HOME GARDENS FOR IMPROVED FOOD SECURITY AND ENHANCED LIVELIHOODS IN NORTHERN SRI LANKA By Dilrukshi Hashini Galhena A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Crop and Soil Sciences 2012 ABSTRACT HOME GARDENS FOR IMPROVED FOOD SECURITY AND IMPROVED LIVELIHOODS IN NORTHERN SRI LANKA By Dilrukshi Hashini Galhena Food security remains a high priority for the government of Sri Lanka. As a part of the post-conflict rebuilding of Sri Lanka, the government is promoting establishment of home gardens for reducing hunger and malnutrition and improving livelihoods. Since the civil war ended in 2009, the government and non-governmental organizations have established more than 500 home gardens in the Northern region of Sri Lanka. This research was conducted in the Jaffna District of Sri Lanka which was severely affected by the conflict. The objective of this research was to investigate the role of home gardens in enhancing food security. This research study took a three prong approach. First, the past experiences of home gardens in developing countries were analyzed through a rigorous literature review. Second, the current role of home gardens as a supplemental source of food was analyzed using research data obtained through the survey of 167 home gardens. Finally, the findings of the research were used to develop innovative strategies to enhance home gardens. The global literature supports the positive contributions of home gardens towards enhancing food security in various contexts while pinpointing key constraints. The literature review supports the inclusion and promotion of home gardens as an eco-friendly sustainable agricultural practice to improve food security. The results of the survey of home gardens in Jaffna District indicated that as many as 29 useful plant species were found in home gardens. The home gardens were found to be diverse and were providing supplemental sources of fresh and nutritionally rich food products. The most important constraints identified were weeds, soil fertility, pests, shortage of capital and labor, and timely access to information and advisory services. The home gardeners strongly stated the need for training in specific areas such as bee keeping, composting, maintaining nurseries of planting materials, pest and soil management. Based on the needs and constraints identified by the home gardeners, four programs are proposed a collaborative activity between Michigan State University and University of Jaffna (UoJ). First, a model home garden will be established at the UoJ campus to serve as a research, education and outreach site. Second, a Master Home Gardener Program will be developed involving progressive gardeners to serve as trainers for other home gardeners. Third, a userfriendly manual on best practices in home gardening will be developed to enhance educational programs. Lastly, an innovative program will be launched using mobile phones to empower local home gardeners with up-to-date information on home gardening. Overall, the results of this research study indicate that home gardens are contributing to food security, income generation and livelihoods in the Northern region of Sri Lanka. When total value of produce per home garden was extrapolated to a million home gardens as per the long-term goals of the Sri Lankan government, the economic value was estimated to be nearly US $300 million. Based on these results, it is recommended that the home gardens program should be scaled-up and further expanded in other parts of Sri Lanka. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to specially acknowledge my major advisor Dr. Russel Freed and my graduate committee members, Dr. Karim Maredia, Dr. Linda Racioppi and Dr. Joseph Guenthner. I was very fortunate to have them in my committee and learn from them both intellectually and professionally. Their unique strengths and diverse experiences helped to bring about a multidisciplinary perspective to my research project. I thank them immensely for their invaluable guidance and continuous encouragement and motivation throughout my academic years at Michigan State University. I am extremely grateful to Michigan State University, most importantly the Department of Plant, Soil, and Microbial Science for advancing my research, education, and outreach experiences as well as my personal development. A special thank goes to Dr. Kirk and Mrs. Marjorie Lawton and my department for the granting me a scholarship that allowed me to conduct my field work in Sri Lanka. This research focuses on my country, Sri Lanka that has endured much pain during the long civil conflict. I am deeply touched and obliged by the constant support and interest shown by faculty and staff at MSU towards the development my country. My fieldwork in Sri Lanka would not have been possible without the assistance and support of many wonderful people. I am grateful to Vice Chancellor Dr. Vasanthi Arasaratnam and Dr. Mikunthan, Dean of Agriculture Faculty at University of Jaffna for accommodating my request to collaborate with the University of Jaffna. The leadership they provided in establishing a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between University of Jaffna and Michigan State University was instrumental in facilitating my research work in Jaffna. I would like to specially iv thank Dr. Gunasingham Mikunthan, for your accompanying to various study sites, and for investing his time and effort to help me throughout the duration my fieldwork. This research could not have been possible if not for the people in Sri Lankan, particularly in the Jaffna District. Their patience and wiliness to participate in this research is sincerely remembered with much gratitude. I really appreciate their honesty and enthusiasm to share their personal stories with me. The interactions I had with people from various walk of life was indeed a very rewarding and invaluable experience. I would also like to thank Dr. George Bird, Dr. Dan Brainerd, Dr. Mathew Nagagyo, Dr. Karen Renner, Dr. Sudha Mysore, Dr. Nanda Joshi, Ms. Dilshani Sarathchandra, and Ms. Danielle Neilsen for taking time off your busy schedules to share your ideas, to review, and to help me with the data analysis. Lastly, I extend my heartfelt gratitude to all my family. I am in debt to my parents for all the sacrifices they made to help me excel and prosper. Thank you to my husband Amila and my brother consistently supported me through challenges of graduate school and finally, my brother Dilendra for sharing his passion for education. v TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................... xi 1. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 6 2. HYPOTHESIS........................................................................................................................... 8 3. REVIEW OF HOME GARDENS IN SRI LANKA AND OTHER DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. 9 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 10 DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF HOME GARDENS .................................... 11 Definition of Home Gardens ........................................................................................... 12 Characteristics of a Home Garden ................................................................................... 13 EXPERIENCES OF HOME GARDENS FROM THE DEVELOPING WORLD ................ 17 Social Benefits ................................................................................................................. 18 Economic Benefits ........................................................................................................... 26 Environmental Benefits ................................................................................................... 27 Benefits of Home Gardens in Post-Conflict and Post-Disaster Situations ...................... 29 HOME GARDENS IN SRI LANKA ..................................................................................... 29 Agriculture in Sri Lanka .................................................................................................. 29 Home Gardens in Sri Lanka in Sri Lanka........................................................................ 30 CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES ........................................................................... 33 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................... 34 APPENDIX: About Sri Lanka and Importance of Agriculture and Food Security ................ 37 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 40 4. ROLE OF HOME GARDENS FOR FOOD SECURITY, INCOME GENERATION, AND LIVILIHOODS IN NORTHERN SRI LANKA ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ 53 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................... 55 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................. 57 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................. 58 Household Demographics................................................................................................ 58 Characteristics of Home Gardens .................................................................................... 59 Crop Diversity ................................................................................................................. 60 Integration of Livestock, Poultry, Bee-keeping and Fisheries ........................................ 65 Constraints identified by Home Gardeners ..................................................................... 65 vi Use of Agricultural Inputs ............................................................................................... 67 Information, Education, and Training ............................................................................. 69 Production and Market Value of Vegetables, Fruits, and Plantations Crops .................. 71 Quality of Life Impact Indicators .................................................................................... 73 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................... 73 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................ 75 APPENDIX A: Nutritional Composition of the Vegetables and Fruits in Home Gardens in the Jaffna District of Sri Lanka ..................................................................................... 76 APPENDIX B: Survey Instrument ................................................................................... 81 APPENDIX C: Insect Pests, Weeds, and Diseases in Home Gardens ............................. 94 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 96 5. INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO ENHANCE HOME GARDENS FOR IMPROVED FOOD SECURITY, NUTRITION, AND LIVELIHOODS IN SRI LANKA ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... 100 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................. 102 ROLE OF UNIVERSITY OF JAFFNA AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTHERN AREAS OF SRI LANKA .............................................................................. 102 PROPOSED COLLABORATIVE PROGRAMS BETWEEN MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY AND UNIVERSITY OF JAFFNA FOR ENHANCING HOME GARDENS IN THE NORTHERN AREAS OF SRI LANKA ................................................................ 105 Model Home Garden ..................................................................................................... 105 Master Home Gardener Program (MHGP) ................................................................... 108 Home Garden Manual ................................................................................................... 109 Cell Phone enabled Advisory Services .......................................................................... 111 WAY FORWARD ................................................................................................................ 113 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 114 6. SYNTHESIS LESSONS FROM THE PAST ............................................................................................. 118 HOME GARDENS AND FOOD SECURITY IN SRI LANKA ......................................... 119 ENHANCING AND SCALING-UP HOME GARDENS IN SRI LANKA ........................ 120 POTENTIAL AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH......................................................... 122 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 123 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: The Key Characteristics of a Typical Home Gardens .................................................... 16 Table 2: Selected Publications Presenting Constraints to Home Gardening ............................... 33 Table 3: Household Demographic Characteristics of Home Gardens Surveyed in the Jaffna District of Sri Lanka...................................................................................................................... 59 Table 4: Characteristics of Home Gardens Surveyed in the Jaffna District of Sri Lanka............ 60 Table 5: Vegetable Crops in Home Gardens, their Distribution, Market Value, and Nutritional Composition .................................................................................................................................. 61 Table 6: Fruit Crops in Home Gardens, their Distribution, Market Value, and Nutritional Composition .................................................................................................................................. 63 Table 7: Medicinal and Herbal plants in Home Gardens, their Distribution, Health, and other Benefits ......................................................................................................................................... 64 Table 8: Most important constraints in Home Gardens in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka .............. 67 Table 9: Information, Education and Training Needs of Home Gardeners in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka............................................................................................................................................. 70 Table 10: Sources of Information and Training for Home Gardeners ......................................... 70 Table 11: Total Production of Vegetables, Fruits, and Coconuts and Post-harvest losses in ...... 71 Table 12: Total Consumption, Sales, and Market Value of Vegetables, Fruits, and Plantation Crops in Home Gardens in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka ............................................................... 72 Table 13: Quality of Life Impact Indicators of Home Gardens in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka .. 73 Table 14: Nutritional Value of the Vegetables Found in Home Gardens .................................... 76 Table 15: Nutritional Value of the Fruits Found in Home Gardens ............................................ 79 viii Table 16: Insects and Mites Commonly Found in Home Gardens in Northern Sri Lanka and the Severity of Incidence ........................................................................................................ 94 Table 17: Weeds Commonly Found in Home Gardens in Northern Sri Lanka and the Severity of Incidence ....................................................................................................................................... 95 Table 18: Diseases Commonly Found in Home Gardens in Northern Sri Lanka and the Severity of Incidence ................................................................................................................................... 95 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Map of Sri Lanka and Country Profile .......................................................................... 2 Figure 2: Characteristics of a Home Garden ................................................................................ 14 Figure 3: Key Benefits of Home Gardens .................................................................................... 18 Figure 4: Key Constraints to Home Gardening ........................................................................... 32 Figure 6: Engagement of Home gardeners in Livestock, Poultry, and Beekeeping in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka...................................................................................................................... 66 Figure 7: Planting Inputs used for Home Gardens in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka ...................... 68 Figure 8: Fertilizer Inputs used for Home Gardens in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka .................... 68 Figure 9: Sources of Capital/Credit for Home Gardeners in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka ........... 69 Figure 10: SWOT Analysis of Home Gardens in Sri Lanka...................................................... 104 Figure 11: Schematic Diagram of Home Garden to be established in Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jaffna at Killinochchi, Sri Lanka .......................................................................... 107 Figure 12: Sources of Information and Training for Home Gardeners ...................................... 108 Figure 13: Handbook of Home Gardening in Sri Lanka ............................................................ 110 x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS DFE Dietary Folate Equivalent FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FBG Family Business Gardens GDP Gross Domestic Product GFS Gardener Field Schools ICT Information and Communication Technology IHITC International Horticulture Innovation and Training Center IRB Internal Review Board KFG Kandyan Forest Gardens L/N-SA Low/No-Space Agriculture LKR Sri Lankan Rupee MHGP Master Home Gardener Program MMS Multimedia Message Services MSU Michigan State University NGO Non-governmental Organization NSF National Science Foundation RAE Retinol Activity Equivalent SFS Student Field School SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats ToT Training of Trainers UoJ University of Jaffna USDA United Stated Department of Agriculture xi 1. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES Food security is a global a complex issue (Godfray, et al., 2010) and remains a major 1 challenge for developing countries there (von Grebmer, et al., 2012) Food security is multidimentional and is presumed exists when is adequate and continuous food availability, access, and utilization in a sustainable manner. Agriculture is an important determinant of food security and the various dimensions of food security. However, despite of modern technological innovations in agriculture, the productivity in key food security crops have been in some cases reaching a threshold and in other cases declining around world due to a number of political, social, and environmental factors. As a result, millions of people remain food insecure, undernourished, and impoverished with diminished livelihoods. This calls for a prompt and utilitarian response to address food security and family nutrition as well as reducing poverty and improving standards of living of the poor and marginalized people around the world. The challenges of food security are especially daunting in conflict and post-conflict situations. In recent years, governments and other development organizations in both developed and developing countries are emphasizing the importance of building local food production systems as an integrated strategy and a safety net for food security as well as poverty alleviation. Home 2 gardens are an integral part of the local food production systems and are of vital importance for 1 Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (World Food Summit, 1996). 2 Home gardens have been defined “a small scale supplementary food production system by and for household members that mimics the natural multi-layered eco-system” (Hoogerbrugge and Fresco, 1993). Home gardens “can be found in almost all triopical and subtropical ecozones where subsistance land-use systems predominate” (Nair, 1993). 1 the socio-economic development of subsistent and resource poor communities (Michon, Bompard, Hecketseiler, and Ducatillion 1983; Soemarwoto, 1987; Mitchell and Hanstad, 2004; Olajide-Taiwo, et al., 2010). Widespread throughout the globe, home gardening is a long standing agricultural practice in countries in Asia, Latin America and Africa is widely promoted to augment and supplement household food needs particularly for resource-poor communities in developing countries. Figure 1: Map of Sri Lanka and Country Profile Geographic location: South Asia Commercial Capital: Colombo Provinces: 9 Districts: 25 Population: Over 21 million Population growth rate: 0.73 percent Ethnic composition: Sinhala Tamil Muslim Other Literacy rate: 93 percent Sectorial contribution to GDP: Agriculture Manufacture Service 74.9 percent 15.4 percent 9.2 percent 0.5 percent 11.9 percent 28.7 percent 59.3 percent Per capita US$ 2,877 (Nominal Value) income: Source: Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka, 2012 For interpretation of the references to color in this and all other figures, the reader is referred to the electronic version of this dissertation. Sri Lanka, a small island nation (Figure 1) with a population of 20 million people, is primarily an agrarian economy with a large portion of the population engaged in the agricultural 2 and allied sectors. The civil conflict that prevailed in the country for nearly three decades caused tremendous devastation to human lives, the social structure, the economy, environment and also the local food production systems. More than a hundred thousand lives were lost over the years and thousands of families have lost their male heads of the household leaving the women and in some cases the children to support the family welfare. In addition, thousands of families have been displaced in the Northern and the Eastern regions which were severely affected by the war and still been resettled. Since the war ended in 2009, Sri Lanka has been making gradual progress towards social and economic recovery. Addressing food insecurity and poverty are key components of the rebuilding process in Sri Lanka. However, alleviating food insecurity in the country is a complex task and will require great efforts especially since a considerable fraction of the population are still overcoming the negative socio-economic implications of the war. As a part of the overall strategy for the post-conflict rebuilding of the northern areas of Sri Lanka, the government is taking positive steps to reduce hunger and mal-nutrition, and improve livelihood activities of the war affected people. With this ambition, the government has launched a national home gardens initiative and has given attention to the households in the war affected areas. For example, the regional program sponsored by the government in the Jaffna district has supported the establishment of more than 500 new home gardens in resettled areas. Effective development of home gardens can significantly contribute to food production in an environmentally friendly manner and make available a variety of fresh and nutritious food products: vegetables, fruits, spices, milk and other livestock products etc. Consumption of fresh food products can add to the family nutrition and health, especially in young children and mothers leading to a better quality of life as well as a more consistent and productive livelihood 3 engagement. In addition, it also provides a number of sustainable benefits that can help elevate the family’s standard of living as well as provide a host of other benefits to the environment and the community. Focusing on the contribution of home gardens towards improved food security and livelihoods of poverty stricken and war affected families, this research was conducted in collaboration with the University of Jaffna with three main objectives: I. Through a rigorous literature review and past experiences, document the role and impacts of home gardens on the various components of sustainable development: social, economic, and environmental dimensions. With emphasis on household food security the past experiences are used to substantiate the hypothesis that - home gardens can make a viable contribution to food availability, access, and utilization and also provide other benefits to the household. II. Evaluate the current status of home gardens in the Jaffna District in Northern Sri Lanka through a survey instrument and personal interactions with stakeholders. The survey results will be used to support the hypothesis that - home gardens in the Northern region of Sri Lanka are enhancing household food supplies as well as providing nutritional, economic and social incentives for the households, while providing ecological services. III. Propose innovative approaches and potential interventions to enhance research, education, and outreach programs to help improve and scale-up home gardens in the Northern region and other parts of Sri Lanka for increased food and nutrition security and economic growth. 