‘~‘ -‘Jufi9- “- fi-énpl‘.“ ‘l‘g; LIBRARY BMHLIAEFMHJScan: University _ This is to certify that the thesis entitled A CLOZE TEST ASSESSMENT OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN READING COMPREHENSION IN THE ARABIC LANGUAGE AND THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS AND CLASS ROOM PERFORMANCE OlfNAlIUSXEAEEUDENT TEACHERS presented by Mohammed Habib-Allah has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Education degree in WWI? Maj r ofessor Datejgmm w; ”/77 0—7639 V ".V 0' ¢ 5:! (ff-“3““ ‘ Ll ‘QP‘VI/l" 4, W1 I 1 OVERDUE FINES: 25¢ per day per item RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS N Place in book return to new charge from circulation rec: A CLOZE TEST ASSESSMENT OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN READING COMPREHENSION IN THE ARABIC LANGUAGE AND THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS AND CLASSROOM PERFORMANCE OF ARAB STUDENT TEACHERS IN ISRAEL By Mohammed Habib-Allah A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Division of Student Teaching and Professional Development College of Education 1979 ABSTRACT A CLOZE TEST ASSESSMENT OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN READING COMPREHENSION IN THE ARABIC LANGUAGE AND THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS AND CLASSROOM PERFORMANCE OF ARAB STUDENT TEACHERS IN ISRAEL By Mohammed H. Habib-Allah Purpose of the Study Since a great deal of time and effort on the part of both teachers and students in the teacher education program in the Arab State Teachers' College at Haifa-Israel is devoted to the accumulation of knowledge, and since there is criticism of the low achievement of the student tea- chers in both their academic success and classroom performance, it was of interest to investigate the relationships between the student teachers' reading comprehension in the Arabic language and their academic success and classroom performance. Reading comprehension, certainly a factor in the accumulation of knowledge, may be unusually difficult for Arab students because of the dichtomy between formal and the spoken Arabic. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships be- tween these variables. One hundred forty three second year student teachers were the subjects in this study, which was designed to investi- gate four major questions: (1) do student teachers who achieve highly in reading comprehension achieve highly in their courses at the college?; (2) does reading comprehension as a competency in teacher education af- fect the student teacher's classroom performance?; (3) is there any re- lationship between the student teacher's general knowledge and classroom performance?; and (4) do the student teachers who score highly in the Arabic language course in the teacher education program score highly Mohammed H. Habib-Allah in the Cloze Test of Arabic Reading Comprehension? These four questions became the basis for four research hypotheses in this study. Methodology The study was designed to test possible relationships between reading comprehension in the Arabic language and student teachers' academic success and classroom performance. The Cloze Test of Arabic Reading Comprehension (CTARC) served as the independent variable. The dependent variables consisted of: (1) college grade-point average (CGPA) in fifteen academic subjects and (2) the college supervisors' judgment of classroom performance in the first year and first trimester in second year. The Cloze technique was used as the instrument for reading compre- liension measurement. The researcher designed and administered a two ruaur CTARC composed of four passages, two from the professional (educa- trional) disciplines and two from Arabic literature. Both the professional aruj the literary passages were of two kinds: descriptive and analyti- cal. The results of test item analysis indicated a reliability coeffi- cient of .79 for the whole test. Findings of the Study Tests were made for the four null hypotheses of the study. All ftnir were rejected (alpha = .05). The general conclusions were sup- porteci by the following findings: (1) There is a significant correlation of r = .42 between CTARC arud academic success as reflected by the CGPA. A further statistical analysis showed a multiple R of .55 and a canonical correlation of .59. Mohammed H. Habib-Allah (2) There is a significant correlation of r = .43 between CTARC and classroom performance. Further analysis showed a multiple R of .45 and canonical correlation of .48 between variables. (3) There is a significant correlation of r = .44 (average) be- tween CGPA and the classroom performance. The multiple R was .63 and the canonical correlation was .62. (4) There is a significant correlation of r = .21 (average) be- tween the CTARC and the Arabic course. The multiple R was .39 and the canonical correlation .42. Conclusions The researcher's conclusions were: (1) reading comprehension in the Arabic language correlates positively to academic success and class- room performance; (2) student teacher knowledge correlates positively to classroom performance; (3) the Cloze technique is promising for Arab education in (a) policy making, (b) decision making on admission, selec- tion and retention of students and (c) possible future prediction of success in student teaching. DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the one who was always a source of love, inspiration and encouragement. To the one who stood by me at the most difficult of times. To the one who was always un- selfishly prepared to make one more sacrifice for me. To the one who made the completion of this dissertation and my doctoral program pos- sible...to my wife EKHLASS. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The researcher wishes to acknowledge his appreciation and deep gratitude to Dr. w. H. Kennedy; Advisor, Chairperson of Guidance Com- mittee and Director of the Dissertation. His commitment, positive con- cern, support, help and gentle encouragement were instrumental in the researcher's growth and development throughout the doctoral program. My sincere appreciation and deep gratitude also to the members of the doctoral committee: Dr. R. Hatfield, Dr. D. Heenan and Dr. Sheila Fitzgerald. To them is due the credit for many hours of cooperation and assistance concerning this study. Very special thanks are given to Dr. Donald J. Freeman for the invaluable statistical assistance and many helpful suggestions through- out this study. Special acknowledgment is also due to Dr. Keith Goldhammer, the Dean of the College of Education at M.S.U., and my friends, the Director and the faculty in the Arab State Teachers' College at Haifa-Israel. I am deeply indebted to Dave Solomon in the Office of Research Consultation for the help with the use of the computer facilities and programs, and to do Cornell for typing this dissertation. To them my sincere thanks. Loving gratitude is extended to my children; Rania, Rami, Samira, Suha, and Ameer, who in their own special way understood their father's pursuit. Deep appreciation is also extended to my father, mother, brothers and sisters for inspiring me with their love and feeling of pride. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ......................... LIST OF FIGURES ......................... LIST OF ABREVIATIONS ...................... Chapter I. THE PROBLEM ....................... Introduction ..................... Statement of the Problem ............... Purpose of the Study ................. Need for the Study .................. Significance of the Study ............... Research Questions and Hypotheses ........... Definitions of Important Terms ............ Limitations ...................... Background materials ................. Organization of the Study . . . ............ II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE .................. Introduction ..................... Review of Literature related to reading comprehension ................ Review of Literature related to Cloze Procedure ................... Review of Literature related to Academic Success .................. Review of Literature related to Classroom Performance ................ Summary ........................ III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY ........... Introduction ..................... Population ...................... Instrumentation - Test Reliability and Validity .................... Research Questions and Hypotheses ........... Data Collection and Data Analysis ........... Summary ........................ IV. FINDINGS (results) ................... Statistical Procedures Used .............. Presentation of the Data and Testing Hypotheses ................. Hypothesis One ................... Hypothesis Two ................... Hypothesis Three .................. Hypothesis Four ................... Summary ........................ iv 85 85 85 97 108 113 118 Chapter Page V. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ........... 121 Introduction ...................... 121 Summary (overview) ................... 121 Discussion and Conclusions ............... 127 Implications ...................... 138 Recommendations for Further Research .......... 139 APPENDICES ............................ 143 A. TABLES OF RELATED FINDINGS ................ 144 B. CLOZE TEST OF ARABIC READING COMPREHENSION ........ 148 The Arabic Edition ................... 149 Key Answers ...................... 160 The English Translation ................ 168 C. COLLEGE SUPERVISORS' RATING FORM ............. 174 The Arabic Form .................... 175 English Translation .................. 176 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................... 177 Table 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 4-1 LIST OF TABLES The distribution of courses required of all the Arab Student teachers for the primary schools (K-6), in hours per week ............ '. . Distribution of the sample by subject area special- ization and sex .................. Distribution of the sample by living place (town, village, bedwin) and sex .............. Distribution of the sample by Matriculation Examina- tion Certificate and sex .............. Differences in performance on cloze subtests for the whole population .................. Stratified sample for item analysis and reliability of the subtests . . . . .p ....... A correlational matrix of the inter subtests'corre— lations and reliability coefficients ........ A correlation matrix of a pilot study, between variables related to academic success and classroom performance ............... Results of ANOVA tests of differences in the per- formance of Males/Females in various dependent measures ...................... Results of ANOVA tests of differences in the per- fbrmance of student teachers from different places of residence in various dependent measures ...................... Results of ANOVA tests of differences in the per- fbrmance of age groups in various dependent measures ...................... Results of ANOVA tests of differences in the per- formance of different specialization area groups in various dependent measures ........ Simple correlations between the CTARC (Cloze subtests and total scores) and academic success (CGPA) and the mean score of SGPA ............. vi Page 60 6O 61 61 63 '65 65 7O 77 78 79 80 86 Table 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-11 4-12 Overall multiple regression equations (R) and analy- sis for academic success (CGPA) as predicted from the cloze subtests of CTARC .......... Overall multiple regression equations (R) and analy- sis for achievement in specialization areas (SGPA) as predicted from the cloze subtests of CTARC ...................... Overall multiple regression equations (R) and analy- sis for male/female academic success (CGPA) as predicted from the cloze subtests of CTARC ..... Overall multiple regression equations (R) and analy- sis for academic success (CGPA) as predicted from seven Matriculation Examination Certificate subjects (MEC) ................... Overall multiple regression equations (R) and analy- sis for academic success (CGPA) as predicted from a combination of four cloze subtests and seven Matriculation Examination Certificate subjects (MEC) ................... Overall canonical correlations (Rc) between CTARC (four subtests) and various measures of academic achievement for males, females and total ..................... Simple correlations between the CTARC (cloze sub- tests and total score) and classroom performance (first year global score, and second year specific and global judgment) ........... Overall multiple regression equations (R) and analy- sis for classroom performance (second-year global judgment) as predicted from the cloze subtests of CTARC ................. Regression coefficients for various classroom perfor- mance measures as predicted from four combined cloze subtests ................... Overall multiple regression equations (R) and analy- sis for male/female second-year class. per. as predicted from the cloze subtests of CTARC ..... Overall multiple regression equations (R) and analy- sis for second-year class. per. (global score) as predicted from six matriculation Examination Certificate subjects (MEC) ............. vii Page 88 89 9O 93 94 96 98 99 100 101 104 Table 4-13 4-14 4-15 4-16 4-17 4-18 4-19 4-20 4-21 4-22 5-1 Overall multiple regression equations (R) and analy- sis for second-year class. per. (global score) as predicted from a combination of four cloze subtests and six Matriculation Examination Certificate subjects (MEC) ............. Overall canonical correlations between CTARC (four subtests) and five class. per. measures for males, females and total ................. Simple correlations between academic success (CGPA and SGPA) and class. per.‘ ............. Overall multiple regression equation (R) and analy— sis for second-year class. per. (global score) as predicted from academic success various measures ...................... Multiple regression equations (R) for class. per. as predicted from academic success in sixteen aca- demic subjects ................... Overall canonical correlations between academic success variables and class. per. measures ..... Simple correlations between CTARC (subtests and total score) and the Arabic course ............ Overall multiple regression equation (R) and analy- sis for success in Arabic course (first year) as predicted from the cloze subtests of CTARC ........................ Overall multiple regression equations (R) and analy- sis for success in Arabic course (second year) as predicted from the cloze subtests of CTARC Overall canonical correlation (Rc) between CTARC (four subtests) and Arabic course in first and second year .................. Summary-Table, changes in correlation coefficients of the four hypotheses by using different statis- tical procedures .................. viii Page 105 107 109 110 112 113 114 115 . 116 117 136 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 5-1 Summary-Figure for the findings. Changes in correlation coefficients for the four hypo- theses when three different correlational procedures were used ............... 137 ix Acad. Succ. ASTC ASTCS cc CGPA Class. per. CTARC Diss. Abs. H.S. ME MEC MSM Rc RC RCAL SGPA ST STS TE VA LIST OF ABREVIATIONS academic success Arab State Teachers' College Arab State Teachers' Colleges Classroom Climate College grade—point average Classroom performance Cloze Test of Arabic Reading Comprehension Dissertation Abstracts High school Matriculation Examination Matriculation Examination Certificate Mastery of subject matter Multiple regression ' Simple correlation (Pearson Product Moment Correlation) Canonical Correlation Reading comprehension Reading comprehension in Arabic language Specialization area grade-point average Student teacher Student teachers Teacher Education Verbal Ability CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction This wasa study of the relationship between (1) reading compre- hension in the Arabic Language (RCAL) as measured by the Cloze Test, and (2) student teacher (ST) academic success and classroom performance as measured by college grade point average (C GPA) in the general and professional courses,and by college supervisors' specific and global judgment of student teaching performance of students in the teacher education program at Arab State Teacher's College (ASTC) in Haifa, Israel.* Since a great deal of time and effort of both teachers and students in the teacher education program in the ASTCS in Israel is devoted to the accumulation of knowledge, both general and professional, and since there is criticism of the low achievement of the student teachers in both their academic success (acad. succ.) and classroom performance (Class. per.) it is of interest to investigate this problem by shedding the light on the relationship between the student teachers' RCAL and their academic success and classroom performance. There is a great deal of concern among the Arab comunity in Israel about the ASTC graduates' level, es- pecially, their level in the language basic skills (reading, writing, speaking and listening). The criticism on the STS' performance from *There are two Arab State Teacher's colleges in Israel; the large one in Haifa (since 1956) and the second smaller one in Hadar-Am (since 1972). public schools and community has increased to the extent that administrators and teachers in the ASTC started to ask for reasons and solutions. There might be different reasons for this situation, and RC capability could be one of the reasons that make student teacher perform differently with regard to their academic success and classroom performance. So, the researcher intended in this study to obtain, analyze and compare data regarding these two criteria, academic success and classroom performance, in an attempt to explain the present situation and provide some answers to this problem. Identifying the relationship between RCAL as an input factor in student teaching and output factors such as academic success and classroom performance may help explain some questions regarding low achievers and high achievers in the teacher education program. Also, high school grades were examined in this study and served as another input variable which may relate to classroom performance and academic succ. It should be noted here that the high school grades were not of first concern in this study. Statement of the Problem The problem of RCAL (as a process of getting meaning from the printed page), is of utmost importance for prospective teachers because of thelprominent role the formal Arabic language plays in the process of teaching - learning. This process is affected because of the existing dichotomy between formal and informal Arabic and the dialect barriers to RC (see Goodman, 1965, pp. 122-124). Although the formal Arabic is different from the informal spoken Arabic used out of the teaching - learning situation, it is the language of the textbooks and it is sup- posed to be the language of instruction in the classroom. Students who want to enter to the teacher education program in the ASTC apply to the college directly from the secondary school. Although academic success and classroom performance might well be related to the prospective teacher's RC capability and verbal ability: the present pro- cedure of admission and selection does not take into account this factor (RC and verbal ability). By exploring the relationship between RC and success in academic achievement and classroom performance we may come to better understand the factors leading to success in student teaching. So the major problem in this study is to determine if any rela- tionships exist between RC, academic success and classroom performance. Although the nature of comprehension has been extensively researched with a variety of techniques, the investigation of RC and its relation to acade- mic success and classroom performance for STS is sparsely touched. There- fore, it is believed that another attack on this problem, using the cloze test as an instrument of examining RC capability, is justifiable. The researcher's intent is to show whether good comprehending STS achieve significantly higher scores on both, the Cloze Test of Arabic REading Com- prehension (CTARC) as independent variable and the academic success and classroom performance as the criterion or dependent variables. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate possible relationships bewteen RCAL and student teachers' academic success and classroom performance in the ASTC at Haifa-Israel. The study is designed to in- vestigate four major questions. First, did STS who achieve highly in the CTARC achieve highly in their general and professional courses? * In 1944, Davis identified the following factors which go to make up comprehension: (1) knowledge of word meaning, (2) ability to reason, (3) ability to identify the writer's intent, purpose or p01nt of View, (4) ability to grasp detailed statements in the passage, and (5) knowledge of literary devices and techniques. According to Russell (1970) .these dif— ferent abilities could be combined into some unitary factor which could be called verbal ability." (see Russell, H. D., p. 159). . 4 Secondly, could RCAL be considered as a competency* which relates to the ST's classroom performance? Thirdly, is there any correlation between the total score of academic achievement (C GPA) and classroom performance on the part of the ST? And fourthly, did the STS who score highly in the Arabic language course score highly in the CTARC? That is, is there significant positive relationship be- tween the STS' scores in the CTARC and their scores in the Arabic langu- age course in the teacher education program? Results of this study may lead to further research in the investi- gation of the use of RC and other input variables like high school grades for purposes of prediction of academic success and classroom performance. It is the basic aim of this study to show whether STS' achievements are re- lated to input variables like RC. But is could be shown from the results of the study whether or not RC can be used as a tool in the admission of prospective teachers. The ASTC at Haifareceives a considerably larger number of applicants than it can accommodatefkhence they are in a position to be selective. It is likely that in the future even fewer students will be admitted because of the decreasing need for teachers in the Arab sector, as a result of the declining birth rate there. Need for the Study The researcher's assumption is that RC capability and verbal ability might be related to the STS' academic success and classroom performance. . :It was stated in the Final Report of CBTE (MSU, 1976, p. 3) that RC TS a skill used by a teacher in carrying out his responsibilities. This competency can serve as the basis for evaluating a candidates performance." **For the school year 1978-1979 more than one thousand st d t ' for admission to the ASTC at Haifa-Israel, and of thes u en S applied dents were admitted. e only (125) stu 5 In other words, the langauge of the teacher could be considered as a crucial factor in playing his role as a teacher. Because of that, there has been growing interest in the importance of the teacher's language in recent research. Goodman (1974) states that "language is the basic medium of instruction. It is also the medium of thought and of learning" (p. 66). According to him, "Language must be a measure of concern of teacher education" (p. 66). As is known, language is one tool for achieving knowledge, and "success in learning both in and out of school is dependent on increasing effectiveness and flexibility in language use, both productive and re- ceptive" as Goodman (1974, p. 66) concludes. It is supposed that the teacher depends in his classroom performance on his basic knowledge of materials and techniques. These cannot be accomplished without the mas— tery of language. Nilk and Edson (1963) concluded that the reason better students as measured by grade-point-average and MTAI at Minnesota College of Education tended to be better at practice teaching was probably be- cause their extra knowledge permitted more freedom of action in class. per. That iswhy A.C. Crocker (1974) believes that "extra knowledge could give the teacher more confidence in the classroom" (p. 108). Johnson (1977) stated that "Most teachers would agree that self-confidence is positively related to achievement." So mastery of language is a precondition for the prospective teacher in his achieving knowledge and applying it in the classroom. He must be able to speak and to write as well as to read and to understand. He must possess a high level of verbal ability and RC capability. It was found (see Hoodgstra, J., 1973 p. 72) that "Skill in RC is positively related to proficiency with language, and amount of background experience, to the extent that background exper- ience is reflected by vocabulary." Furthermore, "the teacher compentency 6 in the native language is considered a crucial factor with respect to the child's cognitive growth." (see Dissertation Abstracts, Vol. 38, No. 9, p. 5304A). Other research in sociolinguistic theory also attested to "the importance of teacher's verbal ability in developing alternative problem solving strategies on the part of the student" (191d). It seems that these conclusions are of universal significance. However, it is advocated that such conclusions are of special signifi- cance in the case of the Arabic language because of its very nature and the role it plays in the teaching-learning situation. The Role of the Arabic Language One of the distinctive features of the Arabic language is the phenomenon of its dichotomy. In Arabic, there are two forms: the for- mal-literary-written form, and the informal-spoken form. This dichotomy dates to few centries ago as a consequence of the spread of the Arabic culture outside the Arabian peninsula in the seventh century. When non- Arabs adopted the Arabic culture and Islamic faith, a new form of Arabic language emerged, which is the interaction between the literary Arabic and the local languages. While a new medium of communication has emerged (the spoken Arabic), the formal Arabic embodied in the Koran remained intact. Thus, despite the dominance of the spoken form in interpersonal communication outside of the formal settings, the formal Arabic has remained as the language of scholarship and formal communications. This, of course, affects the learning-teaching situation. In fact, it has been found that language has a great impact upon thought. As far as the Arabic language is concerned, the dichotomous nature is found detri- mental to the developing of thought. In a comparative study of creativity, Lindgren.F. and Lindgren, H. (1965), found that Arab university students 7 (enrolled at the American University of Beirut) achieved significantly less than their American counterparts (enrolled at San Francisco State College) on measures of creativity. The Lindgrens attributed American- Arab differences to the dichotomy existing in Arabic language between spoken (informal) and literary (formal) forms. It seems that such dichotomy in the linguistic background of Arabs may have its effects on certain intellectual qualities. There are many reasons for this pheno- menon. The most important factor behind this negative effect is that many teachers at all levels of the educational hierarchy, have not mas- tered the literary form to the point where they can utilize it in their interactions with their students. Basil Bernstein (1960, p. 317) shed the light on the effect of formal and informal language on the learner. He believes that "where an individual is restricted to a public language, speech does not become an object of special perceptual activity neither does a theoretical attitude develop towards the structural pos- sibilities of sentence organization." It follows from Bernstein that those subjects who score high in RC, have escaped the negative effect of both the public language and the formalis- tic theoretical knowledge of organizational structure of sentences. Their verbal behavior as measured by RC, definitely reflects the fact that they were not victimized by either of the sterile educational prac- tices. It seems that the existence of the informal spoken Arabic with its different dialects in different Arab countries and in different places in the same country could be a barrier to RC. This may cause a problem to many STS in their acquisition of the RC competency. Goodman, K.S. (1965, p. 122) in his article "Dialect Barriers to RC" stated that "If the language of the reading materials or the language of the teacher differs to any degree from the native speech of the learner some reading difficulty will result." and he continued "language diversity among divergent speakers complicates the task of understanding the literacy problems which they have." (p. 124). According to him, "sound divergence, grammar divergence, vocabulary divergence...cause reading difficulty..." In the case of Arabic language and because of the dichotomy between spoken and written Arabic, Goodman's conclusions could fit our situation. Goodman (1973/74 p. 6) stated that "there would be a direct relationship between the degree of dialect divergence and success in learning to read." A learner in the Arabic language needs to master a knowledge of vocabulary and a set of grammati- cal rules in the literary form of the Arabic for good comprehension. Caroll, J.B. (1964, p. 344) defines RC linguistically as “a process of - comprehending morphemes (minimal meaning units) and the grammatical constructions in which they occur.