ABSTRACT INFLUENCE OF THE DEGREE OF MATCH BETWEEN COUNSELEE AND COUNSELOR IN TERMS OF EDUCATIONAL COGNITIVE STYLE AND COUNSELING STYLE ON THE OBJECTIVES OF THE EDUCATIONAL COUNSELING SITUATION By Ned Aulton Brodbeck £2222§2 The purpose of this study was to eXplore the effects of the Educational Sciences of cognitive style and coun- seling style, in the opinion of counselees and counselors, on the outcome of the objectives in an educational coun- seling situation. Cognitive style and counseling style (together with teaching style and administrative style) constitutes two of the seven sciences included in the Educational Sciences which provide a conceptual framework and scientific language for the applied field of education. Cognitive style refers to the manner in which an individual derives meaning in the context of his symbolic orientation, i.e., the kinds of symbols he tends to use most in acquiring meaning, his cultural determinants, i.e., cultural factors which influence the meaning of symbols, and his modalities of inference, i.e., the form of reasoning processes most often used in Ned Aulton Brodbeck drawing conclusions. An individual's cognitive style is determined through a battery of tests, and is recorded in the form of a computer printout known as a cognitive style map. Counseling style refers to the manner in which the counselor approaches the counseling situation. The coun- selor's attitude toward who should set the goals and deter- mine the approaches to the goals is basic to the determina- tion of his counseling style. The oounselor's Demeanor, i.e., directive, non-directive, or situational, his Emphasis, i.e., person, processes, or properties and his Symbolic Mode, i.e., theoretical predominance, reciprocity, or quali- tative predominance determines his total counseling style. Summary The student sample employed in the study was drawn from the full-time students attending the Southeast Campus, Oakland Community College, during the academic year 1973-74. Almost all of the students were enrolled in General Orien- tation classes. Students were asked to participate on a voluntary basis and then were instructed as to the procedures they would follow in completing the instruments used and the possible problems to be discussed in the educational coun- seling situation. In similar fashion, counselors were chosen and informed of their role in the study. The instruments used were: 1) Cognitive Style Map, 2) Counselor Style Check List, 3) Preferred Counseling Style Questionnaire, 4) Coun- selor Questionnaire, and 5) Counselee Questionnaire. Ned Aulton Brodbeck Four general questions were posed in order to conduct the exploratory study effort. Major and minor matches were determined by a ”matching" procedure to determine the degree of match between counselor and counselee in cognitive style and counseling style and answers to questions on a Counselor Questionnaire and Counselee Questionnaire were tabulated to determine the answers to the four general questions. Findings The analysis of data supports the following findings: 1. Responses by counselors to questions on the Coun- selor Questionnaire indicated that they were more often able to reach their objectives, in an edu- cational counseling situation, when there was a 2512; match in cognitive style and counseling style between the counselor and the counselee. When there was a minor match in cognitive style and counseling style between the counselor and counselee, they were lggg in agreement and Eggg in disagreement re- garding this matter. Generally speaking, those counselees who have a £312; match with the counselor in cognitive style and preferred counseling style indicate a higher degree of satisfaction on the outcome of the edu- cational counseling situation than do those coun- seleee with a ping; match in "styles” with the counselor. Ned Aulton Brodbeck 3. Counselors indicate a higher degree of satisfaction, on the outcome of the counseling situation, when there is a mglg; match in cognitive style between counselor and counselee than when there is a 9512; match between counselor and counselee in counsel- 1ng style and preferred counseling style. 4. Counseling style, in the opinion of counselors, has a greater influence on the outcome of the coun- seling situation when a ping; match between coun- selor and counselee exists than does cognitive style. 5. There is little difference in the degree of satis- faction on the outcome of the objectives in the counseling situation, in the opinion of counselees, when 2212; or ping; matches exist between counselor and counselee in cognitive style or counseling style. In the overall analysis of the findings it would appear that, in the opinion of counselors and counselees, the Edu- cational Sciences of cognitive style and counseling style have an effect on the outcome of the counseling objectives when a £312; ”match" between counselor and counselee exists on these variables. INFLUENCE OF THE DEGREE OF MATCH BETWEEN COUNSELEE AND COUNSELOR IN TERMS OF EDUCATIONAL COGNITIVE STYLE AND COUNSELING STYLE ON THE OBJECTIVES OF THE EDUCATIONAL COUNSELING SITUATION By Ned Aulton Brodbeck A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1974 Dedicated to Carlene, Teresa, and Richard 11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Sincere appreciation and acknowledgment of assistance are extended to Dr. Walter F. Johnson. His chairmanship and guidance was instrumental in my continuing efforts toward the completion of a doctoral program. Gratitude is expressed to Dr. Eldon Nonnamaker, Dr. Max Raines, and Dr. Edgar Schuler for consenting to be on my committee even though this meant the addition of yet another time-consuming responsibility. I am especially indebted to Dr. Joseph E. Hill for the time and effort he eXpended in helping me carry out the present study. His encouragement and knowledge made it possible to complete this work. Special thanks are extended to the counselors and students who participated in the study, without their c00peration the study would not have been possible. I would like to express my appreciation to my wife for her loyalty and encouragement. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . 1 The Problem . . . . . . . . . 1 Background of the Study . . . . . . . 2 Educational Cognitive Style and Counseling Style . . . . . . 3 Educational Cognitive Style. . . . . 4 Educational Counseling Style . . . . 6 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . 9 Significance of the Study . . . . . . 9 General Questions To Be Explored . . . . 11 Underlying Assumptions . . . . . . . 12 Definitions of Key Terms. . . . . . . 13 Overview of the Study. . . . . . . . 17 II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . . . 18 Counseling Theories/Styles or Techniques . 21 Psychoanalytic (Clinical) Theory . . . 21 Humanistic (Client Centered) Theory . . 28 Behavioristio Theory . . . . . . . 32 Existential Counseling . . . . . . 39 Counseling Techniques. . . . . . . 40 Directive Approach. . . . . . . . 41 Non-Directive Approach . . . . . . 43 Eclectic Approach . . . . . . . . 45 Counselor Effectiveness . . 47 Educational Sciences of Cognitive Style and Counseling Style, respectively . . 52 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 III. DESIGN OF STUDY. . . . . . . . . . . 61 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . 61 Source of Data . . . . . . . . . . 61 iv Chapter Oakland Community College Purpose . . . . . . Objectives . . . . . History . . . . . . Instructional Approaches. Special Facilities. . . Counseling Services . . Student Body. . . . . Samples Employed in the Study Student Sample . . . . . . . Counselor Sample . . . . . . Data Collection. . . . . . . . Instrumentalities . . . . Cognitive Style Test Battery Preferred Counseling Style Questionnaire Counselor Questionnaire and Counselee Questionnaire . . . Counseling Style . . . . . . Procedures . . . . . . . . IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS . . . . Introduction. . . . . . . . Analytical Techniques. . . . . . Matching "Styles" . . . . . . Content Analysis . . . . Kolmogorov-Smirnov One-Sample Test Counselee Reactions to Incidents . Findings . . . . . . . . . . Findings Yielded by Cognitive Style Matching . . Results Yielded by Matching Counseling Style and Preferred Counseling Style. Findings Yielded by Questionnaires Summary . . . . . . . . . . V. FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Findings and Conclusions. . . . . Implications. . . . . . Recommendations for Further Research. Summary . . . . . . . . . . V Page Page BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 139 APPENDICES Appendix A. Cognitive Style as an Educational Science . . 146 B. Problem Set On: 1. Scaling Items in terms of Difficulty . 155 2. Standard Scores . . . . . . . . 159 3. Percentile Scaling . . . 162 4. Scaling Judgments--Joseph E. Hill . . 164 C. Preferred Counseling Style Questionnaire . . 174 D. Counselor Questionnaire . . . . . . . . 178 E. Counselee Questionnaire . . . . . . . . 180 F. Counselor Check List . . . . . . . . . 182 G. A Suggested Technique for Determining Degree of Match Between "Styles" and Between "Styles" and "Modes of Understanding"- Joseph E. Hill . . . . . . . . . . 183 H. Results of Analyses of Matching of Cognitive ”Style" of Counselor B and Groups With Major or Minor Match With the Counselor. . 196 I. Results of Analyses of Matching of Cognitive "Style" of Counselor C and Groups With Major or Minor Match With the Counselor. . 200 J. Results of Analyses of Matching of Counseling "Style,” of Counselor B, and Preferred Counseling "Style" of Groups With a Major or Minor Match With the Counselor. . . . 204 K. Results of Analyses of Matching of Counseling "Style,” of Counselor C, and Preferred Counseling ”Style” of Groups With a Major or Minor Match With the Counselor. . . . 207 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Kolmogorov-Smirnov One-Sample Test Analysis of Scores on Counselor A--Counselee Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . 88 2. Analysis of Scores on Counselor B—-Counselee Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . 91 3. Analysis of Scores on Counselor C--Counselee Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . 92 4. Analysis of Scores on Counselor A--Counselor Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . 93 5. Analysis of Scores on Counselor B--Counselor Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . 93 6. Analysis of Scores on Counselor C--Counselor Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . 94 7. Degree of Match by Per Cent Between Student's and Counselor's Cognitive Styles . . . . 95 8. Degree of Match by Per Cent Between Student's Preferred Counseling Style and Counselor's Counseling Style. . . . . . . . . . 97 9. Responses by Counselors to Questions on the Counselor Questionnaire--Groups With a Major Match Between Counselor and Counselee in Counseling Style. . . . . . . . . . 112 10. Responses by Counselors to Questions on the Counselor Questionnaire-~Groups With a Minor Match Between Counselor and Counselee in Counseling Style. . . . . . . . . . 114 11. Responses by Counselees to Questions on the Counselee Questionnaire--Groups With a Major Match Between Counselor and Counselee in Counseling Style. . . . . . . . . . 116 vii Table 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Responses by Counselees to Questions on the Counselee Questionnaire--Groups With a Minor Match Between Counselor and Counselee in Counseling Style. . . . . . . . . . Responses by Counselors to Questions on the Counselor Questionnaire-~Groups With a Major Match Between Counselor and Counselee in Cagnitive Style . . . . . . . . . . Responses by Counselors to Questions on the Counselor Questionnaire-oGroups With a Minor Match Between Counselor and Counselee in Cognitive Style . . . . . . . . . . Responses by Counselees to Questions on the Counselee Questionnaire-~Groups With a Major Match in Cognitive Style . . . . . . . Responses by Counselees to Questions on the Counselee Questionnaire-~Groups With a Minor Match Between Counselor and Counselee in Counseling Style. . . . . . . . . . viii Page 118 120 122 124 126 Figure 1. 9. 10. 11. LIST OF FIGURES Three Dimensional Frame of Reference for Determining Major and/or Minor Orientations in the Emphasis-Concern Elements of Persons (PN), Processes (PC), or Properties (PT). . Cognitive Style Map-ACounselor A . I . . . Collective Cognitive Style Map of Students With a Major Match With Counselor A . . . Elements Held in Common Between Counselor A and the GrOUPe e e e e e e e e e e Elements That are Different From Each Other in the “Collective Style" of Group, and Coun- selor's Style--Referent, Counselor A . . . Elements That are Different From Each Other in the "Collective Style” of Group, and Coun- selor's Style--Referent. Student Group . . Collective Cognitive Style Map of Students With a Minor Match With Counselor A . . . Elements Held in Common by Counselor A and the Group of Students With a Migor Match With Counselor A . . . . . . . . . . . Elements That are Different From Each Other in the ”Collective Style" of the Group, With a ino Match, and Counselor's Style-- e erent, Counselor A . . . . . . . . Elements That are Different From Each Other in the ”Collective Style” of the Group, and the Counselor's Style-~Referent, Student Gran, e e e e e e e e e e e e e Elements That are Common Between Students With 3312; and Minor Match with Counselor A . . ix Page 7 98 99 100 101 101 102 103 103 103 104 Figure Page 12. Elements That are Different From Each Other in the "Collective Styles" of Groups With Major and Minor Matches With Counselor A-- Referent, Group With Major Match . . . . 105 13. Elements That are Different From Each Other in the "Collective Styles" of Groups With Major and Minor Matches With Counselor A-- Referent, Group With Minor Match . . . . 105 14. Counseling Style-~Counselor A . . . . . . 106 15. Collective Preferred Counseling Style of Stu- dents With a Major Match With Counselor A . 107 16. Elements That are Common Between Counselor A and the Group of Students With a Major Match With Counselor A. . . . . . . . 107 17. Elements That are Different Between the "Collective Style" of the Group and the Counselor's Style--Referent, Counselor A. . 108 18. Elements That are Different Between the "Collective Style" of the Group and the Counselor's Style--Referent, Student Group With a Major Match With Counselor A . . . 108 19. Collective Preferred Counseling Style of Stu- dents With a Minor Match With Counselor A . 109 20. Elements That are Common Between Counselor A and the Group of Students With a Minor Match With Counselor A. . . . . . . . 109 21. Elements That are Different Between the "Collective Style" of the Group and Coun- selor's Style-~Referent, Counselor A . . . 109 22. Elements That are Different Between the ”Collective Style" of the Group and Coun- selor's Style--Referent, Group With a Minor Match . . . . . . . . . . . 110 23. Elements That are Common Between the Student Group With a Major Match With Counselor A and the Student Group With a Minor Match With Counselor A. . . . . . . . . . 110 Figure Page 24. Elements That are Different Between the "Collective Styles“ of Groups With Major and Minor Matches With Counselor A-- Referent, Group With Major Match . . . . 110 25. Elements That are Different Between the "Collective Styles" of Groups with Major and Minor Matches With Counselor A-- Referent, Group With Minor Match . . . . 110 xi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Problem Counselors and counselor educators for many years have discussed the philosophical issues relevant to counselor techniques and methods or counselor style. Rogers favors a relationship which permits the client the most scope and in which the therapist intervenes as little as possible (non-directive), while Horney and Thorne advocate greater intervention and activity on the part of the therapist (directive).1 Thorne further complicates the theories of counselor style when he introduces the "eclectic“ as a counseling style.2 In his article Thorne states, Now, we prefer to abandon all terms such as "directive," "non-directive," "psycho- analytic," etc., as tending to create artifical continua and semantic artifacts, and instead to substitute operational descriptions and nomen- clature for the dynamics of any method. The term ”eclectic” has value only to differentiate an approach which refuses to subscribe to any one operational viewpoint or method, and becomes entirely objectionable if given self- 3 reflexive connotations such as ”authoritarian." 1Fred E. Fiedler, "The Concept of an Ideal Therapeutic Relationship,” Journal of Consultin Ps cholo , Vol. 14, (1950), P- 239. 2F. C. Thorne, “Principles of Personality Counseling," Journal of Clinical Ps cholo , Vol. 13, (1957). p. 235. 31bid., p. 238. Assuming that Thorne and others are correct in stating that counselors tend to function in accordance with the oounselor's self-concept, his goals and objectives, and the techniques and methods that he may use to achieve these objectives,“ is in essence saying that counselor style is related to the personality of the counselor and the manner in which the counselor derives meaning. Arbuckle suggests that the discrepancy between what the counselor verbalizes he should do, what he actually feels that he should do, and what he actually does in an Operational situation would appear to be a measure of the individual's total personality, rather than something he has learned in his professional preparation at Chicago, or Boston, or New York.5 Arbuckle and Wicas indicate that, A counselor does not become a ”Rogerian" by attending Chicago, or, more recently, Wisconsin, nor does one become "Superian" or "Williamsongan" by attending Columbia or Minnesota." Background of the Study In recent years various philosophies of counseling have emerged. These philosophies (e.g., Existentialism, Behav- ioralism, Humanism, Reality-Emotive Therapy) each should ‘Dugald s. Arbuckle, ”Five Philosophical Issues in Counseling," Journal of Counseling Psychology, (1956), p. 211. 51b;de ’ pe 2‘3e 6D. S. Arbuckle and E. Wicas& ”The Development of a Counseling Perception Instrument, urns of Counse n Psychology. (1957). P. 310. have meaning for the counselor. Whether the counselor will change his approach or techniques in the counseling situation is questionable. This is pointed out by Hosford in his review of Behavioral Counseling when he states: Environmental manipulation is the "key" to altering behavior. The behavioral coun- selor is interested not only in the variables that control behavior, but, more appropriately, in determining how these variables might be utilized to promote the client's desired change. Techniques utilized in behavioral counseling do not supplant those used in traditional counseling. There is nothing in behavioral counseling which restrains the counselor from offering the kinds of under- standing and support stressed in traditional counseling. After a review of the literature one is led to believe that once a counselor has accepted a definition of counseling, the counselor will develop objectives and adopt a coun- selor style to reach these objectives, and the counsel- ing style adopted by the counselor will be determined by the personality of the counselor, the counseling theory underlying his approach, and the manner in which he derives meaning. Educational Cognitive Style and Counseling Style: An interesting approach to some of the phenomena and some of the problems noted above is associated with certain 7Ray E. Hosford, "Behavioral Counseling - - - A Con- temporary Overview," The Counselin Ps cholo ist, Vol. I, No. 4 (1969), p. 1. 1‘ aspects of what Hill termed "the Educational Sciences."0 One of these "sciences," the one dealing with cognitive style, might provide a vehicle for analyzing a wide variety of activities and events associated with a counseling situa- tion. The educational science of counseling style provides still another vehicle for exploring the counseling situa- tion. Before discussing the possibilities, it is necessary to present, in general, what is meant by "educational cogni- tive style" and "educational counseling style." Educational Cognitive Stylg: The construct of cognitive style which has been devel- oped as one of the educational sciences is different from those defined and described in the field of psychology. The concept of cognitive style is expressed as, what mathemati- cians call, a Cartesian product of sets. The Cartesian product designed to represent cognitive style is composed of the following four sets: 1) symbols and meaning, 2) cultural determinants of the meaning of symbols, 3) modalities of inference, and 4) electrophysiological, biochemical, and "concern" sepects of the memory function (recognition, retention, recall, and association). In set theory form the expression becomes: g:SXEXHXY 8Joseph E. Hill, "An Outline of the Educational Sciences," (unpublished manuscript, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, July, 1968), p. 1. where G, the Cartesian product, is comprised of the four sets S, E, H, and Y, where S indicates the set of elements representing theoretical and qualitative symbolic orienta- llggg, E designates the set of individuality, associates, and family cultural determinants 2; Egg meaning 93 symbols, H denotes the set of elements defining magnitude, difference, relationship, and appraisal of modallties 9f inference and Y indicates the elements of gleetrophysiological measurements, biochemical materials, and the persons, processes, or properties "concern" of the individual associated with his memory process expressed in terms of the functions of: recognition, retention, recall, and association. The combined sets, S X E X H X Y, comprise the individ- ual's "cognitive map." In actual practice, at the present time, the fourth set of memory-concern is omitted from the Cartesian product because of insufficient validation of the electrophysiological measurements and the vast multitude of biochemical elements that are probably involved in the memory process of an individual.9 Under the circumstances, educational cognitive style is denoted by a Cartesian product of these sets as shown below: g:SXEXH 9Joseph E. Hill, The Educational Sciences, (Bloomfield Hills, Michigan: Oakland Community College Press, 1968), p. 14. a i a o as in S e: The counseling process, as viewed through the con- ceptual framework called ”the educational sciences,” is considered to be a social system composed of the three generic elements of persons, processes, and properties. The degeagor of the counselor, i.e., directive, situational, or non-directive, interacting with his ordering of priorities for the persons, processes, or properties elements, combined with the symbolic mode of communication he employs to major and/or minor degrees determine his counseling style.10 In Cartesian product form counseling style becomes: 22222221 22222222 Symbolic Mode Fniractive (V) Eersons (PR) T Qualitative Predominance (QP) CS = Situational (U) I Processes (P0) X Reciprocity (RP) Theoretical Lzredominance (TEL Non-Directive (0) Properties (PT) L. -1 h— where CS, counseling style, is comprised of the three sets Demeanor, Emphasis, and Symbolic Mode, in which demeanor is denoted by the elements V, V' (directive), U, U' (situational), or O, O' (non-directive), emphasis by PM, PN' (persons), PC, PC' (processes), and PT, PT' (prOperties), where the value of PE. PC, PT exist in the range of values 6 - 9, inclusive: while PW', PC', PT' takes on values of 3 - 5, inclusive: from a total range 0 - 9 for each element,* and sygbolig 10M" p. 18. *This idea is explained further later in this section. 22;; by the order of QP (qualitative predominance), RP (reciprocity), and TP (theoretical predominance).11 The "demeanor" of the counselor is determined by the counselor's attitude toward who should set the goals, the counselor or the counselee, and who should determine the approaches to attaining the goals. The “emphasis" placed on the three elements, persons, processes, or properties, is determined by an "Emphasis Matrix" with a point scale of 0 - 9 on each axis. (Figure 1 shows the three dimensional frame of reference). PT (Properties) 9 _ I 9 1 1111 1111 PC (Processes) 5 - 9 Major 9 3 - 5 Minor Figure 1. Three dimensional frame of reference for deter- mining major and/or minor orientations in the emphasis-concern elements of persons (PN), processes (PC), or properties (PT). Using this scale a score of 6 - 9 is considered a major, 3 - 5 a minor, and 0 - 2 negligible orientation, reSpectively, in these elements. 11Hill, op. cit., p. 19. "Symbolic mode” is the counselor's manner of communi- eating with the counselee where the ”mode" may range from little response or a histrionic one, on the part of the counselor (qualitative predominance), to a give and take session between counselor and counselee (reciprocity), to the counselor being highly verbal (theoretical predominance). Counseling style, as in cognitive style, is expressed in terms showing both major and minor orientations over the Cartesian product of the three sets: Demeanor, Emphasis, and Symbolic Mode. An example of a typical "Rogerian" coun- seling style might be: Symbolic Qggeapor Emphasis Mggg " O '7 '- PC _. r QP .1 GS = X (2. 7. 5) X 1. U' _ 2 PT' ‘_ - RP' J This style reflects in Demeanor a non-directive major orien- tation, occasionally tempered with a minor ”situational" orientation, which is acted upon by a major ”process" orien- tation (e.g., reflect the counselee) with occasional reference to a ”properties“ orientation, i.e., a minor orientation (e.g., one hour period of time free from interruption in an office comfortably furnished) in the Emphasis set, and the total interaction of the ”style” being completed by a major Qualitative Predominance orientation (e.g., counselor must play the role'of not reacting, i.e., qualitative code histrionic behavior), supported by a Reciprocity ”minor.” It should be noted that this counseling style is the one that probably, according to Roger's Theories, could be employed most effectively to attain the counseling objective of a client-cegtgged outcome for the session. Pgrpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to explore the influence of the degree of match between counselee and counselor in terms of Educational Cognitive Style and Educational Counseling Style on the objectives of the counseling situation. Oper- ationally, the purpose of the study is to explore the influ- ence of a major match between cognitive styles of a counselor and a counselee and a major match between the counseling style of the counselor and the ”preferred" counseling style of a counselee to determine if that degree of match has more positive effects on realizing the objectives of a counseling situation, than would major matches in cognitive style and minor matches in counseling style and ”preferred" coun- seling style, or the reverse of those matches, i.e., ”minor" match in cognitive style, major match in counseling style and "preferred” counseling style, or where minor matches exist between both cognitive styles and counseling style and ”preferred” counseling style. Si ica cc of he Stud The study is intended to be of value to counselors and student personnel workers in helping them understand the nature of a problem they have indicated to be of major 10 concern, that of interactions between counselors and coun- selees and the contributions of these interactions to the establishment of client satisfaction. The significance of the study is mainly based on its ability to add information that might be used to improve the counseling situation. By contributing to a better under- standing of how one achieves the counseling objectives in a counseling situation, and what part counseling style, cog- nitive style, and preferred counseling style plays in the process, the study adds information to the educational sciences and contributes to the application of cognitive style to the counseling situation. Utilization of a stu- dent's cognitive map to gather information which will enhance the chances of client satisfaction, in the counseling situa- tion, will be a valuable counseling tool. Cognitive maps have a prescriptive value in career counseling.12 The study will add to present knowledge and the findings of other research projects currently under way concerning cognitive style and counseling style which tend to enhance the counseling situation. The study can contribute to a better understanding of cognitive style and counseling style and, perhaps, help explain certain contradictory findings with regard to 12James R. Gural, "A Cognitive Style Approach to the Reconceptualization of a Curriculum for Vocational Guidance and Counseling,” (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, 1972), p. 180. 