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I I: . . .. tr: «L... It s .1 1 \l‘ l litrflrlrtgiettlprrittir: telltsirzhhnuuhnrrgyrstx :2.ch {-53. .7; £i at .. . fftkéisii:11va ifktli. f; , . y. I ‘ .rlutllrirlft'tu! Iv! géglutz 1k}, .3, ., ‘ . Elggkibibtf,§§%§gtit3»é : , ‘ if»... \t. .Itéifai.§zit rilléxF . 1‘ . , {iii}. iridfli .2 . . ‘ r . . . 3 fl! WESIS AIR/1R y _ Michigan Scam gig Ljflfi7€3$fi37 - 3-— .V “511: This is to certify that the thesis entitled COUNSELORS' EXPECTATIONS REGARDING HELPING RELATIONSHIPS IN A RESIDENTIAL CAMPING PROGRAM presented by Robert R. Drovdahl has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Secondary Education degree in and Curriculum 0-7639 OVERDUE FINES: 25¢ per W per itc- RETURNIKS LIBRARY MATERIALS: Place in bookn mtorao charge fro. circulrtion records COUNSELORS' EXPECTATIONS REGARDING HELPING RELATIONSHIPS IN A RESIDENTIAL CAMPING PROGRAM BY Robert R. Drovdahl A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1980 ABSTRACT COUNSELORS' EXPECTATIONS REGARDING HELPING RELATIONSHIPS IN A RESIDENTIAL CAMPING PROGRAM BY Robert R. Drovdahl Counselors in residential camping programs engage in a structured helping role in relation to campers. Their purpose is to interact with campers so as to facilitate camper growth and development. Through this study, counselors' expectations regarding appropriate verbal patterns of interaction between themselves and camper were ‘examined. Research in the fields.of parenting, leadership and ‘counseling provides evidence that the verbal pattern of interaction provided by the person in the helping role is a significant positive factor. A common communication model has emerged from all three fields. Effective outcomes tend to result when helpers provide high levels of both facilita- tive and action-oriented conditions within the helping relationship. Five factors were examined in the study for potential relationships between the factors and counselors' pattern of interaction. The five factors were the counselors' tolerance of ambiguity, the counselors' self-esteem, the training program and the practicum in which the counselors Robert R. Drovdahl participated, and the age level of the campers the counselors counseled. The study was conducted during the summer of 1978 at a residential camp in Northern Wisconsin. Thirty-three college, students comprised the sample for the study. Data were collected from these students at four different times during the summer. The Revised Janis-Field Scale and the Budner Scale were administered during the training program to measure the subjects' level of Self—esteem and tolerance of ambiguity. The Pattern of Interaction Scale (POIS) was administered prior to the training program, following the training program, and again following the practicum. The POIS was specifically designed for this study. It consisted of six stimulus statements which a camper might make to a counselor. The subjects were asked to respond to the state— ments in a manner they felt would be most helpful to the hypothetical campers. Both t-tests and analysis of variance were conducted _with the data collected for the study. It was found that counselors offered higher levels of facilitative conditions compared to action-oriented conditions both before and after the training program but that the gap was closed signifi- cantly following the practicum. It was also found that the distribution of scores on the POIS approximated a normal distribution. The test results from examining the relation- ships between self—esteem, tolerance of ambiguity, training program, practicum, camper age and patterns of interactions, showed only the training program and the practicum having a Robert R. Drovdahl significant relationship to counselors patterns of interaction. Higher levels of both facilitative and action-oriented con- ditions were offered by counselors following the training program, compared with prior to the training program. Lower levels of facilitative conditions were offered by counselors following the practicum compared with following the training program. What conclusions may be drawn from the above findings? It appears that camp leaders can place confidence in training programs as a means of preparing counselors to function effectively in helping roles, provided the training programs emphasize improved interpersonal functioning through improved communication skills. This emphasis should be evident in the goals and content of the training program. By designing instructional activities which take individual differences into account and which provide opportunities to practice communicating core conditions, the impact of such training programs can be enhanced. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people were instrumental in bringing this project to completion. Some helped directly in the project. I wish to thank Drs. Norm Bell, Sam Moore and Peggy Riethmiller for serving on my docotral committee and providing helpful suggestions and ideas. Rick Ober deserves special commenda- tion for rating all of the protocols. Don MacDonald's work helped establish interrater reliability. Shirley Crowe typed the manuscript. Geneva Speas turned it in and took care of a few dozen other details. Others provided help in a different way. I was able to complete the residential portion of the program thanks to faithful financial support from friends at Christ Church of -Oak Brook. I would name names but they chose to remain anonymous. Members of my family also helped in practical ways. Thank you Mom, Dolly, Carl and Mom and Dad DeWeese. Many provided encouragement and emotional support. Rod McKean and Steve Hoke passed through the door before me and were kind enough to keep it open. My thanks even goes to those who never failed to ask, "Where are you on your dissertation?" Finally, my appreciation for two people cannot be placed in any "category". Their contributions go beyond categories. Special thanks go to Ted Ward, my advisor and committee chair- man and Joy, my wife. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM . . . . . . Theoretical Framework . . . . . Definitions . . . . . . . . . . Research Questions . . . . . . Importance . . . . . . . . . . smary C O O ' O O C O O O O O 0 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Counseling Processes . . . . . Counselor Characteristics. . . Counselor Education . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS . .,. . Research Design . . . . .'. . . Research Variables . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . Instrumentation . . . . . . . . Field Procedures . . . . . . . Data Analysis . . . . . . . . Assumptions and Limitations . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . ll l4 14 18 20 21 26 31 33 35 35 37 41 43 44 51 SS 56 60 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Perceived Appropriate Patterns of Interaction. . . 63 Self—esteem, Tolerance of Ambiguity and Patterns of Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Training Program, Practicum and Patterns of Interaction C O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 6 9 Camper Age and Pattern of Interaction . . . . . . 73 Informal Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Meanings and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . 84 APPENDIX A TOPIC OUTLINE FOR YOUTH COUNSELING COURSE 92 APPENDIX B REVISED JANIS-FIELD SCALE . . . . . . . . 93 APPENDIX C 'BUDNER'S INTOLERANCE OF AMBIGUITY SCALE . 98 APPENDIX D THE PATTERN OF INTERACTION SCALE . . . . 102 BIBLIOGMPHY O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O 106 iv TABLE 4.5 4.6 LIST OF TABLES Initiating Structure, Consideration and Leadership Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Descriptors for Two Communication Factors . . 10 Client Perception of Therapy Relationship . . 24 Self-esteem and Counselor Performance . . . . 29 Human Relations Training and Effective Helping O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O 3 2 Test-Retest Reliability for Pattern of Interaction Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Descriptive Statistics for POIS . . . . . . . 64 Normal Distribution Curve and POIS Scores . . 65 Level of Communication Compared with Self- esteem O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 66 Facilitative Communication Compared with self‘eSteem o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ‘0 o o 67 Discrepancy Communication Compared with Tolerance of Ambiguity . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Level of Communication Compared with Training and Practicum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Analysis of Variance Table for Data in Table 4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Differences in Level of Communication Scores . 71 Discrepancy Communication Compared with Training and Practicum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.10 Analysis of Variance for Data in Table 4.9 . . 4.11 Differences in Discrepancy Scores '... . . . . 4.12 Level of Action-Oriented Communication and C ampe r Age 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 4.13 Analysis of Variance for Data in Table 4.12 . 4.14 Pattern of Interaction Range, Variance for Low High Self-esteem Groups . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15 Summary of Statistical Tests . . . . . . . . vi LIST OF FIGURES Design Over Time . . . . . . . . . Design Over Variables . . . . . . . Structure of the Pattern.of Interaction Scale. Four Displays of the Communication Pattern Data Plotted at the Testing Points . vii O 36 37 49 78 CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM Counselors in residential camping programs engage in a structured, helping relationship with a small group of campers. Through interaction with the campers the counselor seeks to facilitate camper growth and development (Mackay, 1973). With the current emphasis on deCentralized, counselor- centered camping (the clustering of activity and relationships in samll units) the counselor is at the "heart" of most camp programs (Mitchell, Crawford and Robberson, 1970). Philoso- phically, counselors are seen as the focal point of success or failure in morale, harmony, true education and character growth (Leddie and Holbein, 1969). Operationally, a visitor to most camps will observe that most of a dayfs activities center around the counselor and his or her small group of campers. They eat together, bunk together, study together and play together. It is not surprising Benson (1951) concludes that the counselor, more than any other staff person, has the greatest impact on the character of a child's camping experience. Both philosophically and operationally the camping movement has attached to the counseling role primary responsibility for the camper's interpersonal experience. In light of the importance of the counselor's role within a camp program, the evidence of significant concern for the quality of the person filling that role is easily understood and justified. -That concern can be divided into two basic categories: 1. concern for selection, and 2. concern for training (Carlson, 1975). Both concerns ultimately confront the camp leader with decision-making needs. Given the people from whom to select, the leader must, on the basis of some criteria, decide who would be best qualified to serve as a counselor. Given the time for training, the leader must decide what learning experiences would best prepare counselors to meet the demands of their role. Selection and training decisions are undoubtedly based on a number of factors extrinsic to the counseling process. The available pool of potential counselors, camp objectives, time and funds available, and priorities among legitimate training needs are among extrinsic factors camp leaders face in making decisions related to selection and training. With- in the boundaries of these extrinsic factors camp leaders choose counselors who have the best likelihood of working with campers and provide counselors with training experiences that would enhance their skills. Data on the counseling process would help camp leaders make more informed selection and training decisions. The research described in this study was conducted to collect and examine data on the counseling process in camp settings. Using the theoretical framework built upon research in help- ing relationships and the scientific method as the form of inquiry, the author's goal was to seek verifiable data on factors affecting the counseling process within the context of a summer camping program. Three major steps were needed to move from the goal of data on factors affecting the counseling process to results. First, there needed to be some way of "narrowing the field." Conceivably one could begin anywhere in his search for fact- ors affecting the counseling process. The first step was to find Clues for "where to look". Helping relationship theory, built upon solid and extensive research,provided the needed clues. Using theory as a guide, needs for knowledge were identified for certain aspects of.the counseling process. The application of these needs for knowledge to the specific setting in which the research was conducted, led to research questions which could be answered through scientific inquiry. THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Although a more detailed picture of the research prece- dents for this study will be presented in Chapter 2, an overview of helping relationship theory is presented here to give the perspective from which the needs for knowledge were identified. Helping relationships are one type of structured role present within a given social system (Sarbin, 1954). Common role dyads involving helping relationships in American society include parent-child, teacher-student, employer- employee and counselor-client. Although specific goals of these dyads differ, they share a common nature. In each pair one person performs in a helping role, his goal being to facilitate growth and development toward some desired end. Because the outcomes of these relationships —- good child, successful student, productive employee, well-adjusted client -- are valued highly,long-standing interest and . effort has been devoted to discovering factors within help- ing relationships which contribute positively toward desired goals. Recent research in several fields has pointed to the relationship between the helper and the person helped as a significant positive factor. Findings in the fields of parenting, leadership, and counseling will be presented in the next three section. Parenting Of all helping relationships the parent-child relation- ship may be most basic. Research has been conducted to identify causal factors in the parent, parent-child interaction or family situation resulting in differential child behaviors, attitudes and values (Cass, 1953; Baxter, 1963; Larsky, 1974; Nuthall and Nuthall, 1976). Two significant factors emerging from this body of re- search are what Bigley (1975) terms nurturance and con; trol. Each term includes a number of behaviours, depending on the particular research study. For example, Chorost (1962) uses the term "control" to include the following behaviors: 1) excluding outside influences, 2) deification of parents, 3) intrusiveness, 4) suppression of sex, 5) breaking the will, 6) approval of activity, 7) fostering dependency, 8) suppression of agression, 9) avoidance of communication, and 10) ascendancy of parents. Baumrind defines control with the context of an "authoritarian" parent. The authoritarian parent "values obedience as a virtue and favors punitive, forceful measures . . . be- lieves in keep in the child in his place, in restricting his autonomy . . . and regards the preservation of order and traditional structure as an end in itself" (Baumrind, 1966, p. 890). These two factors have often been treated as polar opposities in the service of those debating the permissive - authoritarian discipline issue. Baumrind has argued against this mutually exclusive view of parent-child interaction in favor of a three dimensional view. This third dimension is labeled authoritative. The authoritative parent's inter- action pattern includes behaviors that both nurture and control. Leadership Based upon research in leader behavior conducted among United States Air Force personnel, Halpin (1966) identified by factor analysis two behaviors essential to effective leadership. His factor analysis was based on descriptions of effective leaders by 300 USAF crew members. The crew members identified what behaviors their commanders engaged in and then rated their commander’s leadership effectiveness. Halpin labeled these factors initiating structure and consideration. A general definition for each follows: Initiating structure--the leader's action in defining the relationship between himself and the group, clearly setting forth organizational patterns, communication channels and methods of procedure. Consideration--the leader's behaviors which indicate friendship, trust, respect and warmth in the leader-staff relationship. In comparing the 15% of commanders rated most effective and the 15% rated least effective, Halpin found a signifi- cant difference