“ The Arabic language differs from most modern languages in the fact that there is a weak mobility (transfer) between the spoken and the literary forms of the language. For doing well in his learning process, the Arab learner needs to master the formal lit- erary Arabic. So RC could be considered as a prior condition for good learning and teaching process, and a weakness in RC could affect learner ability in achieving knowledge and teacher ability in de- livering knowledge. It is assumed that RC capability reflects the stu- dent teacher's verbal ability and affects his acad. succ. and class. per. The researcher assumption is that a teacher depends in his class. per. on the basic knowledge of subject matter and techniques he possesses and the RC may be considered as one basic means of knowledge acquisi tion. According to Menges, R.J. (1975, p. 182), "professions are by definition based on a body of knowledge, rather than solely on technique...consequently, the assess- ment of subject matter knowledge, as one component of 9 readiness, is almost universally practical." So it seems that success in academic theoretical materials is a pre- condition to success in practice, especially in the case of Arabic langu- age and its prominent role in the teaching-learning process. And as Hutchins (1968, p. 8) states: "The most practical education is the most theoretical one." That is why the research focus in this study was the investigation of the relationships between the triad: RC, academic success, and classroom performance. This study hypothesizes that this relationship seems to be critical in the Arab teacher preparation program and it is the most needed and the most important in the category of student-teaching. From testing the ST in RCAL by the use of the Cloze test we may be able to estimate the student verbal ability. According to Hofman (1974, p. 12) the Cloze test is "A test which combines reading and writing in an integrated manner..." It should then be a "desirable criterion for...language proficiency which in its broader aspects in- cludes of course oral (speaking) and aural (listening) skills as well." And by using the Cloze test in given passages from various texts for a student it is supposed that we can predict his RC ability. And as was stated in the Dissertation Abstracts: "It was concluded that a subject's knowledge of given infor- mation on the (circle island) passage significantly correlated with and predicted his RC on that same passage above the power of intelligence to predict his comprehension" (Dissertation Abstracts, Vol. 38, No. 7, p. 3999A). To conclude, this study was needed for more than one reason. First: much time and effort are spent on raising the ST level as prospective teacher . Second: a criticism is carried by the public school administrators and the community, against the ST's low achievement in the ASTC in general and their language proficiency and verbal ability in particular. Third, the Arab sensitiveness to the literary Arabic 10 as the language of the holy Koran and cultural tradition, and their ad- miration of the teachers of high language proficiency and great know- ledge. In this context, Rugh, A.D. (1956, p. 316) stated: "If we consider teaching in part as a dramatic art, the Arab is not only linguistically articulate and responsive to audience reaction but he has a real flair for dramatic presentation. These traits alone do not make a teacher, but when added to knowledge and training they may spell the difference between pedestrian performance or excellence in teaching." Moreover, the teacher's verbal ability accounts for a high percentage of his success in teaching as judged by supervisors, pupils and other evaluators. So, these reasons and others make the researcher believe in the need to investigate and examine the real relationships between RC on the one hand and academic success and classroom performance on the other hand. It is anticipated that establishing a positive rela- tionship between the above triad (RC, academic success, and classroom per- formance may help (1) explain some questions regarding ST achievement in theory and in practice and (2) set forth better criteria for the selection, admission and retention of Arab STs in the ASTC at Haifa-Israel. Significance of the Study The fact that this study is the first in the Arab teacher education program in Israel makes it important, as does the fact that no preceding investigation of RC in the Arabic language makes it significant. And the fact that this study is a pioneer in using and applying the Cloze proce- dure into the Arabic language makes it important and significant. It is hypothesized that establishing the relationships between the triad: RCAL, academic success and classroom performance could lead to conclusions regarding the role of RC capability and verbal ability in Arab teacher pre- paration. It may follow that RC could be used as a device for explaining why STS vary in their achievement. More than that, the study could 11 contribute to the search for identifying a simple, reliable, and valid measure or selection tool to be used in selecting candidates for the teaching profession which is of first concern in teacher education, be- cause of the lack of a scientific-based selection tool. It is expected that this study will shed some light on the issue of the criteria of selection and prediction of success. As was mentioned above, this study is the first one dealing with factors relating to success in Arab teacher education, where research and experimentation is one of the weakest links in modern Arab teacher educa- tion._ And as Ruth (1956, p. 320) stated "There are no reliable achieve- ment tests in reading or arithmetic, nor is there a good standardized in- telligence test in the Arabic language of the Arab world." The researcher's conclusion, based on his knowledge, experience and the literature he re- viewed is that the same situation still exists. This could be another dimension in the importance and significance of this study. Research Qgestions and hypotheses Research Questions: This study investigated possible relation- ships between the RCAL and success in academic achievement and classroom performance among Arab STS in Israel. The questions to be answered were: (1) Does RCAL relate to academic success? Is there any rela- tionship between the Arab student teacher's RC capability in Arabic language and his academic achievement in general and professional courses in the Arab teacher edu- cation program? Are the ST's scores achieved in a Cloze test of Arabic Reading Comprehension (CTARC) related to his scores represented in his college grade point aver- Vage (C GPA)? (2) Does RCAL relate to classroom performance? Is there any relationship between Arab ST's RC capability in Arabic language, as measured by a CTARC, and his classroom per- formance as evaluated by Arab college supervisors? 12 (3) Does general knowledge as measured by C GPA relate to classroom performance? Is there any relationship be- tween the general and professional knowledge in student teaching and STS' effectiveness in teaching? (4) Does RCAL relate to success in the Arabic language course in the Arab teacher education program? Could it be ex- pected that STS who score high in the Arabic langu- age course would score highly in the CTARC? Hypotheses: In order to deal with the questions stated above, four hypotheses were established as the basis of this study. The testing of the proposed hypotheses will help to provide insight into these two areas: academic success and classroom performance. The hypotheses will be stated here in a positive form. For the purpose of testing them, they will be restated later, in Chapter III, in a null form. (1) There is a positive relationship between RC as measured by subtests and total test scores on a CTARC and academic success as reflected by overall college grade-point aver- _age (C GPA). (2) There is a positive relationship between RC scores on CTARC and success in class. per. as reflected by the global and specific judgement of college supervisors. (3) There is a positive relationship between acad. succ. as reflected by overall C GPA and class. per. as reflected by college supervisor's global and specific judgement. (4) There is a positive relationship between RC scores on CTARC and success in the Arabic language course in the Arab State Teachers' College. Definitions of Important Terms The following are definitions for key terms employed in the study, so they can help clarify the meanings carried throughout the study and provide a common basis for understanding. Academic success: The scholastic standing in several subjects at the end of the first year and the end of the first trimester in the second year of the ST at the ASTC. Grades are expressed by a numerical 13 value out of one-hundred or out of ten. A mean of C GPA is taken as the measure of academic success. Classroom Performance: A mean score of the ST which is built on the global and specific judgement of several college supervisors in different classes on the ST's verbal ability (VA), mastery of subject matter (MSM) and classroom climate (CC) during the student-teaching period within the first and second year. Reading Comprehension (RC): The ability of the learner to read and understand, or the process of getting meaning from the printed page as the author presents it. In this study the term is used to de- note_the understanding of the printed word as assessed by a Cloze Test of Arabic Reading Comprehension. Cloze Procedure: A concept which was derived from the Gestalt Theory of closure, whereby a subject has a tendency to fill in the gaps of an uncompleted visual or thought unit after deleting every nib-word. Student Teacher: Student who is enrolled in the Arab State Teacher's College in Haifa-Israel, in the two year program for elementary teaching. College Supervisor: An instructor at the ASTC in Haifa-Israel, who has the responsibility for 25 to 35 student teachers in guiding, supervising and counseling. He participates in the evaluation of the STS during the Student-teaching period. Limitations (a) The study was limited to the STS in the ASTC in Haifa-Israel. No attempt was made to generalize beyond the population of this study. (b) The study was limited to pencil and paper records of judgment. 14 (c) The study was limited due to the lack of standardized achieve- ment tests in the Arabic language. There is no possibility for comparison with other achievement tests. So the correla- tions are between the CTARC and the ST's achievement as reflected * by scores given by teachers in different courses and subjects. (d) The evaluation of classroom performance is limited to college supervisor's judgment. There were no self-ratings and no pupil ratings. The teaching product (pupil change) is not taken into account. So, the STS are evaluated here on the teaching process as reflected by the college supervisor's judgment only. The judg- ment is limited to the ST behavior in three categories: masterv of subject matter, verbal ability and classroom climate. A global judgment is given also by the college supervisor. Background Materials Before proceeding, it seems essential to provide the reader who is not familiar with the educational system in Israel with some back- ground information about (a) the Arab State Teachers' College at Haifa- Israel (ASTC) and (6) High School's Matriculation Examination and high school system, as an important input in higher education. The Matri- culation Examination Certificate (MEC) is considered to some extent a pre-condition for entrance and admission to the ASTC and other colleges and universities in Israel. *The second smaller one at Hadar-Am is in the center area of the coun- try. It was founded in 1972. 15 . The Arab State Teachers' College at Haifa-Israel The Arab State Teachers' College at Haifa is the larger of two colleges* serving the Arab minority in Israel (15 percent of the popu- lation), by preparing teachers for elementary and middle schools** in the Arab sector. This College is located in the northern part Of the country and serves about 70% from the Arab population in Israel (e million). It was founded in 1956. Today the College enrolls up to 400 STS. The students are admitted to a two-year program in different areas of specialization, i.e. Arabic, Hebrew, English, Nature, Mathematics, Music, Kindergarten and as general teachers. This College like other colleges in Israel, and the Arab world (see A.D. Rugh, 1956), prepares teachers for ele- elementary schools in a two-year program. In 1976, a third-year program was started in this institution. Students, after the second year, and graduates from past years, can apply for admission to a third-year pro- gram for middle schools. While STS in other state teacher's colleges in Israel cannot be admitted before passing the Matriculation Examiniation of H.S. and an entrance exam, the students here were admitted until recent- ly on a basis of interview with the condition of finishing high school. Since 1976, an entrance exam was added as another criterion for admission. This exam precedes the interview and those who succeed in the exam come' to the interview. But this exam is new, is prepared every year by the teachers at the college and is not scientifically based. Other criteria affecting the candidates' admission are used like the place of living and sex. The policy is to prefer students coming from rural areas to those *Hisama, K., et. al. (ERIC. ED. 150-198) used a teacher evaluation report in comparative analysis with a Cloze test in measuring pro- fiency in English. ' *9: The preparation of secondary teachers is done by different univer- sities in Israel and is similar to the procedure in the United States. 16 from urban areas (towns), and to prefer female candidates to males. Like other teachers' colleges this College attracts marginal students be- cause of the low percentage of students who pass the Matriculation Exam, administered by the Ministry of Education, at the end of the 12th year of schooling. More than 50 percent of students admitted have not passed this exam. Good students who pass this examination usually prefer to attend the university where success in the Matriculation Examination (ME) is primary condition for their entrance. In the Jewish sector the situation is different. And as M. Greeberg (1966, p. 318) states: "Candidates for teaching in the primary schools are admitted to the train- ing schools if they have passed the difficult Matriculation Examination..." and Tunder certain conditions, nonmatriculatants who have completed 12 years of schooling may be admitted to primary school teacher training, provided that they take the ME during their first year at the college." The program in teacher education in the colleges of teacher prepara- tion in Israel consists of 2-3 years of studvaeyond high school. In the two-year program about 70 percent of the curriculum is similar for students from different areas of specialization. These are courses in general and professional education like: Arabic, Hebrew, Mathematics, Music, Nature, Art, Physical Education, Psychology, Education (history, prin- ciples), Methods of teaching, Foundations of teaching and student teaching (practice in teaching).* A very small portion of the curri- culum is devoted to the special area (between 25 and 30%). It is as- sumed that every ST should be prepared as a general teacher in the elementary school. Every ST could choose an area of specialization such as: Language (Arabic or Hebrew or English), Math, Music, etc. To *For details concerning the curriculum structure of teacher preparation in Israel see: M. Greenberg, Teacher Education in Israel, Journal of Teacher Education, 17, 1966, pp. 317-323. 17 be promoted from term to term in the first and the second year, a passing grade in each subject is enough. STS who fail in four acade- mic subjeéts or more are not allowed to continue in the college. Heavy emphasis is given to the Arabic language and to student teaching. A failure in one of these two areas could suspend the ST finally from the college. At the end of the two years, the ST is granted a teaching certificate if he passed before or during the college period the Matri- culation Examination of the high school. The certificate is issued by the Ministry of Education and Culture. The High School Matriculation Exam Most Israeli-Arab high schools are mainly academic, college pre- paratory schools. And as A. Perlberg (1967, p. 241) states: "The curriculum, methods of teaching and evaluation are geared to the basic function of preparing students for the governmental Matriculation Examination which entitles those who succeed to a Matriculation Certificate ("Teudat Bagrut"). This certifi- cate entitles its holder to proceed with his studies in univer- sities." But it is a primary and not sufficient condition to enter universities. The universities have their own entrance examination which serves as the basis for admission. In comparison to the Jewish sector most of the Israeli-Arab high schools, supervised by the Ministry of Education and Culture, are not accredited. The ME is the determiner of the final grades of the students. No consideration or weight is given to the high school final grades. Each high school student is examined in 6-8 subjects, according to his area of specialization. Most of the Arab high achievers in secondary schools are preparing to attend uni- versities where they issued the B.A. rather than applying to the ASTCS. Because of traditional, cultural and socio-economic considerations, fe- 18 males who apply and are admitted to the ASTC have better grades than males (see Chapter III). The female opportunity is limited and the girl is more satisfied than the boy to become a teacher. Boys are more likely to continue their education into universities, where they can choose various areas of specialization and self preparation for a probably more rewarding career. Before being issued the MEC students in high school have to be exam- ined and to pass the following subject areas: Arabic, Hebrew, English, Math, and Citizenship. For students in humanities, history and geography would be added and for students in science any two of these three subjects (Chemistry, Physics, Biology) could be chosen. The majority of the ASTC population come from humanities, and students of science apply more to regular universities. Organization of the Study Chapter 1 presented a statement of the problem, the purpose, the need for and the significance of the study. This was followed by a statement of the research questions, the hypotheses, definitions, limitations and background materials. The rest of the study is di- vided into four chapters. Chapter II contains a review of a repre- sentative sample of the literature related to RC, Cloze procedure, acad. succ. and classroom performance. It includes a look at the issues, opinions and research regarding these topics. Chapter III contains a description of the design, the procedures and methodology used in the study, how data were collected and the manner in which data were analyzed. Chapter IV presents an examination and analysis of the data and the findings of the study. A summary, discussion, conclu- sions and recommendations for further research, as based on the findings, are contained in Chapter V. 19 Summary The focus in this chapter was on: the statement of the problem, purpose, need for and significance of the study, a presentation of the re- search questions and the hypotheses, a clarification and definition of important terms and limitations of the study and finally an overview of background materials such as the Arabic language and its role in the Arab education process, the Arab State Teachers' College's system and the high school grades and the matriculation exam held by the end of the 12th school year. The aim of this study is to determine if any relationships exist between the RC capability of the Arab ST in the Arabic language and his academic success and classroom performance in the TE program. Identifying this relationship may help explain some questions regarding low and high achievers in the Arab teacher education program. The need for this study arose from the researcher's belief that the existing dichotomy between the formal literary Arabic language and the informal spoken one affect the learner comprehension skills and his achievement. The significance of the study is derived from the fact that it is a pioneer study dealing with this issue in Arab teacher education,i.e.,RC, acad. succ. and class. per. where the belief among Arab educators that the comprehension of the learner in theformal Arabic language is of utmost importance and that it is one great obstacle in the acquisition of knowledge. CHAPTER 11 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to examine literature related to the present study. To do this, Chapter II is divided into five sections: (a) review of literature related to reading comprehension, (b) review of literature related to Cloze procedure, (c) review of literature related to academic success, (d) review of literature related to classroom performance, and (e) sumnary in which the researcher will try to find the interactions between the four topics reviewed and how they relate to teacher preparation. A review of related literature was conducted through a general study of articles and materials regarding reading comprehension (RC), Cloze procedure, academic success and classroom performance. These four areas serve as the major areas of concern for the purpose of establishing relationships in this study. Reading Comprehension (RC) RC means understanding what is read. It could be defined as the ability of the learner to read and understand, or "the process of getting meaning from the printed page as the author presents it" (Russell,1970, p. 253). In this study, the researcher limited the discussion to ma- terials which could contribute to the professional and general knowledge of the prospective teacher in the ASTC. Numerous investigations have dealt with the process of RC and the development of conceptual models to portray what it is that takes 20 21 * place when a linguistic form is understood. In a review of RC research reported in journals from (1900 - 1975) it was stated that "The two do- minant factors that appear to influence RC are one's word knowledge and reasoning ability" (Dissertation Abstracts, Vol. 38, No. 7, p. 3903). The findings in this review tend to support the data from the experi- mental studies which hypothesized that the major components of RC are vocabulary power and thinking ability. According to J.F. Kerfoot (1965, p. 253), "Reading is frequently referred to as a thinking process. We tend to accept the increasing correlations between 1.0. and reading achievement as we advance through the grades as evi- dence of the increasing involvement of the higher thought pro- cesses as the program grows in comprehension emphasis.