11 counseling style and client satisfaction found in earlier studies of these and related matters. If the present study can establish that there is a major match between counselee and counselor in terms of educational cognitive style and counseling style on the objectives of the counseling situation, then the study can provide important information for use in the counseling process. General Questions To Be Explored In order to realize the purpose of the study, explora- tory in nature, i.e., an investigation which is not designed to test a research hypothesis but rather to "generate" such, answers to the following general questions were sought: 1. Are the objectives* of a counseling situation reached more easily, in the counselor's opinion, when there is a major match between cognitive style of the counselor and counselee and a major match between the counseling style of the counselor and the preferred counseling style of the counselee than when minor matches between these variables exist? 2. Are the objectives of a counseling situation more easily reached, in the opinion of the counselee, when there is a major match between the cognitive style of the counselor and the counselee and a major match between the counseling style of the counselor and the preferred counseling style of the counselee than when minor matches between these variables exist? *In this context purposes may be substituted for objectives. 3. 12 Which ”style,” cognitive or counseling, seems to have the greatest influence on whether the objectives of a counseling situation are reached (expressed in terms of the opinions of the counselor and the counselee) in the case of those students with a major match with the counselor? Which ”style," cognitive or counseling, seems to have the greatest influence on whether the objectives of a counseling situation are reached (expressed in terms of the opinions of the counselor and the counselee) in the case of those students with a minor match with the counselor? Underlying Asspmptions In any research design it is necessary to make certain assumptions. The underlying assumptions of this study are as follows: 1. 3. That counseling in education is an important and necessary function. The reliability and validity indices of the battery of tests associated with the empirical mapping processes employed in the study are based upon previous studies which are similar to the present study, therefore, they are assumed to be sufficient for the purpose of producing the cognitive style maps that are employed in the study. The responses to the test items on the battery of tests and questionnaire are honest responses. 13 Students and counselors involved in the study were selected on a voluntary basis. therefore, it can be assumed that those who participated did their best when tested and in their responses to the questions on the questionnaire. 4. The reliability and validity of the scale used to ‘determine counseling style, as a part of the edu- cational sciences, are sufficient for the method employed in developing the scale which was used to determine counseling style. Defipltions pf Key Terms W A computer print out of an individual's cognitive style derived from a battery of cognitive style tests. gpgplplye Style An individual's mode of behavior in searching for meaning and acquiring knowledge. Cognitive style is comprised of the ways in which one derives meaning from his symbolic orien- tation, through the influences of cultural determinants, his manner of reasoning, and his memory and concern functions. Cognitive style may be expressed as the Cartesian product of the sets: g = S X E I H X I. (see Chapter II for detailed description.) We Counseling is a learning-oriented process, carried on in a simple, one-to-one social 14 environment, in which a counselor, profes- sionally competent in relevant psychological skills and knowledge, seeks to assist the client by methods appropriate to the letters needs and within the context of the total personnel program, to learn more about him- self, to learn how to put such understanding into effect in relation to more clearly per- ceived, realistically defined goals to the end that the client may become a happier and more productive member of his society.1 Counseling Style The counseling style of an individual is determined by the counselor's attitude toward who should set the goals, the client or himself, who should determine the approaches to attaining the goals, the student or himself, and the coun- selor's order of priority for the three generic elements com- prising a social system: namely, "persons,” ”processes," and "properties." (see Chapter II for detailed description.) Cultural Determinants Environmental factors which influence the meanings one assigns to symbols in deriving meaning and acquiring knowl- edge. The three determinants inventoried in the second set of the Cartesian product of cognitive style are: ‘family (F, F'), associates (A, A'), and individuality (I, 1'). Education Education is the process of searching for meaning. 'BJ. W. Gustad, "The Definition of Counseling," in Roles and Relationshi s In Counselin , ed. by R. F. Berdie, Minnesota Studies in Student Personnel Work, No. 3. 1953. 15 Edppaplppal Splpnces A conceptual framework and universe of discourse for the applied field of education comprised of the sciences of: 1) Symbols and their meanings, 2) Cultural Determinants of the meanings of symbols, 3) Modalities of Inference, 4) Selected Biochemical and Electrophysiological aspects of memory. 5) Cognitive styles of individuals, 6) Teaching styles, Administrative styles, and Counseling styles, and 7) Systemic Analysis Decision-making. Ma Or e ta ion Means that the person scored between the 50th and the 99th percentile and is symbolized by a capital letter such as ”T.“ Thus, a T(VL) would mean that one demonstrated above average ability to use words that one sees. Wiles Means that the person scored between the 25th and the 49th percentile and is symbolized by a capital letter with a prime. Thus, a T'(VL) would mean that one scored below the upper half and above the lower quarter. 3212111132_2£.In£s£2222 The modes of reasoning individuals use in deriving mean- ing and acquiring knowledge, which include the four inductive processes of magnitude (M, M'), difference (D, D'), relation- ship (R, R'), and appraisal (L) or evaluation, as well as the deductive process (K). 16 Negligible Orientation A negligible orientation means that a person scored below the 25th percentile, therefore, the element does not appear on the person's map. Qualitative Symbol A qualitative symbol is that symbol which presents, and then represents to the nervous system, that which the symbol itself is to the individual. Sypbolic Orientation The theoretical and qualitative symbols employed by an individual in deriving meaning and acquiring knowledge. Theoretical symbols may be either visual or qualitative. There are nine major qualitative symbols--empathetic, esthetic, ethic, histrionic, kinesics, kinesthetic, proxemics, synnoetics, and transactional. In addition there is the programmatic or ”sixth sense” known as proprioceptiveness, and the five sensory skills--auditory, olfactory, savory. tactile, and visual. Theorepical Symbol A theoretical symbol presents to the nervous system something different from that which the symbol itself is. For example, the spoken word "car,” is a theoretical auditory linguistic symbol. 17 Overview of the Study The first chapter has introduced the study, background, purpose, significance, and general questions to be explored, as well as the assumptions and definitions of key terms. A review of the related literature is found in the next chapter, and the research design is found in Chapter III. The analysis of data and findings are presented in Chapter IV. The con- clusions, implications, and recommendations for further study are included in the final chapter. ture related to educational counseling style. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE CHAPTER II The purpose of this chapter is to review the litera- This type of ”style“ is defined by the elements included in three sets of information which form the Educational Science of Counseling Style. Categorically, the three sets of infor- mation pertain to the demeanor, emphasis, and symbolic mode aspects of counseling style and are composed of the elements shown in the following Cartesian product of sets: CS Qemeanor Directive (V) Situational (U) Non-Directive (O L. 1 .—-1 P P X P E Emphasis ersons (PN) rocesses (PC) rcperties (PT) .J S mbo ic Mode _. Qualitative Predominance (QP) Reciprocity (RP) Theoretical LPredominance (TP) ”Demeanor" is determined by the attitude of the counselor toward who should set the goals and determine the approaches to employ in order to achieve the goals established for the counseling situation. The elements in the ”Emphasis" set pertain to the counselor's preference for clinically ana- lyzing persons, employing particular processes, or desiring certain properties (e.g., counseling setting) during the counseling session. 18 The elements in the set ”Symbolic Mode" 19 are determined on the basis of the mode of communication the counselor tends to prefer to employ with counselees during counseling sessions. A review of the literature related to counseling tends to confuse the reader as to the differentiation between counseling theory and counseling style or technique. Wilson Van Dusen indicates that, "...there is no accepted technique of therapy, the technique varies with the I analyst.”'“ Edward A. Dreyfus states: ...there are many approaches to counseling and psychotherapy which legitametly may be termed existential. The existential approach is not a system of techniques, but rather an underlying attitude which transcends all techniques.‘ From a behavioral counseling point of view Hosford writes: Techniques utilized in behavioral counseling do not supplant those used in traditional counseling. There is nothing in behavioral counseling which restrains the counselor from offering the kinds of understanding and suppgrt stressed in traditional coun- seling. These views as stated by Dreyfus and Hosford have impli- cations for the present study in that they imply that 'AWilson Van Dusen, ”Existential Analytic Psychotherapy,” e a J a P8 hoa a s, Vol. XX, No. 11, 19 . p. . 'SEdward A. Dreyfus, ”An Existential Approach to Counseling,” in . G de. :es 0 G ,danc:: :e—d .;. 2 he '-,HssOo» of G- danc-, ed. by Carlton B. Bec , Dubuque, owa: m. C. Brown Company, 1966), p. 269. 'éfiosford, op, clt., p. 193. 20 there is a need for an approach to counseling that pro- vides an opportunity for the counselor to apply the particular theory to which he subscribes. What is the appropriate theory or technique to apply in educational counseling? One criterion for a good theory is that it has to be useful. Hansen, Stevie, and Warner Jr. observe: Many practicing counselors seem to question the efficacy of using theory in their day to day work. The reasons for this situation may lie in the fact that many of the presently constructed theories of counseling are not useful; it may be that many of our theories are nothing more than descriptive in nature with no real plans for action, or it may be that counselors have simply not understood the theories as presented.17 Regarding this matter, Hansen, Stevie, and Warner Jr. further observe: As Brammer and Shostrum (1968) indicate, a counselor who does not have a solid foundation in the current thinking and research in the field, as well as a solid set of assumptions upon which to base his counseling, is doing nothing more than applying cookbook techgiques to help clients solve their problems.1 The present study does not attempt to determine which counseling theory the counselor should follow but it pro- vides a method for applying the concepts included in any counseling theory to the counseling situation. 17James C. Hansen, Richard R. Stevie, and Richard W. Warner Jr., as : T so a d P oces , (Boston: Allyn and Bacon. nc., 9 , p. 1 . 18mg... m 19. 21 The problem in the application of counseling theory to counseling can be alleviated through the application of the educational sciences of cognitive style and counseling style, respectively, to the counseling situation. The educational sciences provide a conceptual framework and scientific language that can be employed in the field of guidance and counseling. The following areas related to the present study are explored through a review of related literature: 1. Counseling Theories/Styles or Techniques 2. Counselor Effectiveness 3. Educational Sciences of Cognitive Style and Counseling Style, respectively nse in Theories St es or echni ues Reviewing the literature on counseling theories/styles or techniques is a rewarding though sometimes confusing experience. This section will be devoted to examining some of the basic theoretical approaches to counseling. Within these broad categories will be included the various indi- vidual theories and techniques as they apply to the broader category. gsyppoanalytlc (Cllnipal) Theory: The psychoanalytic or the clinical approach to counsel- ing is probably the widest known theory of counseling. This theory was first introduced by Freud and his followers Adler, 22 Rank, and Jung, who later broke away to form their own branches of psychoanalytic thought.‘9 Freud's theories grew out of his practice with people having psychosomatic illnesses. His observations led him to believe that man was by nature, basically amoral, sel- fish, and irrational. Much of what is known as classical psychoanalytic theory is based on three major assumptions about the nature of man. These assumptions are listed by Kagan and Havermann as follows: 1. The first five years of an individual's development are the most important and largely determine the adult behavior of the individual. 2. Sexual impulses are generally interpreted to mean the need for each individual to gratify all bodily pleasures. 3. Much of an individuals behavior is con- trolled by unconscious determinants. 0 Freud and his followers believed that psychoanalytic man is dominated by instinctual biological drives and by un- conscious desires and motives. Although man is driven by his inner desires and impulses, he is essentially a re- active organism, conditioned by his early experiences. An early development in the field of psychoanalytic theory was the formation of the thoughts of a number of '9lhléo: Po 95- 20Jerome Kagan and Ernest Havermann, Psyghology: An In ro u ti , (New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Atlanta: arcourt race Jovanovich, Inc., 1968, 1972), p. 26. 23 theorists referred to as Rec-Analysts. Theorists included in this group are Adler, Horney, Jung, Rank, Sullivan, and Fromm. Ego-counseling is based largely on classical psycho- analytic theory with its main emphasis on the functioning of the ego. In contrast to Freud, the ego-analyst's major emphasis is on normal or healthy behavior. According to Hansen, Stevic, and Warner Jr., one of the most important events in the development of the normal ego is the develop- ment of communication skills. It is this deveIOpment that allows the person to deal in abstractions. A child learns to differentiate between the symbol for apple and the actual apple itself. He learns that the latter will satisfy his need for food, while the symbol itself will not.2' Other factors which contribute to the development of the ego are: 1) the development of language skills, 2) the deveIOpment of the ability to delay termination or control over one's drives, and 3) the influences of significant others with which the individual comes into contact. Fromm calls it the process of sociali:1:ation.22 Hummel expands on this theory and states: The techniques of counseling are not a set of prescribed methods that the ego-counselor must follow rigidly. Rather, they are a set of preferred attitudes and strategies to be 2'Hansen, Stevie, and Warner Jr., op, 915., p. 41. 221.114.. ,, 12. 24 used flexibly by the counselor while he re- spects the client's right to be himself.23 In his study Hummel outlines a series of steps that a typical counselor and client might follow from an ego- counseling frame of reference. The problem of the client presented in the following illustration is of an academic study. 1. 2. 3. 5. The first step is to help the client examine his feelings about his life in school, his role in the school, his performance in school, and other school- related tasks. The client is then encouraged to project himself into the future. The counselor endeavors to get the client to discuss his career and life goals. The counselor then attempts to have the client see some relationship between his present behavior and his future goals. The counselor then attempts to discuss with the client those obstacles to the client's reaching his goals and how these obstacles might be removed. As the discussion of obstacles is con- tinued, the counselor, through interpre- tation and reflection, attempts to get the client to examine himself and his external circumstances. Further, the counselor attempts to have the client see the interrelated nature of his feel- ings and behaviors. Finally, the counselor helps the client establish a revised set of intentions in relation to academic study, and then, if possible, get him to rehearse his new behaviors. The rehearsal involves having 23Raymond C. Hummel, ”Ego-Counseling in Guidance: Concept and Method,” Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 32, No. 4. (1962). p. 4657 25 the client envision how he will behave in various hypothetical situations, such as how he might set up a study schedule.2 Hummel further states: In effect, the purpose of ego-counseling is not just to produce changes in specific behavior; better grades; but in...the complex of meanings and organizing principles which guide the counselee in his transagtions with- in the sector of academic study.2 Ego-counseling is designed to help individuals develop the coping aspects of the personality. It is designed to help the individual cope with the realities of the world through the building of the ego functions. To the extent that educational cognitive style and that of educational counseling style permits the counselor to analyze the counselee and bring about many of the outcomes realized by counselors who employ the Freudian psycho- analytic approach, the present study is considered to be related to literature associated with these efforts. To be sure, the psychoanalytic approach is recognized to be broader, and more profound than educational cognitive style and that of counseling style in the types and the nature of problems with which it can deal. Adler was the first major individual to break away from Freud and establish his own school of thought. "Individual Psychology” represents Adler's conception of man as a wholistic individual. He saw each individual as a consistent 24Ibid., pp. 479-80. 25112111.. p. 481. 26 and unified whole, which acted in total toward a chosen life goal: A goal that each individual chooses for himself and for which each individual develops his own characteristic ways of attempting to reach that goal.26 Adler believed that the way to understand an individual was to determine what his goal was and what life style the individual had developed to reach that goal. This idea or position is very different from Freud's belief that man's behavior was determined by innate drives largely out of his conscious control. The Adlerian position places much more emphasis on the importance of the individual and his interaction with his environment. Hansen, Stevie, and Warner Jr. support this theory when they state: Adler's emphasis was on neither the environ- ment nor heredity as determiners of behavior: rather, it was on the interaction of the environment, heredity, and the individual as the determiner of behavior.2 Adler like Fromm placed a great deal of emphasis on the importance of the social context of human behavior. Driekurs, a student of Adler's, emphasizes this thinking when he writes: In effect, all of man's behavior is, in reality, an interaction with other beings. For this reason, we can presume one basic 26H. L. Ansbacker and R. R. Ansbacker, The Individual Psycpology of Alfred Adler, (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 19 . p. 2 . 27Hansen, Stevie, and Warner Jr., op, cip.. p. 55. 27 desire in all human beings; the desire to belong, which Adler called "social interest.’28 The educational science of cognitive style relates to this theory through the use of cultural determinants and quali- tative codes in determining how persons derive meaning. The basic goal of counseling, as seen by Adlerians, is to help the individual change his concept of himself. This basic goal is broken down into three more specific goals. 1. help the individual reduce his negative evaluation of himself--his feelings of inferiority. 2. help him correct his perceptions of events, and at the same time help him to develop a new set of objectives to- ward which he can direct his behavior. 3. redevelop within the individual his inherent social interest with it; accompanying social interaction. 9 The importance of the social relationship is also emphasized by Adler in his recognition of the importance of the social relationship between the counselor and his client. The initial step in counseling, according to Adler, is to develop a good relationship with the client in which communication between the counselor and client can be free and accepted by the client. Recognizing that the counseling efforts effected by both the Freudian and the Adlerian groups pertain to the 28Rudolf Driekurs, "The Adlerian Approach to Therapy," in Contemporary Psychotherapies, ed. by M. I. Stein, (New York: The Free Press, 1961). 29Ansbacker and Ansbacker, op. cit., pp. 240-41. 28 total psychological life-space, and the psyche, of the individual, while the educational science of cognitive style and counseling style, respectively, are designed to deal only with the educational aspects of the individual's life- space, the present study effort is found to be related to these respective counseling ”syndromes” in these areas (e.g., school problems) where their domains of activity intersect. gppapistic (Client Centered) Theory: The major contributors to the Humanistic or sometimes called the ”Self” theory of man are Allport, Maslow, Murray, and Rogers. Their thinking has been influenced by the psychoanalytic and behavioristic models of counseling, however, they disagree with both models. The followers of the humanistic model view the behavioristic model with its emphasis on the stimulus situation as an oversimplification: they feel that it needs to be balanced by a consideration of the internal psychological make-up of the individual.30 At the same time, the humanists do not concur with the negative and pessimistic psychoanalysts. The humanists emphasise the essentially positive and rational prOpensities of man and view him as having some measure of freedom for self-direction. Kagan and Havermann describe the humanistic model as follows: 3OKagan and Havermann, 22.1.2412" p. 30. 29 The humanistic model has a positive approach or view of man, its utilization of the concept of self, its emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual, and its recognition of man's concern with values and self-actualization--has had an impor- tant and increasing influgnce upon our contemporary view of man. 1 The humanistic model relates to the present study through the emphasis placed on the uniqueness of the individual. The educational science of cognitive style recognizes the importance of the individual and his value by developing a profile for each individual based on his concept of his "self.” Foremost among the humanistic or self theorists is Carl Rogers. His model of personality has been stated in a series of propositions which are summarized by Strupp: 1. 2. 3. 5. Each individual exists in a private world of experience-othe phenomenal fieldo-of which he is the center. A portion of this total field becomes differentiated as the conscious self-- as the I, me, or myself-oand is the individual's most valued possession. The most basic striving of the indi- vidual is toward the maintenance, enhancement, and actualization of the self. The individual's perceptions and inter- pretations determine his behavior. He reacts to "reality" as it is perceived by him. The individual behaves in ways that are consistent with his concept of himself and tends to reject or distort incoming A 31m” p. 31. 30 information that is inconsistent with or threatening to the self. 6. Perceived threat to the self is followed by defense--including the narrowing and rigidification of perception and coping behavior. 7. Maladjustive behavior results where the individual feels too threatened to ac- knowledge his own experiences and to be himself. 8. The individual's tendencies are toward growth and wholeness, and when his experi- ences and alternatives are clarifiedé he choses the path of personal growth.3 Many counselors subscribe to this philosOphy. The counseling process as implemented by Rogers is described by him as the "client-centered" approach to counseling. The central concept of client-centered counseling is a belief in the importance of certain con- ditions in the process of counseling. If the conditions exist or are provided, then change will take place in the client. The conditions Rogers believes are both necessary and sufficient for counseling are: 1. An essential condition in the process of counseling is that two people be in con- tact. 2. It is essential that the client be in at least a minimum state of anxiety, vulnerability or incongruence. 3. The counselor must basically be an integrated or whole person, one whose conception of self allows him to be 32Hans H. Strupp, "An Objective Comparison of Rogerian and Psychoanalytic Techniques,9 Journal of Consultin Ps cholo , Vol. 19. (1969), p. 5. 31 aware of all his behaviors and to experience them in accurate awareness. The counselor must be a "genuine“ person. 4. The counselor must have an unconditioned and positive regard toward the client. The counselor must accept the individual for what he is regardless of his behaviors. 5. The counselor must experience empathic understanding of the client's internal frame of reference. Only the individual can fully understand fully his internal frame of reference however, the counselor must try to understand him as if he were the individual. 6. The client must perceive, at least to some degree, the counselor's unconditioned positive regard for him as well as the counselor's empathic understanding.33 Given these conditions, it is expected that the client will increasingly feel free to express himself and his feelings. Since the educational counselor, who might wish to employ Rogerian techniques, must employ a particular "style” of counseling, and must also employ certain profiles defined in educational cognitive style, the present study effort can be considered to be related to the Rogerian syndrome of studies. It should be noted that educational cognitive style and educational counseling style information does not provide a theory of counseling. The elements of these ”styles” can be used, however, to analyze how certain theories of counseling may be translated into effective operation in the arena of both private and public educational institutions. 