4 Based on the above three objectives, this dissertation is written as three manuscripts. These include: I. II. III. Review of Home Gardens in Sri Lanka and other Developing Countries Role of Home Gardens for Food Security, Nutrition, and Income in Northern Sri Lanka Innovative Approaches to Enhance Home Gardens for Improved Food Security, Nutrition and Livelihoods in Sri Lanka 5 REFERENCES 6 REFERENCES Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka. (2012). Census of Population and Housing 2011. Preliminary Report (Provisional) - 1, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Hoogerbrugge, I., and Fresco, L. O. (1993). Homegarden systems: agricultural characteristics and challenges. London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). Michon, G., Bompard, J., Hecketseiler, P., and Ducatillion, C. (1983). Tropical forest architectural analysis as applied to agroforests in the humid tropics: the example of traditional village agroforests in West Java. Agroforestry Systems, 1, 117-129. Mitchell, R., and Hanstad, T. (2004 ). Small homegarden plots and sustainable livelihoods for the poor. Rome, Italy: Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations. Nair, P. K. (1993). An Introduction to Agroforestry. Dordrecht, Netherlands. Olajide-Taiwo, F. B., Adeoye, B., I., Adebisi-Adelani, O., Odeleye, O. M., Fabiyi, A. O., et al. (2010). Assessment of the Benefits and Constraints of Home Gardening in the Neighborhood of the National Horticultural Research Institute, Ibadan, Oyo State. American-Eurasian Journal Agriculture and Environment Science, 7(4), 478-483. Soemarwoto, O. (1987). Homegardens: A traditional agroforestry system with a promising future. In H. A. Steppler, and P. K. Nair (Eds.), Agroforestry: A Decade of Development (pp. 157- 170). Nairobi, Kenya: ICRAF. von Grebmer, K., Ringler, C., Rosegrant, M. W., Olofinbiyi, T., Wiesmann, D., Fritschel, H., et al. (2012). The Global Hunger Index. Bonn - Germany, Washington DC - USA, Dublin Ireland: International Food Policy Research Institute, Concern Worldwide and Welthungerhilfe and Green Scenary. 7 2. HYPOTHESIS This study if based on the overall hypothesis that home gardens provide a versatile option to improve food, nutritional, and income security, livelihoods, and a better quality of life of households affected by civil conflict in Northern Sri Lanka. I. Manuscript # 1 Specific Hypothesis: i. ii. Home gardens help improve the economic status of households. iii. II. Home gardens improve food availability and nutrition of households. Home gardens result in ecological benefits to households. Manuscript # 2 Specific Hypothesis: i. Home gardens are contributing to household food supplies in the post-conflict Jaffna District of Sri Lanka while maintaining ecological diversity. ii. Home gardens are providing an array of fresh and nutritious food to the households in the post-conflict Jaffna District of Sri Lanka. iii. Home gardens are generating a source income in the post-conflict Jaffna District of Sri Lanka. iv. Home gardens are leading to a better quality of life of households affected by civil conflict in Northern Sri Lanka. III. Manuscript # 3 Specific Working Hypothesis: i. Research, education, and outreach programs can help enhance productivity and benefits from home gardens. 8 3. REVIEW OF HOME GARDENS IN SRI LANKA AND OTHER DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ABSTRACT Home gardens are an integral part of local food systems and agricultural landscapes of developing countries all over the world. Through a rigorous literature review of more than 100 research papers, reports, and book chapters, this paper provides a global overview of social, economic, and environmental contributions of home gardens. Home gardening has been practiced in Sri Lanka for centuries but only a few publications present information on the topic. A majority of the bibliographic evidence discusses home garden research and experiences of countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America with a handful of studies from post-conflict countries in these regions. The global literature recognize positive contributions of home gardens towards enhancing food security and nutrition different contexts as well as providing additional benefits including income and livelihood opportunities for resource poor families in developing countries and ecosystem services. While emphasizing these multiple benefits, the literature also identifies several constraints in home garden production systems and makes recommendations for making them viable and sustainable enterprises. Overall, the literature review supports the inclusion and promotion of home gardens as an eco-friendly sustainable agricultural practice to improve food security. More empirical evidence on the value and importance of home gardens in conflict and post-conflict situations needs to be documented. Further research is needed on the economic value of home gardening and models that hold the most promise in different circumstances along with their impacts on nutrition, gender issues, and long-term sustainability. Keywords — Home gardens, Food Security, Nutritional Security, Livelihood, Post-conflict 9 INTRODUCTION The vast majority of hungry and malnourished people live in developing countries under sub-standard living conditions (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2010) and over half a billion 3 of the global population suffer from chronic food insecurity . With the global population expected to reach over 9 billion by 2050, there will be a continuous need to increase food production and buffer stocks to meet the growing demand and efficiently cope with volatilities in food production and prices. It has been projected that global food production will need to 4 increase by 70 percent in order to meet the average daily caloric requirement of the world’s population in 2050. Moreover, the need for interventions are resonated as the resources available for food production including land, water, seeds, labor and credit are becoming scarce and costly and in the face of climate change and degradation of natural resources. Multiple strategies are required to address the issue of food production and food security. The choice of feasible approaches hinges on the existing social, political and economic conditions and resources available to design and implement the intervention. Home gardens are a time-tested local strategy widely adopted and practiced in various circumstances by local communities with limited resources and institutional support. It is evident from literature that home gardens are a part of the agriculture and food production systems in many developing 3 Food insecurity and malnutrition occurs in three forms: chronic food security is the most severe category where a person is unable to consume the minimum amount of food needed for healthy life over a long period usually due to poverty or lack of productive recourses to generate income to purchase food (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2008). Other types of include transitional (short-term) which is further subdivide to temporary (limited time period due to shocks) and seasonal or cyclical (trend) food insecurity. 4 FAO (2006) reported an average consumption per person of 3130 kcal per day by the year 2050 based on their baseline projections. Alexandratos (2009) estimated a slightly lower average daily caloric availability per person of 3047 kcal per day by the year 2050. 10 countries and are widely used as a remedy to alleviate hunger and malnutrition in the face of global food crisis (Johnson-Welch, et al., 2000). Globally, home gardens have been documented as an important supplemental source contributing to food and nutritional security and livelihoods. “Food production on small garden plots adjacent to human settlements is the oldest and most enduring form of cultivation and food production systems” – (Niñez, 1984). For centuries, home gardens have been an integral component of family farming and local food systems. Home gardening is an ancient and widespread practice all over the world. In literature, home gardens are classified as mixed, kitchen, backyard, farmyard, compound or homestead garden (Terra, 1958; Ruthenberg, 1980; Brownrigg, 1985; Landauer and Brazil, 1990; Soemarwoto and Conway, 1991; Michon and Mary, 1994; Vogl, et al., 2002; Kumar and Nair, 2004; Puri and Nair, 2004; Mitchell and Hanstad, 2004). This paper presents the experiences of home gardens from Sri Lanka and other developing countries from around the world. An extensive literature search was conducted through electronic searches, as well as personal contacts with colleagues and collaborators. The information presented in this paper is based on the review of over 100 publications, reports, and book chapters covering various aspects of home gardens. DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF HOME GARDENS Home gardens are found in both rural and urban areas in predominantly small-scale subsistence agricultural systems (Nair, 1993). The very beginning of modern agriculture can be dated back to subsistence production systems that began in small garden plots around the household. These gardens have persistently endured the test of time and continued to play an 11 important role in providing food and income for the family (Marsh, 1998). In the early 1950s, G.J.A. Terra pioneered the literature on Home gardens with his publications on mixed gardens in Java, Indonesia and the analysis of farm systems in Southeast Asia. Since then there has been extensive contribution to the topic by many researchers synthesizing definitions, species inventories, functions, structural characteristics, composition, socio-economic, and cultural relevance (Kumar and Nair, 2004). Home gardens are emphasized in a number of ways based on the context as well as the objectives of the research (Hoogerbrugge and Fresco, 1993). Gupta (1989) pointed out that the background and gender of the researcher or scientist may also bias their perception on home gardens and may not entirely reflect the opinion of the family involved in home gardening activities. Definition of Home Gardens On the basis of research and observations of household gardens in developing and developed countries on five continents, Vera Ninez (1987), formulated the following definition of a home garden: “The household garden is a small-scale production system supplying plant and animal consumption and utilitarian items either not obtainable, affordable, or readily available through retail markets, field cultivation, hunting, gathering, fishing, and wage earning. Household gardens tend to be located close to dwelling for security, convenience, and special care. They occupy land marginal to field production and labor marginal to major household economic activities. Featuring ecologically adapted and complementary species, household gardens are marked by low capital input and simple technology.” Generally, home gardening is referred to the cultivation of a small portion of land which may be around the household plot or within a walking distance from home (Odebode, 2006). They can be described as a mixed cropping system that encompass vegetables, fruits, plantation crops, spices, herbs, ornamental and medicinal plants as well as livestock that can serve as supplementary source of food and income. Fresco and Westphal (1988) categorized home 12 gardens as a cropping system composed of soil, crops, weeds, pathogens and insects that converts resource inputs: solar energy, water, nutrients, labor, etc. into food, feed, fuel, fiber and pharmaceuticals. Kumar and Nair (2004), while acknowledging that there is no standard definition for “a home garden” summarized the shared perception by referring to it as “…an intimate, multi-story combinations of various trees and crops, sometimes in association with domestic animals, around homesteads” and adds that home garden cultivation is fully or partially committed for vegetables, fruits, and herbs primarily for domestic consumption. Adding to this, other scholars have described a home garden as a well-defined, multistoried and multi-use area near the family dwelling that serves as a small-scale supplementary food production system maintained by the household members and encompasses a diverse array of plant and animal species that mimics the natural eco-system (Hoogerbrugge and Fresco, 1993; Eyzaguirre and Linares, 2004; Sthapit, et al., 2004; Krishna, 2006). It encapsulates a perpetual small scaled subsistence agricultural system established by the household to obtain and supplement the food requirements of the family. Home gardens are mainly intended to grow and produce food items for family consumption, but they can be diversified to produce outputs that have multiple uses including indigenous medicine and home remedies for certain illnesses, kindling and alternative fuel source, manure, building material, and animal feed. The excess output can also be sold to generate additional income (Niñez, 1985; Torquebiau, 1992;Trinh, et al., 2003; Eyzaguirre and Linares, 2004; Sthapit, et al., 2006; Yiridoe and Anchirinah, 2005). Characteristics of a Home Garden Michelle and Hanstad (2004) list five identifying characteristics of home gardens: 1) a home garden is located near the residence; 2) a home garden contains a high diversity of plants; 13 3) home garden production is supplemental rather than a main source of family consumption and income; 4) home garden occupies a small area (Brownrigg, 1985) and 5) home gardens are a production system that the poor can easily enter at some level (Marsh, 1998). Figure 2: Characteristics of a Home Garden      A home garden is located near the residence A home garden contains a high diversity of plants Home garden production is supplemental rather than a main source of family consumption and income A home garden occupies a small area, and Home gardens are a production system that the poor can easily enter at some level Sources: Michelle and Hanstad (2004), Brownrigg (1985), and Marsh (1998) There is a vast body of literature presenting research and case studies focusing on the role of home gardens as agroforestry or food production systems or a combination of both. Home gardens are ecologically divided into two categories: tropical and temperate (Niñez, 1984). Much of the literature focuses on home gardens in the tropical areas in Central and South America; (Mendez, et al., 2001; Leiva, et al., 2001; Aguilar-Stoen, et al., 2009; Finerman and Sackett, 2008). There is also a substantial interest for home gardens in Asia (Cai, et al., 2004; Ali, 2005; Abdoellah, et al., 2006; Sunwar, et al., 2006) and Africa (Drescher, et al., 1999; Soini, 2005; Thompson, et al., 2010; Udofia, 2010). Studies on home gardens also encompass some publications from temperate areas (tho Seeth, et al., 1998; Agelet, et al., 2000; Vogl, et al., 2002; Bassullu and Tolunay, 2010; Calvet-Mir, et al., 2011; Reyes-García, et al., 2012) and from developed countries (Cleveland, et al., 1985; Faber, et al., 2002; Vogl and Vogl-Lukasser, 2003; Faber and Wenhold, 2007; Bleasdale, et al.,; Winter 2010–2011; Reynolds, 2011). 14 Hoogerbrugge and Fresco (1993) note that home gardens are established on lands that are generally not suitable for field crops or forage cultivation because of their size, topography, or location. The specific size of a home garden varies from household to household and normally, their average size is less than that of the arable land owned by the household. However, this may not hold true for those families that do not own agricultural land and for the landless. New innovations and techniques have made home gardening possible even for the families that have very little land or no land at all (Ranasinghe, 2009). The home gardens may be delimited by physical demarcations such as live fence or hedges, fences, ditches or boundaries established through mutual understanding. Application of kitchen waste, animal manure and other organic residues has been a practice amongst home gardeners and this exercise has helped to considerably increase the productivity and fertility of these gardens (Hoogerbrugge and Fresco, 1993; Galhena, et al., 2012). While some similarities exist across the board, each home garden is unique in structure, functionality, and composition (Fernandes and Nair, 1986; Nair, 1989; Soemarwoto and Conway, 1991; Torquebiau, 1992) as they depend on the available family resources, skills and preferences (Christanty, et al., 1986; Asfaw, 2002; Galhena, et al., 2012). Ninez (1987) listed general tendencies with respect to home garden food production systems based on 15 typespecific characteristics adopted from Ruthenberg (1971). These characteristics are represented in Table 1. The natural ecology of the location along with the enthusiasm and preference of the family members often controls the structure and appearance of the household gardens (Niñez 1984). Home garden cultivation tends to be quite dynamic (Eyzaguirre and Linares, 2004; Sthapit, et al., 2004). The decisions related the selection of crops, procuring inputs, harvesting, 15 management and so forth are primarily driven by the consumption and income generation needs of the household (Ali, 2005; Galhena, et al., 2012). Moreno-Black et al. (1996) further identified that personal preferences and limitations resulting from factors such as oppertunities for off-farm employment, size and composition of the family as well as local customs influence the development and composition of the gardens. Table 1: The Key Characteristics of a Typical Home Gardens Characteristic Species density Species type Production objective Labor source Labor requirements Harvest frequency Space utilization Location Cropping pattern Technology Input-cost Distribution Skills Assistance Skills Assistance Source: Ninez 1987 General Practice High Staples, vegetables, fruits, medicinal plants Home consumption Family (women, elderly, children) Part-time Daily, seasonal Horizontal and vertical Near dwelling Irregular and row Simple hand tools Low Rural and urban areas Gardening and horticultural skills None or minor Gardening and horticultural skills None or minor A study from Indonesia observed that the structure, composition, intensity of cultivation, and diversity of home gardens can be subjected to the socioeconomic status of the household (Wiersum, 2006). For instance, as the families became economically stable their cultivation shifted from staples to horticultural crops and some families began to raise livestock. Based on the economics of the household, Niñez (1984) differentiated two types of home gardens: 1. subsistence gardens and 2. budget gardens. Access to planting material and social capital has also been important attributes to species diversity (Perrault-Archambault and Coomes, 2008). Collectively, the ecological potential, economic status, and social element influence the presence 16 of food and non-food crops and animals in the garden. The home garden often uses family labor (Sthapit, et al., 2004). Women, children, and elders are of particular importance in their management (Fernandes and Nair, 1986; Jose and Shanmugaratnam, 1993; Landauer and Brazil, 1990; Torquebiau, 1992; Wojtkowski, 1993). But depending on the economic capacity and affordability, households may hire wage laborers to cultivate and maintain the home garden and directly affect the composition and intensity of home garden activities (Jacob and Alles, 1987; Maroyi, 2009; Mendez, et al., 2001). Like any other food production system, home gardens may be vulnerable to harsh environmental conditions such as drought and floods (Turner, et al., 1977; Meertens, et al., 1996). Despite the fact that home gardening activities demand a lesser amount of horticultural and agronomic know-how, negative implications and crop losses can be reduced when the household members are empowered with better skills and knowledge (Turner and Brush, 1987). EXPERIENCES OF HOME GARDENS FROM THE DEVELOPING WORLD Home gardens have been an integral part of local food systems in developing countries around the world. Many studies provide descriptive evidence and analysis