“ In general, comprehension of the ideas expressed is often the chief outcome of the reading act. But Davis (1944) as quoted by Russel (1970, p. 159) identified specific factors which go to make up comprehension: "Knowledge of word meaning; ability to reason; ability to iden- tify the writers intent, purpose, or point of view; ability to grasp detailed statements in the passage, and knowledge of literary devices and techniques." According to Russell(1970, p. 159), "A different system of factor analysis suggested that these dif- ferent abilities could be combined into some unitary factor which could be called verbal ability." It follows that RC can reflect two factors on the part of the learner; the intellectual factor (intelligence or mental ability) and non intel- lectual factor (language variables, previous knowledge, and socio- economic-cultural background). According to DeCecco (1968, p. 99): "Among the items on intelligence tests, those which usually *See for instance: Hoogstra, J., An Analysis of the Nature of the Reading,Comppehension Act by Means of the Rorschach Inkblot Test and Differential Measures of Reading Comprehension, unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1973. 22 correlate most highly with the overall scores are the items which measure ability for verbal and numerical reasoning." He concludes, "Perhaps, then, the most empirical and parsimonious definition of intelligence would be: the capacity of the individual for verbal and numerical reasoning" (p. 99). So, "it is not strange that theories of RC should closely parallel theories of intelligence..." as Kerfoot (1965, p. 253) states. There were other studies which investigate the relationship of RC to factors closely associated with it, such as intelligence. Artley (1951) asserts that RC correlates more highly with intelligence than with any other factor. Betts (1956) found a positive relationship between verbal intelligence and the ability to do both literal and critical reading. The correlation between intelligence and RC as was presented by Elden Bond (in Gates, J., 1942, p. 254) is .73 in the high school level. According to Russel (1970, p. 166) "literal comprehension is related to the general intelligence of the reader, the knowledge and previous experience of the reader, and his interest in the material. Correlation between general intelligence scores and RC scores typically run in the .40's to .60's depending upon the test used." This relationship between RC and I.Q. encouraged the use of RC as one of the important tools to measure achievement and to predict success. Several studies were done to show the extent to which RC could correlate and predict academic success in general and performance in specific sub- ject areas in particular. (Bulcock, 1976; O'Reilly and Moore, 1975; R. L. Thorndike, 1973; and Janzen, H., 1970). David Russel (1970) surveyed some empirical studies of comprehension in reading. He stated that: "During the 1920's and 1930's many reading tests were developed and many articles written which reported the relationship be- tween comprehension and other factors in the reading process. Many of the investigators found that intelligence and knowledge of word meaning are more closely related to comprehension than any other factors they studied" (p. 159). 23 A comprehensive summary of significant research in the area of RC was presented by Davis (1968). According to him, interest in RC began during the first half of this century with the first study of note being that of E. Thorndike (1971). Thorndike (1917, p. 323) viewed RC as "an indicator of the indivi- dual thinking and reasoning process." He believed that comprehension is in large measure dependent upon knowledge of relationships, and "reading a paragraph with comprehension is a bit like solving a problem...It involves understanding of organization and analysis of ideas such as occur in problem solving." Serra (1953) believes that the more direct the experience on which a concept is built, the greater will be the individual's knowledge and understanding of the concept. Bulcock et. al. (1977) in their investigation of the relationship between RC and acad. succ. stated that RC can be used as a predictor of subject matter per- formance. They assert: "Basic reading skill is a powerful mediating mechanism in social- psyChological explanations of pupil performance in a range of subject-matter outcomes of schooling." In previous studies (1976a) they concluded that NRC accounts for the differences in the S.M. performances of 14 year olds, to a much greater degree than any other known factor.9 In a comparative study between industrialized and third world nations with regard to reading compe- tency and prediction of scholastic performance, Bolcock, et. al, (1976b) concluded that "Reading achievement in England and India was the most power- ful predictor of science achievement." According to them, "RC and verbal ability variables were more than twice as power- ful as social class effects...“ and 24 "had the most powerful total causal effects on literature and science achievement..." Their conclusion was that "The language factors outweighed' all other considerations in terms of magnitude of effect on both subject-matter outcomes." The researcher believes that these results provide convincing support for the ”reading as reasoning" argument. From the results of a study by R. L. Thornkike (1973, P. 169) it seems that the RC variable was stronger than reading speed or socio-economic status. The RC cor- related up to .44 with science scores and up to .54 with literature scores. In a study by O'Reilly and Moore (1975) 188 freshman students were tested for ability in seven areas of reading, prior to the beginning of the academic year. Their scores were later related to the cumulative grade point average (C GPA) for their freshman year. Significant correlations were found between C GPA and vocabulary,reflective comprehension, total comprehension and total reading ability. The results indicate that re- flective comprehension was the best single predictor of C GPA. Hirvonen, P. (1976) used a Verbal Reasoning Ability Test (VRT) as a criterion for university student selection involving 1946 candidates. He found that VRT is shown to have functioned efficiently and to have predicted suc- cess in the selection. Hoogstra, J. (1973, p. 69) stated that "Good comprehenders were found to achieve significantly higher scores than poor comprehenders on the vocabulary test and on the differential measures of comprehension." The above reviewed studies and the conclusions drawn from them supporttheresearcher's assumption regarding the strong correlation existing between RC and subject matter performance. The other question which needs to be examined is the question of the relationship between RC and classroom performance. In other words, what does the research tell us with regard to RC and teacher education and preparation? 25 Readipg Comprehension and Teacher Education Could RC be used as an indicator of class. per.? Research on RC as a factor in determining success in class. per. is sparse. The RC was viewed as one of the basic competencies of student teachers, that is “a skill used by a teacher in carrying out his responsibilities" (CBTE, 1976, p. 3). It was viewed also as a competency which "can serve as the basis for evaluating a candidate's performance" (ijd, p. 3), but RC was not viewed in the teacher education research as a capability which correlates with classroom performance. After examining refer- ences like Dissertation Abstracts, ERIC, Review of Educational Research and other indices, journals, and books, the researcher's impression was that this topic (RC) did not attract researchers so much in the area of academic success and classroom performance. Few researchers had dealt with this topic, but none in the Arabic language or for the Arab teachers. Researchers like Krieger (1930), O'denweller (1936), Stuit (1949), Massey and Vineyard (1958), Ager (1970), and Torrance, et. al. (1970), tried to assess academic ability, general knowledge and mastery (of subject matter as factors which influence teaching performance. These factors could be viewed as the product of RC. Massey and Vineyard (1958, p. 248) concluded that "the factors of scholarship, intelligence and competence in English expression seem to be rather consistently related to ratings of teaching success, but not enough as yet for reasonable predictive purposes." Research in socio-linguistic theory attested to the importance of teachers verbal abilityirideveloping alternative problem solving strate- gies on the part of the student (see Dissertation Abstracts Vol. 38, No. 9, pa 5309A). There is a growing interest in the importance of the teacher's language in recent research. Goodman (1974) believes that 26 "Language must be a measure of concern of teacher education" (p. 66). There exist several methods and techniques to test RC. The famous techniques are: (a) open questions after a given passage, (b) multiple choice method, and (c) Cloze technique. The Cloze technique was used in this study for the purpose of measuring RC. An overview of the me- thod follows. Cloze Procedure Introduction. In assessing the performance of Arab STS in Arabic, one still needs to decide on a fitting criterion of all possible facets of language performance. Problems of criterion choice and its valid representation are inescapable in any kind of assessment endeavour. According to Hofman (1974, p. 11), "Language test analysis makes a basic distinction between productive and receptive langauge channels.” Among productive channels, schools have usually emphasized writing, and among receptive ones, reading. And a test which combines reading and writing in an integrated manner should then be a desirable criterion for language performance and verbal ability. Hofman (p. 12-13) believes that "The Cloze technique of reading proficiency is an integrative operationalization of reading-writing criterion. It is a mea- sure that calls for the ability to read, understand and write the language. It demands a combination of receptive and pro- ductive skills and it has certain features which advantageously set it off from the more traditional ways to assess RC." Stump (ERIC, Ed. 144-402) concluded that "the Cloze test like any other standardized test (for instance, the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills) is essentially measuring global language proficiency." In the following pages, research and studies regarding the Cloze technique will be surveyed. Included will be a review of the Cloze uses,its relationships to RC in general, and to multiple-choice tests specifically, 27 its validity, the use of the Cloze in other languages, and finally, the problems in applying this technique into the Arabic language. Definition and Characteristics. The concept ”cloze" was derived from the Gestalt theory of closure whereby a subject has a tendency to fill in the gaps of an uncompleted visual or thought unit. The cloze as a method of testing RC was developed by Wilson Taylor at the University of Illinois in 1953. Later, Taylor's paper (1956) helped to explain this technique. In constructing a Cloze test or exercise, a passage is selected from reading materials that learners would use in the class- room. The teacher decides on the automatic count that he will use in deleting words from the passage which range from the 5th to the 10th word depending on the nature of the language and the nature of the context. According to Culhane (1970, p. 411), "An every tenth_ word count is recommended for textual mater- ials that are fact laden. A count as low as every fifth word may be used for narrative materials." The count begins from the first word in the second sentence of the se-- lected passage. In general, the last two or three sentences should be presented without any omission. The words deleted from the passage are replaced by a blank. The blanks are equal in length and numbered. For facilitating more relevant scoring, Culhane (1970, p. 412) suggests passages of fifty deletions to be used in any Cloze test. The Cloze method was first used in English and passed over from America to Europe, Africa, and Asia. Many studies have investigated this method and its reliability and validity as a measure of RC. Since 1956, researchers like Rankin (1957, 1959, 1962, 1965, 1969), Bormuth (1967, 1969), Bickley, et. al. (1970), Culhane (1970), Cranney (1972), 28 and Oller (1972) have introduced the Cloze procedure to the field of reading and studied its use in testing comprehension, examining materials readability and suggesting various ways to demonstrate its usefulness to reading and to education in general. According to Culhane (1970, p. 411) "One important fact that has emerged from these studies is that Cloze method is as good as, and in many ways better than, exist- ing methods for teaching and testing comprehension." Stanfie)d(1977) found that the correlation between multiple-choice test as a measure of RC, and the Cloze technique ranged between .32 to .67. He concluded that "The Cloze test is a better discriminator of the acquisition of cultural knowledge, and is much easier to construct than a multi- ple-choice reading test." Hofman (1974, p. 12) wrote "The Cloze test is a test which can combine reading and writing in an integrated manner... It is a measure that calls for the ability to read, understand, and write the language.A He concluded that the Cloze technique has certain features which advanta- geously set it off from the more traditional ways to assess reading com- prehension. And by using the Cloze technique in a given passage from various tests it is expected that we can assess the learner RC ability. The Uses of the Cloze Technique. Since 1953 several individuals helped to bring widespread attention to the Cloze procedure, so it be- came popular and attracted investigators and researchers in RC as linguisticians and teachers in the classroom. Tremendous numbers of articles and studies were published regarding the use and the validity of this measure of RC. In a comprehensive review of the Cloze procedure and its uses, Bickley, A.C., et. al., (1970) agreed that "the Cloze procedure has 29 become so widely used and highly respected." And since it was intro- duced, an increasing amount of research utilizing this tool has been conducted in the areas of readability, comprehension and as an instrumen- tal tool in teaching languages. Readability: To support the use of the Cloze as a technique for measuring readability, "a number of investigators have attempted to determine the strength of the relationship between Cloze tests and more conventional measures of readability and comprehension difficulties" as Bickley, et. al. states (p. 233). Taylor (1953), Bormuth (1962, 1963, 1967a), Gallant (1964, 1965), Knight (1966), Beard (1967), Jefferson (1969) and many other researchers dealt with cloze as a mea- sure ofreadability. Their conclusions were that the cloze procedure assessed the assumed "true" readability of passages in the same manner other known measures assessed. Bormuth, for instance, concluded that the Cloze tests used in his studies were valid, reliable and flexible measures of comprehension difficulties of the passages from which they were made (Bickley, et. al., p. 233). Jefferson (1969) found that structural cloze units tended to be the best predictors of reading dif- fiCulty. According to Bickley (p. 234) these conclusions were good also for measuring readability in foreign languages. He concluded that "The Cloze procedure appears to be ideally suited for reada- bility research, since it does not inject an extraneous reading task into the measurement process, and since it can be used to probe the difficulty of every word, categories of words, phrases, and sentences in a passage" (p. 235). Comprehension: The Cloze procedure has been extensively examined asaitechnique for measuring general RC as the same as could be measured by standardized reading tests. Rankin (195% 1959b.1965,1969), Jenkinson (1957L Fletcher(1959),Ruddel (1963),and several other researchers, as , 30 reported by Bickley (p. 235-237) obtained a high correlation between the cloze and other measures of RC. These correlations ranged from .29 to .92. Bickley, et. al. concluded that "Evidence indicates substantial correlations between general reading comprehension as measured by standardized reading tests and as measured by Cloze tests...The Cloze procedure appears to be a valid measure of specific RC. In fact, it appears to measure specific comprehension better than it does general com- prehension" (p. 237). Language: The Cloze procedure appears to be a good instructional tool for teachers in the classroom. There seems to be strong indication that the Cloze is considered as an important teaching device. It could be used as an instrument in teaching vocabulary, syntax, grammar, comprehension skills, etc. It is used by the authors of the language textbooks as a device for examining different aspects of teaching lan- guage as a native or a second language. And as Bickley, et. al. states "...Cloze studies have involved the grammar and syntax of the English language. For example, Salzinger, et. al. (1962) showed that a Cloze approximation of English grammar and syntax aided in the subject's abil- ity to fill in words correctly" (p. 239). Carroll, et. al. (1959), as quoted by Rankin (1965), used the Cloze to examine a subject's proficiency in a second language and also to examine the influence of expression or lack of expression in reading a passage. The Cloze appears to be a good device finrdetermining reading levels of children. Other uses: Some other uses of the Cloze technique, are the uses in areas like special education, psychology, psychotherapy, and attitude and personality tests. Hafner (1964), as quoted by Bickley, et. al. (1970, p. 242), presented discussions of the implications of the Cloze procedure in terms of applications to education. Some of the 31 suggestions he made were: (1) Cloze tests could be used, along with the reading inven- tories, to evaluate progress in reading comprehension. (2) Cloze procedures, using various kinds of materials, might pro- vide some way of stimulating concept building and problem solving activities. (3) Cloze procedures could be used to ascertain the readability of texts. (4) And as Rankin (1959b) suggested, Cloze could be used as a potential tool for the use ,of diagnosis and remediation in the reading clinic. In conclusion, the Cloze has been shown in the last twenty years to be an effective research teChn'ique in the areas of readability, compre- hension and language. It also offers possibilities in many other ways for future exploration, such as in exploring Student teachers' RC capability and its relationships to acad. succ. and classroom perfor- man ce . Cloze and Other Measures of RC. As was stated above, testing com- prehension is one of the great uses of the Cloze procedure. This leads many investigators to the study of the relationship between Cloze and RC and to the comparison of Cloze with other measures of RC. The Cloze has been examined as a technique for measuring RC like other valid stan- dardized tests. Anderson (1971, p. 181) concluded that "Cloze procedure appears one of the most promising techniques to emerge in recent years for measuring comprehension and reading difficulty.“ There is support from linguistics for Cloze procedure as a mea- sure of RC. Fries (1963) as quoted by Anderson, J. (1971, p. 11), identified three layers of language meaning. The layer of meanings carried by the grammatical structures, the layer of meaning carried by the lexical items, and the layer of social-cultural meanings. Cloze procedure taps these three layers of language meanings. Anderson con- cludes that "There is some theoretical basis, then, for believing that Cloze-scores index RC." Data which were reported by Potter Thomas 32 (ERIC-Ed. 035 514, 1968) from some Cloze techniques investigations, using children from first grade through high school and adults from a variety of populations, suggest that the Cloze technique is applicable to many types of communication and that it can be used to discriminate among readability levels of passages and among the RC levels of readers. Culhane, J. W. (1970, p. 410) discussed the relationship between Cloze procedure and comprehension. According to him, "The pupil's task in a Cloze test is to predict the word that was removed and replace it. In making his word predictions, the pupil depends upon prior knowledge, general understanding of the material, context clues, and a knowledge of word usage. Several other aspects of language usage can also be involved. In attempting to replace the deleted words, the pupil is forced to pay more attention to the message of the passage as con- veyed by the remaining words" (Culhane, 1970, p. 410). Validity: Cloze tests can be made by deleting every nth Word and replacing it with a line of standard length. These tests could be dis- tinguished from completion tests by the fact that Cloze test deletions are made using a set of mechanical objective and pre-specified rules, while the deletions in completion tests may be made using subjective concepts such as "key word" etc. That is why cloze procedure attracted much research interest. It seems to offer a valid, convenient and com- pletely objective method. Numerous studies have shown Cloze tests to be highly valid measures of the readability of printed materials and of the comprehension of readers. The findings of a study conducted by Rankin and Culhane (1969, p. 196) indicated that the Cloze procedure is a highly valid measure of RC. Other studies showed that scores on standardized tests of RC ability correlate highly with the Cloze test. Bormuth (1969, p. 365) showed correlations up to .93 between different kinds of passages in Cloze test and different types of multiple choice tests. He concluded 33 that: "Cloze tests made by deleting every fifth word measures skills closely related or identical to those measured by conventional multiple-choice RC tests. Little or no evidence was found to suggest that the two types of tests might measure different skills." Taylor (1956, p. 45) found a correlation of .76 between a Cloze test and a comprehension test made from the same material. Hisama, et. al., conducted a comparative analysis between Michigan Test of English Lan- guage Proficiency, Teacher Evaluation Reports and what they called "New Cloze Test.