33Buford Stefflre, Theories of Coupspllng, (New York: McGraw Hill, 1965), p. 49. 32 Behavioristic Theory: The behavioral approach to counseling and guidance makes the basic assumption that client problems are prob- lems in learning. According to Michael and Meyerson: ”Pathological” self defeating and dis- organized behavior as well as "healthy" behavior are seen as lawful phenomena whose laws can be discovered. In addition, there appears to be general agreement that the crucial behavior of human beings is learned. The critical questions in counseling and guidance, therefore, seem to relate to how behavior is learned and how it may be un- learned or altered.3 The literature related to the behavioral approach to coun- seling is related to the present study in that the educational counselor must be familiar with learning theory. Krumboltz, in his article, "Behavioral Goals for Counseling,” states, ”In effect, the counselor is a special kind of learning specialist."35 Behavioristic theory stems from the early work of John Watson. Watson concluded that if psychology were to become a science of behavior, it must limit itself to the study of events that could be observed objectively. Starting with this basic assumption, Watson changed the focus of psychology from inner psychic processes to outer behavior which is 3"Jack Michael and Lee Meyerson, "A Behavioral Approach to Counseling and Guidance,“ Harvard Educatiopal geview: A G dance-oAn Exam at o , Vol. , No. , 35John D. Krumboltz, ”Behavioral Goals for Counseling,” ur a ou se i s o o , Vol. 13. No. 2, (1969). p. 15 . 33 objectively observable.36 Hosford pursues this idea further when he writes: Environment manipulation is the ”key" to altering behavior. The behavioral coun- selor is interested not only in the varia- bles that control behavior, but, more appropriately, in determining how these variables might be utilized to promotg the client's desired behavior change. 7 This idea is related to the present study in that the think- ing is mutual in relation to promoting behavior, however, the approaches may be different. The educational scientists claim that a person's cognitive style changes throughout his life time and can be augmented. As an example, the type of augmentation which is done to the reading skills by re- medial reading exercises is well known and need not be documented here. Michael and Meyerson submit that: The entire field of guidance, counseling, and psychotherapy might benefit considerably if all workers considered seriously just one behavioral principle and its corollary, namely, that behavior is controlled by its environmental consequences and that an effective procedure for producing behavioral change is the manipulation of the environment so as to create consequences that will pro- duce the desired behavior. One advantage of this kind of formulation is that it is explicit, teschable, and test- able. Another advantage is that it tells the counselor what has to be done and allows 36Kagan and Havermann.pp, clt.. p. 28. 37Hosford, pp, clp., p. 395. 34 him to monitor progress within an objective rather than an intuitive framework.3 The present study through the use of educational cognitive style and counseling style provides a procedure for assess- ing objectively the manner in which the counselee derives meaning from his environment. The counseling goals of the behaviorist are not very different from those of the self-theorists or the psycho- analytic theorists. Rotter has stated his goals of counsel- ing as, ...helping the patient to lead a more constructive life, to contribute to society, to maximize his potential for achievement, to maximize his feelings of affection or contribution to others.39 These are broad goals and although in the broader sense they would be acceptable, most behaviorists would insist that the goals be stated in more specific terms. From this frame of reference it is necessary that both the client and the counselor decide on the goals of counseling. Both must agree that this is a goal they want to achieve. Behavioral theorists view the counseling process as a learning situation. The role of the counselor is one of facilitating the learning process and once the problem has been identified, applies the laws of learning. This idea does not necessarily imply that the counselor has at his 38Michael and Meyerson, op, pit., p. 396. 39Hansen, Stevic, and Warner Jr., pp, glt., p. 114. 35 command a learning theory that will apply to every problem or situation. It should be understood that prior to the clarification of the problem the counselor must be made to feel at ease and that the counselor is empathic and holds the counselee in high regard. When this type of relationship has been attained, the counselee will feel free to communicate with the counselor and a clear under- standing of the problem will develop. At this point in the counseling process, the counselee's concerns can be defined in more specific terms. As an example, ...it is not enough for the counselee to recognize his problem as having a poor self concept, the behavioral counselor attempts to have the counselee define the concern in specific terms such as ”I am unable to relaga to individuals of the opposite sex." In behavioral counseling the counselor becomes involved in the counseling process. The counselor helps the counselee define the specific concern that has provided a need for a counseling situation and the counselor assumes responsibility for the course of action to be taken in the counseling situation. As Krumboltz states, ...once the counselor has agreed to work with the counselee, the responsibility for the outcome of counseling is largely his. It is the counselor's responsibility to launch his counselee on a course of action that will eventually help that counselee reach a resolution of his difficulty. In order to accomplish this end, the counselor must control the counseling process. This ‘Olhld.. p. 117. 36 is not an arbitrary manipulative control that goes against the client's wishes, rather it is a control specifically de- signed to meet the goals of the client.“' This approach is sometimes frowned upon by counselors as being too directive. Since the present study is concerned with the effect of matching cognitive styles, counseling style and ”preferred” counseling styles of counselors and counselees (students), on attaining the objectives of the counseling session, the literature of the behavioral theorists regarding counseling can be considered to be related to the endeavor. Behavioral counseling or learning theory counseling follows one of two models or an overlapping of the two: 1) the Classical Model and 2) the Operant Model. Both Patterson42 and Hansen, Stevie, and Warner Jr.43 indicate that psychotherapy consists of the application of three methods namely, assertive responses, sexual responses, and relaxation responses which are associated with the Classical Model. The implication in the Classical Model is that the need for counseling is brought on by anxiety caused by stimuli that are objectively harmless. The role of the counselor is to break down the learned response to the “'Krumbolts, op, clt., p. 156. 420. H. Patterson, Theo i s o Counse in a d Ps cho- ppgpgpy, (New York, Evanston, Eondon: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1966), p. 161. “BHIDIOD, StQVIO. and Harner Jre. 02. Elt.’ p. 1180 37 stimuli so that a more appropriate response can occur.44 Assertive responses are used by getting the client to be more assertive in his responses in the counseling situation and then instructing him to be more assertive in his relations outside the counseling situation. When a client has anxiety connected with sexual situations, the counselor instructs the client to participate in sexual activities only when there is no anxiety accom- panying the situation. The critical issue is to motivate the client to follow the instructions of the counselor. Techniques used in relaxation responses were developed by Jacobson. His techniques train the client to relax and he tells the client that relaxation directly opposes anxiety.‘5 This summary of the methods or techniques used in the Classical Model are simplified because they are more appropriate for use in psychotherapy than in educational counseling. They are considered to be related to the present study effort in that the counseling sessions in each domain, that is, life-problem counseling and education, seek to attain established objectives. For a more detailed account of these techniques, the reader is referred to Patterson's book, gheorles of Counseling and Psychothepapy, “1m” p. 119. ‘5Patterson, op, olt., p. 162. 38 or Hansen, Stevic, and Warner Jr. who refer the reader to the writings of Joseph Wolpe, Andrew Salter, and Albert Bandura.46 The Operant Model or operant conditioning involves the modifying of behavior through the use of reinforcement. The reinforcement may be positive or negative, verbal or nonverbal with the goal of the counselor being one of encouraging the client to change his behavior in the right direction. Hosford has outlined four considerations in the use' of operant conditioning in counseling. 1. The counselor must be sure that the reinforcement he is using is strong enough to motivate the counselee to perform the desired behavior. 2. The counselor must use the rein- forcement in a systematic manner. 3. There must be a contingency between the demonstration of the desired re- sponse and the application of the reward. 4. The desired response must 2? first elicited by the counselor. Operant conditioning involves the guiding of the clients behavior toward the desired behavior. The reinforcement must be strong enough to motivate the client and be applied consistently in close proximity to the desired response. To the extent that the vehicles of educational cognitive style and counseling style can be used to yield data that might “5Hansen, Stevie, and Warner Jr., op, cl§., p. 122. ‘7Hosford, op, plp.. p. 396-97. 39 help the counselor determine what information might be used as reinforcements for the counselee, the literature of operant conditioning counseling can be considered to have relevance for the present study effort. Existeptlsl gounsellng: Especially influential in existential thought in the United States has been the work of Rollo May. Existential- ists are concerned about the social predicament of modern man. They emphasize the breakdown of traditional faith, the depersonalization of man in a standardized mass culture, and the loss of meaning in human existence. In such a situation it becomes the task of the individual to stand on his own identity, and to make his existence meaningful, to make his life count for something, not on the basis of philosophical or scientific abstractions but through his own experiences.48 A basic theme in existentialism, according to Kagan and Havermann is that, ...the individual's existence is given, but that what he makes of it--his essance--ie up to him. It is his responsibility to shape the kind of person he is to become and to live a meaningful life. ”Being” is seen as a commitment to increased self- awareness. In this sense man has to be concerned with values and evaluation, and must accept responsibility for making choices and directing his own destiny. ‘3ngan and Havermann, op, pit.. p. 32. 49m” p. 33. 40 The aim of existential counseling, as stated by Van Kaam, ...is to make the client feel at home in his real world by reshaping his phenomenal world, to make his real situation bearable by making it bearable phenomenologically. The counselee reconditions his behavior in his real world by reconditioning his behavior in his phenomenal universe.50 The role of the counselor is to translate these objectives into meaningful attitudes for the counselee to bring about his self-awareness. Since educational cognitive style and educational counseling style provide the counselor with a means of analyzing the counseling situation, self, and the counselee, and to translate this information into attitudes held by the counselee to emphasize self-awareness, the present study effort can be considered to be related to existential counseling. Counspling Technigues: Counseling techniques vary as do counseling theories. The most common techniques are classified as directive, non-directive, and eclectic. While each technique has its differences, a similar element is apparently common to each--that element being a form of communication. Margaret Smith in her work, Guidance--Pers nnel Work: Future T nse, lists ability to communicate as one of the three essential 5°Adrian Van Kaam, "Counseling From the Viewpoint of Existential Psychology," Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 32, NO. 4, (Fall, 19 2 , p. 03. 41 aspects of counselor preparation.51 Wrenn adds another dimension to the concept of communication in his emphasis on the effectiveness of "body language." A counselor, he says, ...can reinforce his words by leaning forward, by facial expressions, and by directions and intensity of gaze to such a degree that his body movements become a powerful technique almost frightening in its effectiveness.52 In counseling theory “empathy” is basic to all theories, while in the various counseling techniques communication is a basic concept. Directlve Approach: It is difficult to assign specific counseling theories to distinct approaches as there is overlapping of belief's shared by the various theorists. Generally speaking, the directive approach is associated with clinical counseling and behavioralistic (learning theory) counseling. In clinical counseling the counselor assumes most of the re- sponsibility in the counseling situation and stresses the past, the history of the problem and direction or decision making responsibility, while the behavioralist or learning theory counselor believes essentially in manipulating the environment to bring about changes in behavior. S‘Margaret Ruth Smith, Guidance--Personnel Work‘ Future Tense, (New York, N. Y.: Teachers College Press, 1966). p. 21. 520. Gilbert Wrenn, ”The Counselor in a Changing World," Amer a e sonn l and Guidance Journal, (April, 1962), p. 58. 42 E. G. Williamson has been an important figure in conceptualization of student personnel principles, includ- ing counseling theory and has recommended six steps in clinical counseling. 1. Analysis - collecting data from many sources about attitudes, interests, family background, knowledge, educa- tional progress, aptitudes, etc., by means of both subjective and objective techniques. 2. Synthesis - collating and summarizing the data by means of case study tech- niques and test profiles to “high light" the students uniqueness or individuality. 3. Diagnosis - describing the outstanding characteristics and problems of the stu- dent, comparing the individual's profile with educational and occupational ability profiles, and ferreting out the causes of the problems. 4. Prognosis - judging the probably conse- quences of problems, the probabilities for adjustments, and thereby indicating the alternative actions and adjustments for the students consideration. 5. Counseling - or treatment - cooperatively advising with the student concerning what to do to effect a desired adjustment now or in the future. 6. Follow-up - repeating the above steps as new problems arise and further assisting the student to carry out a desirable pro- gram of action.53 The clinical counselor emphasizes the here and now as does the client-centered counselor, however, the clinical counselor reviews the past to determine what steps he can take that 533. G. Williamson, "The Clinical Method of Guidance," Revlew pf Edupatipnal Researph, Vol. 9. 1939. p- 215. 43 will help the client better understand himself. The directivist may believe that the client knows the behavior that he wishes to engage in, but is unaware of how to accomplish the behavior. In such cases it may be appro- priate for the counselor to instruct him as to what to do. W -D ect v A roach: The non-directive approach to counseling is usually associated with client—centered theory of which Rogers is a major contributor. A basic difference in the non-directivist approach and the directivist approach is that the non- directivist does not assume responsibility for decision- making in the counseling situation, while the directivist, as was pointed out earlier, assumes most of the responsibility for decision-making. McDaniel states, A basic dimension upon which Rogerian theory seems to differ from the generally “directive” points of view is that of the relative responsibility of the counselor and counselee for making decisions during the course of counseling. Rogers and the non-directivists take the position that the client has the basic responsibility for making all decisions and that the counselor must strive to maintain his role 3' a catalyst and non-decision maker.5 The non-directivist places great importance on this relation- ship between counselor and counselee. The importance of the relationship between counselor and counselee is further demonstrated by the non-directivist's use or lack of use 5‘3. B. McDaniel, John E. Dallas, James A. Saum, and James L. Gilmore, Read s n Gu den s (New York, U. 2.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 19E3 , pp. 175-76. 44 of the case history and diagnosis in the counseling situa- tion. McDaniel refers to this as follows: The client-centered counselor does not con- sider the diagnosis and case history par- ticularly useful in enabling him to assist the counselee further, and he certainly does not accept the position that there must be a diagnosis from which he can direct the course of the interviews. Rogers felt that the case study contributes to the mental set of the client by conveying to him the implication that in return for the extensive submiting of material. the counselor will use it to effect a solution to the client's problem. This handicaps the client-centered counselor because the client may be unwilling to take any lead, and when the counselor tries to indicate his role, the client may feel the counselor is deliberately with- holding answers.55 Rogers designates the following as characteristic steps in the therapeutic process. I 1. The individual comes for help. 2. The helping situation is usually defined. 3. The counselor encourages free expression of feelings in regard to the problem. 4. The counselor accepts, recognizes, and clarifies these negative feelings. 5. When the individual's negative feelings have been quite fully expressed, they are followed by the faint and tenative expressions of the positive impulses which make for growth. 6. The counselor accepts and recognises the positive feelings which are expressed, in the same manner in which he has accepted and recognised the negative feelings. 55Ibld., p. 176. 4S 7. This insight, this understanding of the self and acceptance of the self, is the next important aspect of the whole process. 8. Intermingled with the process of insight is a process of clarification of possible decisions, possible courses of action. 9. The initiation of minute, but highly significant, positive actions. 10. DevelOpment of further insight. 11. Increasingly integrated positive action on the part of the client. 12. Decreasing need for help, and recognition on the part of the glient that the rela- tionship must end.5 This approach has sometimes been classified as lacking structure and causing inactivity in the counseling inter- view and has been partly responsible for dissatisfaction on the part of the counselee.57 Eclectic Approach (situational): The eclectic approach cannot be considered as a single approach but an approach that may use the unstructured pro- cedures of the non-directive counselor or at other times the structured procedures of the directive counselor. The eclectic counselor should not use this approach as an escape or an excuse for using procedures advocated in other theories. The eclectic counselor must be competent in all approaches as is indicated by Brammer when he states, 550ar1 R. Rogers, Cgunseling and Psychotherapy, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1942), p. 115. 57!. Heller, J. D. Davis, and R. A. Meyers, "The Effect of Interviewer Style in a Standardized Interview,” Journal of gcnsulting {sycholcg1, Vol. 30. (December, 1966), p. 503. 46 The emerging eclectic is a skilled observer in the scientific behaviorial tradition: he knows the history of coun- seling theory and contemporary views: he is aware of his unique style and counseling setting. From there he forges his own com- prehensive evolving view of behavior change.5 Many counselors consider themselves eclectic because of the freedom they feel it provides in the counseling situation. Brammer rejects this thinking and responds by stating, A counselor's task is to know his own personality thoroughly. The counselor must be aware of his values, need distorted per- ceptions, and potentials and limitations with particular kinds of clients. In other words, he must know his unique style of inter- action with people. His counseling reflects his stygg as much as his stated theory and method. In summary it is evident that the eclectic approach re- quires a high degree of expertise in determining the appro- priate procedures to pursue in the counseling situation. According to Patterson, F. C. Thorne has done more to determine and develop an eclectic approach to counseling than any other single individual.50 In his writings Thorne outlines a basic method of the eclectic approach to counseling. 1. Adequate diagnostic studies, which involves complete case history, 53Lawrence H. Brammer, ”Eclecticism Revisited,” The Pegsonpe; apd Guidapge Journal, Vol. #8, No. 3. (November, ‘9 9 9 p. 21 e 591bid., p. 218. 60Patterson, pp, pit., p. 61. 47 clinical examinations, psychometric and projective studies, and laboratory procedures, such as electroencephalo- graphy. 2. Preparation of a descriptive formulation of the psychodynamics of each case, including etiology, clinical status, personality resources, and prognosis. 3. Outline of an individual plan of therapy with client-centered orientation that is specifically related to the needs of the individual case. A. Genuine eclecticism is therapeutically utilizing all the technical resources, either directive or nondirective, which are available at the time and place. 5. Utilization of the principles of experi- mental science wherever applicable at all levels of case handling, and especially gn etiological studies and psychodiagnosis. 1 It should be noted that Thorne being an M.D. integrates the basic medical sciences into his system or approach to counseling. Since the elements included in the set called "demeanor" in the Cartesian product of the three sets that defines educational counseling style are those of Directive, Non- directive, and Situational (Eclectic), the relationship between the literature pertaining to counseling techniques and the study effort is obvious. Counselor Effectiveness According to many writers the most important aspect of the counseling situation is the relationship between 5‘P. O. Thorne, Directive and Eclectic Personalitp ounse i Six A roaches to Rs cho hera , New York: Henry Holt, 1955), p. 244. 48 the counselor and the counselee. Earlier in this chapter the necessary conditions for therapeutic personality change as stated by Rogers were discussed. Briefly restated these conditions are, two people must be in psychological contact, the counselor must have positive regard for the client, the counselor must be empathic, the counselor and counselee must be congruent in their relationship. Rogers refers to these as facilitative conditions in the relation- ship. Although these conditions have been stated by Rogers and are associated with client-centered therapy, most theories of counseling include similar conditions. A study by Pohlman and Robinson substantiates this thinking. In their study of student likes and dislikes in the counseling situation, the students reported as displeasing those behav- iors which would indicate a lack of respect, counselor aloofness, insincerity, hurriedness, interrupting, and lack of warmth. Additionally, students indicated they did not like a counselor who did most of the talking, however, stu- dents were more displeased with counselors who did little talking.52 Communication, verbal and nonverbal, in addition to the relationship between counselor and counselee, is another important aspect of counselor effectiveness. 62Edward Pohlman and Francis P. Robinson, "Client Reaction to Some Aspects of the Counseling Situation," The 1 Pepsonne; and Guidance Journal, Vol. 38. 960), pp. 546:"' 1. 49 Robinson53 and Williamson54 have made major contributions to the field of verbal communication. Robinson has been con- cerned with examining the communication that goes on dur- ing the interview. These studies have included listening, giving of information, interpreting, and degrees of lead- ing and their relationship to the counselor's attitude of acceptance, division of responsibility, and the counselor's response to the problem as stated by the client.55 Williamson reviews the modes of communication from the standpoint that the counselor's behavior will indicate his belief system and his values will determine his behavior toward the counselee, thus communicating his acceptance of the counselee. Williamson also discusses the use of spoken language as the form of communication used in the factual assessment of client problems and the manner in which the counselor strives to get the counselee to organize verbally his thoughts about himself.55 Verbal communication is the most used and effective means of communication between counselor and counselee, however, nonverbal communication can be effective. 631"rancis P. Robinson, ”The Dynamics of Communication in Counseling," fiouppal of goupselipg Psycholpgy, Vol. 2, (1955)e pp. ‘63’ 9- ‘ 54E. G. Williamson, ”The Meaning of Communication in Counseling,” The lepspppel and Guldance lournal, Vol. 38, (1959). Pp. 6-1 . 65Robinson, pp, cl§., p. 165. 65Williamson, ppp_pl1.. p. 11. . 50 Nonverbal communication usually takes the form of level of speech, facial expressions, or kinesics. Smith describes six qualifiers as expressive levels of speech. The six qualifiers are: 1. 2. 3. 5. Intensity or the increasing of loudness or softness. Increasing loudness is usually used to disply alarm or annoy- ance, while increasing softness might display displeasure or disappointment. Pitch range overall or the raising or lowering of pitch. Raising of pitch is usually used in context of annoyance or alarm, while lowering of pitch might be used for various kinds of emphasis, :including incredulity. Spread register and squeesed register. Respectively, these are the ”stretching" and compressing of the usual interval between the pitch phonemes in the utter- ance. Rasp and openness. These have to do physiologically with the amount of muscular tension under which the laryngeal apparatus is held. The more tension, the more the strained or rasping effect. With openness or looseness, a sort of hollow, booming, authoriative impression results. Drawl and clipping. These have to do with the tempo of the individual syllables. Increased tempo and decreased tempo. In contrast to drawl and clipping, these are used to describe longer utterances. In many contexts, increased tempo signals annoyance or anxiety, whil decreased tempo signals uncertainty. Smith refers to these elements as the skilled listener's "third ear." ; 67A. Smith, Communicatlon and Culture, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 9 , pp. 2 - . 