
. t
thosei
theirr
teachi:
are iii
especi

T

English as
Ianimage!
La“g‘uigee
laissuage-

mm: (N e x

has seric

The title

Cation i;

25

Guinea, including a critical appraisal of teachers, and their

preparation. Concerning this particular point, it was noted:
. . . the trainees for the "A" Course are usually selected from
those who have not shown themselves able to continue profitably
their normal schooling. . . . It is not surprising that the
teaching of the majority of "A" Certificate teachers--and there
are fine exceptions--is stereotyped and often incompetent,
especially in English and Mathematics.

The second mentioned Bulletin discusses the role of
English as a lingua franca and its possible replacement as a national
language by "Pidgin English" or one of the many pure indigenous
languages. The Bulletin commented that the problem of a national
language is by no means settled, and it is likely to become more
controversial as the country moves closer to independence. This
has serious implications for teacher education in New Guinea.

Other writing of a general nature is to be found in the
volumes of the Papua and New Guinea Journal of Education. First
published in 1961 and issued at irregular intervals, it has become
more regular in issue since 1967. Several articles by Dr. G. W.

Gibson specifically on teacher education are relevant to this thesis.

The titles of these articles are indicated in the footnotes. 2

 

.5.

1University of Sydney, Adult Education Department, "Edu-
cation in Papua-New Guinea, " p. 93.

2G. W. Gibson, "The Emphasis in Teacher Training--
More or Less--Of What? " Papua and New Guinea Journal of Educa-
tion, 11, No. 2 (July 1964), 57-60; G. W. Gibson, "Let's Have a

 

short ar
in which
to be git
common
hach."
than abo
culture ;

tions .

C- Inde

 

26

Margaret Mead wrote "Anthropology and Education," a

short article in the Papua and New Guinea Journal of Education1

 

in which she stressed the need for the new teacher in New Guinea

to be given more opportunity to study his culture and the developing
common culture, so that he will have a "sense of the pupils he will
teach." She gave the example of teaching through the culture rather
than about the culture. Her great understanding of New Guinea
culture adds power and importance to her considered recommenda-

tions.

C . Independent Surveys

 

Two important surveys should be mentioned. They are the

Report of the Commission on Higher Education in Papua and New

 

Guinea, 2 also known as the "Currie Report, " and the Report of the

 

Advisory Committee on Education in Papua and New Guinea, 3 also

 

 

 

 

Profession, " Pa us and New Guinea Journal of Education, V, No. 3
(February 1968), 36-41; G. W. Gibson, "The Future: Past or Pro-

logue, " Pa a and New Guinea Journal of Education, V, No. 2
(September 1967), 44-51.

1Margaret Mead, "Anthropology and Education," Papua and
New Guinea Journal of Education, V, No. 4 (June 1968), 12 -15.

 

 

 

2Report__ of the Commission on Higher Education in Pa snap
and New Guinea, Sir George Currie, Chairman (Canberra: Union
Offset Printing, 1964).

3Re ort of the Advisor Committee on Education in Pa ua
and New Guinea, W. J. Weeden, Chairman (Canberra: Union OIfset
P——rint'ing_—T), 1 9 9 .

 

 

 

known a
mprs
Nacho:
and New
nology i
hug

need for
to raise
training
lowest 1
istratjo
for {hes
mOyea

mining

E"Wrath
EDIE m;
Sistem.
at" the

27

known as the "Weeden Report." The Currie Report was the first
major survey of education in Papua and New Guinea; and as a result
of action on many of its recommendations, the University of Papua
and New Guinea was founded in 1966, the Institute of Higher Tech-
nology in 1967, and the Goroka (Secondary) Teachers College in 1967.
Among the recommendations for primary teacher education was the
need for immediate action to upgrade teacher education courses and
to raise the educational requirements as prerequisite for entry into
training colleges. This upgrading resulted in an abandonment of the
lowest level of teacher training (Course "A") in 1967 by all Admin-
istration colleges and several of the Mission colleges. All courses
for these colleges then became of two years duration with one or
two years of secondary education as a prerequisite for entry into
training programs.

The Weeden Report surveyed the Administration and Mission
educational structures within New Guinea and advised the Australian
government on the feasibility of unifying the systems into a national
system. This has since been done, and the Australian government
and the Territory Administration have begun to act on many of the

recommendations of the report.

D. In
Soc

formal .
societie
young, 1
Mead' 3
study of
backgro‘
mo stud

Three.

28

D. Anthropological and
Sociolggical Studies

 

So far this review has been concerned directly with the
formal educational system. In order to understand the traditional
societies of New Guinea and the education they provided for their
young, several anthropological studies have been used. Margaret

Mead' s famous study, GrowEg' Up in New Guinea, 1 and her later

 

study of the same people, New Lives for Old, 2 provide excellent

 

background for understanding the traditional Manus culture. These
two studies and the ones listed below will be discussed in Chapter
Three.

The second traditional culture studied is that of the Orokolo

of the Gulf District. Albert Maori -Kiki' s autobiography, Kiki: Ten

 

Thousand Years in a Lifetime, 3 as well as articles by the one -time

 

New Guinea government anthropologist F. E. Williams found in

Oceania, 4 and an unpublished Master' 3 thesis by Dawn Ryan entitled

 

1Margaret Mead, Growigg ULin New Guinea (London:
Pelican, 1930).

 

2Margaret Mead, New Lives for Old (New York: Mentor
Books, 1956).

 

3Albert Maori -Kiki, Kiki: Ten Thousand Years in a Life-
time (London: Praeger, 1968)?

4F. E. Williams, "Trading Voyages from the Gulf of Papua, "

Oceania, 111, No. 2 (December 1932), 139-166; F. E. Williams,
"Seclusion of Age Grouping in the Gulf of Papua, " Oceania, IX, No. 4

(June 1939), 359 -381.

 

“Social
Kiri, a
society
into wit

the trait

similar
believe
Africa'

educan'

29

"Social Change Among the Toaripi, Papua, "1 are used as references.
Kiki, 'a native of Orokolo, lived his early boyhood in his traditional
society and was later educated in the modern "westernized" society
into which New Guinea is moving. He showed the contrast betvveen

the traditional ways of child rearing and education and the modern.

II. DeVelging Countries - - Africa

 

New Guinea is a developing country and has many problems
similar to other developing countries in the world. The writer
believes, as a result of his studies on education in English speaking
Africa, that parallels exist between the problems encountered in
education and development in the various developing African countries
and those found in New Guinea. For the purposes of this thesis, the
African countries of Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Nigeria have been
chosen to point out these parallels where appropriate to the New
Guinea argument.

Three examples, at this stage, will help justify this belief
on the writer' a part. First, New Guinea has a serious primary
"school -leaver" problem-~a leaver who is ill -prepared to face the

prospects of an agrarian life. This problem is due, in part, as will

 

1Dawn Ryan, "Social Change Among the Toaripi, Papua"
(unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Sydney, 1965).

be see
real m

35 C011

ftcatio‘
This it
the low
cation
of the ‘

have Sq

bi the
iD‘Jplic

30

be seen in Chapter Three, to a curriculum which is irrelevant to the
real needs of the student. This is also a problem for East Africa,
as commented by Nyerere, 1 Sheffield, 2 Hanson3 and AndersOn. 4

A second parallel can be found in the low academic quali-
fications level for entrance into primary teacher education programs.
This low level of academic recruitment is responsible, in part, for
the low status of primary school teachersand for the quality of edu-
cation in primary schools. The World Confederation of Organizations
of the Teaching Profession (W. C. O. T. P. ), 5 Hanson6 and Castle7

have so commented on the East African scene.

 

1Julius K. Nyerere, "Education for Self Reliance, " Speech
by the President of the United Republic of Tanzania, 1967, p. 10.
(Duplicated copy.)

2J . R. Sheffield, ed. , Binoation, Employment and Rural
Development (Nairobi, Kenya: East African Publishing House, 1967).

3John W. Hanson, Imagination and Hallucination in African
Education (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1966), p. 6.

4John Anderson, "Primary School Leavers in Progressive
Rural Areas in Kenya, " Teacher Education, VIII, No. 3 (February
1968), 201.

5World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Pro-
fession, "Handbook for Raising Teacher Status in Africa, " Naimey,
1964, p. 80.

 

 

 

 

 

6Hanson, Imagination and Hallucination in African Educa-
tion, p. 24.

7E. B. Castle, Growing Up in East Africa (London: Oxford
University Press, 1966), p. 163.

 

 

traditic
of mode
Lewis,

on mod

at the 1

le.
er
ex
This 1;
in any
:53 Che

F 01mg

31

A third parallel is the influence ofWestern cultures on
traditional ones. This influence is usually referred to as a "process"
of modernization--a development from colonization. Nyerere, 1
Lewis, 2 Griffiths, 3 and Beeby4 are but a few who have commented
on modernization as it concerns East Africa.

Dean A. Babs Fafunwa, Dean of the College of Education
at the University of Ife, Nigeria, Commented:

. information on teacher education and factors influencing
learning materials are few and far between even from this
end. One of our problems in Africa is the absence of an
exchange of information bureau.

This lack of compilation of research in Africa is a limiting factor
in any organized study of the ways African children learn and how

teacher education programs might best be planned so as to prepare

young teachers to meet the needs of children.

 

1Nyerere, "Education for Self Reliance," p. 2.

2L. J. Lewis, "The Learning Process and the Teaching of
Science and Mathematics in Developing Countries," Teacher Educa-
tion inNew Countries, IX, No. 2 (November 1968), 123. Hereafter
referred to as "Learning Process."

3V. L. Griffiths, "The Education of the Young in Rural

Areas, " Education, Em lo ent and Rural Develo ment, edited by
J. R. Sheffield (NairoEI, Igenya: East African fighsfiing House,
1967), p. 309.
4('3. E. Beeby, The Quality of EducatiOn in Developing Coun-
tries (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1966 , p. 79.
5A. Babs Fafunwa, in a personal letter to the writer,
February 4, 1970.

 

 

 

it. UN

researt
Final F

Commi

 

M
report.
prepar
societ;
tum, c
Stem}:

icach'i

Africa

32

A. UNESCO

Probably one of the most reliable resources of current
research and trends in teacher education in Africa is several
Final Reports of UNESCO, notably the reports entitled Expert

Committee on Teacher Education1 and Meeting of Principals, Chief

 

 

Technical Advisers and Language Teachers of Teacher Training

Colleges in Africa ReceivingAssistance from UNESCO. 2 Both these

 

 

reports considered the importance of new approaches to teacher
preparation in order to meet the needs of contemporary man and
society. The first mentioned report addressed itself to the curricu-
lum, organization, staffing and research in teacher education. The
second report specifically is addressed to the problem of language
teaching, linguistics and the preparation of language teachers in
Africa.

Of the recommendations for teacher education made in these
reports, the need for a broad basis of general studies in the educa-

tion of all teachers and for a knowledge of the methods and values

 

1United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi-
zation (UNESCO), Final Report: Expert Committee on Teacher
Education, ED/CS}17776, Paris, 1968.

2UNESCO, Final Report: Meeting of Principals, Chief
Technical Advisers, and Language TeacRe-rs of Teacher Traini
Coll_eges ip_Africa ReceivingWAssistance from UNESCO, ED/CS/32/1,
Paris, 1967. Hereafter referred to as Final Report: Meeti_ng of
Principals.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

oi scier.
asnece
In the a
”to ens:
psychol
realitie
enviror
approa.
the nee

nether

33

of science and its potentialities for human betterment are stressed
as necessary in the general studies component of the curriculum. 1
In the area of professional studies, the recommendation was made
"to ensure that the content of professional studies, especially in
psychology and sociology, is relevant in level and approach to the
realities of childhood and of family and community life in particular
environments. "2 It was also considered that an interdisciplinary
approach is fundamental to teacher education curricula, 3 and that
the needs of children and the needs of society correspond to one
another. 4
Perhaps the most important curriculum organizational

statement made, and one which emphasizes the interdisciplinary
approach, was:

All programmes of teacher education have to face the problem

of reconciling the facts that at advanced levels knowledge takes

the form of highly specialized subjects in fields of inquiry,

whereas children experience the world as a unified whole and
make their own selection from it, of the features which interest

 

1UNESCO, Final Report: Expert Committee on Teacher

Education, p. 17 .

 

21bid.

31pm, p. 7.

4113101., p. 8.

them I
the ad'-

B. Repor

A
education i
American
unreport
henXm
litthOd, a
preParati
Presented
teacher I

the Na ti 0n

:O‘Jght.

 

34

them most, and these by no means necessarily correspond to
the adults' logical classifications of knowledge.

B. Reports of Conferences

 

A second source of current research and trends in teacher
education in Africa is the various reports of the Afro -Anglo-
American (A.A. A.) Conferences held annually up to 1969, the last

2
two reports being published in Teacher Education in New Countries.

 

The sixth conference, held at Accra in 1967, dealt with "Content,
Method, and Organization of Teachers College Programmes for the
Preparation of Primary School Teachers. "3 Of the several papers
presented at this conference, one entitled "Cultural Values and
Teacher Education in Africa, "4 by W. Senteza Kajubi, Director of
the National Institute of Education, Uganda, provides stimulation for

thought. He said:

 

lIbid.

 

2Teacher Education in New Countries, formerly known as
Teacher Education (London: Oxford University Press, published
three times each year).

3Report of the Sixth Annual Conference of the Afro -Anglo-
American Programme, edited by P. C. C. Evans (Oxford: M.A.
Programme, 1968).

4W. Senteza Kajubi, "Cultural Values and Teacher Educa-
tion in Africa, " Report of the Sixth Annual Conference of the Afro-
Anglo ~American_Prpgramme, edited by P. C. C. Evans (Oxford:
ERA. Programme, 1968), pp. 38-45.

 

 

 

Concer
heals:

Tl
cc
ce

g(
01

lhszfir

societ

.829”?

t"
\Qfia‘

“‘ie
‘5
A‘;eqt
5

L‘xn \‘
’ a

35

An understanding of the social structure of the traditional
African family could help towards the formulation of a social
philosophy which will bridge the present gap between school
and home.

Concerning the need for education which promulgates the co -operative

ideal rather than the individual, he said:

The schools can encourage those activities which promote

co -operative endeavour rather than individual gain, stress con-
cepts of equality and the responsibility to give service which
goes with any spepial ability, whether it be in academic pursuits
or manual skills.

His final statement implied the need for teachers to understand their

society:

Teachers need to have an appreciation and a deep understanding
of the goals of their society, the ideals it has set before itself,
and to 1reflect these values in what they teach and in the way they
teach.

The seventh A.A.A. conference, held at Dar es Salaam in

1968, was entitled "An Institute of Education and the Improvement

of Primary Education. "4 This conference stressed the need for

greater socialization of the school and the urgency for teachers to

 

1Ibid., p. 41.
2 .
Ib1d., p. 42.

31bid., p. 45.

4E. Godfredsen, "Report of the Seventh Annual A. A.A.

Conference, April 1968: An Institute of Education and the Improve-
ment of Primary Education," Teacher Education in New Countries,
IX, No. 3 (February 1969), 203-225.

Ncmn

hrmc

ashav
pmma
aspec
huegr;

hrsc‘

‘1

36

become more understanding of their society, and second, the need
for more research and experimentation in primary education.
At the above conference, ProfeSsor Fafunwa is reported
as having spoken out against the suggestion of subject specialists in
primary schools. He commented: "Primary schools did not make
a specialist of the child: an integrated curriculum demanded an
integrated teacher. "1 He also claimed that curriculum development
for schools should be the responsibility of the teachers college:
Development proceeded best when the impetus came from the
teachers themselves. He had seen many examples of curricu-
lum development in Nigeria initiated by Ministries, but this was
a continuous exercise which should not await direction from a
Ministry. It was necessary to keep ahead in ideas and this
could best be done through the teachers' colleges.
This belief places great responsibility on teachers colleges to ensure
that teachers develop an understanding of what curriculum improve-
ment means.
The eighth A.A. A. conference at Nairobi in 1969 had as its

theme "Teacher Education for Socio-Economic Change. "3 Several

world authorities on education in developing countries, notably

 

11mm, p. 213.
2Ibid., p. 223.
3"Report of the Eighth Conference of the Afro -Anglo-

American Program, 1969, " Teacher Education in New Countries,
X, No. 2 (November 1969), 91-138.

 

FroieS'
connih

educat:

It
in
He als
Is

it
St

.3?

_,
w
:3
(m

a.. .4 4'

‘1'... fl ’
. ('7,
£3

37

Professors Harbison, Porter, Springer, Lewis, and Hanson,
contributed to the conference, which reiterated the need for an
education which is relevant to society' 3 circumstances.
Professor Harbison commented:
It is time to reject the notion that all education is necessarily
a good thing. One must examine the relevance of what is
being taught to the needs of society. 1
He also questioned;
Is there a place in the curriculum for an analytical study of
local government, community development, organization of
self -help programmes, and related activities?
Professor Porter, Principal of the University College,
Nairobi, discussing the need for primary teachers to be understand-
ing of the traditional as well as the modern way of living and not to
educate in a manner which will alienate a child from his cultural
heritage, commented:
. . the responsibility for all this (educating) will fall very
heavily on the teacher; hence the importance of his training for
his role in contemporary society, both as an agent for cultural

preservation as well as an agent for cultural innovation and
transformation.

 

1Frederick H. Harbison, "Teacher Education for Economic
Change," The Eighth Conference of the A.A.A. Program, 1969,
Teacher Education in New Countries, X, No. 2 (November 1969),
100.

 

2Ibid., p. 104.

3Arthur T. Porter, "Teacher Education for Social Change, "
The Eighth Conference of the A.A.A. Program, 1969, Teacher Edu-
cation in New Countries, X, No. 2 (November 1969), p. 112.

 

 

other Bl
Ult
oi i
tra

teacher
(Kenya)
he firs
ment an
\-
('
.erence
)0 file In
to the m

teacherg

35 Well :

ions 1
\Tl
m that it

.01]. TI‘.
“~.‘-‘.

38

The practice of preparing teachers in centers isolated from
other social workers was criticized. Dr. Porter commented:
Ultimately, our teachers should not be educated in the isolation
of teachers' colleges. Colleges training teachers should also
train other kinds of social workers.
Two other sources of constructive comment on African
teacher education are the reports of the first and second Kericho

(Kenya) Conferences on Education in 1967 and 1968. The report of

the first conference was published under the title Education, Employ-

 

ment and Rural Development. 2 Among the conclusions of this con-

 

ference specifically relating to teacher education are those that relate
to the need to raise the professional status of primary teachers and
to the need for training colleges to give more attention to preparing
teachers to play a role as community leaders, working with adults

as well as teaching children, as part of their pre -service training.

The theme of the second Kenya conference was New Direc-

 

tions in Teacher Education. 3 This conference was more practical

 

in that it dealt with basic issues of direct concern to teacher educa -

tion. The address by Professor Lewis entitled "The Nature and

 

11mm, p. 117.

2Sheffield, Education, Employment and Rural Development.

3New Directions in Teacher Education, Proceedings of the
Second Kenya Conference, 1968 (Nairobi, Kenya: East African
Publishing House, 1969).

 

 

Conten
useful

of skill

erthe ca

.st'a Che PS
‘Eii'a-

39

Content of the Curriculum in Teachers Colleges" provides some

useful suggestions for innovating college programs. In the category

of skill requirements these suggestions include:1

1.

Provision to fit the teacher with competency in the com-
munication skills to ensure real understanding and a
capacity to respond to and elicit meaningful communication.

Attention to the skills of learning--how to ask questions,
how to seek answers, where to seek answers, as these
skills are crucial to continuous intellectual and professional
growth.

The teacher must be put in the way of learning the skills
of imparting knowledge, and not to rely upon any one
"method" regardless of the situation.

In the category of knowledge requirements he recommended:2

1.

Knowledge of the child, as an individual and as a member
of society, as the recipient of family and social aspirations,
and developing personal aspirations, is essential.

The teacher needs to be provided with knowledge of subject
matter.

In the category of attitudes and values he recommended:3

1.

2.

The need to engender faith in the potential of the child.

The need to establish confidence in the teacher of his
ability to guide the pupil in the learning process.

 

1L. J. Lewis, "The Nature and Content of Curriculum in

Teachers Colleges, " New Directions in Teacher Education (Nairobi,
Kenya: East African Publishing House, 1969), pp. 66 -67.

 

2Ibid. , p. 67.

3Ibid.

 

ability it
daily liv

It th
of a
the

90 t
tern
in it
feel
of 12'
char

EYuther 1

The Rep

"manor
Children

l‘A '
Whey of

40

Professor Lewis suggested that teachers should develop the
ability to observe and analyze their society in meaningful terms of
daily living. He said:

If the teacher is to be able to respond in his teaching to the need
of assisting pupils to understand something of the dynamism of
the society to which they belong, then we must equip the teacher
so that he may be able to respond, through continuous and eye -
tematic observation of the society, with sensitivity to the pupils
in the school and their families in the neighbourhood as live,
feeling human beings, persistently seeking to transmit the way
of life theji know and value whilst at the same time seeking to
change it.

The Conference reiterated the responsibility of colleges to
further the student' s knowledge of and involvement in his society.
The, Report stated:

It has been stressed that the teacher in the future must be a
leader, in every sense, in his community, with an understanding
of the society he serves. If his awareness of this responsibility

is not initiated in the college, the teacher may never realise
his full potential in this essential role.

C. Other Sources

 

Other African studies which directly concern teacher
education programs are those dealing with the way adults and
children learn. Margaret Mead and others, preparing the initial

policy of UNESCO in the early 1940' s on Fundamental Education,

 

1Lewis, "The Nature and Content of Curriculum in Teachers
Colleges, " pp. 63 -64.

2New Directions in Teacher Education, p. 20.

called fc
system l
educatel
colonial
their ow
system

situatio:

child re
Danzlge
Persona
society
caffil‘ul
'v'ldual “
is likely
as an at
but we S

3150 tha

41

called for a detailed study of the culture in order that an educational
system be devised which would hold the allegiance of the people to be
educated long enough to have some effect. 1 It is well known that the
colonial powers in Africa failed to do this. Instead they transplanted
their own metropolitan -type syllabus of studies, as well as their
system of school education, into the African countries. A similar
situation is to be found in New Guinea.

Several studies on the influence of ways of learning and
child rearing have implications for teacher education programs.
Danziger2 discussed dependency and independency‘ as they relate to
personal initiative in students. The conservatism of a traditional
society is something which cannot be overcome by schooling without
careful teaching and planning. Danziger commented that the indi-
vidual who has been consistently discouraged from personal initiative
is likely to be in difficulties if initiative is suddenly expected of him
as an adult. 3 In the past this initiative was not expected of students
but was expected of them once they became teachers. He commented

also that in many respects children in Africa are ashamed of their

 

lUNESCO, Fundamental Education (New York: Macmillan,

1947), p. 162.