of home gardens in Asia, Africa, and Latin America contributing to social, economic, and environmental benefits as presented in the following section. Home gardens provide multiple benefits. A paper by Ninez (1994) synthesizing research and case studies from four continents exemplifies a number of benefits from home gardens. Subsequent studies recognized and reconfirmed these findings. Chris Landon-Lane (2004) provides an excellent overview of the benefits of home gardens and the influence of gardening from ancient to recent times. Further, exploration of past and more recent compositions on home 17 gardens from world over, not only affirms the Landon-Lane’s insight but also recognize additional advantages. In this paper, the benefits of home gardens are broadly categorized into three components: (1) social, (2) Economic, and (3) environmental benefits. These benefits are elaborated and exemplified through global experiences on home gardens. Figure 3: Key Benefits of Home Gardens      Improved food security Increased availability of food and better nutrition through food diversity Income and enhanced rural employment through additional or off-season production Decreased risk through diversification; Environmental benefits from recycling water and waste nutrients, controlling shade, dust and erosion, and maintaining or increasing local biodiversity Source: (Landon-Lane, 2011) Social Benefits Enhancing Food and Nutritional Security. Review of studies from various countries reveals that the degree and combination socio-cultural impacts on societies engaged in home gardening vary across the board. Multiple social benefits of home gardens include enhancing food and nutritional security in many socio-economic and political situations, improving family health and human capacity, empowering women, promoting social justice and equity, and preserving indigenous knowledge and culture (Mitchell and Hanstad, 2004 ). The most fundamental social benefit of home gardens stems from its direct contributions to household food security by increasing availability, accessibility and utilization of food products. Home gardens are maintained for easy access to fresh plant and animal food sources in both rural and urban locales. Food items from home gardens add substantially to the family energy and nutritive requirements on a continuous basis. A pioneering research study on home 18 gardens was conducted by Ochse and Terra in the early 1930s. They state that home gardens led to 18 percent of the caloric and 14 percent of the protein consumption by households in Kutowinangun, Indonesia. A subsequent study notes that a household nutritional status is directly linked to the development of home gardens (Ochse, 1937). Danoesastro (1980) observed an increase in household food consumption with intensive home garden food production. The numerous publications on Javanese home gardens in the 1980s illustrating their potential to increase food production and alleviate malnutrition in the tropics heightened global attention to home gardens (Niñez, 1984; Brownrigg,1985). The products from home gardens vary from staples to horticultural crops to animal products as well as firewood, herbs, and fodder for the animals (Albuquerque, 2005; Angel-Pérez and Mendoza, 2004; Kehlenbeck and Maass, 2004; Kumar and Nair, 2004; Michon and Mary, 1994; Peyre, et al., 2006. Thaman (1990) documented that Pacific Islanders obtained their main staple foods from home gardens. Similar contributions were made from home gardens in Nepal (Krishna, 2006), Yucatan Peninsula (de la Cerda and Mukul, 2008), Indonesia (Kehlenbeck, et al., 2007), Peru (Coomes and Ban, 2004), Ghana (Bennett-Lartey, et al., 2002), and Zimbabwe (Maroyi, 2009). Resource poor families often depended more on home gardens for their food staples and secondary staples than those endowed with a fair amount of resources such as land and capital (Wiersum, 2006). Also, home gardens provide the main source of staple food for people in heavily degraded and densely populated areas with limited croplands (Soemarwoto and Conway, 1991; Abebe, et al., 2006). As stated by Marsh, home gardens provide day-to-day access to diversity of nutrient-rich fresh food that can be easily obtained and prepared to feed the family. According to Marsh, in Bangladesh households with home gardens obtained more than 50 percent of the household 19 supply of vegetables, fruits, tubers, and yams. When they integrated livestock activities, home gardens provided the main and in many times the only source of animal protein for the family. Kumar and Nair (2004) also support this premise through their study of Javanese home gardens in Indonesia and add that output from home gardens supplement the staple-based diet by adding nutrient-rich food items that contain proteins, vitamins, and minerals as well condiments and spices (Wiersum, 2006; Soemarwoto, 1987; Hoogerbrugge and Fresco, 1993; Abdoellah, et al., 2001) resulting in important dietary complements especially for growing children (AlvarezBuylla Roces, et al., 1989). In an attempt to assess the dynamics of home garden evolution in Java and Sulawesi in Indonesia, Wiersum (2006) records that home gardens make available a small but continuous flow of subsistence food products for the household. The type of food products cultivated or extracted is often influenced by various socioeconomic and environmental factors (Peyre, et al., 2006; Abdoellah, et al., 2006). Evidence from around the world suggests that home gardens can be a versatile option to address food insecurity in various challenging situations, thus they have attracted sponsorship by numerous government and non-governmental organizations. Home gardens can ensure food to very poor and resources-poor households as they can be established and maintained within a small patch of land or with no land using a few inputs. A study of home gardens in Cuba reveals that they were used as a strategy to increase resilience and ensure food security in the face of economic crisis and political isolation (Buchmann, 2009). To mitigate recurring food shortages and malnutrition, Cuban households obtained basic staple foods (rice and beans) through rations, but the households relied on their home gardens to obtain additional produce to diversify family diet (Wezel and Bender 2003). Consequently, home garden production has significantly 20 increased in the country and has been instrumental in reducing ‘hidden hunger’ and diseases caused by micronutrient deficiency. A study conducted by William Rowe (2009) in 2009 in Tajikistan found that as much as one third of the food that was sold in the market came from kitchen gardens. Tajikistan became independent from the Soviet Union in 1991. Home gardens have allowed families facing civil war, drought, and de-modernization to meet their food needs and earn additional income. The Tajikistan experience shows that home gardens play an important role in household food security and sustenance. Home gardens, while assuring a reliable and convenient source of food, fiber, and fuel for the family is a robust system in situations where population pressures and numerous resource limitations persist (Salam, et al., 1994; Holden, et al., 1996). In the Peruvian capital of Lima, home gardening has led to nutritional benefits to families living in slum areas by increasing the availability of carbohydrates as well as nutrient-rich vegetables and fruits that are not economically accessible for poor slum dwellers (Ninez 1984). Home gardens based on Enset and coffee is an integrated farming system that not only provide subsistence and complementary food products for Ethiopian families but also provide the primary means of employment for the household (Abebe, et al., 2006). The existence of these home gardens is especially important during famines. Faber et. al. (2002) conducted a study in a rural village in Kwa Zulu-Natal in South Africa and found that production of yellow and dark green leafy vegetable in home gardens significantly improved Vitamin A status of children between the ages of two to five years. This project showed that home gardens can play a significant role in improving the dietary intake of food items rich in Vitamin A. The findings of this study support the integration of home 21 gardening programs with primary health care. The national home gardening program in Bangladesh was successful in increasing the availability and consumption of vitamin A–rich food items (Talukder, et al., 2000). For poor and marginalized families who are unable to afford expensive animal products to fulfill their family’s nutritional needs, home gardens offer a cheap source of nutritious food (Bloem, et al., 1998). Improving Health. Plants are an important source of medicine for humans and livestock and are used as biological pesticides to protect crop from diseases and pest infestations. Herbs and medicinal plants are grown in home gardens all over the world. People use herbal and medicinal plant to treat various illnesses, diseases and also to improve their health conditions. A study by Agelet et. al., (2000) in Catalina, Italy reports that around 250 medicinal plant species were found in home gardens representing more than 50 percent of the medicinal plant species grown in the region. Perera and Rajapksa (1991) in their assessment of Kandyan gardens in Sri Lanka state that, out of the 125 plant species found about 30 percent were exclusively used for medicinal uses and about 12 percent for medical and other purposes. Medicinal plants were recognized as the second most important plant group next only to cash value species in Sri Lanka (Perera and Rajapakse, 1991) and in Bangladesh (Millat-e-Mustafa, et al., 2002). In Bukoba district of Tanzania, home gardens contained plant species grown entirely for medicine (Rugalema, et al., 1994). In Quitana Roo, Mexico, of the 77 useful plants found in 80 Mayan home gardens, nine species were exclusive used for medicinal purposes and 26 species had mixed uses as medicines, food, spices, and ornamentals (De Clerck and Negreros-Castillo, 2000). Almost 70 percent of 301 plant species in the Yucatan forest and home gardens had medicinal value (Rico-Gray, et al., 1991). 22 Food insecurity and economic hardships impel people to consume food that is low in essential. Adverse health effects due to inadequate intake of basic macronutrients are further compounded by deficiencies of micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals. Vitamin A deficiency is a major health issues in many developing nations (World Health Organization, 2009). It is a serious problem particularly for pregnant women and growing children in low income countries. Reports indicate more than 7 million women suffering from complications due to vitamin A insufficiency (West and Darnton-Hill, 2008) and causing deaths in 6-8 percent of the children under the age of five in Africa and Asia. Homestead food production program was launched in Bangladesh and Nepal to assist the year-round production of vegetables and fruits mainly to address vitamin A deficiency and to improve the quality of diet (Iannotti, et al., 2009; Bloem, et al., 1996). The incidence of anemia worldwide is primary attributed to iron deficiency. Iron deficiency elevates the risk of mortality during pregnancy by 20 percent (Stoltzfus, et al., 2004). Moreover, estimates suggest that nearly one-third of the global population live in countries with aggravate zinc deficiency (de Benoist, et al., 2007). Micronutrient deficiency can raise the vulnerability to infectious diseases and the risks of mortality due to illnesses such as diarrhea, pneumonia, malaria, and measles (Black, et al., 2008). It may also lead to multiple health issues as well as poor physical and cognitive development in young children. Several studies have documented that fresh vegetables and fruits produced through home gardens provide an array of nutrients including vitamins and minerals essential for better health (Faber, et al., 2002; Talukder, et al., 2006; Faber and Wenhold, 2007). Social Equity and Gender Balance. In many cultures, women play an important role in food production and are active participants in home gardening activities (Talukder et. al 2000). 23 While women’s contribution to household food production is immense, it is incorrect to conclude that home gardening is a predominantly a female activity (Hoogerbrugge and Fresco, 1993). Studies show that women’s participation in home gardening varies across cultures ranging from land preparation, planting, weeding, harvesting, and marketing (Moreno-Black, et al., 1996; Keys, 1999; Pandey, et al., 2007). Home gardens have played an important part in social change. Based on a study evaluating the food and nutritional impact of home gardens in Senegal, Brun et al. (1989) found that although the home gardens did not make a major contribution to food consumption and nutrition, they were instrumental in improving the women’s income and social status as well as their awareness of various food habits in urban areas. Amongst the Achuar Indian community in the Upper Amazon, women’s ability to maintain a lush home garden not only demonstrates her agronomic competency but also her status in society (Descola, 1994). Other studies have shown that in situations where women are leading home gardens, there has been improvement to household nutrition especially child nutrition (Kumar, 1978; Talukder et. al 2000). Moreno-Black, et al. (1996) conducted a study of 49 women’s home gardens in Northeastern Thailand. They found that these gardens were rich and diverse. The village women studied consistently indicated that they were the key decision makers and carried out most of the activities of the home gardens. Howard (2006) conducted an analysis of literature on home gardens in Latin America. This analysis of 13 case studies dealing with gardens revealed that women are the main managers of home gardens across the region. Home gardening activities are vital and fit well with their day-to-day household activities and employment patterns along with their cultural and aesthetic values. Through home gardening women have developed proficiency related to the 24 plants and environment that helps them become better home and environment managers. Home gardens provide a mechanism for women to contribute to family subsistence, status, and identity in a respectable manner and hold the greater socio-cultural and spiritual importance for women. Home gardeners in Peru indicated that women gardeners tend to produce food for family consumption while men gardeners typically focus on high value crops for marketing (Niñez, 1985). In Tajikistan, where many of the men were killed during the civil war or have migrated to Russia and other countries, the women, elders and children have been providing invaluable family labor and resources to local food and economic systems. Kitchen gardens, as they are referred by Rowe (2009) are contributing to women-headed families to fulfill their food needs and to generate additional income. Preserving Indigenous Knowledge and Building Integrated Societies. Home gardens consist of a variety of species that represent social and cultural aspects of the different societies. There is a rich indigenous knowledge base in communities around the world that is valuable and expressed in home gardens through the selection of plants and animal species as well as in farming practices used by the local community. Home gardens can serve as a repository for preserving and transferring indigenous crop and livestock production knowledge and the skills from generation to generations, (Vasey, 1985; Brierley, 1985; (Moreno-Black, et al., 1996; Kimber, 2004). Interactions in and around the home garden create and reinforce social status and ties between the household and the community. Home gardener often exchange or gift planting materials, vegetables, fruits, leaves, herbals and medicinal plants for social, cultural, and religious purposes (Blanckaert, et al., 2004; Soemarwoto, 1984). Such interactions are essential 25 for social integration and building social capital. Economic Benefits The economic and livelihood benefits of home gardens go beyond food and nutritional security and other social and cultural benefits, especially for resource poor families. Bibliographic evidence suggests that home gardens contribute to income generation, improved livelihoods, and household economic welfare as well as promoting entrepreneurship and rural development (Trinh, et al., 2003; Calvet-Mir, et al., 2012). Studies from Nepal, Cambodia, and Papua New Guinea repot that the income generated from the sale of home gardens fruits, vegetables, and livestock products allowed households to use the proceeds to purchase additional food items as well as for savings, education, and other services (Vasey, 1985; Iannotti, et al., 2009). Home gardens are widely promoted in many countries as a mechanism to avert poverty and as a source of income for subsistence families in developing countries. A number of ethnobotanical studies have focused on the evaluating the potential or real economic contribution to household and local economy as well as social development (Kehlenbeck, et al., 2007). A study from Southeastern Nigeria (Okigbo, 1990) reported that tree crops and livestock produced in home gardens accounted for more than 60 percent of household income. In many cases the sale of produce from home gardens improves the financial status of the family providing additional income. The return per unit of land was higher for home gardens compared field agriculture (Marsh 1998). In many developing countries, both crops and livestock add to the household revenue, while contributing social and cultural enrichment (Wilson, 1995). In very small gardens where land resources are limited, livestock housed in home gardens provide a cash buffer and asset to the household (Devendra and Thomas, 2002). 26 Mitchell and Hanstad (2004) describes that home gardens can contribute to household economic wellbeing in several ways. Home gardens products may be sold to earn additional income. Gardening activities can be developed into a small cottage industry. Furthermore, the direct earnings from the sale of home garden products and the savings from consuming homegrown food products can lead to more disposal income that can be used for other domestic purposes. Families in mountain areas of Vietnam were able to generate more than 22 percent of their cash income through home gardening activities (Trinh, et al., 2003). Although home gardens are viewed as subsistence low production systems, they can be structured to be more efficient commercial enterprises by growing high-value crops and integrating livestock. Environmental Benefits Home gardens provide multiple environmental and ecological benefits. They serve as the primary unit that initiates and utilizes ecologically friendly approaches for food production while conserving biodiversity and natural resources. Home gardens are usually diverse and contain a rich composition of plant and animal species. Hence they make interesting cases for ethnobotanical studies (Blanckaert, et al., 2004; Albuquerque, 2005) Gardens are complex and may be considered sustainable production systems that contribute to biodiversity conservation. Rich diversity and composition of species and varieties are among the most stricking features of home gardens (Mitchell and Hanstad, 2004). Kehlenbeck and Maass (2004) assessed 30 home garden in Sulawesi, Indonesia and idenitified 149 plant species that included vegetabels, fruits, medical plants and spices. The traditional Thai home gardens are reported to contain a wide spectram of plant species and at times uncommon varieties of different plant species. This leads to in-situ conservation of biovidersity and genetic material (Gajaseni and Gajaseni, 1999). Trinh et. al. (2003) through a three year study in four 27 districts in Vietnamese conclude that home gardens make ideal sites for in situ conservation withing ecozones due to their richness and stability. Home gardens also provide a number of ecosystem services such as habitats for wildlife and beneficial organisms, nutrient recycling, reduced soil erosion, and enhanced pollination. The high density of plants within the home garden provide ideal habitats and refugia for wildlife species such as birds, small mammels, reptiles, and insects (Christanty, 1990). Calvet-Mir et. al. (2012) highlights a number of eceosystems services provided by home gardens such as production of quality food, maintenance of land races, cultural services, pest control, and pollination. They conclude that the most important ecosystems sevices provided by home gardens differ from large scale and commercial agriculture. Nutrient cycling is another ecological benefit of home gardens (Gajaseni and Gajaseni, 1999; Kumar and Nair, 2004; Seneviratne, et al., 2010). The abundance of plant and animal litter and continuous recycling of soil organic matter contributes to a highly efficient nutrient cycling system. Another potential benefit of home gardens is the reduction of soil erosion and land conservation (Terra, 1954; Soemarwoto, 1987). Inclusion of honey bees provides added benefits of improved pollination on certain plant species and inclusion of animals such as cattle, poultry, and other livestock provide an additional source of manure reducing the need for chemical fertilizer. Livestock and poultry manure can add a significant amount of nitrogen, potassium, and prosperous into the soil. The integration of livestock activities into home gardening can have significant contribution to the nutrient cycling in ecosystem (Thorne and Tanner, 2002). For instance, a study conducted by Biajaikya and Piters (1998) in the Bukoba district in Tanzania presents that nutrient balances were negative for home gardens without cattle. 