51 In the counseling situation facial expressions fre- quently determine the direction the interview is taking. It is important that the counselor be able to detect facial changes to lead the interview in the apprOpriate direction. Although facial expressions are the primary source for identifying emotional responses, the body, limbs, and hands play an important role in communication. Kinesics may be described as the way people communicate through body movements and gestures.68 Studies by Delany and Reimann,59 Cullen,7O Pretz,71 and Scheflen72 show that identification of emotions through kinesics is learned and counselors need a period of training to become sensi- tive to the utilisation of nonverbal cues. Since the third set of information included in the Cartesian product of the three sets that define educational counseling style deals with the Symbolic Mode of communication 5afiansen, Stevie, and Warner Jr., 22‘_£L109 P- 25‘- 69D. J. Delaney and R. A. Reimann, ”Effectiveness of Sensitivity Training on the Perception of Nonverbal Communications,” Jo a f Counse n s o , Vol. 13. (1972), pp. A36‘h0e 7°Lola r. Cullen, ”Nonverbal Communication in Counsel- ing: An Exploratory Study,” Disseptation Apspracts, Vol. 27, 20h?. 7‘3. Frets, "Postural Movements in a Counseling Dyed," Journa of Counsel Ps cho o , Vol. 13. (1970). PP. 367- 1. 721. Scheflen, "The Significance in Posture in Communication Systems,” Psychlatpy, Vol. 27, (1971), p. 316. 52 employed by the counselor, the relationship between the literature pertaining to such topics as nonverbal communi- cation, and other related meters, and the present study is obvious. Educational Sciences of Cognitive Stylg and Counseling Style, respectively Educational cognitive style is one of the seven "edu- cational sciences" which has been formulated and deve10ped in the past decade by scholars affiliated with the Institute for Educational Sciences at Wayne State University and now associated with the American Educational Sciences Association. Joseph E. Hill has been the foremost prOponent of the construct of cognitive style. According to Hill: The construct of cognitive style is a vehicle which can be used to diagnose indi- viduals and prescribe activities that pro- vide the high probability of the student's accomplishing successfully the educational task confronting him.73 This concept has meaning for the educational counselor in that it provides a vehicle for implementing a plan of attack on educational problems by using the cognitive style of the individual student. Hill carries this concept further when he writes, It should be noted that the cognitive style of an individual is a relative concept, and depends not only upon the educational level and cultural background of the individual, 73Joseph E. Hill, The Educational7Sciences, (Bloomfield Hills, Michigan: Oakland Community College Press, 1972), p. 15. 53 but upon the symbolic condition of the task to be accomplished. In this context, the derivation of an appropriate style for an individual demands that the diagnostician tfi‘ififi".Efiiai‘i‘éfifittiik"itlb23.32§1§2323?93° Given this tool, the educational counselor can analyze, interpret, and evaluate student educational endeavors in a manner relatively different from those usually employed. (For a more detailed description of the concept of cognitive style see Chapter I and Appendix A.) The concept of cognitive style employed as an edu- cational science is somewhat different from those described and defined in the discipline of psychology, therefore, a brief discussion of these concepts is appropriate for the present study. The following review is taken primarily from a manuscript, "Cognitive Style as an Educational Science" by Joseph E. Hill, and is used here with permission from the author. During the last half of the 1930's, some psychologists were interested in the study of the consistency and pre- dictability of personality. In the early 1940's Allport suggested the concept of ”style," which essentially he defined as the consistency and pattern of expressive be- haviors that individuals manifest in performing various types of activities. In the context of Allport's de- scriptive definition of style, the term is highly similar to its common use in such expressions as: an individual's 7Albid., p. 15. 54 way (style) of living, a style of speaking, a writing style, or style of dress. This orientation permits the use of the term ”style" to denote an entire pattern of responses, i.e., it can refer to not only a particular way of life, but to a particular class of events (e.g., style of speaking). In this sense, the term "style" is both general and relatively specific, i.e., it is not restricted to a particular denotation (e.g., all aspects of response patterns). In considering investigations of cognitive behaviors, the traditional approaches in these endeavors have dealt mainly with concept formation. These studies have tended to be limited to such considerations as: what are concepts? how are they attained? or, how are they learned? These studies, however, have not examined cognitive functions in the context of personality. During the past ten to twenty years, the concept of cognitive style has been investigated in the context of cognition as a facet of personality. Witkins has advanced the idea that the phenomenon described as cognitive style is a type of personality construct expressed in the inter- action between perceptual (cognitive) reSponse systems and antecedent conditions in the life history of the subject (person). Here the investigator is interested in such phenomena as the quality of mother-child relationships as antecedents to certain types of cognitive styles. 55 Contemporary studies of cognitive style have been designed to consider the phenomenon as an individual's particular mode of response to a given set of stimuli (variable). Other modern efforts have sought antecedents, or correlates, between cognitive style and 1) such person- ality variables as: dependence, anxiety, and passivity: 2) such cognitive variables as: intelligence, problem- solving, and reasoning: and_3) such psychological processes as: learning and perception.75 After the review of these studies of cognitive style in psychology Hill concludes: In essence, then, the contemporary studies of cognitive style involve the investiga- tion of cognitive processes in the context of personality and defined social variables. These approaches indicate the reco nition on the part of certain psychologists e.g., Broverman, Gardner, Kagan, Moss, Sigel, Witkin) that cognitive behaviors form a fun- damental part of a socio-personal matrix, and that the employment of certain classes of behavior called “cognitive” have consistent qualities whipg Justify their being defined as stylistic. ‘ Based on these concepts Hill has determined that each in- dividual has a style or cognitive process through which he derives meaning. Hill calls this ”way of coming to know," cognitive style. The concept of 2122.211212]. We 2.1m add! another dimension to the body of information pertaining to 75Joseph E. Hill, ”Cognitive Style as an Educational Science,” (unpublished manuscript, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, 1968), pp. 1~2. 76Ih11-o P- 2- 56 the educative process. In addition to the cognitive style of the individuals involved in the counseling situation is the manner in which they view counseling. The review of literature pertaining to various theories of counseling indicates certain elements are included in most theories: these include 1) the manner in which the interview is conducted (demeanor), 2) the clinical emphasis placed on persons, processes, and/or properties (emphasis), and 3) the symbolic mode of communication (symbolic mode) usually employed by the counselor. Counseling style as an educational science is outlined in Chapter I and should not need a further review in this Chapter. The educational sciences have provided a vehicle for a number of studies in education. James Gural77 conducted a study in which he analyzed the effects of selected ele- ments of cognitive style and the occupational choice of individuals. Marion Rice78 studied cognitive style for selected elements that would indicate ideal and non-ideal students for various occupational curricula. Mark Greyson79 compared the Cognitive Style Test with the Differential 77Gural, pp, pl . 78Marion Rice, "An Exploration of Educational Cognitive Styles as a Vehicle for Determining Potential Success of Community College Students within Selected Occupational Curricula," (unpublished doctoral dissertation Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1973). 79Mark E. Greyson, ”A Comparison of Counseling Using the Cognitive Style Map of the Educational Sciences and the Traditional Approach in the Educational Setting,” (unpub- lished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1971). 57 Aptitude Tests and The Sequential Tests of Educational Progress and The School and College Ability Tests for the purpose of determining student's preference for receiving information on self through the standardized tests currently used or through the use of cognitive style maps. Gural and Rice found certain elements of cognitive style applied to specific vocational choice and curricula, respectively. Greyson's study found no significant difference in pref- erence for the use of cognitive style tests as opposed to other more traditional tests. Joseph DeLoach80 investigated the possible effect that cognitive, administrative, and teaching styles of administrators might have on their evaluation of faculty members' abilities in the area of instruction. His find- ings indicate that the similarity of administrator and instructor cognitive style does act as a significant variable in the process of evaluating a faculty member‘s instructional ability. DeLoach also found that teaching style similarity is a significant variable in the adminis- trator's evaluation of instruction. A; 8°Joseph r. DeLoach, "An Analysis of Cognitive Style Disparity as an Antecedent of Cognitive Dissonance in Instructional Evaluation: An Exploratory Study in the Educational Sciences," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, 1969). 58 Arlen Schroedera‘ investigated whether students who have cognitive styles similar to the cognitive styles of their teachers will rate the teacher higher in ”effective- ness“ as opposed to those students whose cognitive styles are dissimilar to the cognitive styles of their teachers. His findings indicate that 1) students having cognitive styles similar to the cognitive styles of their teachers do, to a significant degree, evaluate the teachers as being more effective than do students whose cognitive styles are dissimilar to the cognitive styles of their teachers and 2) that students whose cognitive styles is similar to the cognitive styles of their teachers do, to a significant degree, receive higher grades from these teachers than do students whose cognitive styles are dissimilar to the cognitive styles of their teachers. The studies reviewed above are related to the present study in that each has used the application of cognitive style in the educational process. Additionally, each study reviewed has implications for counseling in the educational setting. Summapp In this chapter a review of the literature considered to be pertinent to the present study was presented. A 8‘Arlen V. Schroeder, "Study of the Relationships Between Student and Teacher Co itive Styles and Student Derived Teacher Evaluations," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, 1969) 59 review of the literature related to counseling theory and styles or techniques and counselor effectiVeness is con- sidered appropriate in that it provides a basis for the educational science of counseling style. Based on the review of literature related to counsel- ing theory it is evident that sufficient theory relative to educational counseling exists. What is lacking, however, is a means for translating theory into specific terms for the practicing educational counselor. In this context, the purpose of the present study is not to evaluate the various counseling theories, but to provide a foundation for a vehicle to implement the theory or theories to which the practicing counselor may subscribe. The related literature in counselor effectiveness is appropriate to the current study to provide background for determining the elements considered basic to the coun- seling situation. It should be noted that, for purposes of the present study, the elements considered basic to effective counseling were not evaluated as to degree of importance to the counseling situation (e.g., directive, non-directive, eclectic: clinical emphasis on the elements of persons, processes, or properties: symbolic mode of communication) but to show these elements to some degree are considered important to any counseling style. Selected studies from the literature related to the educational science of cognitive style help to provide a 60 background for the present study. These studies, the effect of cognitive style elements in relation to academic success in selected curricula, and elements of cognitive style and their relation to vocational choice, have definite implications for counseling. The matching of cognitive style of students with the cognitive style of teachers in relation to academic success suggests the need for a study or studies matching cognitive style of students with the cognitive style of counselors. The present study is unique in that it matches cognitive style of students with cognitive style of counselors and preferred counseling style of stu- dents with ccunseling style of counselors. In the next chapter the design of the study is presented. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF STUDY lpppopucplon In the preceding two chapters, the background of the study and the review of literature in related fields were presented. This chapter will detail the source of data, the manner in which the sample group for the study was selected, how the data were collected in terms of the instrumentalities used, and the procedures followed. The study was designed to answer certain general questions, but not to test hypotheses. Being exploratory in nature, it was designed to generate new questions, and perhaps hypotheses, pertaining to other aspects of edu- cational counseling situations. a a ' e: The potential source of data for the present study could be all students enrolled at Oakland Community College and all Educational Counselors employed at that Institution during the academic year 1972-73. Due to limitations re- garding time, observational settings, personnel and financial resources, the ppplppp pppplpplpp,of the study 61 62 became those students and the Educational Counselors* assigned to the Southeast Campus System, Oakland Community College, during the 1972-73 academic year. Oakland Community College is a multi-campus configu- ration composed of four campuses, listed alphabetically: a) Auburn Hills, located in Auburn Heights, Michigan, with an enrollment of 4,827 students: b) Highland Lakes, situ- ated on Cooley Lake Road near Union Lake, Michigan, with an enrollment of 2,416: c) Orchard Ridge, located near Parmington, Michigan, with a student enrollment of 5.960, and d) the Southeast Campus System with, at present, two satellite campuses, one of which is located in Oak Park, and the other in Royal Oak, Michigan, respectively, with a collective student enrollment of 2,197.** In addition to offering on-campus opportunities, each campus, and the campus system, offers evening programs through extension *Educational Counselor as defined in the Faculty Master Agreement, 1973-75. p. 8: A faculty member who has an edu- cational counseling contract shall be assigned a student load by the Counseling Department. All campus students except those covered by special contract such as Apprentice Technical and externally funded projects, i.e., CHECO, shall be assigned to an Educational Counselor. However, a stu- dent shall not be required to be counseled unless his academic standing is in Jeopardy according to the Educational PrOgress scale. Extension students shall not be counted in the Edu- cational Counselors' on-campus load. Under these circum- stances the maximum number of students assigned to an Educational Counselor shall be hho per session. The 440 figure shall be reduced by the number of students in each section devoted to group instruction. In the event a full counselor load is not filled on campus he will be assigned off-campus students to fill his load. 1”Enrollment figures were provided by the Office of Admissions. 63 centers located in each operation's sphere of influence throughout the College district. Purpose: The purpose of the College is stated in the current College catalog as follows: Oakland Community College is a public, two-year institution of higher learning which provides academic, technical-vocational and continuing education opportunities for both youth and adults. The instructional program is designed to prepare students to enter the upper division of senior colleges or univer- sities or to enter a career fielg immediately upon completion of his training. 2 ijeppivps: The Major objective is as follows: Oakland Community College's major ob- jective is to provide a quality program of comprehensive services to meet the diverse higher educational needs of its community. Its cpen door admissions policy dictates investigation of innovative instructional approaches and effective utilization of instructional technology to guarantee that admission means a real opportunity to acquire higher education. To facilitate each stu- dent's achievement of his educational and career objectives, OCC supports the develop- ment of a Personalized Education Program . which employee a variety of media and methods appropriate for Bach student's individual cognitive style. 3 To meet the wide spectrum of higher education needs of its community, Oakland Community College offers six major types of education services: 32 a a d Co u e a a o 1 - A, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan: sakgand gommunity College, 1973. Do 3- 33mm. m 3 64 Transfer Pro rams: Two-year transfer programs for students who wish to complete freshmen and sophomore courses at home before transferring to a senior college to finish baccalaureate degree requirements. Techplcal and Vocational Programs: Technical and paraprofess onal programs to prepare stu- dents for immediate entry to careers requiring two years or less of formal preparation. Develppmental Programs: Developmental Pro- grams designed to afford students with poor academic preparation an opportunity to remedy their deficiencies and continue their edu- cat on. General Educatlon: General education experi- ences to facilitate the development of a broadly educated person. Community Services: An extensive program of community services designed to meet the com- munity needs by extending the campus through- out the entire ccllege district thereby achieving a closer inter-relationship and promoting the most effective utilization of resources of the college by the community. gppppeling apd Qpldance: Counseling and gu ance sgiv ces undergirding all the other functions. In contrast to more conventional institutions, Oakland Community College is constantly searching for approaches to learning which will meet the requirements of the individual student through the educational services outlined above. Him: The Oakland Community College District was established by the electorate of Oakland County, Michigan, on June 8, B‘Josepn 3. Hill, Apppal fieppgp 1219-11, Oakland Community College, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, 1971, p. 6. 65 1964. The district served includes approximately 900 square miles and has an assessed valuation of 5.2 billion dollars. Oakland County contains twenty-eight public school districts with thirty-nine public high schools. In addition, there are twenty-two non-public schools in the district. The College initially opened in September, 1965, with a record community college initial enrollment of 3,860 students on two campuses - Highland Lakes in Union Lake, and Auburn Hills in Auburn Heights. In September, 1967, the Orchard Ridge Campus in Farmington accepted its first students. In 1971, a Southeast Campus Center, located in Oak Park, and in the Fall Session, 1973. a Center in Royal Oak, were implemented to form the Southeast Campus System through which the College seeks to provide comprehensive higher education and career services to the most densely populated section of its District. During the Fall Session, 1973, the College's four campus operations and their extension centers enrolled approximately 16,000 students. lpsppppploppl lpproaphes: Classes at Oakland Community College are organized according to a variety of patterns. The instructional models are treated as systems with clearly stated perform- ance goals. The current College catalog includes the 66 following description of the instructional approaches being implemented: Oakland Community College has developed an individualised approach to learning based on the premise that a student of normal abil- ity will not fail if the content of the course is presented in a fashion appropriate for his cognitive style. Currently, about thirty per- cent of the courses are designed to provide this personalised type of instruction. The keystone of this approach is a diagnostic testing program that measures a student's abil- ity to acquire meaning through qualitative strengths as well as the more traditional theoretical methods. The scores achieved on written diagnostic tests and on demonstrable performances, along with supportive data from personal interviews, are translated into ele- ments of the student's cognitive map. The student's map becomes the basis for identify- ing the educational sequences, teaching media, and instructional techniques which ggll assist him in mastery of essential skills. Although each student remains responsible for the content of his course, he may ”burst” into any of several instructional modes appropriate to his needs, abilities, and cognitive style. The environments for the "burst“ activities are the Carrel Arcades, the Learning Resources Center (LRC), and the Individualized Programmed Learning Laboratory (IPLL). Special Zapllipies: The facilities described in this section are an inte- gral part of the Personalized Education Program (PEP) as it is being implemented at Oakland Community College. In those classes where the ”burst" system is being employed, ascatalos. 22i_2li.: p. 5. 67 the settings in which students work are selected by the student, his counselor, and the instructor on the basis of the student's needs and cognitive style. Together they develop an educational prescription. One of the facilities considered to be essential to the program of personalized education is the Learning Resources Center, described in the College's literature as: Leppping Resources Center (LRQ) . The LRC contains learning resource materials, films, slides, audio tapes, records, video tapes, cassette units, and graphic displays as well as books and periodicals. It is equipped for individual study which might include the use of tape decks, video monitors, slides, trans- parencies, and graphic materials. In addition to the centrally located LRC on each campus, satellite library collections are placed in the various learning laboratories and in centrally located check-out centers. These satellite collections contain materials associated with the academic disciplines taught in the learning laboratory. Students are encouraged to browse 86d check out materials from the collections. It should be noted that not only those students partici- pating in the ”burst” configuration use the LRC extensively, but many of those enrolled in “conventional” courses also participate in a variety of activities housed in the LRC. Another facility considered to be essential to the pro- gram of personalised education and other College operations is the Computation Center, described as follows: ppppppppépp_gppppg - Some of the functions per orme by the enter are processing of semester grades, class attendance data, “aid... 1» s. 68 statistics on class enrollment, records of fee payments, preparation of payroll, pro- vision of planning and develOpment information for faculty and staff, test scoring services for faculty, recording library acquisitions and planning for future acquisitions, and regis- tration of students via computer terminals. At 000, the computer is also used to print out cognitive maps and assist in the management of the personalized instructional sequences based upon identified cognitive style (CAMPI).87 The Computation Center, as is indicated by the above de- scription, provides unlimited service to the College, staff, and students. To provide this service requires a well- qualified staff that is willing to assist whenever possible. A third facility used in providing personalized edu- cation is the Individualized Program Learning Laboratory. vid a s d o ramm ear i orato - The I prov es assistance or stu ents who need reinforcement in basic areas and enrich- ment for those who wish to expand the oppor- tunities offered in regular classes. Tutoring in all major curricular areas and study skills is provided by professional staff. The IPLL functions as a prescription center within the Personalised Education Program at 000. Stu- dents utilize programmed learning materials, three-dimensional models, and appropriate audio-visual equipment. Each student receives a personal interview along with a series of diagnostic tests. The program selected is tailored to fit the student's individual inter- ests and needs. A programmed text is assigned to the student and an IPLL instructor designated to provide assistance as needed. This form of self-tutoring, with periodic aid from an in- structor at the IPLL provides the student with assistance that is highly personalized, private, self-pacing, and convenient. Programs are tailored to the student's specific needs. The IPLL also offers reading enrichment (speed "line ,, S- 69 reading) and reading remediation programs ggr students. This is a free student service. Students who use the services of the Individualized Pro- grammed Learning Laboratory may be self-referred or referred by faculty. When working with students on academic pro- bation, counselors find the services available through this facility very helpful. I The audio-tutorial approach to education initiated by Oakland Community College in 1965 has been incorporated into the program of personalized education in the form of the Carrel Arcades which are described as follows: garppl Arcades - The Carrel Arcades complement the teach ng of College courses by offering services necessary to break out of the tra- ditional format. The Carrel Arcades provide software, hardware, tutors, para-professionals and other services, and provide a variety of educational settings and technology. A staff of professionals and para-professionals help students learn in their own way and at their own speed. Students review videotaped lectures, listen to audio tapes, and study course materials on other audio-visual equipment. Small groups meet for informal talk sessions with teachers and resource personnel. Iouth-Tutor-Youth makes student help available to other students on a regular basis. Students who have already mastered course material are grained by the professional staff as tutors. 9 The Carrel Arcades, as described, provide more than the original audio-tutorial approach by incorporating the con- cept of peer instruction to the educational pragram. ”Hid-e ,. 6. 8911-42.. v. 5. 70 The Departmental Experimental Laboratories, as de- scribed below, are designed to satisfy the needs of those students who desire to search for meaning beyond what they can achieve in the normal classroom setting or who derive meaning better on an independent basis. gpparppental Experimental labppatopies - earning laboratories are open to meet the needs and requirements of students in vari- ous fields. Both the hours the laboratories are open and the times when specific faculty members are available are prominently posted. Each student at 000 must exercise the matu- rity and independence to apply himself in the learning laboratory. He must learn to follow the instructional sequences as directed by the faculty.90 The Departmental Experimental Laboratories, along with the other special facilities just described, are designed to supplement the regular College program. These facilities are essential to provide a vehicle to meet the challenge of the ”open-door“ policy of the College. 