 

2K. Danziger, "Social Change and Child Training in Under-
developed Areas, " Problems of Transition, edited by J. F. Holle-
man (Pietermaritzburg: Natal University Press, 1964). pp. 103-125.

 

31bid., p. 103.

old -fasl
no longe

attitudes

Stuc
lear
teac
SChl

It is imp
of their 1
Milton,
backgrou

prepa ra t:

(I!

42

old -fashioned parents; and the parents, in turn, complain that they
no longer understand their children. 1 The rapid change in values and
attitudes is disturbing to the solidarity of the traditional family.
Adam, 2 concerned with college methods of instruction, said:
Student teachers will take back into schools the concepts of
learning which they acquired in their Colleges. College
teaching based on rote memorization of facts could damage the
schools of that country for half a century.
It is important that colleges be concerned with the educational value
of their methods of instruction.
Other volumes by Beeby, 4 Curle, 5 Coombs, 6 Castle, 7 and
Milton, 8 though not all specifically written about Africa, provide

background to understanding the problems associated with the

preparation of teachers in less developed areas. Most authorities

 

1Ibid. , p. 107.

2Roy Adam, "Study Methods in DeveIOping Countries,"
Teacher Education, VIII, No. 1 (May 1967).

 

3mm. pp. 16-17.
4Beeby, The Qualgy of Education in Developing Countries.

5Adam Curle, Educational StrategLfor Developing Societies
(London: Tavistock Publications, 1963).

 

 

6Philip H. Coombs, The World Educational Crisis (London:
Oxford University Press, 196m.

 

7Castle, Growing Up in East Africa.

 

8Alan Milton, Teachers Outside the Walls (London: Oxford
University Press, 1964?

 

stress tht
the need 1
change.

Guinean V
his socie
cation pr
assist th

commum‘

D. Sum

‘-

Countrie

43

stress the importance of the role of the teacher in social change and
the need for teachers to be far more aware of basic causes of social
change. As well an understanding of the ways by which the New
Guinean was inducted, and in many cases still is being inducted, into
his society is important for the teacher in New Guinea. Teacher edu-
cation programs must, therefore, provide an education which will

assist the teacher to gain a clearer knowledge of his place in the

community.
D. Summary

The main requirements of teacher education in developing
countries which become evident from the literature appear to be:
1. The need for primary teacher education programs to be
relevant to the needs of the student in his society;1
2. The need to prepare the teacher for his role in his society,
not to alienate him from this society. Teachers need to

become aware of basic causes of social change. 2

 

1"Report of the Eighth Conference of the Afro -Anglo -American
Program, 1969, " p. 111; Commentary in Teacher Education, III
No. 3 (February 1963), 178; UNESCO, Final Report: Expert Com-
mittee on Teacher Education, p. 3; Lewis, "LearningJProcess, "
p. 131.

2Lewis, "Learning Process," p. 131; C. E. Beeby, "Cur-
riculum Planning, " Remart of the Fourth Commonwealth Education
Conference, 1968 (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1968),
p. 181. .

 

A.

ISIS?

Which
in the
believt

PQFSOI

44

3. The need to educate the teacher rather than to produce a
classroom taskmaster. 1
4. The need for research into learning theory and child deveIOp-
. . . 2
ment in developing countries.
5. The need for a multi -discip1inary approach to teacher edu-

cation.

111. Literature from the United States

A. Curriculum: Design and
Construction

 

 

The literature reviewed in this section is limited to that
which relates to the philosophical position of educators who believe
in the humanizing element in education. Each author reviewed
believes that, first and foremost, the teacher must be a unique
person. Indeed:

The teacher is the key figure in the process of guiding children
in their experiences, for it is he who has direct and prolonged
contact with them. The quality of these experiences rests

largely on the kind of person the teacher is. His background,
his insights, his sensitivity, and his effectiveness determine to

 

1John W. Hanson, "On General Education for the African
Teacher, " Teacher Education, 111, No. 3 (February 1963), 181.

 

2Lewis, "Learning Process," p. 131; UNESCO, Final
Report: Meeting of Principals, p. 12.

3UNESCO, Final Report: Expert Committee on Teacher

Education, p. 8.

SC

phdosc
hang:
cnrric
dfical

mache

hnpln

Oltea.

2‘

s: rt r) r) to CL 5? 90

45

a great extent the caliber of the work accomplished in the
school. 1

This literature has been organized to lead from the

 

philosophical, psychological view as espoused in Perceiving,
Behaving, Becoming, 2 to a consideration of the contributions to
curriculum construction of a number of educators, and then spe-

cifically of contributions to thought and practice in curriculum for

teacher education.

Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming focuses directly upon
implications for teachers and persons responsible for the teaching

ofteachers:

Whatever we do in teaching depends upon what we think people
are like. The goals we seek, the things we do, the judgments
we make, even the experiments we are willing to try, are
determined by our beliefs about the nature of man and his
capacities. ‘ It has always been so. Teachers who believe
children can, will try to teach them. Teachers who believe
children are—unable, give up trying or spend their days on a
tread -mill, hopelessly making motions they never will expect
will matter.

Throughout the book are many suggestions for educators

on the process of developing the "fully functioning person. " These

 

1George Sharp, Curriculum Development a_s_ Re -education
of the, Teacher (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers Col-
lege, Columbia University, 1951), p. 2.

2A. W. Combs, ed., Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming:

A New Focus for Education (Washington, D. C. : Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, Yearbook, 1962).

3Ibid. , p. 1.

46

suggestions are equally pertinent for teacher educators as they are
for first grade teachers, for "to produce an atmosphere in which
dignity and integrity are encouraged, we need teachers who, them-
selves, are given opportunities to be people of such character. "1

The teacher needed is a person who understands that he is
"creating self through experience. "2 He must also be a person who
anticipates and is able to cope with changes as they occur. 3 If
teachers are not to teach the way they were taught, then the experi-
ences gained during a teacher education program must be the best
and as rewarding as possible.

When Teachers Face Themselves4 presents Arthur

 

J ersild' 3 philosophy that a teacher, to be able to understand and
help others, must first understand himself. As he said:

. the book . . . is concerned with the strivings, satisfac-
tions, hopes, and heartaches that pervade the teacher' 3 life and
work. . . . It discusses concerns teachers feel they must face
in their personal and professional lives when they examine the
meaning of what they are and what they teach argd when they seek
to share the personal problems of their pupils.

 

11cm, p. 223.

2Ibid., p. 235.

3Ibid. ,

 

4Arthur T. J ersild, When Teachers Face Themselves (New
York: Teachers College, Columbia University Press, 1955).

 

5Ibid., pp. 1-2.

47

Two articles by Alice Miel are helpful in formulating a
position concerning curriculum development. In "Reassessment of
the Curriculum--Why?"1 she explained the cyclical movement of
trends in curriculum design and that ”it is easier for us today to see
that we do not have to give up content values, the learning of skills,
or scheduled reading periods in order to achieve process values,
appreciations, purposeful experience, and leisure time reading. "2
She considered an understanding of this movement, or pattern,
would help by (1) pointing up the key matters which must be accounted
for in a curriculum theory, and (2) helping the individual curriculum
specialist decide upon his particular position. 3 I

The second article, "Elements and Structure: A Design for
Continuous Progress, "4 develops the author's belief that curriculum
constructors must plan not just for continuous progress of simple

learning skills but for "the development of persons with the feelings,

 

1Alice Miel, "Reassessment of the Curriculum-~Why?"
A Reassessment of the Curriculum, edited by Dwayne Huebner (New
York: Bureau ofPublications, Teachers College, Columbia Uni-
versity, 1964), pp. 9-23.

 

2Ibid., p. 13.
3
Ibid., p. 23.

4Alice Miel, "Elements and Structure: A Design for Con-
tinuous Progress, " A Curriculum for Children, edited by Alexander
Frazier (Washington, D. C. : Association for Supervision and Cur-
riculum Development, 1969), pp. 123-136. Hereafter referred to
as "Elements and Structure. "

 

the soot.
play a Ill

first cer

appealir.
element

lntoa m

the auth

Walton

37-.

'5 .0
s n’ D
giv-

"it, X’e

48

the social and conceptual skills, and the values that will help them
play a noble part in a world moving from the twentieth to the twenty-
first century. "1

Miel cautioned against constructing a curriculum of various
appealing bits and pieces. "We have to make sure that important
elements are not missing, and that the elements have been structured
into a mutually complementary and reinforcing whole. "2

Related to eight stated assumptions on curriculum design,
the author proposed the following six elements as essential for incor-
poration in a design for continuous progress of those to be educated:

1. Opportunity to acquire symbolic tools;

2. Opportunity for personal exploration, inquiry, experimen-
tation and creativity;

3. Opportunity for exploration of organized disciplines ;
4. Opportunity for co -operative inquiry and problem solving;
5. Opportunity for experiences in managing an environment,

giving services and governing;
6. Opportunity to enjoy literature, the arts and physical
recreation.

Life Skills in School and Society4 examines changing times

 

and speculated on the capacities mankind will need in the future; then

 

1Ibid., p. 136.

2 .

Ibid., p. 123.

31bid.. pp. 129-131.

4L. J. Rubin, ed. , Life Skills in School and Society (Wash-

ington, D. C. : Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop-
ment, Yearbook, 1969).

 

it conve
curricu
the rea
develo;
exist. "
mentec
must b

allow 1

mariz

p.

“U the

49

it converts these speculations into practical implications for
curriculum construction. It is an approach which is concerned with
the real needs of life. The authors considered the skills presently
developed are "preparing youth for a world which never again will
exist. "1 Rubin, in summarizing the contents of the book, com-
mented: "Taken as a whole, the message of the writers is that there
must be more to education than the mere acquisition of skills which
allow one to be gainfully employed. "2

The life skills promulgated are numerous, but are sum-
marized by Rubin as:

. . the ability to think about the self and the society analyti-
cally; the ability to remain open, flexible, and tolerant of
social change; the ability to exploit one' 8 personal creativity
in responding to life and in the use of leisure; the ability to
interrelate effectively with other humans; and the ability to

retain one' s individuality and autonomy within the larger
group.3

What is important is the consideration not only of what a
person learns, but how he learns it. Of the writers, "none argues
for a factless curriculum, " but they did argue for "more attention
to the skills which are most difficult to develop and less attention

to those which are most easy to attain. "4

 

1Ibid., p. 154.

2Ibid.

3Ibid., p. 156.

4mm.

50

Experience and Education1 represents John Dewey' s belief

 

that all genuine education comes about through experience. He
cautioned that not all experiences are equally educative--some are
miseducative. Pertinent to the question of curriculum for teacher
education is Dewey' s belief in the "new education":

To imposition from above is opposed expression and cultivation

of individuality; to external discipline is opposed free activity;

to learning from texts and teachers, learning through experi-

ence; to acquisition of isolated skills and techniques by drill,

is opposed acquisition of them as means of attaining ends which

make direct vital appeal; to preparation for a more or less

remote future is opposed making the most of the opportunities

of present life ; to static aimi and materials is opposed acquain-

tance with a changing world.

Dewey placed the responsibility on the teacher educator to

ensure that each prospective teacher is allowed to develop--as a
person and as a practitioner-- in a way which is peculiarly personal.
Each experience which a student has is to be meaningful in the con-
text of his whole program of education.

In 1904 John Dewey wrote "The Relation of Theory to

Practice in Education. ”3 As the title suggests, Dewey discussed

 

1J ohn Dewey, Experience and Education (New York: Col-
lier Books, 1963).

 

21pm. pp. 19-20.

3John Dewey, "The Relation of Theory to Practice in Edu-
cation, " The Third Yearbook of the National Society for the Scien-
tific Study of Education, edited by Charles A. McMurry (Blooming-
ton, Ind. : Public School Publishing Co. , 1904).

 

51

the nature and aim of theory and of practice in education. The
value of this work for teacher education is that it elaborates on,
and presents solutions to, the age -old problem in teacher education
of what kind of practical experiences should be given the student
teacher. He believed "practical work should be pursued primarily
with reference to its reaction upon the professional pupil in making
him a thoughtful and alert student of education, rather than to help
him get immediate proficiency. "1 Theoretical studies, he advo-
cated, should be linked with the student's past experiences. He
said: "He [the student] must accordingly have in his own experi—
ence plenty of practical material by which to illustrate and vitalize
theoretical principles and laws of mental growth in the process of
learning. "2

Dewey proposed that the student teacher should receive
a laboratory ~type introduction into the art of teaching. This
would begin with guided observations of children and their inter-
action with a teacher and conclude when the student teacher is
able to take full responsibility for the learning of a class of

pupils .

 

1l'bid. , p. 15.

21bid., p. 17.

52

Developing a Curriculum for Modern Living1 is a

 

comprehensive text on curriculum design withmany examples for
school programs. The authors believed that "a curriculum in which
the learner and society are brought into relationship is one in which
the daily life concerns of children and youth are seen as aspects of
persistent life situations with which all members of society must be
able to deal. "2 They firmly believed that any curriculum must take
into consideration the individual, how he matures and the way he
learns. The way he learns is governed by his maturity, experiential
background and his purposes. "Society provides the framework
within which children and youth live and learn, and inevitably
affects what they bring to school and the ways they put their school
experiences to work. "3

The implications in this volume for teacher education cur-
ricula point to a careful consideration of cultural values, societal
needs, the learners' backgrounds, as well as the psychological

conditions of how people learn to become humane.

 

1Florence B. Stratemeyer, Hamden L. Forkner,
Margaret G. McKim, and A. Harry Passow, Developinjgfi‘agurricu-
lum for Modern Living (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers
College, Columbia University, 1957).

2Ibid. , p. 117.

 

 

3Ibid., p. 26.

auhorc
snhes

process
persona
which 6.
of the w
rather 1

human ]

cn—Jmmp.w.w:_a

tothel

il’lich 1‘

he
0 ‘3’ O}

New Priorities in the Curriculum1 presents what the

 

author considered to be the components of a curriculum which
strives to develop process-oriented people. Berman defined a
process —oriented being as ". . . a person [who] has within his
personality elements of dynamism, motion, and responsibility
which enable him to live as an adequate and a contributing member
of the world of which he is a part. "2 Her view of the curriculum,
rather than having a "traditional" subject base, has as its base the
human process skills of:

perceiving: the stimulus for man' s behavior;
communicating: the sharing of personal meaning;

loving: human experience as co -responding;

knowing: the metamorphosis of ideas;

decision making: the present as a turning point;
organizing: the systematizing of human experiences;

creating: reaching for the unprecedented;
valuing: enchantment with the ethical.

mammmwwu

The bodies of knowledge which form a large part of tra-
ditional subject areas are considered as inquiry -based approaches
to the life -process of "knowing" -—that is, how to know, a process

which is future -oriented. 4 If people are to be helped to become

 

1L. M. Berman, New Priorities in the Curriculum (Colum-

bus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1968).

 

2Ibid., p. 9.

3 . . ..
Ib1d., pp. 1x-xn.
4

Ibid. , p. 11.

54

teachers of children through a professional course of training, then
such a training program must aim for the development of persons
"able to handle themselves and the situations of which they are a part
with adequacy and ease. Such persons are the contributors to as
well as the recipients of society' 8 resources. "1

In designing curriculum, process is a method of teaching.
"Teachers will constantly be looking for ways to link process skills
to what they are teaching . . . the concept of process determines
the focus, content, and methodology. "2

This concept leads to a consideration of the thesis in

Process as Content, 3 "that process --the cluster of diverse proce-

 

dures which surround the acquisition and utilization of knowledge--

is, in fact, the highest form of content and the most appropriate base
for curriculum change. "4 The authors were concerned primarily with
methods of instruction. They considered ". . . teaching strategies

at best are an approximation. They vary with the style of the teacher,

 

11pm, p. 10.

2Ibid.. pp. 180 and 185.

3J . Cecil Parker and Louis J. Rubin, Process as Content:
Curriculum Design and the Application of Knowledge (Chicago: Rand
McNally and Company, 1966). Hereafter referred to as Process as
Content.

 

 

 

4Ibid., p. l.

with the
knowled
riculum
curricu‘.
particul
or new i
of a dis

the cur

55

with the characteristics of the learner, and with the nature of the
knowledge at stake. "1 For them content used as a basis of cur-
riculum design has been misused and, as a result, ". . . present
curriculum is an amalgamation of piecemeal attempts to rectify
particular conditions here and there. "2 In this way each new theory
or new knowledge has been added to an already unwieldy content area
of a discipline without significant change in the basic structure of
the curriculum.

The authors pointed out that the transmission of informa-
tion serves little purpose if a discrimination is not made between
knowing something and knowing what it is good for. They also con-
sidered that a curriculum must be designed which will ". . . provide
the student with an opportunity to deveIOp his capacity for the intake
of evidence"3 and that ". . . a preoccupation with processes does
not negate the desirability of being informed, or of forming signifi-
cant conceptualizations, or of learning through inquiry, machine,

or lecture, or even of mastering skills through drill. "4

 

 

11bid., p, v,

2 .

Ib1d., pp. 6'7.
3 .

Ibid., p. 12

4

Ibid., p. 11.

asexa.
The th.‘
lessen
is inch

with th

Work t
Tea Ch 1‘
L’lbuto
msbe
it 8150

56

The authors presented three models of curriculum design
as examples of the engineering of a process -centered curriculum.
The third model, based on interdisciplinary learning, tends to
lessen the influence of a subject -matter discipline approach which
is indicative of the first and second models, and is more in keeping
with the basic tenet of "process as content. "

B. Curriculum for
Teacher Education

 

 

The Study of Teachi:ng1 is the culmination of four years of

 

work by the Commission on Implications of Recent Research in
Teaching of the Association for Student Teaching. The several con-
tributors to the volume have introduced a variety of research which
has been done and is being done on teacher education in the U. S. A.
It also includes the contributors' ideas about teacher education in
the light of their research.

The reports of two studies have been selected as pertinent

to this thesis. First, Martin Haberman2 proposed a program

 

1Dean Corrigan, ed. , The Study of Teachi (Washington,
D. C. : The Association for Student Teaching, 1967 .

 

 

2Martin Haberman, "The Study of Teaching Related to
Other Dimensions of Teacher Education: A Proposal, " The Stud
of Teachi__ng_, edited by Dean Corrigan (Washington, D. C. : The
Association for Student Teaching, 1967), pp. 19-30. Hereafter
referred to as "The Study of Teaching. "

 

which i

perfon

H
N_
0531.593.

lle me
once i
teachc
"beg i1
(Wes
stud e

ineth.

57

which includes six areas of study derived from observing the
performance of successful teachers:

the nature of subject matter,

the nature of children,

the nature of the educational setting,
the nature of learning,

the nature of teaching,

the nature of the self.

ODCJIAWNH

He indicated in the form of a model how this kind of a program,

once its content had been decided upon as a result of analyzing
teachers' behaviors, could be taught to students. His approach of
"beginning with an analysis of teaching behavior is diametrically
opposed to the present practice . . . where it is assumed that if a
student studies educational foundations, learning and teaching
methods, he will naturally gain the knowledge and attitudes needed

to perform successful teaching behaviors. "2 Haberman advocated
meaningful laboratory experiences which will allow the student oppor-
tunities for practice and experimentation, and a unified course which
does not separate knowledge about learning and teaching from one

another .

 

1Ibid., p. 17.

2Ibid., p. 24.

Lindsey
the imp
hehavic

EDCES.

the (it!
Me."
in cor.
in tea
n‘it‘tit

nu
m
(I)
(I)
H

58

The second report is by Dorothy McGeogh and Margaret
Lindsey. 1 They discussed a study done at Columbia University on
the implications of the use of a system for analyzing verbal teaching
behavior in the guidance of student teachers in supervisory confer-
ences. The three major assumptions underlying the study are:

1. Student teaching provides significant opportunities for learn-
ing effective teaching behaviors.

2. Ability to analyze one' s own behavior can contribute to the
ability to make desired changes in such behavior.

3. The supervisory conference affords an opportunity to help
the student plan for changes which he sees desirable.
Supervisory conferences became the organizational key for

the disseminating and analysis of teaching behavior. Students and
supervisors both were able to analyze their own verbal interaction

in conferences, and the pervasiveness and varieties of the differences
in teaching styles became evident. As a result, more effective com-
munication between student and supervisor allowed for greater change
in student teaching behavior.

The idea behind the supervisory conferences or counseling

sessions is central to the personalized approach to teacher education

 

1Dorothy McGeogh and Margaret Lindsey, "Supervisory
Conferences and the Analysis of Teaching, " The Study of Teaching,
edited by Dean Corrigan (Washington, D. C. : The Association for
Student Teaching, 1967). pp. 63 -69.

 

21pm, p. 65.

current
at the U
teaching
approac
develop
ferent t
and it e

his owr

resear

59

currently in operation at the R 8: D Center for Teacher Education1

 

at the University of Texas. It is considered there that their "macro-
teaching" approach (as opposed to "micro -teaching, " which is an
approach to teaching oriented towards teaching ~behavior and the
development of competencies) ". . . simply recognizes that dif-
ferent teachers have very different ways of evoking child learning
and it encourages each teacher to become increasingly skilled in
his own particular way of doing it. "2
As a result of intensive "feedback" counseling sessions,
research findings on this program have shown:
1. students who received the feedback in varying combina-
tions showed positive change in openness to experience
. and they increased in realistic self -confidence when
faced with classroom problems;
2. their openness did transfer to their treatment of pupils;
3. they showed more discriminating judgment and greater
autonomy in conceptualizing and resolving school ~related

problems;

4. their feelings towards other people, including children,
showed increased warmth and positiveness. 3

 

1Robert F. Peck and Oliver H. Brown, R & D Center for
Teacher Education Report Series No. 1 (Austin, Texas: University
fiexas at Austin, undated), p. 3. Hereafter referred to as R 8: D
Center for Teacher Education.

2Ibid. , p. 3.

 

 

 

3Ibid., p. 7.

60

A Reassessment of the Curriculum1 is the compilation of

 

a series of papers presented to a conference at Columbia Teachers
College in 1963 by a group of selected educators. The papers cover
a wide spectrum of areas of curriculum. Florence Stratemeyer,

in her paper "Implications for Teacher Education, " summarized

the major concerns and recommendations specifically related to
teacher education made by the several speakers. The conference
saw the knowledge of most worth to be:

1. Knowledge of the structure and methodology of a field;
2. Knowledge of what is involved in the moral use of knowledge;
3. Knowledge about feelings.