in where these officers stood in relation to the mean score on initiating structure and consideration. Table llshows Halpin's findings (Halpin, 1966, p. 93): Table 1.1 InitiatiggStructure, Consideration and Leader- ship Effectiveness Score on Initiating Structure and Consideration Scale Below the mean Above the mean Upper 15% in i 1 8 overall effectiveness 1 . Lower 15% in { j i overall effectiVeness i 6 i 4 1 p<.03 Hemphill (1955) found similar results in studying the relationship between leadership behavior of college depart— ment chairmen and the reputation of their departments for being well led and administered. Blake and Moulton’s theory of effective management em- ploys similar concepts. The managerial grid, their frame— work for viewing the management function has two axes: con- cern for production and concern for people. Concern for pro- duction describes the concern for procedures and processes, efficiency and output. Concern for people describes the concern for the trust, self-esteem and worth of the work- ers (Blake and Moulton, 1964). In summarizing 29 research studies relating leader behavior to outcomes of productivity, satisfaction and cohe- siveness, Stoghill states the weight of research supports the following statements: 1. Initiating structure and consideration are fundamental dimensions of leader behavior, and 2. Effective leader behavior is associated with high performance in both dimensions (Stoghill in Halpin, 1966, p. 93). Counseling Research in counseling effectiveness may be divided into two phases. During the first phase researchers compared effective and ineffective counselors in search of traits or characteristics differentiating the two. A 1975 review of the literature on counselor characteristics and counseling competence concludes that the research has been largely unproductive. With few exceptions, the major findings of research have been identifying variables not associated with success (Rowe;Murphy and DeCsipkes, 1975). Two variables in the exceptions category mentioned above are tolerance of ambiguity' and self-esteem . A number of studies have linked these two variables to counsel- ing outcomes (Parsons and Olson, 1969; Brams, 1961; Graff and Bradshaw, 1970; Selfridge and Vander Kolk, 1976). The general unfruitfulness of research focused on coun- selor characteristics led researchers to search other ave- nues. Rogers was among the first to call for research on the relationship between the counselor and client. He argued forcefully that the very nature of the relationship between the counselor and client was an important contribu- tor to positive client outcomes. He identified three con- ditions within the relationship as necessary and sufficient for positive outcome: empathy, warmth and positive regard (Rogers, 1957; Rogers, 1962). Carkhuff, building from Roger's arguments and Eysenck's (1965) finding that psychotherapy has as many negative as positive outcomes, concluded that counseling may be for better or worse (Carkhuff, 1969b). He states that "signifi- cant human interactions may have constructive or destructive consequences" (Carkhuff, 1969b, Vol. 1, p. 21). Searching for the key to counseling being "for better," Carkhuff focused on the interaction pattern between counse- lors and clients. He hypothesized that clients improved when counselors provide high levels of facilitative condi- tions -- empathy, respect, warmth and'genuineness -- and high levels of action-oriented conditions -- self-disclo- sure, concreteness, confrontation and immediacy. The find- ings of several studies support this hypothesis (Barrett- Leonard, 1962; Carkhuff and Berenson, 1967). When one compares research findings in the fields of parenting, leadership and counseling certain patterns emerge. The patterns might be summarized by the following two statements: 1. Outcomes in all three helping relationships seem to be affected more by the relationship or interaction pattern between the helper and helpee than by factors within the helper or helpee. - 2. Although different terminology is used in each field,there is marked agreement on what constitutes effective interaction patterns between helper and helpee. Table 1.2 shows the comparative terminology used in each field to describe the two communication factors present in effective helping relationships. 10 Table 1.2 Descriptors for Two Communication Factors Parenting Leadership ' Counselingl Initiating Structure Action-oriented FACTOR A Control Concern for Production conditions Support, Consideration Facilitative FACTOR B Warmth Concern for Persons conditions In addition, the field of counseling would suggest tol- erance of ambiguity and self-esteem as plausible variables affecting outcomes in helping relationships. With the theo- retical framework established on the foundation of research in the fields of parenting, leadership and counseling, the next step in narrowing the focus of research was to determine what needed to be known about counseling in a summer camping program. 'The clues provided by the theoretical framework lead to four statements describing needs for knowledge about counse- ling in a summer camping program. These statements further refine the focus of this study: 1. Helping relationship theory suggests the counse- lor-camper relationship as a significant focus of inquiry. The camping experience may be im- proved by knowledge about counselor's percep- tions regarding patterns of interaction between themselves and campers, when "patterns of inter- action" refers to the interaction of facilitative and action-oriented conditions counselors expect to provide for campers (Carkhuff, 1969b). 1 Because the helping relationship under study is closest to that between a counselor and client, the counseling nomen- clature will be used in this study to refer to Factor A and Factor B. ' ll 2. One intent of a counselor training program is to increase counseling effectiveness. Counselor training programs may be improved by knowing what changes, if any, occur in counselors' expectations regarding patterns of interaction as a function of a counselor training program. '3. Self-esteem may be a factor in counseling effect- iveness. Counseling effectiveness may be improved by knowing what relationship, if any, exists between counselors' expectations regarding patterns of interaction and their own self- esteem. 4. Tolerance of ambiguity may be a factor in coun- seling effectiveness. Counselor effectiveness may be improved by knowing what relationship, if any, exists between counselors' expectations regarding patterns of interaction and their own tolerance of ambiguity. DEFINITIONS The underlined terms in the statements above are the key variables in the study. Each will be operationally defined in Chapter 3. For clarity, a conceptual definition for each is provided below: Pattern of interaction refers to the verbal communica- tion provided bythe counselor. A counselor's pattern is defined as the relationship between levels of facilitative and action-oriented communication. Two approaches are used to describe the relationship. The term level of communica- tion refers to the total amount of facilitative and action- oriented communication provided by a counselor. Level of communication as in higher level of communication, is a qualitative factor which can be spoken of in quantitative terms. Higher levels of communication refer to qualitatively defined improvements in facilitative and action-oriented 12 communication. The term discrepancy communication refers to the difference between a counselor's level of facilitative communication and his or her level of action-oriented communi- cation. Facilitative conditions are statements by the counselor which communicate accurate understanding (empathy), confi- dence in the person's ability to act constructively (respect), directness in discussing thoughts, feelings and situations (concreteness) and personal authenticity (genuineness). Action-oriented conditions are statements by the conse- 1or which communicates significant information from the counselor's own experience (self-disclosure), willingness to deal with apparent discrepancies (confrontation), willingness to discuss the counselor-camper relationship (immediacy) and directness in planning constructive action (concreteness). Counselor training program refers to an educational experience provided for counselors prior to the counseling experience. Content of the program includes orientation to the camp, information on procedural matters, team building and instruction intended to improve counseling effective- ness. ' Self-esteem identifies a person's perception of their adequacy or inadequacy within a given social situation. Tolerance of ambiguity identifies the degree to which a person perceives new, complex or contradictory situations as threatening and uncomfortable. 13 Other definitions In addition to the variables defined above, certain other terms need to be conceptually defined. These terms are either technical terms found in the review of the lit- erature or generic terms with a specific meaning in the study. Core conditions. Carkhuff states that "all effective interpersonal processes share a common set of conditions that are conducive to facilitative human experiences" (Carkhuff, 1969b, Vol. 1, p. 21). These common core condi- tions are the facilitative and action-oriented conditions defined earlier. The ability to provide these conditions indicates a person's level of interpersonal functioning. Students. References to students are references to the college students who comprised the sample for the study. They participated in the counselor training program and practicum and are often called counselors. Counselors. Counselors are persons who function in a counseling role. When the term counselor is used to de- scribe participants in the study, it always refers to the students who comprised the sample. Campers. When the term camper is used to describe participants in this study, it refers to the young people who attended HoneyRock Camp. Campers are never identified as students in this study. 14 RESEARCH QUESTIONS Six research questions were designed to provide answers to the knowledge needs identified earlier. They also provided the basis for the research design. 1. Do counselors perceive one pattern of interaction to be more appropriate than other patterns of interaction in a camping program? 2. Is there a relationship between a counselor's perception regarding patterns of interaction and his own self acceptance? 3. Is there a relationship between a counselor's perception regarding patterns of interaction and his own tolerance of ambiguity? 4. What changes occur in a counselor's percdption regarding patterns of interaction as a function of the counselor training program? 5. What changes occur in a counselor‘s perception regarding patterns of interaction as a function of actual counseling experience? 6. What relationship exists between a camper's age level and the counselor's perception regarding patterns of interaction. IMPORTANCE The researcher's purpose was to inquire about the coun- seling process within a summer camp program. The importance of the counseling aspect in residential camp programs was outlined in the beginning of the chapter. The value of the study rests on the contribution the study makes to understand- ing that counseling process. It also rests upon the importance of the camping experience in young people's lives. The importance of the camping experience is the subject of the next section. 15 Importance of the Camping Experience Evidence can be marshalled from three sources to support the value of camping for American youth: 1) evidence from numbers; 2) evidence from goals; and 3) evidence from effects. From the first recorded organized camp conducted by Frederick William Gunn in 1861 the numbers of youth partici- pating in camp programs have shown a steady upward trend. In 1949 there were approximately 6,500 private, public and re- ligious sponsored camps serving 1,500,000 campers (Benson, 1951). Less than twenty years later a National Camping Survey conducted by the American Camping Association (ACA) and Indiana University identified nearly 12,000 camps serving 7,800,000 campers (Schmidt, 1969). A 1975 survey indicates the number of camps to be slightly lower (11,000) than the 1969 survey, but the number of campers higher (over 8,000,000). It is estimated that one of every two children attends camp at least once during his childhood years. This high level of participation in camping supports the conclusion that camping is an important experience for American youth. The camping movement has long held ggalg far beyond pleasure and recreation. Benson (1951) places the term educational at the outset of his definition of an organized camp. Among the goals advocated by the American Camping Association (ACA) include: 16 l. Experiencing individual growth and development. 2. Learning to live and work together. 3. Developing spiritual meaning and values. 4. Learning to live outdoors and become acquainted with the outdoor environment (American Camping Association, 1976). The camping experience has been seen as an integral part of the child's physical, mental, social and Spiritual develop- ment. How effective has camping been in translating these goals into reality? Although there is a need for more thorough evaluation, the existing evidence (especially testimonial evidence) points to a positive impact in children's lives. For example, both Murphy (1976) and Raymond (1969) report significant gains in self-concept in their studies of camp- ing programs for disadvantaged youth. The primary source of evidence regarding effects is self report. Usefulness of the Study The purpose is to add to the knowledge base about coun- seling relationships. The value of a knowledge base depends upon its usefulness. Can the knowledge obtained from this study help camps move toward providing the best possible experience for all involved in the camp program? If this questioncan be answered affirmatively, the study will have made a worthwhile contribution. Most camps provide a pre-counseling training program for counselors. One purpose of these training programs is to 17 teach counselors skills in effective counseling. Increased knowledge about the role of counselors could be valuable in planning more effective training programs by helping define the counseling skills content. A second value might be in individualizing instruction within the training program. Most training programs neglect individual differences, assuming all counselors are at the same skill level. Based on the findings frOm this study, instructional content might be better linked to individual need. The data from this study would assist the leaders of this particular program in evaluating their work. Does the training program affect counselors' perceptions of their role? Does it affect their perceptions toward the desired out- come? Does the training program present a realistic view of the counselor's role? These questions are engaged by this study; a meaningful basis for improving the training program is thus created. The potential values cited above for this study are linked to counselor training decisions camp leaders must make. Decisions about counselor selection have not been mentioned. The study examines the relationship between personality variables and counselor interaction patterns. It is not intended for findings to be used in counselor selection decisions. The sources of role expectations are complex. Any attempt to unravel what variables influence 18 role expectations is valuable, but it is the opinion of the author that any relevant findings should be used to provide better counsel and help to individuals in developing effect- ive helping role relationships in camp settings rather than denying them access to the counseling experience. The study might provide useful information for broader contexts as well. If the effect of the training program is to change role expectations toward a desired model, it would point to the possibility of providing significant training to non-professional people in helping roles. If short term training programs can increase a person's ability to carry out these roles effectively, insights might be gained for planning training programs for a variety of non-professional helping roles. SUMMARY The motive of most camping professionals is to provide the best possible experience for children. The philosophi- cal and operational principles guiding most camp programs place a strong emphasis on the role of the counselor and the counselor/camper relationship. In order to provide and train effective counselors a need exists for a better understanding of the dynamics of this relationship. Based on insights from research in helping relationships, the pattern of interaction of counselors has been chosen as the focus of 19 study, with the research questions emerging from the content of helping relationship theory and context of the situation in which the research was conducted. In Chapter 2 a more detailed account of helping relationship theory will be provided, documenting the historical development of research