28 Benefits of Home Gardens in Post-Conflict and Post-Disaster Situations Even though there are only a few documented cases, home gardens have been proposed as an option for food and nutritional security in disaster, conflict, and post-conflict situations (Marsh, 1998; Iannotti, Cunningham, and Ruel, 2009; Gebauer, 2005, Rowe, 2009, and Galhena, et al., 2012). The Global Hunger Index specified that the lack of political stability has escalated hunger and poverty in countries affected by conflicts. Also, it can be inferred from the report that several countries transitioning towards peace or better governance has managed to reduce the prevalence and severity of hunger (von Grebmer, et al., 2011). Bandarin, Jyoti, and Albernaz (2011) point out that in a post conflict setting, assistance and reconciliation mechanisms work best and result in environmental, social and economic benefits when there is a cultural linkage between the target population and the intervention. Hence home garden projects offer a realistic solution as in most countries home gardening is a regular day to day activity amongst the household especially for women. Additionally, home gardens may serve as mechanism to address food insecurity and malnutrition problems that prevail due to conflicts and post-disaster circumstances where infrastructure is damaged or badly depleted, natural resources are sparse, and production inputs are limited, they provide a four-in-one solution to food and nutrition problem by increasing household food availability, enabling greater physical, economic and social access, providing an array of nutrients, and protecting and buffering the household against food shortages. HOME GARDENS IN SRI LANKA Agriculture in Sri Lanka The economy of Sri Lanka is founded on agriculture. More than 35 percent of the 20 29 million people of Sri Lanka are engaged both directly and indirectly in the agrarian sectors. Throughout history, strengthening and boosting the agriculture sector has been central to the administrative structure in Sri Lanka. According to old scriptures, there was a tradition among Sri Lankan rulers to construct marvel irrigation systems to support agriculture since the 12th century. During the Colonial and immediate years after independence in 1948 the country’s economy was heavily based on subsistence farming and plantations agriculture that began under the British rule. Since then the agricultural sector has vastly diversified. Rice is the key staple crop. In addition, tea, rubber, coconut, and spices are mainly produced for the export market. Although agriculture is the cornerstone of the country’s economy employing nearly 35 percent of the population, its contribution to the country’s economy is only 12 percent of the total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2011). The agricultural sector is composed of home gardens, small holder subsistence, commercial agriculture, and large scale estates. The agriculture sector also includes livestock and fisheries activities. The livestock sector in Sri Lanka is less than vibrant and mainly consists of dairy and the poultry operations. There is much scope for expansion and growth in this sector as currently only 25 percent of the total milk requirement is met through local production. The vast coastline of Sri Lanka is abundant with fisheries resources and in addition there are extensive inland fresh water sources suitable for aquaculture that is underutilized. Home Gardens in Sri Lanka in Sri Lanka Home gardening is a longstanding practice among the rural and urban households in Sri Lanka for centuries (Jacob and Alles, 1987). The publications discussing home gardens in Sri Lanka almost exclusively focus on Kandyan Gardens, also known as Kandyan Forest Gardens 30 (KFG). KFG are a common traditional agroforestry systems found in the wet central hills in Sri Lanka. They encompass a mixed cropping system which includes a diverse collection of economically valuable perennial and semi-perennial crops situated around the household (McConnell and Dharmapala, 1973) along with animal species that were raised to suit the necessities of the family, the environment, and the recommendations by scientists and extension workers (Pushpakumara, 2000). One of the earliest studies on KFG of Sri Lanka was published by McConnell and Dharmapala (1973). From a survey of 30 KFGs established through the use of a farming systems approach, they conclude that although in the short-run KFG were not as productive and profitable as the commercial farming systems but they lead to multiple benefits overtime. Jacob and Alles (1987) differentiate KFGs from other mixed forest-gardening systems found in South Asia and South-east Asia with respect to the diversity of plants grown. They also stated that these garden systems improved the well-being of people who nurtured them through the provision of various food products and timber, livelihood opportunities, and sustainability of the production system. Further, they emphasized the need to inspect existing agronomic practices and to design feasible models that can improve the productivity per unit of land. Perera and Rajapaksa (1991) characterized various components of KFGs based on ownership, structure, species composition, livestock composition, and management practices. Their baseline survey of 50 randomly selected gardens in the Kandy District showed that the various species in the KFG had numerous uses including food, cash, timber, fuel wood, construction material, green manure, fodder, medicines, shade, and beautification. KFG also have significant implications to the region in terms of in-situ germ-plasm conservation (Perera, 1988), watershed management (Perera and Rajapaksa 1991), preservation of habitat and other 31 ecological contributions (Senanayake, 1987). A book by Hochegger (1998), offers a comprehensive overview of the ecological, economic, and cultural relevance of KFG in Sri Lanka investigating six locations in the central hills. The Green Movement in Sri Lanka pioneered by (Kumarathunga, 2008) has published a guide on environmentally friendly agriculture with key emphasis on home gardens. This publication has been initially written in the Sinhala language and is in the process of been translated to the Tamil language. The guide provides step-by-step instructions to home gardeners and farmers on environmentally friendly cultivation and management practices and strategies to boost the efficiency of small agricultural production system. Figure 4: Key Constraints to Home Gardening      Lack of adequate land and water resources Limited access to high quality agricultural inputs Lack of information and timely advisory services Lack of credit Limited access to markets and market information Sources: Hoogerbrugge and Fresco (1994); Mitchell and Hanstad, 2004 Ranasinghe (2009) has developed a detailed manual drawing on the ideas of Family Business Gardens (FBG) and Low/No-Space Agriculture (L/N-SA). This manual was shaped primarily to attract urban households to develop their home crop production into a small agribusiness. In addition this publication attempted to reach a wider audience that includes professionals, non-professionals, entrepreneurs, as well as policy makers concerned with issues related to food and nutritional security in the face of limited resources such as land. The manual of L/N-SA cum FBA also highlights that through improved management, home garden cultivations can be transformed into agricultural ventures through the systematic adoption of 32 economical and eco-friendly technologies and interventions. CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES While there are multiple benefits of home gardening for developing countries, the literature also reveals the key constraints to the productivity and sustainability of home gardens and makes recommendations for improving the home gardens and making them a viable and sustainable enterprise. Table 2: Selected Publications Presenting Constraints to Home Gardening Constraint References Brownrigg, 1985; Niñez, 1985; Limited access to agricultural inputs such as seeds, Talukder, et al., 2000; Fernandes and planting material, tools, and capital Nair, 1986 Hoogerbrugge and Fresco, 1993; Fernandes and Nair, 1986; Jose and Shortage of land and lack of land tenure security Shanmugaratnam, 1993; Howard, 2006 Thaman, 1977; Niñez, 1985; tho Inadequate access to water Seeth, et al., 1998 Thaman, 1977; Brownrigg, 1985; Damage due to insect pests, diseases, animals, and Niñez, 1985; Pandey, et al., 2007 theft Howard, 2006, Marsh, 1998 Poor environmental conditions Thaman, 1977; Hoogerbrugge and Lack of knowledge, information, and advisory Fresco, 1993 services Howard, 2006; Fernandes and Nair, Shortage of family or hired labor 1986 Howard, 2006; Thaman, 1977 Poor soil fertility and soil erosion Brownrigg, 1985; Mitchell and Limited access to quality livestock breeds Hanstad, 2004 Howard, 2006 Limited marketing opportunities Okafor and Fernandes, 1987 Excessive post-harvest losses Evers, et al., 1985 Inadequate R&D on home gardens Marsh 1998; Ninez 1985; Miura, et Social and Cultural Barriers al., 2003, Talukder, et al., 2000 Lack of information on nutritional benefits of home Miura, et al., 2003; Talukder, et al., 2000 gardening 33 Hoogerbrugge and Fresco (1994) and Michelle and Hanstad (2004) provide a review of key constraints to home gardening. Among the constraints, they identified the access to suitable and sufficient land to establish a home garden and to which family has ownership or ownershiplike rights as the most important limiting factor. The other constraints include access to capital or credit, access to water, seeds and planting materials, weak extension and advisory services, access to labor, and access to markets. The cultural acceptance of home gardening is also an important constraint. The most common constraints to home gardening identified in literature are summarized in Table 2. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Overall, the literature review supports the inclusion and promotion of home gardens as an eco-friendly sustainable agricultural practice to improve food security and enhance economic growth. The structure, functions, and contributions of home gardens vary in geographic regions. The literature concludes that home gardens fulfill social, economic, cultural need, while providing a number of ecosystems services. In the wake of global food crisis and the soaring food prizes, there has been increase emphasis on enhancing and building local food systems. In this context, there is renewed attention to food production and livelihood enhancement through home gardens. However, more empirical evidence on the value and importance of home gardens in conflict and post-conflict situations needs to be researched and documented. There is also a need for research on the costbenefit analysis of home gardening to determine the economic value and describe viable models that hold the most promise in various contexts. The areas of nutrition, access to new technologies, extension/advisory services, economic and non-economic benefits, women 34 empowerment, and long-term sustainability of home gardens specifically in post-conflict situations need further research. Recognizing the value and potential of home gardens for enhancing food security and livelihoods, numerous initiates have been launched by governmental, non-governmental, and international organizations in many developing countries that are providing support and building local capacity to enhance the productivity and also for scaling up home garden activities. In this light, a number of resource materials, manuals, and guides have been developed through various home garden related projects that can be used to improve and promote home gardening programs to enhance food security (Ranasinghe, 2009; Landon-Lane, 2011; (Helen Keller International Cambodia, 2003). 35 APPENDIX 36 APPENDIX: About Sri Lanka and Importance of Agriculture and Food Security Sri Lanka is an island nation located in South Asia. Sri Lanka has a population of 21 million. The Sri Lankan population is multi ethnic and is composed of Sinhalese, Tamils, Muslims, and Burghers. The agriculture sector primarily includes the production of rice, tea, rubber, coconut, and spices and accounts for about 12 percent of the total Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Although the contribution of the agriculture sector to the country’s economy is fairly small, this sector has been employing nearly one third of the local population for over a decade. Sri Lanka has a high literacy level of 92.5 compared to other developing countries. Sri Lanka is recovering from a long civil war that disrupted the country’s social, agricultural, environmental, and economic well-being for nearly three decades. Although the undesirable consequences of the conflict were felt throughout the country, the implications were more intense for the Northern and Eastern Provinces in Sri Lanka. The thirty years of conflict displaced thousands of families and greatly impacted the livelihoods of millions of people in the post-conflict areas in the Northern and Eastern parts of Sri Lanka. After the war ended in 2009, the country was left with the challenging endeavor of rebuilding the war affected areas. The process of rebuilding has been particularly difficult for the Northern Province, which was the epicenter of the civil conflict. Achieving food security is an immediate necessity and a major challenge for the country. Food security is multidimensional and requires the improvement of food availability, food accessibility, and food utilization in a sustainable manner. The problems of hunger and malnutrition continue to burden the wellbeing of the Sri Lankan population, especially that of marginalized groups and those living and newly settled in the post-conflict areas in the North and East. 37 With the population growing at an annual rate 0.9 percent and hundreds of thousands of people internally displaced, feeding the population is a major challenge for the country. The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) annually issues the Global Hunger Index 5 (GHI) that provides a snapshot of the hunger levels throughout the world . According to the latest edition of the GHI, close to 14 percent of the Sri Lankan population remain in hunger. The United Nations Children's Fund’s (UNICEF) Sri Lanka office reported that nearly 29 percent of the children under the age of 5 years are suffering from malnutrition and around 14 percent in the same age group suffer from acute malnutrition or wasting. In addition, around 58 percent of the infants between 6 to 11 months and 38 percent of the children between 12 to 23 months were found to be anemic. The world food program (2009) estimated that 40 percent of children are underweight, 31 percent are stunted, and 28 percent suffer from acute malnutrition. The multiple displacement due to conflict has left food production systems completely or partially dilapidated. Food security plays a critical role in alleviating hunger and elevating the nutritional status of the people in Sri Lanka. Prior to 2009, food security in some parts of the country was constrained by the adversities of decades of civil war. After 2009 people in the post conflict areas, particularly in the North, who were displaced due to the final stages of the war could not pursue their farming or off-farm livelihood that enabled them to obtain the food they need to sustain themselves. There has been a high reliance on food aid that has been rationalized among the large number of recipients. In addition, agricultural activities in these areas were disrupted and in some cases had to be abandoned as families and sometimes villages were relocated 5 Global Hunger index is an aggregation of three equally weighted hunger indicators – the number of undernourished as a percentage of the population, the proportion of children suffering from weight loss, and mortality rate of children under five. 38 elsewhere for safety due to the presence of land mines. Furthermore, years of isolation from markets, resources, and dilapidated infrastructure have also deteriorated the progress of the agricultural sector in these areas. With so many people’s livelihoods dependant on agriculture and a critical need to improve food security, there is a need to restore and revive local food systems. The restoration process must be focused on the dual purpose of expanding food production and at the same time stimulating natural resources management. The northern is region is home to thousands of resource poor farmers who are barely able to manage their livelihood. It is estimated that 14.5 percent of the population in Sri Lanka remains in hunger and undernourished and the numbers in the post-conflict region are much higher than the country average. In addition, hundreds of thousands of resource poor people in these areas depend on agriculture for food and livelihood. Their food security will depend on the availability and ability to produce food in a sustainable manner with minimal stress on the natural resources and environment. 39 REFERENCES 40 REFERENCES Abdoellah, O. S. et al., 2006. Commercialization of homegardens in an Indonesian village: Vegetation composition and functional changes.. Agroforestry Systems, Volume 68, p. 1– 13. Abdoellah, O. S., Parikesit, Gunawan, B. and Hadikusumah, H. Y., 2001. Home gardens in the Upper Citarum Watershed, West Java: a challenge for in situ conservation of plant genetic resources. 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As part of the postconflict rebuilding strategy in Sri Lanka, the government supports the establishment of home gardens as a means to reduce hunger and malnutrition and improve livelihoods of resource poor families in war affected areas. This research was conducted in the Jaffna District of the Northern Province which was severely affected during 30 years of war. Government and nongovernmental organizations have established more than 500 home gardens in the Northern region since the civil war ended in 2009. The objective of this research was to characterize and assess the contribution of home gardens to household food production and food security. With this goal, 167 home gardens were surveyed in the Jaffna District. The average size of the home gardens in Jaffna area that was studied was approximately 0.4 acres. As many as 29 useful plant species were found in home gardens surveyed with an average of 9 useful plant species per garden. Plant types included vegetables, fruits, plantation crops, spices, ornamental, medicinal and herbal plants. A combination of 28 species of vegetables, 16 species of fruits, and 13 species of herbs/medicinal plants were found across all the gardens surveyed. The research revealed that home gardens are diverse and provide supplemental sources of fresh and nutritionally rich sources of food that fit with local culture and traditions. The most important constraints in home garden production identified were weeds, insect pests and diseases, shortage of capital and labor, damages due to weather, and lack of access to information and extension/advisory services. Home gardeners strongly stated the need for timely information, education, and training on 53 various aspects of home garden management including bee keeping, composting, maintaining nurseries of planting materials, pest and soil management, as well as integrating livestock activities and cultivating mushrooms. They also indicated that their neighbors and other farmers are the most dominant source of information for home gardening related activities. The food production data revealed that on an average, 140 kg. of vegetables, 408 kg of fruits, and 118 coconuts were produced in home gardens in one growing season. The produce was used mainly for household consumption and for marketing to generate income creating a total economic value of US $296 per garden per growing season. Post-harvest losses were not a serious concern as most of the produce was either consumed by the households or sold in the local markets soon after the harvest. When total market value per home garden was extrapolated to a million gardens in the country as per the long-term goals of the Sri Lankan government, the value of the home garden production was estimated to be US $296 million. Overall, the results indicate that home gardens are contributing to food security, income generation, and livelihoods in the Northern region of Sri Lanka through the production of a diverse set of vegetables, fruits, herbs, plantation crops, ornamentals, and livestock. Based on these results, it is recommended that the home garden programs be scaled-up and further expanded in the country as a supplemental source of food, income, and livelihood enhancements while considering the issue of long-term sustainability of home gardens. Key words: Sri Lanka, Home Gardens, Food Production, Food Security, Post-conflict, Nutrition, Livelihoods 54 BACKGROUND Food security remains a high priority in the vision and mission of the Government of Sri Lanka (The United Nations World Food Programme, Ministry of Economic Development, and Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute, 2011). The country is gradually recovering from a long and devastating civil war that prevailed for over 30 years. While the long conflict had a major impact on agriculture, economic, and social well-being and the overall development of the country, the repercussions were particularly severe for the Northern and the Eastern regions. With the war ending in 2009, the country was left with the arduous task of social reconciliation and economic rebuilding the various facets of the nation and rebuilding the war affected areas. Supplemental information on Sri Lanka, its economy and the importance of agriculture and food security to the country’s wellbeing is provided in Appendix A. The Government of Sri Lanka along with other non-governmental and international organizations launched a number of post-conflict rebuilding programs nationwide dedicated to rehabilitation, reconstruction, and reconciliation efforts prioritizing the conflict-affected areas. The government’s strategy and policy agenda explicitly states the importance of food security and commits to ensure: “physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet people’s dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (Food Security in the Northern, Eastern and North Central Provinces - a Food Security Assessment Report 2011). Food security is thus a cornerstone in the long-term strategy of post conflict rebuilding, promotion of peace, and overall development of the country. In 2011, the Government of Sri Lanka launched a National Food Production Drive. This was intended to encumber the adverse effects of global food insecurity as well as augment family nutrition status and support self-employment opportunities. Subsequently, the Divi Neguma 55 (Livelihood Upliftment) Program was initiated with an overarching decree to strengthen the home based economy to ensure income and employment opportunities to rural families and entail the establishment of one million home gardens to develop a “backyard economy.” Agriculture plays an important role in the livelihoods of the 20 million people of Sri Lanka. While the agricultural contribution to GDP is about 13 percent, nearly 35 percent of the population relies on agriculture and allied sectors for their livelihoods. The