Stratemeyer considered emphasis on these areas of knowledge would
lead to:

1. "Methods" courses focused on principles rather than tech-
niques only;

2. Work relating to the methodology and technology of teaching
centered on understandings and skills basic to guiding
development of

(a) concepts and basic generalizations,

(b) skills,

(c) values,

(d) appreciations (relating to aesthetics and empathy
building);

 

1Dwayne Huebner, ed. , A Reassessment of the Curriculum
(New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1964).

 

2Florence Stratemeyer, "Implications for Teacher Educa-
tion, " A Reassessment of the Curriculum, edited by Dwayne Huebner
(New York::Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1964), p. 90.

 

teacher
riculum
tion) wc

the
und
knc
int:
cur
inq

TWO otk

61

3. The concept of "possibilism" (Lerner) in operation:
What might have happened . . .
What could happen . . .
What action should be taken if . . .

She also saw the need for an integrated structure in the
teacher education program where each of the three areas of our-
riculum (general education, specialization, and professional educa -
tion) would contribute to:

the acquisition and control of knowledge . . . to such goals as
understanding the synthesizing and integrative properties of
knowledge, acting on principle and in terms of an examined
intellectually grounded value system, developing intellectual
curiosity and becoming acquainted with resources for continuing
inquiry and how to use them.

Two other recommendations made by Stratemeyer in summary were:

1. Curriculum for pre -service teacher education should lead
the student toward an understanding of the rationale behind
curriculum and change. "There is need for the teacher
and for the teacher-to -be to know the why for the action he
takes”;3

2. There is a need for the student to be helped to build a
"rational set of values --a personal and professional value
system--with courage to act on them. "4

 

1Ibid., p. 91.
2Ibid., p. 92.
3Ibid., p. 95
4

leache

tea
tea
mc
me

tive tea
term.
Practiti

Th
ter.
ma
km
titi
bil
PM
km

62

Arthur W. Combs wrote in The Professional Education of
Teachers: A Perceptual View of Teacher Education:1

. the really important changes will only come about as
teachers change. . . . It is at the source of supply--in our
teacher preparation programs -- that review and innovation are
most critically called for if we are to bring about the improve-
ments we need in education. 2

Combs suggested that teacher education must help prospec-
tive teachers become better people in the psychological sense of the
term. He drew a distinction between scholars and professional
practitioners when he said:

The education of the scholar is essentially directed towards con-
tent: the acquisition, organization, and understanding of infor-
mation. The goal of the practitioner is the effective use of
knowledge. For the scholar, content is crucial. For the prac-
titioner, application is the heart of the task. . . . The responsi-
bility of the teacher-education program is the development of
professional workers, persons who can be counted to act upon
knowledge as well as to have it.

Combs believed ". . . a good teacher is first and foremost
a person, and this fact is the most important and determining thing

about him, " and second, ". . . he has competence. "4 Specifically,

 

1A. W. Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers:
A Perceptual View of Teacher Education (Boston: Allyn and Bacon,
1965). Hereafter referred to as The Professional Education of
Teachers.

2Ibid., p. v.
3 .
Ib1d., pp. 25‘26.

4Ibid., p. 6

63

he suggested that an effective teacher education program should help
the prospective teacher become well informed, become an accurate
perceiver of others, develop a positive concept of the self as a
professional person, become an accurate perceiver of educational
purposes and how learning occurs, and discover personal methods
which will enable him to be an effective teacher.

Working with Student Teachers1 is a guide for all teacher

 

educators. It is very much a handbook on all aspects of student
teaching, but it is particularly useful as a stimulator in understand-
ing the part practice teaching plays, or should play, in the total
program of teacher education. The authors recommended a closer
liaison and co -operation between the school and the college. The
common elements of teacher education programs were discussed
under the headings: general education; specialization; and profes-
sional education. As this thesis is concerned with the curriculum
of teacher education, it will be of benefit to reflect upon these
components in light of the authors' suggestions.
The general education component should:
1. assist each student in the development of physical and

mental well -being;
2. help each student master the art of communication;

 

1Florence B. Stratemeyer and Margaret Lindsey, Workgg’
with Student; Teachers (New York: Teachers College, Columbia
University Press, 1958).

 

and em

up of "1
learnin

that pm

of:

U'AwMH

64

3. aid each student in deepening his understanding of our
culture, its institutions and values, its relation to other
cultures of the world--past and present--its current
problems and its future hOpes;

4. help each student acquire the values and sensitivities which
contribute to intelligent citizenship in a democracy;

5. provide each student with opportunities to acquire basic
acquaintance with the bodies of human knowledge as they
relate to understanding, meeting, afld dealing effectively
with social and personal problems.

The component of specialization is a group of related courses
and other experiences in an area or areas of the student' 3 choice.

The third component, that of professional education, is made
up of "those planned experiences dealing directly with the teaching-
learning process and the teacher' 8 work related to the guidance of
that process. "2 Included in this component was a systematic study
of:
human growth and development;
the nature of the learning process;
the selection and organization of curriculum experiences;

history and philosophy of education;
general and special methods of teaching.

WAGON.—

Throughout each component and each section within the com-
pOnents, professional laboratory experiences, the authors considered,

are to be an integral part of the program. They said:

 

11bidos pp. 25-26.
2Ibid.. pp. 27-28.

31bid., p. 28

the
car
in ,
pr:

kind of
The b0
State U
teache'
ment is
anothe
experi
193ml?

IDhei

‘93 Che

/

65

A very significant laboratory experience for future teachers is
their observation and analysis of teaching and learning as
carried on in their own college classes. This is just as true
in general education courses as in other aspects of the college

program . 1

The Workshop Way of Learning2 provides an example of the

 

kind of laboratory experience of which Stratemeyer and Lindsey spoke.
The book explains in detail an earlier (1950) experiment at Wayne
State University of a workshop way to in -service education of
teachers. The workshop had as its goal the provision of an environ-
ment where individuals and groups of people could learn from one
another and help each other in solving common problems. Such an
experience of intensified human relations as a method of social
learning through interaction reinforces the feeling that there needs
to be more of this kind of teaching in pre -service teacher programs.
A volume which deals directly with the question of how

3
teachers are taught is The Preparation of Teachers. The authors

 

were convinced of two things: first, that most teachers consider

 

1Ibid. , p. 35.

2Earl C. Kelley, The Workshop Way of Learning (New York:
Harper and Brothers, 1951).

 

3Seymour B. Sarason, Kenneth S. Davidson, and Burton
Blatt, The Preparation of Teachers: An Unstudied Problem in Edu-
cation (New York: Wiley 8: Sons, 1962). Hereafter referred to as
The Preparation of Teachers.

 

 

66

teaching as putting material (facts and skills) into children rather
than developing the process skills to which Louise Berman referred;1
and second, that teacher training programs reinforce this concep-
tion through the students being taught in a manner which implies that
they have little to contribute to the educating process.

They advocated that students should experience two semi-
nars. The first would allow the student to experience the com-
plexities of the observational process and at the same time would
assist in inculcating an attitude of inquiry towards self and others.
The second seminar would be an observational process associated
with a course in educational psychology where students could observe,

question and discuss principles and problems raised in lectures and

textbooks .
C. Summary

It is possible to distinguish three main groups of aims relating
to the student, firstly as a person, secondly as a scholar and
prospective teacher of children, and thirdly as a citizen in
society.

It would be beneficial at this point to summarize the ideas

of some of the foregoing writers under the three headings suggested

 

lBerman, New Priorities in the Curriculum, p. 10.

2L. W. Shears, "The Curriculum of a Teachers College, "
The Preparation of Teachers in Australia, edited by J. A. Richard-
son and James Bowen (Melbourne: F. W. Cheshire, 1967). p. 101

 

 

above, a

Chapter

The Devi

*

l.

67

above, as these influence greatly the recommendations made in

Chapter Five .

The Development of the Student as a Person:

1.

The selection of the right people for teachers is crucial as
a basis for teacher educating.

Programs of teacher education must provide experiences
which will enable the student to grow to understand himself
and his relationship with others. Important in this regard
is the widening of the perceptual world of the students. 2

The developing of an awareness of one' 8 self is helped
through supportive staff-student and student-student contact
in Seminars and Workshops which aim to liberate the stu-
dent' a capacity by developing new perspectives and habits
of critical thinking. 3

The need for the student to build a rational set of values
with courage to act on them. 4

 

and 73.

1Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers, pp. 68

2Ibid., pp. 18-19, 77; Miel, "Elements and Structure,"

pp. 129-131; Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves, p. 1;
Earl C. Kelley, "The Fully Functioning Self," Perceiving; Behaviflng,

Becomi

 

 

: A New Focus for Education, edited by A. W. Combs

(Washington, D. C. : Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, Yearbook, 1962), p. 10; Dewey, "The Relation of
Theory to Practice in Education, " pp. 20-21.

3Sarason, Davidson, and Blatt, The Preparation of

 

Teachers, p. 99; Peck and Brown, R 8: D Center for Teacher Edu-
cation, p. 7; Kelley, The Workshop Way oerarning, p.709.

p. 95.

 

 

4Stratemeyer, "Implications for Teacher Education,"

 

The Stuc

54.

 

68

The Student as a Scholar and as a Prospective Teacher of Children:

 

1. The most scholarly knowledge a teacher can gain is the
understanding of human growth and development for the
primalry goal of teaching is the growth of self in the stu-
dent.

2. An understanding of the way children learn and of the forces
which influence learning is essential for all teachers.

3. Teachers should understand the purpose behind curriculum
design and of the kinds of skills being developed in various
curricula types.

4. Knowledge of content in academic disciplines (subjects) is
an essential part of the general education of teachers. As
these content areas provide the student with a live demon-
stration of the subject being taught, the manner in which
they are presented should be educationally sound. This is
the concept that method is a process.

5. Selection of the content to be taught depends on three cur—
rent factors: the information explosion; changing social
needs; changing concepts of what information is pertinent.

6. The subjects (disciplines) component of teacher education
programs must be introduced and developed in such a way

 

lCombs, The Professional Education of Teachers, pp. 71-72;
Stratemeyer and Lindsey, Working with Student Teachers, p. 54.

 

 

2Stratemeyer and Lindsey, Workmg’ with Student Teachers,

 

p. 54.

3Miel, "Elements of Structure," p. 136; Berman, New
Priorities in the Curriculum, pp. 180 and 185; Stratemeyer, Impli-
cations for Teacher Education," p.95.

 

4Stratemeyer and Lindsey, Worklgg with Student Teachers,
pp. 25-26, Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers, p. 40;
Parker and Rubin, Process as Content, p.12.

 

 

 

5Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers, p. 40.

 

10.

69

that their interrelatedness, as opposed to their separateness,
is evident.

7. Laboratory ~type experiences assist in introducing the stu-
dent to the art of teaching. These experiences should allow
the student time to analyze his own behavior in order that
he might change this behavior, if desirable. Counseling
sessions and Supervisory Conferences could help in this
regard.2

8. Observations of the dynamics of a classroom are helpful in
developing a teacher's understanding of human motivations
and behavior. Observations, as such, should focus on the
implementation of educational principles rather than on
techniques and devices. 3

9. Courses in methodology or practical studies should aim at
developing in the student a personal way of teaching. 4

10. A type of apprenticeship experience at the end of a student' 8
professional preparation is a method of preparing teachers
for the practical aspect of their profession. This kind of
experience will introduce them gradually into the classroom
environment.

 

1Dewey, "The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education, "
pp. 23-24.

2Ibid. , p. 17; Stratemeyer and Lindsey, Working with
Student Teachers, p. 167; McGeogh and Lindsey, "Supervisory Con-
ferences and the Analysis of Teaching," p. 65; Peck and Brown,
R & D Center for Teacher Education, p. 7; Haberman, "The Study
of Teaching,‘r p. 24.

 

 

 

 

3Stratemeyer and Lindsey, Working with Student Teachers,
p. 356.

4Dewey, "The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education, "
p. 15; Peck and Brown, R 8: D Center_f£r Teacher Educa_ti_on, p. 3;
Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers, pp. 4-5 and 98-111.

 

 

5Dewey, "The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education, "
pp. 28-29.

11.

The Te

 

PD. 25.;

70

1 1. A teacher education program should provide experiences
which will assist the student master the art of communica -

tion.

The Teacher as a Citizen in Society:

1. Teachers need an understanding of the social order and its
relationship to the history and problems of man and
society. 2

2. The student teacher needs t3 become involved in society as
part of his growth process.

3. An understanding of society enhances the understanding of
the child, for society influences what the child brings to
school with him and, in turn, influences the manner in
which he will put to work what he learns in school.

 

18tratemeyer and Lindsey, Worknnglim Student Teachers,
pp. 25-26; Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers, p. 48.

2Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers, p. 86.
3Ibid., p. 89.

4Stratemeyer, Forkner, McKim, and Passow, DevelopEg'
a Curriculum for Modern Living, p. 26.

CHAPTER III
BACKGROUND TO UNDERSTANDING OF

THE NEW GUINEA EDUCATIONAL SCENE

I. Geographic, Historic, Economic and Cultural
BackgrounTof New Guinea

 

 

A. Geographic Background

 

The Territory of Papua and New Guinea comprises the
eastern half of the island of New Guinea and about 600 other smaller
islands stretching for more than 1200 miles from east to west and
750 miles from north to south. The mainland portion, which accounts
for approximately 85 per cent of New Guinea' 8 total land area of
some 183, 500 square-miles, is for the most part rugged, with high
mountains to 14, 000 feet, with fertile valleys, great rivers, exten-
sive forests and large swamps. The coastal plain around the main-
land and adjoining islands averages less than ten miles wide. Moun-
tains rise steeply from the narrow coastal belt and stretch the whole
length of the islands. These mountains form an effective rain

barrier, which results in the greater part of New Guinea experiencing

71

72

 

 

 

 

 

 

a.”

NOgQwR

2.<h.¢n 3U: hmtu

 

UCOEONOM.

'~ ----------—q..
‘~
~
‘.

. . new! A”. .nnWDmS 1w.» .l _ 4 o! . 4t Han! . . a. hmd‘
N a . L. N —
_ a. asks $38.. . _ n n . «are;
f N o o n o o\ U3
IIIIII u — a
its... 319...... u s... .cc 1 ,1 it .
classes is A - . . . its
. . \gti _ 453.30 A .. «sconce
1| III t — \ 1.
>3 2...... etiwd In»... 4.3. m a. touch. peasants.
Q \t I; .
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r A ”93-: 0— \ Shh fififig M .afl. I a , " r/a t‘tNWA ~\
\ . we . aim! m < D n. < m
38..— o ’4 )ka .- it ..
er weeping 25:2. ... Kraut. stamwxuhzu
O. a r..| Vt. . . u ..
at a .\s . . .

   

       
 

 

 

D u .......... .n
“1.3522032. c"
“war-G. "Q
fill m {we .
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u 1.83 rrrrrr .
Qafi~ . III... 0111‘
. u l . .
m QéQO .0. u < NZ :4 w gmzla/L «zaum hm<um 83..
m " .. m . .. m u . ‘
3.889 n 83.5. .. 1%" c. n u " Eco» Bu! _ i
r a 024.5... Bu... " . u u .
on...) u new". as r ttttttttttttt a ttttttttt . title—
. an ac . N .x o ..
“ $56.. 0 m a a z c a 33:} _
1H . _ gm. ” _ * hearse. _ a
U .- — A. p Em " O o .. . -
3. e h F 4E . Lama] LIE

 

annu
the;
trols
ness
deve

hid]

73

annually a "wet" and "dry" season, depending on the direction of
the prevailing wind. To a great extent this seasonal condition con-
trols the agricultural pursuits of the local inhabitants. The rugged-
ness of the mountains has also been the main factor in the lack of
development of adequate transportation facilities which would assist
in the development of the hinterland. Most areas still rely on the
airplane for the transportation of cargo.

New Guinea lies between two and twelve degrees south of
the equator, thus giving it a trapical location. However, the
mountainous nature of the topography causes wide variation in
temperature, which in turn affects vegetation. The Highlands
experience temperatures which daily range from 40- 80° F.
coastal regions experience extremely high humidity and temperatures
normally between 70- 90° F. Rainfall varies from over 200 inches to

as low as 40 inches each year in a few areas.

B. Historic Background1

 

Little is known of the history of New Guinea before white
people made contact with the islands' inhabitants. Brief contacts

were made with traders from Portugal and Spain in the early 1500' s.

 

1Much of the historic information is taken from P. Biskup,
B. Jinks, and H. Nelson, A Short History of New Guinea (Sydney:
Angus and Robertson, 1968).

 

Brits
and C
1800'
then'
annei
handt
Papu
(Suint

Leag

Perm
hush
Guint
Stat
sion ;
Chine

area.

far‘ g
5,81

The d

74

Britain made contact with the area in 1700. Trading with Europeans
and Chinese who sought beche -de -mer increased in the region in the
1800' s. In 1884 Britain annexed southeastern New Guinea, which
then became a British Protectorate. The same year Germany
annexed the northern half of the island. British New Guinea was
handed to the Australian Government in 1901 and was renamed
Papua--a word of Malay origin meaning "fuzzy hair. " German New
Guinea was handed to the Australian Government in 1920 by the
League of Nations to manage as a Trust Territory.

With the exception of missionary influence, which began to
permeate New Guinea in the 1870' s, and the spasmodic attempts by
Australia to develop selected areas, little was done to develop New
Guinea until World War II brought into focus the extremely important
strategic fact that New Guinea was a buffer to Australia from inva-
sion from the East. Intensive and concentrated development of New
Guinea began in 1946 with the conclusion of wartime activities in the

area.

C. Economic Baclgnround

 

In common with all developing countries, New Guinea suf-
fers frOm a shortage of the capital assets required for development.

The demand for roads, bridges, ports, communications, housing,

edUt

both

New

for

part

of w

75

education and a wide range of other facilities continually presses on
both the financial and physical capacities of the Administration of
New Guinea. A great potential supply of manpower, however, exists
for expanding the monetary sector, though increasing indigenous
participation in the cash economy is limited by a number of factors,
of which the most important are:

1. Insufficient inducement to overcome traditional work-
leisure preferences.

2. Lack of sufficient cash employment opportunities, par-
ticularly in areas where the potential for commercial crops
is limited.

3. Inadequate information on existing cash employment possi-
bilities.

4. Lack of sufficient education or training to take advantage of
employment opportunities.

5. Difficulties of movement arising from poor or too -expensive
communications. 1

The fourth factor listed is important for educators to con-
sider. The 1966 census sheds some light on the educational standards
of the indigenous population. At that date about 30, 000 people,
including children in schools and students in training institutions,
had received a full primary education, or higher, in schools teach-

ing English. About 14, 000 had some secondary education; and 33

 

1Territory of Papua and New Guinea, Programmes and
Policies for Economic Development of Papua and New Guinea, p. 7.

 

had.
grad
repr

UNOJ

as ei
hnes
to cc
to n:
incox
shrn'

econ

wig1
The :
Can .
cOnt:

1.5 l

76

had received tertiary education, although only 2 were university
graduates. This general level of education of the population as yet
represents a slim base for economic and social development for over
two million people.

If the economic development of New Guinea is to proceed
as envisaged by the Administration' 3 current policy, the main guide-
lines according to Administration policy statements would appear
to center on the need to increase the nation' s overall productivity;
to marshal labor resources; build domestic markets; ensure that
incomes do not outstrip increases in productivity; encourage saving;
stimulate investment; and speed up the rate of indigenization of the

economy.

D. Cultural Background

 

The Territory of Papua and New Guinea is lightly populated
with 2. 2 million indigenous and nearly 35, 000 non -indigenous people.
The four Highlands districts contain 39 per cent of the total popula-
tion at densities ranging from 30 to 60 persons per square mile. By
contrast the large Western District is sparsely populated, with only

1. 5 persons per square mile. There are over 700 different language

 

1Ibid. , p. 120.

group
Engli:
45 pe;

one 0

t0 In
crop
Stan
990p

0Cca

77

groups in New Guinea. The three main languages spoken are
English, Pidgin English and Police Motu, with some 650, 000 or
45 per cent of the population having the ability to communicate in
one or more of these languages.

The chief characteristics of the social structure are:

1. the prevalence of a subsistence economy with a limited
range of difference in individual wealth;

2. the recognition of bonds of kinship with obligations extend-
ing the family group;

3. generally egalitarian relationships with an emphasis on
acquired rather than inherited status;

4. a strong attachment of the people to their land. 2

Most people are agriculturalists engaged in growing food
to meet their needs. A few produce craps for sale. The staple food
crops vary with the location. Taros, yams, and sweet potatoes, all
starchy root crops, are grown throughout New Guinea. Highland
people live mainly on a diet of these foods, supplemented with the
occasional pineapple, banana, fresh or tinned meat. Coastal people
have a wider range of fruit and fish to supplement their preponder-

antly starchy diet.

 

1Commonwealth of Australia, Annual Report of the Ter-
ritory of Papua for the Period 1 July 1965 toTBO June 1966, p. 9.

2Ibid.

 

 

 

tic

A‘U

sit

78

II. A Way of Life-- Two Traditional Societies

 

A general outline of the peculiarities and customs of two
geographically separate groups of people--the Manus and the
Orokolo of the Gulf of Papua (see map on page 72) are presented as
examples of the diversity of cultural patterns found within New
Guinea. This diversity, caused by some six hundred of these
cultures, provides educators in New Guinea with an extremely taxing
educational problem. There is considered no common ethnic or
cultural denominator to begin curriculum planning in New Guinea
schools.

The following two traditional societies no longer exist in
the form in which they are reported, as the process of moderniza -
tion has made change inevitable. The traditional and the modern in

society now exist side by side.

A. Manus

 

The Admiralty Islands, of which Manus is the largest, are
situated in the northeast of New Guinea, some 250 miles from the
mainland coast. Anthropologist Margaret Mead has spent a lifetime

studying the people of Manus, particularly the Peri ethnic group, and

much i

from l

Child:
intere
snuct
cope‘

that c

liead
Quick
the a
Thei
anCe

Ute:

N.

aCCe

Pepe

79

much of the information on traditional Manus child growth is derived
from her studies. 1

In the Manus family the father took the principal role.
Children were allowed to give their emotions free play and to
interest themselves in whatever play they desired. Play was not
structured as a "learning situation." Rather children learned to
cope with their surroundings, for the rigorous way of life demanded
that children be as self -sufficient as early as possible:

. . the stumbler is berated for his clumsiness, and, if he
has been very stupid, slapped soundly in the bargain. 2

Mead found the Manus children were healthy, with sharp senses and
quick, accurate perceptions. The children gave little recognition to
the arts of leisure, conversation, storytelling, music and dancing.
Their religion was ethical--a spiritualistic cult of recently dead
ancestors who supervised their descendants' economic and sexual
lives and were the arbiters of right and wrong, acceptable and un-
acceptable. 3

Early education, such as learning to walk and to talk, was

repetitive in kind. Adults would spend many hours patiently repeating

 

1Mead, GrowingUp in New Guinea.