in the field and findings based on that research. The literature surveyed will be representative, not exhaustive. In Chapter 3 the specific steps in conducting the study are described: research design, null hypotheses, subjects, instruments and data collection procedures. In Chapter 4 the findings of the study are reported. Finally, in Chapter 5 conclusions and recommendations based on the study are presented. CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE In the initial chapter the purpose, importance and potential value of the study were presented. Under the general question of "How may improved levels of counseling be.provided?” several hypotheses were developed. These hypotheses Concerned counselor characteristics, counseling processes and counselor education. The hypotheses emerged from both the context in which the research was conducted and the findings of precedent research in the general area of counseling effectiveness. A review of the research is the focus of the second chapter. Three areas can be identi- fied as potential sources of gain in counseling effectiveness: 1. Gain resulting from better knowledge of relationships between counseling processes and outcomes; 2. Gain resulting from bettter knowledge of relationships between counselor character- . istics and counseling outcomes; and 3. Gains resulting from better knowledge of relationships between counselor training and counseling outcomes. Leaders in the field of camping look to the above 3 sources for strengthening counseling in the camp program. First, counseling processes are considered important for counseling effectiveness. Brubaker emphasizes listening, asking questions and sharing from one's personal life experiences as important counseling processes (Brubaker, 1977). Second, counselors characteristics are cited as important in counseling effective- ness. Shivers states that a counselor "should be secure of 20 21 his place among his peers" (Shivers, 1977, p. 120). Mitchell, et.al, describe a good counselor as one who is able to see others' points of view (Mitchell, Robberson and Obley, 1977). Third, counselor education is cited as important in counseling effectiveness. Mackay emphasizes training coun- selors to help campers adjust socially and develop good character. She states flatly that, "Because of training . . . your (a counselor's) campers will benefit more from their stay at camp" (Mackay, 1977, p. 7), While the field of camping has pointed philosophically to these three sources of gain, it.has not provided a large body of empirical data to support its philosophical position. Most of the empirical support has come from other fields. The research literature in these fields will be reviewed to identify the current state of knowledge regarding counseling effectiveness. The three potential sources of gain-- counseling processes, counselor. characteristics and counselor education--will be used to organize the review. COUNSELING PROCESSES Answers to questions of the relationship between counse- ling processes and outcomes have been impeded because, historically, counseling processes and techniques developed deductively from counseling theory and philosophy, rather than inductively from counseling outcomes. The crucial questions were logical rather than empirical and the crucial criterion was consistency rather than effectiveness. Whether 22 the technique was reflection, dream analysis or interpreta- tion, questions of cause-effect relationships between technique and effect were deferred to questions of consistency between the technique and antecedent theory. Eysenck forced the post-World War II counseling movement to squarely face outcome issues in an indicting article concerning the effectiveness of psychotherapy (Eysenck,1952). In a review of 19 studies involving over 7,000 neurotic patients, Eysenck found that 64% of the patients improved under psychotherapy while custodial care resulted in a 72% improvement rate. Eysenck concluded that there "appears to be an inverse correlation between recovery and psychotherapy; the more psychotherapy, the smaller the recovery rate" (Eysenck, 1952, p. 322). Prodded by Eysenck's findings, the late 1950's and 1960's were marked by increased research efforts aimed at finding links between counseling processes and outcomes. If counseling was "planned, systematic intervention in the life of another human being . . . aimed at changing that person's behavior" (Blocker, 1966, p. l3),the new mood was directed toward finding links between interventions and behavioral changes. The work of Rogers and his associates and Carkhuff and his associates stand as landmarks in the development of an( empirically based theory of counseling. In 1957 Rogers wrote an article titled "The Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Therapeutic Personality Change" in which he formally stated his theory of psychotherapy based 23 on his experience in counseling. It marked a significant step toward an empirically generated theory for three reasons: 1. He set forth his conditions as testable hypotheses; 2. He proposed that the constructs needed to be observed and measured; and 3. He sought casual relationships between the conditions and outcomes. Rogers captured the new, empirical mood in his personal questioning of the source of his proposed conditions: "Were the conditions a result of . . . personal opinion, preference, or bias? Do they represent a bias growing out of generally democratic philosophy or do they in fagt promote constructive change and development" (Rogers, 1962, p.424). Three of Roger's hypothesized conditions described processes within the counseling relationship: genuineness, empathy, and unconditional positive regard. Barrett-Lennard, one of Roger's graduate students at the University of Chicago, tested these hypotheses. Using the Barrett-Lennard Relation- ship Inventory (BLRI), an instrument designed to measure the presence of the conditions described by Rogers, Barrett— Lennard examined the relationship between these process condi- tions and a global outcome measure (Barrett-Lennard, 1962). Forty-two clients and twenty-one counselors at the University of Chicago participated in the study. Barrett-Lennard found a significant predictive correlation between each of the hypo- thesized conditions and an indice of personality change. Table 2.1 summarizes his findings(Barrett-Leonard,l962,p.15). 24 Table 2.1' Client Perception of Therapy Relationship More Changed Less Changed GROUP (N = 16) GROUP (N = 19) Variable pa M Range M Range Level of regard 40.8 28 to 49 29.0 - 3 to 48 .005 Empathic under- standing 29.3 14 to 41 16.4 -10 to 34 .005 Congruence 36.1 28 to 48 21.1 -11 to 41 .005 Unconditionally 32.1 16 to 45 21.7 2 to 43 .01 Carkhuff and his associates modified and expanded Roger's work. The list of core conditions was modified to include empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness. Instruments and rating scales were designed to measure the levels of these conditions. Systematic human resource development (HRD) training programs were developed to provide training in the core conditions. Using the instruments, rating scales and training programs as independent variables,a number of studies were conducted to test hypotheses relating the core conditions to behavioral, emotional and intellectual improvement among a wide range of subjects. Wiggins (1978) examined change in behavior in relation- ship to levels of core conditions (levels of facilitative and action-oriented conditions). Thirty middle school students were randomly assigned to 30 counselors for four weekly sess- ions. A measure of each counselor's level of functioning was obtained by rating a segment of one of the counseling sessions. Counselors were divided into high (X = 3.05) and low (E = 2.04) 25 groups based on their level of interpersonal functioning. Based on pre-test and post-test measurement of behavior by the boys' teachers, boys counseled by high level counselors showed significantly greater change than boys counseled by low level counselors. Aspy and Hadlock (1966) examined the relationship between core conditions and reading achievement. One hundred and twenty (120) students were tested for reading achievement over a 5-month period. Average reading gains of 2.5 years were achieved by children whose teachers offered high levels of core conditions achieved an average gain of .7 years. Culberson (1975) examined the effects of low level counselor functioning on client interpersonal functioning, identified by the criteria of spontaneity, involvement and freedom from defensiveness. Supportive evidence was found for the hypothesis that high level functioning clients would be negatively affected by low level counselors. Research using Carkhuff's model has been conducted in settings ranging from prisons to homes, with clients whose problems ranged from unemployment to delinquency and with outcome criteria ranging from discharge rate to truancy. The vast majority of studies show a strong relationship between the level of core conditions and counseling outcomes. (Carkhuff and Truax, 1965; Carkhuff, 1972; Pagell, Carkhuff and Berensen, 1967; Aspy and Roebuck, 1972; and Carkhuff and Griffin, 1971). 26 Discussion While room exists for additional and more precise research and for greater specificity in the definition of independent variables, the existing body of research lends support to the relationship between the core conditions of empathy, respect, genuineness and concreteness within the counseling relationship and counseling outcomes. A general statement, based on the research, would be that higher levels of core conditions in a counseling relationship correlate to more desirable outcomes as a result of the relationship. This appears to be true in a variety of settings, among a variety of people and for a variety of outcomes. COUNSELOR CHARACTERISTICS A late start and slow progress have characterized research efforts linking counselor characteristics to counseling effectiveness. The late start can be demonstrated by the fact that, as late as 1950, characteristics of effec- tive counselors were being generated by general consensus, rather than by research (Hamrin and Paulson, 1950). Progress has been slowed by measurement and criterion problems, sub- jectivity, circularity, lack of theoretical underpinnings, and the typical pattern having one study's "promising" findings soon negated by a follow-up study (Patterson, 1967; Rowe, Murphy and DeCsipkes, 1975). Two personality variables which have emerged relatively unscathed from the numerous studies on counselor character- istics are tolerance of ambiguity and self-esteem. The 27 research literature relating these two variables will be discussed in the next two subsections. Tolerance of Ambiguity Frenkel-Brunswick (1949) provided the definitive work on tolerance of ambiguity as a.personality variable. It was defined as discomfort when faced with complex and uncer— tain situations and a tendency to judge issues and events prematurely. Budner (1962) refined the definition to "a tendency to perceive ambiguious situations as a source of threat," Ambiguity resulted when an individual could not structure or categorize a situation meaningfully based on the cues available. In an early study, Brams (1961) gave a battery of personality tests and a test measuring rapport to 27 graduate counseling students. Brams' findings indi- cated that tolerance of ambiguity (measured by the Berkeley Public Opinion Questionnaire) was the only variable signifi- cantly correlated to a measure of rapport between counselors and clients. Three other studies have also found support for tolerance of ambiguity as a significant personality variable in counseling effectiveness. McDaniel (1967), using Budner's Scale of Tolerance of Ambiguity, found a significant negative correlation between intolerance of ambiguity and practicum supervisor ratings of 37 graduate counseling students. Gruberg (1969) measured tolerance of ambiguity by the Omnibus 28 Personality Inventory and found a significant relationship between measured tolerance and effectiveness of counseling responses obtained in taping sessions. Tinsley and Tinsley (1977) concluded from their study that relatively effective counselor trainees were less judgmental and more tolerant of others viewpoints than less effective trainees. Dogmatism and cognitive flexibility are two related constructs which have also been linked to counseling effect- iveness. In a study involving 45 community college counselors and their clients, Valsi (1973) found a significant negative relationship between dogmatism and ratings on the Barrett- Lennard Relationship Inventory. Studies by Sprinthall, Whiteley and Mosher (1966), Allen (1967), and Parsons and Olsen (1969) have provided supporting evidence that cognitive flexibility and psychological openness are linked to the tendency to respond to feelings, ability to understand feel- ings without distortion, and empathic sensitivity. Self-esteem Self-esteem, self-image, self-actualization, and self-acceptance are widely used terms describing evaluation of and affection toward.one's own behavior, abilities and qualities. Numerous studies in counseling effectiveness have focused on the concept as an independent variable. Using a variety of instruments to measure the concept, studies have regularly connected self-esteem and counseling effectiveness. 29 A major study by Athay (1973) involving 50 school coun- selors and 150 students from three school districts in Utah compared ratings on the Tennessee Self Concept Scale, ratings of counselor empathy, genuineness and warmth, and ratings of client improvement. The findings indicated self concept was significantly related to empathy, genuineness and warmth, which were significantly related to statements of improvement by students. Self-actualization was the focus of studies by Selfridge and Vander Kolk (1976) and Graff and Bradshaw (1970). The former study compared counselors' scores on the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) with taped excerpt response rat- ings and relationship inventory completed by clients. Table 2.2 documents the significane of Selfridge and Vander Kolk's findings (Selfridge and Vander Kolk, 1976, p.193). Table 2.2 Self-esteem and Counselor Performance Tape Excerpt Response Procedure Relationship Inventory Commu- Discri- nica- mina- tion tion Uncon- Con- of of dition-gru-Total POI Scales Empathy Empathy Respect Empathy ality ence R.I. Self-regard r= .68 .63 .68 .77 .59 .57 .71 Self- acceptance .92 .76 .74 .75 .60 .82 .80 Graff and Bradshaw's study also used the POI in their study but in a different setting. The instrument was administered to 71 undergraduate resident assistants at Southern Illinois University 30 and results compared to ratings of their effectiveness by students and personnel deans. Significant correlations were found between scores on the POI and ratings by both students and deans. In studies similar to Selfridge and Vander Kolk's, both Foulds (1969) and Rodriguez (1976) have found significant relationships between measures of self-actualization and ability to communicate empathy, genuineness and respect in a counseling relationship. Discussion ‘ Rowe, Murphy and DeCsipkes have advocated abandoning further research on counseling characteristics, concluding that the cumulative results of such research are contradictory and unproductive. In the faCe of such a strong statement, the reasons for including the two characteristics in this study need to be set forth beyond the review of the litera- ture . First, while it is true that some studies have found no relationship between self-esteem or tolerance of ambiguity and counseling outcomes (e.g., Foulds, 1971; Millikan and Paterson, 1967; Jeffrey, 1973), no study examined by the author indicated a negative relationship between these variables and counseling outcomes. On this basis it may be more accurate to describe the findings as equivocal, rather than contradictory. Second, research focused on counselor characteristics has often lacked a plausible theoretical base. The findings 31 related to core conditions do provide a theoretical basis for self-esteem and tolerance of ambiguityas potentially signi- ficant factors. Halvorson and Shore (1969), Fernback (1973), and Wright (1975) have documented the authoritarian person's tendency to disclose less personal information and to prefer directive approaches to counseling. This would likely impact such core conditions as empathy and respect. In the same manner self-esteem seems to bear theoretically plausible connections to ability to communicate core conditions. For these reasons the author has chosen to retain in the study hypotheses related to counselor characteristics. COUNSELOR EDUCATION If three years are required to train a professional counselor, a logical question is whether a short-term educa- tion program can be a source of improved counseling. The findings from a number of studies in various settings seem to answer "yes" to this question. Education programs ranging from 10 to 100 hours do give evidence of significant effect on counseling processes and outcomes. A study by Schroeder, Hill, Gormally and Anthony (1973) most closely resembles the educational component in this study. Twelve undergraduate residence hall advisors were given syste- matic human relations training through a two-credit course in effective helping. Their level of communication was assessed prior to and following the course. Table2.33hows the effect of the training program (Schroeder, Hill, Gormally & Anthony, 1973, p. 315). 