civil war had a devastating impact on the agricultural research and development, institutional support services and public infrastructure particularly in the Northern and Eastern regions. Considering the importance of the agricultural sector, the government has given high priority to agricultural research and development, and introduced interventions that will have quick impacts on the food production, food security, and livelihoods. In this context, the government initiated a major program on home gardens in the country with special emphasis towards war-affected areas to enable physical and economic access to food while creating income opportunities for improved livelihood and well-being. Home gardens have been an integral part of the local food systems since ancient times and have been practiced in most developing countries all over the world as a supplemental source of food (Brownrigg 1985; Mitchell and Hanstad, 2004; Kumar and Nair 2004; Pulami and Poudel 2006). The Government of Sri Lanka is promoting the introduction of home gardens nationwide to augment food production, food security, and livelihood activities. Home gardens in war-affected areas in the North and East have been receiving special assistance and sponsorship from the government and other organizations to address the urgent need to reduce hunger, malnutrition, and poverty. Since the civil war ended in 2009, more than 500 new home gardens have been established to assist war affected and resource poor families in the Northern 56 region. The objective of this research project was to assess the current status and contribution of home gardens in improving food production and food security as well as other associated benefits such as enhancement of nutrition and income generation. METHODOLOGY The research was conducted in the Jaffna District of Northern Sri Lanka which was severely affected by the conflict and had resulted in acute hunger and malnutrition (The United Nations World Food Programme, the Ministry of Economic Development, and Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute, 2011). The study was carried out in collaboration with the Faculty of Agriculture at the University of Jaffna (UoJ). Jaffna is one of the five Districts of the Northern Province in Sri Lanka. Of the population of nearly 500,000 people, more than 85 percent depend on agriculture and allied sectors for their subsistence and livelihoods. The majority of the people residing in this part of the country are of Tamil ancestry. Jaffna Peninsula falls under the dry zone low country with a total annual rainfall of about 6351400mm (approximately 25 – 50 inches). A comprehensive survey instrument was designed for gathering the data (Appendix C) and it was approved by the Internal Review Board (IRB) of Michigan State University (MSU). The survey questions include a combination of structured and open ended questions. The draft survey was pretested with university students and home gardeners to improve the quality of survey instrument. Bases on the feedback received, appropriate revision were also made to the survey questions. For this research project, 167 home gardens were randomly selected and surveyed in the Jaffna District where the households were accessible and safe for travel. The number home gardens selected for survey in different areas of the Jaffna District was based on 57 the population size in those areas. The data was collected through personal visits to home 6 gardens during the Maha growing season in 2011-2012 which is the main growing season for the Northern region. A faculty member from the UoJ approved by the MSU IRB also participated in the survey and assisted with simultaneous interpretation. The information was provided by the head of the household through personal interviews during the site visits. The data and information collected included the following: i. Household demographics ii. Characteristics of home gardens iii. Constraints in home gardens iv. Inputs used and their sources v. Information and training sources and needs vi. Food production – vegetables, fruits, plantation and other crops vii. Livestock and fisheries activities viii. Use of mobile phones by home gardeners for accessing information ix. Quality of life impact indicators The descriptive statistical analysis was performed using SPSS statistical software program. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Household Demographics A household pursuing home gardening was made up of an average of 4 family members (Table 3). This number is consistent with the typical size of a family in Sri Lanka. The majority 6 Maha season spreads between the months of September and March and coincides with the North-eastern Monsoon. 58 of the plots on which home gardens are located are owned by the families themselves. Seventy five percent of home gardens were headed by male members while 25% of home gardens were headed by women. During the long civil conflict, thousands were widowed or lost male household members. The number of female headed households can be attributed to irreversible damage the long civil conflict has brought upon the society. Helping women-headed families is a key component of the reconciliation process set forth by the Government of Sri Lanka and other developmental organizations. Table 3: Household Demographic Characteristics of Home Gardens Surveyed in the Jaffna District of Sri Lanka 167 Number of Home Gardens Surveyed (N) Gender of Head of Household Average Age of Head of Household Average Number of members per Household Ownership of Household Plot Under Home garden Male headed Female headed 50 ±1 4 ± 0.1 Owned Leased 75% 25% 77% 23% ± Represents Standard Error Characteristics of Home Gardens The average size of the gardens was found to be 0.4 acres (Table 4). Although the organization and crop composition of the home garden varied amongst the households, they were all located around the family home. This outcome was consistent with the general features of home gardens as small plots near the family dwelling (Mitchell and Hanstad, 2004 ; Kumar and Nair, 2004). Most home gardens contained food crops that were primarily cultivated for household consumption and use while the excess produce was intended to be shared or sold. This is consistent with findings from other developing countries (Torquebiau, 1992; Eyzaguirre and Linares, 2004). 59 A majority of respondents stated they engage in home gardening as a common day-to-day activity. Both men and women provided labor for home garden activities and more than two thirds of the households cared for their gardens on a daily basis. Nearly every household had access to simple traditional gardening tools including a hoe (mamotty), a machete, and a steel bar (alawangu). Only 23 households owned more sophisticated tools such as a two wheel tractor, or a sprayer. Most of the inputs for home gardening were obtained from the household, from neighbors, and farmers. Table 4: Characteristics of Home Gardens Surveyed in the Jaffna District of Sri Lanka 1 Average Size of Home Garden in Lachum Average Size of Home Garden in Acres 2 Average Number of Useful Plant Species per Home Garden 7±1 3 7 Average Number of Edible Plant Species per Home Garden 1 2 0.4 9 1 acre = 18 Lachum Vegetables, Fruits, Spices, Plantation, and Herbal plants 3 Number of useful plant species ranged from a maximum of 29 to a minimum of 1. ± Represents Standard Error Crop Diversity The home gardens included a diverse set of plants that are locally preferred and adapted to local conditions. An average of nine plant species was found per garden. As many as 29 useful plant species were found in individual home gardens Plant types included vegetables, fruits, plantation crops, flowering plants, medicinal and herbal plants. The gardens were found to be diverse and rich with locally adapted and locally-preferred food crops including indigenous plants. Across all gardens, a maximum of 28 species of vegetable crops, 16 species of fruit crops, and 13 species of herbs/medicinal plants were found (Tables 5 ,6, and 7). While a majority of the gardens were diverse, a few were specialized with one or two plants. 60 Solanum melongena Abelmoschus esculentu Capsicum frutescenes Vigna unguiculata Momordica charantia Amaranthus viridis Lycopersicon esculentum Trichosanthes cucumerina Cucurbita maxima Manihot esculenta Moringa oleifera Moringa oleifera Phaseolus vulgaris Allium ascalonicum Beta vulgaris Amorphophallus paeoniifolius Capsicum annuum Ipomoea batatas Daucus carota ssp. sativa Dioscorea alata Psophocarpus tetragonolobus Musa acuminata Market price (LKR.) per kg. 83 60 52 51 35 25 25 17 16 15 12 12 9 8 8 55.00 45.00 55.00 57.50 58.00 15.00 15.00 46.50 38.00 25.00 * 12.00 90.00 65.00 40.00 b 5 70.00 R Yellow Wax Pepper Sweet Potato Carrot Yam 3 3 3 2 75.00 47.00 35.00 70.00 R R R R Wing beans 2 54.00 Plantains 2 50.00 Common Name Eggplant Okra Green Chilli Long Beans Bitter Gourd Amaranth Tomato a Snake Gourd Pumpkin Cassava Moringa leaves Moringa pods Green Beans Red Onions Beets Elephant foot Yam 61 2 Number of Gardens Vitamin A Vitamin B Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K Scientific Name Carbohydrate Protein Total lipid Fiber Calcium Iron Magnesium Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Zinc 1 Table 5: Vegetable Crops in Home Gardens, their Distribution, Market Value, and Nutritional Composition R R R R R R * R R R R R R R R R R R R R * R * * * * R R R R R M R R R R M R R R R R R R M R M M R R R R R R R R R * * * * * * * R R R R R R R M R R R R R R R R R R R R R M R M R R R R R M R R R M R R R R Table 5 (cont’d) Brassica oleracea var. Cabbage 2 48.50 R R R capitata c Sesbania grandiflora 2 15.00 R M R R M * R * * * * R R * * * Sesbania Luffa acutangula Ridged Gourd 1 35.00 R Cucumis sativus Cucumber 1 26.00 d Ipomoea aquatica 1 15.00 R R M M R M M R M M * * * * * * Water Spinach Source: Extracted from USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 25 (2012) a b Commonwealth of Australia, Food Standards Australia New Zealand, and the University of New South Wales 2012; Siemonsma c d and Piluck 1993; Duke 1983; Umar, et al. 2007 ______________________________________ For Table 5 and 6 “M” detonates that the referred vegetable contained the maximum amount of the corresponding nutrient compared to represented collection of vegetables. “R” detonates that the corresponding vegetable contain above average amount of the corresponding nutrient relative to the entire collection of vegetables. * indicates that respective nutrient data was not found. Green cell indicates that corresponding nutrient is present in the referred vegetable White cell indicates that corresponding nutrient is not present in the referred vegetable. 1 Carbohydrate by difference is the standard method to determine the amount of carbohydrates in foods by deducting the sum of the measured moisture, ash (inorganic components), protein, and fat from the total weight (100g) (Southgate 1969). 2 Vitamin A is quantified in Retinol Activity Equivalent (RAE), where each μg RAE is equivalent to 1 μg of retinol, 2 μg of βcarotene in oil, 12 μg of "dietary" beta-carotene, or 24 μg of Pro-vitamin A carotenoids (α-Carotene, Beta-cryptoxanthin, and γcarotene) (Institute of Medicine 2001). 62 Scientific Name Common Name Musa sapientum Banana 123 100 Mangifera indica Mango 96 20.00/fruit Citrus madurensis Key lime 46 340 Punica granatum L Pomegranate 43 85 R R Artocarpus heterophyllus lam Jack fruit 42 100 R R Psidium guajava L. Guava 33 125 R Carica papaya Papaya 33 24 Citrus sinensis (L) Osbeck Sweet Orange 14 Citrus limon L. Burm Lemon juice 6 Golden Passion fruit 5 27.50/fruit Limonia acidissima Woodapple 5 15.00/fruit R M R * M a 2 120 * R Vitis venefera Ambarella Grapes 2 25 R R Persea americanna Miller Avocado 1 30/fruit 2 340 Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa Vitamin A Vitamin B Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K Market Number price of (LKR.)pe Gardens r kg. Carbohydrate Protein Total lipid Fiber Calcium Iron Magnesium Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Zinc 1 Table 6: Fruit Crops in Home Gardens, their Distribution, Market Value, and Nutritional Composition Spondias dulcis Saland a R R R R R R R 15.00/fruit R R R R M R R R R R R R R M R M R R R R R M R R R R M M R R R R * M * * * R * * * * R * * * M * * * * R R R R R R M Artocarpus altilis Bread fruit 1 19/fruit M R R R M Source: Extracted from USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 25 (2012) a Department of Agriculture, Government of Sri Lanka (2006) 63 R * * * M M M Table 7: Medicinal and Herbal plants in Home Gardens, their Distribution, Health, and other Benefits Type of Herbal and Medicinal plants Scientific Name No. of Gardens Health and other Benefits Ocimum sanctum 22 Solanum trilobatum 17 Gymnema Gymnema sylvestre 14 Centella Centella asiatica 14 Betle vine Piper betle 9 Ginger Zingiber officinale 6 Margosa Azadirachta indica 5 Aloe vera Aloe vera 5 Indian Gooseberry Emblica officinalis 4 Turmeric Curcuma longa 3 Mint Mentha arvensis 3 Petroselinum hortense 1 Cold, cough, bronchospasm, general debility, stress disorders, skin infections, wounds, indigestion, nausea, essential oil in flavoring, spiritual value Treat the common cold, cough and asthma, itching, and strengthen the body Antidiabetic, cardiac stimulant, eye diseases, diuretic Memory enhancer, anxiety, neurosis, general debility, wound healing, leprosy, eczema, psoriasis Antiseptic, aphrodisiac, expectorant, bronchitis, rheumatism, stimulant, carminative, wounds Asthma, skin diseases, de-worming, nausea, carminative, common colds Bronchitis, diabetes, ulcers, haemorrhoides, skin diseases, tumors, syphilis, antiseptic, dandruff, contraception, dental care, insecticide Health drink, burns, cuts, skin diseases, leprosy, piles, liver ailments, dysentery Aging and general debility, acid-peptic diseases, hair loss, dyspepsia, laxative, cooling, diuretic, ulcers Antiseptic, skin allergies, viral hepatitis, wounds, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, sore throat Cough syrups, flavoring agent, expectorant, pain reliever Flavoring and Antiafolotoxin Alternanthera sessilis 1 Antimicrobial and wound healing properties Tulasi Purple Fruited Pea Eggplant Parsley Alternanthera b a a b Source: Adapted from Rao and Rajeswara Rao, 2006; Muthu, et al., 2006 and Jalalpure, Agrawal, Patil, Chimkode, and Tripathi, 2008 64 The common vegetable crops in the home gardens included eggplant, okra, chili, long bean, bitter gourd, tomato, and amaranth. The dominant fruit species included banana, mango, lime, pomegranate, jack fruit, guava, and papaya. Thus, vegetables and fruits topped the list of identified useful crops in the study region, in a study of home gardens in Nigeria, Olajide-Taiwo et. al. (2010) found a similar pattern. Nutritional value of the vegetables and fruits found in home agrdens surveyed are represented in Appendix B. The dominant herbs included Tulasi, Purple fruited pea eggplant, Gymnema, and Centella. The considerable diversity of useful plants found in home gardens surveyed is consistent with the findings from home gardens in other countries (Niñez, 1984; Trinh, et al., 2003). Integration of Livestock, Poultry, Bee-keeping and Fisheries Livestock and poultry activities are an integral component of agricultural systems in Sri Lanka and other developing countries (Figure 5). Among the 167 gardens surveyed, 112 gardens contained some combination of livestock including cattle, goats, poultry, or swine, with 79 gardens having cattle, 74 with goats, 85 with chickens, and 1 garden with swine. Only two gardens were practicing bee keeping. None of the home gardeners were engaged in fisheries or aquaculture. Home gardeners expressed a strong interest to learn and adopt bee keeping in their gardens. Constraints identified by Home Gardeners Like any other agricultural production system, home gardeners also face a number of limitations. The constraints they identified in their gardens are listed in Table 8. Common and important constraints across the home gardens surveyed included weeds, insect pests and 65 diseases, lack of capital, labor shortage, damage due to weather, and access to information and extension/advisory services. Figure 5: Engagement of Home gardeners in Livestock, Poultry, and Beekeeping in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka Swine (0.4%) Beekeeping (1%) Goats (31%) Chickens (35%) Cattle (33%) Problems associated with pests should be taken into consideration when designing and implementing programs to enhance home gardens. Seven species of weeds were commonly found in the home gardens. Amongst these Cyperus rotundus, Brassica sp. (wild species), and Cyanodon dactylon peces were most abundant. Some of the most destructive insect pests include mealy bug, thrips, white flies, leaf miners, leaf hoppers and aphids. In addition, some crops were found to be infested with mites. Amongst plant diseases affecting the home gardens, viral and fungal diseases including yellow mosaic virus, bunchy top virus, and powdery mildew were frequently mentioned. The occurrence of pests and diseases vary with the type of crop, environment, and the time of the growing season. A list of common weeds, insect pests, and diseases along with the severity of incidence is provided in Appendix D. 66 Table 8: Most important constraints in Home Gardens in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka Constraint Problem Weeds Insect pest and diseases Lack of capital Damage by weather related issues Limited family labor Limited access to quality seeds and planting material Access of agricultural tools and equipment Unavailability of information and advisory support Destruction by animal pests Market related issues Shortage of manure and fertilizer Poor soils Shortage of land Nematodes Shortage of water Theft 88% 87% 78% 78% 77% 67% 65% 65% 61% 58% 58% 54% 52% 46% 39% 23% Not a Problem 9% 8% 17% 15% 20% 24% 28% 25% 30% 25% 32% 41% 48% 31% 58% 68% Do not Know 3% 5% 5% 7% 3% 9% 7% 10% 9% 17% 10% 5% 0% 23% 2% 9% Use of Agricultural Inputs A majority of the gardeners used various planting materials including traditional varieties, new varieties and hybrids, saved seeds, tubers and suckers, seedlings, as well as branch and stem cuttings (Figure 6). Nonetheless, it can be noted that the use of traditional seeds, saved seeds, tubers and suckers, seedlings, and cuttings were more common compared to the use of new and hybrid varieties. Manure and compost were commonly used by the home gardeners. The use of chemical fertilizer however, was somewhat limited. The use of vermi-compost was also very low (Figure 7). However, there was an interest among home gardeners to learn and adopt vermi-composting practices. Home gardeners use a number of tools to prepare and maintain their home gardens such as mammoties, pruning knives, steel bars (alavangu), and machetes. Due to the small size of the land holding, animal power was not extensively used. 67 Percentagle Household Usage Figure 6: Planting Inputs used for Home Gardens in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka 60 Always Sometimes Never 50 40 30 20 10 0 Traditional varieties New and Saved seed Tubers and Seedlings Hybrids Suckers Seeds and Planting Materials Branch or stem cuttings Percentage of Households Figure 7: Fertilizer Inputs used for Home Gardens in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Always Sometimes Never Livestock manure Green manure Compost Fertilizer Inputs Vermi-compost Chemical fertilizers Access to Credit The results indicate that only 27 percent of the home gardeners borrowed money to support home gardening activities. The home gardeners’ various sources of credit included money borrowed from neighbors, private lenders, local banks, government and NGO-run 68 microcredit programs. Gardeners also borrowed from potential buyers of home garden produce (Figure 8). In general, male-headed households had more access to different sources of credit compared to female-headed households. The low percentage of access to credit by femaleheaded households could be due to the fact that they are often hesitant to borrow money and their tendency towards risk-aversion. Percentage of Households Figure 8: Sources of Capital/Credit for Home Gardeners in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Male Headed Female Headed Source of Credit Information, Education, and Training The home gardeners strongly stated the need for timely availability and access to information, education, and training on various aspects of home garden management. A substantial number of home gardeners requested training and information on a number of home gardening activities. Amongst these beekeeping, composting, maintaining nurseries of planting materials, cultivating mushrooms, managing insect pests, diseases, and soil, as well as managing livestock activities were the mostly requested items (Table 9). Home gardeners indicate that their neighbors and other farmers are the most important source of information for their home gardening activities (Table 10). This result is consistent 69 with findings of other countries where progressive farmers have been reported to be the most reliable and dominant source of information (National Sample Survey Organization, 2005). Table 9: Information, Education and Training Needs of Home Gardeners in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka Training Needs of Home Gardeners Number of Households 47 44 42 41 40 40 36 33 29 27 25 23 23 22 20 17 Bee keeping Compost production Producing seedlings (nurseries) Mushroom Cultivation Integrated Pest management Animal husbandry Soil and land management Crop diversification Water management Weed management Selection and applications of fertilizer Selection and applications of pesticides Food processing and preserving Using animal and green manure Marketing and Management Pruning and trimming Table 10: Sources of Information and Training for Home Gardeners Sources of Information and Training Percent of Home Gardeners 34% 23% 19% 15% 10% Other farmers University and Govt. extension service Dealers and private firms NGOs and self-help groups Media The government extension system and the support from the University of Jaffna also continue to play an important role in providing information and training to home gardeners. Another interesting finding was that nearly 80 percent of the home gardeners own mobile/cell phones. However, only 8 percent of them utilized mobile phones to access and obtain home gardening related information. This indicates a potential opportunity when devising future 70 strategies to deliver information and advice. The