“ The results indicated that the New Cloze Test is highly reliable, valid and efficient, with respect to testing time and ease of scoring (ERIC - ED. 150—198). Many researchers (Bormuth, 1967a; Rankin and Culhane, 1969; and Anderson and Hunt, 1972) considered the Cloze procedure a realistic alternative to multiple-choice testing. Their rationale was that Cloze tests can be constructed by simple, objective, mechanical deletion of words, where most multiple-choice questions are written by teachers with little ability or time to construct test questions that can meet the criteria for even loose standards of replicability. So the Cloze pro- cedure could be seen as a viable solution to the measurement of a stu- dent's ability to read and understand because it asks no questions but involves the student directly with the testing material itself. As quoted by Anderson, N.D. (1977), Bormuth and Coleman maintain that Cloze tests should be more widely used for assessing reading ability as well as readability of instructional materials. Their reasoning is as fellows: 1. Cloze tests measure RC better than do multiple-choice tests (Bormuth, 1969a, Miller and Coleman, 1967) and as a result, 2. Cloze tests generate more valid and reliable readability formulas than multiple-choice tests can generate (Bormuth, 1969a; Coleman, 1971) (Anderson, N.D., 1917, p. 29) 34 Besides it could be said that Cloze measures the difficulty of a passage and not the difficulty of questions about that passage. And according to Culhane, J. (1976), "Cloze method is as good as, and in many ways better than, existing methods for teaching and testing comprehension. It is also much easier to construct a Cloze exercise or test than it is to develop other types of teaching and testing devices, especially multiple choice tests" (p. 411). One problem which relates to Cloze procedure, researchers had different opinions on, itis the problem of scoring. While Taylor (1953), and Rankin (1967) advocated that the best and most convenient way to score Cloze tests for those whose mother tongue is English is just to count the number of exact words replaced in context. Oller (1972, p. 157) concluded after using five scoring methods that the best of the methods investigated was the acceptable word scoring method,that is: "the one that counts any contextually acceptable response as correct." Moreover, “The data show that the acceptable word scoring method is superior in terms of item discrimination and validating correlations regardless of the level of difficulty of the test" (p. 157). The.exact-word method was suggested by researchers who advocated it, when native speakers are tested. But as Oller (1972, p. 151) stated "Researchers who have experimented with the Cloze method as a measure of second—language proficiency have often preferred scoring systems that give credit for contextually acceptable responses." And for the Arabic language, based on the findings of two studies (Douglas, 1976; Habib-Allah and Hofman, 1978) the acceptable word method was suggested as the scoring method. The exact word method proved to be unsatisfactory with the Arabic reading tests. Douglas 35 (p. 14-15) used both methods. The exact-word method compared with the acceptable-word method showed low scores and low reliability (.06 vs. .69). He concluded that "The exact-word requirement was not suitable for the Arabic test, which in turn, suggests that there is a fundamental dif- ference between Arabic and English regarding their adaptabi- lity to standard Cloze procedure." According to Habib-Allah and Hofman (1978, p. 3), the reasons for low scores and low reliability in using the exact-word method may be the large number of suitable alternative answers for an Arabic Cloze item. The probability of selecting the exact deleted word is lower than in English. Besides, the researcher believes that the wide gap that exists between the formal literary Arabic and the informal spoken one put the first (literary Arabic) in a position of a second-language. To the Arabic learner, learning how to read is almost like learning a second language. On the other hand, there were many attempts to study the Cloze test scores and to provide such a frame of reference by determining comparable scores on Cloze and multiple-choice tests. Bormuth (1967) compared scores on fifty item Cloze passages with scores of multiple choice tests over the same material and found that a cloze score of 38 percent was equivalent with 75 percent on the multiple choice test (by using the exact-word method of correction). In another study as quoted by Bormuth and Culhane (1969, p. 197) the comparable scores were 75% = 44 and 90% = 57 between multiple choice and Cloze tests. Bormuth con- cluded that, "In this frame of reference a student must answer correctly at least 75 percent of the items over a passage before the passage is said to be suitable for his use. When his scores fall between 75 and 90 percent, the material is said to be suitable for use in supervised instruction. A score above this range is taken as evidence that the material may be used for 36 independent study; a score below this range indicates that the material is two difficult for ordinary instructional purposes" (Bormuth, 1967, p. 292). For overcoming the problems of correcting passages in the regular free response Cloze test, there had been suggested another type of the Cloze test which was called Multiple-Choice Cloze Test. In a study which was conducted by Cranney (1972) he tried to answer the question: can a reliable and valid multiple-choice Cloze test be constructed which can avoid the impracticalities of hand scoring? His findings indicate that "A valid machine-scored multiple—choice Cloze test can be con- structed that correlates about .50 with a reputable traditional reading test. The Cloze as a measure of Language Proficienpy, The first use of the Cloze test as a measure of language proficiency was for the English language as a mother tongue. Then it was used with the English as a foreign language. The use of the Cloze procedure in English led to an exploration of its application and use in other languages and for other populations rather than the native speakers of English. As Oller (1972, p. 4) stated: "In all of the published studies the language used was English. Notable exceptions are Shiba (1957) and Taylor (1954) who used the Cloze technique to differentiate the difficulty of Japanese and Korean language passages, respectively. Also, Klare, et. al., (1971) used the Cloze procedure with Vietnamese." The possibility of utilizing the Cloze procedure as a measure of English as a second language proficiency has recently aroused consider- able interest. Several researchers dealt with this aspect like: Oller, et. al. (1972); Stubbs, J.B. and Tucker, G.R. (1974); and J. Hofman (1974). According to Oller (1972, p. 151) there are several important questions regarding the use of the Cloze in ESL and in other 37 languages. "Among them are the matters of scoring, level of difficulty, grammatical categories of deletion and the performance of native and non-native speakers on the same tests." The Cloze and the Arabic Langupge In the application of the Cloze procedure to the literary written Arabic, as a mother tongue, many questions remain unanswered. Mest dealt with questions involving the kind of word deleted and frequency of deletion (nth word). Unfortunately, little work seems to have been done in Arabic with the Cloze technique other than some Unpublished work at the University of Khartoum in Sudan (Douglas, 1976) and some pilot testing in Israel (Habib-Allah, 1977). This means that there are no clear standards of frequency and type of omission, scoring, or levels of difficulty (readability). Also, the preparation of a cloze passage in Arabic calls for a decision peculiar to languages with more than one semantic unit per word. Semitic languages and certain African ones, unlike European tongues, tend to attach articles, prepositions, and pronouns directly to nouns and verbs so that any one word will contain up to five "semantic" units. "In our house" or "I hit her" can be written as single words. The sentence "This toy car has found favor in my eyes; therefore, I bought it and shall give it to you for your birthday" is rendered by nine (I) Arabic words. So, the application of the "cloze" technique of reading comprehension to written Arabic involves a decision as to whether the elision of units should be of whole words, as in other lan- guages, or of semantic units, such as prepositions, pronouns, and arti- cles that often join Arabic nouns and verbs into compound words. In 38 effect, the issue is one of perceptual groupings (whole words) vs. semantic units. While the elision of complete words has become stand- ard practice for cloze passages in many languages, its application to Arabic, Hebrew, or certain African languages calls for some preliminary exploration. The researcher and Hofman (1978) conducted a study of the_ above problems regarding the Arabic language and the cloze procedure. In that study, 584 Arab pupils in the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Grades of Arab schools in Israel replaced omitted words or semantic units, at the rate of every 5th, 6th, or 7th unit. Age and frequency-of-omission trends tended to favor the whole-word-elision method, while the presumed difficulty of passages agreed with the seman- tic-unit method. Based on this study it was recommended that: (1) the deletion of every 6th word is the best reliable and valid type in using the Cloze procedure in Arabic, (2) the scoring is suggested to be on the acceptable-word method, and (3) the deleted word is that which appears in the written text as independent word, if it is a semantic unit or a whole word. Academic Success The investigation of academic success, its components, its relation to various variables and the extent to which it could be predicted from present performance, has been given a great deal of attention in the last decades. Batteries of achievement tests and aptitude tests have been constructed, prepared and applied by colleges of eduCation and uni- versities for purposes of admission and for comparison with later achievement. The trend in recent research studies on academic achieve- ment mostly provided by the achievement tests appears to be 39 toward investigating not just the intellectual variables in explaining differences in academic success but non-intellectual variables as impor- tant as well. According to McClelland (1969) "Significant findings have indicated that intellectual measures account for 35 to 45 percent of the variation in acad. performance." According to Borrow (1947) as quoted by Behring (1966, p. 275), the correlation between intelligence test results and grades is.45; between achievement (content) examination and grades, .50. He recommends that more emphasis be placed upon develop- ing measures of non-intellectual factors in college achievement. As it was shown in the previous pages RC could be considered as a test which combines both intellectual and non-intellectual variables,and it could reflect the examinee's mental ability and the degree of his know- ledge or achievement. The major focus of the studies which dealt with acad. achievement was on the kind of variables affecting achievement and the existing relationships between dependent and independent variables and the power of prediction the independent variables have. This category of acad. success and its relation to independent or predictor variables was investigated by many researchers like; Borrow'(1947), Funches, D. (1964), Lavin, D. (1965), Behring, D. (1966), Perlberg, A. (1967), Domino, G. (1968), McClelland, M. (1969), Telleen, J. (1971), Hall, R. L. et. al., (1973), Mula, J. (1975). Behring (1966, p. 734) believed that "research in this field indicates that there is still much to be desired in terms of an adequate predictor. Discrepan- cies have always occurred between the results of ability test- ing and college success." David Lavin (1965) discussed the relationship between ability and per- formance. He believed that ability may be a "threshold variable." 40 According to him "After a certain level is reached, ability may no longer play a significant role in predicting school performance" (p. 58). Building on this, Telleen (1971, p. 34) concluded: "Assuming this to be true, performance then must be accounted for by using non- intellective factors. These non-intellective factors are used to ac- count for the unexplained Variation which is left after ability is used as a_predictor." D. Funchies (1964, p. 326) examined the degree of relationship between American College Test (ACT) and the year-end grade point aver- age (GPA) of 369 Freshmen. His findings indicated a correlation of .59 between ACT and GPA. He concluded that "The ACT composite score would be a reliable factor if used to predict first-year college suc- cess." The results of a study conducted by Behring (1966, p. 737) indicated that "it is possible to develop a scale that can differentiate between high and low achievers." In many of the studies concerning the prediction of academic per- formance, the relationship between a given predictor variable and the criterion is assessed by means of correlational analysis. According to Telleen (1971) "In almost all of these studies (lavin, 1965 - reviewed three- hundred) the correlation methods used assumed linear relation- ships - a unit increase in the predictor variable will be fol- lowed by a unit increase or decrease in the criterion, and it is assumed it will occur along the entire distribution of scores" (p. 34). In Israel, Perlberg (1967, p. 243) conducted a study for predicting academic achievement of Engineering and Science college students. In- tellective predictors and academic criteria alone were investigated in this study. According to Perlberg, all correlations were significant at .01 level. The total correlation between the Institute Entrance 41 Examination and Freshman College was ,.43 and between Matriculation Certificate and Freshman .43 also. The correlations decreased to- wards the GPA of seniors 120.23 and .23 with the above two variables. Ainsworth, L. (1957) conducted a study in order to explore the possibility that there exist. significant relationships, useful for predictive purposes, between academic achievement and scores on tests designed to measure certain factors which were thought to be important for the academic success of Arab students, like: ability to read English, ability to understand spoken English, intelligence and study habits. The results revealed no significant difference between the intelligence test scores of those subjects whose academic achievement was high and those whose achievement was low. But, a positive relationship was found between the Diagnostic Reading Test (DRT) scores and academic success. The highest correlation was found between academic success and scores on the Arabic adaptation of the Brown-Holtzman's Survey of Study Habits and Attitudes (Diss. Abs., Vol. 17, Part 2, 1957, p. 1702-1703). Douglas (1976) examined the relationship between Arab students' final examination results and their scores on a language proficiency test which were conducted in both Arabic and English, in connection with the Study Habits research project at the University of Khartom/Sudan. The findings indicated a correlation of .51 between the two vari- ables. William Bruce (1953) found, after correlating among eight inde- pendent variables, including High School grade point average and RC test, with the criterion of average grades in eight university areas, that the reading vocabulary and RC variables are, in general, better predictors than variables like H.S. GPA. The most important predictor . 42 variables in the all-university GPA were grades in High School math and in High School electives. The RC score accounted for 23 percent of the variance in grades. Campbell, J.W. (1965) conducted a study which aimed to identify factors significantly related to the acad. success of Louisiana State University's 1963 - 64 freshman class. Data for this study came from the student's high school transcript, his personal data sheet, the student's personal folder, scores of placement tests and college grades. Simple correlations were computed between college GPA and selected factors. A significant relationship was found at the .01 level between scholastic achievement and each of the factors considered in the study. The relationships between first year college achievement and these fac- tors were: 1. Sex; Achievement of women students tended to be higher than that of men. 2. High School GPA: Those with "B” or better averages achieved significantly higher than those with "C" averages. 3. Formal Education of Parents: Those whose parents achieved college success tended to attain higher achievement levels. 4. Placement Test Scores: Those with higher scores achieved significantly higher in college. The coefficient of correlation was .50 between C GPA and H.S. GPA; .25 between C GPA and College Abilities Test scores; and .25 between CGPA and scores on the cooperative English test. With regard to the relationship between intellectual character- istics and academic success, John McQuary (1953) conducted a study where twenty-three variables were involved like: the scores of American 43 Council on Education, Psychological Examination (quantitive reasoning score and linguistic score), scores of the Cooperative English Test (speed of reading, level of comprehension and vocabulary), High School percentage rank, educational level of father and of mother, High School extra-curricular participation, hours studied per week, grade point earned, etc. The intercorrelations between these variables revealed correlations which ranged from .23 to .56 between the intellectual variables (ineluding level of comprehension) and acad. achievement. To conclude, the studies reviewed above regarding acad. succ. could be viewed as of two types; one type is prediction studies which intended to predict academic achievement by using different kinds of tests and predictive variables; the other type is correlational studies in which the investigators tried to explore existing relationships between academic success and other independent variables like reading (comprehension, vocabulary and speed) arithmetic score, H.S. GPA, sex and so on. The above studies could be viewed also from another perspective. Those studies in which the researchers tried to use in- tellectual variables for the purpose of prediction or exploration of relationships, and those studies in which researchers tried to combine between two categories of variables; the intellectual (IQ, H.S. grades, achievement test, etc.) and non-intellectual variables like age, sex, socio-economic background, attitudes and personality traits. From the studies regarding acad. succ. it could be concluded that intellectual variables correlated better than non-intellectual ones and the use of High School grades and achievement tests are a good combination for purposes of prediction or explanation of acad. succ. variance. 44 Classroom Performance The "classroom performance" in its broad meaning belongs to what is called "Teaching Effectiveness? a concept which includes judgment and evaluation of a teacher from different aspects like teacher be- havior, teacher competency and pupil outcomes, i.e. judgingf a teacher on the process and the product of the teaching act and evalu- ating his teaching skills, strategies, methods of instruction, knowledge, personality traits and attitudes. So, performance means the way a teacher/ST behaves in the classroom while teaching, communicating with his pupils and helping them learn. How effective a teacher is,is a complicated question and on what basis to judge the work of the teacher is a category which was discussed and mostly unagreed upon. As quoted by G. C. Cheong (1970, p. 185), some writers such as Mitzel (1960), Ryans (1960), Biddle (1964), Getzels and Jackson (1963) and Broudy (1969) are pessimistic regarding the possibility of establishing reliable criteria by which to judge teaching effectiveness. And that is in Spite the fact that "more than ten thousand published studies have appeared for it" as stated by Dunkin and Biddle (1974, p. 12). In the current study the researcher limits the review of literature to the topics: Mastery of Subject Matter (MSM), Verbal Ability (VA) and Classroom Climate (CC). The evaluation of the STS' class. per. is built on these three sub-criteria which would serve as the basis for the global judgment of his performance. The mastery of subject matter relates to the student teacher's general command of knowledge and specific Inastery of the content he teaches, the way he presents the content and how he makes conclusions. In examining the ST verbal ability the . 45 researcher looked for the extent to which the ST succeeded in communicating with pupils and managing the classroom.’ Thus, judging a student teach- er on his behavior rather than on the teaching outcomes. VA of a ST re- lates to his language behavior as a teacher, how he puts his questions, how he presents his ideas linguistically, how he explains concepts and how he communicates with his pupils. And finally, classroom climate re- lates to the atmosphere the ST creates in the classroom. Here the ST is judged on the extent he applies his professional knowledge and re- flects his personality traits and attitudes. He is judged on how he uses strategies, techniques and instructional aids in the teaching situ- ation. He is judged on his way of teaching, his voice and his appear- ance, how he relates to kids; if he is open, democratic, enthusiastic, initiative, open, encouraging; if he blames warns, threatens and calls attention, etc. As is known, the teacher should possess certain qualities and abilities for operating successfully in the classroom. It seems that the suggested three sub-categories could be a comprehensive classifica- tion of the teaching process and could include the important criteria a teacher may be judged on. These are the subcategories of: a) Mastery of subject matter. b) Verbal ability c) Classroom climate, the ST creates while teaching, and where he reflects his personal and professional characterisitcs. In the following pages, the researcher will review literature connected with these three subcategories and present the major findings regarding the relationship between these criteria as a measure of class. per. succ. and different independent variables with a special focus on RC capability and general and professional achievement or knowledge, as I 46 factors which may relate to teaching effectiveness. Research relating to teaching effectiveness could be viewed and classified into two types: one is "prediction studies" which intends to predict future classroom performance in the part of candidates for student teaching or STS or teachers beginning their future career. The other type of studies deals with exploring relationships between various variables and factors. Also,the problem of criteria or what the teachers sould be judged on to be considered successful, seems to be complicated, sophisticated and not agreed upon. This problem as was presented by Medley and Mitzel as quoted by N.L. Gage (1971) is that "Most classroom visitors go to the classroom with definite preconceptions of what they are looking for. They go to the classroom not to find out what effective teacher behavior is, but to see whether the teacher is behaving effectively, i.e., the way they believe he should behave" (p. 257). Many research studies have been directed to the discovery of criteria of teacher effectiveness and the development of tests of per- sonality that might help to predict that effectiveness. According to Ebel (1966, p. 17), "Results so far have been disappointing" in this part of criteria (personality tests). Donald Medley (1975), as quoted by Folkert (1977, p. 82), in his review of research in 1971, indicates that "there are two prevalent methods to evaluate teachers - product and process. With each of these methods some problems occur. With process, teachers (who were) rated high by supervisors and well liked by students were not the teachers with the greatest student gains or who judged themselves the most ef- fective. Evaluation by product caused problems with relia- . bility and validity of the test (pp. 82-87). Medley advocates giving up the idea of measuring effectiveness of tea- chers by student gains on tests. Categories like mastery of subject matter, verbal ability and classroom climate are in the researcher”s opin- ion, more logical because they include almost all the components which 47 are supposed to exist in the interaction situation of teacher-pupil. According to R. Ebel (1966, p. 18) , "Most people in or near the teaching profession recognize two aspects of the teacher's job - intellectual and human. The teacher must know his subject matter; he also must have the skill in human relations that makes him successful teacher." If we add one more aspect to the teaching job, i.e. communication, then we can conclude that the above three categories could provide a basic comprehensive approach to the evaluation of teachers. The intellectual aspect could be reflected by the teacher's mastery of subject matter, the communicative aspect could be reflected by the teachers verbal ability, and the human aspect could be reflected by the examination of the classroom climate and atmosphere. Combs (1965, p. 2-3) defines the effective teacher as "a unique human being who has learned to use him- self effectively and efficiently to carry out his own and societies purposes in the education of others.“ This problem of what criteria is to be used in evaluating STS (and teachers)was discussed, also, in a study by Cheong (1970, p. 187). Data collected from eight supervisors' evaluation sheets showed agree- ment which ranged from 50% to 75%. The manner in which supervi- sors were asked to list criteria for assessing a student's performance in practice teaching was not structured. The supervisors "had a free rein to write any number of criteria and to use whatever frame of re- ference they saw fit.“ The results of this study indicated the following criteria which were agreed upon: (1) Ability to provide an environment to involve pupil's activity; (2) Subject matter competence; (3) Ability to relate or to communicate; (4) Sensitivity or perceptiveness of pupils' needs; 48 (5) Appropriate and/or variety of methods employed. These categories are parallel to the sub-categories that are sug- gested in this study as a basis for evaluating STS' classroom performance. Category (2) is parallel to MSM, category (3) is parallel to VA, and categories (1, 4, 5) are parallel to classroom climate. Verbal Ability. Flander's Verbal Interaction Category System (VICS) in evaluating teachers is built on the communicative ability of the teacher while he is praising, asking questions, lecturing, giving directions, criticizing and advocating ideas. If what Flanders tells us about the law of two-thirds,f as quoted by Dunkin and Biddle (1974, p. 54) is true, then the researcher's conclusion would be that the major criteri0n .0001. T=town, v=villages (rural), B=BedWouin. (subrural) The reliability coefficient for the whole test was: Table 3-7 shows the reliability coeficient for the Cloze subtests and the inter-subtest correlations. Table 3—7 A Correlational Matrix of the Inter Subtest correlations and reliability Coefficients Cloze Literary 1 Literary Professional Professional Subtests Descriptive Analytical Descriptive Analytical Literary R .82 Descriptive (.90)* Literary .54 R (.70) Analytical (.82)* Professional .55 .48 R (.80) Descriptive (.89)* Professional .43 .49 .43 R (.74) J Analytical ‘ ‘ (.85)* N = 143 * Reliability coefficient if the subtests were 100 items- 66. These reliability coefficients could be most easily increased by in- creasing the length of the test. Doubling its length could be expected to increase the reliability coeficients up to .90 , .82 , .89 and .85 as shown in the table. Besides these coefficients could be con- sidered high compared with other coefficients in other studies. The test which was used by A. Crocker (1974, p. 147) resulted in .75 reli- ability coefficient by using Spearman-Brown formula. R.L. Thorndike (1973) obtained a reliability coefficient of .78 for the reading compre- hension total scores by using Kuder—Richardson 20 formula. Dean Seibel (in Whitla, 1968, p. 271) stated: "...it is generally accepted that reliability...in the 70's or low 80's are adequate for most purposes that involve using summaries of test scores as information about groups." Test Validity. Validity is considered here to mean the relation- ships between the test scores and the various criteria chosen in this study. As defined in various statistical references, validity of a test is the degree of correspondence between scores made on the test and the "true" criterion, i.e., the trait or characteristic which the test was designed to measure or the degree to which a test measures whatever it was designed to measure. In this study, the extent of correlations obtained between the CTARC and the other criteria, especially with the C GPA and with the Arabic Language course scores, are the indicators and might be the evi- dence fbr a predictive or concurrent validity of the Cloze test used in the study. Moreover, these correlations may be considered as evidence of the content validity of the test. The researcher's intention was to use different kinds of passages to represent different content areas in the ASTC curricula (see Appendix A). And finally, the agreement 67 of the judges on the analytical and descriptive content of the passages may also be used as an evidence 0f the face validity of the test. To conclude, the validity of the Cloze test in general was discussed in Chapter 11 above. And as was stated there (Bormuth, 1969, p. 360): “Much of the research has shown that scores on Cloze tests are highly correlated with scores on standardized tests of reading comprehension ability." Research Questions and Hypotheses Research Questions. This study was conducted to investigate the question of possible relationships between reading comprehension in the Arabic language_(RCAL)and success in acad. ach. and class.) per. among Arab student teachers in Israel. Four questions were raised for this investigation: firgt; Does RCAL relate to academic success? Seggpd: Does RCAL relate to classroom performance? Ihipd: Does general knowledge as measured by the C GPA relate to classroom performance? fgupth: Does. RCAL relate to success in the Arabic Language course in the teacher education program at the ASTC? Hypotheses. In an attempt to answer these questions, four null hypotheses, which were presented in Chapter I in the positive form are presented hemein the null form.The study was conducted for testing these hypotheses and providing insight into two areas: academic success and classroom performance. The hypotheses are followed by appropriate ex- planations for each hypothesis and a description of a pilot study which was conducted earlier. 