32 Table 2.3 Human Relations Training and Effective Helping Group X Pre-test ’ X Post-test t Training 1.53 2.70 14.65* Control 1.50 1.60 .38 *p < .001 Similar studies using pre-testing and post-testing have also provided evidence supporting the potential for significant gains in ability to provide core conditions (Oksanen, 1973; Berenson, Carkhuff and Myrus, 1966: Pierce and Schaube, 1971; Collingwood, 1971; Butler and Hansen, 1973). Two studies have demonstrated a significant impact of training on outcome measures among the trainee's clients. Carkhuff and Truax (1965) used a human relations training model to train lay counselors in hospitals. ‘Their study compared differences in behavior between 80 patients receiv- ing counseling from the volunteers and 70 patients who did not receive counseling. The researchers found significant differences between the groups in ratings of ward behavior and overall improvement over a 3-month period. Hefele (1971) found that systematic human relations training for teachers had an impact on student achievement. Discussion It is clear that educational experiences help lay persons offer higher levels of core conditions in counseling; however, two cautions need to be made concerning education as a source of gain in counseling effectiveness. 33 First, wide differences exist in length, content, method- ology and participants among the various programs available in systematic human relations training (e.g., Carkhuff's "Systematic Human Relations Training“ (1971), Danish and Hauer's "Helping Skills: A Basic Training Program" (1973), and Kagan's "Interpersonal Process Recall" (1972)). Without a standardized training program available, no assumptions should be made about the potential of any specific program. The second caution concerns learning and retention. The findings on retention indicate that learned skills in communi- cating core conditions approximates the general laws of learning and retention. Although Butler and Hansen (1973) found strong retention after one month in follow-up study, long-term follow-up studies suggest that without continued practice students return to pre-training levels (McCarthy, 1977; Collingwood, 1971; Gormally, Hill, Gulanick and McGovern, 1975; Spencer and Stone, 1977). SUMMARY On the basis of the literature in the areas of counsel- ing processes, counselor characteristics and counselor edu- cation the following summary conclusions are set forth as being consistent with research findings: 1. A significant relationship exists between patterns of interaction in the counseling process and out- comes of counseling; 2. These patterns of interaction, defined by Carkhuff as core conditions, are correlated to behavioral, emotional and intellectual out- comes among clients; 3. 34 A person's level of interpersonal function- ing can be increased through training; it is possible to alter a person's pattern of inter- action with another person. Tolerance of ambiguity is a personality variable which relates to a person's level of interpersonal functioning and, therefore, his or her pattern of interaction with others; and Self-esteem is a personality variable which relates to a person's level of interpersonal functioning and, therefore, his or her pattern of interaction with others. The above conclusions, based on the research reviewed in this chapter, guided the transformation of the research questions (Chapter 1) into research hypotheses (Chapter 3). In Chapter 3 the research hypotheses are identified and the methodology used in testing the hypotheses is described. CHAPTER 3: .RESEARCH METHODS The study was conducted to examine relationships between selected personality variables, the training experiences, the practicum, and counselors' perceptions regarding appropri- ate communication patterns in counseling situations. Chapter 3 describes the methodology used to examine these relation- ships. The purpose of the chapter is to document the research procedures and identify the assumptions and limitations emerging from the methodological approach to the research problem. The chapter is organized around the basic components of methodology: 1) type of study; 2) research design; 3) research variables; 4) statistical hypotheses; 5) instrumenta- tion; 6) field procedures; and 7) data analysis. The final section discusses the assumptions and limitations found in these basic components. RESEARCH DESIGN Educational research is traditionally classified into certain functional "types," based on differing problems and methodological characteristics. Using Isaac and Michael's system (1971), the research conducted in this study may be described as a combination of quasi-experimental.and causal- comparative research. Quasi-experimental research is employed when a resear- cher wants to approximate true experimental design yet can- not control all relevant variables. This condition existed ‘ 35 36 for the researcher's investigation of the effects of the training program and the practicum upon the counselors' perceptions of appropriate patterns of interaction. A quasi-experimental approach to the problem was therefore required. Causal-comparative research is characterized by a back- ward approach to exploring causal relationships. Starting with dependent variable effects, it sifts backward through data for plausible causal factors. Although not as powerful as true experimental research, it is considered appropriate when the following conditions are present: 1. When selection, control and manipulation of the cause-effect variables are not possible; and 2. When it is not possible to control for all variation (Isaac and Micahels, 1971, p. 22). These conditions applied to the researcher's investigation of the effects of personality variables and camper charac- teristics on counselors' interaction patterns. Research projects have design relationships to two factors: 1) time and 2) variables. The design over time is shown in Figure 3.1. It shows the sequence of test adminis- tration and the time relationship between testing and the training and the practicum experiences. The design over time is a variation of a one-group, pre-test - post-test design. TRAINING EXPERIENCE PRACTICUM ] X1 X1 x2 X1 X1 X1 - Administration of the POIS X2 - Administration of the Budner Scale and the Janis-Field Scale Design Over Time Figure 3.1 37 Figure 3.2 describes the design over variables. A9 number of comparisons are made between mean differences on independent variables and mean differences on the dependent variable. The dependent variable is always a mean score on the POIS. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE SCORES COMPARED Tolerance of ambiguity High tolerance group score vs. low tolerance group score. Self-esteem High self—esteem group score vs. low self-esteem group score. Training program Pre-training group score vs. post- training group score Practicum Pre-practicum group score vs. post- practicum group score Camper Age Group score for counselors of juniors vs. group score for counselors of junior high vs. group score for counselors of high school. Design Over Variables Figure 3.2 The five independent variables identified in Figure 3.2 are examined in further detail in the next section. RESEARCH VARIABLES Relationships between five independent variables and one dependent variable are examined in this study. Concep- tual definitions for these six variables were presented in Chapter 1. For statistical analysis these variables must be quantified. Operational definitions which enable quantifi- cation are presented. 38 Independent Variables The five independent variables are self-esteem, tolerance of ambiguity, the counselor training course, the counseling practicum and camper's age. Self-esteem refers to feelings of adequacy or inade- quacy in social situations. It was measured by the subject's score on the Revised Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale. Subjects were placed in two groups for the purpose of this study. Subjects ranked in the lower 30% of the sample were placed in the low self-esteem group. Subjects ranked in the upper 30% of the sample were placed in the high self- esteem group. Other subjects (the 40% scoring between the two extremes) were omitted from statistical analysis of this variable. Tolerance of ambiguity refers to a person's tendency to perceive ambiguous situations as threatening and, thereby experience discomfort in their presence. It was measured by Budner's Intolerance of Ambiguity Scale. Subjects were placed in two groups. Subjects ranked in the lower 30% of sample scores were placed in the low tolerance of ambiguity group. Subjects ranked in the upper 30% of sample scores were placed in the high tolerance of ambiguity group. Other subjects (the 40% scoring between the two extremes) were omitted from statistical analysis of this variable. The counselor training course was a youth counseling course required of each counselor. The course consisted of fourteen 1% hour class sessions. Subjects studied included counseling theory, communication skills and general and 39 special characteristics and needs of children. The course material was presented through lecture, discussion, struct- ured experiences and role playl. Appendix A gives the out- line of topics covered in each session. The youth counseling course was part of a four-week training program for counselors. During this time the coun- selors received instruction and gained proficiency in activity skills, became acquainted with each other and with camp resources and planned the many elements of the camp program. The counseling practicum refers to the counselor's actual experience of counseling a group of campers. At Honey Rock Camp this practicum meant counseling a group of seven to ten campers. The camp session lasted from a Monday evening of one week to the Saturday morning of the following week (eleven plus days). Each counselor had two hours off each day and one full day off during the session. Honey Rock emphasizes a decentralized camping philos- ophy, making counselors the key to the campers' experience. In the practicum the counselor instructs in the skill areas, teaches the Bible studies, conducts evening devotions, and plans and executes the various special programs. The counse- lor sleeps and eats with the cabin group. The practicum is filled with opportunities for interaction between the counselor and the members of a cabin group. 1 It should be noted that the youth counseling class was taught by the same instructor, but at different times for the men and women counselors. 40 Three levels of camper age were identified for this study: 1) Juniors - those campers entering grades 4-6; 2) Junior High - those campers entering grades 7-8; and 3) High School - those campers entering grades 9-12. A counselor was considered to be counseling a particular age group when 75% of the campers in the cabin group qualified for that age level. Dependent Variable Facilitative and action-oriented conditions are the two components of pattern of interaction, the dependent variable for all of the hypotheses tested in this study. Carkhuff (1969) defines these components as follows: facilitative conditions: the extent to which the counselor offers warmth, respect, empathy and understanding in response to client comments. action-oriented conditions: the extent to which the counselor initiates direction, confrontation, and more action-oriented conditions in response to client components. The Pattern of Interaction Scale was used in this study to measure the dependent variable. Because the scale has two distinct subscores, four different approaches to the dependent variable were possible, depending on how the sub- scores were combined. 1. The level of facilitative conditions (FC) refers to a subjects score on the facilitative subscale alone. 2. The level of action-oriented conditions (AC) refers to the score on the action-oriented subscore alone. 41 3. The level of communication (LC) refers to the combined score on the two subscales of the Pattern of Interaction Scale (LC - FC + AC). 4. The level of discrepancy,communication (DC) refers to the difference between the two subscale scores (DC = FC - AC). The ability to look at subscores of the dependent variable and combine them in different ways means there are four variations of the dependent variable. The nature of the research hypothesis will dictate which dependent variable score (FC, AD, LC or DC) will be used for statistical analy- sis. The null hypotheses, which link the hypothesized re- lationships between variables,and statistical analysis are presented in the next section. HYPOTHESES The following null and alternate hypotheses identify the relationship between variables examined in this study. They are grouped according to the categories of independent variables identified in the preceding section. Self-esteem, tolerance of ambiguipy and patterns of interaction. Three hypotheses (research hypotheses, statisti- cally tested as null hypotheses) were tested to determine the relationship among the counselors' levels of self-esteem and tolerance of ambiguity and patterns of interaction they per— ceived as appropriate. Training H0: H1: H1: 42 There will be no significant difference in discrepancy between facilitative and action- oriented levels of communication depending on the counselor's-tolerance of ambiguity. Counselors more tolerant of ambiguity will differ in discrepancy levels of communica- tion from counselors less tolerant of ambiguity. There will be no significant difference in levels of communication depending on the counselor's self-esteem. Counselors high in self-esteem will provide higher levels of communication than counse— lors with low self-esteem. There will be no significant difference in levels of facilitative communication depend— ing on the counselor's self-esteem. Counselors high in self-esteem will provide higher levels of facilitative communication. program, counseling practicum and patterns of interaction. Two hypotheses were tested to determine relation- ships among the training program, counseling practicum and counselors' perceptions of appropriate patterns of interaction. 4. H0: H1: There will be no significant difference in counselors' level of communication depending on the training program and the practicum. Counselors will offer different levels of communication depending on the training program and the practicum. 43 5. H0: There will be no difference in counselors' discrepancy communication depending on the training program and the practicum. H1; Counselors' discrepancy communication will differ depending on the training program and the practicum. Camper age and patterns of interaction. One hypothesis was used to test the relationship between a camper's age and counselors' perception of appropriate patterns of interaction. 6. H0: There will be no different levels of action-oriented communication depending on the camper's age level. Counselors' perceptions of appropriate levels of aetion-oriented communication will differ depending on the camper's age level. SAMPLE Thirty-three undergraduate students comprised the sample. for this study. The students were all participants in the Summer Leadership School at Honey Rock Camp in Three Lakes, Wisconsin, during the summer of 1978. One of the 33 students did not complete the leadership programl. Of the thirty-two students completing the study, 24 were lower division students and eight were upper division students. Twenty-six of the students were attending Wheaton 1 The loss of one subject raised the question of differential experimental mortality as a rival hypothesis. It was con- sidered non-significant for two reasons. First, only one of 33 subjects was lost. It is unlikely that his scores would have significantly altered any findings. Second, the subjects reason for dropping out was personal and not connected to any characteristic of the study. 