 

2Ibid., p. 30.

3Ibid., p. 15.

words
repea
gestu
learn
was 1

inch!

repet

educ;

Peopl

AdrnnH-lnmn

/

80

words, games and skills to children who would, equally patiently,
repeat these actions. A favorite game was that of imitation--of
gesture and movement. Drumming, singing and dancing were also
learned through imitation. During childhood proficiency at handwork
was limited. Children were not shown, and themselves showed little
inclination to learn, how to carve, weave or repair.

It is important to note the effectiveness of imitation and
repetition in the education of the children of Manus, for through such
education the Manus child became steeped in the traditions of his
people. It was his way of being inducted into his cultural heritage.

Mead summarized Manus life as follows:

The village scene is accordingly strangely stratified--through
the all -powerful, obstreperous babies, the noisy, self-sufficient,
insubordinate crowd of children, the cowed young girls and the
unregenerate, undisciplined young men roistering their dis-
regarding way through life. Above this group comes the group
of young married people--meek, abashed, sulky, skulking
about the back doors of their rich relations' houses. Not one
young married man in the village had a home of his own. Only
one had a canoe which it was safe to take out to sea. Their
scornful impertinence is stilled, their ribald parodies of their
culture stifled in anxious attempts to master it, their manners
hushes and subdued. Above the thirty -five -year -olds comes a
divided group-- the failures still weak and dependent, and the
successes who dare again to indulge in the violence of childhood,
who stamp and scream at their debtors, and give way to uncon-
trolled rage whenever crossed.

 

lIbid., p. 157.

IC‘JK'?

portic
thoug
Highl

antob

90851

from

the 1
Place
belor.
inim
illicit
311 ch

Tfie

81

B. Orokolo of the
Gulf of Papua

 

 

The Gulf District is located in central Papua. A large
portion, about half, of the district is coastal along the Gulf of Papua,
though the District stretches inland to the Southern and Eastern
Highlands. Most of the information of the Orokolo comes from the
autobiography of Albert Maori -Kiki2 who, as a child, lived for a
time with his mother' s inland tribe and later lived with his father' s
coastal tribe. These two tribes lived less than 100 miles distant
from each other.

The life inland at that time was hard and frugal. Most of
the inland tribes were nomads, who spent about six months in one
place and then moved to new hunting grounds. They had few
belongings, few clothes, no permanent style house, no domestic
animals except dogs which were used for hunting. They relied on
quick -growing crops, such as sweet potatoes, and on wild game,
such as pigs, cassowary birds, eggs, snakes and lizards, for food.
The average family consisted of two children.

The major excitement for these nomadic people was being
constantly on the watch -out for enemy activities, "pay -back" killings

and warring with their neighbors. Usually the village leader was the

 

1Maori -Kiki, Kiki, Ten Thousand Years in a Lifetime.

 

manu
There

Young

W‘J’Um

ing, n
medic
their ;
cook,

dance:
anCES‘

by the

82

man who had killed the most peOple. His was leadership by right.

There was much magic and ritual associated with war and revenge.

Young children were taught this magic at an early age. Kiki said:
War was ever present in our minds. My first and only toy was
a miniature set of bow and arrows. We little boys used to
practice shooting at a rolling paw -paw that represented a run-
ning pig, and we would carve crude images from bark or wood
and play at shooting a man.

Education, for hunting, killing, gardening, fishing, build-
ing, making weapons, learning the lore of the tribe, simple
medicines, was conducted by parents and elders. Girls learned from
their mothers how to make string bandages to set broken bones, to
cook, to fish and to garden. The more secret things, such as men' s
dances, magic, stories and charms, history and the power of
ancestors, rituals associated with all aspects of life, were learned
by the boys during their initiation ceremonies.

In contrast, life on the coast among the Orokolo was easier
and more peaceful. Villages were larger and fixed in location. The
coastal people were richer in food, shell -money, pigs and fowl.

For many years the people of Orokolo had traded with the Motuans

of the Port Moresby area, though it was always the Motuans who

came to Orokolo as they, traditionally, were seamen. This resulted

 

11bid., p. 16.

ingre

was k:

thund
sum p'
Meni
wove
Orokc
hevet
living
to dez
Ryan:
Ehvc

mea t1

it 1111;
l" oyvag

a 361

83

in greater cross -fertilization of cultures. The trade arrangement
was known as the "Hiri. "1
In Orokolo it was the man' 3 job to garden while the woman

pounded sago palm to obtain edible supplies of sago for family con-
sumption, as well as to provide a surplus for barter with the Hiri.
Men fished for big fish from canoes in deep water, while the women
wove nets and fished in shallow waters. Much of the magic of
Orokolo involved the sea and fish. Williamsz told of the "sea
hevehe" (sea spirit) which was identified usually with enormous
living fish. There were elaborate rituals or initiation ceremonies
to denote stages of growth of children-- especially male children.
Ryan3 and Williams4 wrote in great detail of the ceremonies of the
Elavo (men' s houses) and how the activities of the ceremonies per-
meated the whole life of the people. .Williams stated:

Its (elavo) inmates were left almost entirely to their own

devices, and had a thoroughly well -fed, lazy time of it. The
task set before them was the unexacting one‘of growing. . . 5

 

1The voyages of the Hiri have been documented by F. E.
Williams in Oceania, 111, No. 2 (December 1932) entitled "Trading
Voyages from the Gulf of Papua. "

2Williams, "Trading Voyages from the Gulf of Papua, "
p. 144.

3Ryan, "Social Change Among the Toaripi, Papua. "

4Williams, "Seclusion of Age Grouping in the Gulf of Papua, "
p. 360.

51pm.

 

cultu
good

the t

werw
gooc
trib
air;
ricl
tion

net;

3:11

C

84

The Orokolo considered song and dance important in their
culture and integral with each initiation stage. It was likely that a
good deal of exchange of song and dance with the Motuans accompanied
the exchange of clay pots for sago at each expedition of the Hiri.

The two tribal cultures which made up Kiki' 8 early life
were vastly different-- one nomadic by necessity, poor in worldly
goods, beset by fears and warfare--and the other a stable, coastal
tribe with highly organized trading contacts with distant people, less
afraid of warfare, primarily because they were so great in numbers,
rich in food and less rigid and narrow in the demands of their tradi-
tional religion. These two tribes were, relatively speaking,

neighbors, though they had very little in common.

HI. Traditional (Folk) Education

 

A. Education as a Folk Process

 

The two examples of traditional life just given provide
insights into the habits and customs of the New Guinea people and
assist in formulating an idea of traditional or "folk" education.

Folk education is a real education, though when compared
with "Western" type education, it is limited in its objectives. No
matter how primitive the society's cultural elements are, the child

has to learn these elements from others. Education, even in the

pf:

tre

ain

edu
Mea
Man
Leai
such
On it
thfiir

itch

‘1

85

most backward culture, is the indispensable process by which
parents and elders hand on to the young what their elders handed on
to them.

Folk education is as intrinsically conservative as is the
traditional culture into which the young are being inducted. The
aim of this education, then, is to conserve the culture and to pre-
pare the young, by formal and informal methods, to live in it.

Each culture has its own patterns of formal and informal
education. The pattern used by the Manus described by Margaret
Mead is quite different from that of the people of the Orokolo. The
Manus, for example, let their children roam about unchecked.
Learning how to do simple tasks was unimportant. The learning of
such tasks came soon enough with the responsibility of marriage.
On the other hand, the Orokolo gradually initiated their young into
their society, and each stage was marked with ceremonies and
acclaim.

Much of folk education is oral. 1 History and legends are
told with great care and are repeated many times so that they will

be memorized. Repetition and imitative play are essential to

 

1The implication of this fact on Western -type education in
Tanzania is commented on by Idrian N. Resnick: "On a priori
grounds alone, then, a visual pedagogy should be less efficient than
an auditOry one as a method of communication. " (Idrian N. Resnick,
"Prescriptions for Socialist Rural Education in Tanzania," Rural
Africana, IX (Fall 1969), p. 18.)

leai
how
sucl
trac
eacl

CBS:

thou
the

tier

obvi
"Vi!
obvj
Pe r]
educ

QOnt

t’an;
"ORE

the t1

86

learning, as exemplified in the Manus method of teaching children
how to speak. There is usually no form of continuous education
such as modern schooling. Instead, formal education, in most
traditional cultures, is given at various predetermined age levels,
each level culminating in a ceremony of some kind indicating suc-
cessful learning by those being initiated.

Folk education being non -literate has no written form,
though there may be some form of pictorial recording. This makes
the accumulation of knowledge beyond the range of individual expe-
riences difficult.

Professor Castle stated of folk education: "Its most
obvious characteristic was its capacity to prepare children for
living in a community. "1 The New Guinea primary education is
obviously not doing this, as will be discussed in Chapter Four.
Perhaps "modern" educators can learn something from traditional
educators and be able to rectify some of the present cultural dis-
continuities existent in primary education.

It is necessary, in order to appreciate fully the stage of
transition reached between the traditional cultures and the aspira-
tions of "emerging" New Guinea, to consider what might be called

the "culture gap. "

 

1Castle, Growmg’ Up in East Africa, p. 44.

 

87

B. The Culture Gap

 

The two cultures of New Guinea, the one that is still largely
the New Guinea tribal culture, and the one toward which the country
is moving, are, in reality, far apart in time and condition. Whereas
the traditional or tribal culture is predominantly a non -literate,
handed -on culture, which educates its young in its own image against
change, the "Western" type culture into which the New Guinean is
being inducted is innovative and literate, enabling the minds of men
to be extended beyond the knowledge of their parents.

The major difference in these two cultures affecting edu-
cators is the fact that the modern, or Western culture educates its
young in schools which make available the knowledge contained in a
literate society. Schooling prepares children by giving them the
intellectual tools for discovery and change.

Inevitable tensions have arisen in New Guinea because of
change brought about by moderniza-tion. For example, one writer,
discussing the change in attitude of the Abelam (Sepik River people).
said:

The old, non -Christian, non -educated men look back to the days
before the whites came as "the good old days" when there was
plenty of food for everyone, because every man cultivated his

gardens according to the established methods of his ancestors,
which included the use of spells and magical ritual. The young

88

men of today, they say, sit around and do nothing and expect
good crops to come up in their gardens. 1

It will be seen later in this chapter that not only does the
setting up of a school system lead to great change and consequently
tensions in the societies, but also adopting curriculum content and
methodology foreign to the cultures to which it is given also creates
problems which have ramifications for the social, economic and
political life of the newly emerging national culture. Margaret Mead,
talking of the need of a teacher to seek an understanding of New
Guinea cultures, their languages and ways of reflecting, said:

. . . once the New Guinea child loses his capacity to say:

"This is the way w___e_ say it, this is the way they say it, " he

is very likely to become rigid and frightened. To any question
that he is asked, he does not react by using his head and
thinking, but he simply tries to find the "right answer. " This,
of course, prevents him from attacking a new problem, or even

conceiving of the idea that there might be a problem to which
no one yet knows the answer.

IV. Education in Papua and New Guinea

A. General Survey

 

Prior to World War II schooling in Papua was left solely in

the hands of the various Missions established there. In the Mandate

 

1J . Whiteman, "Change and Tradition in an Abelam Village,
Oceania, XXXVI, No. 2 (December 1965), 105.

2Mead, "Anthropology and Education, " pp. 14-15.

Te
spc
beg

the

in
a D
edu
indi
nize

begs

quic
titio:
Educ

COD”

Mth
untn

EPEat

89

Territory of New Guinea most of the education was Mission
sponsored and although there were some Administration schools
begun by the Germans, these could be numbered on one hand. At
the end of World War II, the Administration of New Guinea began
to organize schools as part of their post-war rehabilitation program.
An Education Department was begun in 1946 with the appointment of
a Director. When he took up his appointment, there were very few
educational facilities for him to direct and a very limited number of
indigenous people who could claim a general education at any recog-
nized level. It can be said, though, that formal education really
began with the creation of the Education Department in 1946.

Non -Administration schools conducted by the Missions
quickly re -estab1ished after the war, aided by the absence of compe-
tition from Administration schools. As a result, a dual system of

education has developed. Up to the mid-1950' s the education system

comprised:
Village Schools 4 years
Village Higher Schools 4 years (Standards 3 to 6)
Central Schools 3 years (Standards 7 to 9)

Much of the schooling was based on an Australian type curricula
until the late 1950' s, and it is only in the last ten years that any

great effort has been made towards localizing the various curricula.

90

At present the school system is organized on the basis of
a seven year primary program followed by a four year secondary
program, which may then be followed by a two year secondary
higher program or a preliminary year at the University. The edu-
cation system is still essentially a dual system in which the Educa-
tion Department directly administers one section, the staff of which
are members of the public service. The other section is controlled
by the various Mission bodies conducting schooling, though the
Education Department controls the registration and standards of their
teaching staff. Financial aid is given to the Missions based on the
number of certified teachers registered. These grants are paid to
the Church authorities as a general grant for assisting educational
effort, not directly to the teachers as salary.

In 1969 a committee, under the chairmanship of Mr. W. J.
Weeden, was formed by the Australian Government to investigate the
possibility and desirability of uniting the Administration and Mission
systems of education in New Guinea. Their recommendations, made
in the report entitled Report of the Advisory Committee on Education
in Papua and New Guinea, were accepted by the Administration of

New Guinea in 1970 and are presently being implemented. 1 The

 

1Department of Education Director' s Newsletter, confi-
dential document dated February] March, 1970.

91

effects of the recommendations will be far reaching in the years to

come, but at this stage it is too early to assess or to prophesy on

these effects.

B. Education Policy

 

The broad objectives of educational policy include:

the political, economic, social and educational advancement
of the peoples of the Territory;

the blending of cultures;1
the voluntary acceptance of Christianity by the indigenous

people in the absence of an indigenous body of religious faith
founded on indigenous teaching or ritual.

To achieve these objectives it is necessary to:

1.

2.

achieve mass literacy in a common language;

stimulate interest in and assist progress towards a higher
standard of living and a civilized mode of life;

teach what is necessary to enable the people to cope with
political, economic and social change;

blend the best features of indigenous culture with those of
other societies;

provide a full range of primary, secondary, tertiary, tech-
nical and adult education for all classes of the community.

 

1Adopted by the Administration from the ideals of F. E.

Williams, written in his The Blending of Cultures: An Essay on the
Aims of Native Education (Port Moresby: Government Printer,

 

 

1951).

2Commonwealth of Australia, Annual Report of the Terri-

 

tory of Papua for the Period 1 July 1965 to 30 June 1966, p. 131.
These aims were defined by the then Minister for Territories in 1956.

92

A current official statement on educational aims reads:

The long -term objective of the educational programme is to
provide a comprehensive educational system, covering the
whole Territory, under which primary education will be avail-
able to all who have suffiéient ability to make adequate use of

it. In the short-term, progress towards the aim of making
primary education available to all will be limited by the avail-
able resources . . .

At the primary level, the objective in qualitative terms is to
provide an adequate basis for the future economic, political

and social activities of the people. For a number of years to
come, limited resources will mean that the majority of children
attending primary schools will not be able to proceed to secon-
dary schools. The primary course will therefore provide a
suitable preparation for the rural life that most of them will
lead. At the same time, it will provide the scholastic grounding
needed for those who will be going on to secondary and tertiary
education. 1

The above extracts defining the aims and objectives of edu-
cation lead to a consideration of the specific roles of the primary
school, and, subsequently, of primary education in the total educa -
tional program. The second quotation contains pertinent statements
defining certain changes in emphasis in the Administration' 3 interpre -
tation of the broad statement on educational policy made by the
Australian Government. Universal primary education remains a
goal, but it is doubtful if it will be reached for some years to come.
The imbalance of educational opportunity between primary and

secondary education has become accepted as inevitable. It can be

 

1Territory of Papua and New Guinea, Piggrammes and
Policies for Economic Development of Papua and New Guinea, pp. 98-
99.

 

 

93

implied that the Administration favors the educating of an elite for

educational development and general economic and political viability.

C. Primary Schools

 

1. Their Role. --In order to clarify the role of the primary

 

school in New Guinea, an examination of what the primary school is
achially doing would be helpful. This examination can be summarized
as follows:

a) The advent of Western -type schooling is assisting in
the breaking down of tribal barriers which have hindered attempts
to unify the societies within Papua and New Guinea. Through the
introduction of studies of other cultures, of themselves and of
the ethics behind co -operation, children, and indirectly their
parents, are learning to become more tolerant of others and to
develop a pride in their own country.

b) Primary education is providing a large number of
children with an education; but as mentioned before, this edu-
cation is not universal.

c) The primary school is attempting to lay the foundation
for a common language for New Guinea. The language chosen
by the Australian Government is English. There is a carefully
planned program of language teaching in operation in all but the

poorest of Mission schools.

94

d) There is an attempt to teach the benefits of good health
and hygiene. Health education has met with counter forces from
village and tribal customs, and it will take some time for tradi-
tions in health and allied matters to lose their power.

Two features of the primary schools, though educationally
negative, need to be mentioned in this discussion of the role of the
primary school:

e) The primary school is looked upon as the first step of
an educational ladder leading to secondary and to tertiary studies,
though the educational authorities have stated otherwise. "Pri-
mary education, as currently conceived, is not in itself a
terminal education. "1 As a result, the majority of primary
pupils are being subjected to a preparation which has little
relevance to their post-school needs.

f) As a direct result of static teaching methods, primary
school children are seldom challenged to think or approach
problem -solving in a rational way. Poorly educated and inade-
quately trained teachers who rely on long -established methods,

programs and content, are loath to change and innovate in their

 

lPapua and New Guinea, Department of Education, Syllabus
for Pntimary "T" Schools, Revised Edition (Port Moresby: Govern-
ment Printer, 1967), p. 1.

 

95

teaching methods. Any suggestion to do so provides a threat to
their feelings of security.

The officially stated aim of primary education for indigenous

children is:

The

. to provide them with an education closely related to the
present circumstances of their lives, but which will prepare
them for the rapid changes resulting from contact with more
developed people. 1

report went on to state:

The curriculum is designed to fit the children of the Territory
for life in a rapidly changing society--a society in which tech-
nical innovation and social changes are going on hand in hand.
The core of the curriculum is training in the basic skills of
communications and mathematics. Considerable attention is
given to the provision of a wide range of experiences of the
modern world and its social institutions. The curriculum
includes gardening, nature study, manual arts, art and music.

Such aims are easily stated but difficult to achieve. The

following aims or objectives for primary education in New Guinea

are,

in the writer's opinion, better suited to the country and the

existing conditions there:

1. Primary education is to be self -contained and complete,
but at the same time enabling the child to make further
progress. Those for whom it is terminal should be able
to grow and develop in response to their environment.

 

1Commonwealth of Australia, Annual Report of the Terri-

 

tory of Papua for the Period 1 July 1965 to 30 June 1966, pp. 134-

135.

2Ibid. , p. 135.

96

The inculcation of an attitude towards change which would
enable the child to recognize the desirability of change in
his society is an important aspect of primary education.

2. To provide opportunity for intellectual development includ-
ing the acquisition of functional literacy and numeracy,
through the blending of studies and activities which will
encourage a lively and heuristic approach to the acquisition
of knowledge.

3. To provide opportunities for the child to study his relation-
ship with his neighbourhood, his society and his culture,
so that he will deveIOp an appreciation of his cultural heri-
tage. Much of this study will be concurrent with the activities
hinted at in paragraph 2. 1

2. Location. -- Table 1 on page 98 indicates the percentages of

school age children receiving schooling in the various Districts in
New Guinea. Indicated also is the number of primary schools, both
Mission and Administration, in each District. From this table two

negative features of the total educational program stand out, namely:

a) the imbalance of educational opportunity between
districts of New Guinea;

b) the sporadic pattern of school location.
It is evident that approximately 50 per cent of all children
of primary school age in New Guinea are receiving no education at

all. For example, 74 per cent of the Highlands and New Guinea

 

1"Report of the Seventh Annual A. A. A. Conference, April
1968: An Institute of Education and the Improvement of Primary
Education," Teacher Education in New Countries, IX, No. 3 (Feb-
ruary 1969), 208.

 

97

 

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98

Coastal districts' 6 ~to-12 -years -of-age group are not enrolled in

or attending a primary school. 1 That some areas are less developed
economically than others accounts, in part, for the imbalance in edu-
cational opportunity between districts. This matter poses not only
an educational problem, but a political one as well.

The degree of geographic accessibility and the length of
Westernized contact provide a reason for the variation between
numbers of children receiving primary education and those not
receiving it. Some areas, such as the Gazelle Peninsular of New
Britain, have had Western contact for over eighty years, and as a
consequence have developed a fairly extensive system of physical
communications, which has allowed the development of an adequate
school system. In the less geographically accessible districts, how -
ever, where communication is difficult, educational opportunity has
been slow to spread.

In summary, organized and systematic schooling is less
than twenty -five years old. It could be argued, if one considers the
history of the Department of Education, to be less than fifteen years
old. Even so, the rate of change in the New Guinea society is so
rapid that the educational system has already become unwieldy and

outdated .

 

1University of Sydney, Adult Education Department, "Edu-
cation in Papua- New Guinea, " p. 83.

99

3. Variety. -- Though there is a prescribed syllabus of studies
for all indigenous primary schools in New Guinea, it is considered
the only aspect of primary education which is standardized. The
difference most noticeable is the variety in school buildings. These
vary from the modest weatherboard structure with an iron roof
found in towns, Mission stations and in the older "Europeanized"
areas, to structures found in most villages made wholly or in part
from local materials.

School furnishings vary from the "modern" two-student desk
of wood on an iron frame to undressed, raw bush material frames
seating from six to eight pupils. In nearly all cases, even in the
main towns, there is a dearth of storage space for school supplies
and the teachers' equipment. This, for the teacher, is a disheart-
ening factor, for carefully prepared aids and models soon deteriorate
under tropical conditions in buildings, few of which are weatherproof.

Apart from the seating and storage accommodation men-
tioned, the educational equipment found in primary schools also
varies from school to school and location to location. It is difficult
to know where the responsibility for supply and maintenance for
educational equipment lies. Expensive and useful equipment is
found deteriorating in schools through misuse and lack of teacher

care.