68 Null Hypothesis One: There is no relationship between reading comprehension as mea- sured by subtest and total test scores on a "Cloze Test of Arabic Reading Comprehension" (CTARC) and academic success as reflected by overall College Grade Point Average (CGPA). Null Hypothesis Two: There is no relationship between reading comprehension scores on CTARC and success in classroom performance as reflected by the global and specific judgement of college supervisors. Null Hypothesis Three: There is no relationship between academic success as reflected by overall CGPA, and classroom performance as reflected by College supervisors' judgement. Null Hypothesis Four: There is no relationship between reading comprehension scores on CTARC and success in the Arabic Language course in the Arab Teachers' College. An alpha level of .05 was set as the criterion for rejecting or failing to reject all hypotheses. Following is some explanation of these four hypotheses: Hypothesis One tests the relationship between total and subtotal scores student achieve in the CTARC and scores obtained by student teachers on their final exams at the end of the first year and the end of the first trimester of the second year as reflected by their college grade point average (CGPA). Menges, R. J. (1975), in a review of edu- cational research concludes: "Yet the most frequent method of determining the adequacy of tests used for certification and registration decisions, is to compare scores' tests with data gathered earlier in time, parti- cularly with grades earned during training." (p. 174) 69 Hypothesis Two tests the relationship between the scores student teachers achieve in the reading comprehension test (CTARC) and their scores in class. per. as reflected by college supervisors' global and specific judgement in the ASTC. The STS are evaluated weekly, one day a week, and for two week periods twice a year by different college super- visors while they are fulfilling their student teaching requirement in different classes and different grades. The evaluation criteria_are the ST's mastery of S.M., his verbal ability, and the classroom climate . he creates while teaching. Hypothesis Three tests the relationship between the mean scores of the student teachers in their academic achievement (CGPA) and their mean scores in classroom performance. According to Menges (1975) , "One approach is to identify teacher behaviors that have been shown to correlate with student achievement, but few agree that student achievement alone, is a sufficient condition by which a teacher or a school is to be evaluated." (p. 189) Menges concluded that "An examination designed to measure knowledge " should also predict practice." (Menges, p. 189). That is why the re- searcher hypothesizes a relationship between teacher's knowledge or command of S.M. and his class. per. Hypothesis Four tests the relationship between the reading compre~ hension ability and the Arabic language proficiency as reflected by the students' scores in the final examination. It is supposed that Cloze test of reading Comprehension reflects the student's language proficiency, and that there might be a relationship between the teacher's mastery of the native language and his reading comprehension capability and verbal ability in the same language. 70 Pilot Study: In an attempt to provide bases for this research, a pilot study was completed in June 1978. A sample of the Cloze test (which intends to measure the reading comprehension ability) was constructed by the researcher. This test was given in Israel to a second year class of student teachers at the ASTC/Haifa. The results of the test were correlated with the mean score for the student teachers' academic achievement (mean of the whole year examinations in different sugjects), and with student teaching practice. The primary results of this non-representative sample of the population are shown in Table 3-8. Table 3-8 A Correlation Matrix of a Pilot Study Between Variables Related to Academic Succ. and Class. Per. . CTARC Acad. Succ. Class per. Arabic CTARC 1.00 .84* .65* .53* Acad. Succ. 1.00 .66* .59* Class. Per. 1.00 .86* Arabic 1.00* * p < .01 N = 32. Table 3-8 shows that there was a correlation which ranged be- tween .535uui.86 between the different variables. These correlations were significantly different from zero (a = .01). This pilot study pro- vided the basis for the investigation of the relationships between the Arab student teachers' RC ability and their academic success and class- room performance. 71 Procedures, Data Collection and Data Analysis Procedures and Data Collection. During December 1978, the Cloze Test of Arabic Reading Comprehension (CTARC) was prepared, typed in Arabic and put in booklets ready for administering. Every booklet con- tained directions on the front page, an example of how to answer and four passages or subtests. Every subtest started with a new page. On January 1979, the researcher went to Israel and conducted the test with the help of the college supervisors in the Arab Teacher's College in Haifa. Before the test the examinees were given oral explanations and detailed instructions for completing the test. Their attention was called to the directions on the front page, and they were told that their answers will remain anonymous and that the study was for research only. The examinees were given two hours time to complete the four passages (30 minutes for every passage) with some flexibility for individuals. Most finished before or by the end of the two hours. The booklets were gathered for scoring and analysis. Later the passages were read twice; once for determining what acceptable words could be considered as the correct answers for every item and for providing key answers (appendix B), and a second time for correcting the cloze test and assigning indivi- dual scores. Fifty points were assigned for every passage - one point for every item, and the student's scores in the subtests were calcu- lated from 50 points. During the same period, the administration provided the researcher with the student teachers' files which served as a base for collecting the other data. These files included a) personal information regarding every ST, b) records of the STS High School Matriculation Examination, ' 72 and c) the grades of the student teachers at the end of the first year in the college and by the end of the first trimester of the second year, these were scores gained by the student teachers in all their course work. A global score of every student teacher regarding his classroom performance during the first year was provided also. The student teachers were to start their student-teaching practice in elementary schools by the beginning of February 1979 for two weeks. January was an appropriate time for the researcher to meet the college supervisors and to give them specific instructions regarding specific and global judgment. of the STS' class. per. Therefore, the researcher met the college supervisors separately and in a staff meeting and explained to them principles for assigning grades. The college supervisors agreed to assign four scores for every student teacher, using the same evaluation instruments used by them consistently in the last seven years in the college. Later, the college supervisors pro- vided lists of the student teachers' grades in: a) mastery of subject matter (specific judgment), b) verbal ability/language of the T (speci- fic judgment), c) classroom climate/atmosphere (specific judgment), and d) global judgment. Grades were expressed on a numerical scale of 1 to 10 for every item (Appendix C). The grades were the mean scores of different college supervisors, ob- serving the ST in different subject areas in different classes (grades). It is worth mentioning here that in a study over three years period on "professional judgment as a criterion variable in pre-service Teacher Education Research," Mohan, J.M. and Harstle, J.C. (ED 135-761) found that "professional judgment is reliable and stable criterion variables for teacher education research." The choice of variables was determined by the fact that the popu- lation of this studywere not required to take any standardized tests of 73 intellective characteristics or of non-intellective personality charact- eristics. Cloze test scores (specific and total) were taken as the major independent variables (or input). MEC of high school were considered as another input or independent variable. The criterion variables (de- pendent) were: (a) The STS; achievement in (15) common academic courses during the first year and the first trimester of the second year separately and together (C GPA). (b) The mean score in the specialization area (S GPA). (c) The scores in class. per. global and specific judgement. (d) The Arabic language course score in the first year and the first trimester of the second year. Data Analysis Procedures (methods of statistical analysis). By April 1979 all the raw data were translated to the data cards and fed into the computer. The SPSS program was used to analyze test items for mean, standard deviation, F distribution, correlational matrices pearson-product moment coefficients of correlation (or simple corre- lation) and its level of significance, analysis of variance, multiple regression and canonical correlation. The significance standard f0r each statistical analysis was set at the .05 alpha level. Since the testing of RC took place at the same time as testing in professional materials and literature, it was possible to examine the correlations between achievement in different subject areas and between these subjects and the four subtests. This is of interest be- cause one views'reading as a general educational tool," as Thorndike, R.L. (1973) states (p. 165). Hence it is of some concern to know to what extent achievement in the more content oriented subjects is depen- dent upon RC ability. And since data on student teacher's performance in the Matriculation Examination were available, it was possible to 7.4, examine the correlations between different subjects in the MEC and the other criteria like success in different courses in the teacher education program, and different components of class. per. As was indicated above,the statistical procedure for testing the hypotheses included the following computations: (a) Pearson Product Moment Correlation (r): Correlation coefficients indicate the degree to which variation (or change) in one variable is related to variation (change) in another. A correlation coefficient can summariZe the strength 0f association between a pair of variables and provides easy means for comparing the strength of relationship between one pair of variables and a different pair. "The Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) is used to measure the strength of relationships between two interval-level variables." (SPSS p. 280). According to Borg and Gall (1974, p. 317), correlation coefficients are best used to measure the degree of relationship between two vari- ables and to explore possible causal factors that can later be tested in experimental design. Kerlinger et. al. (1973, p. 11) defines a co- efficient of correlation as "an index of the direction and magnitude of a relation." And according to Stuit, et. al. (1949, p.11), "The actual magnitudes of correlation coefficients which appear in the literature...are usually between .25 and .70, with the vast majority between .30 and .60. If, therefore, the counselor uses a predictive index which correlates between .30 and .60 with a criterion of success (such a correlation is often re- ferred to as a validity coefficient), he may be assured that this correlation is normal, or typical, since it falls within the range of coefficients usually obtained.“ Correlation can sometimes be increased by means of multiple correlation and regression procedure and by the use of Canonical Correlation. 75 (b) Multiple Correlation and Regression: Multiple regression is a general statistical technique through which one can analyze the relationship between a dependent or criterion variable and a set of independent/predictor variables. And as was de- fined by KerTingen et. al. (1973, p. 3),"multiple regression is a method of analyzing the collective and separate contributions of two or more independent variables to the variation of a dependent variable." It means that the multiple regression equation uses the S's scores on two or more tests to predict his performance on the criterion measure. In using this method we want to determine whether two or more of all the predictor variables (or the independent ones) in a study can be combined to predict the criterion better than any one predictor variable does alone. In the present study, for example, a combination of two or more subtests produced a higher correlation than each one subtest did alone, and when the MEC subjects and the Cloze subtests were com- bined by a multiple regression equation, they yield a better prediction of C GPA and of success in class. per. than either test alone. So the method of multiple correlation and regression could be employed to predict a single criterion variable from two or more predictor variables "with the minimum amount of (squared) error" as Anderson states (1966). According to him, "The multiple correlation technique is used to maximize the amount of the criterion's variance predicted, or accounted for, by the predictor variables" (p. 163). (c) Canonical Correlation: Canonical Correlation analysis is one member of the closely inter- related family of multivariate linear statistical techniques that SPSS is designed to make available. The basic aim of this method is to de- rive a linear combination from each of the sets of variables in such a 76 way that the correlation between the two linear combinations is maximized. According to Anderson (1966) "The canonical correlation problem arises when we have more than one predictor variable and more than one criterion variable..." (p. 166). He concludes that the canonical cor- relation is "the generalized model of the relationships between predic- tor and criterion variables of which zero-order and multiple correlation are special cases" (p. 166). One of the: disadvantages of Canonical Correlation Coefficient is the fact that it seldom indicates clearly the contribution of individual variables to the realtionships between two sets of variables. According to Bock and Haggard (1968) "A better technique for this purpose is a multivariate generalization of step-wise regression analysis...used to determine whether the addition of a given independent variable to the regression equation significantly improves prediction" (p. 126). That is why Couly and Lohnes (1971) suggest the use of the two methods - multiple regression and canonical correlation. They believe that the multiple correlation analysis of each variable of each set regressed on all the variables of the other set, is a use- ful supplement "but no substitute for, the canonical structure" (p. 176). So the Canonical correlation could provide the maximum correlation between two sets of independent and dependent variables and the multi- ple regression could provide the beta weight for every independent variable in determining this correlation. Analysis of the Sample In order to decide how to treat the sample in terms of data analy- sis, there was a need to discover the nature of the sample in this study to determine if there were any differences in mean scores between groups in terms of sex, place of residence, age and specialization area in vari- ous dependent measures like CTARC, academic success reflected by C GPA, and classroom performance. this purpose. these statistical analysis. 77 Table 3-9 Results of Analysis of Variance Tests of Differences in the Performance of Males/Females in Various Dependent Measures A. Mean and Stahdard Deviation An analysis of variance procedure was used for Tables 3-9, 3-10, 3—11, and 2-12 present the findings of Sex CTARC CGPA Class. Per. independent __ __ __ variable X SD X SD X SD Males 255.98 30.70 134.49 9.76 202.37 17.55 (N = 57) Females 269.05 30.33 133.59 9.25 212.51 18.26 (N = 86) l 1 8. ANOVA Results Source of Variance d.f. Mean of Squares F. P. CTARC Between groups 1 5850.50 Within groups 141 928.98 5'30 < '01 Total 142 C GPA Between groups 1 27.66 31 NS Within groups 141 89.45 ' Total 142 Class. Per. Between groups 1 3526.86 Within groups 141 323.47 10'9 < '001 Total 142 78 Table 3-10 Results of Analysis of Variance Tests of Differences in The Performance of STS from Different Places of Residence in Various Dependent Measures A. Mean and Standard Deviation Place of Residence CTARC CGPA Class. Per. “Name if so 7 so if so Town (N=26) 284.35 33.81 136.23 11.70 218.31 19.34 Village (N=IO4) 260.05 29.06 133.33 9.07 207.69 16.71 Bedouin (N-13) 252.15 23.30 134.38 6.92 195.00 22.55 1 ‘ l B. ANOVA Results Source of Variance d.f. Mean of Squares F. P. CTARC Between groups 2 7371.73 8 45 < .001 Within groups 140 872.10 Total 142 CGPA Between groups 2 89.04 1 00 NS Within groups 140 89.02 ' Total 142 Class. Per Between groups 2 2468.96 Within groups 140 315.70 7'82 < ‘001 . Total 142 79 Table 3-11 Results of Analysis of Variance Tests of Differences in the Performance of Age Groups in Various Dependent Measures A. Mean and Standard Deviation Age Independent CTARC CGPA Class. Per. Variable 'X SD 7' SD X. SD 19-20 years (N=121) 246.65 31.02 134.08 9.26 209.26 18.49 > 21 years (N=22) 259.36 31.50 133.23 10.54 204.09 19.06 B. ANOVA Results Source of Variance d.f. Mean of Squares F. P. CTARC Between groups 1 520.79 54 NS Within groups 141 966.78 ' Total 142 CGPA Between groups 1 13.62 15 NS Within groups 141 89.55 ' Total 142 Class. Per. Between groups 1 489.25 1 44 NS. Within groups 141 744.95 ' Total 142 emcpmcm u m 80 mmgzmmmz pcuucmawo mzowcm> cw manage mmc< cowumNPmeomam pcmcmwewo eo mocmELomcma on“ cw mmoemgmmewo we memo» mucewcm> eo mwmxpmc< we mppammm Nflum open» .urnme< u m mzma toe ownwca n m .3mgam: u m .ngmcmw u e .gamz u m .mczpmz u N .cmugmmcmucwx u fl .azocm u u e Lam» vcm .Lma mm.oH m.oHN mo.mH o.mo~ mm.HN m.~o~ em.mm m.mom Hw.mfi o.mom em.~H “.mom fia.~fi m.mmH Hm.NH m.mflm .mmmpu .ooam .umom Hm. mm.m em. No.o eH.H Hm.m mo.H mm.m mm. eH.~ mm. «H.m Ne. mm.m om. mm.o mo ucmvcmum new cam: .< 81 Table 3-12 B. ANOVA Results Source of Variance d.f. Mean of Squares F. P. CTARC Between groups 7 1088.55 1.14 NS Within groups 135 957.17 Total 142 CGPA Between groups 7 5.266 8.72 ..001 Within groups 135 .604 Total 142 Class. Per. Between groups 7 827.06 2.56 .01 Within groups 135 321.08 Total 142 From the tables (3-9) and (3-10) it is concluded that the two inde- pendent variables (sex and place of residence) are associated with a signi- ficant difference in performance on the CTARC. Females scored higher than males and those who came from towns socred higher than those from villages (rural areas) and villagers scored higher than STS who came from sub- rural areas (Bedouins.) As shown in tables (3-11) and (3-12) there were no significant differences between groups in CTARC in the age variable and in the specialization area variable. There were no significant differences for the age variable in the other two dependent measures: CGPA and classroom performance (Table 3-11). And as shown in tables (3—9) and (3-10) the CGPA measure does not reflect any significant dif- ferences in the group performance for the sex variable or for the resi- dence variable. It does show significant differences between groups in 82 the specialization area variable, as shown in table (3-12). With regard to the classroom performance measure, Tables (3-9), (3-10) and (3-12) show that there were a significant difference between groups for the sex variable, the residence variable and the specialization area variable. It seems that there is a consistency in performance in the two measures CTARC and class. per. with regard to sex and place. Also in the class. per. females were better than males and those who came from urban areas (towns) performed better than rural STS and rural better than subrural (Bedouins). In academic achievement there was no significant difference between groups with regard to sex and place of residence. It seems that age does not play any significant role in terms of acad. succ. and class. per. between groups, as shown in table (3-11). In a study by Bulcock, et. al. (ED 134-982) it was concluded that "girls out performed boys in literature and boys outperformed girls in science, but the net disadvantage of the girls in science was less than that of the boys in literature." In another study (Diss. Abs. Vol. 38, No. 7, p. 3881A) the influence of sex with regard to reading ability was discussed. The results indicated that "the females in the study scored considerably higher than the males on both pre-test and post-test in reading." The researcher explanation for the findings in tables 3-9 to 3-12 is: (a) In the ASTC3the girls admitted to the teacher education program are more motivated than boys, for socio—economical and psycho-political reasons. The brighter boys who graduate from the high school and pass the ME 90 to the university to pursue their education in different 83 professional areas. Of those boys admitted to the ASTC some had not passed the ME and those who passed come to the ASTC because of financial and scientific background. They may be average students at the high school and learning in the ASTC costs them less. On the other hand, girls prefer to attend the ASTC to become teachers and this pro- fession attracts brighter females in the high schools. This situation was reflected in the CTARC performance and in the classroom performance achievement. (2) With regard to the residence place, because of the policy of the Ministry of Education to encourage students from rural areas to be tea- chers, those who reach the ASTC from urban areas (towns) are the best in terms of scientific background. And any candidate with average ability could have the chance to be admitted to the teacher education program if he comes from village's or bedOUl'hcamps (sub-rural areas)- ' (3) With regard to age, no representative sample was presented in the study. One hundred twenty one STS from the 143, dhe sample size)are between (19 - 20) years old. So, differences between the age groups may not be evident because of the narrow range of ages represented. Summar The previous chapter contained a description of the population, the sample, the instrumentation, the hypotheses and the procedures involved in collecting data and statistical methods for analysis. For investigating the relationships between student teachers' RC and their acad. ach. and class. per., a sample of 143 student teachers was drawn from the population in the Arab Teachers' College at Haifa, Israel. Each of the STS enrolled in the ASTC for the two-year program between September 1977 and June 1979, was given a CTARC in January, 1979. 84 For each subject in the sample other information was collected in- cluding: (a) Personal data regarding age, sex, place of residence, high school Matriculation Examination records and area of specialization. These were gathered from the STS' files. (b) First year and first trimester of the second year scores in all the academic subjects/courses and in the STS' class. per. scores. Every college supervisor was asked to provide a list of his STS' global score for the first year and global and specific scores in the subcategories, MSM, VA and CC, for the first trimester in the second year, as evaluated by different college supervisors in different subjects and different grades. The scores were compared to identify any relationships between the independent variables and the criteria. The validity and reliability of the CTARC was discussed and results of test reliability and item analysis were presented (reliability coefficient was Alpha = .79). The hypotheses were presented in a null form followed by a description of procedures, data collection and data analysis. Finally, the methods of statistical analysis were presented. It included Pearson's Product Moment Correla- tion (simple correlation), ANOVA, Multiple regression and Canonical Correlation. The data which were collected were analyzed by the SPSS program in the Computer Center at Michigan State University. Chapter IV will contain the analysis of the data as related to the hypotheses, and present the findings of the study. CHAPTER IV Findings - Presentation and Analysis The central focus of this study was to determine what relationships exist between student teachers' RC in the Arabic language and their academic success and classroom performance. The researcher examined the nature of, and identified specific factors in these relationships. In addition, the predictive power of selected factors for academic success and class. per. were examined. The purpose of this chapter is to pre- sent and to analyze data which was gathered from 1978/1979 second-year STS at the ASTC for the purpose of testing the hypotheses which were stated earlier. The chapter provides a presentation of the null-hypo- theses , with each hypothesis followed by a narrative account of research findings. Tables summarizing the findings for each research hypothesis accompany the discussion. A general summary for the hypothesis testing will end the chapter. The steps for testing the hypotheses include a presentation of: (1) the simple correlation coefficients, (2) the multiple regression equations and (3) the Canonical Correlation coefficients. Analysis of variance tests are included where there is an examina- tion of differences between groups in acad. succ. and class. per. Null Hypothesis One There is no relationship between reading com- prehension as measured by subtests and total test scores on a "Cloze Test of Arabic Reading Compre- hension" (CTARC) and academic success as reflected by overall College Grade Point Average (CGPA). 