44 College. The remaining six students were attending other colleges and universities. Fourteen of the students had declared majors in physical education and thirteen had declared majors in Christian education. Five students were majoring in other disciplines. Nineteen of the thirty-two were female. All were Caucasion except one black. The sample was not randomly selected from any particu- lar population so generalizations cannot be made with confi- dence to any larger population. The primary value of the study is restricted to meaningful findings about this parti- cular group and this particular program. Secondary values may come from findings of this study pointing to potentially fruitful areas of study and application. INSTRUMENTATION Three instruments were needed to operationalize the constructs of self-esteem, tolerance of ambiguity and patterns of interaction. The three instruments chosen were, respective- ly, the Revised Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale, the Budner Intolerance of Ambiguity Scale and the Pattern of Interaction Scale. The first two scales are standardized instruments. The third scale was designed specifically for this study. In this section each instrument will be described. Revised Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale The revised Janis-Field scale (Appendix B) consists of twenty self-statements describing a persons'feelings in 45 social situations. The revised version was created by Eagly (1967) to correct for potential response set bias in the original scale. (In the original scale 21 of the 23 state- ments were keyed in the same direction). Subjects respond to each statement on a five-point Likert scale. The revised Janis-Field scale was chosen from among the many scales for self-esteem because of its low correlation with dominance and open-mindedness, two constructs similar to the other psychological variable in this study. Hamilton (1971) found correlations of -.36 and .14 between measure- ments of self-esteem using the Janis-Field scale and self- ratings of dominance and open-mindedness. Reliabilipy. In the original study using the revised scale, Eagly (1967) obtained a split-half coefficient of reliability of .72. Eagly's sample was 144 subjects. In a later study, Eagly (1969) obtained a split-half reliability coefficient of .88 and an r=.54 correlation between the positive and negative halves. Validity. The revised Janis-Field Scale has been tested for both convergent and discriminant validity. With respect to convergent validity a correlation of .84 was found between the revised Janis-Field Scale and Berger's Expressed Acceptance of Self Scale and a correlation of .60 was found between the scale and self-ratings of esteem (Hamilton, 1971). With respect to discriminant validity, Hamilton's findings related to dominance and open—mindedness have been discussed. 46 Budner's Intolerance of Ambiguity Scale The Budner scale (Appendix C) consists of 16 statements describing personal preferences and opinions. Subjects respond to these statements on a seven-point Likert scale expressing thestrength of their agreement or disagreement with the statement. Budner developed the scale by reducing a field of 33 statements representing combinations of different types of ambiguous situations and differing types of responses to these situations. One hundred and seventeen subjects participated in the study. Reliability. Two types of reliability checks have been performed on the scale. Cronbach's alpha formula reliability scores range for .39 to .62 for sample studies (mean relia- bility score =.49). A test-retest reliability check with one sample of 15 subjects yielded a correlation of r =.85 (Budner, 1962). Validity. A variety of validity studies have been performed for the Budner Scale. The scale was tested for convergent validity by correlating it with scores on the Princeton Scale, Coulter Scale and Walk Scale, all measures for tolerance of ambiguity. Significant correlations (p<.05) were found between the Budner Scale and each of the three other scales (r =.50; r =.36; r =.54, respectively). A second validity study was performed by administering the Budner scale to a group~of students and then asking the students to rate their peers on five questions related to 47 tolerance of ambiguityl. A scoring system was devised and correlations computed between the peer rating scores and scores on the Budner Scale. A significant correlation (r =.34) was found between the two measures (Budner, 1962). Pattern of Interaction Scale The Pattern of Interaction Scale was constructed speci- fically for this study (see Appendix D). It was modeled after a scale developed for similar purposes by Carkhuff (1969). Carkhuff's scale, the Index of Communication, was developed to measure communication patterns in clinical counseling settings. Sixteen client statements are presented to subjects. The subjects are asked to respond in a manner they consider appropriate and helpful. The sixteen state- ments fit in the cells of a 3 x 5 matrix, with emotion and problem area serving as the axes of the matrix. Two differences exist between the POIS and Carkhuff's Index of Communication. First, there are six statements in the POIS compared to sixteen statements in Carkhuff's scale. Second, the stimulus statements in the POIS reflect state- ments one would likely hear in.a camp setting. The statements in Carkhuff's scale would be more likely heard in a clinical counseling setting. The two differences raise questions 1 Two sample questions: 1. Of the students in this class who most prefers simple and uncomplicated problems? 2. Of the students in this class, who most likes the new and unfamiliar? 48 about the adequacy of the POIS in accurately measuring a persons level of communication. Do responses to six state- ments represent an adequate sample over a person's level of communication in a variety of situations? Do the type of stimulus statements elicit sufficient response material for evaluation? An affirmative answer to these two questions was based on some findings of related research. Carkhuff (1969a) found that levels of communication characterized the individual, rather than the emotion or problem situation involved. This seems to indicate that the number of items could be reduced without hurting its validity. Katochvil, Carkhuff and Berenson (1969) created new stimulus statements when they applied the research to school settings. This seems to indicate that a variety of stimulus statements in different settings can elicit sufficient response material. Another question might be asked about the use of written responses. Would subjects respond differently if they were responding orally? Greenberg (1968, reported in Carkhuff, 1969a) found no significant difference in ratings of level of communication depending on whether the responses were made in writing, orally, or in role playing situations. The indication is that any of the three mediums will provide a valid index of communication. The scale structure consists of six cells in a 2 x 3 matrix. 49 Figure 3.3 describes the matrix. EMOTION Depression-Sadness Anger Excitement cam? . Statement Statement Statement Activ1ty PROBLEM AREA Inter- Statement Statement Statement Personal Structure of the Pattern of Interaction Scale Figure 3.3 Twelve stimulus statements were written, two for each cell of the matrix.’ The statements were written by the researcher. Two people experienced in camping reviewed the items in the POIS and concluded (independently) that the statements were "typical" of camper comments. The twelve statements were divided in half, one state- ment from each cell randomly assigned to Form A of the scale and the other assigned to Form B. Each statement was placed at the top of an 8%" x 11" sheet of paper. The instrument consisted of six Sheets of paper stapled together. The label "Form A" or "Form B" was placed at the top of the first page. Reliability. Two checks on reliability were made for the Pattern of Interaction Scale. The first check was to determine how much confidence could be placed in the stabil- ity of the instrument. To test for this, students were ad— ministered the test on two successive days and coefficients of stability were computed. Table 3.1 summarizes the findings. 50 Table 3.1 Test-Retest Reliability for Pattern of Inter- action Scale Pattern of Interaction Scale FORM A FORM B Action- N = 16 N = 16 . * = = Level Oriented r .61 ~_¥ r .30 gimmunication Facilitative N = 15 N = 16 Communication *r = .72 **r = .58 *p‘<.01 **p‘<.02 The second check concerned the reliability of the rated scores. To test for this a Spearman's rank order correla- tion was computed between two raters' scores on the same set of protocolsl. The correlation coefficient for the facilita- tive component was rho = .81. The correlation coefficient for the action-oriented component was rho = .74. Validity. Mehrens and Lehmann (1973) identify three types of validity concerns: 1) content validity; 2) criter— ion-related validity; and 3) construct validity. Content validity was supported by verifying the representativeness l The two raters who participated in this study were both doctoral students in counseling psychology. The training program for the raters consisted of a two-hour session. Prior to that session the raters were give a manual des- cribing the core conditions and the criteria by which a numerical value could be placed on a subject's written response. The first portion of the session was spent clarifying terms on rating scale. Then the raters jointly rated sample protocols, sharing reasons for scoring it at a given level. Finally, the raters scored samples separately, then compared their separate ratings. This process con- tinued until they felt they had.arrived at a mutual under- standing for rating the protocols. 51 of the stimulus statement. Criterion-related validity refers to relationship between scores on the instrument and an in- dependent external measure. Since the instrument was con- sidered to be a direct measure of a person's perceptions regarding appropriate helpful responses, criterion-related validity was not a concern in this study. Similarly, the study was not attempting to measure any construct so construct validity was not a major concern. FIELD PROCEDURES A description of the way data were collected and handled will be presented in this section. Since the data were collected at different times, the section is organized chro- nologically. Data Collection, Point 1: POIS as Reliability Studypof Instrument The Pattern of Interaction Scale was administered on the first full day of the training program during a youth counseling class. The students were told they would be participating in a research study and,on several occasions during the training program,the researcher would be asking them to provide data by completing written scales. The purpose of this first administration was two-fold: to establish a pre-test level of responses and to establish a baseline for a reliability test of the instrument. (As it turned out, the responses for the retest--the following 52 day--was not significantly different, indicating high retest reliability and, because the conditions of the third admin- istration of the POIS (later) were more similar to those of the second administration than to the first, the second was considered the pretest of the main study). The exact number of copies of the POIS were prepared with even numbers of Form A and Form B. Copies of the forms were mixed together and distributed among the class in order to approximate a random distribution. The students were asked to determine a code to place on their instrument. They were advised to use a code that they would remember since they would use it again. The directions found in Appendix D were read to the stu- dents. Written instructions were used since the scale was administered more than once. Opportunity was given for any questions. This process involved approximately eight minutes. The scale took twenty-two minutes to complete. Three and one half minutes were allowed for each response. The students were told not to work ahead or fall behind, but to turn the page each time the researcher signaled the end of a three and one half minute period. Data Collection, Point 2: POIS as Pre-test (also as retest for reliability study) The second administration of the Pattern of Interaction Scale took place on the second full day of the training program. The procedure was similar to the procedure follow- ed in the first administration with two exceptions. First, 53 to insure that each student completed the correct form, the researcher pre-coded all of the scales and had the Students find the scale with their code on it. Second, students asked more questions about the test than they asked during the first administration. Two general categories of ques- tions were noted: 1. Why do we have to do this again? and 2. Are we supposed to answer the same way or differently? The researcher answered the first question by promising to explain fully the reasons behind the project but that it could not be done until the project was completed. The second question was answered by referring to the instruct- ions which said to respond in what they felt was an appro- priate and helpful manner. Data Collection, Point 3: The Personality Scales The two personality scales were administed mid-way through the training program during the youth counseling course. The copies were randomly mixed and distributed so that half of the students completed the Janis-Field Scale first and half completed the Budner Scale first. Instructions were given on the mechanics of the exer- cise. The students were told that the exercises asked personal questions that had potential for self-discovery if they answered with complete honesty. They were also reminded 54 that the code system guaranteed them anonymity. Completion of the scale was untimed. All the students had completed both scales within 30 minutes. Data Collection, Point 4: POIS as Post-Training Test The Pattern of Interaction Scale was administered a third time on the next to the last day of the training pro- gram. Again, copies of the scale were pre-coded to insure subjects received the correct scale. The procedure was similar to previous administrations of the scale. Data Collection, Point 5: POIS as Post-Practicum Test The final data collection point occurred following the first session of camp. The campers left on buses early Saturday morning. The counselors had a wrap-up meeting following breakfast. The Pattern of Interaction Scale was administered at that time. The procedure was the same as previous times with two differences in instructions. First, the counselors were told to assume that the statement to which they were responding had been made by a camper in their cabin. Second, the researcher, recognizing that the stu- dents were tired, encouraged them to respond to the state- ments with the same intensity as in previous times. Following this administration a brief explanation of the project was given. The researcher did not share the reason for administering the personality tests. 55 DATA ANALYSIS Several statistical procedures were used to test the six hypotheses in this study. The first three hypotheses, examining relationship between personality variables and pattern of interaction, were tested by one-tailed t-tests. An alpha level of alpha = .05 was used to determine Signi- ficance. The t-test is used to compare mean scores between two sample groups. Each of the three null hypotheses com- pares differences between two groups scores on the POIS. A t-test was computed to determine whether differences in their mean score on the Pattern of Interaction Scale was significant. The null hypotheses examining the relationship between the training program, counseling practicum and patterns of interaction were tested by a one-way ANOVA. An alpha level of alpha = .05 was used to determine significance. A one- way analysis of variance is used to test for differences among more than two means. The null hypotheses examining the relationship between the campers age and patterns of interaction was tested by a one-way ANOVA. Since the cells were of unequal Size an unweighted means model was used. The analysis of variance tests for significant differences by comparing the variability of scores between groups to the variability of scores within 56 groups. The answer to that comparison is expressed in a F-ratio. For this study F-ratios significant at the alpha = .05 level were considered to indicate Significant diff- erences . ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS Certain assumptions and limitations are present in the design and execution of this study which have potential imp pact on the study's findings and on explanations and meanings based on those findings. They come from three primary sources: 1) methodology; 2) design features; and 3) research context. These three areas outline the discussion for this section. Methodology The research study contains both quasi-experimental and causal-comparative characteristics in its methodology. The limitations of these research approaches stem from the inabil- ity to completely control all of the relevant variables and the need for retrospective analysis. Causal-comparative re- search is limited because cause-effect relationships cannot be established unless comparison groups are shown to be iden- tical except with respect to the variable under study. For this reason it is not possible to state that self-esteem causes any difference in level of communication, even if a significant relationship were found. It is always possible that some third variable was the cause of both self-esteem and level of communication. 