100

4. Curriculum. -- The Syllabus for Primary "T" Schools has

 

 

been set by the Department of Education at Port Moresby since the
early 1950' 3. Early syllabuses were of a metropolitan kind based
on the (then) syllabus for primary schools in Queensland. Since then
there have been several revisions of the primary syllabus, the most
notable and progressive in 1962, and the latest in 1967. The latest
report from the Primary Division of the Department of Education
indicates that curriculum changes are under way in Religious Edu-
cation, English, Mathematics, Health, Science, and Social Studies. 1

Since 1962 there has been a marked increase in the number
of primary school leavers who are forced, because of lack of open-
ings in secondary schools, to return to village life. There is a need,
then, for a drastic reviewing of the present syllabus to ensure that
it caters more effectively to the needs of these students.

Though the syllabus is fairly prescriptive in the content to
be taught and in methodology, the standards of work achieved in
primary schools are as varied as are the abilities of the teachers
implementing the syllabus. It is unfortunate that the Primary Final

Examination-~an examination taken by all Standard Six pupils to

 

1Papua and New Guinea, Department of Education, "A Brief
_ Summary of the Primary Curriculum Committee Meeting Held at
Konedobu from 23rd -26th February, 1970. " (Stencilled copy.)

101

decide entry into secondary and vocational schools--has become the
governing factor for nearly all primary school experiences. As a
result, Standard Six has become a year of academic "drive, l' where
preparation for the now highly competitive examination has monopo-
lized teaching and learning. Preparation for this examination has
even filtered down into Standard Five. Teachers are morally
obliged to coach for the examination. Failure, or a low pass, means
the end of schooling for pupils. In 1969 at least 60 per cent of all
pupils sitting for the examination had the door of future schooling

closed to them. 1

 

1Papua and New Guinea, Department of Education, "Pri-
mary Final Examination Secondary Selection," circular letter
dated July 31, 1969, p. 3.

CHAPTER IV

THE PRIMARY TEACHER AND HIS

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

I. Teacher Education in New Guinea

 

A. A Brief Review

 

Teacher education in New Guinea has moved a long way
since the first officially organized training program began in 1955
as a result of an Administration Education Ordinance brought into
effect that year. Prior to that date only I? trained teachers (a
one -year "C" Course) had received an organized form of training.
In 1955, 110 students about Standard 8 level were in training in seven
centers in New Guinea. This was the beginning of the "B" Course
of training. Practical teaching and school management received the
greatest emphasis in this course. Later an "A" Course of training
--a one -year course at Standard 6 academic level--for infant
teaching was introduced into all colleges, Mission and Administra-

tion. Into this avenue of training went most of the student teachers.

102

103

One of the results of the 1955 Education Ordinance was that
the Missions began for the first time to train teachers along depart-
mentally accepted lines in order to receive government financial aid.
An early method of payment of this aid was one of payment by result
(academic), and later by per-capita grant according to the numbers
of pupils enrolled. Since 1954, government subsidy has been paid
according to the qualifications of the teachers employed by the Mis-
sions. This money was paid to the Missions to use for education
where they saw the need. For several reasons, the most pressing
being financial, the Missions consequently were impelled to under-
take formal, organized teacher training.

Some Mission teacher training was in operation before 1954,
but this early training was predominantly theological. The actual
teacher training component of such courses of training was sketchy,
to say the least, for pastoral work received much the greater
emphasis. Many small centers of training sprang up in different
parts of New Guinea. Some of these Mission centers had a few as
five students; the large centers have numbered up to 150 students.

In the past, much work has been duplicated, not only between
the various Mission and Administration colleges but within them.
The staff has been, generally speaking, inadequate, not always

qualified for the task nor suitable for it, and in all cases overworked.

104

Some of the larger Missions have now amalgamated their smaller
training colleges, and the Administration has confined its training
to three large colleges at Port Moresby, Goroka, and Madang. This
has resulted in a more organized and intense training program,
greater specialization on the part of the staff, and a saving in
finance.

Not a great deal of organization was present in the early
courses, even though there was a teacher training syllabus printed
first in 1950 and then in 1954 for the three courses then in opera-
tion. The courses were:

1. Course "A": to qualify trainees for teaching in Village

Schools . . . classes 1 and 2 in which children learn to

read and write in the vernacular, but children study

English as their second language . . . for Mission col-
leges only.

 

2. Course "B": to qualify teachers for work in Village
Higher Schools (Standards 3 to 6) . . . English is taught
throughout the school . . . the minimum prerequisite
standard of general education . . . Standard 9.

 

3. Course "C": . . . is the normal teacher training course
for fully qualified native teachers . . . prerequisite
standard of general education is the completion of second
year secondary school.

 

A description of the current programs was presented in

Chapter One. It is difficult to equate New Guinea standards with ~

 

1Papua and New Guinea, Department of Education, "Syllabus
of Work for Teacher Training, " Port Moresby, 1954, p. 1.
(Stencilled copy.)

105

Australian ones, but it is generally recognized that the grading

systems are equivalent.

B. Development of Curriculum

 

In order to appreciate fully the method of teacher prepara -
tion currently being used in most colleges in New Guinea, one must
be aware of how this method developed. In 1954 the Department of
Education "Syllabus of Work for Teacher Training" had the following
to say about the Course "A" method of teaching the village school

curriculum:

It will be noted that no time whatever is allowed for the study
of general subjects, apart from Method of Teaching. It has
happened in the past that in some native schools where students
were prepared for service as teachers, the whole time was spent
in ordinary school work, and little or no training in teaching
technique or supervised teaching practice was given. No doubt
it was felt that the basic attainment of the trainees was at such
a low level that they could not profit by lessons in the Art of
Teaching. As a result trainees went out to teach in village
schools with little to guide them but their recollection of pro-
cedures used by their own teachers.

It went on further to say:

As the present course is intended for students who have com-
pleted the primary school course (Std. 6), it is laid down that
the whole 25 hours per week is to be spent on professional
training. For ten hours per week trainees will be taken through
the entire curriculum for village school, in all subjects, and

 

lIbid.

 

106

will concurrently refresh their memories on details of subject
matter and learn the method of teaching the particular topic.
Emphasis throughout must be on classroom technique rather
than subject matter.

The weekly allocation of time for the Course "B” was as follows:2

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)

Theory of Education

School Management

Method of Teaching Primary Curr.
Demonstration 8: Criticism Lessons
Supervised Practice Teaching
Blackboard Practice & Drawing
Method of Teaching Handcraft
Method Teaching P. T. 8:. Sport
Method Teaching Gardening

Method Teaching Singing

Total

1 hour
3 hours
10 hours
1 hour
4 hours
1 hour
1 hour
2 hours
1 hour
1 hour

25 hours

The Course "C" allotment of time was nearly the same as

for Course "B. " The statement was also made that "Supervised

Teaching Practice is the central core of the whole programme of

teacher training. "

Revised syllabuses deve10ped from the 1954 "Syllabus of

Work for Teacher Training" were produced in 1962 for the one-

year course, and in 1963 and 1965 for the two-year courses. The

several extracts below will show trends and emphases current in

the early 1960' s and the present time:

 

1Ibid.

 

2Ibid., p. 2.

107

The present curriculum for the 2 year course of teacher training
for students who hold passes at Form 2 or above, endeavours to
advance the training done in the 1 year course, where almost the
whole effort of the course is given over to understanding and
perfecting methods of the simplest kind applicable to the Pre-
paratory, 1 and 2 Standards in the Primary "T" School. 1

The 2 -year course allows considerable expansion on the work
of the l-g'ear course, which is restricted almost wholly to
method.

. . . because of the differences in ability of the personnel
selected for the two courses, the time -tabling for the 1 -year
course will allot much more time to the development of skills,
and the raising of attainments, than to what might be called,
broadly, cultural development. . . . Hence the allocation of
time to method in individual subjects may be considerably less
(in the 2 -year course) than in the 1 -year College, and the
balance of time should be available for curriculum growth,
leadership training, sport, etc. 3
It is obvious from these extracts what the emphases in
teacher training were: emphases of necessity-~a natural part of a
growth pattern in an educational system which began from nothing.
If, as Beeby4 said, educational systems have stages through which
each system moves in order to achieve a more meaningful education,

then the development of teacher education and education generally

in New Guinea is normal and logical.

 

1Papua and New Guinea, Department of Education, "Sylla-
bus for the Two Year Course of Teacher Training, " p. 1.

2 Ibid.

3Ibid. , p. 3.

 

4Beeby, The Quality of Education in Developing Countries,
Chapter 4.

 

108

The kinds of teacher training programs outlined are of the
"tram -line" variety, as Beeby called them, where ". . . the
teachers are carefully prepared to perform in every detail special
pre —selected tasks. " 1 These programs have proved extremely
effective in raising standards (Beeby' 3 Stage 2 teaching) in many
places, but do not necessarily improve the teacher' 5 practice out-
side the specific courses for which he had been trained.

Generally, the teacher education programs today still
devote considerable time to methods of teaching. The "content"
taught is the content the students will later teach in their classes.
Often it is taught in the manner the students are expected to use in
their own teaching. Even though the educational system grew out of
the Australian system, this practice is contrary to what is the case
in Australian teachers colleges, where content, as a discipline, is
taught as an academic exercise and not always related to the
students' future teaching. 2

Many staff members of the various colleges have grown up
with the system. They see that method is important. It was so in

the past when poorly educated teachers had to leave college with

 

1Ibid., p. 110.

2Shears, "The Curriculum of a Teachers College, " p. 103.

109

everything they needed for their future teaching, for they received
little help once they were in the field. Copious detailed programs
of work were distributed and drilled during training. Adherence

to these programs and methods promulgated by the training person-
nel was the rule.

Teachers prepared this way are, on the whole, against
change. They have not been challenged to think or to reason, and
so, when faced with the need to change (as is so in any advancing
educational system), they find it a difficult, if not impossible, thing
to do. The emphasis on method is, however, slowly beginning to
change. .

II. Common Problems Relating to Curriculum
in Teacher Education

 

 

Specific problems associated with primary teacher educa-
tion in New Guinea and how these problems affect curriculum con-
struction and development will be discussed in this part.

In the absence of clearly stated aims of teacher education
in New Guinea, it is (necessary to look to UNESCO for ideas on what
might constitute the aims of teacher education in a developing
country. UNESCO stated:

The purposes of a teacher education programme should be to
develop in each student his general education and personal

110

culture, his ability to teach and educate others, an awareness
of the principles which underlie good human relations, within
and across national boundaries, and a sense of responsibility

to contribute both by teaching and by example to social, cultural
and economic progress.

In short, teacher education is a study of the process by which others

are helped to realize their potentialities.

A second definition necessary is that of curriculum. Cur-
riculum, for present purposes, is defined in a wide sense, in the
manner of Dr. C. E. Beeby, to include all the experiences provided
by the teacher education institution in the process of teacher prepara-
tion. It covers four aspects:

A statement of the aims of teacher education;

2. A statement of the content of courses and choices (that is,
available alternatives) that the learner will be required to
experience;

3. A statement of the method, or methods, that are most

likely to achieve these aims; 2
4. A statement of the method of evaluation.

H

Beeby also said that curriculum cannot be separated from
textbooks, inspection policies, examinations, specialist field staff

in schools, or even from buildings, equipment and finance. 3

 

1UNESCO, Final Report: Expert Committee on Teacher

Education, p. 3 .

 

 

2Beeby, "Curriculum Planning," p. 138.

3Ibid.

111

Little material has been published on teacher education in
New Guinea in the form of results of curriculum innovations, of
problems in curriculum development, or of research. Lack of
continuity of staff in colleges has resulted in lack of stability of
personnel necessary for effective research. The majority of staff,
although genuinely concerned with their programs and their students,
tend to "play it by ear. " Neither has there been any real study done
of the new teacher and the difficulties he encounters during his first
year of teaching. Such studies and research would greatly assist
those responsible for curriculum in teacher education in devising
more effective and comprehensive programs to meet present educa-
tional needs as well as those of the foreseeable future.

In the meantime, from the somewhat confused and conflict-
ing patterns of primary teacher education currently in operation in
Mission and Administration teachers colleges, the following problem
areas are considered by the writer (in consultation with Dr. H. H.
Penny, Curriculum Advisor for Teacher Education in New Guinea)
common to New Guinea and need the most urgent attention:

Finance;

Socio -cultural factors;

The need for greater teacher professionalization;
How children learn;

Language and communication;
Instructional media and method.

wthNO-I

112

A. Finance

Little is to be gained from considering proposals for change
in teacher education unless they are accompanied by a realistic
understanding as to where, and how, the finance for them is to be
found. Increasingly heavy expenditures have been made on education
in New Guinea since World War II, with the initial object of getting
increasing numbers of children into schools at a reasonable starting
age. In more recent years, education at secondary and tertiary levels
has received increasing emphasis. The 1966 census showed that
about 30 per cent of the indigenous people have attended school; and
of these, only 0. 2 per cent have received a reasonable standard of
secondary education. 1

In 1968 --69 the budget for New Guinea provided $A20 million
($USZZ million) for education. This amount represented 16. 7 per
cent of the entire New Guinea budget. The allocation of $A20 million
was for the general education of 222, 000 school pupils and for teacher
education. From this allocation, $12. 8 million was taken for payment

of teachers' salaries. It has been estimated that the Five Year

 

1Territory of Papua and New Guinea, Programmes and
Policies for the Economic Development of Papua and New Guinea,
p. 98.

 

113

Development Program in education will cost $A150 million. 2

It is obvious from these figures that finance for school
education in New Guinea is severely limited. It is not likely to be
increased to any noticeable extent in the next few years.

New Guinea is now caught in the educational quantitative-
qualitative dilemma that many developing countries are currently
experiencing. The previous Administrative policy of universal
primary education, though not attained, has left the educational
system bottom heavy. The monies appropriated for secondary edu-
cation in 1968 -69 were only 28 per cent of the total education funds.
As most of the secondary teachers in New Guinea are expatriate, a
large part of this amount was required for teachers' salaries. The
shortage of finance for expansion of secondary education has resulted
in the continuance of an unbalanced educational system in New Guinea.

Though expansion in primary education is now controlled,
the demand for more education from those not receiving schooling is
increasing. With the advance of self -government, education is
assuming a political flavor, and pressure is being placed on educa-
tional authorities to expand their educational coverage. As the supply

of expatriate teachers is diminishing, due in part to the lack of

 

1Figures extracted from the Department of Education,
Territory of Papua and New Guinea, Confidential Report dated
March, 1968.

114

security offered now with the position, the implications for indigenous
teacher education are serious. How to prepare a sufficient number
of teachers, academically able and professionally capable, within the
limits of available finance, is the problem. Like other developing
countries, New Guinea is caught in the unprecedented demand for,
and inadequate supply of, teachers. Any increase in the number of
teachers trained would mean an increase in the overall expenses of
teacher education. However, as the salary for indigenous New
Guinea teachers is much lower than for expatriate teachers, this
expense would be more than offset in the long run, for the increase
in the number of indigenous teachers would create a decrease in the

number of expatriate teachers required for primary education.

B. Socio -Cultura1 Factors

 

From a societal point of view, the major educational problem
in Neleuinea is that educators are using a highly sophisticated tool,
that of organized schooling, of a highly sophisticated Western culture,
to bring about rapid change in what is perhaps one of the most primi-
tive group of cultures in the world. Even though the various New
Guinea tribal cultures had their own methods of educating their
children, as is evident in the examples outlined in the previous

chapter, such methods cannot compare in complexity with the

115

organized form of schooling recently introduced into the country by
the Australian Administration.

At the present time the cultures of New Guinea are changing
so rapidly that the values and beliefs people hold are in a state of
confusion. This confusion is further heightened by the school cur-
riculum which, in general, teaches a value system markedly different
from the traditionally indigenous one. The prime example of this
confusion is encountered in the teaching of science. Western science
and medicine frequently challenge the traditional attitudes, basic
assumptions and concepts long held by a traditional society. Profes-
sor Lewis, discussing problems encountered in school science
programs, argued that". . . science, and being a scientist, is at
least as much a matter of attitudes and assumptions and concepts
as of knowledge and skills" and that ". . . any educational programmes
planned to produce scientists and technicians in non -Western societies
will need to be as actively concerned with the assimilation of scien- ,
tific outlooks, interests, habits and basic concepts as with the
acquisition of knowledge and skills. "1

The student teacher comes to college having risen through
the formal education system outlined in Chapter Three. .He comes

from a home background which is, in the modern sense, culturally

 

1Lewis, "The Learning Process, " p. 123.

116

impoverished and lacking in many of the formal and informal aspects
of education commonly found in the homes of children and youth in
literate societies. It is impossible in the Western world to keep
abreast of new knowledge. It is even more impossible for a teacher
who comes from an environment such as just described. Yet, as
Professor Hanson pointed out, the teacher is the most readily avail-
able intellectual leader for dealing with problems associated with
the dissemination of knowledge at the local level, and the community
of teachers should ideally be the most promising community in which
to deal with intellectual problems on a broader level. 1

The poverty of the socio -cultural background from which
most of the student teachers come is a major‘problem for teacher
education in New Guinea, and for that matter in most developing
countries. Can, or should, a teachers college curriculum hope to
combat inadequacies in students caused by cultural deprivation and
inadequate schooling, and at the same time prepare them for their
role as a teacher of children?

C. The Need for Professionaliza-
tion of the Teacher

 

 

The lack of a professional ideal amongst teachers in New

Guinea is understandable if one considers the quality of the teacher

 

1Hanson, "On General Education for the African Teacher, "
p. 184.

117

preparation program for "A" Certificate teachers and the fact that
approximately 80 per cent1 (over 2, 000) of the present teachers in
primary schools in New Guinea have received this Course "A"
training. Though this course of training is being phased out of the
system (it is now only found in certain Mission colleges), the fact
that such a large number of its graduates are teaching in schools,
and will be teaching for some years to come, unlikely to receive any
worthwhile further training or education, unlikely to receive promo-
tion, and most likely to be posted for work in the poorer, less
attractive areas, poses the major problem in the educators' quest
for professionalization of teaching.

The dilemma of quantity versus quality has direct influence
on professionalization of teachers. Government economic policies
causing this dilemma play an important part in deciding on numbers
of teachers, length and type of courses, staff, and so on. The
financial implications underlying any discussion of quantity and
quality in teacher preparation were discussed earlier in this chapter.
It is important here to remember that the selection of teachers for
training, the quality of training, promotional prospects, the kinds

of schools, the availability of in -service programs, all are crucial

 

lMcKinnon, "Education in Papua and New Guinea: The
Twenty Post-War Years, " p. 10.

118

to any consideration of advancing professionalization amongst
teachers.

It is generally felt that the length of preparation alone is not
the sole criterion for quality and professionalism. Dr. G. W. Gibson,
discussing the tendency to make courses more professional by
lengthening them, considered in 1964, as a result of a survey of the
views of teachers and students in a two-year course, that raising
the standard of teacher training in New Guinea was largely a matter
of improving the quality of present courses by attracting better
qualified applicants into colleges, rather than by lengthening courses.
Much, then, depends upon the level of previous education and upon
the quality of human resources available for training.

History has contributed to what is considered an inferior
role accorded primary school teachers. 3 There is a widespread
feeling in Australia, and becoming evident in New Guinea, that pri-
mary teachers are inferior to secondary teachers, and they, in turn,

are inferior to college teachers. This has been largely the result

 

A 1Gibson, "The Emphasis in Teacher Trainingu-More or
Less--Of What?" p. 60.

2UNESCO, Final Report: Expert Committee on Teacher

Education, p. 5.

 

 

31bidop pp. 5'6.

119

of the role the university has played in preparing secondary teachers,
the preparation of primary and infant teachers being left to lesser
academic institutions such as Teachers Colleges or Normal Schools.
UNESCO has commented as follows:
. . . [the] tendency to create other types of teacher education
institutions has been facilitated by the increasing professionali-
zation of teacher education, and by the desire of governments
to be in direct control of teacher education so far as general
policy is concerned. . . . It was noted that pedagogical institutes,
independent of the universities, are often better able to meet the
special needs of developing countries, in particular by adapting
teacher education programmes to the immediate social,
economic and technological needs of these societies as they
deve10p and to particular environments. 1
There can be no doubt that teachers' colleges have increased
in professionalization over recent years, but there still remains the
notion that a university education is the pinnacle. In New Guinea
there is a failure to recognize the fact that student teachers are
tertiary students and should be treated as such. It can be argued
that, because many students currently preparing for primary teach-
ing have not completed their secondary education, and therefore are
not tertiary students, they cannot possibly cope with a real tertiary
level training. This may be so, but these same students are of com-

parable age, have potential, and are being recognized as prospective

teachers by the Administration through the payment of a teacher-in-

 

1Ibid., p. 6.

120

training allowance. As such they have the right to demand a
tertiary -styled training which will better prepare them to be respon-
sible and progressively minded teachers whose self -image has been
fostered rather than neglected.

Groundwork for the development of maturity as a teacher
is the prime goal of teacher education programs. This cannot be
achieved through a narrow curriculum which produces classroom
technicians rather than wise teachers. Dr. Gibson said:

. . teachers have been left behind in the revolution that has
transformed practically every sector of developed economies
over the past fifty years. Being unable to demonstrate that,
in relation to the members of professions with higher quality
training programmes, they are doing a sufficiently better and
more efficient job than they did in the past, they have been
unable to claim a due share in professional upgrading. . . . Pro-
fessional training alone is important, but not sufficient. It is
only one aspect of the matter, albeit the one most commonly dis—
cussed. Teachers can only function professionally to the extent
that their role is professionalized. What needs promotion is the
professional core of the teacher! 3 role, the guiding of learning,
not the peripheral tasks of drilling, conveying information, and
so on.

This imperative clearly applies to the New Guinea teacher.

D. How Children Learn

 

Very little has been written of the way New Guinea children

(or adults, for that matter) learn. There have been some

 

1Gibson, "Let' 3 Have a Profession, " pp. 37 -38.

121

anthropological reports published in journals such as Oceania which
portray aspects of day -by -day living and child -rearing in particular
isolated communities in New Guinea. Such portrayals are usually
small portions of what often are complicated reports, couched in
anthropological terms not understandable to the average reader.
As few indigenous teachers would be able to comprehend such reports,
an important question emerges as to what exactly is the learning
theory promulgated in teachers colleges and used by teachers, and
how relevant is it to the New Guinea educational scene? '

When observing older teachers in action in the classroom,
their teaching methods indicate that earlier programs of teacher
preparation taught, either directly or indirectly, the theory that
teaching was merely transmission: teacher tells, pupils learn; that
pupils learn through repetition; and the test of the effectiveness of
learning is the ability to reproduce correctly what has been learned
by repetition. Even if this theory were not espoused in exactly these
terms, it was practiced by those responsible for teacher preparation
as evinced in the total training programs.