extensive use and convenience offered by mobile phones could enable the real-time distribution of information and advisory services to home gardeners. Production and Market Value of Vegetables, Fruits, and Plantations Crops On an average, 140 kg. of vegetables, 408 kg. of fruits, and 118 coconuts were produced in home gardens during the Maha growing season (Table 11). Of the total production, 36 kg. of vegetables, 132 kg. of fruits, and 67 coconuts were consumed by households themselves, while 80 kg. vegetables, 244 kg. fruits, and 29 coconuts were marketed. This generated an average total value of LKR. 38,440 per season for each garden (equivalent to US $ 296). This is consistent with Mitchell and Hanstad (2004) who reported that home gardens can contribute to household income from the sale of home garden products. The fruits generate more economic value compared to vegetables and coconuts. The aggregate economic value was calculated based on the prevailing wholesale market prices in Jaffna obtained through personal visits to three major fresh produce markets and in Dambulla extracted from the Tradenet web resource (Dialog Tradenet and Govi Gnana Seva, 2010). Table 11: Total Production of Vegetables, Fruits, and Coconuts and Post-harvest losses in Home Gardens in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka Commodity Total Production per home garden per season Total Harvest Total consumed/sold Percentage Losses 140 Kg. ± 35 Vegetables 408 Kg. ± 74 Fruits 118 nuts ± 31 Coconuts Average per garden ± Represents Standard Error 116 Kg. 376 Kg. 96 nuts 17% 8% 19% 12% When total market value per home garden was extrapolated to a million gardens as per the long-term goals of the Sri Lankan government, the value of the home garden production is 71 estimated to be nearly US $ 300 million (Table 12). Of course, there could be multiplier effects such that increased production may lead to the expansion of vegetable and fruit processing enterprises. On the other hand may lead to excess supply and wastage, thus necessitates shift in the crop choices. Table 12: Total Consumption, Sales, and Market Value of Vegetables, Fruits, and Plantation Crops in Home Gardens in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka Commodity Total Production per home garden per Total Market season Value in LKR* Consumed at Home Sold in the Market 36 Kg. ± 8 80 Kg. ± 16 4,199 ± 737 Vegetables 132 Kg. ± 26 244 Kg. ± 62 31,746 ± 6,279 Fruits 67 nuts ± 18 29 nuts ± 13 2,495 ± 716 Coconuts Total per garden LKR 38,440 Total for 1 million home gardens *Based on current production and market prices, ± Represents Standard Error In US $ Equivalent* $33 $244 $19 $296 $ 296 Million In developing countries where infrastructure and marketing systems are profoundly weak, depending on the food commodity, post-harvest losses in fresh produce range from 25-50 percent (The Institute of Post Harvest Technology, 2002). However, in this study, the post-harvest losses experienced in home gardens in Jaffna District were lower and varied between 8-19 percent. This relatively small loss in production may be due the fact that most of the produce is either consumed and shared by the household or sold in the local market (Table 11). Quality of Life Impact Indicators The ultimate goal of home gardening programs in Sri Lanka is to improve food security, livelihoods, nutritional enhancement and quality of life of the people. Table 13 summarizes the responses of home gardeners to a series of questions related to quality of life indicators. A majority of the home gardeners indicated the positive impact of home gardens in terms of improving food availability, access and utilization as well as other social, economic and environmental benefits. 72 16% 3% 35% 5% 39% 4% 43% 4% 42% 2% 40% 5% 40% 7% 50% 2% 41% 14% 48% 2% 32% 21% 36% 15% Strongly Disagree No Change 75% 53% 48% 45% 45% 43% 43% 40% 37% 37% 29% 20% Disagree Fresh and healthy food products More food for the family to eat Higher share of vegetables and fruits Reduce Cost of Food Bill Benefited the family Wider variety of foods to eat Enable to earn additional income Help Conserve Environment Help relax Help engage in some physical activity as a family Enable to start small home based business/enterprise Better able to afford non-food items Agree Quality of Life - Impact Indicators Strongly Agree Table 13: Quality of Life Impact Indicators of Home Gardens in Jaffna District of Sri Lanka 0% 1% 2% 0% 0% 1% 1% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 7% 5% 8% 8% 11% 11% 10% 9% 8% 13% 18% 29% SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The results of this research support the benefits of home gardens in terms of contributing to food production and providing diverse sources of locally produced fresh and nutritious food to resource-poor families. Many of the crops grown in home gardens represent locally preferred indigenous crops rich in calories, vitamins, and minerals leading to healthy diets. While the benefits of the home gardens are enormous, there are several constraints identified by the home gardeners. The most common constraints include the problem related to weeds, insect pests, capital, labor, weather related damage and access to inputs. To address these constraints, an integrated approach will be required to develop and implement programs that would help provide rapid and easy access to timely information and advice. Priorities should include agricultural inputs and best practices for pest, crop, soil, and water management as well as post-harvest handling and marketing of the products. Favorable policies and programs are needed to improve easy access to credit and land with due consideration to gender equality. 73 The research results indicate that farmers are the most dominant sources of information for other farmers. Programs need to be initiated to build and utilize a network of innovative farmers to support other farmers in the local areas. There is a great need to develop and implement research, educational and outreach programs, with increased focus on nutritional aspects, soil and pest management, composting, and integration of livestock and bee keeping activities to enhance the productivity and profitability of home gardens. Overall, the results indicate that home gardens are providing a supplemental source of food and income for households in the Northern region of Sri Lanka through the production of a diverse set of vegetables, fruits, herbs, plantation crops, and livestock products. This study shows that home gardens can indeed contribute to the National Food Production Drive. Further, home gardening can help improve the family’s nutritional status and create home-based employment opportunities especially for the poor and marginalized families in the war-torn area. Expansion and scaling-up of home garden programs is thus recommended as a mechanism to minimize adversities of food insecurity, malnutrition, and poverty on communities in Northern Province and other parts of the country. In doing so, the issue of long-term sustainability must be taken into consideration. 74 APPENDICES 75 Manihot esculenta Cassava 59.7 160 38.1 1.36 0.3 2 1.7 16 0.3 21 27 271 14 0.3 1 0.1 0.1 0.9 0.1 27 20.6 0 0.2 1.9 Cucumis sativus 96.7 12 2.2 0.59 0.2 1 1.38 14 0.2 12 21 136 2 0.2 4 0 0 0 0.1 14 3.2 0 0 7.2 Daucus carota ssp. sativa Carrot Cucumber 76 13.7 1 3.6 0 2 0.2 109 0.1 37.5 0 30 0.1 0.3 0 0.1 4 0.2 255 196 33 163 1.5 55.6 0 88 0.8 1 0.3 0.2 121 0.3 249 602 77 94 1 42 1.04 2 0.2 3.6 0.2 0 3.6 0 80 0.1 0.3 0 0 2 0.4 285 305 38 23 0.8 16 7.96 2 0.2 1.68 10 44 0 41.1 0 57 0.2 0.6 0.1 0 139 0.9 257 641 72 55 2.3 209 0 0 0.2 2.11 4.1 21 1 , (µg) Vitamin K (µg) Vitamin E (mg) Vitamin C (mg) Vitamin D, (µg) Folate 3 Vitamin B-6 (mg) Niacin (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Thiamin (mg) Vitamin A , (µg) 2 Zinc (mg) Sodium (mg) Potassium (mg) Phosphorus (mg) Magnesium (mg) Iron (mg) Calcium (mg) Sugars (g) Dietary Fiber (g) Lipid (g) Protein (g) Carbohydrate , (g) Minerals 0.7 0 0.1 852 0.2 302 235 30 15 0.2 48 2.79 2 0.1 1.27 6.2 32 Water (g) Energy (kcal) Macronutrients 10 0.3 30 3.45 3 0.2 0.76 Brassica oleracea Cabbage var. capitata 5.5 Bitter Gourd 8.2 Momordica charantia 23 Beets 35 Beta vulgaris 91.5 Amaranth 87.1 Amaranthus viridis 88.7 Common Name 92.6 Scientific Name 90.2 APPENDIX A: Nutritional Composition of the Vegetables and Fruits in Home Gardens in the Jaffna District of Sri Lanka Table 14: Nutritional Value of the Vegetables Found in Home Gardens Vitamins Cucurbita maxima Pumpkin 93.7 18 4.3 0.72 0.1 1 2.08 15 0.6 9 30 230 237 0.2 288 0 0.1 0.4 0 9 4.7 0 0.8 0.8 Allium ascalonicum 79.8 72 16.8 2.5 0.1 3 7.87 37 1.2 21 60 334 12 0.4 0 0.1 0 0.2 0.4 34 8 0 0 0.8 Moringa oleifera Moringa leaves Moringa oleifera Moringa pods Abelmoschus esculentu Okra Musa acuminata Plantains Red Onions 77 0.7 0.1 10.9 0 26 0.2 0.8 0.1 0.1 45 0.1 5 465 28 32 0.6 2 14 2 0.2 0.79 31.2 116 40 0.3 16.3 0 46 0.2 0.9 0.1 0.1 14 0.4 241 135 32 36 0.3 77 2.4 3 0.2 1.87 4.5 22 31 0 0.1 108 * * 23 0.9 2 0.5 0.2 351 0.5 245 344 67 151 2.3 151 1 2 0.9 5.27 11.2 60 97 0 30 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.1 4 0.4 279 457 49 42 0.5 20 0 4 0.2 2.09 8.2 36 Vigna unguiculata Long Beans * * 16.2 0 45 0 0.6 0.1 0.1 23 0.4 240 290 57 42 1 44 0 0 0.1 2.53 9.2 47 14.3 0.7 243 0 23 0.3 1 0.1 0.1 59 0.3 7 340 46 25 1.2 18 5.1 2 0.2 2 9.5 40 * 0 1.2 0 75 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.1 0 0.6 242 370 102 56 1.1 63 0 9 0.8 7.05 24 129 * * * * * * 0.3 * * * 0.9 3 450 * 33 2.3 85 * 4 0.3 1.5 * 17 2.9 0.4 1.3 0 14 0.1 0.6 0 0.1 2 0.1 239 123 15 11 0.3 6 3.2 3 0.2 0.83 8.1 33 89.7 Green Chili 79 Capsicum frutescenes 66.5 Green Beans 87.7 Phaseolus vulgaris 87.5 Elephant a foot Yam 81.7 Amorphophallus paeoniifolius 88.4 Eggplant 92.6 Solanum melongena 67.3 Table 14 (cont’d) 1.7 * * 2.3 * * 16 12.1 0 0.3 2.3 53 92.9 0 0.5 9.9 Source: Extracted from USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 25 (2012) a b Commonwealth of Australia, Food Standards Australia New Zealand, and the University of New South Wales 2012; Duke 1983; c 2.8 0.2 * * 0.7 * 0.6 * 0 * * 0 0 0.2 0.5 0 * 5.7 169 12 19.6 22.8 * 0.6 1.1 0 12 * * 6 13 * 0 0.1 10 0.1 * * 0.3 0.1 * 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 1.2 0.3 1.5 0.5 * 6 41 0.8 0 0.1 0 0.1 0 * 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 0 0.1 0 * 244 1 0.3 670 202 0 * 24 961 * * 0.2 * * 0.3 0.1 2 49 29 1.4 21 * * 246 247 135 18 16 249 453 * * 475 218 5458 0.5 0.5 280 31 80 20 54 28 109 14 12 153 20 * * 27 9 302 0.49 3.53 54 0.4 3.9 0.3 0.7 0.7 210 4 1 4.3 9 1130 26 38 11 417 0.1 0.4 142 5.17 * * 11.1 2.49 * 1.49 0.8 0 3 9 1 3 1 18 27 6.7 0 0.3 7.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 11 114 29 5.8 0.66 36.3 0.6 73.1 94 75.8 94.3 73 70.1 91.5 67.2 2.01 Yellow Wax Pepper 0.95 Capsicum annuum 6 Yam 10.6 Dioscorea alata 14.3 Wing beans 47.1 Psophocarpus tetragonolobus 4 Water d Spinach 20.7 Ipomoea aquatica 4 Tomato 54 Lycopersicon esculentum 14.9 Sweet Potato 321 Ipomoea batatas 17 Snake c Gourd 92 Trichosanthes cucumerina b 18 Sesbania 301 Sesbania grandiflora 147 Ridged Gourd 84.3 Luffa acutangula 56 Table 14 (cont’d) d Siemonsma and Piluck 1993; Umar, et al. 2007 78 Artocarpus Jack Fruit heterophyllus lam 73.5 95 23.3 1.7 0.64 2 19.1 24 0.2 29 21 448 2 0.1 5 0.11 0.06 0.92 0.33 24 13.7 0 0.3 0 Citrus madurensis Key lime 88.3 30 10.5 0.7 0.2 3 1.69 33 0.6 6 18 102 2 0.1 2 0 0.02 0.2 0.04 8 29.1 0 0.2 0.6 Vitis venefera Grapes Psidium guajava L. Guava 79 2.6 0.7 0 228 49 0.11 * * * 3 * * * 0 67 * 0.1 1 203 24 0.4 0 0 18.2 8 0.06 2.24 0.1 0 47 0.1 6 278 25 17 0.4 4 14.3 0.2 0.18 0.7 14.5 0.5 0.1 0 29 14 0.1 0.9 0.03 0.1 0 0.1 2 490 30 25 0.5 17 11 5 0.23 1.1 27.1 0.5 0.1 0 8.7 20 0.37 0.67 0.07 0.03 3 0.2 1 358 22 27 0.3 5 12.2 3 0.33 1.1 22.8 89 21 2.1 0 10 81 0.26 1.74 0.13 0.07 7 0.6 7 485 52 29 0.6 12 0.66 7 14.7 2 8.53 160 , (µg) Vitamin K (µg) Vitamin E (mg) Vitamin D, (µg) Vitamin C (mg) Folate 3 Vitamin B-6 (mg) Niacin (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Thiamin (mg) Vitamin A , (µg) 2 Zinc (mg) Sodium (mg) Potassium (mg) Phosphorus (mg) Magnesium (mg) Iron (mg) Calcium (mg) Sugars (g) Dietary Fiber (g) Lipid (g) Protein (g) Carbohydrate , (g) 1 Energy (kcal) Water (g) Minerals 1.08 0.04 0.07 31 0.2 2 417 40 14 0.3 37 15.5 4 0.47 0.8 13.9 103 73.2 Macronutrients 22 0.3 18 8.92 5 0.95 2.6 14.3 Passiflora edulis f. Golden flavicarpa Passion Fruit 60 Bread Fruit 69 Artocarpus altilis 68 Banana 74.9 Musa sapientum 70.7 Persea Avocadoa americanna Miller 84.2 Common Name 80.5 Scientific Name 80.8 Table 15: Nutritional Value of the Fruits Found in Home Gardens Vitamins 0 4.2 2.6 0 0 * * 16 0.2 0.9 0.3 0 * 0.6 0 0 0 71 0.003 0 38.7 36.4 60.9 30 * 10.2 20 43 37 0.09 * 38 0.05 0.12 0.04 0.5 * 0.08 0.09 0.67 0.36 0.05 * 0.29 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.1 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.02 13 40 0.07 0 54 47 0.1 * 0 0.1 0.1 0.1 2 * 0.4 1 1 8 196 * 3 103 168 182 22 110 236 8 14 10 14 * 36 6 10 21 0.8 0.06 12 0.1 0.2 0.3 70 130 0.3 6 11 20 0 * 10 2.52 13.7 7.82 5 * 13.7 0.3 2 2 0.3 3.7 4 0.24 0.38 0.26 1.3 Limonia acidissima 7.1 1.17 0.4 0.8 0.5 15.5 1.7 6.9 15 10.8 Citrus sinensis (L) Sweet Osbeck Orange 18.1 18.7 22 60 43 83 Pomegranate 63 Punica granatum L. 134 Papaya 83.5 Carica papaya 88.1 Mango 77.9 Mangifera indica 82.3 Lemon juice * Citrus limon L. Burm 92.3 Table 15 (cont’d) Woodapplea Source: Extracted from USDA Agricultural Research Service 2012, National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 25; a Department of Agriculture, Government of Sri Lanka 2006 For Table 14 and 15 1 Carbohydrate by difference is the standard method to determine the amount of carbohydrates in foods by deducting the sum of the measured moisture, ash (inorganic components), protein, and fat from the total weight (100g) (Southgate 1969). Vitamin A is quantified in Retinol Activity Equivalent (RAE), where each μg RAE is equivalent to 1 μg of retinol, 2 μg of β-carotene in oil, 12 μg of "dietary" beta-carotene, or 24 μg of Pro-vitamin A carotenoids (α-Carotene, Beta-cryptoxanthin, and γ-carotene) (Institute of Medicine 2001). 2 Folate is expressed in Dietary Folate Equivalent (DFE) where 1 μg DFE refers to 1.0 μg food folate, 0.6 μg folic acid taken with in foods, and 0.5 μg folic acid taken without food (Suitor and Bailey 2000). 3 * indicates that respective nutrient data was not found. 80 APPENDIX B: Survey Instrument University of Jaffna and Michigan State University Collaboration Baseline Survey on Home Gardens (HG) in the Northern Regions of Sri Lanka SECTION A: HOUSEHOLD DEMOGRAPHICS A1 Date of the Survey: ___/___/___ A2 For how long have you been residing at your present household location? ___Weeks 1. Head of the Household 2. Spouse 3. Other specify:_____________________ Respondents Relationship to the head of A3 the household? A4 Gender:  Male ___Months _____Years  Female A5 Age: (must be over 21) A6 Marital Status:  Married  Single A7 How many members in your household? What is the current occupation A8 of the head of the household? (Select all that apply)  Widowed __1 __2 __3 Yes B4 Approximately what percentage of your HG plot/s is cultivated? __2 __3 No __4 __>4 __None Skip to What is the size of your HG? (Lachum = Local unit of land area) B5 __1 No Yes B2 Are any of your family members involved in HG? How many HG plots do your household own? __>4 Crop Producer: cereals, fruits, vegetables…. Livestock Producer Farm laborer Self Employed Trader Artisan Retired Unemployed Other specify:___________________________ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. SECTION B: HOME GARDEN CHARACTERISTICS B1 Are you involved in HG? B3 __4 Lachs __< 5 % __< 25% __< 50% __<75% __~100% 81 __< 5 % __< 25% __< 50% __<75% __~100% __< 5 % __< 25% __< 50% __<75% __~100% __< 5 % __< 25% __< 50% __<75% __~100% B6 B7 __< 5 % __< 25% Approximately what percentage of __< 50% your HG plot is irrigated? __<75% __~100% For how long have you and/or ___Months your family been gardening at ___Years your garden plot/s? Does your family own the land B8 belonging to the home garden plot/s? ____Yes ____No __< 5 % __< 25% __< 50% __<75% __~100% __< 5 % __< 25% __< 50% __<75% __~100% __< 5 % __< 25% __< 50% __<75% __~100% ___Months ___Months ___Months ___Years ___Years ___Years ____Yes ____No ____Yes ____No ____Yes ____No SECTION C: LEVEL OF HOUSEHOLD ENGAGEMENT IN HOME GARDEN ACTIVITIES 1. Common day to day activity 2. Talking to neighbors 3. Through School How did your household get 4. Through social organizations C1 introduced to home gardening? 5. Through government program Can select more than one 6. Through NGO program 7. Through military personnel 8. Other, specify:___________________ C2 C3 How many members of your household have been involved in home gardening during the past year? On average how often does your household engage in home gardening activities? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. Male 2. Female Daily 2-3 times a week 4-5 times a week Once a week Less than once a week Hardly ever AA C4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Why does your household maintain a home garden? List all Denote the primary factor with * A 82 To produce food for my family To generate additional income To spend time with my family For mental and physical relaxation To beautify my home surroundings To attract helpful organisms As a means of employment I have no significant benefit Other, specify:______________________ C5 Listed below are some factors that may affect the productivity of your home garden. How often is your home garden affected by these factors? Always a Often Sometimes Never Don’t Rate the following issues problem a problem a problem a problem know      C5a. Shortage of Water      C5b. Shortage of Land C5c. Shortage of Manure and      Fertilizer      C5d. Insect pest and Diseases      C5e. Nematodes issues      C5f. Weeds      C5g. Shortage of quality seeds      C5h. Poor soils      C5i. Access of Agricultural tools      C6j. Limited family labor      C6k. Lack of finances      C6l.Destruction by animal pests C6m.Damage by weather related      issues C6n.Unavailability of Information      and advisory support      C6o.Theft      C6p.Other Specify:___________ AA From the list below, choose most important 3 factors that affect the productivity of your C6 home garden (Start with the most significant) #1______________________________ #2______________________________ #3______________________________ SECTION D: SECTION E: INPUTS FOR HOME GARDEN: Water 1. Rain 2. Public water system 3. Well – Own / Sharing 4. Electric pumps D1 How do you irrigate your HG? 5. Tanks or Reservoirs 6. Canal 7. Drip irrigation system 8. Sprinkler system 9. Other specify:____________________ A List key problem/s in obtaining water for irrigating your HG? D2 A 83 D3 Is your household a part of any water management group/association? Yes No SECTION E: INPUTS FOR HOME GARDEN: Manure, Fertilizer and Agro-chemicals E1 How often do you use the following inputs in your home garden? Rate the following Frequently Seldom Never    E1a. Livestock manure    E1b. Green manure    E1c. Compost    E1d. Vermi-compost    E1e. Chemical fertilizer    E1f. Other: (Specify)_________ A A E2 How does your household obtain Manure, Fertilizer and Agro-chemicals? Rate the following Govt. Private Other Household Neighbors Stores NGOs assist. firms farmers        E2a. Livestock manure        E2b. Green manure        E2c. Compost        E2d. Vermi-compost        E2e. Chemical fertilizer E2f. Other        (Specify):_________ A Name the public or private organization/s that is currently assisting you with Manure, Fertilizer and Agro-chemicals? E3 A E4 Do you find it difficult to obtain these inputs? Rate the following E4a. Livestock manure E4b. Green manure E4c. Compost E4d. Vermi-compost E4e. Chemical fertilizer E4f. Other (Specify)_______________ Always      Often      Sometimes      Never          A List you key issues to obtaining Manure, Fertilizer and Agro-chemicals for your home garden? E5 84 E6 How did you learn to use these inputs?                               Media I do not know Self-help groups       farmer from neighbors E6a. Livestock manure E6b. Green manure E6c. Compost E6d. Vermi-compost E6e. Chemical fertilizer E6f. Other(Specify): ____________ Govt. and Extension Private firms NGO Rate the following On my own A                   A E7 Name the public or private organization/s that is currently assisting you with manure, fertilizer and agro-chemicals? SECTION F: INPUTS FOR HOME GARDEN: Seeds and Seedlings F1 How often do you use the following for your home garden? Rate the following F1a. Traditional varieties F1b. New varieties and Hybrid F1c. Saved seed F1d. Mushroom Spawn F1e. Tubers and Suckers F1f. Seedlings F1g. Branch or stem cuttings Always Often Sometimes Never        F2 Do you have your own seed nursery at home?                      Yes Don’t know        No A F3 How do you obtain seeds and plants for your home garden? Rate the Selfmy From From Private following help Govt. NGOs nursery neighbors farmers firms groups F3a. Traditional        varieties F3b. New varieties        and Hybrid        F3c. Saved seed F3d. Mushroom        Spawn F3e. Tubers and        Suckers 85 F3f. Seedlings F3g. Branch or stem cuttings               A Name the public or private organization/s that is currently assisting you with seeds, seedling etc.? F4 SECTION G: INPUTS FOR HOME GARDEN: Gardening Tools and supplies G1 Do you use farm animals to prepare your home garden for cultivation? Yes No A G2 Do you use gardening tools? List the gardening tools and supplies that you use in your home garden and how you obtain them? 1. 2. 3. G3 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Yes Own           No From Private Hired Govt. NGOs neighbors firms                                                   A G4 Name the public or private organization/s that is currently assisting you with gardening tools and supplies? SECTION H: INPUTS FOR HOME GARDEN: Credit H1 Do you obtain credit for your home garden activities? Yes No A From whom do you obtain credit?  1. From neighbors  2. From private lender  3. From local banks  4. From government H2  5. From NGOs  6. Potential Buyers  7. Other (specify):_____________________ A 86 Name the public or private organization/s that is currently assisting you with credit? H3 SECTION I: HOME GARDEN DEVELOPMENT Have you or any one of your family members participated in I1 any agricultural or home gardening training? I2 How many members of your household took part in this training? Yes No 1. Male 2. Female A Who provided this training? I3      1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Relatives, Neighbors, or friends Self-help groups Government Private firms NGOs Academic institutions: School, vocational training centers,  University  7. Private Companies  8. Other (specify):_____________________ A Name the public or private organization/s that is currently assisting you with credit I4 A Select the type/s of training you/your family members I5 received?                  