57 Quasi—experimental research is limited by the presence of rival hypotheses as plausible explanations for any signi- ficant findings. In the one-group,pretest-posttest design used in this study to examine the effects of the training program and the counseling practicum, three rival hypotheses might explain significant finding: 1. Score differences might be due to history - experiences of the subjects during the time between the pre-test and post-test. For example, tiredness might be a possible ex- planation for score differences between the pre-test and post-test. 2. Score differences might be due to the effects of testing. The students may have become test-wise or test-weary. 3. Score differences might be due to maturation - changes in the subject resulting from being six weeks older at the time of post-testing. Design features Specific design features with assumptions and limita- tions are the study's sample, instruments and statistical analysis. Sample. The nature of the sample places limits on the generalizability of findings. Since the sample was not randomly drawn from a given population, it is not possible to say with certainty that this group of counselors is repre- sentative of any larger group of counselors. Therefore, the study's primary contribution will be to curriculum applica- tions within this particular program and to clues this study might yield in directions for potentially fruitful research. 58 Instrumentation. Assumptions and limitations found in the instruments come from the instrumentt designed specifi- cally for the study. First, it was assumed that Form B of the Pattern of Interaction Scale was a reliable instrument even though the statistical analysis for the action- oriented dimension did not yield a statistically significant figure. The basis for this assumption came from an analysis of one subject's protocol. On the first administration, this subject's protocol ranked twelfth on the facilitative dimension and tenth on action—oriented dimension. On the second protocol the subject ranked second on the facilita- tive dimension and first on the action-oriented dimension. In the light of the stability of the other 31 subject, it is the researcher's judgment that this one student's test- retest results were spuriousl. A pragmatic limitation of the Pattern of Interaction SCale is the length of time required to quantify the proto- cols and the fact that a trained rater is required to score the protocols. Larger scale studies could be conducted if an equivalent scale could be constructed which would be more easily administered and scored. l The stability coefficients for Form B without this students' protocol would have been r=.92 for the facilita- tive dimension and r=.84 for the action-oriented dimension. Both of these are highly significant (p <.01). The stability of Form A has already been documented. 59 Statistical analysis. The t-test and analysis of variance are the two statistical procedures used in this study. Use of the t-test assumes that the sample is drawn from a normally distributed population and that equal vari- ances exist between test groups. Use of analysis of variance assumes normal distribution, equal variances and inde- pendence among the variables. The study was conducted with- out verifying any of these assumptions about the sample, although equality of variance in the t-test was met by hav- ing equal test group Sizes. Research Context Certain compromises with experimental rigor were made in order to deal with the realities of the context within which the research was conducted. Many of these compromis- es are reflected in the research design. The resulting assumptions and limitations have been discussed above. One ’other major assumption Should be mentioned. The study's emphasis was counselors' perceptions of appropriate patterns of interaction between themselves and campers. The ultimate concern is not a question of percep- tions, but rather a question of how counselors do, in fact, interact with campers. The assumption made in this study is that perceptions, as measured by the Pattern of Inter- action Scale, and counselors' actual interaction patterns are similar. This is an assumption which does have support from 60 research on counseling (Carkhuff, 1969a), but it has not been verified in a resident camp context. SUMMARY Once research questions have been identified, deci- sions must be made regarding the best means of obtaining relevant data to answer those questions. Decisions in the following areas must be made: - What overall approach should be used? - What relationships between variables should be examined? - What hypotheses Should be used to test relation- ships between variables? - What sample should be used in the study? — What measurements should be taken? - How will data be collected? — How will data be analyzed? In most studies, decisions regarding each of the above questions are based upon selecting the best means available with the context available. In this chapter the decisions made for this study were presented and discussed, relative to the questions above. The overall approach was to use a combination of quasi-experimental and causal-comparative de- signs to examine relationship between the following variables: 1. Self—esteem, tolerance of ambiguity and counselors' pattern of interaction. 61 2. The training program, the counseling practicum and counselors' patterns of interaction. 3. The camper's age and counselors' patterns of interaction. Six hypotheses were made about the relationship between these variables: 1. Counselors' level of communication (LC) will be related to their tolerance of ambiguity. 2. Counselors' level of communication (LC) will be related to their self-esteem. 3. Counselors' level of facilitative communication (PC) will be related to their self-esteem. 4. Counselors' level of communication (LC) will be related to the training program.and practicum. 5. Counselors' discrepancy communication (DC) will be related to the training program.and practicumr 6. Counselors' level of action-oriented communication (AC) will be related to the age of the campers they counsel. The hypotheses were tested using a sample of thirty- three undergraduate college students counseling in a summer camping program in the summer of 1978. Instruments were selected to measure self-esteem and tolerance of ambiguity. A new instrument (POIS) was designed to measure the pattern of interaction variable. The POIS was administered on the first and second days of the counselor training program to establish reliability and as a pre-test. The scales measuring self-esteem and tolerance of ambiguity were administed during the training 62 program. The POIS was administered for a third time follow- ing the training program and again following the first practi- cum session. The methodological assumptions and limitations of the study were presented and discussed. The research approach, nature of the sample, instrumentation, the statistical ana- lyses used and the research context placed limits on inter- pretation of the study's findings. Methodology is means to an end. The purpose of methodology is to lead to meaningful data, the subject of Chapter 4. CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS In this chapter data collected according to the plan outlined in Chapter 3 are reported and discussed. The report of the findings is organized according to the cate- gories of research questions: 1. The pattern of interaction that counselors perceived as appropriate for counseling campers. 2. The relationship between self-esteem, toler- ance of ambiguity and counselors' patterns of interaction. 3. The relationship between a training program, practicum and counselors’ patterns of inter- action. 4. The relationship between camper age and counselors' patterns of interaction. PERCEIVED APPROPRIATE PATTERNS OF INTERACTION Counselors' perceptions was the concern of the first research question. The question asked for a description of counselors' perceptions of appropriate patterns of interaction. Research Question 1 The first question addressed by the findings was, "What do counselors perceive as appropriate patterns of interaction in counseling campers in a summer camping program?" Descrip- tive statistics, rather than hypothesis testing, were needed to answer this question. Table 4.1 displays the range, mean, and standard deviation for scores on the dependent variable pattern of interaction. Data are provided for each of the four ways of measuring the dependent variable: 63 64 facilitative communication (FC), action-oriented communica- tion (AC), level of communication (LC = PC + AC) and discre— pancy communication (DC + FC - AC). Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics for POIS Facili- Action- Level Discrep- tative Oriented of ancy Descriptive Communi- Communi- Communi- Communi- Statistic cation (FC) cation (AC) cation(LC) cation(DC) Range LR) 36.5-77 25-53.5 67-128 -5.5-32.5 Mean (X) 58.5 38-0 96.5 20.5 Standard Deviation(s) 8.6 5.4 12.2 7.5 Interpretation. An analysis of the descriptive statis- tics indicate that counselors, on the average, offer higher levels of facilitative communication than action-oriented communication. Only one person in the sample offered a higher level of action-oriented communication than facili- tative communication. It can also be noted that the range in scores and the distribution of scores along the range indicate that "pattern of interaction" is a variable which approximates a normal distribution in the sample. Table 4.2 compares data from sample scores with a normal distribution curve. SELF-ESTEEM, TOLERANCE OF AMBIGUITY, AND PATTERNS OF INTERACTION The second and third research questions posed in this study concerned potential relationships between counselor characteristics and patterns of interaction. 65 Table 4.2 Normal Distribution Curve and POIS Scores 34% 2.5%l16.5%l \ 34% 16.5% 2.5% -ZS -ls ls 2s Normal Distribution Curve 3.1% (N=l) 49.9 58.5 67.1 75.7 Facilitative Communication 41.3 /34.4% 3 1% (N=l) (N=11) (N=l) 9.4% . kN=3) (N=2); 72.1 84.3 96.5 108.7 119.9 Level of Communication b1.2% 4051:2113) 3.1% (N=l) 2.5 (N=4) . 25.2 32.6 38.0 43.4 48.8 Action-Oriented Communication 50% (N=16) 3.1% (N=l) 3.1% 6.2% N=2) 5.5 13 20.5 28 35.5 Discrepancy Communication 66 Research gpestion 2 This question asked whether a relationship existed between a counselor's perception regarding patterns of interaction and his own self-esteem. To answer this question two null hypotheses were formulated. The first one stated that no Significant difference would be found in levels of communication depending on the counselor's self-esteem. To test this first null hypothesis a t-test was used to compare mean level of communication scores (LC) between counselors high in self-esteem and counselors low in self-esteem. The statistical hypothesis tested is as follows: H0: Ia-C-l 3 L—C-z H1: L51 > L52 a== .05 The mean scores used in testing these statistical hypo- theses are displayed in Table 4.3 Table 4.3 Level of Communication Compared With Self-esteem Self-esteem Level of Communication(LC) ngh - Low 4 Mean Score Lcl = 98.5 LC2 = 98-5 (N = 11) (N = 10) Interpretation. The t-ratio obtained from this test was t = -.01. The critical ratio for this test was c.r.< 1.72 (df + 20yI1= .05, one-tailed test). Since -.01 was not greater than 1.72 the null hypothesis was not rejected. No Significant difference was found in levels 67 of communication offered by counselors high in self-esteem and counselors low in self-esteem. The second null hypothesis stated that no significant difference would be found in level of facilitative communi- cation (FC) depending on the counselor's self-esteem. To test this hypothesis a t-test was used to compare mean scores for levels of facilitative communication (FC) between counselors high in self-esteem and counselors low in self- esteem. The statistical hypothesis tested was as follows: . — < _- Ho. C1 - FCZ H1: F51 > F52 The mean scores used in testing the statistical hypothesis are displayed in Table 4.4. Table 4.4 Facilitative Communication Compgred With Self-esteem Self-esteem Facilitative Communication(FC) High Low FCl = 60.3 FC2 = 58.0 Mean Score (N e 11) (N = 10) Interpretation. The t-ratio obtained from this test was t = .62. The critical ratio for this test was c.r.> 1.72 (df = 20, a== .05, one-tailed test). Since the t-ratio was less than the critical ratio, the null hypothesis was not rejected. No significant difference was found in levels of facilitative communication offered by counselors high in self-esteem. compared to counselors low in self-esteem. 68 Research Question 3 The third research question asked whether a relationship existed between a counselor's pattern of interaction and his tolerance of ambiguity. To answer this question a null hypothesis was formulated, stating that no significant difference would be found in discrepancy communication (DC), depending on the counselor's tolerance of ambiguity. To test this null hypothesis a t-test was used to compare mean scores for discrepancy communication (DC) between counselors low in tolerance of ambiguity and counselors high in tolerance for ambiguity. The statistical hypotheses tested are as follows: The mean scores used in testing these statistical hypotheses are displayed in Table 4.5: Table 4.5 Discrepancy Communication Compared With Tolerance of Ambiguity Tolerance of Ambiguity High Low Discrepancy Communication (DC) _ _ DCl - 21.8 DCZ - 18.0 Mean Score (N = 11) (N = 12) Interpretation. The t-ratio from this test was 1.60. The critical ratio for this test was c.r.:12.08 (df = 22, a = .05, two tailed test). Since the value obtained fell within the critical ratio range, the null hypothesis was 69 no rejected. No statistically significant difference was found in discrepancy communication between counselors high in tolerance of ambiguity and counselors low in tolerance of ambiguity. TRAINING PROGRAM, PRACTICUM AND PATTERNS OF INTERACTION The fourth and fifdiquestions posed in this study concerned potential relationships between the counselor training program, practicum and patterns of interaction. Research_guestions 4 and 5 What changes occur in a counselor's perception regard- ing patterns of interaction as a functiOn of the counselor training program? What changes occur in a counselor's perception regard- ing patterns of interaction as a function of the counseling practicum? To answer these questions, two null hypotheses were for- mulated.1 The first null hypotheses states that no signifi- cant difference would be found in level of communication, depending on the counselor training program and the counsel- ing practicum. To provide data for analysis, counselors' level of communication had to be measured three times: prior to the training program, following the training program and following the practicum. Table 4.6 displays the mean scores for level of communication. 1Three of the 32 students did not counsel in the residential camp program during the practicum. Their scores are not in- cluded in the testing of these hypotheses. 