The method of learning by rote memorization is traditional.
”The whole pattern of traditional education in Africa and Asia sup-

ports the memorization of the spoken words of the teacher. "1 The

 

1Adam, "Study Methods in Developing Countries, " p. 15.

122

teacher, thereby, feels justified in using rote memorization
methods of teaching. This form of traditional education is auditory,
whereas Western —type education is visual-- relying on the written
word, the seen experiment, the drawn diagram, the pictures .of a
world present and past. 1 Dr. I. N. Resnick, writing on Tanzanian
education, claimed that one reason for the failure of Tanzanian
formal education is that it is visually oriented in the Western fashion
and not auditory in the African tradition. 2

A similar situation exists in New Guinea, and it can be
argued that the system of school education there, being Western in
orientation and therefore visual, is less effective than it could be.-
However, if educators in New Guinea continue to regard formal
schooling in the way it is regarded in Western societies, and they
continue to teach subjects and subject matter which are products of
a modern Western world, then a continuance of reliance on auditory
methods of education will be less than adequate.

Considerable diversity of opinion exists amongst Western
educators at the moment as to how children, in Western societies,

best learn. Dr. H. H. Penny once said:

 

lResnick, "Prescriptions for Socialist Rural Education in
Tanzania, " p. 15.

2Ibid., p. 16.

123

. experimental behaviourists have, more or less, rejected
such terms as "insight" and "appreciation" in their effort to
obtain "scientific" objectivity. Their learning theories conform
in varying degrees to the S--R model. There is S, the stimulus,
which because regarded as physical can be quantified. There is
R, the response, which because identified as physical can also
be quantified. Little or nothing is said of the intervening --
except in neurological or other physical terms.

It is probable that theories based on the S--R model work,
but it is questionable whether they educate those upon whom they
operate. Some experiments of the behaviorists2 confirm that pro-
longed periods of routine practice in, for example, computation or
handwriting, reduce rather than improve accuracy. This is par—
ticularly relevant to schools in New Guinea, where children are
required by their teachers to repeat, in what appears to be an end-
less chorus, multiplication tables, spelling, reading,. in fact most
of their lessons. It is far more important in New Guinea for the
teacher who seeks to educate to hold fast to theories of learning
which include the processes of developing insight, appreciation,
observation, exploration, experimentation and creation.

It is common knowledge that in, certain North American

Indian peoples, competition in educational fields is foreign to their

culture and tradition, and American teachers for quite some time

 

1H. H. Penny, in a lecture presented to teachers, Goroka

Teachers College, January, 1969.

2H. J. Klausmeier, Learning and Human Abilities (New
York: Harper and Row, 1964), pp. 368-369.

 

124

failed to modify their teaching methods to accommodate this
particular cultural trait.
"They are without initiative, " the exasperated white teachers
would say . . . all those Indian boys and girls who show signs
of actually accepting the demands of their educators and of
finding delight and satisfaction in excelling in school activities
. are drawn back to the average level by the intangible
ridicule of the other children. 1
Traditional societies are basically co -operative societies
where work and play are geared directly towards the survival of the
society. Western societies, on the other hand, emphasize and
encourage the individualistic instincts of mankind. Schooling, as a
product of Western society, generates individual competition. In
New Guinea the question, "How can learning theorists advocate a
psychology of learning for New Guinea which has competition as its
underlying tenet?" must be asked.
How do children learn? It does not necessarily follow that
the way they learn as described by educational psychologists in

Western cultures is the way they learn in so —called primitive cultures

such as New Guinea. 2 Dr. Margaret Read spoke in 1955 of the lack

 

1E. H. Erikson, Childhood and Society (New York: Norton,

1950), p. 115.

2UNESCO, Final Report: Expert Committee on Teacher
Education, states: ". . . it is evident that much that is taught in
child development is not directly related to the circumstances of
childhood in the country concerned, " p. 9.

 

 

125

of knowledge of the influences on child growth and development and
how they learn in traditional societies. 1 Organized studies of child
learning in New Guinea are only now beginning to be considered by
the staff of the Education Faculty of the University of Papua and New
Guinea.

It is likely that certain aspects of the theories of learning
espoused in Western cultures are applicable to human development
in New Guinea, although it is difficult even in Western cultures to
agree that any one theory is without question. The theories of
learning which expatriate educators take for granted, especially
those educators who influence student teachers, should be checked
for relevance, lest wrong information, reinforced, does irreparable
harm to countless numbers of children in schools.

Students in teachers colleges are encouraged to study chil-
dren during their periods of practice teaching. They are encouraged
to observe children and to gather data on them which they later
analyze. The ability to analyze data presupposed a theory of human
development derived from a sound knowledge of the psychology,
sociology and history of their culture. Student teachers in New

Guinea are, obviously, not yet ready for such analyses, and child

 

1Margaret Read, Education and Social Change in Tropical
Areas (London: Thomas Nelson& Sons, 1955). p. 38.

 

126

study exercises in the manner in which they are given, that of
undirected child observation and then analysis of observations,
serves little worthwhile purpose.

E. Language --A Problem
of Communication

 

 

New Guinea is a linguistically fragmented country of some
seven hundred different languages. The geography of the country has
precluded all but the most spasmodic interaction between linguistic
groups. This lack of communication has hindered the development
of nationalism through a common national language. The vernacular
language most aptly and efficiently serves a traditional culture in
that it meets the needs of a static society. However, in New Guinea
a national language is needed which will suit a rapidly changing culture
and promote communication within the country as well as with the
outside world.

The policy of the Administration of New Guinea through its
Department of Education was such that English became the common
language of instruction and communication. 1 This policy was rein-

forced by the Currie Report, which said:

 

1Commonwealth of Australia, Annual Report of the Terri-
tgry of Pyua for the Period 1 July 1965 to 30 June 1966, p. 134.

 

 

127

The gateway to knowledge of the outer world, and even to the
rational understanding of the local world, must be in a world
language, and in the local context that language must be
English.

The teaching of English in New Guinea as a means for com-
munication has been only moderately successful. The Currie Report
commented: ". . . only a very few indigenous people have attained
real facility in the use and comprehension of English. "2 The Report
gave three reasons for this lack of acquiring a facility in the use of
English:

1. . . . the inherent difficulty of exchanging terms, concepts
and thought processes, developed over centuries, between
two radically different cultures, poles apart in social
structure, economic basis, and historic evolution--and
expressing themselves in languages which have no faintest
family relationship. 3

2. simply inadequate teaching of the teachers;

3. a following of Australian syllabuses which do not come to

grips with the critical question: what sort of English is
needed?

 

There has been much discussion in education in developing

countries as to the place of the vernacular in early education.

 

1Report of the Commission on Eggher Education in Papua
and New Guinea, -p. 49.

2Ibid.

 

 

3Ibid.

4Ibid., p. 50.

128

Professor Castle, commenting on this aspect of education in the
East African context, said:

1. It is undesirable that a pupil should have to change from
one language to another as a medium for learning more
often than is absolutely necessary.

2. Languages are best learnt when used as a medium of learn-
ing other subjects rather than in formal language lessons.

3. School time-tables should not be overloaded with languages.

4. A distinction has to be made between learning a language
as a lingua -franca and its use as a teaching medium. There
is no inherent conflict between the two.

5. The local vernacular can take children no further than the
rudiments of literacy, but it is important for preserving
contact with home and tribal customs.

6. At an early stage in his schooling a child must learn English
if he is to have any chance of proceeding to post-primary
education.

Teaching in the vernacular has several disadvantages in
linguistically fragmented New Guinea. Professor Johnson raised a
question which is particularly relevant to language in education:

Can a Papuan or New Guinean vernacular which is geared to a
traditional pattern of society and culture, or a pidgin whose
linguistic structure represents an amalgam of the linguistic
structures of some New Guinea vernaculars, adequately develop
the processes of thought and the concepts of the differing cul-
ture and society which will be the framework of the child' 3 later
education?

 

1Castle, Growing Up in East Africa, p. 205.

 

2Francis C. Johnson, "The Role of English in Papua and
New Guinea, " Pap_u_a and New Guinea Journal of Education, V, No. 3
(February 1968), 20.

 

129

The results of a series of language teaching experiments in
East Africa reported by Professor Castle show that it is possible
to teach a child English from his first year in school. 1 This task
calls for skillful, insightful teaching. In the past in New Guinea
much of the teaching in English has consisted of drill -type, rote
memorization lessons, with very little real understanding taking
place. Material which is presented in a foreign language must be
meaningful and related to the child's environment. If the material
is not meaningful, then the burden of learning becomes too great for
the student.

This is the background through which students entering
teachers college have progressed. The question now raised is:

How can his college course assist him with his own ability at com-
munication and equip him for his language teaching role in the pri-
mary school?

It cannot be assumed that the student, on entering college,
is fluent in all aspects of English language. Often the reverse is
true; his use of English and his reading ability are limited. A
recent study by the University of Papua and New Guinea on the

abilities of college students showed:

 

1Castle, Growing Up in East Africa, pp. 207 -214.

 

130

l. The pace of aural and reading comprehension is very slow
and the degree of comprehension frequently limited.

2. Students are learning in a second language and the sheer
mental effort to do this takes its toll of energy so that the
amount of new material effectively mastered must be
limited.

Another factor which impinges on the college student's lack of
ability at communication in English is the dearth of reading materials
of any kind available in their homes. The Currie Report noted:

The avidity with which recently literate people often fasten on

any scrap of print can soon be frustrated if there is not a good

supply of single and inexpensive things to read, and there

seems little point in spreading reading skills if they are to

wither away for lack of sustenance.

It is reasonable to say that most teacher educators in New

Guinea find they have a language communication problem in teaching
college students. Very often students are unable to comprehend what
the college teacher is trying to explain. When the teacher attempts
to simplify his language, he often simplifies the concepts he is
teaching to a degree where the object of his lesson, an increase in
understanding, is lost. The student, however, is capable of greater

understanding than his ability at communication in English will

allow .

 

1University of Papua and New Guinea, "Educational Defi-
ciencies of Tertiary Level Students," undated bulletin, Port Moresby,
paragraphs i and ii.

2Report of the Commission on Iiigher Education in Papua
311d New Guinea, pp. 52-53.

 

131

Since the student's academic career is going to make use
of the English language, developing an ability at communicating in
English is essential.

F. Instructional Methods
and Media

 

 

1. Instructional Methods. -- The picture painted earlier in this

 

chapter of the primary school teacher is not an encouraging one. The
raising of standards of excellence in teaching becomes doubly difficult
when so many ill —educated and inadequately trained teachers remain
in schools teaching children in their early, but crucial, learning
years. The consequences of this neglect during a child' s foundation
years can be traced through his education.

The teaching methods of most indigenous teachers in New
Guinea, as mentioned before, are formal to the extreme. It was the
way they were taught. These teachers can readily understand the

theory that repetito mater studiorum and consequently accept this

 

method of teaching, for such methods go back to their own traditional
culture. The teaching of quantities of factual information is a rela-

. tively easy process (provided the teacher knows the facts that he is
teaching), and also relatively easy to test for student retention. How-
ever, the realization that, as Martin Tarcher said: "Facts are

significant only as they are evaluated and placed in meaningful

132

relationships with past knowledge and experience; only when they
help expand the intellectual framework of the learner, "1 is difficult
for all but the very best of teachers to comprehend.

This study is not advocating that colleges in New Guinea

eliminate "Methods of Instruction" courses from their curricula.

On the contrary, the writer has great respect for the assistance such

courses can give young teachers, especially those who are unsure

of themselves and their task. But it is the position of this study that

good teaching is a matter of constantly using one' s judgment and

modifying or adapting generalized rules to suit particular applica-

tions. Tarcher said:
When so much importance is placed upon rules, they are bound
to become routine. And following a routine long enough almost
necessarily results in accepting it without question, as the very
best way, the only way to perform a task. Soon the very func—
tions which the rules intended to serve are forgoaten, and the
means--the rules themselves--become the end.

Dean Scarfe aptly described methods of teaching as:

. not simply techniques of managing a classroom. They
involve the whole outlook, attitude and style of the teacher and
require profound knowledge of children, parents and society; of
history and philosophy; and the value and purposes of a special

subject in the total education of future citizens. A method is
an applied science and an applied art; it cannot be reduced to a

 

1Martin Tarcher, Leadership and the Power of Ideas (New
York: Harper 8: Row, 1966), p. 119.

 

2Ibid., p. 108.

133

technology, for human artistry was never that. Moreover, it

is a pioneering, creative adventure seeking to add to the sum

total of human ingenuity, skill and culture. 1

Teacher educators are faced with the dilemma between pre-

paring students for the kind of teaching they feel teachers should be
doing and the kind that, as teachers, will surround them and which
they will be expected to imitate. This poses the very difficult and
complex problem of attempting to do two things at the one time-~to
educate the student through courses that will enlarge and enrich his
mind and, at the same time, prepare him to teach efficiently the
materials in the school syllabuses that happen to be current. As
syllabuses are constantly undergoing revision and sometimes total

change, any course which prepares teachers to teach to only one

syllabus is doomed to failure.

2. Media. --Professor Hanson said:

 

Propounding of educational philosophy or even inauguration of
new syllabi without the simultaneous provision of suitable edu-
cational materials can merely result in producing a schizophrenic
and (if intellectually alert) cynical teacher. 2

The recent history of education in New Guinea is not without

examples of curriculum change which has preceded the production

 

1N. V. Scarfe, "Some Principles of Teacher Training,"
Journal of Education: University of Hong Ko:ng_, No. 19 (1961), p. 3.

 

2Hanson, "On General Education for the African Teacher, "
p. 187.

134

of media necessary for its implementation. Such discrepancies on
the part of planners not only mar the effectiveness of programs, but
also do irreparable harm to the stability and morale of the teachers
in schools.

Educational media needs to be prepared specifically to cater
for local needs. The scarcity of material and aids available in some
areas of the curriculum has caused staff and students to use texts,
pictures, and other media which were prepared for an entirely dif-
ferent set of circumstances. Not only is this applicable to textbooks,
but it also concerns the use of art, craft and physical education media.
It is commonplace in New Guinea schools to find that art is not taught
because the teacher has not received supplies of paint from the edu-
cational stores. The fact that most localities in New Guinea have a
ready source of "local" ochres and color pigments, which have been
used by the people there for centuries, has been ignored. Teachers
fail to see thereciprocity of media. They tend to categorize media
into subject compartments and do not realize that one aid might assist
in the teaching of several subjects.

It is anticipated that for some time to come the financial
state of the Department of Education in New Guinea will be such that
the production and purchase of manufactured media will have to be

rationed according to predetermined priorities. As a consequence,

135

the Department will be unable to experiment with expensive media
such as teaching machines, or to supply each school with movie or

still projectors.

CHAPTER V

CURRICULUM FOR PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION
IN NEW GUINEA-- SOME PROPOSALS

FOR REDIRECTION

"Curriculum development is directional, seldom final. "

Florence Stratemeyer

I. Introduction

 

The previous chapters have shown that New Guinea is
presently in the midst of rapid transformation from a traditional to
a modern society. The process of modernization in New Guinea has
not been smooth and the present stage of cultural transition has seen
the growth of cultural discontinuities which have affected all sectors
of New Guinea life. One of the chief agents of this modernization has
been the development of a formal educational system. The formation
of schools in the Western tradition has necessitated formal prepara-
tion of teachers, also in the Western tradition, to teach in these

schools .

136

137

Schools, of necessity, have become change agents in a
dynamic society. They often teach values which are in opposition
to many of the ones held by "traditional" New Guinea. Hence, as

Professor Lewis said of developing cultures, "

. a dichotomy
exists between schools and communities they exist to serve, and the
teacher is involved in bridging the dichotomy. "1 This has led to an
. increasing awareness of the importance of teachers and of sound
teacher education curricula in the total program of cultural trans-
formation.

The role of the teachers college is changing. Curricula are
certainly changing. The essence of the curriculum problem in
teacher education in New Guinea is that if students are to be equipped
for their job of preparing young people to live effectively in a rapidly
changing culture strongly influenced by Western values, then they
need to be educated, not only to a reasonable mastery in the subjects
taught in schools, which, in part, represent Western values, but
more importantly, towards an understanding of the process of the
change which is taking place in their culture and of its implications
for the future of their society.

A teacher education curriculum consistently related on the

one hand to the present situation, or situations in New Guinea, and

 

1Lewis, "The Nature and Content of Curriculum in Teachers
Colleges," p. 57.

138

on the other to the experience and capacities of the students would
be far different from those now being taught. It would also be
inappropriate to the task imposed upon the schools by political and
economic exigencies.

The proposals for redirection of curriculum in teacher
education made in this chapter are based upon the concept that
teacher education is a process of planned growth. The following six
factors have been utilized in the development of this concept:

1. A value system is individual and unique. Part of one' 3
value system is individuality of the self, as Earl Kelley has
said:

. . the self consists of an organization of accumulated experi-
ence over a whole lifetime. . . . The self has to be achieved;

it is not given. . . . Since the self is achieved through social

contact, it has to be understood in terms of others. 1

2. One is able to and should evaluate one' 8 value system. As
J ersild has stated:

A teacher cannot make much headway in understanding others

or in helping others to understand themselves unless he is

endeavoring to understand himself. If he is not engaged in this
endeavor, he will continue to see those whom he teaches through

the bias and distortions of his own unrecognized needs, fears,
desires, anxieties, hostile impulses, and so on.

 

lKelley, "The Fully Functioning Self, " p. 9.

2Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves, pp. 13-14.

 

139

Jersild summed up why self-understanding is so vital when
he commented: ". . . a teacher' s understanding of others
can be only as deep as the wisdom he possesses when he
looks inward upon himself. "1

3. Feedback from others brings clarity to one' s perspective
of one' s self-concept. Jersild asserted:

In a group, a person may be helped to see his anger, fear, and

protective devices as others see them. The way others express

themselves or respond to him may help him perceive in a new

and self -revealing light some of the evidences of shame, self -

effacement, anxiety, vindictiveness, and other outcroppi s of

deep -seated attitudes of which ordinarily he is not aware.

4. Values and self-concept can be changed. Developmental
psychology believes in the power of the human being to grow
and of the human capacity for self -repair. 3

5. Behavior is based on one' 3 values and self -concept. Behav-
ing and learning are products of perceiving. We behave
according to how we perceive a situation. The process of

education is fundamentally a process of change in the per-

son' 3 perceptual field. 4

 

1Ibid., p. 83
2 .

Ibid., p. 85.
3Ibid., p. 12.

4Arthur W. Combs and Donald Snygg, Individual Behavior
(Revised edition; New York: Harper and Row, 1959), 9:366.

 

140

6. The nature of the self is such that a person does not have
to be taught in order to learn. Maslow believed:

In the normal development of the normal child, it is now known
that most of the time, if he is given a really free choice, he
will choose what is good for his growth. . . . This implies that
he "knows" better than anyone else what is good for him. . . .
This force is one main aspect of the "will to health, " the urge
to grow, the pressure to self-actualization, the quest for one' 8
identity.

A. Factors in Curriculum Change

 

Any form of change is a process which concerns people.

This process begins when people see the need for change. In edu-
cation such change usually implies the construction or alteration of
programs of studies, usually referred to as "curriculum. " Unfor-
tunately, as change evolves, many educators forget that:

Programs depend for their origination and implementation

upon people. Advice and decisions are made by people.

Plans and purposes are generated by people.
When this human element in change is forgotten, the process

becomes one of implementing a sterile, usually prepackaged, bundle

of facts and figures. Real curriculum change, therefore, implies

 

1A. H. Maslow, "Motivation and the Growth of the Self, "

Perceiving, Behavigg, Becomil_l_g: A New Focus for Education,
edited by Arthur W. Combs (Washington, D. C. : Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, Yearbook, 1962), p. 83.

 

 

2Carleton W. Berenda, "What Is Man?" Educational
Administration-- Philosophy in Action, edited by R. E. Ohm and
W. G. Monahan (Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma, 1965), p. 17 .

 

 

141

not only change in a written program, but also change in people' s
thinking.

Every teacher-educator approaches a curriculum with his
own preconceptions, presuppositions and ideas of what he deeply
desires for the development of teachers, irrespective of the cur-
riculum. This does not imply that the curriculum as such is unsatis-
factory, though this might be the case. What it does imply is that
a curriculum means different things to different people. What our-
riculum means is influenced by what people deeply m.

This thesis does not aim to present a model curriculum for
primary teacher education in New Guinea. Indeed it cannot, for as
Combs said: "Teacher-education programs, like teachers them-
selves, need to serve local needs and purposes. "1

The following ideas are presented in the form of proposals
for redirection in curriculum. Each proposal has been elaborated
to include a possible way, or ways, in which such a proposal might
be implemented. These are recommendations made as a result of
the writer' 8 study of curriculum in teacher education and his knowl-
edge of existing curricula in New Guinea. If accepted, they can and
should be modified by those responsible for curriculum in the indi-

vidual teachers colleges.

 

1Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers, p. 112.

 

142

11. Recommendations for Redirection of Curriculum
in Teacher Education in New Guinea

 

 

The following proposals for redirection of the curriculum
for primary teacher education in New Guinea are made under the
headings:

A. Organization--at the policy -mak_ing level;

B. Organization--at the institution level;

C. College Programs--Curriculum content and process.
There is a degree of overlapping between all proposals made,
especially those under the headings B and C. This cannot be avoided
if a college program is to contain an element of unity in its approach
to its task.

A. Organization - - at the
Policy -MakingLevel

 

 

1. It is proposed that students be able to choose between pre-
paring for Infant Teaching (Standards Preparatory, I and II)
or Primary Teaching (Standards III, IV, V, VI). This
choice should be made by the student in consultation with
his advisor during his first year of college education.

It is almost a physical and mental impossibility for students
to be "educated" (which often means "prepared") to teach children
from Standards Preparatory to V1 in two years. Australia does not
try to do so in three years, nor the United States in four. It is not

suggested here that each student selects a grade or standard level

and specializes his training in this level, but rather he should be

143

permitted to choose between early primary (infants) or later primary
teaching. Such a provision, as suggested, would affect the transfer
and posting of teachers in that attention would need to be given to the
"age level" for which the teacher has been prepared. This is really
a minor administrative problem.

If this proposal were to become policy, it would mean some
internal (to the college) reorganization of courses and experiences.
Greater in —depth study of the child and his curriculum could be made
which could result in better prepared teachers for both infant and
primary standards.