85 86 Findings Simple Correlation To test this hypothesis, Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficients were computed. Table 4-1 shows a correlation ranging from .15 to .51 between subtests and total test scores and CGPA. These correlations were significantly different from zero (a = .05 and .001). So the researcher rejected the null hypothesis and concluded the two variables were related. Table 4-1 Simple Correlations (r) between the CTARC (Cloze Subtests and Total Score) and Academic Success (CGPA) and the Mean Score of Specialization area (SGPA) CTARC CGPA SGPA 15 7-13 Academic Subjects Academic Subjects Cloze Subtest Literary descriptive passage .27*** .37*** Cloze Subtest Literary Analytical passage .39*** .34*** Cloze Subtest Professional descriptive passage .15* .25** Cloze Subtest Professional Analytical Passage .51*** .45*** Cloze (TOTAL Score) .42*** .45*** N = 143 * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 87. Table 4-1 shows additional computation of the relationships be- tween the CTAR scores, sub and total tests and the mean grade point aver- age (SGPA) score of the STS' acad. succ. in the specialization area. These correlations ranged from .25 to .46, and were significantly dif~ ferent from zero (a = .01). A correlation Matrix is provided in Appendix A to Show the specific intercorrelations of the four input or indepen- dent variables (Cloze subtests) and the fifteen output variables of achievement (criteria). Multiple Regression Analysis (R) A multiple linear regression analysis was used to determine the best predictors of acad. succ. (CGPA) from the four Cloze subtests. As shown in Table 4-2, professional analytical and literary analytical passages were the best predictors to explain the relationship between the independent variables and the criteria. Table 4-2 shows a multiple R of .55. This result is significantly different from zero (a = .000). As was done in Table 4-1, a multiple R was computed to de- termine the correlation between the combined Cloze test variables and the other criteria — the specialization area mean score (SGPA). Table 4-3 shows R equal to .499. This correlation was significantly differ- ent from zero (a = .000). By breaking the data into the sex variable it was found that al- most no advantage could be gained with regard to the improvement of the correlation coefficient. Table 4-4 shows that the regression equation (R) with males is (.576) and with females is .584 and no significant infbrmation could be added. But the professional analytical subtest was discriminating for females R = .570 more than for males ,R = .455. This subtest is still the strongest independent variable in the three re- gression analyses in Tables 4-2, 4-3, and 4-4. 88 moo u z oo.moo "oooomooo ooo. oH.mH o.oo mono omH ooommoa o>_oowcomoo moo ooom o moon. mo. Heoo. scocoowo oNo_o ooo. oN.oN m.mo ooeo one ooommoo o>woowsomoo HoNH Noon m oooo. mm. NNNH. Poeo_mmococo oNo_o ooo. oo.em m.oo Hooo ooo ooommoa _ooooe_oo< mooo ooom N oooo. mo. poem. zeocoowo oNo_o ooo. Ho.oo m.oo oomo mom . ooommos Foowo»_o:< ooom oomm H mooo. Ho. ooom. 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A multiple regression analysis was used to determine the best predictor of academic success from the MEC adacemic subjects and to explore the maximum relationships which exist between these subjects after they had been combined and with the CGPA. Table 4-5 shows a multiple (R) of .44 between the combined sub- scores in seven acad. subjects of MEC and CGPA. This correlation was significantly different from zero (a = .01). Another multiple regression analysis was used to explore the higher correlatioribetween the combined mwaindependent variables (CTARC and MEC) and academic success as reflected in CGPA. Table 4-6 shows that a multiple R of .66 exists between the combined eleven independent variables (four variables in CTARC and seven more in MEC). This correlation was significantly different from zero (a = .000) and resulted in raising the correlation 20 percent (from .55 to .66) by adding the MEC indepen- dent variable. From these analyses as reflected in Table 4-6 it could be concluded that the best predictors of academic success (CGPA) are a combination of CTAR subtests and MEC subjects. Canonical Correlation In the previous statistical procedures (simple correlation and mul- tiple regression) the correlations were determined between (a) one inde- pendent variable with one criterionin simple correlation and (6) several combined independent variables with one dependent variable as in multiple regression. For determining the maximum correlation from comparing 93 n.coH "penumcou ooo. 3 .o ommm wmww mo 82 . 3. z... . .8 522%: moo. mo.m mamM wwww mm Nooe. mo. ooo." - assume: ooo. ~.o Nam“ Mmmw mo owoo. No. “so.o - o_;m=o~_e_o Noo. No.4 ”WWW mwmfl . mo Nooe. oo. ooo.e om_po=o ooo. 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P32 mLOHUwUmLQ Aumzv mpomnoom muoowm_ucmu cowuocwonm cowquouwgpoz cm>mm new mpmmpoom mNopu soon we coweocwoeou o seem empowumgo on one mpnmh Ao 95 oo.om "oooomooo ooo. mo.o om Hoke oo . ooommos osoooccomoo mom oooo Ho moo. oo. omoo. scocoooo o~o_o . . m.mo Noeo oo Aoozv ooo oo o ooo oooo om moo. .mo. Hooo. mo_eoeooooz . . m.mo oouo oo . floozo ooo oo a ooo oooo o ooo. mo. ooeo.- ecoomo: ooo. oo.o o.~o name so ooommoa o>_oowcomoo o.moo ooom o ooo. .mo. Nooo.- _oeoammococa oNo_o . -. No ooeo No homey ooo oo o .oHo ooom a mo. mo. oNoo.H . emoPooo moooooom oo: 59:. Spam mmgoocm mocooom . e .o Na a m ooo 835 m m com: we 52m mFawepoz mpawppoz msouowomco A o.oooov o-o spook 96 specific and several independent variables with specific and several criteria we use the canonical correlation procedure. In this study, canonical correlation was used to explore the maximum correlation be- tween the four Cloze subtests' scores and the 15 academic subjects' scores separately and without the use of CGPA. Table 4-7 shows that the first canonical variates resulted in RC = .59 between the above variables with regard to common academic achievement and Re = .50 with regard to specialization area. These two correlations were significantly different from zero (a = .000). By breaking the data into the sex variable the canonical corre- lation in the common achievement, as shown in Table 4-7 was for males .75 and for females .65 . These correlations are significantly dif- ferent from zero (a = .05), and the findings support ANOVA results regarding differences between males and females (Table 3-9). Table 4-7 Overall Canonical Correlations Rc Between CTARC (four subtests) and Various Measures of Academic Achievement for Males, Females and Total Measures Eigenvalue* Rc . Chi- d.f. Sig. square (p.) Cloze and Male .5659 .75 84.4 60 .021 15 academic Female .4173 .65 87.5 60 .012 subjects Total .3534 .59 121.6 60 .000 Cloze and mean score Male .3313 .58 21.5 4 .000 of Speciali- Female .2044 .45 18.9 4 .001 zation area Total .2487 .50 39.9 4 .000 (SGPA) * Eigenvalue means the squared Rc (Rcz). be explained by canonical correlation and it is equivalent to (R multiple regression analysis. It is the variance which could 2) in 97 canonical correlation was .58 for males and .45 for males. These correlations were significantly different from zero (a = .000). These results indicate the degree CTARC and acad. succ. are related to each other, and for instance, a canonical correlation of .75 means that the Cloze test accounted for 56 percent of the variance in academic achievement. The other 44 percent could be related to other variables. Null Hypothesis Two There is no relationship between reading com- prehension scores on CTARC and success in classroom performance as reflected by the global and specific judgment of college supervisors. Findings Simple Correlation (r) In order to test this hypothesis, Pearson product moment coeffi- cients were computed. Table 4-8 shows that there was a correlation which ranged from .09 to .43 between CTARC (subtests and total score) and class. per. in first year and second year of student teaching, specific and total judgement. The correlations between the Cloze total score and the other global and specific criteria ranged from .22 to .43. These correlations were all significantly different from zero (a = .01 and .001). Correlations between the CTARC (subtests and total score) and the second year global classroom performance were also significant at an alpha level of (.001). So the researcher rejected the null hypo- thesis that there is no relationship between RC scores and success in class. per. From the 25 correlations in the matrix (Table 4-8) only three were not significant” 00 the average, it seems that CTARC (total) is the best independent factor for the purpose of explaining the ST'S class . per. 98 For determining the power of RC as predictor of success in class. per., another analysis was conducted, the multiple regression analysis. Table 4-8 Simple Correlations (r) between the CTARC (Cloze Subtests and Total Score) and Classroom Performance (first vear-global score, and Second Year Specific and Global Judgement CTARC Class. per. Classroom Performance 2nd year ‘ Mastery of Verbal Classroom ISt fear S.M. Ability Climate G]°ba‘ Cloze Subtest Literary Descrip- tive Passage .12 (NS) .41*** .30*** .28*** .40*** Cloze Subtest Literary Analy- tical Passage .17* .29*** .30*** .21** .32*** Cloze Subtest Professional Des- criptive Passage .09 (NS) .34*** .21** .13 (NS) .28*** Cloze Subtest Professional Ana- lytical Passage .31*** .30*** .26*** .26*** .34*** Cloze (Total Score) .22** .43*** .35*** .28*** .43*** N = 143 * P < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 Multiple Regression Analysis In order to determine the correlation between the combined sub- tests of CTARC and the global evaluation of second year class. per. a multiple regression analysis was used. Table 4-9 shows that a multiple 99 meH u z Rm.oefl ”penumcou ooo. mm.w w.¢mm emmmm me mammmma m>wuawcomoo Noam Hmwm a meow. me. ammo. Pocowmmmcogm mNopu ooo. Ho.HH m.mmm ommmm mmH mommmwa Pmuwpxpmc< Hmmm mqmm m «com. me. eomfi. agmcmgwg mNOFu ooo. No.5H m.~wm «Nmmm ovfi mummmmm quwpxpmc< meme Hfimm N ommH. cw. wwmm. chowmmmwoca mNo_u ooo. wo.~m ¢.Hmm Howfic Hefi mmmmmwa m>wuawcummo «mow «mom H V mmca. ow. mmvm. xgmgmuwg mNo—u .nogm owuum mmgmacm magmacm .m.u mm m m mammunzm a a com: to 53m a_awppzz apa2p_=z um ccoumm . mucmEcomLma soogmmmpu Low mwmapmc< can Amv mcowpmzcm cowmmmcmma mpnwupzz Fpmcm>o mac mFQMF 100 R of .45 was explored between variables. This correlation was signi- ficantly different from zero (a = .000). Besides, the table shows that the strongest variable in determining this correlation was the literary descriptive cloze subtest and the four cloze subtests accounted for 20 percent of the variance in success in class. per. Table 4-10 presents the multiple correlations for the other class- room performance dependent variables as predicted from four combined Cloze subtests. The multiple R of first year class. per. was .31 and of second year subskill classroom climate .32. These two correlations were significantly different from zero (a = .01). The multiple R of mastery of subject matter as subskill was .45 and of verbal ability .36. These two correlations were significant at an alpha level of (.000). Table 4-10 Regression Coefficients for Various Classroom Performance Measures as Predicted from Four Combined Cloze Subtests Class. Per Multiple Multéple P. Value Measures R R First Year Student Teaching .31 .0960 .007 2nd Year Subskill (Mastery of Subject Matter) .45 .2011 .000 2nd Year Subskill (Verbal Ability) .36 .1270 .000 2nd Year Subskill (Classroom Climate) .32 .1059 .004 Table 4-11 presents an overall multiple regression equation and analysis for males' and females| second year class. per. as predicted from the Cloze subtests of CTARC. The combined CTARC subtests resulted 101 m.mmH “ocaumcou moo. Hm.m mew NmHmH . mm amammma Fmowus_a=< Nomfi Nofiv m mmmm. ac. muofi. Pocowmmmmogm mNoFu Hoe. em.w mam mfimmfi cm mammmwa qumpzpmc< wHom mmo¢ N mmmm. we. oqmfi. Asmsmuwg mNopu ooo. Ha.mH. New mmemfi mm . amamwaa a>cuaccomao .mmwm mmmm a HNNN. .nv. mcmn. xgmgwpwg mNopu .noga apnea magmzcm mmgmscm . . «a a m. mummpnzm a a cam: co 23m c e a_awp_=z apavp_=z um<fiu mpmz n xmm esp soc; umuowvwga mm mucmagoygma soogmmmpo me> tam umo HHT¢ mpnmh 102 m.NmH "peepmcou vow . .m mmwmm Hm mmmmwmm m>wuamLUmwo ooo mm mmHH Nmmq v mama. oq. NmHH. Pacowmmmmogm mNopu moo. 0H.m Ham qmmmm mm mmammaa Pmu_pspae< coma mace m nwmfl. mm. smog. zgmgwpw4 mNopu Hoe. mq.n mmm mfiocm mm mommmmm w>wumwcummo moHN mmm¢ N mNmH. mm. omwfi. axmgprJ mNopu Hoo. cN.NH mow mfiovm vm . mammmmm quwpmpmc< mmnm mmnm H mama. om. name. —m:o_mmmmogm mNopu .noga owuam mmgmzcm mmcmzcm . . m a m mm a a a cam: co 23m c e mpamquz afiawafisz m a on m guano mpmsmu n xmm A.u.pcouv Hfirq aanp . 103 in multiple R of .49 for males and .40 for females. These correlations were significantly different from zero (a = .01)? From TabTe 4-11 it could be concluded that CTARC accountsfbr 24 percent of the variance in class. per. (R2) for males, and for only 16 percent of the variance in class. per. for females. Moreover, the most discriminating independent factor in class. per. was literary descriptive for males (B = .7749) and professional analytical fer females (B = .4397). The Cloze profes- sional descriptive subtest was not included in the multiple regression analysis because it was not significant to enter (with F = .037 and p < .986). Related Findings As was done in testing hypothesis one and for comparison purposes, a multiple regression analysis was computed for MEC academic subjects and scores. Table 4-12 shows a multiple R of .31 for second year glo- bal evaluation of class. per. as predicted from MEC subjects. From the table it could be seen that the best predictor in H.S. for class. per. is the Arabic course (B = 5.004 and multiple R ..242) This correlation .01). The second factor in was significantly different from zero (a H.S. which was related to success in class. per. is the Hebrew course. By comparing Table 4-12 with Table 4-5, it could be noted that the Hebrew course there was the strongest factor in explaining CGPA. It seems also that MEC relates to CGPA (R = .44) more than to class. per. (R = .31). By combining a set of eleven independent variables, as shown in Table 4-13, the multiple regression analysis resulted in multiple R of .47 which was significantly different from zero (a = .01). In comparing this table with Table 4-6, it could be seen that the most discriminating factor in explaining academic success was the professional analytical *These findings support ANOVA results, Table 3-9. 104 m.mNN "oooomooo . . m NNooN mo NH oo N Now NNNN o NNoo. No. NHo.H- omo_ooo oo. No.H oNN ooNoN oo ooo HooN o oooo. om. Noo.H- ooomooNoooo . . N.Nm mommm mm oo on N mom NmmN o Nooo. oN. ooN.N Nooocooooo . . o.NNN NoNoN om . mo oo N HmN NoHN o NNNo. NN. Noo.o- Ngoom_: . . o.NNN oNooN No no No o ooo HNoH N oNoo. oN. ooo.N zoooox Ho. mo.c m.mnm mmumm mm .omoH omoo H oomo. oN. ooo.m . ooooto . nnzm u_smuou< Deco owgom mmcozcm mmgoaum . . mm m mpom. a a com: co sow c o a_oooooz opowo_oz o oo: Aumzv muomnnzm muouoowpcmo cowpocmsoxm cowuop30wgpoz seem uwuumumcm mo Amcoum pooopwv mucoscowcma EoogmmoFU mane mpnmb gom> ucm Lo» m_mz~oc< ago Amy mcowuozom :owmmmcmmm mpgwupzz ppogm>o 105 . . omN oooNN oo Hoozv ooo mo o moHH oHoo m oooN. mo. Hooo.H- ooomooNHHHo . . oMN oNNNN. mo Hoozv ooo oo o oHoH HNom o NooH. oo. Nooo.H oooocoooo ooo. oo.N omN NooNN oo . ooommoo HooHooHooo oooH oomo o omoH. oo. oNoN. HooowmmoCOLN oNoHo . . ooN ooNoN No . Hoozv ooo oo o onN Nooo N oooH. oo. oNoo.o uHooao ooo. mo.oH omN HoNoN oo moommoo o>HoQHLUWoo oooo oooo H ooNH. mm. oHoN. sgocooHH oNoHo .oogo owuom mmgooam mmgoocm . . Na a m. mpuomoom om: o o ooo: mo sow o o oHoHoHoz oHoHoHoz ooo oNo mHuv wFQMH om.ooH ”oooomooo i 106 . . ooN NooNN oo Hoozv ooo om N ooo oomo oH ooNN. No. moHo. - scoomH: ooo. mo.N ooN ooHNN oo ooommoo o>_ooHtomoo ooN . ooNo o NHNN. No. NooH. Hooonmococo oNOHo . . ooN ooHNN Ho Hoozo ooo HN o HoN HmNo o .NoNN. oo. oooH.H- omHHooN . . HoN. ooNNN No Hoozv Noo No o . oNo omHo . N HoHN. oo. HoNo.H . omega: Hoo. oN.o ooN oooNN . mo _ ooommoo HoowooHooo oooH oooo o HmHN. oo. . onH. zoocooHA oNoHo .995 953. 8.333 3.833 . . mm m m 3833 HE ... ... com: mo 53 “H o 23:32 @353: ooo 825 H.o.oooov mfiuv wFQMH 107 cloze subtest followed by Hebrew, where the literary discriptive cloze subtest was the strongest factor in explaining variance in classroom per- formance, followed by Arabic. A consistency in results could be seen in Tables 4-5, 4-6, 4-12, and 4-13. Canonical Correlation For determining the maximum correlation which could occur between two sets of variables the independent variables set (four C1028 subtests) and the dependent variables' set (global and specific judgments of Class. per.) Canonical correlations were computed. Table 4-14 shows the results of the computation of this statistical method. Table 4-14 Overall Canonical Correlations Between CTARC (four subtests) and Five Classroom Performance Measures (specific and global, first and second year) for males, females and total Eigen- RC Chi d.f. Sig. Value Square (P-) Male .2819 .53 29.2 16 .023 Female .3137 .56 35.1 16 .004 Total .2335 .48 ‘ 50.5 20 .000 The canonical correlation (Rc) between the four cloze subtests and class. per. in first and second year Of student teaching (global and spe- cific judgement) was .48. This correlation is significnatly different from zero (a = .000 ). Breaking the sample into sex (males and females) resulted in another correlation equation. The Rc for males was .53 (with alpha level of .05) and for females Rc = .56 (with alpha level of 108 .01). In comparing these results with the canonical correlation and aca- demic success (Table 4-7), it could be seen that the breaking of variables into sex resulted in a higher Rc for males .75 and females .64. In both tables, 4-7 and 4-14, it could be noticed that Use of canoni- cal correlation with breaking down the sex variable would enable the in- vestigators to tell more about acad. succ. and class. per. if the subject's sex is known. (See ANOVA results, Table 3-9.) Null Hypothesis Three There is no relationShip between academic success as reflected by overall CGPA and classroom perfor- mance as reflected by college supervisors' judge- ment.» Findings Simple Correlation Pearson product moment coefficients were used first fOr testing this hypothesis. Table 4-15 shows that there was a correlation which ranged from .30 to .47 between college grade point average (CGPA) and different class. per. measures (global and specific, first and second year student teaching). These correlations were significantly different from zero (a p < .001). So, the researcherrejectedthe null hypothesis that there is no correlation between CGPA and classroom performance. As is shown in Table 4-15, the highest specific performance factor re- lated to academic success was the verbal ability of the student teacher. Table 4-15 shows additional computations of the relationships between the specialization area grade point average (SGPA) and classroom perfor- mance. The correlations are up to .51 and significantly different from zero (a = .001). The the highest correlation between the specific 109 criterhmifactor (which is related to SGPA) was the mastery of subject matter followed by the verbal ability. Table 4-15 Simple Correlations (r) between Academic Success (CGPA and SGPA) and Classroom Performance Academic Class. Per. Classroom Performance 2nd Year Success lst Year Mastery of Verbal Classroom Global Subject Ability Climate Matter CGPA .47*** .30*** .40*** .30*** .41*** SGPA .48*** .46*** .41*** .38*** .51*** N = 143 * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 Multiple Regression Analysis For further analysis of the data, a multiple regression equation was computed to determine the correlation between the 15 Combined inde- pendent variables (achievement factors) and the global evauation of class. per. in the second year. Table 4-16 shows a multiple R of .63 between these variables. This correlation was significantly different from zero (a = .000). From the table it could be concluded that the strongest factor which relates to class. per. is the mean score of the specializa- tion area SGPA followed by the Music course and then methods of teaching. The table shows that the multiple R2 was .39 This means that academic courses could account for 39 percent of the variance in class. per. Table 4-17 provides a summary of the multiple correlations between the fifteen academic subjects taught at the ASTC and the other criteria: in class. per.; first year global and second year specific judgment. 110 m.vmm mwmom mmH ooo. oo.NH oooN ooooH N oooo. Ho. Nooo. - moooosmoooz ooo. oo.NH WWWMN WMMMM WNH ooNo. ,Ho. oNHm.H H ocoooz ooo. oN.oH MWWMN mflmmw moH oNNm. Ho. Noom.N H oooHooosmo ooo. No.oH “WWWN wmwwm WmH oooo. oo. oon.N- H ooHoooooN ooo» oo.oN WNWMN mmwwm mmH NHmm. om. oNoN.m coomwummwflt ooo. oH.oo MWMMN wmmmm on oHNm. om. ooom.o oomoz ooo. oN.oo. mmwwm memm MoH oNoN. om. moHH.H cocooNHHoowwmm .oouo onoo moumwmo chmmmm .c.o oHomeoz oHonHoz o ocomoaz 1.1 mmczmomz msowco> mmmuusm qumvou< soc» nmuu_umca mo Amgoom Fooopmv mucoscomcmo soocmmoHu com» ucoomm Low mwmxpoc< ago Amy cowuozcm cowmmmcmmm mpawupaz -ocm>o mane mPQMH 111 No.No ”oooomooo ooo. oo.m o.omN omooN NNH ooHooooN co NoNH ooNoH mH oNom. No. oHoo. mooHooooooN . . N.ooN ooNoN NNH ooo Ho m oNNH ooNoH oH oNoN. No. oon. .oo .oo . . m.HmN NoooN oNH ooo oo o NooH ooNoH NH NNom. No. Noon. - H zocoo: . . omN ooooN ooH ooo oo o NooH NNNoH NH NHoo. No. oNoo. H oHooc< . . m.oNN NoooN HoH ooo oo N ooNH ooNoH HH oooo. No. mooo. - HH NooHooono . . m.NNN ooooN NoH ooo No o oHoH NoHoH oH moon. No. oooN. HH otoooz . . oNN omoom mmH ooo om o oHHN oNooH o moon. No. oooo. HH ooHHooooN . . o.mNN NoHoo ooH ooo Hm oH oomN ooooH o oooo. oHNo. oomN. - HH ooooc<_ .oocm owuom mmgoocm mmcozcm . . mm m mczmomz c o o a a zoo: co goo oHQHoHoz oHoHoHoz H.o.ocoov om aw mpnmh 112 Table 4-17 Multiple Regression Equations (R) for Classroom Performance as Predicted from Academic Success in 16 Academic Subjects Dependent ‘ Multiple '- Multgple P Criteria R R Value First Year Class. Per. .61 .37 .000 Second Year Class. Per. (Mastery of Subject Matter) .60 .36 .000 Second Year Class Per. (Verbal Ability) .51 .26 .000 Second Year Class. Per. (Class Climate) .59 .35 .000 Second Year Global Judgement .62 .39 .000 These correlations range from R = .51 to R = .62. All are significantly different from zero (a = .000). Canonical Correlation Table 4-18 shows a canonical correlation of Rc =.62 between all the independent variables separately and all the subcriteria of class- room performance, specific and global judgment. first and second year student teaching. This correlation was significantly different from zero (a = .000). So null-hypothesis three was rejected also by the use of 113 the multiple regression analysis and the canonical correlation procedure. Table 4-18 Overall Canonical Correlations Between Academic Success Variables and Classroom Performance Measures Eigen-Value Rc Chi d.f. P Square Value .3884 .62 177.36 75 .000 Null Hypothesis Four There 15 no relationship between reading compre- hension scores on (CTARC) and success in the Arabic language course in the Arab Teachers' Col- lege. Findings Simple Correlations In order to test this hypothesis, Pearson Product Moment Correla- tion coefficients (simple correlations) were computed. Table 4-19 shows that there was a correlation of .24 between CTARC (total) and first year Arabic course. . This correlation was significantly different from zero (a = .01). The table shows other correlations of .18 between CTARC total and the Arabic course in the second year program. This correlation was significantly different from zero (a = .05). The researcher rejected the null hypothesis that there is no relationship between reading com- prehension and success in the Arabic language course in the teacher pre- paration program at ASTC in Haifa-Israel. 114 Table 4-19 Simple Correlations (r) between CTARC (Subtests and and Total Score) and the Arabic Course CTARC Arabic I Arabic II ' (First Year) (Second Year) Cloze Subtest Literary descriptive passage .15* .07 (NS) Cloze Subtest Literary analytical passage .27*** .28*** Cloze Subtest Professional descriptive passage .01 (NS) .05 (NS) Cloze Subtest Professional analytical passage .31*** .17* Cloze Total Score .24** .18* N = 143 * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 Three of the correlations between CTARC subtests and the criterion variables were not significant. One correlation was between the literary descriptive Cloze subtest and second year Arabic (.07), and the other two correlations were between the professional descriptive cloze subtest and (1) first year Arabic (.01) and (2) second year Arabic (.05). The researcher explanation for these low correlations, based on previous data regarding this subtest is that, the professional descriptive cloze subtest was less difficult than other tests. The examinees gained in this subtest high scores and its mean score was the highest between the CTARC subtests. Table 4-19 shows that the highest correlations were between the analytical Cloze subtests and the Arabic course (.27, .28, and .31). 115 mo.HH Hucmumcou mmommoa ooo. oH.o NN.H oo.NmN ooH o>HHoHcomoo HoocoHHH oo.HH oo.m¢ o NooH. om. Nmom. Hmmpoom oNoHu mmommom ooo. «H.m om.H mN.mmN omH HooHHzHoc< HcoLoHNH mH.mH mm.mo m .mooH. mm. oomm. Hmopoom mNoHo . mmommoo ooo. om.m mm.H mm.mmm owH m>wuawcummo Hocowmmmeoco oH.NH om.om . N NmHH. mm. Hoom.