70 Table 4.6 Level of Communication Compared With Training and Practicum Pre- - Post- Post- Level of Communication(LC) training ' training practicum Mean Score LC1=97.8 LC2= 110.4 LC3=101.2 N = 29 To test for differences in these mean scores a one-way analysis of variance for repeated measures was used to test the following statistical hypothess: Ho: 'LCl 352 = H1: LCl a’ ch 3:6 Lc3 a = .05 The analysis of variance table is presented in Table 4.7. Table 4.7 Analysis of Variance for Data in Table 4.6 Source df SS MS, F 883 2 2448.1 1223.0 *10.4 SSW 28 6459.4 230.7 58B 56 6601.9 117.9 Total 86 15509.4 *p‘<.01 Interpretation. The F ratio obtained from this test was F = 10.4. The critical ratio for this test was 3.11 (df = 2,84; Q'= .05). Since the F ratio obtained was larger than the critical ratio the null hypothesis was rejected. Significant differences were found in counselors'level of communication, depending on the training program and practi- cum. Because a significant difference was found, a post-hoc analysis was conducted to compare the effects of the train- 71 ing program and practicum separately, thereby providing specific answers to the research questions. To compare separate effects a Duncan's Multiple Range Test was applied to the data. Duncan's test establishes a range of non-significance between mean scores. Differences in pre-training, post-training and post-practicum level of communication scores are displayed in Table 4.8. Table 4.8 Differences in Level of Communication Scores Pre- Post- Post- training Difference practicum Difference ,training 97.8 3.4 101.2 9.2 110.4 The range of non-significance for the above data is 6.5. This means a significant difference was found in post- training level of communication scores, compared to pre- training and post-practicum scores. The second null hypothesis stated that no significant difference would be found in level of discrepancy communica- tion, depending on the counselor training program. Table 4.9 displays the mean discrepancy scores prior to training, following training and following the practicum. Table 4.9 Discrepancy Communication Compared With Training and Practicum Pre- Post- Post training trainingrppracticum Discrepancy Communication(DC) Mean Score DC1=20.8 DC2=22.6 DC3=16.9 I N = 29 72 To test for differences in these Scores, a one-way analysis of variance for repeated measures was used to test the following statistical hypotheses: H0: 551 = 552 = 553 H1: 661 ¥ 662 # DC a = .05 3 The analysis of variance is presented in Table 4.10. Table 4.10 Analysis of Variance for Data in Table 4.9‘ Source df SS MS F SSB 2 ; 494.0 247.0 *6.88 SSW 28 3612.2 129.0 SSE 56 2009.6 35.9 Total 86 6115.8 *p <.01 Interpretation. The F ratio obtained from this test was F = 6.88. The critical ratio for this test was c.r. = 3.11 (df = 2,84;<1= .05). Since the F ratio was larger than the critical ratio, the null hypothesis was rejected. Significant differences were found in discrepancy communica- tion, depending on the training program and practicum. To locate the source of the difference, Duncan's Multi- ple Range Test was used to compare differences in mean scores. Table 4.11 displays the differences. Table 4.11 Differences in Discrepancnycores Post- Pre- Post- practicum Difference training Difference training 16.9 3.9 20.8 1.8 22.6 73 Duncan's Multiple Range Test establishes a range of non- Significance. For the above data the range of non-signifi- cance is 3.3 This means that a significant difference was found in post-practicum scores on discrepancy communication compared to both pre-training and post-training scores. CAMPER AGE AND PATTERN OF INTERACTION The first three research questions posed in this study concerned counselor characteristics and their relationship -to the counselor's pattern of interaction. The fourth and fifth research questions concerned factors in the counselor's experience and their relationship to the counselor's pattern of interaction. The final research question in this study concerns a factor in the camper and its possible relationship to a counselor's pattern of interaction. Research gpestion 6 This question asks whether a relationship exists between a counselor's pattern of interaction and the age level of the campers he counsels. To answer this question a null hypothe- sis was formulated, stating that no significant difference would be found in a counselor's level of action-oriented communication (AC), depending on the age of the campers he counseled. Campers were divided into three age-levels and mean scores compared for counselors at each age level. Table 74 4.12 displays the mean scores. The following statistical hypothesis was used to compare these scores: H0: 361 = X62 = E3 H1: AC1 f AC2 # AC3 a= .05 Table 4.12 Level of Action-Oriented Communication and Camper Age Age Level . . Junior Action Oriented Junior High School Communication(AC) AC1=41.6 AC2=41.9 AC3=44.0 Mean Score N=10 N=9 N=10 A one-way analysis of variance was used to test the statistical hypothesis. Table 4.13 displays the analysis of variance table for the data in Table 4.9. Table 4.13 Analysis of Variance for Data in Table 4.12 Source df SS MS F SSB 2 34.5 17.25 .48 SSw 26 926.1 35.6 Total 28 960.6 Interpretation. The F ratio obtained from this statis- tical test was F. =.48. The critical ratio for this test was c.r. = 3.37 (df = 2,26; a= .05). Since the F ratio obtained was smaller than the critical ratio, the null hypothesis was 75 not rejected. No significant difference was found in level of action-oriented communication, depending on the age level of the campers. INFORMAL FINDINGS In the process of analyzing the data for answers to the research questions and hypotheses in this study, certain observations about the data were made by the researcher. While these observations did not directly answer hypotheses posed in this study, they did raise some interesting questions. For this reason, these findings are reported in this section as informal, post-hoc observations. The first set of informal findings were from comparing pattern of interaction scores for counselors high and low in self-esteem. The research question: this comparison was designed to answer was whether a difference would be found in level of communication between counselors high in self- esteem and counselors low in self-esteem. The hypothesis was that counselors high in self-esteem would offer higher levels of communication. The theory underlying the hypothesis was that a person who was self-confident in interpersonal Situa- tions would offer higher levels of core facilitative condi- tions: empathy, respect, concreteness and genuineness. The findings of this study indicated that counselors high in self-esteem did offer somewhat higher levels of facilitative communication, but this was offset by the fact that they offered lower levels of action—oriented communica— tion. Thus, while the mean scores for level of communication 76 between the two groups were nearly identical, the discrepancy scores for the two groups were significantly different (DC for high self-esteem group - 21.5; DC for low self-esteem group - 17.0). The second finding from comparing the scores on patterns of interaction between high self-esteem and low self-esteem groups was that the range and variance of scores was larger for the low self-esteem group. Table 4.14 displays these findings. Table 4.14 Pattern of Interaction Range, Variance for Low and High Self-esteem Groups Range Variance FC ' AC FC AC Low Self-esteem 37.0 32.5 86.6 73.9 High Self-esteem 21.5 18.5 51.1 32.5 These informal observations raise some questions about the potential relationship between self-esteem and patterns of interaction and suggest that some benefit might come from additional theoretical and experimental inquiry in this area. For example, it was hypothesized that counselors high in self-esteem would offer higher levels of both facilitative and action-oriented conditions. Instead, it was found that they offered somewhat higher levels of facilitative communi- cation but somewhat lower levels of action-oriented communi- cation. Is there a theoretical explanation for this finding? 77 Can wide differences in scores among low self-esteem coun- selors be explained by some third factor which, when combined with low self-esteem, creates widely divergent effects? The second set of observations came from examining the relationship between the training program, practicum and patterns of interaction. The study found significant diff- erences in pattern of interaction due to the training program, and the practicum. This held true for all four approaches to measuring the pattern of interaction variable (facilitative communication, action-oriented communication, discrepancy communication, and level of communication). Figure 4.1 displays the findings on the relationship between the training program, the practicum and all four measures of the dependent variable. The following observations may be made about changes in scores obtained prior to training, following training and following the practicum: l. A significant increase was found in post-training scores compared to pre-training scores for both facilitative and action-oriented communication. 2. No significant change was found in post-training scores compared to pre-training scores for discrepancy communication. 3. A significant decrease was found in post-practicum scores compared to post-training scores for facilitative communication and discrepancy communication. 4. No Significant change was found in post-practicum scores compared to post-training scores for action- oriented communication. 78 Figure 4.1 Four Displays of The Communication Pattern Data Plotted at The Three Testing Points 110.4 110.. 105~- Level of 100.; Communication '101,2 + 97.8 FC+AC 95 m -L (D [u I H 8 66.5 m P 65* a 3'3 2 60“ 59 Facilitative m T ° Communication 59.0 0 FC 33 5., :3 D 73' 45 > g 2 l (U 40" . . 4 . 8 38.5 Action-oriented Communication AC 35 25 22.6 20‘; 20.8 . 1 FC-AC Discrepancy - Communication 16-9 15 o 'r j' -- in... IL Pre-training Post- Post- training practicum 79 5. A significant increase was found in post-practicum scores compared to pre-training scores for action- oriented communication. 6. A significant decrease was found in post-practicum scores compared to pre-training scores for facili- tative communication and discrepancy communication. SUMMARY In this chapter the results of data collection and hypothesis testing have been reported and interpreted, providing answers to the research questions posed in Chapter 1. Table 4.15 summarizes the relationships examin- ed, the statistical tests used to examine these relationships, the respective values obtained from the tests and the sig- nificance level of the values. The findings of this study support the hypotheses that the training program and the practicum would have a significant relationship with counselors’ patterns of interaction. The findings did not support the hypotheses that counselor self-esteem, counselor tolerance of ambiguity and/or camper age would have a Significant relationship with counselors' patterns of interaction. Conclusions and impli- cations of these findings are presented in the final chapter. 80 Table 4.15 Summary of Statistical Tests Signifi- Statistical cance Relationship Studied test Value Level, p Self-esteem and level of communication t-test -.01 ns Self-esteem and facilitative communication t-test .62 ns Tolerance of ambiguity and discrepancy communication t-test 1.60 ns Training program, practicum and level of communication ANOVA 7.87 .01 Change in level of communi- ' cation: pre-training, post-training - Duncan's 12.6 .01 Change in level of communi- cation: post-training to post-practicum Duncan's 9.2 .01 Training program, practicum and discrepancy communi- cation ANOVA 6.88 01 Change in discrepancy commu- nication: pre-training to post-training Duncan's 1.8 ns Change in discrepancy commu- nication: post-training to post-practicum Duncan's 5.7 .01 Camper age and action- oriented communication ANOVA .48 ns CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS Meanings, conclusions and recommendations based on the findings are presented in this chapter. Before their pre- sentation, a review of the first four chapters is provided. REVIEW Counselors in residential camping programs engage in structured, helping relationships with small groups of children. This relationship between counselor and camper is considered an important contributor to the success of the child's camping experience. Camp leaders have reflected this belief by their long-standing interest in selection and training of counselors. One goal of selection and training is to develop counselors who will establish good interper- Sonal relationships with campers. Research studies in several helping fields have identi- fied the pattern of communication offered by the helper as an important qualitative factor in the helping relationship. Specifically, studies have Shown that outcomes of helping relationships are related to the level and pattern of facilitative and action-oriented communication offered by the helper. Based on the importance of the counselor-camper relationship and helping relationship theory and research, the researcher chose to examine counselors' perceptions regarding appropriate patterns of interaction between them- selves and campers. Six research questions were asked about 81 82 counselors' perceptions regarding appropriate patterns of interaction and factors which might affect their perceptions. A review of related research provided clues about factors which might influence a person's pattern of interaction within a helping role. Self-esteem and tolerance of ambiguity were identified in several studies as two personality variables influencing a person's level of interpersonal functioning. Research studies also indicated that training programs de- signed to improve interpersonal functioning did in fact bring about change in interpersonal functioning. Based on the research review, hypotheses were formed to examine relation- ships between self-esteem, tolerance of ambiguity, a train- ing program, practicum, camper age, and patterns of inter- action. The procedures needed to examine hypothesized relation- ships included planning an overall design, sample selection, instrument design and field procedures. A combination of quasi-experimental and causal-comparative research design, was used. An instrument was designed to measure a counselor's level of interpersonal functioning. The Pattern of Inter- action Scale consisted of Six stimulus statements. Counselors were asked to respond to each of the stimulus statements as if a camper had come to them and made the statement. The sample for the study was 33 college students counsel- ing in a resident camp program in Northern Wisconsin during the summer of 1978. The Pattern of Interaction Scale was 83 administrered prior to the training program, following the training program and following the practicum. The instru- ments measuring the two personality variables were adminis- tered during the training program. The data from these instruments were collected and analyzed. Two statistical procedures were used in analysis. T tests were used to test the relationships between self- esteem, tolerance of ambiguity and pattern of interaction. An analysis of variance was used to test the relationships between camper age, the training program, practicum and patterns of interaction. Duncan's Multiple Range Test was used to test Specific relationships between the training program, practicum and patterns of interaction. The answers to these tests provided for the research hypotheses are presented below: Hypothesis 1: No relationship was found between a counselor's self-esteem and his level of communi- cation. Hypothesis 2: No relationship was found between a counselor's self-esteem and his level of facilita- tive communication. Hypothesis 3: No relationship was found between a counselor's tolerance of ambiguity and his level of discrepancy communication. Hypothesis 4: A significant relationship was found between the training program and a counselor's level of communication following the training program, compared to before the training program. Hypothesis 5: No relationship was found between the training program and a counselor's level of discrepancy communication. 84 Hypothesis 6: No significant relationship was found between a camper's age and the level of action-oriented communication offered by a counselor. MEANINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The final topic considered in this study is the benefits derived from this study. The link between findings and possible benefits of the finding is the conclusions which can be drawn from the study. In this section, five conclu- sions, inferred from the findings, will be stated and dis- cussed. Potential implications of the conclusions will also be presented. Conclusion l--Counselors differ in level of interpersonal functioning Descriptive analysis indicated that level of interper- sonal functioning, as measured by the Pattern of Interaction Scale, approximated a normal distribution in the sample. This observation holds for both the facilitative and action-oriented dimensions of the POIS. An implication of this fact is that individual differ— ences should be considered in training programs. Training programs usually take into account easily seen differences in Skill levels. These differences are often most easily seen in physical Skill activities. Identifying skill level in swimming, for example, is easily done and consideration of differing abilities is incorporated into the training program. The Skilled swimmer often helps teach others. The less-skilled swimmer may spend extra time developing his skill. 85 Interpersonal Skills are less readily recognized. AS a result, when it comes to training in interpersonal skills, most often the training proceeds "as if" all counselors were equally skilled. The findings of this study indicate that training programs could benefit if the counselor's level of interpersonal skills were assessed and individualized in- struction offered, based on those assessments. In this study, assessing counselors' level of inter- personal functioning was a long process. The Pattern of Interaction Scale, an essay test,was cumbersome to administer. It required trained raters to evaluate responses. If inter- personal skill assessment is going to become a part of couns- elor training programs, additional research will be needed to develop an instrument which is reliable and valid, yet also more easily-administered and evaluated. Conclusion 2--Se1f-esteem and tolerance of ambiguity are not related to counselor's level of interpersonal functioning No link could be found between either self-esteem or tolerance of ambiguity and levels of facilitative or action- oriented communication. When the findings of this study are placed alongside other studies on counselor characteristics, a reasonable inference is that it is highly unlikely that personality characteristics have any predictive value with regard to a counselor's pattern of interaction with a camper. If - camp leaders wish to identify a counselor's level of interpersonal functioning it will have to be done by direct measurement. 