1. Soil and land management 2. Water management 3. Producing Seeds and seedlings (nurseries) 4. Compost production 5. Using animal and green manure 6. Integrated Pest management 7. Integrated Weed management 8. Animal husbandry 9. Bee keeping 10. Mushroom Cultivation 11. Pruning and trimming 12. Crop diversification 13. Selection and applications of fertilizer 14. Selection and applications of pesticides 15. Food processing and preserving 16. Marketing and Management 17. Other (specify):______________________ A I6 A I7 Did you find this training useful to improve your home garden? Yes No Has the Government home garden initiative encouraged you to engage in home gardening? Yes No 87 What is your biggest educational need to enhance your home garden? I8 A I9 Would you like to receive training on home gardens in future? Yes No A I10 On what aspects?                  1. Soil and land management 2. Water management 3. Producing Seeds and seedlings (nurseries) 4. Compost production 5. Using animal and green manure 6. Integrated Pest management 7. Integrated Weed management 8. Animal husbandry 9. Bee keeping 10. Mushroom Cultivation 11. Pruning and trimming 12. Crop diversification 13. Selection and applications of fertilizer 14. Selection and applications of pesticides 15. Food processing and preserving 16. Marketing and Management 17. Other (specify):_________________________ Plot # SECTION J: HOME GARDEN COMPOSITION AND REVENUE What are the vegetables and leafy vegetable crops grown in your HG? Amount Amount Amount Market Income/ List Existing Harvested Consumed Sold price per Savings (in Kg.) (in Kg.) (in Kg.) Kg. 1. Y N 2. Y N 3. Y N 4. Y N 5. Y N J1 6. Y N . 7. Y N 8. Y N 9. Y N 10. Y N 11. Y N 12. Y N 13. Y N 14. Y N 15. Y N 88 Plot # What are the fruit shrubs and trees grown in your HG? Amount Amount Amount Market Income/ List Existing Harvested Consumed Sold price per Savings (in Kg.) (in Kg.) (in Kg.) Kg. 1. Y N 2. Y N J2 3. Y N . 4. Y N 5. Y N 6. Y N 7. Y N 8. Y N 9. Y N 10. Y N Plot # What are the cereal crops grown in your HG? Amount Amount Amount Market Income/ List Existing Harvested Consumed Sold price per Savings (in Kg.) (in Kg.) (in Kg.) Kg. 1. Y N J3 2. Y N . 3. Y N 4. Y N 5. Y N 6. Y N 7. Plot # What are the plantation crops grown in your HG? J4 . List 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Amount Amount Amount Existing Harvested Consumed Sold (in Kg.) (in Kg.) (in Kg.) Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N 89 Market price per Kg. Income/ Savings Plot # What are the spices grown in your HG? List 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. J5 . Amount Amount Amount Existing Harvested Consumed Sold (in Kg.) (in Kg.) (in Kg.) Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Market price per Kg. Income/ Savings Market price per Kg. Income/ Savings J6 . Plot # What mushrooms varieties are grown in your HG? List 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Amount Amount Amount Existing Harvested Consumed Sold (in Kg.) (in Kg.) (in Kg.) Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Plot # What are the herbal/medicinal plants grown in your HG? Amount Amount Amount Harvest Market price List Existing Consume Sold (in ed (in per Kg. d (in Kg.) Kg.) Kg.) 1. Y N 2. Y N J7 3. Y N . 4. Y N 5. Y N 6. Y N 7. Y N 8. Y N 9. Y N 10. Y N 90 Income/ Savings What are the Flowering and Ornamental Plants your HG? Plot # List Planted this year Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. J8. SECTION K: HOME GARDEN: PROCESSING AND VALUE ADDITION K1 Do you process the output from your HG? Yes K2 What methods do you use?     1. 2. 3. 4. No Drying Pickling Preserving Other specify:__________________ K3 What are the key problems you face when processing and value adding to your home garden products? 1. 2. 3. SECTION L: HOME GARDEN AND MARKETING L1 Do you sell products from your HG? Yes No L2 How do you sell the products from your home garden? Because of my home gardens……… L2a. On my own L2b. Through traders L2c. Through cooperatives and self-help groups L2d. Other specify:__________________ L3 Do you find it difficult to sell products from your HG? Always     Sometimes     Yes L4 What are the key problems you face when selling home garden products? 1. 2. 3. 91 Never     No SECTION M: HOME GARDEN AND LIVESTOCK ACTIVITES M1 Does your household carry out any livestock activities at home? M2 List the animals raised at home and their numbers? Yes Type 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. No. Cattle Goats Chickens Pigs Other specify: SECTION N: HOME GARDEN AND LIVESTOCK ACTIVITES N1 Does your household carry out any Bee keeping activities at home? Yes N2 Does your household consume bee  Daily  Often  Sometime honey? SECTION O: HOME GARDEN AND FISHERIES ACTIVITES O1 Does your household raise any fish at home for domestic Yes consumption? SECTION P: USE OF CELL PHONES P1 Do you own a cell/mobile phone? P2 No No  Never No Yes Yes Do you use it to obtain information related to home garden activities? No No Name the public or private organization/s that is provides you this information? P3 SECTION Q: HOME GARDEN IMPACT Q1 Please share your ideas about Because of my home gardens……… Q1a. My family have more food to eat Q1b. My family gets a higher share of vegetables and fruits Q1c. Food from HG is fresh and healthy Q1d. We get to eat a wider variety of foods to eat Q1e. We are better able to afford nonfood items Q1f. We feel relaxed Q1g. We are engaged in some physical activity as a family 92 Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly No Agree Disagree Change                                    Q1h. We were able to start a small business at home using the product from my home garden Q1i. HG help conserve my environment Q1j. HG help reduce our food cost Q1k. HG enable us to earn additional income Q1l. Home gardening has benefited my family Q1m. I intend to continue to pursue Home gardening activities Q1n. I will encourage others to pursue home gardening                                    THE END Thank you for your cooperation 93 APPENDIX C: Insect Pests, Weeds, and Diseases in Home Gardens Table 16: Insects and Mites Commonly Found in Home Gardens in Northern Sri Lanka and the Severity of Incidence Severity of Incidence Crop Common name Zoological name Banana Rhizome weevil Pseudo stem weevil Cosmopolites sordidus Odoiporus longicollis * * *** ** *** ** * *** * * ** Leaf minor DBM Cabbage borer Flea beetle Mealy bug Mealy bug Pod borer Spottedpod borer Leaf minor Mealy bug Coconut mite Rhinoceros beetle Squirrels Mango hoppers Leaf burning Thrips Tetranychus sp Paracoccus marginatus Scirtothrips dorsalis Polyphagotarsonemus latus Aphis gossypii Tetranychus sp Virus-Bemissia tabaci vector Earias vitella, E. insulana Leucinodes orbonalis Liriomyza sp. L. sativae, L. huidobrensis Plutella xylostella Crocidolomya binotalis Phyllotreta citrollela Paracoccus marginatus Paracoccus marginatus Helicoverpa armigera Maruca testulalis Liriomyza sp. Paracoccus marginatus Aceria guarreronis Oryctes rhinoceros Funambulus palmarum Amritodes atkinsoni Not known Not identified Mite Not identified *** Not identified ** Paracoccus marginatus *** 2 Red spider mite Mealy bug Thrips Broad mite Aphid Red spider mite Yellow mosaic Fruit borer Shoot and fruit borer Chilli Okra Eggplant Tomato Cabbage Guava Pomegranate Long beans Papaya Coconut Mango Arecanut 1 Glyricidia Thespecia sp 1 3 Croton Thrips 2 Mealy bug 3 * *** ** ** *** *** *** ** *** *** **** **** ** **** **** * Hibiscus Mealy bug Paracoccus marginatus *** ****Severe, ***Moderate, **Less Severe, and *Least Severe 1 2 Green leaf manures and fodder trees grown in the life fence, Occur during the dry seasons, 3 Ornamental plants 94 Table 17: Weeds Commonly Found in Home Gardens in Northern Sri Lanka and the Severity of Incidence Weeds Botanical names Family Cyperus rotundus Poaceae Trianthema portulacastum Aizoaceae Brassica sp (wild species) Brassicaceae Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae Tridax procumbans Asteraceae Cyanodon dactylon Poaceae Gynandropis sp Brassicaceae ****Severe, ***Moderate, **Less Severe, and *Least Severe Severity of Incidence **** ** *** * ** *** * Table 18: Diseases Commonly Found in Home Gardens in Northern Sri Lanka and the Severity of Incidence Crop Common name Zoological name Fusarium oxysporum f.sp cubense Banana Marasmiellus inoderma Stem rot Cercospora Virus-Bemissia tabaci Okra Yellow mosaic vector Canker Xanthomonas axonopodis Citrus Gummosis Phytophthora parasitica Long Beans Powdery mildew Erisiphe sp. Leaf spot Cercosphora sp Mango Leaf burning Not known ****Severe, ***Moderate, **Less Severe, and *Least Severe Bunch top of banana Severity of Incidence * * * * ** ** * ** **** Source: Information provided by Department of Agricultural Biology, University of Jaffna (2012) 95 REFERENCES 96 REFERENCES Brownrigg, L. (1985). Home Gardening in International Development: What the Literature Shows. Washington DC, USA: The League for International Food Education. Commonwealth of Australia, Food Standards Australia New Zealand, and the University of New South Wales, 2012. Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Tuber Nutrition Information. [Online]. Available at: http://108.175.8.155/dev/amorphophallus-paeoniifolius-tuberfood-8536.html?food_measure_g=0.01&magnitude=100&action=process Department of Agriculture, Government of Sri Lanka, 2006. Crop Recommendation. [Online]. Available at: www.agridept.gov.lk/index.php/en/crop-recommendations Dialog Tradenet and Govi Gnana Seva, 2010. Agriculture Prices. [Online] Available at: http://www.tradenet.lk [Accessed March 2012]. Duke, J. A., 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. s.l.:Unpublished. Eyzaguirre, P. B., and Linares, O. F. (2004). Introduction. In P. B. Eyzaguirre, and O. F. Linares (Eds.), Homegardens and agrobiodiversity (pp. 1–28). Washington D.C., USA: Smithsonian Books. Institute of Medicine , 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron,manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc., Washington, D. C., USA: National Academy Press. Jalalpure, S. S., Agrawal, N., Patil, M. B., Chimkode, R., and Tripathi, A. (2008). Antimicrobial and wound healing activities of leaves of Alternanthera sessilis Linn. International Journal of Green Pharmacy, 2, 141-144. Kumar, B. M., and Nair, P. K. (2004). The enigma of tropical homegardens. Agroforestry Systems, 61, 35–152. Mitchell, R., and Hanstad, T. (2004 ). Small homegarden plots and sustainable livelihoods for the poor. 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Garden production systems and food security in Ghana: Characteristics of traditional knowledge and management systems. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 20(3), 168–180. 99 5. INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO ENHANCE HOME GARDENS FOR IMPROVED FOOD SECURITY, NUTRITION, AND LIVELIHOODS IN SRI LANKA ABSTRACT As a part of the overall strategy for the post-conflict rebuilding of northern Sri Lanka, the government is taking positive steps to enhance food security and livelihoods of the victims of the 30-year conflict. In this direction, the government launched a home gardens initiative in the country for enhancing household food security and livelihoods. This program aims to promote and scale-up home gardens as an intervention to enhance national and local food security particularly in the post-conflict areas. Since the civil war ended in 2009, more than 500 new home gardens have been supported and established by government and non-governmental organizations. The gardens are contributing to household food and nutritional security and, in some cases, to income generation for resource poor families in the North. This paper discusses strategies and presents potential interventions for enhancing and sustaining home gardens in the Northern region of Sri Lanka. The University of Jaffna (UoJ) is proactively engaged in enhancing agricultural research and rural development in the North. Under the South Asia Partnership Initiative, Michigan State University (MSU) is collaborating with UoJ to design and implement a long-term program and an action plan for agricultural development. This will complement the national strategy to improve food and nutritional security and economic growth. The UoJ is partnering with MSU to establish a model home garden at their new campus location in Killinochchi to serve as a research, education, and extension/outreach site that will be launched in 2013. In addition, MSU will collaborate with UoJ to develop a Master Home 100 Gardener Program (MHGP) that will involve innovative gardeners and farmers in the region in implementing an education and outreach programs. The UoJ-MSU partnership will also lead to the enhancement of curriculum through the development of a resource manual for students, trainers, and home gardeners. Leveraging on the new tools of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), an innovative program will be launched for empowering local home gardeners with up-to-date information through the use of cell phones. The proposed UoJ and MSU collaborative programs will give due consideration to social equity and will serve the interest of poor and female-headed households in the North. Key words: Home Gardens, Food Security, Livelihood, Nutrition, Women Empowerment, Postconflict, cell phones 101 BACKGROUND Enhancing agricultural productivity and food security remains a high priority of the Sri Lankan government for the post-conflict rebuilding and the reconciliation process and as well as in the overall welfare of the country (Petersson, et al., 2011). A number of innovative programs have been launched to improve agriculture and livelihoods of resource poor families in the war affected areas. Among these programs, the establishment and development of home gardens has captured much attention. Over the past three years, governmental and other non-governmental organizations involved in post-conflict rebuilding activities have supported the establishment of more than 500 new home gardens in the conflict-affected areas in the North targeting war victims and displaced families. Home gardening is a longstanding agricultural practice in many parts of the world (Ninez, 1985; Hoogerbrugge and Fresco, 1993; Mitchell and Hanstad, 2004). The extensive literature review conducted by Galhena et al. (2012a) also found multiple benefits from home gardens to communities in developing countries. As a part of the long-term national strategy, the Sri Lankan government aims to establish around one million home gardens throughout the country to contribute towards national food security. ROLE OF UNIVERSITY OF JAFFNA AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NORTHERN AREAS OF SRI LANKA The University of Jaffna, established in 1979 (website: http://www.jfn.ac.lk ), is a public university whose Faculty of Agriculture has a mandate for research and education. The Government of Sri Lanka has allocated more than 600 acres of land to the university to establish a new campus for the Faculty of Agriculture in the Killinochchi area in the Northern Province. 102 Due to the growing demand from local communities for agricultural development, the University of Jaffna aims to position itself as the principal institution for conducting and disseminating agricultural education, research, and outreach programs to home gardeners, farmers, self-help groups, and rural communities as well as training the next generation of leaders and stakeholders in agriculture. Under the South Asia Partnership initiative, Michigan State University has signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the University of Jaffna with an intention to develop a number of collaborative programs in agricultural research, education, and development. One of the collaborative programs between UoJ and MSU focuses on home gardens to enhance food security in post-conflict areas. A preliminary needs assessment was conducted in collaboration with UoJ through a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis. The information for the SWOT analysis was gathered through personal interviews with various stakeholders which included home gardeners, farmers, faculty member of UoJ, and representatives of self-help groups, local and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and government officials in the Northern areas. As a part of this process, personal visits were made to 20 home gardens across the region and the views from home gardeners were documented. The majority of the stakeholders stressed the need for better access to information, research, education, outreach, and advisory services on home gardening in order to make home gardening a successful venture (Figure 9). In addition, 167 home gardens were surveyed throughout the Jaffna District of Sri Lanka (Galhena, et al., 2012b). The survey reveals that home gardening has resulted in many benefits to families affected by the civil war in terms of enhancing food security and household 103 Figure 9: SWOT Analysis of Home Gardens in Sri Lanka Strengths      Access to additional sources of fresh, nutrient-rich, and diversified food sources such as vegetables and fruits Provide additional income to households Provide eco-systems services, conserve local biodiversity and indigenous knowledge Provide resilience against food shortages and price fluctuations Involve local self-help groups in home garden activities Weaknesses      Limited access to land to expand Poor access to inputs such as seeds, water, credit and post-harvest practices Weak extension/outreach and advisory services Poor access to markets and market information Ensuring long-term sustainability Opportunities          Providing additional income generation and livelihood activities Empowering women and improving the standard of living of women-headed households Introducing high value and under-utilized crops for food and medical markets Developing new education, outreach, and extension programs on home gardening Developing research programs on home garden models for various agroecological zones and scaling up in other parts of Sri Lanka Innovating technologies for post-harvest management, processing, value-addition, and marketing Using new Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) to deliver real-time information on home gardens Leveraging indigenous knowledge, local biodiversity, and best practices for home gardeners Creating education opportunities for students, youth, and trainers Threats     Possible loss of government support for home gardens and agricultural development Continuing economic hardships Impacts of climate change on food production and abiotic and biotic stresses Cultural and social norms that exists amongst communities and home gardeners 104 livelihoods. The results of the survey further reinforces the need for research, training, education, and advisory services to enhance the productivity and profitability of home gardens. The broad areas of applied research, education, and outreach fit very well with the mission and goals of MSU and UoJ. Hence, as a collaborative activity between the two universities, the following four innovative programs will be developed and implemented over the next 3 to 5 years. PROPOSED COLLABORATIVE PROGRAMS BETWEEN MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY AND UNIVERSITY OF JAFFNA FOR ENHANCING HOME GARDENS IN THE NORTHERN AREAS OF SRI LANKA Model Home Garden Home gardens can play a major role in improving food security and livelihoods. In line with the institutional capacity building process, the Faculty of Agriculture of UoJ in collaboration with MSU will be establishing a model home garden at UoJ’s new campus in Killinochchi. This model home garden will be an integral part of the proposed Agricultural Innovation, Training and Outreach Center of the university that will be located at the new campus. The university has already allocated one acre of land for the establishment of this Model Home Garden. The Model gardens will serve as a Student Field School (SFS) for demonstrating agricultural technologies and training university students, youth, and school children. In addition, SFS will play a key role in educating and training local home gardeners, farmers, and trainers in the region. The university also aims to enhance its current curriculum for students and develop special training modules for local trainers including innovative home gardeners and farmers through a Training of Trainers Program (ToT). Practical hands-on short courses will also be offered for home gardeners. These programs will include both generic and specialized courses 105 and modules based on the training requirements identified by Galhena, et al. (2012b) and emerging home gardening related issues. The education and outreach programs will place special emphasis on serving the marginalized communities including poverty stricken and female-headed households in the North. In designing the Model Home Garden, five core principles will be considered. They include: I. II. Diversification by including a variety of crops, livestock, and beekeeping Intensification through methods such as inter-croping, vertical gardening and permaculture III. Spatial and Temporal distribution as well as crop rotations IV. Integrated soil, water, and pest management V. Harvest, post-harvest handling, and value addition. The types of crops and other components that will be included in the Model Home Garden are outlined in Figure 10. The Model Home Garden will be developed using the best components and best practices existing in successful home gardens of innovative gardeners in the region as well as innovative practices deduced by best practices for crop production. To simulate real world home garden, the home garden will include a house where a family will live and manage the home garden. Prior to establishing the Model Home Garden, a stakeholder consultation will be held to seek input from home gardeners and other stakeholders supporting home gardens. The model garden also will harness and utilize experiences and expertise from other parts Sri Lanka and other developing countries. Concerted efforts will be made to utilize local resources and local biodiversity, while blending indigenous knowledge with modern technologies and low-input strategies. 