0 s S v ces: Innovative approaches to counseling and guidance must be implemented if the community college is to fulfill its obligation to provide successful educational experiences to large numbers of socio-generically handicapped students. For these students the “open-door” policy represents the only entrance to higher education. Counseling must be based upon an accu- rate assessment of abilities, interests, and 9013119: P: 6° 71 employment possibilities in order to assist the student in the development of realistic goals. Emphasis must be placed also upon academic achievement motivation in addition to supportive counseling to enable the dis- advantaged to benefit from higher educational opportunities.91 At Oakland Community College the counselors at each campus assist students in their search for self-understanding and/or solutions to their academic, vocational, and personal needs. Student Cognitive Style Maps are used by counselors in a variety of ways to assist the student in his endeavors. Spudepp dey: The student body at Oakland Community College is similar to the student body at most public community- junior colleges. Manilla in ”A History of Oakland Community College,” indicates that the difference between the stu- dent body at Oakland Community College and other Commuity Colleges may be more in learning experiences and the con- sequences of those experiences than in traits and character- istics.92 As was pointed out in the sub-section on objectives, the College was established and organized to provide certain kinds of services to its students and the community. In order to meet this basic responsibility the Board of Trustees 9'6111‘11. Meg De 108. 923. James Manilla, ”A History of Oakland Community College with Emphasis on Multi-Campus Administration, Systems Approach to Instruction, and the Educational Sciences,“ (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, 1971), p. 217. 72 adopted the "open-door” policy. This policy is stated in the 1973-74 College Catalog as follows: Oakland Community College is primarily concerned with the post high school educational needs of the community it serves. The College accepts its responsibility for leadership and proposes to develop and maintain a collegiate program sufficiently flexible to adjust to the changing educational needs of the area. Ad- mission to credit studies is open to all high school graduates, transfer students and per- sons 18 years of age or older. Others may be admitted provided they demonstrate the capacity and maturity to benefit from programs and courses offered by the College. To be admitted, applicants must meet the general admissions requirements of the Office of Academic Data Systems and any special requirements Sgsignated for the program they intend to elect. This policy has broad implications. As discussed by Manilla the policy becomes one of providing a variety of opportunities: ...it has meant not only a willingness to admit a wide range of abilities, interests, and kinds of individuals, without respect to age or sex or previous academic achievement, but also to offer a wide range of opportuni- ties within the institutiono-on campus or off campus--in an attempt to meet the needs of a compunity of approximately one million people.9 To meet the needs of these people the Board of Trustees has committed the College to the implementation of the Educational Sciences. The following information concerning the nature of the student body at Oakland Community College is found in the 1969-70 Annual Report. 93Catalog, pp, clt., p. 15. 9‘wanille, gp,_gl1., p. 218. 73 Based upon a survey of first session freshmen, 63% of whom are male, the typical Oakland Community Colle e student emerges as unmarried, between 1 and 22, enrolled in a university parallel program with plans to continue work in a four-year institution toward a baccalaureate degree, living at home, coming from a middle income family, and working part time to help finance college costs. The reasons he gives for attending Oakland Community College are, "good faculty, low cost, and closeness to home, (the average student lives within an 11 mile radius of a campus). Oakland Community College students range in age from 17 to 80 and, while the bulk come from middle income families, 3.4% come from families with annual incomes less than $4,000 and 3% from families with incomes between 816,000 and 830,000. The diversity of back- grounds of our students finds many Oakland Community College students the first members of their families to come to college and others the sons of college educated vice presidents of major corporations. Twenty-three per cent of the students were enrolled in programs in the Applied Sciences and Arts, designed to equip them for employment upon completion of a one or two year job oriented training program. It is evident from the results of the survey that Oakland Community College students are little different from most community college populations, therefore, samples employed from this population should be suitable for the study. Sapples Employed ip phe Study The present study was designed to continue the explora- tion of various uses of cognitive style in education, and to establish a foundation for further studies in the use of counseling style in the educational setting. Since it 95Joseph 3. Hill, Annual Rpporp 1262-10, Oakland Community College, Bloomfield Hil s, M ch gan, 19 0, pp. 10-11. 74 would be impossible to contact each person in the defined population of the study that had potential for contributing to the study, it became necessary to select ”judgment- purposive” samples of persons for inclusion in the effort. Hill and Harbor define a "judgment-purposive" sample as follows: When the selection of a sample is based upon human judgment, it is called ”purposive" or "judgment" selection. Such selection is determined on the basis of what the research worker might consider from his past experience to be a typical, or representative, sampling unit. It may also be based upon the findings of an analysis of the statistical population relative to physical, psychological, sociological, or economic characteristics. Sometimes it is a haphazard selection of accessible pOpu- lation elements - personsswho pass a par- ticular corner in a certain city, for example. Frequently ”purposive” selection is con- sidered "segmental” selection, to the extent that the selection is restricted to certain segments of the total statistical pOpulation.96 To satisfy the requirements set forth in a "judgment- purposive” sample it was necessary to determine a segment of the student body which would be representative of the total student body. Stpdenp Sample: In order to implement the design of the study, students enrolled in the General Orientation, GORO10, classes at the Southeast Campus Center, Fall Session, 1973. were selected 96Joseph E. Hill and August Kerber, odels Methods and 1 (Detroit, 1967), pp. 43-44. 75 on the basis of the judgments and purposes of the researcher, and the panel of "experts" at the College that was employed as one means of validating decisions regarding the selection, representativeness, and adequacy of the sample design. This class meets once a week for 15 weeks, and one credit-hour is awarded the student for successful completion of the course. The general objective of the class is stated in the course outline as follows: ...to help the student gain an understand- ing and knowledge of Oakland Community College, produce a student who is less con- fused regarding procedures and policies at Oakland Community College and thus free to concentrate on his program of study and his personal objectives. In addition, to give the student guidance in the areas of personal goals and self-perception, enabling him to establish an educational plan in accordance with his occupational goal. To be able to realistically evaluate himself, his progress and his future.97 The course is taught to meet the individual needs of the students. It is designed to terminate at various times during the session depending on the judgment of the counselor and the student as to having met the requirements of the couraae ' The nature of the GORO10 classes was found to be well. suited for use in the study effort. The emphasis placed on the concept of cognitive style (all students enrolled in GORO10 must take the Cognitive Style Test Battery), and 97Counseling Staff, "General Orientation (GORO10),” Oakland Community College, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, 1968, p. 1. 76 of enabling the student to establish an educational plan, provided numerous opportunities and necessities for edu- cational counseling interviews. Coppsplpr Sample: In addition to the need for employing a sample of students, it was also necessary to select a sample of counselors for inclusion in the study. The Counselors involved in the study were located in the Southeast Campus System, and were selected on the basis of similar back- grounds and experience, but different types of counseling styles. All counselors involved were male, held a Masters Degree in Guidance and Counseling, had 10 or more years experience in education, and had 5 or more years experience in counseling at Oakland Community College. These Counselors participated in the study on a voluntary basis. papa gpllecpion 'The data collected for the present study were intended to provide a foundation for the exploration for the possi- ble relationships between cognitive style, counseling style, and preferred counseling style. Data on the cognitive style, counseling style, preferred counseling style, and the degree of satisfaction with the counseling session were collected by means of the instrumentalities (instruments and techniques) and the procedures described in the following sections. 77 lnstrumenpalities: The instrumentalities used in the study consist of: 1) instruments, the Cognitive Style Test and Inventory Battery administered to students and counselors, 2) questionnaires given to the students in the sample drawn from the defined population, and 3) informal discussions, interviews, and observations by experts in the Educational Sciences who interviewed and observed counselors to determine their counseling style. Cogpipive Style lest flattery: The Test and Inventory Battery used to generate the data for cOgnitive maps has been developed over a period of eight years through the efforts of Dr. Joseph E. Hill and his associates in the Institute for Educational Sciences. This Battery has undergOne a number of revisions and modi- fications, while current research efforts are pointing the way to still further improvements. Although the Cog- nitive Style Battery is constantly being reviewed and 'revised, the theory behind the mapping process is accepted and instruments employed have the necessary degree of sophistication for the generation of reliable and valid data (see Appendix B). The Cognitive Style Battery consists of six stand- ardised tests and four inventories. The written Battery includes inventories specifically designed to measure various cognitive style elements as well as inventories 78 adapted from existing standardized tests. Results from the Cognitive Style Battery are processed through Oakland Community College's computer system to produce a map of cognitive traits that describe the many ways each student might seek meaning. (For further information contact the Oakland Community College Diagnostic Test Center.) Preferyed Counseling Style Questionnaire: The Preferred Counseling Style Questionnaire (see Appendix C) was locally constructed to determine the counselee's preferred counseling style. Questions for the Questionnaire were designed to determine the ”demeanor," “emphasis,” and ”symbolic mode" sets of counseling style as described earlier in the study. The questions were sub- mitted to a ”panel of experts“ composed of five persons, knowledgeable in the Educational Sciences and counseling, for purposes of validating the construction of the Ques- tionnaire.‘ The Questionnaire was then administered to fifteen students, who were enrolled in General Orientation, GOROIO, during the Spring Session, 1973, as a pilot study, to determine if the Questionnaire could be used to deter- mine distinot preferyed counseling styles of counselees. In the development of the Questionnaire, the characteristics of a reliable questionnaire as discussed by Best were utilized. A summary of Best's characteristics of a good questionnaire are as follows: (2) (3) (A) (5) (6) (7) (8) 79 It deals with a significant topic. The significance should be clearly stated in the questionnaire or in the letter that accompanies it. It seeks only that information which cannot be obtained from more factual sources (school records, etc.). It is as short as possible, and requests only essential data. It is arranged efficiently, and is clearly duplicated or printed. Directions are clear and complete: im- portant items are defined; each question deals with a single idea: categories provide for unambiguous responses. The questions are objective with no hint of desired responses. Questions are presented in good psycho- logical order, proceeding from general to more specific responses. Embarrassing questions should be avoided. It is easy tg tabulate and interpret the data yield.9 A tabulation of scores on the Questionnaire showed evidence of distinct counseling styles as preferred by the students. gggngglgy Qgggyionnaiye and Counselee Questionnaiye: The Counselor Questionnaire (see Appendix D) and the Counselee Questionnaire (see Appendix B) were locally con- strueed to detersine the degree of satisfaction on the part of the counselor and the counselee on the outcome of the educational counseling situation. The items on the ques- tionnaire were submitted to a “panel” of experts for 98John H. Best, Research in E es en, (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: ' ' "“‘7§2"1;" Prentice Hall, Inc., 1959 9 PP. 151-52. 80 item reliability. Hill and Kerber describe this method as follows: The reliability of rating methods is most frequently determined by computing intercorrelations among ratings made by a ”Jury" or ”panel" of persons considered to be experts in the field that is being rated. ...items that the Judges rated approximately the same would be considered the consistent" ones in the field. If a new rating scale is constructed and includes only those items which were previously determined to be "consistent,” the new i strument is con- sidered to be reliable. The ”panel” that reviewed the items for the Counselee Ques- tionnaire was composed of students who reviewed each item. Those items considered questionable were discarded. The instrument that was ultimately constructed was agreed upon by the panel of students. Items for the Counselor Questionnaire were submitted to a ”panel” of counselors and the same procedure in con- structing this questionnaire was followed as that followed in constructing the Counselee Questionnaire. as S e: In order to determine the counseling style of each counselor in the study, a "panel" of three experts who had known the counselors for a minimum of four years observed the counselors during interviewing situations. Each inter- view was obeerved without the counselee being aware of the observation and in some instances without the immediate knowledge of the counselor. This type of observation was 993111 and Kerber, 93, c;§., pp. 64-65. 81 made possible by the construction of the walls which do not reach the ceiling in one counseling center, while in another counseling center the interviews were observed from another office which is opposite the office in which the interview was taking place. Proce s: The procedures listed below were followed in the process of collecting the data employed in the study: 1. During the Spring Session, 1973. those students enrolled in a General Orientation Class, GOROIO, taught by the researcher, were asked to participate in the construc- tion of two instruments to be used in a doctoral study. The title of the study was discussed and the need for stu- dent volunteere was explained. Fifteen students volunteered to participate by reviewing the items presented for the construction of the Counselee Questionnaire. 2. The questionnaire used to determine preferred counseling style was submitted to a ”panel” of experts, who are knowledgeable in the Educational Sciences, for their review and recommendations. The Questionnaire was developed after the ”panel” had analyzed each question. 3. The Preferred Counseling Style Questionnaire was administered to the fifteen volunteer students enrolled in the researcher's General Orientation Class. 4. Three counselors, from the Southeast Campus System, Oakland Community College, were asked to participate in 82 the study. The counselors were informed that they would be observed during interviewing situations and that stu- dents as well as the counselors would be expected to complete a questionnaire designed to determine the degree of satis- faction attainsd from these interviewing situations. 5. Three persons who, on the basis of research com- pleted and their involvement in the Educational Sciences, were considered to be eXperts in the ”Sciences” were asked to determine the counseling style of each of the three counselors located in the Southeast Campus System. 6. Items intended to be used in the development of the questionnaire to determine the degree of satisfaction on the part of the counselor with the interviewing situation were submitted to a "panel" of five counselors for their review and recommendations. Based on the "panel's" recom- mendations, the Counselor Questionnaire was constructed. 7. During the Fall Session, 1973, those students enrolled in the General Orientation Classes, GORO10, were asked to participate in the study. A few students pre- ferred not to participate and were excused. The Preferred Counseling Style Questionnaire was administered to those students who volunteered to partici- pate and instructions regarding their further involvement were given. The Students were asked to make an appointment with each of the three counselors,who had volunteered to participate in the study, to discuss their educational plans. 83 At the end of the interview the student was asked to inform the counselor whether he/she was participating in the study. If the student was a participant, then he/she was given the Counselee Questionnaire to be completed and returned to the writer. 8. Counselors upon being informed by a student that he/ehe was participating in the study, completed the Coun- selor Questionnaire and returned it to the researcher. The data produced by the procedures outlined above appear mainly in statement form in the study. The analysis of the data and the findings of the study are described and reported in the next chapter. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS Introduction The preceding three chapters serve to provide answers to such questions as: 1) why is the study necessary; 2) how is such a study significant; 3) how is the study effort related to other knowledge in the field; A) how was the sample selected for the study and how does it represent the defined population; and 5) what are the procedures that were employed in collecting that information considered to be relevant to the study effort? The purpose of the present chapter is to describe: 1) the analytical and descriptive techniques which were used to yield data pertaining to the questions presented in Chapter I, 2) examples of how these techniques were employed, and 3) the findings of the study effort. Due to the exploratory nature of the study effort, no attempt has been made to test a research hypothesis, or hypotheses. In Chapter I, under the section dealing with general questions to be answered, it was stated that the hypothesis-generating nature of the study indicated that general questions concerning the problem were more in order than were the testing of hypotheses regarding it. 8“ 85 Analytical Techniques There were four main types of analytical and descrip- tive techniques employed throughout the study: 1) matching “styles," 2) content analysis, 3) the nonparametric statis- tical technique called ”the Kolmogorov-Smirnov One-Sample Test,” and A) counselee reactions to incidents. Matching ”Styles”: The technique of matching ”styles" was used to determine the degree of match between 1) the cognitive styles of the counselor and the counselee, and 2) the counseling style of the counselor and the preferred counseling style of the counselee. The matching of ”styles” techniques involves the assignment of numerical values to each element in the cognitive style or counseling style of the individual being matched (referent) and, based on a defined procedure, deter- mine the numerical value to be assigned to each correspond- ing element in the cognitive style or the preferred coun- seling style of the individual being matched. (For a step by step procedure of how “styles” are matched, see Appendix a.) Content Analysis: Content analysis deals with systematic examination of current information--be it written, spoken, mechanical, or portrayed in an art form--to provide data that might be categorically classified and evaluated and thus provide a description and interpretation of a situation or condition 86 not otherwise describable.99 Based on the foregoing defi- nition, this technique can assist researchers in: 1. describing specific conditions that exist 2. indicating possible trends or patterns extant in the information being analyzed 3. determining differences between stated objectives and the practices that prevail 4. identifying attitudes, interests, and orien- tations of people.100 Points two and four above were especially relevant to the objectives of the study effort. The technique of content analysis was applied to the data obtained through interviews with students involved in the study and reviewing student counseling folders. To illustrate how the content analysis technique was employed in the study, students enrolled in the writer's General Orientation class were interviewed to determine attitudes toward particular counselors and to determine possible trends on the part of students as to satisfaction with the interview process. This technique led to the possible assumption that certain types of students (socio- economic) preferred the counseling style exemplified by one counselor more than the counseling styles exemplified by the other counselors involved in the study. A review of the counseling folders indicated the assumption was correct. 993111 and Kerber, op. cit., p. 109. ‘Ooeurai, op. cit., p. 135. 87 It should be noted that the data gathered through this technique led to further study in the analysis of ”matched" styles. Kolmogorov-Smirnov ”One-Sample Test”: The Kolmogorov-Smirnov "one-sample test," is a test of goodness-or-fit and is concerned with the degree of agree- ment between the cumulative distributions of observed (sample) relative frequencies and eXpeoted (theoretical) relative frequencies. The one-sample test determines whether the distribution of the cumulative relative frequencies of the sample agrees reasonably with the distribution of the cumulative fre- uencies eXpected under the null hypotheses Hoz). The cumulative distribution of the expected (theoretical) relative frequencies is determined on the basis of the substance of the null hypothesis (H z). After this distribution is determineg, the cumulative distribution of the observed (sample) relative frequency is compiled. The two cumulative distributions are then compared over a range of categories in terms of the maximum differ- ence (deviation) between them. The category in which the cumulative distributions show the greatest deviation (poorest fit) is determined, and the value of the divergence at that point is referred to the appropriate Kolmogorov-Smirov sampling distribution to determine the probability of a deviation that would be largely occurring by chance, if the null hypothesis (H :) were true. If the maximum deviation Is of such magnitude that its probability of occurrence is less than that set by the level of significance, say .05, then the null hypothesis is rejected and its statistical atternative hypothesis is accepted.101 1013111 and Kerber, op. cit., pp. 311-13. 88 In order to illustrate how this technique was employed in the process of analyzing certain data yielded by the data collection effort, the following analysis of scores taken from the Counselee Questionnaire for Counselor A in the study is shown. Table 1. Kolmogorov-Smirnov one-sample test analysis of scores on Counselor A--Counselee Questionnaire Score* 50-42 41-19 18-10 Total S (X) (7) (7) 13. (O) 14 n T41 14 T5 ‘1‘ F (X)** (4) 4 (6) 1.9. (4) 14 0 TE 14 TX' ‘4 Maximum Deviation 7% 7% O ISn(X)'Fo(XH *Scores on the Counselee Questionnaire were determined by assigning values to each answer ranging from 5 points of score for Strongly Agree to 1 point of score for Strongly Disagree. **FO(X) is based upon Flanagan's Technique which deter- mines that 27% of cases belong to the u .2; 9nd of a normal distribution: 46% to the middle; and 27 to the lower end of the distribution. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test concerns itself with the absolute value of the maximum dgviayion (difference), D, of the ex- pression Iro(x1-sn(X)|. In this example Maximum D = Ipo(x)-sn(x)|= 7%,: .29: where the expression IPO(X)-Sn(X)| indicates the absolute value (positive value only) of the maximum difference. Employing Table VI, page 312, of sniv e‘ ' . ‘5":v "'“r'i‘ . 89 Selected Critical Values of D for the Kolmogorov-Smirov one-sample test (see Hill and Kerber102), by extrapolation for sample size n = 14; D = .16; places the hypothesis of this two-sample test in gggbt, at between p = .10 and p = .05 levels of significance. Interpretations and conclusions that can be derived from this statistical inferential result are presented in connection with the conclusions drawn by the study effort. These concerns are included in the next chapter. It should be noted that this technique was employed to analyze not only responses to the items included in the Counselee's Questionnaires, but to analyze responses to the items included in the Counselor's Questionnaires as well. The results of the analyses of these re8ponses for Counselors A, B, and C, respectively, are presented in the Findings section of this chapter. Counselee Reactions to Incidents: The critical incidents technique may be described as: ...any observable type of human activity which is sufficiently complete in itself to permit inferences and predictions to be made about the person performing the act. To be critical, the incident must be per- formed in a situation where the purpose or intent of the act seems fairly clear to the observer and its consequences are suf- ficiently definite so that there is little doubt concerning its effect.10 1021bid., p. 312. ‘03John C. Flanagan, "The Critical Incident Technique," Journal of Educational Psychology, (March, 1954), p. 319. _. tee] The durf com '88 1'81) dent I1810 D1 ‘2 90 Another applicable definition of the critical incident technique is as follows: A procedure for obtaining a compre- hensive list of behaviors which have made the difference between effective and in- effective participation in1ahe profession or activity being studied. The critical incidents technique was applied to data gathered during both formal and informal interviews with students and counselors associated with the study. An occurrence that was considered a critical incident was: One student after being interviewed by a counselor commented, "How can you talk to that guy, instead of listening to me he sits back and talks all the time." This incident was critical to the extent that the student would give the counselor a poor rating on the Counselee Questionnaire as would other stu- dents with a similar preferred counseling style. Another critical incident was the case where one coun- selor was employed on a part-time basis causing some stu- dents to complain that it was difficult to see him. This incident was critical to the extent that it indicated the importance of careful selection of personnel to participate in a study. A variety of these incidents, which have not been in- cluded in the reported findings of the study, were also used to supplement data and information yielded by the study ‘ObRalph F. Wagner, ”A Study of Critical Requirements for‘Dentists," P rsonnel Ps cholo , Vol. II, (1949). p. 21. 