2. It is proposed that in order for student teachers to become
more understanding of their society and its problems, they
be encouraged to visit and work in the various government
and church sponsored social agencies, such as Maternal
and Child Welfare and Youth Organizations.

This proposal would necessitate some inter —departmental
approval and organization. Specific organization would be the
responsibility of the college and the social agency. A reciprocal
agreement between the teachers college and other training institutes
which prepare social workers could be arranged.

3. It is proposed that, as soon as possible, all programs of

teacher education be of three years duration instead of the
present two years.

144

This added third year could take the form of an extended
internship in the schools, thereby overcoming, in part, the shortage
of teachers, as well as avoiding any great increase in costs. The
kind of internship envisaged would be similar to that conducted in
some American institutions1 where, during the last year of the
teacher preparation program, the intern has full control of a class
of children. At the same time he receives constant assistance from
specially selected consultants. During this internship the intern
is paid four —fifths of a beginning teacher' 8 salary, the other fifth
going as part of the consultant's salary.

This kind of program, the writer considers, could be imple -
mented in New Guinea. It could be started in and near the larger
towns where communication by road is easy, thus enabling con-
sultants to move freely between interns. The present Senior Officers'
Course2 could be geared toward the preparation of suitable consul-
tants.

4. It is proposed that the selection of student teachers for
training be more rigorous.

 

1The Education Intern Program (E. I. P. ) of Michigan State

University is an example.

2The Senior Officers' Course is a six -month program for
selected teachers who show ability and promise as future administra-
tors. They are prepared in this program for a supervisory role in
the schools.

145

The criterion for entrance to teachers college should no
longer be a failure to progress to the next step of formalized
academic schooling, nor an inability to enter into occupations of a
student' 8 first or second preference for employment.

A program in the United States which appears to be of bene-
fit in helping high school students appreciate the role of a teacher,
and later in deciding on a career as a teacher, is one where high
school students gain academic credit as a Student Teacher-Aide.
Such a program would be of benefit to high school students in New
Guinea and would assist them in deciding on a career as a teacher.
It could also assist the secondary school authorities when called
upon to make recommendations for candidates for teacher prepara-
tion.

B. Organization - - at the
Institutional Level

 

 

1. It is proposed that programs no longer be organized on the
basis that the first year of a program be concerned solely
with preparing teachers to teach the lower primary stan-
dards (Preparatory, I and H) and the second year for upper
primary standards (1H, IV, V, VI).

Instead, it is proposed that the first year be aimed at the
general education of the student teacher and the second year at

professional education. Both terms, General Education and

146

Professional Education, will be discussed more fully later in this
chapter.
2. It is proposed that an interdisciplinary approach to cur-
ricula, where the aim--the development of the student as

a person--becomes the center, or primary goal, of_a_ll_

courses.

It is suggested that this proposal would result in each of the
subject disciplines and all of the activities contained in the total pro-
gram being geared toward this aim. It is also hoped that such an
approach to curricula organization would lessen (generally speaking)
the tendency for subject specialists to insulate themselves from the
other aspects of the total program and lessen their indifference
toward the pedagogical needs of the student teachers.

It is to be noted that not all members of a college staff are
equally effective as advisors to students or as supervisors of prac-
tice teaching. But it is also to be understood that staff, like students,
have strengths, and these individual strengths can be of benefit to
a college program if utilized properly. An interdisciplinary approach,
as envisaged, would allow for more effective staff utilization.

A college program could be divided as follows:

1st year: a course of studies which aims at expanding the
general education of the student;

2nd year: a course of studies which aims at developing a
professional teaching ability in each student.

147

A course in General Studies could include:

0.00””

the development of an understanding of the self;

an in—depth study of child growth and development;
a study of society and the individual in his society;
an exploration of specific areas of knowledge (subjects).

A course in Professional Studies could include:

a.
b.

a study of the needs of the learner in New Guinea;

a study of how these needs might be met through
formal schooling--that is, the process of education;
a study of the curriculum for primary schools and
possibilities for its implementation;

practical experiences in schools.

3. It is proposed that programs of teacher education be made
adaptable to changing societal demands and that this ability
to adapt be passed on to student teachers.

The rate with which new knowledge is being made available

in the world is so rapid that much of what was taught to the student

teachers when they were in school is now obsolete. This is particu-

larly the case in New Guinea, where the difference between their

traditional society and their emerging one is much greater than

between the Western world of fifty years ago and the Western world

of today. A changing world requires teachers who are capable of

adapting to change and who are able to interpret this change to their

pupils .

4. ' It is proposed that college programs in New Guinea be
organized in such a way that student needs are more
effectively met through a more flexible curriculum.

148

Current practices in primary teacher education in New
Guinea demand that each student participate in the same program
and gain the same credit for successful completion of this program.
(Students are allowed some choice in the form of electives, but the
requirements in these are also fixed by the colleges.)

As each New Guinea college numbers under 400 students,
it should not be difficult to organize flexibility for individual planning
into existing programs.

5. It is proposed that all aspects of the college curriculum be
based upon the needs of the teacher in the New Guinea
society.

Too often, in the past, principles and practices have been
adopted without adaptation from cultures foreign to New Guinea. 1
This only adds to the cultural confusion existing in New Guinea.
Adaptation of material will necessitate educators becoming better
informed of the New Guinean, his society, and how he grows,
develops and learns. It is urgent that educators undertake research
into aspects of schools and schooling so that their educating will be

the best possible.

 

1It would appear this is still the practice in some teachers
colleges. The writer recently received, from one prominent college,
a copy of prescribed reading material in the subject "Education. "
This material had been taken directly from an American teaching
journal. No attempt had been made to "localize" its content.

149

6. It is proposed that colleges consider the possibility of

using a team -teaching approach to program organization

in selected aspects of their total program.

If, after weighing the advantages and disadvantages of team-
teaching, the college decided upon adopting this method of organization,
some experimentation and demonstration would be needed to deter-
mine the effectiveness of the method in the local situation.

7. It is proposed that the college staff be required to work
closely with schools for part of each year.

It is particularly important that the staff keep their thinking
relevant to existing conditions in schools and in the larger New
Guinea society. Too often in New Guinea the staff of colleges only
enter primary schools to supervise practice teaching. Their task
on these occasions is to observe and analyze the teaching behavior
of their student -teachers. It has been pointed out throughout this
thesis that the needs of the New Guinean and his country are changing
very rapidly and that schools are in the forefront of this change.

The college staff, therefore, should assume responsibility some
time each year for active participation in the work of the primary
schools. They should also be available to act as curriculum con-
sultants and for in -service education of teachers when requested.
In this way each staff member will be better able to organize his

courses so that they are more realistic (in relevance, level and

150

approach) to the needs of the teacher as a student and during his first
crucial year of teaching.

Each year there are a number of new staff members for
colleges recruited from Australia who have had no experience
teaching in New Guinea schools. These new staff members should
be encouraged (even required) to orientate themselves in a practical
way to the existing New Guinea educational scene.

8. It is proposed that provision be made in the college cur-
riculum for vacation, camp -type experiences during the
extended Christmas vacation. The purpose of these camps
would be to assist in developing the student' 8 awareness
of himself and his society.

Such a vacation camp proposed could take place during the
Christmas vacation which falls at the end of the first year of the
college program. Students who live within easy transporting
distances from the college could conduct camps in their home villages.
Other students could be gainfully occupied in a number of camp
centers in the larger towns where accommodation and facilities
are more readily available. These experiences could form part of
the program' 8 requirements in developing an understanding of the
society. Preparation for these camps could be done during the first
year of the college residential course.

Supervision of these student activities could be shared with

trained social workers outside the Department of Education and

151

other personnel who normally work with the villages and townspeople.
The major role for the college would be in preparing the student for
the activity.

C. College Programs--
Curriculum Content agd Process

 

 

1. It is proposed that the foremost aim of each college program
be the development of the student as a person.

The qualities which characterize an "adequate" person can-
not form the "content" of any one course of instruction, but as goals
they must permeate all courses and activities throughout the entire
program. Students should be allowed and encouraged to explore their
feelings and relationships toward others and toward ideas presented,
so that a personal meaning might be obtained for each situation.

In keeping with the ideas of J ersild, there should be some
time set aside each week when students can meet together in groups
with an understanding staff member to discuss the strivings, satis-
factions, hopes and heartaches that pervade the teacher' 3 life and
work. Such a regular meeting could be organized to allow the stu-
dent to discuss freely his problems and satisfactions.

2. It is proposed that, in the implementing of college courses,
other methods beside lecturing be used.

It is crucial in teachers colleges that all teaching be

varied in approach. This will ensure that teachers -to -be are

152

exposed to the process of education under a variety of conditions
and methods.

The approaches to instructiOn used could include the team -
teaching organization mentioned earlier in this chapter; seminars
and tutorials; lectures in large groups followed by tutorials;
workshops; independent study projects; panels and debates. Utiliz -
ing a variety of approaches will help alleviate the current over-
reliance in New Guinea on the formal lecture -type method in a
highly structured classroom situation. The development of "Life
Skills" and "Process Skills" advocated by some educators can only

be achieved if students themselves experience them, for it is well

 

known that student teachers will take back into schools the concepts
of learning which they acquired in their colleges.

3. It is proposed that teacher education programs emphasize

the importance of teachers gaining an understanding of the

New Guinea society--its problems and aspirations.

As each teacher is, culturally speaking, an active change
agent in New Guinea, it is vital that he becomes aware of his role
in a rapidly changing culture and that through this understanding he
is able to prepare children for their present and future roles.

Activities which colleges could organize to assist the student gain

an understanding of himself in his society could include:

153

Several workshops which aim to explore the past,
present and future cultures of New Guinea;

An extended community study which aims to give an
understanding of the New Guinea society and the change

taking place within it.

In both "a" and "b" above, the role of and change in music, dance,

art, dress, food, and occupations in cultures can be examined.

There is no shortage of local (New Guinean) resource people to

assist in this examination.

C.

Guest lectures and seminars by prominent and knowl-
edgeable people who really understand the people of
New Guinea and their customs;

Visitations to local industries and governmental enter-
prises;

Planned vacation activities which would include camps,
summer recreation schools, drama and sporting clubs,

and the like.

4. It is proposed that college programs provide forgreater
student involvement in the affairs of the community.

This involvement in the local community, it is hoped, will

lead to an involvement in the wider New Guinea society.

154

In New Guinea the teacher is more often than not a leader
in the community in which he teaches. A perusal of the names of
New Guineans in top administrative positions in the Administration
of Papua and New Guinea and in the Legislative Assembly will show
that of the number many are, or were, teachers. 1.

Community activities in which the college could be asso-

ciated include: F

 

a. Working with families and children in the neighborhood
of the college;

b. Assisting in Play Centers for children who are not in
school or are unable to enter school;

c. Assisting in Youth Clubs and similar organizations which
attempt to interest youth during their leisure time;

d. Assisting with Maternal and Child Welfare clinics;
e. Assisting in voluntary agencies which care for the sick;

f. Assisting with Adult Literacy Classes on a voluntary
basis and literacy classes for school leavers:

g. Assisting in Pre -School classes in areas where they
exist;

h. Participating in organized social work programs;
i. Participating in the various Church social organizations;

j. Assisting in the formation and training of musical groups
and choirs.

Organization of this aspect of the teacher preparation program would

vary with the individual college, but the activity should be sufficiently

 

155

emphasized to show its importance in the total program. Credit
towards certification could be given in some manner, and the expe-
rience gained should be linked with the more formalized activities
in the program. These experiences would be, in essence, a Field

Laboratory, where principles and practice are merged together.

 

Activities, such as those outlined above, would assist in the develop- 1

ment of the teacher' 5 role as a leader in his community.

""
C ,‘
’4“

5. It is proposed that college programs provide realistic
experiences which will lead the student toward a better
understanding of child growth and development in New

Guinea .

The comment made by the UNESCO Committee on Teacher
Education in Developing Countries is particularly relevant to teach-

ing. in New Guinea. It said:

. it is evident that much that is taught in child development
is not directly related to the circumstances of childhood in the
country concerned and is presented in the form of factual
knowledge which may be of no direct use to the teacher. . . .
What is required is rather that the student should actively be
involved in procedures of inquiry through which he can develop
concepts and skills related to his practical needs.

Such a conceptual development as indicated in this statement, which
would lead to the development of skills in catering for the needs of

the growing child, is vital for the New Guinea teacher.

 

1UNESCO, Final Report: Expert Committee on Teacher
Education, p. 9.

 

 

156

In order to involve the student actively in learning about

children, the following experiences could be organized into college

programs:

a.

A well -grounded course given in human growth and develop-
ment which is based on (i) the student' 3 own knowledge and
experience of growing children (themselves, siblings and
neighbors) and (ii) what they can discover through actual
study children in the Demonstration School, Practising
Schools, during their observation and practice teaching
sessions. The findings of individual and group studies
could be shared in seminars at the college when, with the
help of the college teacher, some logic and form could be
applied to these findings, similarities and differences
brought to light with discussion centered on how the teacher
might be able to enhance this growth and development.
Coupled with "a" above would be a series of observations
(field experiences) spread over a year which would aim to
develop an awareness of the physical, intellectual and
social growth of the child which has taken place over a
defined and observable period of time. Factors which

influence this growth would be noted and assessed.

 

157

c. Visits to local hospitals and child welfare clinics would be
included in this area of study. Often in villages these
clinics are of a peripatetic nature and could easily occur
during practice teaching sessions and students would be
able to experience child welfare at the village level.

d. The colleges, in conjunction with the University of Papua

q.‘O.Y‘f'I-"I_ ‘m-n- III

and New Guinea, should attempt to study, in a systematic

way, the growth and development of the New Guinea child.

 

Their findings should be correlated and published for all
educators to use. This kind of study which is longitudinal
in nature could be spread over a number of years, involving
the active participation of staff and students alike.

6. It is proposed that college programs attempt to define what
constitutes learning theory in the New Guinea setting.

The development of a learning theory in New Guinea would
require an exploration of how the New Guinea child learns, not only
in the New Guinea school as it is presently conceived, but also how
he learns to manipulate his before -school and out -of -school situa -
tions to meet his individual needs. This kind of study would be
closely linked with the learning of growth and development outlined

in "5” above.

158

It could be argued, using a theme of Danziger, 1 that when
a person speaks of growth and development of the New Guinea child,
it is not that he believes New Guinea children are inherently dif-
ferent from other people. But it makes sense to believe that there
may be different norms, differences in mOtivational patterns and
important differences in child and adult attitudes which arise pre-
cisely because of the different circumstances in which he grows up.
The great diversity of cultural patterns in New Guinea makes the
kind of study recommended all the more important and urgent. The
differences between formalized schooling and the traditional New
Guinea modes of inducting their young into their culture have been
emphasized in Chapter Three. It is necessary now to find out the
best way to teach the New Guinea child. Research similar to that
done in Africa outlined in Chapter Two could include the areas of:

a. analytic perception and categorization;

b. the use of language (vernacular and English) in
formulating and solving problems;

c. the development of conservation skills, seriation
and discrimination skills.

The study of how people learn and the development of theo-

retical concepts from the findings of such a study require intensive

 

1Danziger, "Social Change and Child Training in Under-
developed Areas, " p. 119.

 

159

and carefully planned scholarly research. This research could best
be undertaken by the University of Papua and New Guinea and the staff
of the various teachers colleges working in liaison with the University.
Students could help in this research, given guidance and encourage-

ment. Through this kind of involvement they would be made aware

F‘? .‘I
v
I

of the possibilities and implications of research upon their task as

a. _.-...2

teachers. :

 

7. It is proposed that the policy of each college be directed L4
toward the development in each student of a personal
approach to teaching.

Such a policy implies, for most colleges in New Guinea, that
set lesson plans and procedures which each student is expected to
use be abandoned, or at least greatly modified to allow for the inclu-
sion of individual perceptions of the teaching task.

This approach to the development of methods of teaching
involves the student in a great deal of trial and error experiencing
in order to find his own best ways of teaching. In The Professional
Education of Teachers, Combs1 has suggested appropriate guidelines
for developing a personal approach to teaching. A teacher education

program might include the following experiences: Rich opportunities

for involvement with students and with teaching; concurrent

 

lCombs, The Professional Education of Teachers, p. 99.

 

160

opportunities to plan for such experiences and to discover the

meanings of them after they have occurred; an atmosphere that

actively encourages and facilitates self -involvement and personal

discovery. In New Guinea these experiences could include the

following:

a.

Regular weekly visits to schools for observations and for

experiences with children. The student could be considered

 

a teacher' 3 aide and assist with material distribution, play- ' I
ground duties, reading and other group work, and any other
activity which places him in contact with children. This
contact could gradually be extended to teaching tasks which
will help the student develop his art of communicating with
children. Such tasks could include story -telling, music,
craftwork, physical education.

Seminars and tutorials to plan and follow -up visits with chil-
dren should be scheduled. If the experiences mentioned in
"a" (above) are planned on a regular weekly basis (with the
co ~operation of the classroom teacher, then the student-
teacher would be able to plan activities in advance for the
following session. The experiences gained at these encoun-
ters at schools could be shared in seminars at college when

the student is encouraged to reflect and discuss his actions.

161

c. A close liaison between schools, the college and the
community could result in organizing frequent extracurricu-
lar experiences such as sport carnivals, picnics and field
trips which could involve the college student.

d. A series of curriculum laboratories which could be the core
of the college ”Methods" program would enable the student
to experiment with ways of teaching, with equipment and
materials. These laboratories or workshops would aim at
unifying a student' 8 approach to teaching and not aim at
conformity to any one method.

e. The college library should be made a resource center where
students in their various activities could use all the equip-
ment available in the college and in the schools.

8. It is proposed that courses in "Method of Teaching" adopt
an interdisciplinary approach.

This approach is opposite to the presently conceived one--
that of teaching how to teach the several subjects required in a
school curriculum. Primary student teachers in New Guinea are
given instruction in how to teach art, craft, the various sections of
English as a foreign language, social studies, mathematics, science,
music and physical education. There is very little attempt to reduce
the number of "methods" of teaching or to coordinate aspects which

are similar in nature.

 

”-4
"

m5. -
I.
K'va. .,».-

162

1
An interdisciplinary approach, as it is envisaged, would

reduce the degree of fragmentation apparent in the present programs.

A theme, for example, "Teaching which encourages learning by

discovering, " could be explored in each of the subject areas. Other

"methods" such as those which encourage independent study and

inquiry learning could similarly be explored. In this manner the

common elements of learning would be emphasized and from these

elements the role of the teacher in the learning process be clarified.
9. It is proposed that college programs place greater emphasis

than is presently being done on the development of the

skills of communication.

This development can come about only if students are given
the opportunity and encouragement to communicate. Effective com-
munication also requires that the person knows and understands well
what he is trying to communicate.

The proposal demands the encouragement of student inter-

action in every aspect of the college program. The development of

 

1This approach to learning how to teach does not negate the
value of systematically developing an understanding of the dis-
ciplines. One school of thought on teaching considers that subjects
should be taught in a manner similar to the way the scholar in that
subject develops his knowledge and understanding. However, as
Combs said , ". . . it is a fallacy to assume that the methods of the
experts either can or should be taught directly to beginners. . . .
Nor is it true that the way to become expert is to do what the expert
does." (Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers, pp. 4-5.)

 

163

certain verbal skills could be planned for in specific courses and in
other experiences such as drama, debating and in language programs.
However, the most effective method of improving communication is
through the development of student self -understanding, of his role

in society and his purpose in teaching. As this method is, in effect,
the sum total of the whole teacher education program, all parts of

the program must become responsible for the development of com- p}

munication skills . I

 

10. It is proposed that practical teaching experiences be
designed for the two -year program as follows:

Year 1. --Regular weekly contact with children be
arranged for at least half the year on an informal basis.
The student would be encouraged to interact with the
teacher and children and, as his confidence in being with
children increases, he be encouraged to take a more
active part where he feels himself adequate.

Year 11. --(a) Two practical teaching sessions of one and
two weeks duration respectively be planned. These
sessions would be arranged at intervals in the Profes-
sional Education course. They would aim at increasing
gradually the student' 8 confidence at handling the class-
room situation and at improving his methods of teaching.
There would be less emphasis (than is presently the
practice) placed on criticism of lessons taught and more
emphasis placed on the positive elements of student devel-
opment. Seminars and tutorials which are of a counselling
nature are important during this early development of the
student' 8 teaching style.

Year 11. --(b) An extended period of internship of approxi-
mately fourteen weeks (representing the final school term
each year), during which time the student would gradually

164

assume full responsibility for the organization of learning
in his class. This can be in the form of an apprentice-
ship, where once the student' 8 confidence and ability
become apparent, he is given added responsibility.
Principals of schools and classroom teachers have an
important role to play in this type of internship, as college
tutors usually have to share their counselling services
between several schools and a number of students. 2 ....__

III. Conclusions

 

This thesis has attempted to explore considerations which

 

should guide the design of a curriculum for primary teacher educa- '- "
tion in New Guinea. A number of proposals have been made which

identify specific areas which the writer considers need some adjust-

ment. Whatever adjustment is made will need to consider specific

local conditions and the ability, interest and confidence of the indi-

vidual college staffs, for they are the people ultimately responsible

for interpreting and implementing a curriculum.

Current teacher education programs in New Guinea have
been described in this thesis as approaching a new phase in their
development. Most teacher educators know all to well that student
teachers in New Guinea cannot cope with the courses they "ought"
to have if they are to teach reasonably well the ”Western" kinds of
school subjects-~English, mathematics, science, social studies,

and so on. They also know what is expected of them: that they

165

prepare New Guinea students to teach those subjects approaching an
Australian standard.

The difficulties are formidable. They are aggravated by a
too -rapid turnover of staff, particularly in the Administration col-
leges. Many teacher educators know little about the New Guinea
cultures or of the aspirations of the people. Even if the teacher
educator were to know well what his students were capable of, and
what is most needed, he has to work under the constraints imposed
from within New Guinea and from without.

Some of what has been said may appear to be pessimistic.
The writer would prefer to call it realistic to say that much more
radical curricular changes are needed than are likely to be prac-
ticable. Yet there will be much gain from every serious attempt,
not just by the expert, to prepare a teacher education curriculum
for the colleges of New Guinea, to provoke and help staff members
themselves to come to an understanding of the principles of curricu-
lum construction.

The following is a summary of the main recommendations
made in this thesis:

1. The Department of Education in New Guinea consider the
following:

a. All programs of primary teacher education be of three
years' duration with the added third year becoming a
year of Internship.