- pompoom oNoHo . mmommoo . . H mo.H mN.oNN HoH . HouHHoHoc< HooonmoooHN ooo oo o . No.oN No.oN H Nmoo. om. ooom. Hmoooom oNoHo .oogo omuom mucoscm mmsosam . . mm a . mumoyoom N N ooo: co sow c o oHoHHHoz oHoHHHoz o oooco oNo omuv mpnwh 116 oN.NH "Hooomooo mmommoo moo. mo.m mm.m vN.wov me m>HHchummo Hoconmmooco mw.HH o~.Ne o mmmo. Hm. mmmH.- pompozm mNoHu mmommoa coo. No.e em.m m.om¢ mmH HouHquoc< HoconmmHoco oo.mH oo.m¢ m Nome. om. mNmH. pmmuozm «NoHu _wmommoa Noo. mo.o oN.o oo.Nmo ooH o>HHoHcomoo HoocoHHH m¢.Hm Hm.mv N moms. mm. mmom.c pmmpnam mNOHu mmommoa Hoo. No.HH oN.o H.omo HoH . HooHHHHooo HHoLoHHH mm.Nm mm.Nm H ooNo. .NN. memo. umoooom mNoHu .noga oHuom mmcoscm mmgmaam . . mm a m mummuoom H a ooo: co Eom H.o oHoHHHoz oHoHHHoz oooeo um ocoummv mmcaou anog< :H mmmuuom Low mHmzHoc< uco Amy mcowpoocm :onmmcmmm mHaHszz HHocm>o Hmnq mHomH 117 These correlations were significantly different from zero (a = .001). Multiple Regression Analysis A multiple correlation was used in order to determine the corre- lation between the combined cloze test variables and the Arabic course scores at the end of the first year of the student teaching program and at the end of the first trimester in the second year. Table 4-20 shows a multiple R of .39 (compared with the simple r .24 in Table 4-19) between the CTARC and first year Arabic. This corre- lation was significantly different from zero (a = .000). Table 4-21 shows a multiple R of .31 between the CTARC and second year Arabic. This correlation was also significantly different from zero (a = .01). Canonical Correlation Table 4-22 shows a correlation of Rc = .42 between the cloze sub- tests and the two dependent criteria - first and second year Arabic. This correlation was significantly different from zero (a = .000). Table 4-22 Overall Canonical Correlation (RC) Between CTARC (four subtests) and Arabic Course in First and Second Year Eigen value ' Rc Chi ‘ d.f. Sig. Square (P-) .1791 .42 31.12 8 .000 So, by using different statistical methods, the correlation between CTARC and the Arabic course was raised from r = .21 (average) to R = .34 (average) to Rc = .42. 118 General Summary of the Findings In the previous pages, the hypotheseswere stated and Tables indi- cating the findings were presented. The hypotheses were tested by ap- plying different methods of statistical analysis to analyze the data. For the purpose of comparison,relatedffindlngs were presented as an addi- tional input. The major focus was on CTARC as a testing measure for the RC ability of the Arab student teacher and on whether this competency is related to student teacher academic success and classroom performance. The use of the MEC (H.S.) scores added another dimension to the assess- ment of Arab student teachers' reading ability in this study. As was shown from the findings, the statistical analysis provides scienti- fic bases for testing the four null hypotheses and then for rejecting them all. Some general conclusions from the findings are: .figgt, there is a positive significant correlation betewen the CTARC and the other criteria (acad. succ. and class. per.); secondly, there are signifi- cant correlations between acad. succ. and class. per. on the one hand, and between Rc and Arabic couse scores in the teacher preparation pro- gram at ASTC, on the other hand. A general brief summary of the findings is presented here for each of the four hypotheses. Hypothesis one: This null hypothesis was rejected. The results indicated a posi- tive significant relationship between CTARC and academic success. The correlations were significantly different from zero (a = .01 and .05). Further analysis provided more evidence for this relationship between CTARC and acad. succ. (see Summary - Table, Chapter Five). The multiple 119 correlation was up to R = .55 and the canonical correlation Rc = .59. The combination of MEC and CTARC resulted in multiple R = .66. (p < .000) Hypothesis Two: This null hypothesis was rejected (p < .01). The results in- dicated a positive significant relationship between CTARC and classroom performance. Further analysis indicated higher correlation coefficient between the above variables (see summary-table). The multiple regression coefficient was R = .45, and the canonical correlation was Rc = .48. The combination of MEC and CTARC resulted in multiple R = .47 (p < .01). Hypothesis Three The relationship between student teacher knowledge as reflected in his college grade-point average (CGPA) and his classroom performance was examined here. The null hypothesis was rejected. The analysis (findings) indicated a significantly positive relationship between ST knowledge (independent variable) and his classroom performance (de- pendent variable). The average correlation was .44 which was signifio cantly different from zero (a = .001). A multiple regression coeffi- cient was computed and resulted in R = .63, which is considered a very high correlation (in comparison to other results from other studies). The canonical correlation Rc was (.62). Both coefficients were signi- ficantly different from zero (a = -001)- Hypothesis Four Reading comprehension is considered an integrated part of any lan- guage course. The researcher's assumption was that a relationship would exist between ST scores in RC test and ST scores in the Arabic course. Based on the findings in this study, the null hypothesis that 120 there is no relationship between CTARC and Arabic Language scores was rejected at an alpha level of p < .05 and .01. A simple correlation of .21 (average) resulted from the computation of Pearson Product Moment Coefficient. After computing a multiple regression equation, the average multiple R was .35 between the above variables, and the canonical corre- lation was .42. Both coefficients were significantly different from zero (a = .001). Based on the findings, the four null hypotheses were,therefore, rejected. Chapter V will contain a summary. discussion and conclusion of the findings, and recommendations for further research. 121 CHAPTER V Summary, Discussion and Recommendations Introduction Several efforts have been made to investigate the relationships between RC (as a language skill and an indicator of the individual's thinking and reasoning process) and acad. succ. Few studies have focused on the relationship between RC as a competency in teacher education and class. per. The researcher located no studies regarding the rela- tionships between reading comprehension in the Arabic Language (RCAL) and the above two criteria i.e. acad. succ. and class. per. Moreover, no research had been done to explore the relationships between Arab teacher/ST general and professional knowledge and his classroom perfor- mance. Since these relationships need to be identified, this study was designed specifically to discover what relationship exists between RCAL and student teachers' acad. succ. and class. per. This chapter is a summary of this study. It is divided into four parts: (1) a summary of the study, (2) discussion of research findings and conclusions drawn from the findings, (3) implications of the study,and (4) recommendations for further research. Summary Purpose The purpose of this study was to investigate psosible relationships between reading comprehension in the Arabic language (RCAL) and student 122 teachers' acad. succ. and class. per. among Arab student teachers in Israel. One-hundred-forty-three STS in their second year at Haifa Arab State Teachers' College were used as subjects of the study. The study was designed to investigate four major questions; (1) did STS who achieve highly in RC as measured by Cloze Test of Arabic Reading Compre- hension (CTARC) achieve highly in their general and professional courses at the college?; (2) did RC as a competency in teacher education affect the STs' performance as a teacher in the classroom?; (3) is there any relationship between the ST'sgeneral knowledge as reflected in his col- lege grade-point average (CGPA) and his class. per.? ‘ and (4) did the ST who scores highly in the Arabic language course in ASTC score highly in CTARC? These four questions became the basis for the research hypotheses in this study. For testing the questions, four null hypotheses were con- structed. These hypotheses are: Null Hypothesis One: There is no relationship between reading comprehension as measured by subtest and total test scores on a "Cloze Test of Arabic Reading Comprehension" (CTARC) and academic suc- cess as reflected by overall College Grade Point Average (CGPA). Null Hypothesis Two: There is no relationship between reading comprehension scores on (CTARC) and success in classroom performance as reflected by the global and specific judgment of col- lege supervisors. 123 Null Hypothesis Three: There is no relationship between academic success as re- flected by overall (CGPA) and classroom performance as reflected by College supervisors' judgment. Null Hypothesis Four: There is no relationship between reading comprehension scores on (CTARC) and success in the Arabic Language course in the Arab Teachers' College. An alpha level of .05 was set as the criterion for rejecting or failing to reject all hypotheses. Review of Literature A review of related literature was conducted through a general study of articles and materials concerning reading comprehension, Cloze pro- cedure, academic success and classroom performance. which were the major areas of concern for establishing the relationships examined in this study. Reading comprehension (RC): RC was defined as the ability of the learner to read and understand, or understanding what is read. In this study the researcher limited the discussion to materials in which a perspective teacher may be involved, i.e. profes- sional and general knowledge. In a review of RC research reported in journals from (1900-1975) it was concluded that “The findings tend to support the data from the experimental studies which hypothesized that the major components of RC are vocabulary power and thinking ability" (Diss. Abs. 38, 7, p. 3903.) According to Russel (1970 p. 139), the different abilities which are involved in RC "could be combined into some unitary factor which could 124 be called verbal ability." Research in sociolinguistic theory attested to the importance of teachers' verbal ability in developing alternative problem solving strategies on the part of the student. From the review it was concluded that RC could be evaluated as a basic skill in teacher education and preparation. Cloze procedure: One way of testing RC is the Cloze procedure. This procedure was derived from the Gestalt theory of closure whereby a subject has a tendency to fill in the gaps of an uncompleted visual or thought unit. Many studies had investigated this method, its reliability, validity and uses. From these studies it was concluded that the Cloze test is a reliable and valid measure of RC. It is a better discrimina- tor of the acquisition of cultural knowledge, and is much easier to con- struct than a multiple-choice reading test. Academic success: The relationship between acad. succ. as a criterion and different independentvariablesu has been the focus of a great number of investigators. From the review of literature it could be concluded that a positive relationship exists between different pre- dictors and academic achievement. O'Reilly and Mooer (1975) found a significant correlation between their test of reading and CGPA. Funches (1964) found a correlation of .59 between College American test and GPA of 369 freshmen. And, finally, Bruce (1953) found that RC accounted for 23 percent of the variance in grades in college. Classroom Performance: The review of literature concerning this topic was limited to (1) literature related to mastery of subject mat- ter on the part of the teacher, (2) literature related to verbal ability of the teacher, and (3) literature related to classroom climate or 125 atmosphere. 'Huafirstkind of literature dealt with the evaluation of the teachers common knowledge, specific mastery of the content he is supposed to teach, and the way he presents the content and makes conclusions. The second kind dealt with the evaluation of the language of the teacher and his verbal communication skills. The third kind dealt with the teacher's evaluation with regard to teacher-pupil interaction, and how the teacher relates to children. From the review it was concluded that class- room performance correlates with a variety of independent variables, singly or in a battery. The researcher's conclusion from the review is that there is no consistency in results. Design of the Study and Instrumentation The study was designed to test possible relationships between RCAL and student teachers' acad. succ. and class. per. The population of the study were student teachers of the 1978-1979 school year at the Arab State Teachers' college in Haifa-Israel. The sample of the study consisted of all the 2nd year student teachers (N=147), males (60) and females (87), from different specialization areas. Their ages ranged from 19 to 24 years. One hundred forty four of them took the CTARC and one was dropped because he did not complete the test. The CTARC served as the independent variable. H.S. MEC scores served as an additional independent variable which was not suggested by the research questions or hypotheses, and additional findings which were related to this vari- able and which may be of interest to the reader were included. The criteria consisted of: (1) college gradeépoint average (CGPA) and the mean score in the specialization area (SGPA). (2) The college super- visor's judgment - specific and global - of the student teacher's class- room performance. Raw data werecollected including personal information 126 regarding every student teacher's records of H.S. matriculation examina- tion, grades of the student teachers at the end of the first year in college and by the end of the first trimester of the 2nd year, and a global and specific score of every ST regarding his class. per. in gen- eral and his mastery of subject matter, verbal ability and classroom climate. Instrumentation: The Cloze technique was used as the instrument for RC measurement. Based on the results of a study for adapting the Cloze technique into the Arabic language (Habib-Allah and Hofman, 1978), the researcher designed a Cloze Test of Arabic RC (CTARC). The test composed of four passages or Cloze subtests; two from the professional (educational) disciplines and two from the Arabic literature. Both the professional and the literary passages were of two kinds: descriptive and analytical. This resulted in four different kinds of passages: a) professional-descriptive passage, b) professional-analytic passage, c) literary-descriptive passage, and d) literary-analytic passage. The Cloze test was from the free-choice type and the examinee filled in the acceptable word which could fit the meaning. Before the test, the examinees were given oral explanations and instructions. They were told that their answers will remain anonymous and that the purpose of the study is for research only. Every student received a booklet which contained directions on the front page and four passages with fifty omissions in each passage,. The test was conducted for two hours (30 minutes for each passage). Later, the results of test item analysis using the K-R 20 formula indicated a reliability coefficient of .79 for the whole test and reliability coefficients of .82, .70, 127 .80, and .74 respectively for the four passages. Findings Data collected were analyzed by using: simple correlation; multi- ple regression, canonical correlation and ANOVA. Tests were made of the null hypotheses of the study. All four hypotheses were rejected on the basis of the data collected as follows: Hypothesis One: The nyll-hypothesis was rejected since the finding indi- cated a correlation of r = .42 between CTARC and academic success as reflected by the CGPA. A further statistical analysis showed a multiple R of .55 and a canonical correlation of (RC = .59). These results were significantly different from zero (a =..001). Hypothesis Two: The null-hypothesis was rejected since the findings in- dicated a correlation of r = .43 between CTARC and classroom performance. Further analysis showed a multiple R of .45 andlu: of .48. These corre— lations were significantly different from zero . (a = .001). (Hypothesis Three: This null hypothesis was rejected. The findings indicated a correlation of r = .44 (average). The multiple R was .63 and Rc = .62. These results were significantly different from zero (a = .001.) Hypothesis Four: The null hypothesis was rejected. The findings showed a simple r of .21 (average) (a = .01), a multiple R = .39, and Rc = .42. These two were significantly different from zero (a = .001.) Discussion and Conclusions In this discussion only those findings of particular interest willbe discussed. Later, some conclusions will be drawn from the findings. 128 The purpose of the study was to determine whether there is a relationship between RCAL and the ST acad. succ. and class. per. Hypotheses one and two focussed on this question. The question of the relationship be- tween the general knowledge of the student teacher (achievement) and his performance in the classroom was the focus of hypothesis three. The determination of the role of the Arabic language in acad. succ. and class. per. was examined indirectly by correlating the Arabic course scores with the scores in CTARC - sub and total cloze test. The CTARC was found to be a reliable and valid test of RC in the Arabic language. The item analysis resulted in reliability coeffi- cients which ranged from .70 to .82. These reliability coefficients could be considered good. If the test was composed of 100 items the reliability coefficients would range from .82 to .90 (see Ebel, 1972, p. 427). Moreover, it compares favorably with Douglass (1976) who obtained a .69 reliability coefficient for his Arabic Reading Test (p. 9). ReadipgyComprehension and Academic Success From the findings presented in Table 4-1 it could be concluded that reading comprehension could be considered as an indicator of acad. succ. for the Arab Student teachers. The simple correlation of (.42) between the CTARC and CGPA is considered ' high. This correlation was expected because of the prominent role the formal Arabic plays in the learning process as the means of knowledge acquisition. The correla- tion of .51 between professional analytical cloze subtest and CGPA is of interest. The result could be attributed to the fact that this subtest proved to be the best discriminator between high and low achievers. And as shown in Table 4-2 this test was chosen as the strongest variable in determining academic success with 8 weight of .397. The R2 (Table 129 4-2) indicated that this variable accounted for .26 percent of the vari- ance in acad. achievement. It was of interest to see how these correlations could be verified by using other statistical techniques. The multiple regression analysis raised the simple correlation between the CTARC and CGPA from .42 to .55 and the use of canonical correlation raised it another 4 points and up to .59 (Table 4-7). Thus the CTARC could be considered as account for 35 percent of the variance in acad. succ. (Eigen value: Table 4-7). As can be seen from the findings reported in Table 4-7, separating the data by sex resulted in a higher correlation between the variables: CTARC and CGPA. The highest Rc as shown in Table 4-7 is between CTARC and acad. succ. of males (.75). So, RCAL could account for 56 percent of the acad. achievement variance for males. From a comparison between table 4-4 and Table 4-7 it could be concluded that the canonical corr. technique proved to be more discriminating between males and females with regard to acad. succ. The multiple regression in Table 4-4 did not show any real difference between males and females in their acad. succ. but this analysis (Table 4-4) indicated that the profess” sional analytical Cloze subtest accounts for 20 percent (R2) of i the variance in acad. succ. for males, and for 32 percent of the variance in acad. succ. for females. So this subtest could be a better acad. achievement discriminator for females. The most interesting results in explaining the STS acad. succ. were when the CTARC four subtests were combined with the seven MEC sub- tests. Table 4-6 shows that this combination resulted in multiple R of .66. (p < .000). This analysis showed that the professional cloze sub- test is the strongest independent variable for explaining differences in- the academic success criteria, and the Hebrew course in H.S. 130 is the strongest variable relating to the CGPA, with 8 weight of 1.969, followed by the Arabic course in H.S. with B weight of 1.45. These results in the current study were consistent with other results obtained by different researchers in various studies. R. L. Thorndike (1973, p. 169) f0und that the RC variable correlated up to .44 with science achievement and up to .54 with literature. 0'- Reilly and Moore (1975) tested freshman year students in seven areas of reading and found a significant correlation between their test and the CGPA. D. Funches (1964, p. 328) found a correlation of .59 be- tween American College Test (ACT) and GPA of 369 freshmen. Douglas (1976) found a total correlation of .51 between final grades of college students and a cloze test. W. Bruce (1953) found that the RC was ac- counted for 23 percent of the variance in grades in college. And, fin- ally, McQuary (1953) found a correlation of .34 between acad. achieve- ment and level of comprehesion. Readipg Comprehension and Classroom Performance In testing null hypothesis two, the researcher tried to answer the question if there is any relationship between reading comprehen- sion in the Arabic language as measured by the CTARC and the Arab stu- dent teacher's classroom performance. The results in Chapter Four confirmed the assumption of a relationship. It could be concluded from the findings presented in Table 4-8, that a considerable relationship exists between these two variables (RC and class. per.). The simple cor- relation between CTARC (total) and global judgement of class. per. was .43 131 (p < .001). This could,be considered high when it is compared with the findings of other studies (Whitney (1924), and A. C. Crocker, 1974). Crocker achieved results ranging from .046 to .381 between total teaching practice marks given by tutors to student teachers for their teaching performance and variety of other measures singly or in battery. (p.8, p. 179). The results of particular interests were between some subtests and some sub-criteria. For instance all correlations between the Cloze subtests and specific judgment. in the STS' mastery of subject matter and verbal ability were significantly different from zero (a = .001). That means, ST success in his classroom performance measured by his mas- tery of S.M. and his V.A. is relatively dependent on his RC competency. The correlation between RCAL and classroom per. was raised to .45 by using the multiple regression analysis and to .48 by using the canoni- cal correlation. The multiple R in Table 4-9 explains the extent to which the correlation could be reached by combining the Cloze sub- tests, and the Rc in Table 4-14 explains the maximum correlation between the specific independent variables and the different criteria. As shown in Table 4-9, the best two predictors of teaching success could be the literary descriptive Cloze subtest with (B = .5472) and the professional analytic Cloze subtest, (B = .2884), with the latter. proven to be the best predictor of acad. succ. 'The 2 in Table 4-9 is accounting for 20 percent of the variance multiple R in classroom performance. In contradiction with hypothesis one, the addition of MEC variables did not improve significantly the power of prediction of’ ST'S classroom performance. Table 4-13 shows an in- crease of only 2 points (from R = .45 to R = .47) by adding this inde- pendent variable (MEC). Crocker (1974, p. 179) got the same results in adding the General Certificate Examination (GCE) to his major predictor 132 (an increase from .35 to .38). It seems that high school grades are less correlated with classroom performance than with acad. succ., but further research is still needed in this area. The sex differences in classroom performance were less than the differences in acad. succ. Table 4-14 shows a slight increase in correlation when the sex variable is separated. Females proved to be better than males in class. per. (Rc = .56 (F) vs. .53 (M))._ From these findings in Table 4-14, it could be concluded that by adding the sex variable we could explain more the correlation between RCAL and class. per. and up to 31 percent of the variance in class. per. The sex differences are explained much better in Table 4-11 where the multiple R for males is .49 and for females .40. These results are opposed to the results in Table 4-14 where females performance in CTARC seems to correlate higher with class. per. The researcher has no explanation for this inconsistency from using different statistical methods. An interesting result could be seen in Table 4-11 where the best independent variable in explaining males class. per. was the literary descriptive Cloze subtest and for females the professional analytical subtest. This could be attributed to the fact that females are better in achievement than males and that'they~ did better in the CTARC (see Chapter III). It seems that the analytical materials are more appropriate for females and descriptive materials are more appropriate for males. Finally, comparing Table 4-5 with Table 4-12, it could be concluded that the Arabic factor plays a high role in determining class. per. because it is the language of the teacher and the Hebrew factor plays a high role in determining academic success at the college level because it is the language of learning and instruction in post secondary edu- cation for Arabs in Israel. .Vl33 So, RCAL seems to have a prominent role in explaining a student teacher’s classroom performance, especially in teaching behavior such as mastery of subject matter and verbal ability. Academic Achievement and Classroom Performance In Chapter II, it was indicated that the achievement level affects teacher behavior in the classroom. C. Jackson (1973, p. 8) considered "scholarly control of knowledge" as one of the essential competencies for teaching. According to Crow et. al. (1964, p.3), the effective tea- cher "Guides his students in the mastery of subject matter, and for doing this he needs to master the subject matter by himself.