91 effort in the process of drawing the conclusions associated with the study endeavor. Findin s The findings reported in this section were yielded by the data collection instrumentalities (see Chapter III), and the analytical Procedures described in the previous sec- tion of this chapter. The findings, as presented, are related to the questions presented in Chapter I. Tables 2 and 3 show the analysis of scores on the Coun- selee Questionnaire for Counselors B and C, respectively. It should be noted that the analysis of scores for Counselor A were described in the example illustrating the application of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov one-sample test technique found in the previous section of this chapter. Table 2. Analysis of scores on Counselor B--Counselee Questionnaire Score 50-42 41-19 18-10 Total Sn(x) (o) _o_, (5) 5 (o) 5 5 5 5 5 110(1) (1) .1. (3) _2_ (1) 5 5 5 5 5 Maximum Deviation 2 = .60 |sn(x1-r.| 5 92 Significant between p = .05 and p = .01 levels for cumu- lative relative frequencies of occurrence over the middle and high score ends of the distribution. Table 3. Analysis of scores on Counselor C--Counselee Questionnaire Score 50-42 41-19 18-10 Total 3 (X (3) 11 1h 0 14 P X 4 h 6 1O 4 14 o( ) ( ) TE ( ) TE ( ) TE 14 Maximum Deviation _% = .29 |3n(X)-Po(x)l ‘ The value .29 places the hypothesis in doubt between the .10 and .05 levels as a two-tailed test, for a one-tailed test Max. D = .29 is very close to the critical value of Max. D associated with the p = .05 level for the middle to 2323; end categories of the distribution. Tables A, 5, and 6 show the analysis of scores on the Counselor Questionnaire for Counselors A, B, and C, respec- tively. 93 Table 4. Analysis of scores on Counselor A--Counselor Questionnaire Score 50-42 41-19 18-10 Total S (X) (4) 4 (10) 14 (O) 14 “ TE 7K T4 ‘4 F (x) (4) 4 (6) 1O (4) 14 ° TI' 7: T4 ‘4 Maximum Deviation 4 = .29 lsn 7‘ In a fashion similar to the situation associated with con- ditions found in Table 3, the value of Max. D = .29 places the hypothesis in doubt as a two-tailed test, for a one- tailed test Max. D = .29 is very close to the critical value of Max. D associated with the p = .05 level for the middle to upper and categories of the distribution. Table 5. Analysis of scores on Counselor B--Counselor Questionnaire Score 50-42 41-19 18-10 Total 5 (x) (1) .1. (4) (0) n 5 g E 5 r (r) (1) 1 (3) 4 (1) ° 5' s 3 5 Maximum Deviation 1 = .20 pn_f inference. The formal definition the construct is developed as follows:- insider the set "S" composed of 288 possible binomial combinations involving major and minor theor- 'col and qualitative symbolic orientations. Expressed in the form of set notation: (I. -Q,). (1,. - qyt.‘ (tx - qy), (Qy - tx). S: here "T" denotes a maior theoretical symbolic orientation of an individual; "Q" indicates a maior I“motive symbolic orientation; "t" a minor theoretical symbolic orientation; "q" a minor qualitative mbolic orientation, the subscript "x" is a place-holder for one of the following notations: "al" - t M8 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. l. P. - auditory linguistic, "aq" - auditory quantitative, "vl" - visual linguistic, and ”vq" - visual quanti“ tative; and the subscript "y'| holds a place for 212 of eighteen following notations: "a" - auditory; "o" - olfactory, "s" - savory, "t" - tactile, "v" visual, "p" - preprioceptive, "pk" - proprioceptive kinematics, "pt" - proprioceptive temporal, "cem" - code empathetic, "ces" - code esthetic, "cet" - code ethic, "ch" - code histrionic, "ck" - code kinesics, "ckh" - code kinesthetics, “cp” - code proxemics, "cs" - code synnoetics, "ct" - code transactional, and ”ctm" - code temporal. Since the..- are 72 possible binomial combinations for each of the four arrangements; i.e. , since there are 72 corn- binations of the form (Tx - Qy)' 72 of the form (Tx - qy), 72 of the type (Qy - tx), and 72 of the "double minor" category (tx - qy); "S" is a finite set composed of 4 x 72 = 288 elements. Consider similarly the fifteen elements, twelve of which are binomial combinations and three of which are of monomial form, comprising the set "E" called "the cultural determinants of the meanings of symbols. " Expressed in set notation: l, A, F, E (I - 0(2)), (A - i(z)), (F - 3(2)’ (l - f(z))' (A - f(z)), (F - 0(2)). where l'l'I indicates a ma'lor "individuality" determinant ot the meanings of symbols, "A” denotes a moi "associates" determinant, "F" a major "family" determinant, ”i" a minor HIHCli‘.’i(‘ltJ£‘JiIl'y” determinant, * "a" a minor "associates" determinant, "t" a minor "family" determinant, and the subscript ”2“ holds a place for either a positive sign (+), or a negative sign (-) depending upon the type of influence the minor determinant involved tends to exert an the individual when he is in the process of determining meanings of symbols (e.g., words sentences, pictures, "feels," stories, ”tostes"). Now, consider the set "H" of five monomial and six binomial elements involving what are called ”r.» modalities of inference." Expressed in set notation, the eleven elements appear as follow; 7 M9 Ed.Sciences ' Manuscript J. E. Hill r « J P. - 4 M, D, R. Lt: J H=nM-oAD-n.m-n.@» (M-n.w-o.m-n. ( \ there K denotes a deductive inferential process necessary to the completion of certain types of educational tasks" (e.g., proving a theorem in Euclidean geometry), ”M" indicates a maii'wagnitude" iterential mode, "D" represents a ma'lor modality called "difference," ”R" denotes a motor modality armed "relationship," "L" indicates a ma’lor inferential made known as "appraisal, " “m" denotes a NM 0f "magnitude," "d" represents 0 minor "difference" mode, and "r” indicates a minor >dolity of inference called "relationship." 3th the definitions of sets 5, E, and H completed, a fourth set G, eXpressed as a Cartesian product, oossible. Thus, G becomes: IV‘ |rn J A I j l, A, F, M, D, R, L = ”X " (3),),(1'x - qy), x (I .‘ 0(2)), (A - i(z))' (F - i(z))' x((M - d), (D — m), (R - m)® > w (ix - qy)l (Q), - tx) (I - f(z))l (A - f(z))l (F - C(29) CM - I'), (D — T), (R " d) J 3i "9", a Cartesian product of sub-sets of appropriate elements drawn from sets S, E, and H, can be structed to define the "cognitive style" ot an individual (e.g., student, teacher, administrator). 5, there is an element "9" (a "cognitive style") of set G‘such that: g=¢(s, e, h) (i) ’79 ¢(phi) denotes a function in the form of a Cartesian product, and s, e, and h represent sub—sets te sets 5, E, and H, respectively. Obviously, each of these sub-sets are composed of elements We to them (e.g., 5/ 1 5‘ , if' e , e , h/, h ). This type of notation is useful only in that it permit; :' ‘J ,4; ___ 150 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hi. P. — ‘i a comact representation of the "style" of an individual at a particular point of time and level of ochplishment in his educational development. Put in another way, the set G can be defined as the universal set, i.e. , the set of gfl possible "cognitive ME" accommodated by the Cartesian product of sets S, E, and H . Consistent with the notation employee. in (I), this definition of G becomes: G=¢(S, E, H) (2) Under these circumstances, (I) refers to ageing-21d G, while (2) denotes the universal set (3 . It should also be noted that according to these definitions, s, e, and h could be called the ”coordinates" )f "git. ince the set S is composed of a possible 288 elements, l5 elements comprise E, and H includes II, it allows that the Cartesian product of these sets, i.e., the universal set G, is composed of: 288 x 15 x l =47,520 different "cognitive style" elements at a given level of educational development. This :sult is based on the reasoning that there are 288 ways of choosing an element from S, 15 ways of toosing one from E, and ii ways of selecting one from H, or 288 x IS x H possible ways of defining tyles" over S, E, and H. It should be noted, however, that in actual practice the maximum number elements that can be included in an individual's style “9", at a given level of educational develop-new, 72x4x8=2304. cording to the language of set theory, although G is called the "Cartesian product" (or "direct Eidefined. This approach to enumerating (counting) the number of elements in (3 does not imply t any algebraic operations are to be performed on the elements themselves. unalogous fashion, the cognitive style of an individual, 9 = ¢(s, e, h), is called "the Cartesian luct of the sub-sets s, e, and h. The elements comprising the respective sub—sets serve as coordinates, profiles," of an individual's "cognitive style." 151 Ed. Sciences ' Manuscript J. E. Hill P. - 6 The construct called "cognitive style" can now be described as a Cartesian product, or direct product, )t three sub-sets, i. e., s, e, and h, with the elements comprising these sub-sets serving as coordinates, tr "profiles," of an individual's style. The phraseologies "Cartesian product" and "Cartesian space" are ynonymous in mathematical lexicon, i. e., the term "space" is synonymous with "set." Therefore, a iortesian product is a particular type of space (or set) whose elements may serve as coordinates of orol'iles" defined over that space. In this context, a cognitive style profile is a coordinate space of Cartesian product. The term "space," as used here, emphasizes the non-numericaf, and the non- gebraic points of departure of various constructs which can be considered by means of modern mathemat i. :thods . Mapping :ssifying the elements ofa given set (e. 9, set A) into two categories included in a second set (e. g . , L, 1 process mathematicians call "mapping." The notation usually employed for this process is: A——)B (3) : notation in (3) indicates a correspondence between the elements of set A and those of set 8. ln tl‘i Imple, set A is called the domain of the mapping, and B the range. thematical mappings ermloy only the theoretical symbols ofabstract logic or mathematics. Empirical __..—_ -.—_- 1p_iflg_s_involve persons mking judgments on 0 "makes sense" or "does not make sense" basis to ciassity ments (e. 9., persons, processes, and properties ofa social system called "curriculum") into "logical“ egories. This type of decision-making employs not only theoretical symbolic mediations (e . 9., "w -r* l "numbers") but denunds qualitative symbolic aspects of reasoning (e. 9., ”picturing" the solution of roblem) as well. For exan'ple, in order to diagnose (trap) the cognitive style ("9") afar. individual, "educational scientist" (e. 9., teacher) must consider the individual's level of educational develoii nt in terms of the elements included in the sets S, E, and H, respectively. Empirically, the diag— rtician ("scientist") must decide which elements in the sets S, E, and H, respectiveiy, are OPPFOPFiEff f3 .1 J I «y. 152 Ed. Sciences Manuscript . . ' for inclusion in the sub-sets s, e, and h that form the individual's cognitive style . This approach dem. the classification of the elements of S into two categories: s and §'(not s); E into the two categories: e and'3(not e); and H into h and h The process involved here is called "empirical mapping." This type of mapping (diagnosis) 9221'! be effected by a_p_er_so_n(e. 9., educational scientist) classifying the elements involved on 0 "makes sense," or "does not make sense" basis. If a mathematical mapping of these elements were desired, there would need to be a logical and theoretical vehicle (e. g., o formul, or equation) available by which the decision could be derived. In this case, a person is not actually involved in the decision-waking process associated with the classification. Under these circumstances, the decision is rendered by performing indicated operations on the logical (mathematical) function used to determine the desired outcome. The point to be made is that the mapping of cognitive styles is main}, empirical in nature, and as such, is dependent upon the iudgments of persons (diagnosticians) responsible for the process of classifying the elements of symbolic orientations, "cultural determinants, " and modalili. of inference into Cartesian products that represent the cognitive styles of the individuals under considet ~ ation. The cognitive style of an individual cannot be empirically mapped without considering: (l) the level c:l educational development of the person, (2) the general symbolic conditions of educational tasks he will be called upon to accomplish, (3) certain antecedents (e. 9., family) to his present state of develomeI ; and (4) the appropriateness of the elements under consideration for the conditions under which the edu- cational tasks must be completed. The mapping of an individual's style is also affected by the diag— nostician's cognitive style. In this context, diagnostic teams have generally been able to produce "styl. of higher predictive and concurrentvalidity than those "trapped" by the individual diagnostician. Relationship In order to reduce the amount of notation associated with the discussion and description of the processe- and procedures associated with the empirical mapping of an individual's cognitive style, it is necessary 153 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill P. - 8 .0 consider a concept basic to all science, i. e. , the concept of "relationship." The most useful defin- tion of relationship for any branch of science is the one which mathematicians have developed in terms f the elementary concepts of set theory. The definition in question is: binary relationship is one whose Cartesian space is defined by two sets. A relationship of "n" dimensions -ary condition)lcan always be expressed as a binary relation by distributing the n sets over two groupings, d then defining the Cartesian space of these two groupings (sets) as the binary relation. it is in this use that the diagnostician (e. 9., "educational scientist") maps the n-profiles of an individual's cog- tive style into the three sub-sets comprising the Cartesian product representing his siyle . function is defined to be a binary relationship. Therefore, the concept of function and that of mapping, discussed here, are identical. rm equations (1) and (2) above, it should be noted that "g" is a function of s, e, and h; and that G 1 function of S, E, and H. These facts were noted by including "¢" (phi) to represent the functional :tionships involved. These functional relationships permit the following notation to describe, with o timum number of symbols, the process involved in: (i) the empirical mapping of an indivedual's cog- ‘ve style, and (2) the napping ofan augmented cognitive file. In this context, the notation in (4) cribes the mapping of an individual's "style": G—)g (4) ere 9 denotes an individual's cognitivestyle derived fromthe "universal" set G composed of: 36,960 sible "profiles." 2 cognitive style of an individual can be changed by the process of training and education. A cognit. le is considered to be changed at the training level of development when the individual exhibits be— Vl°f (e. 9-: "#300503 *0 certain tut variables, demonstration of certain physical actions) of his having 154 Ed. Sciences . . Manuscript J . E . Hill P. - 9 This accomplishment can be noted by the expression shown in (5): 9—)9a (5) Where 90 denotes the augmented cognitive style of the individual, and g is as previously defined in (4). This type ofaugmentation is defined to be training. When individual demonstrates behavior which indi - notes that he is employing the "augmented elements" of his "style" to accomplish educational tasks tifferent from those used to effect the original augmentation of his "style," he is considered to be aduccilff- llO level of development higher than the one which was associated with his original cognitive style g.” APPENDIX B PROBLEM SET ON: SCALING ITEMS IN TERMS OF DIFFICULTY STANDARD SCORES PERCENTILE SCALING SCALING JUDGMENTS--JOSEPH E. HILL Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill PROBLEM SET ON: (I) SCALING ITEMS IN TERMS OF DIFFICULTY, (2) STANDARD SCORES, (3) PERCENTILE SCALING, AND (4) SCALING JUDGMENTS I. Scalingjest Items in terms of Difficulty The term £913, in the context of mental measurement, is considered to be a continuum throughout which entities such as items, tasks, and performances are located in terms of some attribute such as difficulty. The location of the zero point of a scale is an arbitrary decision made by the constructor of the scale. The size of the units of a scale may be arbitrarily determined by its constructor, but, ideally, should be equal, maintain the same meaning, and remain stable throughout the range of the scale. In order to construct an instrumentality designed to accommodate a wide range of levels of educational development, it is necessary to include problems, tasks, or performances graded in terms of known steE or intervals of difficulty over a range beginning with items seeking re- sponses that are relatively easy for the respondents to produce through those that present a great challenge to each respondent. It is possible to construct a crude scale of difficulty by arranging the items comprising an instrumentality in a percent order of difficulty. It should be noted, however, that percent differences are not always satisfactory indices of differences in difficulty of items. I If it can be assumed that the measurements of a "style" element are distributed approximately normally, then the variability of the measurements of a group, i. e. , the standard deviation (or) unit of a normal distribution associated with the percent of group passing, provides a better means for scaling difficulty than does the approach of "percent of group passing each of the items" alone. The "variability" approach makes it possible to locate and space items ’n tern‘s 0i G‘distance at specific points along a continuum of difficulty. In this context, the positions of the items relative to each other, as well as being relative to a selected "zero point, " are then known in terms of a stable unit, i. e., in terms of standard deviation, org- scaling. The IR: 156 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -2- following example, and the five step approach which it includes, describes how this type of scaling can be used in the construction of an instrumentality. Suppose that a scale is to be constructed to measure qualitative prOprioceptiveness, Q(P), of children in grades K-3; or a scale is to be constructed for measuring qualitative code kines- thetics, Q(CKH), reflected by children in grades 4-6; or a scale for measuring qualitative code temporal, Q(CTM in high school students is to be formed. The process for constructing such an instrumentality, based upon an item analysis approach, can be effected by the following five steps: (I) Prepare a large number of items, or tasks, or performances that range in difficulty from a very elementary, or easy, level to a highly advanced, or difficult, level in the element of "style" being sampled; and administer this collection to a large number of individuals drawn randomly from the papulation (group) for which the instrumentality is being designed. For example, if a scale is to be constructed to help teachers assess qualitative proprioceptiveness, Q(P), in children grades K-3, 0 large number of items describing tasks or performances such as: putting wooden pins in a peg board, coloring within lines, walking a balance beam, and tossing bean bags at a target, should be compiled. During the time that these tasks are being compiled each one of them should be assessed for level of difficulty by observing the level of educational development of the children finding it easy to perform the task in question and the "level" of those children having a decidedly difficult time in effecting the performance requested. After all the items have been sorted according to their possible levels of difficulty, they are administered to a large sample of pupils drawn from the population of children in "grade, K-3 available to the constructor of the instrumentality. (2) After the collection of "items" has been administered to the sample group, calculate 157 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -3- the percent of the group that performed satisfactorily on each item, where the term "satisfactorily" pertains to a performance leading to a mapping of either a minor or maior orientation at the grade level the "item" was considered to sample, this grade level having been determined on the basis of pilot study information produced during the time the item was being developed. Eliminate items that are duPlicates, those that appear to be too easy to master, those that are too difficult, and those that may be unsatisfactory for other reasons. Arrange the items selected for inclusion in the instrumentality, i. e., the scale, in an order of descending percents of difficulty. In this context, a task performed successfully by 95 percent of the sample group is easier than one accomplished by 80 percent of the group, while in turn the latter task is less difficult than one successfully performed by 60 percent of the sample group. Thus, the greater the percent of students accomplishing the task, the less difficult the item is considered to be, and therefore the lower the item is to be placed in a scale of difficulty. Employing a table of values of a cumulative normal distribution,* the percent of student. successfully performing the task associated with the item under consideration is com ertegt into a positive, or a negative, standard deviation distance, i.e., a (+0”), or a t- 6.. distance, relative to the mean. Recalling the inverse relationship between the percent of group successfully accomplishing an "item" and theo— distance above -’\+), or belowr— I, the mean. To illustrate this point,in the earlier example, the task accomplished succes- sfully by 95 percent of the sample group would be located -I .645 0" (below) from the mean; the task which was successfully performed by 80 percent of the group would be located -I .282 G'units below the mean; the task "accomplished“ by 60 percent of the group would be located, approximately, -.25 0‘ below the mean,- and if there were another task which only 30 percent of the group successfully performed, Ed . Sciences I’v Manuscript -4- J. E. Hill it would be located, approximately, +.5250’(above) from the mean. It is in this fashion that each item can be located along a continuum of difficulty, assuming that the distribution of difficulty is distributed normally. (4) After theo-distance of each "item" has been determined, find thee-distance of each item from the zero point, i. e., from the level of zero ability, on the scale (continuum). The zero point can be located arbitrarily as follows: Suppose that 2.5 percent of the entire group fail to perform satisfactorily on all the items being considered. This result could place the level of zero ability 47.5 percent of the distribution below the mean, or at a distance of, —l .960- from the mean. It should be noted that the decision re- garding the location of the zero point of a scale is always an arbitrary one, and merely locates a reference point (e. 9., a level of minimum ability) from which performance can be measured. The point, -3.00c'is often chosen as a convenient zero or reference point when the normal distribution is assumed to pertain to the activity under consider- ation. To illustrate how thed‘ distance of each item from the zero point can be deter- mined, the examples used in Step (3) are shown in the table below: l1> Percent Per- forming Successfully 95 Distance from Mean in Percent Terms -45 O" Distance from Mean - I . 645 6' Distance from Arbitrary -I.96 £315 Zero Point, -(-I .960) Items .3. 80 -I.282 .-(-i .960) +.678 to 60 -IO -.25 -(-l .960) t.7l0 I U 30 +20 l Ln m k t 159 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill (5) -5- It should be noted that the value of the a'distance of an item from the zero point or reference point is determined by subtracting algebraically the cr distance of the zero point from the mean, from that of the item. For example, the c'distance of Item A from the zero point is: -l .645 - (-I .960) = +.3I5; for Item B: -l .282 - (-I.960) = +.678; while for Item D: +.525 - (-I .960) = +2.485. When the distance of each item from the reference point has been determined, the difficulty of each item relative to that of the others, and to the zero point, is known and the scaling process is completed. What is done with the instrumentality beyond this point depends upon the purposes of the constructor. A large number of items separated by relatively small 0" distances may be selected so that the instrumentality covers a fairly wide range of educational development. On the other hand, the range may be limited to items from-2.50 G'distance to +2.50 0", and the instrumen- tality might be composed of a relatively few items spaced at, say, .5 O'distance of difficulty. Thea‘distance apprbach provides a means for establishing "norms" for an instrumentality designed for individuals of different levels of educational development or different ages, or different school grades, or for persons comprising each of several different occupational groups . 2 . Standard Scores If there are constraints in terms of time or human resources, instead of scaling separate items of an instrumentality, it is possible to scale aggregates of items or total scores. One of the more popular approaches to this end is that of standard scores. Scores made by the same individual on several different instrumentalities cannot usually be compared directly because of differences in the units of the instrumentality. En other cases, tn. scores of individuals in the same group earned on each of, say, four different tests cannot be ———""_ Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -6- compared directly because of the change in the variability of the group's performance from one test to another. One means of overcoming these difficulties is to translate the raw score of on individual on a test to standard score form. It can be shown that the mean of a group's standard scores of the form: 2 = 50 . mpg.) Where Z denotes the standard score, X is the raw score of an individual on an instrumentality, )2 is the value of the mean score of the group's performance on the instrumentality, and S is the value of the standard deviation of the distribution of the group's scores on the instrumentality. The mean of a set of 2 scores is: 2 = 50, and the standard deviation is: S2 = l0. Employing this formula, the commrison of scores made by the same individual on several different tests can be effected, but even more importantly the performance of an individual over a series of tests can be compared with those of another individual over the same series of tests. For example, suppose that the distribution of scores for Student A and Student B, respectively over three tests, are as shown in the table: Students'. Raw Scores (X) Mean S . D . Test A B Y S I 90 70 80 2.5 80 80 80 5.0 3 70 90 80 l0.0 — 90+80+7O : 80’ At first glance, the arithmetic average (mean) of Student A's raw scores: X g A 3 and the mean of Student B's raw scores over the three tests is: X8 = m = 80- Moreover, A's performance appears to have declined over the three tests, while B's performance reflects a gain or improvement trend. Translating the raw scores to Z scores, it is found that; 161 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -7. Student A Student 8 __ 90-80 __ 70-80 __ Test I Z-50+ I0(—§:3— 90 2 -50+ IO(~2—.57l— IO r...2 bandage 50 z=50+10(§9g§9)=50 - 70-80 _ _ 90-80 = The total of Student A's Z-scores would be: 180 (N. B.the mean score of a series of Z-scores earned on different tests is not itself 2 mean Z—score); while the total for Student 8 would be: l20. It is apparent that the level of performance over the three tests expressed in standard score form for each of the students is different, but expressed in raw score form the performance of each would appear to be equal with a slight possible advantage accruing to B because of the improvement or gain trend reflected over the three tests. In this context, it can be seen how Z- scores can be employed to provide a comparable scaling of the performances of individuals over a series of instrumentalities designed to measure the some aspects (e. g. , a given "style" element ) . Although standard scores make comparisons of otherwise dissimilar scores possible, the T score, which is nothing more than a normalized Z (standard) score increases the stability of the scaling. For example, a Z-score of 70 would indicate that the individual earning this score would be two standard deviations (Sz= IO) above the mean (Z = 50), while a T score of 70 would indicate not only how far above the mean the individual was, but would denote that he was in approximately the 98th percentile of the distribution which has been normalized. Although the transformation of Z-scores to T-scores is a simple procedure, it is omitted here in the interest of purpose, time, and space. Another means of stabilizing the scaling of scores is that of stanine scores. The term "storii. is a contraction of the phraseology "standard nine." Essentially, the stanine scale is a con- densed form of a scale of T-scores. Stanine scores range from I through 9 aiong the base . 