106 Figure 10: Schematic Diagram of Home Garden to be established in Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jaffna at Killinochchi, Sri Lanka Plot Description 1 Leafy vegetable and medicinal plants Banana and Ginger Vegetable garden 1 Compost unit Animal house Multiple garden 1 Vegetable garden 2 Vegetable – climbers Spice and medicinal plants Vegetable garden 3 Vegetable garden 4 Kitchen garden Banana and other medicinal plants Fruit crops and medicinal plants Multiple garden 2 Multipurpose Trees and vegetables Fruits crops Plant Nursery Unit Courtyard and ornamental section Leafy vegetables and medicinal plants Ornamental and medicinal plants Multiple garden 3 Multiple garden 4 Fruit trees and shrubs Fruit trees and shrubs Family home Lavatory 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Multiple gardens will consist of all kinds of crops in different strata including root and tuber crops, herbs, and medicinal plants. Since each plot is 100m2 (10m X 10m), plants will be selected based on their canopy strength and productivity. The four sides will be with live fence having tree crops, green-leaf manures, medicinal plants, and fodder. Bee hives will also be included in the model home garden. 107 Master Home Gardener Program (MHGP) Experiences from around the world have shown that the local farmers are the most dominant source of information for other farmers (National Sample Survey Organization, India, 2005). The research survey conducted on 167 home gardens in the Jaffna District confirms that neighbors and other farmers are the most dominant source of information for home gardeners (Figure 11). Figure 11: Sources of Information and Training for Home Gardeners NGOs and self-help groups, 15% Dealers and private firms, 19% Media, 10% University and Govt. extension service, 23% Other farmers, 33% Source: Galhena, et al., 2012 These gardeners are a logical focal point for generation and dissemination of information to their regions. University of Jaffna and Michigan State University will collaborate to develop a Master Home Gardener Program (MHGP) to promote and enhance home gardens. The goal of this program is to empower and share the knowledge, expertise, and experiences of innovative home gardeners and use their home gardens as on-farm research and demonstration sites for providing education and training to other home gardeners in the region. The innovative gardeners selected for the MHGP program will be trained at the Model Home Garden at UoJ and will become a part of the network of trainers for a specific period time through a mutual 108 agreement. Training and outreach programs offered by the MHGP program will provide equal opportunities to people from various social and economic backgrounds and give due consideration to vulnerable sections of the society. Initially, three to four innovative farmers will be selected representing different ecosystems of the Northern region. Their home gardens will serve as “Seeing is believing” – demonstration sites to practically exhibit successful home gardens to other home gardeners. Additionally, these gardens will be utilized as Gardener Field Schools (GFS) and will be used for field days in extension and outreach programs implemented by the University of Jaffna. As incentive for the participation in the MHGP, these leading home gardeners will be rewarded financially and will be given a certificate of “Master Home Gardener” by the university and the government. Home Garden Manual Another collaborative activity through the UoJ-MSU partnership will be to jointly develop a comprehensive resource manual on home gardens. This manual will serve as a home garden training and outreach guide and will be used in SFS and GFSs. An outline of this manual is presented in Figure 12. This framework will be shared with progressive home gardeners, extension workers, and subject-matter specialists to seek their input and feedback. The Home Garden Manual will be written in simple and easy to read format with photos and diagrams demonstrating various concepts, techniques, and best practices in home gardening. The manual will be published in English, Tamil, and Sinhala languages. Other guides that might be useful in the development of this manual are identified in Figure 12. An electronic version of the Home Garden Manual will be freely available to home gardeners through UoJ’s Faculty of 109 Figure 12: Handbook of Home Gardening in Sri Lanka I. Background  What is home gardening?  Why do we need a home garden?  What are the benefits of Home Gardening? II. Introduction to home gardening  Inputs required for home gardening  Low input sustainable methods of home gardening  Kinds of crops grown in home gardens and crop calendar  Common problems related home gardening III. Gardening Tools and Equipment IV. Seeds and Planting Material Selection of crops and seed sources Diversification - Crop Rotation, Intercropping, and Vertical Gardening V. Sowing, Transplanting and Crop Establishment VI. Livestock, fisheries, and bee keeping activities VII. Soil and Fertility Management Use of Manure, Compost, and Fertilizer Vermi-composting VIII. Water Management IX. Integrated Pest Management - Identification and Management Insect, Diseases, Weeds, and Vertebrate Pests Botanical Pesticides and Biological Control Agents X. Harvesting, Storage, Processing, and Preservation XI. Marketing of Home Garden Products XII. Monitoring and Evaluation of Home Gardens XIII. Selected Photos XIV. Fact Sheets: Production and Nutrition Additional Resources for Home Gardening:  Helen Keller International - Cambodia. (2003). Handbook of Home Gardening in Cambodia – The Complete Manual for Vegetable and Fruit Production. (A. Talukder, Ed.) Phnom Penh, Cambodia: Helen Keller Worldwide.  Landon-Lane, C. (2011). Livelihoods Grow in Gardens - Diversifying Rural Income Through Home Garden (2 ed.). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.  Ranasinghe, T. T. (2009). Manual of Low/No-Space Agriculture cum-Family Business Gardens. AN Leusden, The Netherlands: RUAF Foundation.  Weimer, A. (2008 ). Homestead Gardening: a manual for Program managers, implementers, and Practitioners. Maryland, USA: Catholic Relief Services—United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. 110 Agriculture website as well as in a portable CD. Along with the manual, several information fliers, brochures, and handbooks will also be produced targeting specific aspects of home gardening such as common weeds, insects and diseases, composting, bee keeping, mushroom cultivation, etc.. These outreach materials will be developed in consultation with subject-matter specialists at the University of Jaffna and other institutions in the country. Cell Phone enabled Advisory Services The SWOT analysis and the results of the survey of home gardens indicated that access to information and advisory services is a major constraint in home gardening (Galhena, et al., 2012b). The existing extension and advisory system is inadequate to meet the information needs of the home gardeners. There is limited access to information by farmers and home gardeners. They need timely information on “know-how” to manage home gardens. Fundamental informational needs include: I. II. “Cultivation Information” such as what and when to plant “Contextual information” such as weather, best practice for cultivation, and pest outbreaks in the locality III. “Market information” such as wholesale prices and demand indicators IV. “Logistical information” such as extension meetings and agricultural fairs The recent advances in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) offer a gainful opportunity to deliver information to farmers and households in an inexpensive and efficient manner. Cell phones (also referred as mobile phones) have been the fastest adopted ICT technology in the developing world (Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations, 2009) including Sri Lanka (The World Bank, 2012). In addition to their portability, simplicity, and convenience, cell phones are often the only means of telecommunication in rural 111 areas where public telephone services are sparsely developed. Hence, cell phone technology offers a lucrative solution for people to communicate and access information. The home gardeners that participated in the needs assessment in Jaffna area indicated that nearly 75 percent of them own and use cell phones in their daily life (Galhena et al. 2012). The increasing penetration of cell phones into agricultural communities in Sri Lanka presents an opportunity to widely deliver agricultural information. The recent introduction of a number of cell phone enabled information service applications opens new doors and facilitates the dissemination of a wide range of information to home-based food producers and small-scale farmers in Sri Lanka. There are multiple ways that home gardens can benefit from a cell phone enabled advisory service. For instance, information related to extension meetings can be delivered through a SMS. Also home gardeners can receive market information such as prices and potential buyers. Furthermore, as this technology advances, home gardeners can use cell phone to identify and diagnose specific problems in home gardens including pests, diseases, and nutrient deficiencies through Multimedia Message Services (MMS). Michigan State University has initiated a pilot project on cell phone enabled agro-advisory services with the International Horticulture Innovation and Training Center (IHITC) based in India. In addition, MSU has collaborative links with M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation that is currently exploring the use of ICT tools to deliver agricultural information. Through these links, MSU will work with the scientists and ICT specialists from University of Jaffna to design and implement a cell phone enabled advisory program for home gardeners in Northern areas of Sri Lanka. 112 WAY FORWARD The University of Jaffna in collaboration with Michigan State University has developed and submitted a proposal to the National Science Foundation (NSF) of Sri Lanka for a five-year grant towards enhancing home gardens in Sri Lanka with a focus on the Northern region. This collaborative proposal has received a favorable response from the NSF-Sri Lanka and is expected to begin early next year. The proposed collaborative activities between UoJ and MSU will be implemented under this grant program. 113 REFERENCES 114 REFERENCES Galhena, D. H. et al., 2012a. Role of Home Gardens in Food and Nutrition Security, and Income Generation in Northern Sri Lanka. Working paper. Galhena, D. H. et al., 2012b. Review of Home Garden in Sri Lanka and other Developing Countries. Working Paper. Helen Keller International - Cambodia, 2003. Handbook of Home Gardening in Cambodia – The Complete Manual for Vegetable and Fruit Production. Phnom Penh, Cambodia:: Helen Keller Worldwide. Hoogerbrugge, I. and Fresco, L. O., 1993. Homegarden systems: agricultural characteristics and challenges., London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations, 2009. India: the impact of mobile phones , New Delhi, India: Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations. Landon-Lane, C., 2011. Livelihoods Grow in Gardens - Diversifying Rural Income Through Home Garden. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Mitchell, R. and Hanstad, T., 2004 . Small homegarden plots and sustainable livelihoods for the poor, Rome, Italy: Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations. National Sample Survey Organization, India, 2005. Situation assessment survey of farmers conducted, New Delhi, India: Government of India (GoI). Ninez, V., 1985. Working at half-potential: constructive analysis of homegarden programme in the Lima slums with suggestions for an alternative approach. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 7 (3), pp. 6-13. Petersson, A., Nanayakkara, L. K. R. H. W. A. and Liyanapathirana, R., 2011. Food Security in the Northern, Eastern and North Central Provinces - a Food Security Assessment Report, Colombo, Sri Lanka: The United Nations World Food Programme (WFP), the Ministry of Economic Development (MED), and Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute (HARTI). Ranasinghe, T. T., 2009. Manual of Low/No-Space Agriculture cum-Family Business Gardens. AN Leusden, The Netherlands: RUAF Foundation. 115 The World Bank, 2012. World Development Indicators. [Online] Available at: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.CEL.SETS.P2 116 6. SYNTHESIS Food Security remains a major challenge for developing countries around the world and for Sri Lanka as the population continues to grow. The looming impacts of climate change and depleting natural resources are threatening food production and agricultural productivity worldwide. The food security challenges for Sri Lanka are even more daunting as the country is just coming out of a 30-year long civil war and the devastation caused by the 2004 Tsunami. With the civil conflict ending in 2009, the major challenge for the Sri Lankan Government is to meet the immediate food needs and create quick impacts in terms of meeting the local food demands and reducing poverty, hunger and malnutrition in communities in war affected areas. This is very important for building peaceful communities and the reconciliation process in postconflict Sri Lanka. As a part of the post-conflict rebuilding of Sri Lanka, the government is implementing multiple approaches for meeting short-term needs while addressing long-term development of agricultural sector to enhance food security in a sustainable manner. In this context, along with the broader agricultural development programs, the government is promoting and supporting the establishment of home gardens to enhance household food security and improving livelihoods of the people in war affected and other areas of the country. As a part of the national strategy, the government aims to establish one million home gardens in the country. Additionally, in the wake of recent global food crisis and the soaring food prices, there has been increased emphasis on enhancing and building local food systems. In this context, there is renewed attention to food production and livelihood enhancement through home gardens. 117 Home gardens have been an integral part of local food systems and agricultural landscapes of developing countries all over the world, including Sri Lanka. LESSONS FROM THE PAST While the Sri Lankan government is promoting and plans to scale-up home gardens nationally, a research study was needed to analyze the potential contributions of home gardens in enhancing local food production and food security. The extensive review of the literature on home gardens from developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America strongly support the positive contributions of home gardens for social and economic development. The literature supports that home gardens fulfill social, economic, cultural needs, while providing a number of ecosystem services. The literature pinpoints that the home gardens provide supplemental sources of food and nutritional security. Although the structure, functions, and contributions of home gardens vary in different geographic regions of the world, home gardens fit well with the broader agricultural research and development agenda in terms of serving as a locally available source of fresh food products, especially vegetables, fruits, roots and tubers, herbs, medicinal plants and livestock based foods. While there are multiple benefits of home gardens for resource poor families in developing countries, the literature also highlights key constraints in home gardens and makes recommendations for improving home gardens and making them a viable and sustainable enterprise. New programs are required to help support home gardeners to sustain their activities and scale-up and transition to small-scale commercial farms through the formation of cooperatives and links with agri-businesses and value chains. Home gardens only provide a partial solution to food and nutritional security. The comprehensive food security programs 118 therefore must include and address issues related to both home gardens as well as field-based and commercial agricultural production systems. Overall, the findings from the developing world support the inclusion and promotion of home gardens as an eco-friendly sustainable agricultural practice to improve food security. More empirical evidence on the value and importance of home gardens in conflict and post-conflict situations needs to be researched and documented. Further, long-term research is needed on the cost-benefit analysis of home gardening to determine the economic value and describe viable models that hold the most promise in different contexts and their impacts on nutrition, gender issues, and long-term sustainability. HOME GARDENS AND FOOD SECURITY IN SRI LANKA As mentioned earlier, food security remains a high priority for the government of Sri Lanka. As a part of the post-conflict rebuilding of Sri Lanka, the government has established more than 500 home gardens in the Northern region of Sri Lanka which was severely affected during the long civil war. This research study examined the current role of home gardens as a supplemental source of food using the research data obtained through the survey of 167 home gardens in the Jaffna District of Sri Lanka. The average size of the home gardens was found to be 0.4 acre. As many as 29 useful plant species were found in home gardens surveyed with an average of nine useful plant species including vegetables, fruits, plantation crops, spices, and ornamental, medicinal and herbal plants. Of these nine species, seven were edible plants. A combination of 28 species of vegetables, 16 species of fruit crops, and 14 species of herbs/medicinal plants were found across the gardens surveyed. The home gardens surveyed were found to be diverse and providing 119 supplemental sources of fresh and nutritionally rich sources of food that fit with local culture and traditions. The most important constraints identified included weeds, insect pests and diseases, limited capital, shortage of labor, damage due to weather, and lack of access to information and extension/advisory services. The home gardeners strongly stated the need for timely information, education, and training on various aspects of home garden management including bee keeping, composting, maintaining nurseries of planting materials, pest and soil management, as well as integrating livestock activities and cultivating mushrooms. Home gardeners indicated that their neighbors and other farmers are the most important source of information for home gardening related activities. The food production data revealed that on an average 140 kg of vegetables, 408 kg of fruits, and 118 coconuts were produced in home gardens in one growing season. The produce was mainly used for household consumption and for marketing to generate income creating a total economic value of US $296 per garden per growing season. The post-harvest losses were found to be lower as most of the produce was either consumed by the households, shared with neighbors, or sold in the local markets soon after the harvest. When total market value per home garden was extrapolated to a million gardens in the country as per the long-term goals of the Sri Lankan government, the value of the home garden production was estimated to be US $296 million. ENHANCING AND SCALING-UP HOME GARDENS IN SRI LANKA The findings of this research study are being used by the University of Jaffna to develop innovative strategies to enhance and promote home gardens as a mechanism to improve food and nutritional security. Based on the needs and constraints identified by the home gardeners, four 120 joint collaborative programs are proposed to be designed and implemented between University of Jaffna (UoJ) and Michigan State University (MSU). First, a model home garden will be established at the UoJ campus in Killinochchi to serve as a research, education and outreach site. Second, a Master Home Gardener Program will be developed involving progressive gardeners to serve as trainers to other home gardeners. Third, a user-friendly resource manual on best practices in home gardening will be developed to enhance educational and training programs. Lastly, an innovative program will be launched using mobile phones to empower local home gardeners with up-to-date information on various aspects of home gardening. The funding for these collaborative programs will be provided through a 5 year grant from the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka. This research study may lead to some policy implications in terms of agricultural research and development in Sri Lanka. The research results clearly indicate that home gardens are contributing to food security, income generation, and livelihoods in the Northern region of Sri Lanka through the production of diverse set of vegetables, fruits, herbs, plantation crops, ornamentals, and livestock products. The enhanced food availability through home gardens is contributing to the Sri Lankan Government’s National Food Drive as well as the UN Millennium Development goals in terms of reducing hunger and poverty. Food Security will always remain a corner stone of economic growth in any country. Food Security will play an important role in building a peaceful society in post-conflict Sri Lanka. This research study serves as an important baseline and a reference point for enhancing and scaling up home gardens in Sri Lanka. Based on the research results, it is recommended that home garden programs should be scaled-up and further expanded in the country as a supplemental source of food and nutrition, income, and livelihood enhancements while considering the long-term sustainability of home gardens. 121 POTENTIAL AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH This research study has raised many questions and issues that need further research. Some of the key questions and issues raised include the following: I. Long-term impacts of home gardens on household food security and economic growth in post-conflict situations? II. How livestock/poultry can be better integrated into current home gardening systems in Sri Lanka. III. What long-term role home gardens can play in terms of dietary diversification and family nutrition? IV. What long-term role home gardens can play in terms of women empowerment and gender equity? V. 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