“ Massey and Vineyard (1958, p. 298-299) found statistically significant relationships between scholastic achievement as measured by GPA and ratings of student teachers by supervisors in categories like mastery of S.M. (.38), com- petence in English expression (.32), general culture (.28) and character, standards and ideas (.36). Whitney (1924) found that academic marks cor- relate .386 with student teaching. Mead and Holley in 1916 (as quoted by Crocker, 1974, p. 43) obtained a significant correlation of .24 between general course of scholarship and teaching practice marks. The results of this study agree with the above findings. The data in Table 4-15 indicated that a simple correlation of .47 exists between CGPA and class. per. first year - student teaching - and a correlation ranging from .30 to .41 exists between CGPA and specific and global ratings of college supervisors. These correlations are significantly dif- ferent from zero (a = .001). These results are not strange in a culture (population) where a teacher success is determined by the amount of the knowledge he has and the verbal ability skill he possesses. The Arab society in particular3and the developing societies in general, belong 134 to this category. It is the researcher's impression and evaluation, that the general knowledge of the teacher and his language proficiency are the main factors in his success in the Arab society. The results of this study confirm this impression. The fact that the student teachers' achievement in the specialization area as reflected by the SGPA correlates up to .51 with class. per. (Table 4-15) is another indi- cator of this relationship between ST knowledge and his class. per. Our conclusion is that academic achievement plays a high role in the determination of the teaching success. Table 4-16 provides another in- dicator to this relationship. By combining the 15 academic subject matter*coursesin multiple regression analysis, the multiple R jumped up to .63 (p < .001). That means that acad. succ. accounts for.39 percent of the variance in class. per. This could be considered high correlation. Other studies, using the multiple regression analysis, achieved similar findings. Crocker (1974) achieved R = .61 in combining four independent variables to predict teaching practice success (p. 179). Whitney (1924) achieved R = .82 by combining six predictors like: intelligence, secondary record, academic marks, etc. It could be anticipated that the combination of acad. achievement courses and other independent variables like MEC and CTARC could predict class. per. Reading Cgmprehension and the Arabic Language In his dissertation, Hoodgstra, J. (1977) stated that "A skill in RC is positively related to proficiency with lan- guage and amount of background experience, to the extent that background experience is reflected by vocabulary" (p. 72. Then he concluded that "A well designed program for the development of language skills is suitable for developing general comprehension skills of regular students." 135 This was the researcher's assumption leading to why hypothesis four intended to examine this question of relationship between RCAL as reflected by the score in CTARC and the Arabic language course in the teacher education program as reflected by the teachers' evaluation (or scores) of student teachers. The findings in Table 4-19 provide support for our assumption. The correlation between CTARC and the Arabic course was (.21) (average). It is a low correlation but still significant at the alpha level of p < .01 . The explanation for this low correlation could be that the scores in the Arabic course are the mean of different specific language performances like grammar, literature, reading and so on. It would be interesting to examine,in further research, the relationships between RCAL, and specific categories in the Arabic language course. By using multiple regression techniques the correlation between Arabic and CTARC was raised to R = .39 which is relatively good (Table 4-20), and to Rc = .42 by using canonical correlations (Table 4—22). It was expected that the literary Cloze subtests would correlate higher than the pro- fessional Cloze subtests, because of the supposed interaction be- tween the Arabic course and these subtests. The findings provide an opposite result. The two professional Cloze subtests correlate higher with the Arabic language course. This could be explained by the fact that the Arabic language curricula in the ASTC contain and empha— size educational-psychological content. The material text includes pro- fessional articles from the Islamic and general educational disciplines. It would be of interest to examine the above assumption with regard to the Arabic language secondary curricula where the pure literature is emphasized more. Moreover, Tables 4-20 and 4-21 show that the liter- ary subtests still have the higher B weight .5457 in Table 4-20 and 136 .6269 in Table 4-21). This means that the literary subtests have more weight in determining a student teacher score in the Arabic language course, and this last conclusion agrees with the researcher's assump- tion of the intercorrelation between the literary subtests and the Arabic language course in the ASTC. Finally, the use of canonical correla- tion (Table 4-22) proved to be a very good technique for raising the correlation coefficient in comparison with the other three hypotheses. Conclusions Based on the data, findings and discussion, many conclusions could be drawn from this study. Table 5-1 and Figure 5-1 summarize and illus- trate these conclusions. From the table, it can be seen that the use of different statistical analyses proved to be efficient in raising the correlation coefficients between the dependent and independent variables in the four hypotheses of this study. As shown in Table 5-1, the in- crease in correlation coefficients ranged from 12 percent in hypo- thesis two to one hundred percent in hypothesis four. Figure 5-1 ill- ustrates this increase in correlation coefficients for the four hypo- theses by using simple correlation analysis, multiple regression analy- sis and canonical correlation analysis, respectively. Table 5-1 Summary - Table, Changes in Correlation Coefficients of the Four Hypotheses by Using Different Statistical Procedures Hypotheses Simple Correlation Multiple Canonical (r) Correlation Correlation R Rc H1 .42*** .52*** .59*-k4: H2 , 43*** . 45*** . 48*** H3 .44***(average) .63*** .62*** H4 .21**(average) .35***(average) .42*** ** p < .01 *** p < .001 Correlation Coefficient .137 70 . , vk - H3 60' H1 3 so I H2 H3 H2. 40‘. H1, H4 30- 30 H4 10- l l - 1 WV} r R Rc Correlational Procedures Figure 5-1 Summary - Changes in Correlation Coefficients for the Four Hypotheses when Three Correlational Procedures were Used r = Simple Correlation ' R = Multiple Correlation, Rc = Canonical Correlation HI = Hypothesis One: CTARC with CGPA H2 = Hypothesis Two: CTARC with Class. Per. H3 = Hypothesis Three: CGPA with Class. Per. H4 = Hypothesis Four: CTARC with Arabic Language Course 138 The researcher's conclusions are: 1. The RC in the Arabic language relates to acad. succ. of Arab STS. From the findings it could be concluded that this relationship is high and CTARC accounts for 37 percent of the variance in acad. succ. . 2. The RC in the Arabic language relates to class per. among Arab STS in ASTC at Haifa-Israel. The high correlations, indicate that the CTARC accounts for 24 percent of the variance in classroom performance. 3. There is a high correlation between the student teacher's know- ledge and his class. per. The findings indicate that the CGPA could account for as much as 39 percent of the variance in class. per. 4. The strong relationship between success in the Arabic lan- guage course in the teacher preparation program at ASTC and the CTARC supports a strong need to emphasize and to develop the Arabic language course program because, as Hoogstra (1973, p. 69) states: "A knowledge of language structure is important for skill in reading comprehension." 5. Including H.S. Matriculation Examination certificate scores, as another input with the CTARC, resulted in significantly high find- ings and justifies further research in this direction. Implications The purpose of this study was to explore the existing relationships between reading comprehension (RC) as a teaching-learning capability or competency and different aspects of achievement in the student teaching program. The results supported the researcher's assumption of this relationship. Three major implications resulted from this. (1) The success in using the Cloze procedure in the Arabic language suggests the application and use of this instrument in the general Arab education 139 for different purposes: (a) the examination of the readability of cur- riculum materials, (b) the adoption of this procedure in the Arabic lan- guage textbooks and other instructional materials as a teaching tool, and (c) the field of decision-making concerning selection, admission, etc.; (2) the study provides an open window for future use of RCAL as a tool in the selection and the admission in teachers colleges and other post-secondary institutes; (3) The RCAL that was measured by the Cloze test could be used in prediction studies. The findings of this study provide the base for using the same procedure in predicting acad. succ. and class. per. in the Arab Teacher's Colleges. Finally, this study opened doors for further uses of Cloze proce- dure and further implications of RC as a tool for explaining relationships, examining language skills, reflecting different aspects of knowledge, pre- dicting success, and providing data in decision making that regards ed- ucational policies. Recommendations Based on the findings and conclusions of the present study, the following are recommended: 1. The positive relationships between RC skill and proficiency in language and amount of background experience suggest a well designed program for the development of language skills. A suitable language program could be of a great help for developing general comprehension skill of students. 2. The results of this study seem to indicate that RC could be used as a selection tool in Arab Teachers' Colleges in the future. The search for a simple reliable and valid measure to be used in selecting candidates for the teaching profession is of first concern in teacher 140 education. And the high correlations, in this study, between RCAL and ST acad. succ. and class. per. suggest RC as a tool for purposes of selection,admission,and retention in teacher education. 3. The findings of this study indicated that RC as reflected by the CTARC can account for 40 percent of the variance in acad. succ. and class. per. There are many other variables which might account for the residual like socio-economic and psycho-political variables (or reasons). These variables,which were not included in the task of this study, could be investigated in further research to confirm this assump- tion or to reject it. 4. The results indicated that there was significant difference between males and females in acad. achievement and in Cloze test per- formance. Since the acad; level‘of'females at the ASTC is higher than males, a change in admission policy seems necessary so that males with high potential will be attracted to the teacher education program. Recommendations for Further Research The RC testing and the use of the cloze procedure in the Arabic language has suggested several fruitful areas for further research: 1. Predicting teaching effectiveness - the studies which had been done in this sophisticated area focused more on personality traits, atti- tudes and other~scholarlyvariables in trying to predict teaching effec- tiveness. This study suggests the use of RC as a measure of intellectual and aptitude factors,as a prediction tool for the future class. per. of a teacher. It seems to the researcher, based on the findings, that future research, in which RC could be used as a predictor, would provide another contribution to the investigation of predicting teaching 141 effectiveness. 2. The related findings of this study suggest that a combination of H.S. grades with the CTARC would have higher power of prediction in acad. succ. and class. per. A further study in this direction in-- vestigating the relationships between H.S. achievement and post-secondary academic success, and a combination between H.S. variables and CTARC would provide scientific bases for this assumption. 3. The results of this study could be used in further research to investigate the possibility of using RCAL as a predictor of acad. succ. and class. per. in the Arab teacher education program for purposes of selection,admission,and retention of prospective teachers. 4. The use of the Cloze test as a measure of RC and the assump- tion that RC is an important competency in teacher education is relatively new. The results of this study suggest further research by using the same tool in other cultures and countries. A comparison study between Arab and American STS,fbr instance, could provide another basis in this neglected area. 5. The use of the Cloze procedure in the Arabic language is new. There is a place for further investigation of the problem of adopting this procedure to the Arabic language in two areas; first: to provide scientific basis for the scoring method in Arabic, i.e., the exact-word method or the appropriate-word method. Douglas (1976) in comparing between results after using the two scoring methods, stated that the "exact-word method is not reliable for the Arabic lan- guage." But there is still a need for further study to provide solu- tions for the scoring problem in the Arabic Cloze Test. Segggg: To improve the scoring procedure in the Arabic language, there is a need for further research to compare between the free choice 142 Cloze test which was used in this study, and the multiple choice cloze test (choosing one word from 3-4 words as the correct response in the Cloze test). A reliable and valid result in the multiple choice cloze test could solve the difficult problem of correcting and scoring the cloze test by hand and permit the use of scoring machines. 6. Finally, further statistical analysis of the data from this study could provide a base for the investigation of the relationships between professional knowledge and classroom performance. APPENDICES APPENDIX A TABLES 0F RELATED FINDINGS 1115 Hocowmmmmocm u .wocm HoquoHoc< n .HHoc<. m>HpaHHummo u .mmo zgonHHH u .HHH oo.H oo.. no. Ho. NN. NH. Ho. oo. No. NH. . oN. NN. HN. on. oN. NN. oo. oo. oH. .Hu.oN No .oogaax .oH oo.H NN. on. oN.. NN. mH. NH. NN. oN. oN. HH. oH. oH. No.. oN. NH. oH. oH. HH otsHoz .oH oo.H Hm. on. oN. mo.- oN. oN. oH. N... oo. HN. oN. on. No. NH. NH. NN. HH zeta»: .NH oo.H Ho. oN. No.- HH. NH. Ho. on. oN. NH. on. Ho. NH. mo. oN. No. HH uHoHL< .oH oo.H NH. Ho.- oHH oH. No. «N. NN. oH. oN. om. HN. No.- oH. oo. HH .ou .HH oo.H Ho. No. oN. HH. NH. "N. oo. oo. HN. 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Class (lst or 2nd year) 3. Specialization area 4. Sex: NL_____ F 5. Marital Status: Married Single . 6. Residence place: town _____yillage ____other 7 Matriculation Examination Certificate: Yes No‘ V 169 Instructions In the following pages you will find a test in RC compound of four passages from the Arabic literature and the educational disciplines. You will see that 50 words have been left out of every reading passage and were replaced by numbered lines in the places of the missing words. First you are asked to read the whole passage, then start reading and filling in the blanks by writing the appropriate word you think has been left out - the same word the author might have used. All the lines are of the same length, but some of the words are long, some are short, some might be a noun; some might be a verb, and some might be pronouns. Write only one word. Think and then write. The word you write reflects your reading comprehension. Important: The researcher's intention is not your evaluation personally. The results in no way affect your marks in your subjects at the Teachers' College. The information gained from this test will serve research pur- poses only. Names and answers will remain anonymous. Please, work in- dependently and do not ask or cooperate with others. The researcher is interested in what you would write, think and understand. If you cannot fill in one blank, leave it to the second one and try to return and fill it later after you finish. ' Do this Sample Test Abu Al-Qasim Al-shabi had not been a mere romantic poet, but he was a sad (1) whose rootes of sadness extended (2) far as the actual status (3) his nation; that status which (4) sadness in the sensitive soul (5) the tender feeling. He (6) not one of those who (7) to see only the seemy (8) of life and who tend (9) be pessimistic for the sake of T10) . 0n the contrary, his mood was optismistic on the whole. 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H 1.1 2.: :: 10.0: 0>:.. .08 1.003 2.: 2.212. 8.0.. 2.. .2. 1.0. 12. H >.80 .H .888. 8: 8. 1.83 0... 107.0000 18: 8. 1018002. .>:. ..:08 12.8880 .0>0 .::08...:1..0 3.8.: 0.. .H. .10.:2...::.1 >.10...0.. 82.. .8080; 52:03 0... 0>0..: ..:... 2080.88 1081.80. 80: 2.. .0 ..:.1 0... 0:83 : .0. $8.10: 80380 0>::. H 0.23 60.080 : 01:8 .::0. ... 2. .0 > ....0 ..0. 12. 100.:m :..:.:02 0.2.3 80.. 88.2. H 8019...: 0... .0 >88. 2.. .0 8:3: :. .21 0:80: .0 800.108 : 18.8 >8 8. =1: :. 0.0... .0: 80>”.H .8... 88.800 .:08 :1008 H 15. 8.80.3 :. >.::.0>1: >8 “09.0.6. ..00: 18: 10...... .00.. H 10...... :. ....FH. 61.. 01 .08 :001 2.3 m0>01H .8301 .188... 8811.8. 1.88.. 81 118.: 01H. mommmmm 0.0>H::<->.:L00.. 172 Professional-Descriptive Passage PARENTS AND TEACHERS For the most part an Arab parent feels that it is he who makes the decisions in all matters concerning members of his family. He tolerates no direct interference even if offered with the best of intentions in order to help him. Before the social changes mentioned above. however, the traditional Arab parent act only acquiesced to direct interference in his life and the life of his family. but he often acted in accordance with such intervention, which had generally come from a clan or feudal leader. Such intervention is now seen as an affront to his autonomy, and it arouses his opposition. The parents still see the school as an institution that should be as authoritative and traditional as possible. They maintain that the school must be authoritative as it was in the years before 1948. during the British mandate. The typical expression of such authority is seen in the administering of severe physical punishments, for “herein lies the worth of the school educator." Yet observations in schools showed that many parents viewed the authority of the school as an infringement on their own authority and came to school to complain angrily and even threatened violence when they found out that corporal punishment had been meted out to their children. It is interesting that in conversations the parents expressed themselves in a way that approved of corporal punishment, but in school they exhibited contradictory behavior. This was also confirmed in talks with the teachers. A claim fre- quently voiced was that “parents say one thing and do the opposite" in connection with authority and its expressions. “They are merely .words. . . . When we do what the parents say. they want and use corporal punishment. they not only don't accept it, but they complain and may even threaten to turn to the police or the courts." An angry parent, whose son had been beaten by one of the teachers, arrived at the school and shouted at the headmaster, "By what right did your teacher strike my son? What is this? Doesn't he have a father to educate him? Your job is only to teach. Leave his upbringing to me. I know how to raise well brought up children and 1 don't need your help." In the beginning of the school year the same parent had come to the school and asked the same teacher and headmaster “not to spoil" his son. All this is better understood if it is remembered that, in fact. “to educate the child" was always considered the indisputable function of the traditional school. Such interference in the education of children did not. in former times. result in parental Opposition. Furthermore. the teacher was seen by the parents as so authoritative that they used to threaten their children when they misbehaved by saying that they would report them to the teacher. Such threats have disappeared, and apparently the perception of the teacher as "the educating figure“ is also fading. In conclusion, it appears that opposing forces exist in the person- ality of the parent.N He is exposed to the processes of socialization and “patternization” within the traditional-cultural. context in which he grew up. then later exposed to the intense and continuous influence of modern values, life styles. and behavior patterns. From: "Arab Education In Israel" by: Sami Kh. Mari Syracuse Univ. Press 1978, Pp. 173-174 173 Professional-Analytic Passage EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE RANGE ts probably the most profound yet commonplace character- C istic of our time. As it contrasts with prevailing tradition. how- ever, change is most apparent in developing societies and takes place in two forms: intentional and unintentional. In its intentional form change is introduced by social and political agencies and institutions in developing societies as they aim at modernizing their industry, agri- culture, social and health services. and political institutions. In de- veloping societies. represented mostly by new nation-states. intentional change can be easily observed in the offensive and defensive functions of the military institution as a strong token of and extension to nation- hood and statehood. Change may also be unintentional. These subtle, mostly invisible forces of change penetrate deeply into the structure and culture of a society, in spite of the barriers of politics and ethnicity. These forces are found mostly in the framework of human relations on bath the interpersonal and intergroup levels. It is also elicited through other means, most important of which are the mass media. especially those which utilize the audio-visual form. When people from a traditional background interact with others from a more developed one. change is bound to take place. While both are affected by such interaction, sociocultural change is more noticeable among the less modernized group. In its intentional form change is planned and highly publicized. It is usually imposed. or at least forcefully induced, by the social planner. Indeed, change is direct intervention With the cultural values and lifestyles of the communities to which it is introduced. Because of its purpose and planning. this form of change—which may range from technical assistance to family planning—has been repeatedly studied in order to understand its dynamics and to evaluate its impacts. In its unintentional form change is not only unplanned and not imposed, but also subtle and spontaneous. As such. it takes place with- out much self-awareness. it simply happens to people. It is this very spontaneity, or the lack of direct intervention from forces of government and social agencies in the lives of people, which makes the unintentional forces of change penetrate gradually yet powerfully into the culture and structure of society. Change which is unintentional has received much less attention from social scientists than intentional change, because of its lack of purpose in terms of predefined objectives. the unspecific nature of such change, and to the fact that, unlike planned change. it takes place at no cost in terms of investments. Nonetheless. a careful investigation of the unintentional forces of change and their impact is expected to reveal more eriectiveness of and less resistance to change and its manifestations than has been consistently reported in situations of intentional change. From: "Arab Education In Israel" by: Sami Kh. Mari Syracuse Univ. Press 1978, pp. 173-174 APPENDIX C COLLEGE SUPERVISORS' RATING FORM 175 APPENDlX c COLLEGE SUPERVISORS' RATING FORM THE ARABIC FORM titan, JJUl gt}, “:6 34¢“ 933‘ wt )5 ‘-.-—JU’ wJ-l ““45 J .2-—-t..ra u‘J-‘n J.,: .. gm“ .. {2:31 ................ a” will . 44' ..... . .. . ...me wfl‘O‘P-Jfi‘r‘“ g3??d—*-‘ ...-.00...“ on 0.0.0. - [wfl‘“'/3)]nE‘QJ Lil, — r an. ”...-a a ......- ............................... (zfly:12;tt..&:..sl.,\ .C'JJl‘JQjI.J,Jl) 4:43,! h”nil fl". .. \- m # - ~ J‘t-Q'Y' 3‘ “‘5‘ - S a_JI 2:55)! .. 0 Juli an - ..-,..___.-.._.... __ 5}" M - Y 4.2-1" 3:, w 333 - Y -..- w a, .. 1 ...... j o ‘ 3:5 - ‘ .,.._..._.... gr)!” a “he” cal-MI 3’ .. V 'O".“ M at.“ ,5 all...” ,LI .. \ {M 933'" ct But aw sun: at. olfah‘ ”La-’3 5153-" M 92:34 All - Y i.e.]! -- 7 ~ - « m .....-” in“ call»)!- APPENDIX C COLLEGE SUPERVISORS' RATING FORM ENGLISH TRANSLATIOfl Ministry of Education and Culture The Arab State Teachers College of Haifa Student's nare l 2 year. Specialization A Report of ST Observation Lesson Date Subject flame of Lessee (Topic) Grade School Hour Name of Observer l. Part One - Lesson Steps and a. of S.H. 1. Home work 2. Reviewing the last lesson (methods) 3. The new lesson (Intr.. explanation, presenting the problem, comparison) 4. Conclusions: S. Assignrents: II. Part Two — Verbal Ability 1. Presentation of audi-visuel aids 2. Use of the blackboard 3. Verbal ability - language level and accuracy in expression: 4. Quality of writing 5. Lesson plan 6. Application of plan 7. Accuracy of given information III.Part Three - Classroom climate 1. Classroom atmosphere: Ea) discipline b) cornunication and relations with pupil (c) individualized treatments (d) attention (e) pupils responses and activities 2. External appearance of the T (dress. voice) 3. Personality IV. Global Judgment and cocmon remarks Grade: . ' Signature___ 176 BIBLIOGRAPHY Bibliography Ager, Merlin. 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