162 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -3- line of a normal curve forming a scale in which the "distance“ unit is .50" and the value of the median is 5. The percent of scores in each stanine is shown in Figure I. K“ 4% 7% I296 17% 20% 17% I2% 7% . 4% I 2 3 4 5 6 7 l 8 l 9 __><_ cr: - . -1. -77A -.l3 +.§§ +.7§ +l. + .75 Figure I. Stanine Scale with Percent of Scores in Each Stanine Since stanine scores are but a condensed form of a scale of T-scores, once again in the interest of purpose, time and. space further discussion is omitted. 3. Percentile Scaling A percentile rank of a score locates the individual achieving that score on a scale of I00 and indicates the propor and the group of I00 that has achieved scores lower than that score . An error commonly made by persons employing percentile rank scales is that the difference between a "rank" of IO and a "rank" of 20 is considered to be the same as the difference between a "rank” of 50 and a "rank" of 60, i.e., that the differences between percentile ranks are equal throughou' the range of the scale. This assumption of equal differences among percentile ranks is true only ' the distribution of raw scores is rectangular in shape. The assumption is in error when the distri- bution of raw scores is approximately normal. Since distributions of raw scores are rarely rectang but are frequently approximately normal in their distribution, the assumption of "equal differences ' 163 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -9- rarely applies. If the normal curve were partitioned into five sections, each of which included 20 percent of the area under the curve, it would appear as shown in Figure 2. N o\ N :3 20% 20% 0‘: ~10 -.4 -.25 +.25 +.84 +3.0 Percentile: 0 20 40 60 80 I 00 Figure 2. Normal Distribution Showing Relationship Between Quintiles and 0" Distances from Mean From a table of values pertaining to a cumulative normal distribution, if it is assumed that -3.0 0' is associated with zero accumulated area, then the first 20% of the area is accumulated between -3.0C7’and -.B4 0", the second 20% between -.84 O'and -.25 O", the third 20% between -.25 O'and +.25 0", the fourth 20% between +.250" and +.84C" , and the fifth 20% between "‘34 O’and +3.0. In terms of absolute: distance, i. e., ignoring the algebraic sign, the first 20% covers: -3.0 - (-.84) = 2. I66”; the second 20%: -.84 - (-.25) = .59 ‘3‘", the ”Wild 20%: -.25 - (+.25) = .506"; the fourth: +.25 -.84 = .59 0'; and the fifth 20%: +.84 - 3.0 2. I6 0" . It should be obvious that the intervals along the base line associated with the 20 percent sections at the lower and upper ends of the distribution, respectively, are approximately four limes as long as the one associated with the middle 20 percent section. These relationships are Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -10- preserved if percentile ranks are converted to T scores as shown in the array below: Percentile Rank 0' Distance L—S core 99 2.33 T =50+ IO(2.33) =73 95 1.64 T=50+IO(I.64)=66 90 1.28 63 80 .84 58 70 .52 55 60 .25 53 50 - .00 50 40 -.25 47 30 -.52 45 20 -.84 42 I0 -I .28 37 5 -i .64 34 I -2.33 27 J Merely by expressing the percentile ranks of raw scores (assuming they are approximately normally distributed) in terms of T-scores automatically converts the scaling of these percentile ranks into an appropriate normalized form. 4 . Scaling Judgments Responses to Questionnaire Items. There are several possible forms of rep ies to questionna. items such as: Rarely, Sometimes, Usually; Yes, No; Most Like Me through Least Like Me; or Most, Many, Some, Few, None. In those cases where the respondent is asked to select one of 165 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -1]- four or five categories as his response to the item, it is frequently desirable to M each of the categories in accordance with how divergent it might be from the "neutral, " or the "typical" category of the set. In order to solve this problem, it is assumed that the Opinions, attitudes, or judgments represented by the set of four or five response categories are approximately normal in their distribution over that set. Under these circumstances, based upon the percent of the group that selects a given category as a response to an item, a O'distance from the mean ("neutral' or "typical" category) can be determined and, in turn, be used as a "weight" for the category in question. Although Garrett discusses a method for scaling: (I) responses to questionnaire items, and (2) iudges ratings, by means of employing highly precise O'distances associated with the normal curve,* the use of a scale of T-scores accomflishes these purposes with far less work, and with relatively little less in the precision of the "weightings" or scalings of the: categories involved. It is in this context that a scale of T-scores is employed to "weight" the response categories asso- ciated with the item included in the example below. Suppose that a questionnaire is composed of 20 lstatements regarding elements of "demeanor" associated with administrative style. The apinion of the respondent regarding the tapic covered by the statement is to be expressed in terms of g_rt_e of the following five categories: Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. If each of these categories associated with the statement: The administrator who follows the guide of: my goals my way; usually provides good leadership. Stronglegree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree *Henry E. Garrett, Statistics in Psychology and Education, Longmons, Green and Co. , {\e: York: I958, Fifth Edition: pp. 373-332. "' ‘ i 166 Ed . Sciences Manuscript -]2- J. E. Hill were selected by the percent of group shown in the table, assuming the selections of these categories by the respondents would be approx- imately normally distributed, i. e., that relatively few respondents will strongly agree or disagree, while the maiority will hold inter- mediate views, find the "weight" for each category by employing tlue T-score method of scaling . T-score Strongly Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree D isag ree Area of section, or percent of group selecting I3 43 2I I3 IO Approximate values of G'distance from mean to baseline point -I .50 -.40 .43 .98 I.65 for cumulative area to one-half the section 35 46 54 60 67 The values shown in the table are calculated in the following fashion: Stgp I. The percent of group selecting a category is found by dividing the number of selections of the category by the total number of selections. For example, suppose that IOO persons respond to the statement. The data in the top row of the table shows that I3 persons selected the category "Strongly Agree" as representing their opinions of the statement, while 43 selected the category "Agree . " Step 2. The approximate value of the O'distance from the mean ("neutral" Ed. Sciences IV' Manuscript J. E. Hill -13- answer) to the baseline point associated with the cumulative area up to one-half the area of the section is explained by the fol lowing calculations: A. In the case of the category "Strongly Agree," one-half D. of the I3 percent of the group at lower extreme of the normal curve, i. e., 6.5 percent, is at an approximate -1 .SOG'from the mean. The value -I .50 is approximated from values iound in Table A-4, Cumulative Normal Dis- tribution. Regarding the category "Agree," the area associated with the category ”Strongly Agree," i. e., I3 percent, is added to one-half the area (43/2 = 2I .5) of the section associated with the category "Agree." This cumulative area of: l3+2l .5 ‘—" 34.5 is at an approximate -.40 C7 from the mean. The value -.40 is approximated from values found in Table A—4, Cumu- lative Normal Distribution. The cumulative area associated with the category "Undecided" is: I3 + 43 + 2I/2 = 66.5; i. e., the area associated with "Strongly Agree," plus the area with "Agree," plus one-half the area of the section associated with "Undecided." [Employing Table A-4, a cumulative area of .6650 is found to be associate: with an approximate O'distance from the mean of .43. The cumulative area associated with the category “Disagree" is: 168 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -14- I3 + 43 + 2I + I3/2 = 83.5. Employing Table A-4, a cumu- lative area of .8350 is found to be associated with an approx- imate O’distance from the mean of .98. E. In the some fashion as those of Steps A-D, the cumulative area associated with the category "Strongly Disagree" is found to be: 13 + 43 + 21 + 13 + 10/2 = 95; and the approx- imatea' distance from the mean is found to be -T .65. M Employing the formula: T = 50 + I02; where T denotes the "rounded, " whole number value of the T-score, and z the O'distcnce from the mean, the T-scores for each category are found as foliows: Strflly Agree: T = 50 + I0 (-I .5) = 35 Am T=50+ IO(-.40) =46 Undecided: T = 50 + I0 (.43) = 54 Disagree: T = 50 + I0 (.98) — 6O Strongly Disagree: T = 50 + I0 (I .65) = 67 It should be noted that employing the "average 6" distance" method of scaling recommended by Garrett, the W 35:32: for the categories were found to be: Strongly Agree: 34,- Agree: 46; Undecided: 54; Disagree: 60; Strongly Disagree: 68. Only in :he categories covering the upper and lower extremes of the normal distribution is there a reiatively small difference (one point of score) between the approximative T-score method of ' one-half the madistance" scaling and the standard score method of scaling based upon the 'average 6' distance" from the mean approach . If, in the same fashion, the categories of each of the 20 statements comprising the ques- ti¢>mtaire are ”weighted" in terms of T-scores, then an individual's "score, " E . e. , his opinion 169 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J . E. Hill -15- regarding the elements of "demeanor" in administrative style, can be found by adding the T- scores assigned to the 20 categories, i. e., one category per statement, which he selected. Since the units of the T-score scale are equal, they may be compared from item to item, from category to category, or from scale to scale. This type of T-score scaling provides a more accurate assessment of the extent to which extreme opinions regarding a given item are divergent from "neutral" apinion than does an arbitrary weighting (scaling) method. Diagnosticians' Ratings. Many of the orientations of "style" elements for at. individual can be mapped on the basis of diagnosticians' ratings of behaviors assumed to be associated with the elements under consideration. lnrsome cases the diagnosticians rate individuals in terms of a five-point scale, where a rating of "5" indicates the "element" is reflected to a marked degree, a rating of " I" denotes a decided lack of presence of the element, and ratings of 4, 3, and 2 indicate intermediate degrees of presence of the element. Each diagnostician assigns a rating of the individual independent from the others. Some diagnosticians tend to rate individuals' behaviors at the higher end of the scale more frequently than at the lower end. Others rate behaviors at the lower end of the scale more frequently than at the higher end. Under these circumstances, it becomes necessary to assign weights to these ratings in order to make them comparable from diagnostician to diagnostician. The distributions of all the elements associated with the "styles" defined in the Educa— tional Sciences are assumed to be normal in each of the populations of individuals that might be considered by diagnosticians. It is also assumed that diagnosticians are approximately equal in competence to rate the behaviors (and therefore the "elements”) under consideration. Under fliese circumstances, the T-score method of weighting (scaling) the ratings of diagnosticians, in 0 fashion similar to the one used in weighting categories associated with questionnaire items, can be employed. The following example illustrates the procedure: 170 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill .]6. Suppose that two diagnosticians, A and B, rated 50 individuals for qualitative code proxemics, Q(CP), on the five-point scale described fiove. Assume that the percent of individuals are rated by each diagnostician as follows: Rating D iagnostician 5 4 3 2 I A I0°/o I5 50 20 5 B 20 40 20 I O I 0% . From these tabled percents it is apparent that Diagnostician 8 rates "higher" than A , and that a rating of 5 by A may not mean the same degree of presence of Q(CP) as a rating of 5 by B. Employing Table A-4, Cumulative Normal Distribution, the approximate values of O‘disrance from the mean to a baseline point for cumulative area up to one~~half of the se:t.on uncer con~ sideration would be: Rating Diagnostician ' 5 4 3 2 I A I.65 .95 .00 -I.04 -I.96 B I.28 .253 -.524 -I.O4 -I.6S The approximate T-scores (weights) associated with each of these values would become; Rating Diagnostician 5 4 3 2 I A 67 so 50 40 3c 8 63 ' 53 45 4o 33 From the T-score scalings (weightings) of the diagnosticians' ratings, it is inte esting to note 171 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -17- that the rating of "3" assigned by Diagnostician B, which on the surface is the "neutral" or midpoint rating of the range I through 5, and therefore could be assumed to be associated with the fiftieth percentile of the presumed to be normal distribution of Q(CP) in the papu- lation from which the individuals under consideration were drawn, has a T-score scaling of 45. Since a T-score of 50 is located at the fiftieth percentile of a normal distribution, the T—score scaling of 45 of 8's rating of "3" would locate it at approximately the thirtieth percentile. In this context, a rating of "3" assigned an individual by "B" should be interpreted as a minor orientation in the Q(CP) element, while a rating of “3" by A (which shows a T~score of 50) should be considered a minimal maior orientation in that element. The T-score scaling approach is relatively easy to employ when categorical infcrrnation must be translated into stable units of numerical data. Since all the elements included in the "styles" defined by the Educational Sciences are assumed to be distributed normally throughout any papulation of individuals, relative iudgments (e. 9., diagnosticians' ratings) of these elements can be "weighted" by the T-score scaling process. Problems I. During a process of item analysis it is found that five problems associated with the measurement of T(VQ) are passed by: I5%, 34%, 50%, 62%, and 80%, respectively, of a large randomly selected group of individuals. If the zero point of ability for these problems is assumed to be at -3.0 O'distance from the mean of the assumed normal distribution of the difficulty of these items, find theJdistarce from the reference point for each item. (Ans. In order presented: 4.04,- 3.4I; 3.00; 2.69,- 2.16“. 2. On locally constructed instrumentalities designed to measure iiALt a d T(AQ), re- spectively, the empirically established norms are: Mean = 70 and SD = 5; and Mean ~ 60 with SD = 7.5, respectively. If an individual earns; a score of X ~' 75 on each I72 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -13- of the instrumentalities, use standard scores to determine if he possesses equal "Strength” in the respective elements. (Assume the instrumentalities to be of equal reliability, validity, obiectivity, and discriminative power.) 3. Five individuals earned T-scores of: 63, 53, 47, 45, and 42, respectively, an a stan- dardized instrument designed to measure T(VL). Find the percentile rank 1of each "score, " and determine whether the individual with this score should be assigned a major, a minor, or a negligible orientation in th ~: element. 4. On an inventory designed to measure M, D, R, and L, each statement which pertains to only one of the four modalities is to be ranked from I through 5 (ranking of I, high). The rankings of a statement pertaining to the "appraisal (L) modality" were found to be distributed as fol laws: I 2 . 3 4 5 8% 26% 35% 24% ‘ 10% Using the T-score scaling approach, find the "weight" of each ranking category asso- ciated with this item. (Ans. I-32; 2-4I; 3—49; 4-58; 5-67) 5. Fifty individuals are rated for "Individuality" (I) on a seven—point scale by two ding-- nosticians. If the distributiOns of ratings (" I," high) by the two diagnosticians are as shown below, employ the T-score scaling. approach, and determine it the rating of '3" by each diagnostician is different. Which diagnostician is the more ienient of the two in his ratings? Diagnostician A: . Rating {_ Diagnostician B: Ratirg i 5 1 2 .2 I0 2 4 3 20 3 4 4 5 4 5 5 4 5 2O [6 4 6 l0 7 2 7 5 n= HE‘S?)— (Am. 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I a 2&1 . . 1 8. 1 :8. .851: 3.7 $2 .841 a 8.7 88. 2......81 z 85.1 do..< N u eo..< .4 n ZO—hD—ZGPVAQ ‘_/~ "A.:.~.<.~D?n~r\u Aida ”4.5.9 K5293< Nwm APPENDIX C PREFERRED COUNSELING STYLE QUESTIONNAIRE APPENDIX C PREFERRED COUNSELING STYLE QUESTIONNAIRE Using a scale of O - 9, score each answer in accordance with your preference for each response. Score at least one response to each question at 6 or higher but no more than 2 responses to a question should be at 6 or higher. All answers should be scored. The following is an example: Should I seek counseling about the possibility of my working and going to college, I would prefer a counselor who, 6 1. E; 2e 2 3. Listens carefully to my reasons for working and seems genuinely interested in my problem. Makes sure I have an appointment allowing plenty of time for the interview. Presents the problems encountered in working and taking classes, recommends Specific numbers of hours to work in relation to number of credit hours carried. 1. If I were to seek advice regarding my relationship with other members of a student organization, I would prefer that the counselor, l. Have no discuss the situation and have me attempt to seek my own solution. Permit me to discuss the problem, or discuss the problem with me, depending upon the mood I am in at the time. Gets to the point and gives instructions freely. 174 I75 2. Should I see a counselor when I think there is a person- ality conflict between myself and an instructor, I would prefer the counselor who, I. Evaluates my personality and compares it with the personality of the instructor. Sets up an appointment with me and provides plenty of time for me to discuss the situation. Communicates well with me and seems to understand my situation. 3. When I talk to a counselor about a personal problem, I like a counselor who, 1. 2. 3. Gives me his ideas about the situation. Both listens and talks about the situation. Mainly listens, and when he does talk, allows me to ask questions. 4. In seeking advice about my study habits, I prefer a counselor who, Has me explain my study habits and verbalize the problems as I see them. Lets me set the tone of the situation by permitting me to discuss the problem if I choose or by asking me questions about the problem when I am hesitant about discussing the problem. Spends a minimum of time discussing the problem, has me tested and then makes recommendations. 176 5. When I am having difficulty in a specific class, I prefer to see a counselor who, I. Will listen to my side about the problems in the class. Provides the right setting for the interview, guaranteeing privacy and plenty of time. Reviews the methods used in the course and my approach to the course. 6. In seeking help to evaluate my potential for achieving my future goals, I prefer a counselor who, Presents various approaches to me for evaluation and consideration, and I choose among them. Has me give him information about certain aspects of my life and helps me to evaluate some of them while leaving others for my own consideration. Listens to my assessments of me, without a lot of discussion, then makes suggestions for how I might improve the process. 7. When I seek advice regarding my curriculum, I like a counselor who, Has me do most of the talking and gives several areas from which to choose. Discusses various curriculum choices with me depending upon my interests. Reviews my records and makes recommendations as to what he thinks I am best qualified to do. 177 8. When I see a counselor about my choice of a career, I prefer a counselor who, Analyzes me in terms of my potentialities for a given career or occupation. Follows a specific process in setting up an appoint- ment to provide a good interview situation. Gives me information about a number of possible careers, any economic implications, and the time demanded by them. 9. When I seek advice about which courses to take the next semester, I prefer a counselor who, 1. 2. 3. Does not hesitate to make recommendations. Discusses my choices with me when discussion would seem to be appropriate. Listens to what I prefer to take, permitting me to do most of the talking. APPENDIX E COUNSELEE QUESTIONNAIRE APPENDIX D Student Name Counselor Social Security Number COUNSELOR QUESTIONNAIRE Please respond to each statement by using the following code: Strongly Agree 1 Moderately Agree 2 Undecided 3 Moderately Disagree 4 Strongly Disagree 5 Place a check mark next to the number code that best expresses your opinion. 1. In my opinion, the counselee was at ease at the beginning of the interview. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 2. In my opinion, the counselee had a goal for the interview established prior to the interview. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 3. It was necessary to help the counselee establish a goal during the interview. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 4. I had little difficulty communicating with the counselee. 1. 20 30 40 5. 178 7. 9. 10. 179 In my Opinion, the counselee was at ease at the end of the interview. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. In my opinion, the counselee was able to reach his/her objectives by the end of the interview. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I was able to reach my objectives for the interview. 1. 2. 3. A. 5. In my opinion, the interview was a good eXperience for the counselee. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. One interview was sufficient to satisfy the needs of the counselee. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. In my opinion, given the option, the counselee would prefer to see me again should he/she need further assistance. 1. 2. 3. a. 5. 10. 181 The counselor and I talked, but we did not accomplish anything. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I was satisfied with the manner in which the counselor conducted the interview. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I would consider the interview as a good eXperience. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I would prefer to have more opportunity to ask questions than I had. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The counselor made me feel at ease by the end of the interview. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I feel that I reached my objectives. 1. 2O 30 4. 50 Given the choice, I would prefer to see the same counselor again. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. APPENDIX F COUNSELOR CHECK LIST APPENDIX F Counselor COUNSELOR CHECK LIST Based on your observations during the counselor interview, using a scale of O - 9, score each item on the list. The counselor, 1. Permitted the counselees to discuss their problem(s) and arrive at their own solution(s). Was flexible in his approach to the counseling situation. Got to the point and gave instructions freely. Showed a definite interest in the counselee as a person. Made sure the counselee had an appointment and records were available. Used a variety of tools to assist the counselee. Gave information and recommendations freely through- out the interview. Provided an opportunity for a free exchange of ideas between counselor and counselee. Mostly listened to counselee. 182 APPENDIX G A SUGGESTED TECHNIQUE FOR DETERMINING DEGREE OF MATCH BETWEEN "STYLES” AND BETWEEN "STYLES" AND "MODES OF UNDERSTANDING"--JOSEPH E. HILL Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill A SUGGESTED TECHNIQUE FOR DETERMINING DEGREE OF MATCH BETWEEN "STYLES" AND BETWEEN "STYLES" AND ”MODES OF UNDERSTANDING" In the application of the conceptual framework called "the Educational Sciences," the educator is encouraged to participate personally in the processes of observation, assessment, interpretation, and mapping. Techniques which the individual may employ to improve his abilities and outputs in these activities have been presented in connection with such/consider- ations as: reliability, validity, obiectivity, and discriminative power of instrumentalities, scaling, item analysis, item construction, and the diagnostic, prescriptive, and clinical aspects of mapping "styles," as well as mapping of modes of understanding required by "tasks." For example, the three Principles for determining either a maior, or a minor, or a negligible orien- tation of a “style" element invokes an approach in which the obiectivity, the reliability, the validity, and the discriminative power of both the mathematical and the empirical mapping processes employed by the "mapper" are improved or increased relative to an approach that did not include these Principles. Although the instrumentalities employed to yield information for the mapping of elements of "styles" are not, by intention, designed to be predictive of an individual's performance in any given system, once the tentative mode of understanding required by the system (c. g. , a unit of instruction) with which the individual must interact is "determined," a technique for determining the degree of match between the "style" of the individual and the "mode" required by that system has proven to be most beneficial, not only in diagnostic, prescriptive, and clinical practices, but in the realms of student motivation and achievement, as well. This technique has also been found to be contributory, by determining the degree of match between the "styles" of individuals, in the areas of instruction, administration, counseling, and the reduction of dissonance being witnessed by an individual in connection with certain persons, or processes, or properties, or any combination of these elements in the system with which he so: 184 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill is interacting. The "matching" technique suggested here is illustrated in terms of a step-by-step pro- cedure for determining the degree of match between the cognitive styles of Individual A and Individual B, respectively. Although the procedure is illustrated in terms of "matching“ the cognitive styles of two individuals, it can be used equally effectively to match the "style“ of an individual with a mode of understanding required by a given "task, " to determine the match between the administrative style of an individual and the role expectancy, expressed in "style" elements, of the administrative position he holds; and a variety of other matches involving teaching style, counseling style, "preferred" teaching style, and "preferred" admin- istrative style to mention but a few of the possibilities. The step-by—step procedure is as follows: m Determine which "style" or "mode“ is the one to be used as the reterent in the “matching" process. This decision is not an arbitrary one. For examMe, in determining the degree of match between the cognitive style of a student and the cognitive style of the teacher, unless some type of exceptional circumstance exists, the teacher's "style" would be selected as the referent. In this example, it is alarmed that the cognitive style map of Individual A will be the referent. M Basically the system of matching suggested here is one of assigning a value of 3, 2, l, or O, to each element in the “style“ of the individual being matched with the referent "style.