86 Conclusion 3--Simu1taneous gains may be made in levels of facilitative and action-oriented conditions Directive and non-directive approaches to counseling have usually been considered mutually exclusive, inversely, related methods of counseling. Communicating facilitative conditions has usually been considered a non-directive technique; communicating action-oriented conditions has been considered a directive technique. Carkhuff's model of inter- personal functioning called for abandoning the either/or position in favor of a both/and position. The data support this viewpoint. Facilitiative and action-oriented condi- tions are not inversely related. Gains can be achieved in both kinds of communication. One question asked in Chapter 1 was, "Does the training program affect a counselor's perception of his role?" The answer appears to be "Yes." Counselors offered increased levels of both facilitative and action-oriented conditions following the training program. The difference between levels of facilitative and action-oriented communication remained constant. Conclusion 4--The measured level of facilitative communication drops following a two-week practicum Two changes occurred in Pattern of Interaction Scale scores taken following the practicum compared to scores taken following the training program. First, a significant drop occurred in counselor levels of facilitative communication 87 following the practicum. Second, a Significant drop occurred in the level of discrepancy communication following the practicum. There are at least two possible explanations for these findings: one related to the perception, the second related to performance. One hypothesis is that the change represents a real difference in counselors' perceptions regarding appropriate patterns of interaction. After actually working with the children, counselors may have changed their minds about what they thought were helpful responses to the statements in the Pattern of Interaction Scale. One of the questions asked in the study was, "Does the training program present a realistic view of the counselor's role?" If the above hypothesis is accepted the answer to this question would be that the training program did not present a realistic view of the counselor's role. A second hypothesis explaining the findings would be that some other factor in the practicum was affecting the counselors' responses to the statements; a factor not pres- ent when they responded to the statements at the end of the training program. In Chapter 3 three factors were identified as rival hypotheses present in the study due to design limi— tations. These factors were history, maturation and the effects of testing. For example, one explanation of the drop might be that the counselors were more tired at the post-practicum administration of the Pattern of Interaction Scale. 88 The implications regarding Conclusion 4 depend on which explanatory hypothesis is correct. If the former hypothesis is correct, camp leaders will need to examine what elements in the counseling experience affect counselors' perception of their role. If the latter hypothesis is correct, camp leaders will need to recognize and counteract elements of the counseling role. Uncertainty regarding the source of change in level of communication following the practicum implies a need for additional research. Further study, identifying factors within the practicum which affect either perceptions or practice in the counseling role, would be helpful. Conclusion 5--Training is an effective means of preparing counselors to perform in structured helping roles Most camping personnel want to provide the best experi- ence possible for children. It is accepted practice that the way to achieve this is by providing strong counseling leadership. The study indicates that the best way to pro- vide strong counseling leadership in interpersonal relations is to provide an effective training program in interpersonal relations. This confirms research findings about training programs in the clinical counseling field. As reviewed in Chapter 2, researchers have documented the positive impact of short-term training programs in clinical and lay counsel- ing settings. It appears that similar outcomes can be docu- mented in residential camp settings. 89 The training program in this study was designed speci- fically for the camp in which it was conducted. While no generalized statement Should therefore be made regarding the effect of other training programs, some curricular implications can be considered by examining common elements between the training program used in this research and other similarly effective training programs. At least three elements appear to be common in effective training programs. First, improved communication skills should be a clearly stated goal of the program. For example, one of the object- ives for the training program in the study was "to practice skills for increased interpersonal effectiveness." (Appendix A) Second, communication skills must be part of the subject matter of the training program. Students in training pro- grams need to learn meanings of core facilitative and action- oriented conditions. They should know what it means to communicate accurate understanding and direct communication toward specific thoughts and feelings. In brief, students must be able to identify empathy, respect, concreteness, genuineness, self-disclosure, confrontation and immediacy in verbal statements. Third, students need opportunities to practice commu- nicating these conditions in counseling Situations. In the training program described in this study students were divided into pairs and practiced communication skills through role playing. 90 Training programs which include the three elements cited above should have a good likelihood of significantly impacting counselors' level of interpersonal functioning. However, until standard programs are developed, each program should be evaluated for its effect upon level of inter- personal functioning. How can it be known that training programs are having impact in counselors' level of interpersonal functioning? One means is to provide camp leaders with the evaluative tools to test the effects of their training program. A second way is to develop a standard training program which has been field-tested and demonstrated to impact level of interpersonal functioning. Because training is an effective means of preparing counselors, camp leaders should seek ways of extending the training experience. One means of extension would be to involve prospective counselors in reading programs prior to their arrival for the "offical" pre-camp training program. The camping movement has placed high confidence in education as a means of developing successful counseling leadership in camp programs. One requirement for accredi- tation by camping's national governing body is a minimum three-day, pre-camp training program. The confidence in education has been based largely upon testimonial evidence and an increasing amount of research evidence. These indicators help build a knowledge base which can beneift those in curriculum decision-making positions. 91 The purpose of the study was to add to the knowledge base by gaining information and insight into counselors' perceptions of appropriate patterns of interaction. Goals of the study included identifying perceptions and discover- ing what factors influenced perceptions. The reason these goals were sought was to enable the curriculum decision- making process in camping to become more characteristically a matter of making informed choices. APPENDICES 92 APPENDIX A TOPIC OUTLINE FOR YOUTH COUNSELING COURSE The following outline identifies the youth counseling course objectives and course content taught in the counselor training program to the subjects in the study. I. Objectives A. To gain confidence in God's ability to use you in -ministering to young people. B. To identify the characteristics and behaviors of youth and explore areas of Special need. C. To identify basic counseling theories and their value in Christian ministry. D. To practice skills for increased inter-personal effectiveness. II. Course Content A. Purposes 1. Developing group commitment B. Human development 1. Personal maturity 2. Human development C. Isolating development 1. Age level characteristics 2. Special needs: self-image, achievement, peer relations, sexuality, fear, aggression D. Stimulating development . Counseling theory . Spiritual ministry . Listening/confrontation . A model of counseling Counseling Skills Special concerns: explaining salvation, discipline, problem behavior OlU'luwal-d 93 APPENDIX B REVISED JANIS-FIELD SCALE The Revised Janis-Field Scale was administered to the subjects during the counselor training program. The following pages show the scale as it was administered. Ten items are keyed so that an affirmative response indicates low self-esteem. Ten items are keyed so that an affirmative response indicates high self-esteem. The scale is found in Robinson and Shaver's Measures of Social Psychological Attitutes (1973). 9 u0>0= >HH00A0000> 0Ha:3 0 ca 00:6 m0sfin0eom c0umo >prmh :0umo >u0> mam0tfl>fltce mm0HLDH03 0 000 00> O O O O O O O O 0 00:0 023:... 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The following pages Show the scale as it was administered. The Sixteen statements involve three types of ambituity: insolubility (Items 5, 7, 16); complexity (Items 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, ll, 14, 15); and novelty (Items 6, 10, 12, 13). The scale is found in Robinson and Shaver's Measurement of Social Psychological Attitudes (1973). 99 .>0HH0:H0H00 0:0 0>Hn 000000H0 00um< :0H0H0H 30:0 00 0:0 >chouum 00.3030 H. 0000< >Hw0000m 000 00:0:0 0 0>Hm 00:00:0Hmm0 0000> O O O O O O O O O 000 0:0: 0:3 0.00013 100000 00 000:0009 .v w .000H0 000 0000 00uw< m>03H0 000 0:00 0: 00 >Hm:0uum 00:00:40 0 0000< >Hw:ounm . 0H 0H 30: 0:0 0:00 0: 00 0H 00:3 000:3 O O . O O O O O O O 000 0H now 0000 4 .m .0000 00000HH0000 000 0000H 00:0 00:000 mE0H0000 0HmEHm .HHOEm 00HH 1:000 >: 0:00 0000 . 000 00 0H:Hmmom 0H 0 O O O O O O O O 00 00.0 0.00M 0:0 0H .N 000000H0 000m< >Hm:0000 000000H0 s 0000: >Hmcou0m 00.0900:— . 00uw< .0:H>HH 00 >0.n 0:0 00 >Hw:0000 0000020 ~. 00uw< >Hw:ouum 000.: 0.00.: >H:0:000 0H000:0m 0 00 00>HH O O O O O O O O 0 006:0 000 on: 60:66: .0 000M00H0 000w< . >chouum 00.000020 ~. 00uw< >H000000 . 000m 00H: 0:05 0000 0 O O O O O O O 8 O mnmzexm H.0003000 0:003 00 0:0H0 00 000 000:0 00:0 000: 0000Hmv .000000000 :000 000:0 onszo :00> 000H00000 000: 00:0 0H00H0 0:0 :H :x: 0:0 :00: 0000Hm .:0H3 000000H0 00 00000 >05 00> :0H:3 0000500000 :000me 000 30H0m 100 00000000 00000000 0 00000000 00000000 0 00000000 >0000000 0 00000000 00000000 0 00000000 50000000 0 00000000 00000000 0 O O O O O 0 00000000 0 00000000 0 00000000 0 00000000 0 00000000 0 00000000 0 O O 6. he 6- fin (s. 0000< 0000< 00000 0000< 0000< 0000< O O O O O O O 0000< 00000000 0 0000< 00000000 0 0000< >0000000 O 0000< 00000000 0 00000 00000000 0 0000< 00000000 0 .00000500100 00 00:3 00 0000000 :000 0%0300 00 00 0000 000 03 00:3 .000000 0:0 .000000 000 00000> 0000500 0000000 000 03 000000 009 .0000:0 00 0000000 00 >03 000> 00000 000003 00> 00005 0:3 000 00 0000000 0000 0 .00>000 00 0.000 00:0 5000000 0 00 00000 0000 00 >00000 00 00009 .000 00000000 00 00 000 0 000 >00000 .00000 0000 100000: 0000000000 00 000000000 300 :00:3 00 0000 0000000 .00>0 00 00000 003 000000 0 .:005 000 3000 0.00000 00000000 003000 0000 I0000 0 :003 00 0500 0.00000 0:3 000000 00 .00 .0 101 00000000 00000000 00000000 0000< 0000< 00000000 0 00000000 00000000 0 O O 0 00000000 0 O O 0000< 00000000 0 O 00000000 0000< 00000000 00000000 0 0000< 00000000 0 O O O O O O 0 00000000 0000< 00000000 00000000 0 0000< 00000000 0 O O O O O O 0 00000000 0000< 00000000 00000000 0 0000< 00000000 0 O O O O O O 0 00000000 0000< 00000000 00000000 0 0000< 00000000 O O O O O O 0 .00000500000 00000 10000000 0000 00000 000 000000000 0000000 :50 0005 000 00 0002 .00 .0000000000 000000 00000000500 30: 3000 0.000 0000 003000 00 00 000 0 000: 000000 003 000000 .00 .00000000 000 000000000 00000 0005 0.000 003 00000 000 000000 000000 I05000 000 000000000 100 0005 000 00000 .00 .00003 0 000 0000000 0000000 0 00 0>00 00 0x00 00003 H .00 .000000000 00000500 000 000000 000 00 0005 00 000 00003 0000 0000 0005 000000 000 00 0005 3000 0 00003 0000000 0000 0 .m0 .000 000500 0 0>000 00 0000 5000000 00000 I00m5oo 0 000000 00 000 0005 00 00 .00 102 APPENDIX D THE PATTERN OF INTERACTION SCALE Form A and Form B of the Pattern of Interaction Scale along with the instructions, appear on the following pages. They do not appear in the same format in which they were administered. When it was administered, each numbered stimulus statement appeared at the top of a separate page. The remainder of the page provided space for the subject's response. At the bottom of each page was the statement, "PLEASE DO NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL DIRECTED." The instructions were read to the students prior to the administration of the POIS. One change was made in the instructions at the post-practicum administration of the POIS. At that time, subjects were told to assume the statements were made by a camper they counseled during the practicum. 103 INSTRUCTIONS (Read to the subjects) In this exercise you will be responding to six statements which might be made by a camper. The state- ments represent a variety of situations, feelings and concerns. Assume that you are a counselor at the camp and each statement has been made to you by a camper. Your task is to write down responses to each camper statement that you feel are most helpful and appropriate. Please write the responses in the space below each statement. You will have 3% minutes to respond to each statement. Do not turn the page until you are directed to do so. Again, a camper has made the following statements to you. You are to write down what you would say to be of most help to the camper. Any questions? 104 FORM A You know, our counselor isn't very nice. All she ever does is order us around. She treats us like babies. She's always telling us to be quieter. She never lets us have any fun. I wish we had a different counselor. Oh wow! Do I feel great! We had a ping pong tournament and I won. I never thought I could do it. I had to beat four people to win. Can we have another tournament soon? Ping pong is the greatest. I could play it all day. This is the third straight day it's rained. When is it going to stop? There's nothing to do, everything's so muddy and yucky! I could have had more fun at home and at home the food's better too! At least we don't have peas every night. I hate this place. When I first came here I didn't know anyone except Bill. He asked me to come. At first I didn't want to come but now I'm sure glad I did! Now it's like everyone in the cabin is good friends. Camp sure is fun. I don't want to shoot arrows anymore. I can never hit the target anyway. It's no fun when you don't hit anything. All I ever do is hurt my arm. I just can't do it right. I've tried and tried but I just can't get it. All I was doing was playing tetherball and he walked through and grabbed the ball. He's a creep and I wasn't going to let him get away with that. No way! I said, "Knock it off!" He three the ball at me so I hit him. He started the whole thing---he's just a big bully. 105 FORM B Oh, she's off with Betty and Julie. They do everything together. Gail and I aren't getting along so good. I don't think she likes me anymore. Last year at camp we were good friends but this year it's different. All year I was waiting to get to camp to see her again. I even wrote her a letter saying to put my name down for cabin mates. Look at this! Look at this! I just scored 30 points on this target. I can't believe it. That's the best I have ever done. Do I win an award? I love riflery. I wish I could spend my whole time shooting! It's more fun than anything else here. I'm too tired to keep hiking. Can't we stop and rest? My feet are killing me. How much further is it? When are we going to get to the campsite anyway? This is so dumb. None of us wanted to go on the overnight anyway. I hate backpacking. Being at camp has really helped me a lot. Especially what you said at fireside tonight. That was really good. You've been the best camp counselor I've ever had. I wish I could stay another two weeks. These two have been the best two weeks of my life. You know, camp has been real good but I get depressed thinking about going home. Seems like every year at camp I get turned on about God but two weeks after camp it's worn off. All my enthusiasm is gone. How can I get it to last? It was just a joke. It didn't hurt anyone. We were just sitting around the cabin and I said, "Wouldn't it be funny to mess up Cabin 12 so they couldn't win the cleanest cabin award? Why should I have to go apologize? Everyone else helped too! Besides, they threw rocks at our cabin last night. B IBLIOGRAPHY 106 BIBLIOGRAPHY Allen, T. W., & Whitely, J. W. Dimensions of effective counseli_g. Columbus, Ohio: C. E. Miller, 1968. American Camping Association. Camp standards with interpretation. Bradford Woods, Ind.: American Camping Association, 1976. Aspy, D. N. A study of three facilitative conditions and their relationships to the achievement of third grade students (Doctoral dissertation, University of Kentucky, 1965). 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