 

 

166

b. All students entering a primary teacher preparation
program be allowed to choose between Infant teaching
(Standards Preparatory, I and II) or Primary teaching
(Standards III, IV, V, VI).

c. Student -teachers be encouraged to participate in the work
of the various social organizations throughout New Guinea
and be given credit toward certification for this work.

d. Further exploring the possibility of changing its policy
and methods for recruitment of personnel into the
teaching service.

e. Secondary school students interested in teaching and in
peOple be permitted to participate as a teaching aide on an
elective basis in a new program for secondary schools.

a. College programs cease attempting to prepare students
for lower school teaching during the first year of the
two -year program and for upper prilnary teaching
during the second year.

b. College programs aim to assist the student' 3 General
Education during the first year of the program and their
Professional Education in the second year.

A college program in General Education to include:

i. the development of an understanding of the self;

ii. an in -depth study of child growth and development;
iii. a study of society and the individual in his society;
iv. an exploration of specific areas of knowledge.

A program in Professional Education to include:

i. a study of the needs of the learner in New Guinea;
ii. a study of how these needs might be met;
. iii. a study of the curriculum for primary schools;
iv. practical experiences in schools.

An interdisciplinary approach to course structure be imple-
mented which allows for a more direct consideration of the
student as a person and his perceived role in his society,
rather than emphasizing the importance of subjects as
logically ordered bodies of knowledge to which students are
required to relate.

—-—‘ .
I. ~ - W‘i rants—u?
‘\ o"

‘- .

.. ‘ . [V

167

College programs be implemented in other ways than by

straight lecture methods. For example-~team -teaching

organization, seminars, workshops, laboratory and field
experiences, independent study.

Colleges should explore the potential of a team -teaching

approach to program organization which could allow for

more flexibility and personalization in their planning and
teaching.

“F
r

 

College staff be encouraged to participate actively in inter-
preting and constructing the curricula of schools and in the
in -service training of teachers.

Anni...

rim

1)
“9

 

College curricula to include more student experiencing of
the affairs and aspirations of the developing New Guinea
society and local community in order to assist in deeping
the student' 8 observations and analysis of his society in
meaningful terms of daily living. Such experiences could
include: societal projects, vacation camp activities in towns
and villages, workshops, community studies.

“

Teachers colleges, in conjunction with the University of
Papua and New Guinea, encourage research into:

a. child growth and development in New Guinea,

b. the influences of traditional culture upon the school and
learning,

c. the folklore, songs, art and dance of New Guinea.

a. Colleges aim to encourage each student to experiment
with various approaches to teaching in Order to develop
a personal method of teaching.

b. If "a" is to be achieved, colleges will need to place less
reliance on set methods and "college approved" lesson
formations.

c. College programs aim to develop the student' 8 skill
in communicating through improving his self-
understanding, his understanding of his society, his
oral and written ability, and his purpose in teaching.

10.

168

Although not actually made as recommendations in this
thesis, the Department of Education should consider:

a.

The need for more New Guineans on the staffs of the
various colleges throughout New Guinea;

The need to increase the number of indigenous teachers
in training in order to alleviate the shortage of ade-
quately trained teachers in schools; I” "“

The need for better designed media, texts, and equip-
ment for use in schools and colleges in New Guinea;

problems teachers face in schools, especially during

1
I
4
The need to encourage systematic research into the r
their first teaching year. t

BIBLIOGRAPHY

' ". ..‘.'(e Is: u. on
‘

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. New Guinea

 

“r, ’- ‘.. --

A. Books

 

0-» f“&fi‘..&‘_
.b

Biskup, P. ; Jinks, B. ; and Nelson, H. A Short History of New.
Guinea. Sydney: Angus 8: Robertson, 1968.

 

 

Maori -Kiki, Albert. Kiki, Ten Thousand Years in a Lifetime.
London: Praeger, 1968.

 

Mead, Margaret. Growigg Up in New Guinea. London: Pelican,
1930.

 

New Lives for Old. New York: Mentor Books, 1956.

 

 

Rowley, C. D. The New Guinea Villager. Melbourne: Cheshire,
1965.

 

B. Articles and Documents

 

Administration of Papua and New Guinea. "Confidential Report of
the Joint Working Party on Educational Policy." Port
Moresby, March, 1968. (Duplicated copy.)

Commonwealth of Australia. Annual Report of the Territoy of
Papua for miPeriw 1 July 1965 to 30 June 1966. Canberra:
Government Printer, 1966.

Gibson, G. W. "Let' 3 Have a Profession." Pa ua and New Guinea
Journal of Education, V, No. 3 (February 1968), 36-41.
"The Emphasis in Teacher Training--More or Less--

Of What?" Papua and N53 Guinea Journal of Education,
11, No. 2 (July 1964), 57 ~60.

 

 

 

169

170

. "The Future: Past or Prologue. " Papua and New Guinea
Journal of Education, V, No. 2 (September 1967), 44-51.

 

McKinnon, Kenneth R. "Education in Papua and New Guinea: The
Twenty Post-War Years. " The Australian Journal of Edu-
cation, XII, No. 1 (March 1968), 2 -17.

 

Mead, Margaret. "Anthropology and Education." Papua and New
Guinea Journal of Education, V, No. 4 (June 1968), 12 -15.

A—i

 

Minister of State for External Territories. Framework for the
Future. Selected Statements on Papua andWew Guinea
during 1968 by the Hon. C. E. Barnes, M.P. Canberra:
Government Printer, 1968.

a?" 5!. an“ i 2

 

Papua and New Guinea Department of Education. "A Brief Summary 1;, 5.:
of the Primary Curriculum Committee Meeting Held at
Konedobu from 23 -2 6th February 197 0. " (Stencilled copy.)

Handbook and Calendar: flirt Moresby Teachers College.
Port Moresby: Government Printer, 1969.

. Handbook, 1970: Goroka Teachers Colle e. Port
Moresby: GovernmentT’rinter, 1970.

Handbook, 1970: Madang Teachers College. Port
Moresby: Government Printer, 19 .

 

 

"Important Problems in Education: Discussion Topic
House of Assembly: Selection of Standard VI Children to
Enter High School." Port Moresby, September, 1969.
(Stencilled report.)

. "Primary Final Examination Secondary Selection."
Circular letter dated July 31, 1969.

Syllabus for Primary "T" Schools. Revised edition.
Port Moresby: Government Printer, 1967.

 

. "Syllabus for the Two Year Course of Teacher Training."
Port Moresby, 1965. (Stencilled copy.)

171

. "Syllabus of Work for Teacher Training." Port Moresby,
1954. (Stencilled copy.)

. "Teacher Training Syllabus 1950. " Port Moresby.
(Stencilled copy.)

Teacher Training Syllabus--One Year Course. Port
Moresby: South Pacific Post Print, 1962.

"The Development of Teacher Education. " Undated
circular letter from the Division of Teacher Education, 1968.

. "IAARH-‘r‘gr

Papua and New Guinea Department of Information and Extension
Services. "Progress and Growth of Papua and New Guinea.
Port Moresby, 1969.

 

Pittman, G. A. "Report on the Teaching of English in the Territory
of Papua and New Guinea." Nauru, 1960.

Prince, J. R. "Science Concepts in New Guinean and European
Children." The Australian Journal of Education, XII (March
1968), 81-89.

 

Report on Conference of Teachers College Principals--Goro_l_<_a_,
1968. Department of Education, Port Moresby, 1968.

(Stencilled copy. )

Report of the Advisogy Committee on Education in Papua and New
Guinea. W. J. Weeden, Chairman. Canberra: Union
Offset Printing, 1969.

~.__

Report of the Commission on Higher Education in Papua and New
Guinea. Sir George Currie, Chairman. Canberra: Union
Offset Printing, 1964.

Roe, Ernest. "Ideas Guiding the Development of University Courses
in Teacher Education. " Report on Conference of Teachers
College Principals-~Goroka, 1968. DEpartment of Educa-
tion, Port Moresby, 1968. (Stencilled cOpy.)

 

Territory of Papua and New Guinea. Programmes and Policies for
3e Economic Development ofrPapua and New Guinea.
Port Moresby: Government Printer, 1968.

 

172

The Australian Journal of Education, XII, No. 1 (March 1968).

 

University of Sydney Adult Education Department. "Education in
Papua-New Guinea. " Current Affairs Bulletin, XLIII,
No. 6 (February 1969).

 

"Language in Papua-New Guinea. " Current Affairs
Bulletin, XLIII, No. 7 (February 1969).

 

Veur, Karol van der, and Richardson, Penelope. "Education
through the Eyes of an Indigenous Urban Elite. " New
Guinea Research Bulletin No. 12. Australian National
University, 1966.

 

Whiteman, J. "Change and Tradition in an Abelam Village."
Oceania, XXXVI, No. 2 (December 1965), 102 -120.

Williams, F. E. "Seclusion of Age Grouping in the Gulf of Papua. "
Oceania, IX, No. 4 (June 1939), 359-381.

The Blending of Cllltures: An Essay on the Aims of
Native Education. Port Moresby: Government Printer,
1951.

 

"Trading Voyages from the Gulf of Papua. " Oceania,
III, No. 2 (December 1932), 139-166.

C. Other Unpublished Material

 

Gibson, G. W. "General Studies." Paper presented at the Goroka
Teachers College, Papua and New Guinea, 1967.

Penny, H. H. "A General Studies Programme for Student Teachers."
Paper presented at the Goroka Teachers College, Papua
and New Guinea, 1967.

"An Analytical Consideration of the Major Problems of
Teaching." Paper presented at the Goroka Teachers
College, Papua and New Guinea, January, 1968.

 

”'7
__ I

k.“

{HB- 31 ad an“ a "‘Y'.

(.

 

173

"The Preparation of Teachers for Territory Schools--
A Very Tough Job." Paper presented at the Goroka
Teachers College, Papua and New Guinea, 1968.

Ryan, Dawn. "Social Change Among the Toaripipi, Papua. " Unpub-
lished M.A. dissertation, University of Sydney, 1965.

University of Papua and New Guinea. "Educational Deficiencies of
Tertiary Level Students." Undated bulletin, Port Moresby.

II. Other Than New Guinea

 

A. Books

 

Beeby, C. E. The Quality of Education in Developing Countries.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1966.

 

Berman, Louise M. New Priorities in the Curriculum. Columbus,
Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1968.

 

Biesheuvel, Simon. The Development of African Abilities. Salisbury,
Rhodesia: University College of Rhodesia Press, 1967.

 

Brown, Ina C. UnderstandingOther Cultures. New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall, 1963.

 

Bruner, J. S. , et al. Studies in Cognitive Growth. New York: John
Wiley & Son, 1966.

 

Cantor, Nathaniel. The Teaching-Learnig Process. New York:
Dryden Press, 1953.

 

Castle, E. B. GrowLn_g' Up in East Africa. London: Oxford Univer-
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Combs, Arthur W. , ed. Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming:_A New
Focus for Education. Washington, D. C. : Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, Yearbook, 1962

 

Combs, Arthur W. The Professional Education 0.1; Teachers: A
Perceptual View of Teacher Education. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon, 1965.

 

 

 

 

174

, and Syngg, Donald. Individual Behavior. New York:
Harper and Row, 1959.

 

Conant, James B. The Education bf American Teachers. New York:
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Coombs, Philip H. The World Educational Crisis. London: Oxford
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Corman, Bernard R. , and Olrnstead, Ann G. The Internship in the
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Michigan State University, 1964.

 

 

 

Corrigan, Dean, ed. The Study of Teachgg‘ . Washington, D.C.: 1'
The Association for Student Teaching, 1967.

Curle, Adam. Educational StrategLfor Developing Societies.
London: Tavistock Publications, 1963.

Dewey, John. Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books,
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Doll, Ronald C. Curriculum Improvement: Decision -Making and
Process. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1970.

 

 

Flanders, Ned A. Helping Teachers Change Their Behavior. Ann
Arbor: University offlichigan, 1965.

 

Goodlad, John I. School Curricula Reform in the United States.
Fund for the Advancement oTEducation, 196T.

 

 

Hall, Edward T. The Silent Language. Connecticut: Premier Book,
1959.

 

Hanson, John W. Imagination and Hallucination in African Education.
East Lansing: Michigan StateTniversity, 1966.

 

 

, and Brembeck, Cole S. Education and the Development
of Nations. New York: Holt, anehart and Winston, 1966.

 

 

Huebner, Dwayne, ed. A Reassessment of the Curriculum. New
York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1964.

 

Jersild, A. T. When Teachers Face Themselves. New York:
Teachers' College, Columbia University Press, 1955.

 

175

Kelley, Earl C. The Workshop Way of Learning. New York:
Harper and Brothers, 1951.

 

La Grone, Herbert F. A Proposal for the Revision of the Pre-
Service Component of a ngram of Teacher Education.
Washington, DT C. American Association of Colleges for
Teacher Education, 1964.

 

 

Mair, Lucy. New Nations. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1963.

 

Mead, Margaret. Culture and Commitment: A Study of the Genera-

 

tion Gap. New York: Natural History Press, 1970.

Milton, Alan. T_e_achers Outside the Walls. London: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1964.

 

New Directions in Teacher Education. Proceedings of Second Kenya
Conference, 1968. Nairobi, Kenya: East African Publish-
ing House, 1969.

 

Ohm, R. E. , and Monahan, W. G. , eds. Educational Administra-
tion--Philosophy in Action. Oklahoma: University of
Oklahoma, 1965.

 

 

Parker, J. Cecil, and Rubin, Louis J. Process as Content: Cur-
riculum Desifl and the Application of Knowledge. Chicago:
Rand McNally and Company, 1966.

 

 

 

Peck, Robert F. , and Brown, Oliver H. R & D Center for Teacher
Education Report Series No. 1. Austin, Texas: University

of Texas at Austin, undated.

 

Read, Margaret. Education and Social Chagge in Tropical Areas.
London: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1955.

 

 

Richardson, J. A., and Bowen, James, eds. The Preparation of

 

Teachers inAustralia. Melbourne: F. W. Cheshire, 1967.

 

Rubin, Louis J. , ed. Life Skills in School and Socie (9.11 Washing-
ton, D. C. Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, Yearbook, 1969.

 

Sarason, Seymour B. ; Davidson, Kenneth S. ; and Blatt, Burton.
The Preparation of Teachers: An Unstudied Problem in
Education. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1962.

 

 

 

 

 

176

Sharp, George. Curriculum Development as Re -education of the
Teacher. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers
College, Columbia University, 1951.

 

Sheffield, James R. , ed. Education, Employment and Rural Devel-
opment. The Proceedings of a Conference held at Kericho,
Kenya, September, 1966. Nairobi, Kenya: East African
Publishing House, 1967.

 

Stratemeyer, Florence B. ; Forkner, Hamden L. ; Mc Kim,
Margaret G. ; and Passow, A. Harry. Developing a Cur-
riculungofr Modern Livipg. New York: Bureau of Publi-
cations, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1957.

 

 

Stratemeyer, Florence B., and Lindsey, Margaret. Work with
Student Teachers. New York: Teachers College, Columbia
University Press, 1958.

 

 

Tarcher, Martin. Leadership and the Power of Ideas. New York:
Harper 8: Row, 1966.

 

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Fundamental Education. New York: Macmillan and Co. ,
1947.

 

B. Articles and Documents,
IncludingUnesco Documents

 

 

Abiola, E. T. "Nigerian Children' s Pictorial Representation of
Objects in Their Environment." Teacher Education, VII,
No. 3 (February 1967), 196-201.

 

"The Nature of Intellectual Development in Nigerian
Children. " Teacher Education, VI (May 1965), 37 -58.

 

Adam, Roy. "Study Methods in Developing Countries." Teacher
Education, VIII, No. 1 (May 1967), 14-19.

 

Anderson, John. "Primary School Leavers in Progressive Rural
Areas in Kenya." Teacher Education, VIII, No. 3
(February 1968), 201-214.

 

177

Bacchus, M. K. "Towards a Policy in Teacher Education." Teacher
Education in Developing Countries, X (November 1969), 139-
149.

 

Beard, Ruth M. "An Investigation into Mathematical Concepts among
Ghanaian Children." Teacher Education in New Countries,
IX, No. 1 (November 1968), 132-145.

 

Beeby, C. E. "Curriculum Planning." Report of the Fourth
Commonwealth Education Conference, 1968. London: Her
Majesty' s Stationery Office, 1968.

 

 

Berenda, Carleton W. "What Is Man?" Edu_cational Administration
--Philosophy in Action. Edited by R. E. Ohm and W. 3G.
Monahan. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma, 1965.

 

 

Bettelheim, Bruno. "Autonomy and Inner Freedom: Skills of Emo-
tional Management. " Life Skills in School and Society.
Edited by Louis J. Rubin. Washington, D. C.: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development Yearbook,
1969.

 

Danziger, K. "Social Change and Child Training in Underdeveloped
Areas. " Problems of Transition. Edited by J. F. Holleman.
Pietermaritzburg: Natal University Press, 1964.

 

Denemark, George W. "Teacher Education: Repair, Reform, or
Revolution." Educational Leadership, XXVII (March 1970),
539-543.

 

Dewey, John. "The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education. "
The Third Yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific
Study of Education. Edited by Charles A. Mc Murry.
Bloomington, Ind. : Public School Publishing House, 1904.

 

Greenfield, P. M. "On Culture and Conservation." Studies in Cog-
nitive Grpwth. Edited by J. S. Bruner, et al. New York: John
Wiley & Son, 1966.

 

 

Griffiths, V. L. "The Education of the Young in Rural Areas. "
Education, Employment and Rural Development. Edited by
J. R. Sheffield. Nairobi, Kenya: East African Publishing
House, 1967.

 

 

 

178

Haberman, Martin. "The Study of Teaching Related to Other Dimen-
sions of Teacher Education: A Proposal. " The Study of
Teaching. Edited by Dean Corrigan. Washington, D. C. :
The Association for Student Teaching, 1967.

 

Hanson, John W. "On General Education for the African Teacher. "
Teacher Education, 111, No. 3 (February 1963), 181-188.

 

. "Planning for Innovation in Teacher Education. " Africa
Education, III, No. 2 (1966), 5-18.

 

Harbison, Frederick H. "Teacher Education for Economic Change."
The Eighth Conference of the Afro -Anglo -American
Program, 1969. Teacher Education in New Countries, .X, No. 2
(November 1969), 96-108.

 

Kajubi, W. Senteza. "Cultural Values and Teacher Education in
Africa. " Report of the Sixth Annual Conference of the
A.A.A. Programme. Editedby P. C. C. Evans. Oxford:
A.A.A. Programme, 1968.

 

Kelley, Earl C. "The Fully Functioning Self. " Perceiving, Behav-
i_r_l_g, Becoming: A New Focus for Education. Edited by
A. W. Combs. Washington, D.C.: Association for Super-
vision and Curriculum Development, Yearbook, 1962.

 

 

Lewis, L. J. "The Nature and Content of Curriculum in Teachers
Colleges." New Directions in Teacher Education. Pro-
ceedings of Second Kenya Conference, 1968. Nairobi,
Kenya: East African Publishing House, 1969.

"The Learning Process and the Teaching of Science and '
Mathematics in Developing Countries." Teacher Education
in New Countries, IX, No. 2 (November 1968), 118-132.

 

 

McGeogh, Dorothy, and Lindsey, Margaret. "Supervisory Confer-
ences and the Analysis of Teaching. " The Study of Teach-
ipg. Edited by Dean Corrigan. Washington, D. C. : The
Association for Student Teaching, 1967.

 

Miel, Alice. "Elements and Structure: A Design for Continuous
Progress. " A Curriculum for Children. Edited by
Alexander Frazier. Washington, 1D. C. : Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1969.

 

 

179

"Reassessment of the Curriculum--Why?" A Reassess-
ment of the Curriculum. Edited by Dwayne Huebner. New
York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1964.

 

 

Ministry of National Education Dar es Salaam. Programme for Grade
"A" Teacher Education. Tanzania: Litho Printpak, 1969.

 

 

Nyerere, Julius K. "Education for Self Reliance. " Speech by the
President of the United Republic of Tanzania, 1967.
(Duplicated copy.)

Poole, Howard. "Restructuring the Perceptual World of African
Children." Teacher Education in New Countries, X, No. 2
(November 1969), 165 -172.

 

Porter, Arthur T. "Teacher Education for Social Change. " The
Eighth Conference of the Afro -Anglo -American Program,
1969. Teacher Education in New Countries, X (November
1969), 109-118:

 

Report of the Fourth Commonwealth Education Conference 1968.
Compiled by Ministry of Overseas Development. London:
Her Majesty' s Stationery Office, 1968.

 

Report oftthe Sixth Annual Conference of the Afro -A_nglo -American
Programme. Edited by P. C. C. Evans. Oxford: A.A.A.
Programme, 1968.

 

"Report of the Seventh Annual A.A. A. Conference, April 1968: An
Institute of Education and the Improvement of Primary Edu-
cation." Teacher Education in New Countries, IX, No. 3

(February 1969), 203 -225.

"Report of the Eighth Conference of the Afro -Anglo -American Pro-
gram, 1969. " Teacher Education in New Countries, X, No. 2
(November 1969), 91-138.

 

Resnick, Idrian N. "Prescriptions for Socialist Rural Education in
Tanzania." Rural Africana, IX (Fall 1969), 13-22.

 

Scarfe, N. V. "Some Principles of Teacher Training." Journal of
Education: University of HonLKopg, No. 19 (1961), pp. 1-
10.

 

 

 

180

Seeley, John R. "Some Skills of Being for Those in Service in
Education. " Life Skills in School and Society; Edited by
Louis J. Rubin. Washington, D. C. : Association for Super-
vision and Curriculum Development, Yearbook 1969.

 

Shears, L. W. "The Curriculum of a Teachers College. " The
Preparation of Teachers in Australia. Edited by J. A.
Richardson and James Bowen. Melbourne: F. W. Chesire,
1967.

 

Stratemeyer, Florence. "Implications for Teacher Education." A
Reassessment of the Curriculum. Edited by Dwayne _
Huebner. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers
College, Columbia University, 1964.

 

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Final Report: Expert Committee on Teacher Education.
ED/CSf16676, Paris, 1968.

 

Final Report: Meetipgfiof Principals, Chief Technical
Advisers and Language Teachers of Teacher-Traini
CollAEges in A1316; Receiving Assistance from UNESCO.
ED/CS/32/1, Paris, 1967.

Wong, Ruth. "Teacher Education and its Problems in some
Developing Countries of South -East Asia. " Teacher Edu-
cation in New Countries, IX (November 1968)? 99-117.

 

World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession
(WCTOP). "Handbook for Raising Teacher Status in Africa. "
Naimey, 1964.

C. Other Unpublished Material

 

East Lansing High School. "Handbook for Student Teacher Aides,
1969 —70. " (Roneod copy.)