“ The M 21". is scored by assigning the value of 3, onl , to each of its elements, exce t that of L, the "appraisal modality _Z. __E,__ _ _ *It should be recalled here that a score is defined to be a value assigned to an act or quality. In this context, assigning values to the elements of “style“ is an act of scoring that style. A ‘ 185 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -3- of inference," which, when it occurs in the "referent," or in the "style" being matched with the referent, should be assigned the value 9. To illustrate this point, suppose that the cognitive style map of Individual A, the referent "style," is as shown below: ‘ r(rm-3 < (rm-3 (12)-3 I F I ’ T(AL)-3 T'(AQ)-3 T(VL)-3 Q(CET)-3 -- -- F-3 R~3 L-9 "Reterent Si '8" Q(CEM)-3 -- -- l x l l'-3 } x l M'-3 l ‘L‘ = g of Q(CES)-3 -- -- A'-3 D’-3 Individual A Q(CP)-3 -- -- IQ (CHM " "' J L J c J RDLVL - I2.2-3 Test Per. Test Per. Per. Per. No . Element Range No . Element Range Element Range Element Range I T(VL) 70-79 7, 8 Q(CEM) 70-79 Q(CES) 60—69 Q(CET) 80—89 2 T(AL) 60-69 Q(CH) 30-39 Q(CK) 20-25 Q(CKH) 20—25 3 T(VQ) IO-I9 Q(CP) 60-69 Q(CS) IO-I9 Q(CT) 20-25 4 T(VL) 70-79 9 | 40—49 A 30-39 F 60—69 5 T(AQ) 40-49 IO M 40-49 D 30-39 R 60-69 6 T(VL) 80-89 L 70-79 It should be noted that each of the respective levels of educational development, I2 for T(AL) and for T(VL),and IOfor T'(AQ), along with reading level - I2.2, is assigned a value of "3" as well as each of the other elements in the "referent style." Ed. Sciences 186 Manuscript J. E. Hill -4- Step 3. Assign a value of 3, 2, I, or 0 to each "element" of the "style" map of Individual B, according to the following rules of assignment (algorithms). VI. VII. VIII. IX. If the Level o_f Educational Development to be scored is: (a) one level below, (b) the same, or (c) higher than its counterpart "level" in the referent style, then assign a value of "3" to this element. Apply Rule l to Reading Level. If the lfi‘fl o_f Educational Develogmgnt to be scored is: (a) two levels below, or (b) three levels below its counterpart level in the referent style, then assign a value of "2" to this element. If Rule I does not apply to Riarmg Level, then apply Rule ill to it. If the L_e_v_e_l ‘1‘ Educational Development to be scored is: (ca) four levels below, or (b) five levels below its counterpart level in the referent style, then assign a value of " I" to this element. It Rule l and Rule “I do not apply to Reading Level, then apply Rule V to it. If the Level 2f Educational Development to be scored is more than five levels below its "counterpart" in the referent style, then assign a value of "O" to it. If the mg I.e_ve_l to be scored is more than five levels below its counterpart in the referent style, then assign a value of "O" to it. With the exception of the elements of: Level of Educational Development, Reading Level, and the Appraisal (L) Modality of Inference, if the element to be scored shows the .s_a_r_n_e_ percentile w, or in the case of composite elements, the same "average" Ercentile range, as its counterpart element Ed. Sciences XI. 18? Manuscript J. E. Hill -5- in the referent style, then assign a value of “3" to it. In the case of an element such as T(VL), a composite variable, the midpoint value of each percentile range included in the "composite" is used to calculate an average percentile value which then is used to establish an appro- priate "average" percentile range which can be compared with its counterpart "average" percentile range in the referent style. If the condition covered by this Rule holds for the "Appraisal (L)" element to be scored, then assign a value of "9" to it. The elements of Level of Educational Development and Reading Level, respectively, are covered by Rules l-Vlll . If the orientation of the element, i. e., a "maior," or a "minor," but not a “negligible," to be scored is the some as its counterpart element in the referent style, but its percentile range, or in the case of composite elements, its "average" percentile range is n_o_t the some as its counterpart element in the "referent," then assign a value of "2" to it. If this con- dition holds for the "Appraisal (L)" element to be scored, then assign a value of "6" to It. If the orientation of the element, i. e.,, a "maior," or a "minor," but not a "negligible," to be scored is different from its counterpart element in the referent style, then assign a value of "I" to it. Since minor and negligible orientations in the "Appraisal (L)" element are not shown in the cognitive style map, this Rule does not pertain to it. in this context, if an element has a negligible orientation, it is not shown in the map and therefore this Rule would not apply to it as well. A Ed. Sciences XI 188 Manuscript J. E. Hill -6- Except for the "Appraisal (L)" element, if the element to be scored does not have a counterpart element in the referent style, then assign a value of “O" to it. In the case of the "Appraisal (L)" element, if its counterpart “L" does E1 occur in the referent style, but a "double- eigen" involving the other "modalities" does occur, then assign a value of "6" to it. If the countepart "L" does not occur in the referent style, but a "single-eigen" condition exists, then assign a value of "3" to it. To illustrate how these Rules are employed, the elements in the cognitive style map of Individual B are scored accordingly: (9)-2 (mm (6)-l T'(VL)-t T(AL)-2 T'(AQ)-2 ( 3 V N y W Q(CEM)-3 -- .. Q(CP)-3 -- -- 0-1 L-~6 Q(CET)-2 -- -- x M A-I x NJ-2 = g of I $ lnlelCll!:ll Q(CS)-0 -- -- l l l l R'-I e Q(CES)-2 -- .. Q'(CK)—0 -- ._ KQ'(CH)-3 -- —— J K J L J RDLVL - 8.6-2 Test Per. Test Per. Per . Per . N0. Element Range No. Element Range Element Range Element Range- 1 T(VL) 30-39 7, 8 Q(CEM) 70-79 Q(CES) 50-59 Q(CET) 60—69 2 T(AL) 50-59 Q(CH) 30-39 Q(CK) 30-39 Q(CKH) 10-1.; 3 TWO) 10-19 Q(CP) 60-69 Q(CS) 50-59 cm) 20-25 4 T(VL) 0-9 9 I 20-25 A 60-69 F 60-69 5 T(AQ) 26-29 10 M 30-39 0 60-69 R 26-29 6 T(VL) 40-49 L 50-59 189 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -7- Since the Level of Educational Development for the T(VL) eigen in the referent style is (I2), while in Individual B's map the "Level“ for the T(VL) eigen is (9), Rule III applies and the value of "2‘" is assigned to that "Level." Since the "Level" of (I0) is associated with the T(AL) eigen of Individual B's map, while the ;"Level" of that eigen in the referent style is (I2), Rule III applies once again, and the value of "2" is assigned to that "Level . “ The Level of Educational Develapment (6) associated with the T(AQ) eigen in Individual B's map is four levels below the T(AQ) eigen in the referent style. Under these circumstances, Rule V applies, and a value of "I" is assig'red to this "Level." Since Reading Level 9 is defined by Levels from 8.5 through 9.49, respectively, the "Level" 8.6 shown in 8's map is defined to be at “Level" 9. In this context, B's Reading Level is three levels below the I2.2 Reading Level shown in the referent style. Accordingly, Rule IV (which applies Rule III to Reading Level) pertains to this situation, and a value of "2" is assigned to the Reading Level of 8.6. Noting that the element theoretical visual linguistic is a minor orientation, T‘(VL), while in the referent style it is a maior orientation, T(VL), Rule XI applies, and a value of " I" is assigned to that element in 8's map. If T(VL), a "composite," had been a minor orientation in the referent, then it would have been necessary to find the value of the arithmetic average (the mean) of the midpoints of the percentile ranges associated with the T(VL) measures, Tests I, 4, and 6, respectively, included in the composite, found in 8's map. H93 '1'? been the situation, the midpoint values would have been 34.5 for the range 30-39 associated with Test I, 4.5 for Test 4, and 44.5 for Test 6. The average of the midpoints would have been: 34.5 + 4.5 +44.5 = 83.5 3 T "average" percentile range of: 26-29. The value of the "average" percentile range of the = 27.8. This value, bydefinition, would be associated with the supposed T'(VL) in the referent style would then have been calculated in the same fashion. If the "average" percentile ranges had been the same, then by Rule IX, a value of "3” would l 90 Ed. Sciences Manuscript -3- J. E. Hill have been assigned to T'(VL) in 8's map. If these "ranges" were found to be different from each other, then according to Rule X, a value of "2" would have been assigned to T'(VL) in 8's map. Since T(AL) in 8's map is the same orientation, a "maior," as that of the T(AL) element in the referent style, but the percentile range, 50-59, for T(AL) in 8's map is different from the range, 60-69, for T(AL) in the referent style, Rule X applies and this element in 8's map is assigned a value of "2." It was not necessary to calculate an "average" percentile range for T(AL) in this case, because this element is not a composite variable as measured by the particular battery employed to produce the referent style (Individual A's map) and Individual 8': map shown in this example. Had T(AL) been a corrposite variable, it would have been noted as such in the map, and the procedure for determining "average" percentile ranges for this element in the referent style and in 8's map would have been employed. In the case of the element, theoretical auditory quantitative, a minor orientation, T'(AQ), occurs in 8's map and also in the referent style. The percentile ranges of these elements, however, are different from each other. Therefore, Rule X applies, and a value of "2" is assigned T'(AQ) in 8's map. Since T(AQ) is [at indicated to be a commsite variable, there is no need to deter- mine an "average"percentile range for this element. Assuming that none of the other elements in the respective "styles," i. e. , in the "referent" and in Individual B's, is a composite variable, the following table shows the element, the Rule, and the value assigned to that element in Individual B's map: lement Rule Value ETement Rule Value Wement RuTe VaTue Q(CEM) IX 3 Q(CP) IX 3 0 X1 I Q(CES) x 2 Q(CS) xu 0 M x 2 Q(CET) X 2 A XI l R XI I Q(CH) IX 3 F IX 3 L X 6 Q(CK) XII 0 I 0, (Does not appear in 8's map) Ed. Sciences Step 4. I91 Manuscript J. E. Hill -9- After the elements in the map being matched with the referent are scored, the total nunber of points associated with each of the following sets of elements, in both the referent style and in _t_h_e map being matched t_o _i_t, must be deter- mined: (a) the Levels of Educational Development and the Reading Level, (b) the combinations of elements in the set Symbols and their Meanings, (c) the "combinations" in the set Cultural Determinants of the Meanings of Symbols, and (d) the combinations in the set Modalities of Inference. To iliustraée this pro- cedure, (a) the total points associated with the Levels of Educational Develop- ment and the Reading Level in the referent file would be: Eigen T(AL)(I2)-3; Eigen T(VL)(I2) - 3; Eigen T'(AQ)(IO) - 3; and RDLVL (l2.2) - 3; or 3+3+3+3 = l2 points. While I2 Individual B_'s m_a_p, the total number of paints associated with these “Levels" would be: Eigen T(AL)(I0)-2; Eigen T'(VL)(9)-2.; Eigen T'(AQ)(6)-l; and RDLVL (8.6)-2; or 2+2+I+2 = 7 points. (b) Since all the elements in the set Symbols and their Meanings are binomial combinations of the form: (T-Q), or (T-Q'), or (Q-T'), or (T'—Q'), where the symbol (') denotes a minor orientation, the 391915.. for the theoretical symbol (T) involved in the combination are added to those for the qualitative symbol in that tative (Q) is “0." In this latter case, IL”! only in t_lla s_e_t Symbols 992.3 th_e_i_r Meanirgs, the total number of points associated with such a binomial is defined to be "0." This ciproach avoids g spuriously high total number giggly} r3 t_h_i_s set of an lndividual's map, deriving from the repeated addition of g particular theoretical symbolic orientation (T) in combination with 2 series o_f q_ualitative orientations (Q 's) that m_a_y have been assigned th__e value o_f "_O_;_'" The values of Ed . Sciences 192 Manuscript J. E. Hill -10- the binomial combinations are then totalled for each eigen, and these values, in turn, are added together to find the total number of points associated with the set Symbols and their Meanings. To illustrate, i2 th_e referent style, for the T(AL) eigen, each of the five binomial combinations: [T(AL) - Q(CET)J ,CT(AL) - Q(CEM)] , (T(AL) - amen] [T(AL) - Q(Cpg , and (mu) - Q'(CHflequal: 3 + 3 = 6 points. Since there are five of these "combinations" and each one yields 6 points, the 33:21 for the T(AL) eigen becomes, 5 x 6 points = 30 points. In similar fashion, the T'(AQ) eigen yields 30 points, as does the T(VL) eigen. Consequently, the total number of points for the set Symbols and their Meanings, i2 th__e referent 5 l0: l5: 3 X 30 P0303 = 90 points. In Individual B's map, the "combinations" of; [T'(VL) - Q(CEM.» ’ E'IVL) " Q(CPB 1 00d [T'(VL) - Q'(CH)] yield: I+3 = 4 points each, or a total of: 3 x 4 points = l2 points; while each of the "combinations" . of: [T'(VL) - Q(CETDand [T'(VL) - Q(cesfl yields: 1+2 = 3 points, or a total of: 2 x 3 points = 6 points. II should b_e_ particularly noted that each of the "COI'JbIflOIlOt'Is" ofsz'NL) - Q(CS)? and fi'(VL) - Q'(CK)] , although ostensibly yielding the value: I+O = I point, is defined t3 yield "9" points i_r_r order tpavoid p_s_puriously high accumulation of points based upon the repeated use of the some element, in this case T'(VL). In the case of the T(AL) eigen, each of the combinations of: (T(AL) - Q(CEMfl, [T(AL) - mail, and [T(AL) - ovcm] yields: 2+3 = 5 points, or a total of: 3 x 5 points = l5 points; while each of the "binomials" of: [T(AL) - amen] and Em) - Q(cssfl yields: 2+2 = 4 points, or a total of: 2 x 4 points = 8 points. Each of the "combinations" of: [T(AL) - Q(CSfland [T(AL) - Q'(CK8 is W to yield "0" points for the reasons given in the cases of [T'(VL) - Q(CSI] and fi'NL) - Q'(CK)] , respectively. Since the element T'(AQ) was assigned the Ed. Sciences I93 Manuscript J. E. Hill -1]- same value, "2," that the element T(AL) was in 8's map, the total points yielded by the T'(AQ) eigen will be equal to the total number of points yielded by the T(AL) eigen in 8's map; i. e., I5 + 8 = 23 points, each. The total number of points yielded by the three eigens in the set Symbols and their Meanings of 8's map is: T'(VL) eigen - I8; T(AL) eigen - 23; T'(AQ) eigen - 23, or: I8 + 23 + 23 = 64 points. (c) The total number of points yielded by the (F) eigen in the “Cultural Determinants" set of the M s le is: F = 3 points, (F - l') = 3 + 3 = 6 points, (F - A') = 3 + 3 = 6 points; or 3 + 6 + 6 = I5 points. The total number of points yielded by the double-eigen array in the "Cultural Determinants" set of 8's map is: F = 3 points, and A = I point; or 3 + I =4 points. (d) In the third set, Modalities of Inference, the total number of points yielded by the (R) eigen and the (L) eigen, in the referent ityle, is: R = 3 points, (R-M') = 3 + 3 = 6 points, and (R-D') = 3 + 3 = 6 points; or: 3 + 3 + 6 = I5 points; while L = 9 points; and the grand total nunber of points for this set of elements is: I5 + 9 = 24 points. The (D) eigen and the (L) eigen i__ B_'infip yield: D = I point; (D-M') = I + 2 =3 points; (D-R') = I + I = 2 points; ora total of: I + 3 + 2 = 6 points, while L = 6 points, so that the grand total number of points for this set is: 6 + 6 = I2 points. With the total number of points determined for: (a) the "Levels," (b) "Symbols and their Meanings," (c) "Cultural Determinants," and (d) the "Modalities," for the referent style, and for Individual B's map, it is now possible to determine the percerx “agreement," or the "match" between each set of the referent style and its counterpc. setin Individual B's "style." The values of these percent indices are calculated by Ed. Sciences 194 Manuscript J. E. Hill -12- dividing the total number of points associated with a given set in 8's map by the total number of points associated with the counterpart of that set found in the referent style. The following calculations illustrate the discussion: (O) "LCVOIS" _ POYCOI'II Of Agreement= TOIOI POIDIS for "LOVBIS" in 8's WP = 1 ~. 58 Total Poi nts f—"LeveIsTin "Referent" I2 " » Total Points for "S mbols" Set in 8's Mr: 64 b II II _ = y P _ l I M Percent Of Agreement Total Points WWfiHs“ Set in "Referent" 390* 7' I _ Total Points for "Determinants" Set in 8's Man no 0 u _ _ r i ‘ 5’ (C) etermrnants Percent Of Agreement Totaerints for "Determinants" Set in "Referent" =I5" 2 (d) ________Modalities" - Percent Of Agreement = Total Points F "Modalities" Set' m “ Re Step 6. N Total Points for “Modalities" Set In 8's Ma I sr—E- = -- = .50 t" 2 In order to determine the general percent of agreement, or degree of match, between Individual B's "style" and the Referent Style, Individual A in this example, the arithmetic average or the mean of the percents of agreement found in Step 5 is calculated. In this example: .583+ .7Il+ .266+ .50 __.2 060__ Degree of Match= 4 =—T= .515 It should be noted that each percent of agreement is given an equal “weighting" in this process. Through this approach, Levels of Educational Development and Reading Level, as one set of information, is accorded one-quarter of the overall degree of match. Obviously, the same “weighting" pertains to each of the other three sets of information involved in the "match," as well. Applying Principle I, II, or III associated with the process of mapping styles, determine the "orientation," i. e., a "maior," or a “minor," or a "negligible,” of the Degree of Match. In this example with the value of the match being: -515- PfInCInlfl I walla k. nnnIiAA “RA ‘3‘. "MI-‘ALH \A:~s|l‘ Len n'---i‘:--‘ ‘95 Ed. Sciences Manuscript J. E. Hill -13- "a Maior." It should be noted that a 5i .5 percent "match" is a minimum match at best, and any assignment based upon this degree of match should be monitored and subiected to rather frequent analysis. The seven-step procedure presented here has evolved from a number of doctoral studies and proiect efforts. Many other approaches (a. g., multiplicative models) have been employed, bi. this procedure, the latest at this point in time of many additive models, has proven, empiricall; , to be the most effective one developed to date. APPENDIX H RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF MATCHING OF COGNITIVE "STYLE" OF COUNSELOR B AND GROUPS WITH MAJOR OR MINOR MATCH WITH THE COUNSELOR APPENDIX I RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF MATCHING OF COGNITIVE "STYLE" OF COUNSELOR C AND GROUPS WITH MAJOR OR MINOR MATCH WITH THE COUNSELOR FT'ML) T(AQ) T'(VL) T'(VQI— I 7 IT 7 I I .J I- J _ Figure B1. Cognitive Style Map-~Counselor C ”T'(AL) T Q(CET) Q(CEM) I e = Q(CS) x x Q(CEs) F' 0 or A' BSICHI _ L _ I. - n = 8 criterion n = 6 Figure B2. Collective Cognitive Style Map of Students with a major match with Counselor C 200 Figure A3. 197 F. ——r l— .—I Elements held in common between Counselor B and the Group L. ._ Tim.) T(AQ) T(VL) T(VQ) Q(CKHI Q(CH) R D L Q(CK) Q(V) X X Q(T) M'M' (K) Q(S) CNN 3.”) J a J _ .— Figure A4. Elements that are different from each other in the "Collective Style" of Group, and Counselor's Style-- Referent, Counselor B T'(AL) T'(AQ) T(VL) T'(VQ) Q'(CH) X M Q'(CK) A' R' Q'(CKH) D' Figure A5. Elements that are different from each other in the "Collective Style“ of Group, and Counselor's Style-- Referent, Student Group TT’WVL) 7 ‘F T E Q(CEM) M L Q(CET) e = Q(CP) X X Q(CS) A' R' Q(CK) BICESI _J a _I _ .3. n = 4 criterion n = 3 Figure A6. Collective Cognitive Style Map of Students with a minor match with Counselor B Figure A7. Figure A8. Figure 9A. Q(CEM) E I T Q(CET) L Q(CP) X X Q(CS) Q(CK) 310138) _I __ _: L J Elements held in common by Counselor B and the Group of Students with a minor match with Coun- selor B T(AL) T(AQ) T(VL) T(VQ) “T T T- Q(CKH) Q(CT) I R D Q(CH) OH) x x Q(T) F' M'M' (K) Q(S) Q(P) QIO) I3“) 3 L J _ _. Elements that are different from each other in the "Collective Style" of the Group, with a minor match, and Counselor's Stylen-Referent, Counselor B T'(VL) M X X A' R' Elements that are different from each other in the "Collective Style” of the Group, and the Coun- selor's Style-~Referent, Student Group T'(VL) 7 Ir E Q(CET) M Q(CEM) X X Q(CEs) Q(CP) A' R' we .3 _ s _ _. . Elements that are common between Students with Figure £10 198 major and minor match with Counselor B Figure A11. Figure A12. T'(AL) T'(AQ) T'(VQ) E T Q(CT) 0(0) Q (CH) X 0'ICK) Ft _J b DI _ Elements that are different from each other in the "Collective Styles" of Groups with major and minor matches with Counselor B--Referent, Group with major match 4 L ..J L... Elements that are different from each other in the "Collective Styles" of Groups with major and minor matches with Counselor B--Referent, with minor match Group 201 T'(AL) ‘I T F Q(CET) Q(CEM) I Q(CS) X X Q(CES) F' £(CP) ..JI I— A. ..l I— _ Figure B3. Elements held in common between Counselor C and the Group WAQ) T'(VL) T'(VQ) 7 I— Q(CKH) Q(CT) Q(CK) D R L Q(T) Q(S) X X Q(CH) M'M' (K) Q(P) Q(A) am L9 (0) ...I I. ._J L _. Figure B4. Elements that are different from each other in the "Collective Style" of Group, and Counselor's Style-- Referent, Counselor C Q'ICH) L ..L -L m Figure B5. Elements that are different from each other in the ”Collective Style" of Group, and Counselor's Style-- Referent, Student Group 202 fi'um 'r'uG) T'(VL) Q(CS) L g = Q(CET) X X Q(CEM) 'IQICP) .J L __ ._ J n = 7 criterion n = 5 Figure B6. Collective Cognitive Style Map of Students with a minor match with Counselor C rT'(AL) T'(VL) T I. I Q(CS) L 0 GET x x Q GEM .0 01’) m _ _l _ .l Figure B7. Elements held in common by Counselor C and the Group of Students with a minor match with Coun- selor C ' Tina) T'(VQ) I I— 'I I— I 0 cm) M'M' (K) o _.J I... J — ...I Figure B8. Elements that are different from each other in the "Collective Style" of the Group, with a minor match, and Counselor's Style-~Referent, Counselor C T'IAQ) Figure 89. Elements that are different from each other in the ”Collective Style" of the Group, and the Coun- selor's Style--Referent, Student Group Figure BIO. 0.0 A0 £13m VV Figure B11. T'(AQ) Figure B12. 203 ..l L... .. I—. —A Elements that are common between Students with major and minor match with Counselor C X I X F! A. Elements that are different from each other in the "Collective Styles" of Groups with major and minor matches with Counselor C--Referent, Group with major match T'(VL) Elements that are different from each other in the "Collective Styles" of Groups with major and minor matches with Counselor C--Referent, Group .with minor match APPENDIX J RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF MATCHING OF COUNSELING "STYLE, OF COUNSELOR B, AND PREFERRED COUNSELING "STYLE" OF GROUPS WITH A MAJOR OR MINOR MATCH WITH THE COUNSELOR APPENDIX J RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF MATCHING OF COUNSELING ”STYLE," OF COUNSELOR B, AND PREFERRED COUNSELING "STYLE" OF GROUPS WITH A MAJOR OR MINOR MATCH WITH THE COUNSELOR CS 2 Figure 01. I Figure C2. I Figure C3. Figure 04. U PC TP x x 0' PN' RP' Counseling Style-~Counselor B ” I: {1:}qu n = 2 criterion n = 2 Collective Preferred Counseling Style of Students with a major match with Counselor B ”IxI IxI I Elements that are common between Counselor B and the Group of Students with a major match with Counselor B .. Ix IX [:1 Elements that are different between the "Collective Style" of the Group and the Counselor's Style-- Referent, Counselor B 204 Figure 05. Figure 06. 205 PN RP Elements that are different between the "Collective Style” of the Group and the Counselor's Style-- Referent, Student Group with a major match with Counselor B 0 PN PT RP 0' TP' n = 3 criterion n = 2 Collective Preferred Counseling Style of Students with a minor match with Counselor B [M j [m] [.m ] Figure 07. Figure C8. Elements that are common between Counselor B and the Group of Students with a minor match with Counselor B U PC TP 0' PN' RP' Elements that are different between the "Collective Style" of the Group and Counselor's Style-- Referent, Counselor B 206 0‘ PN PT RP 0' TP' Figure 09. Elements that are different between the "Collective Style” of the Group and Counselor's Style-- Referent, Group with a minor match Figure 010. Elements that are common between the Student Group with a gajor match with Counselor B and the Stu- dent Group with a minor match with Counselor B I" Ixf IxI I Figure 011. Elements that are different between the "Collective Styles" of Groups with major and minor matches with Counselor B--Referent, Group with major match 0 PT 0' TP' Figure 012. Elements that are different between the “Collective Styles” of Groups with major and minor matches with Counselor B--Referent, Group with minor match APPENDIX K RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF MATCHING OF COUNSELING "STYLE," OF COUNSELOR C, AND PREFERRED COUNSELING "STYLE" OF GROUPS WITH A MAJOR OR MINOR MATCH WITH THE COUNSELOR APPENDIX K RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF MATCHING OF COUNSELING "STYLE," OF COUNSELOR C, AND PREFERRED COUNSELING "STYLE" OF GROUPS WITH A MAJOR OR MINOR MATCH WITH THE COUNSELOR 0 PC PN TP CS 2 X X RP' Figure D1. Counseling Style--Counselor C U PN PT RP PC ' n = 10 criterion n = 7 Figure D2. Collective Preferred Counseling Style of Students with a major match with Counselor C I IX I“ IxI I Figure D3. Elements that are common between Counselor C and the Group of Students with a major match with Counselor C 0 PC TP x x RP' QP' Figure D4. Elements that are different between the "Collective Style" of the Group and the Counselor's Style—- Referent, Counselor C 207 Figure D5. I Figure D6. 208 U PT RP PC' Elements that are different between the "Collective Style“ of the Group and the Counselor's Style-- Referent, Student Group with a major match with Counselor C PT X X U' PN' RP' n = 4 criterion n = 3 Collective Preferred Counseling Style of Students with a minor match with Counselor C 1: (None) 1 I: (None) 1 I: (None) 1 Figure D7. I Figure D8. Elements that are common between Counselor C and the Group of Students with a minor match with Counselor C 1 [Mix ITPI Elements that are different between the "Collective Style" of the Group and Counselor's Style-- Referent, Counselor C Figure D9. Figure D10. Figure D11. Figure D12. 209 PT U' PN' Elements that are different between the "Collective Style" of the Group and Counselor's Style-- Referent, Group with a minor match Elements that are common between the Student Group with a major match with Counselor C and the Stu- dent Group with a minor match with Counselor C U PN RP PC' Elements that are different between the "Collective Styles" of Groups with major and minor matches with Counselor C--Referent, Group with major match U' PN' RP' Elements that are different between the “Collective Styles" of Groups with major and minor matches with Counselor C--Referent, Group with minor match