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Thesis for the Degree of M, .5
Flood Shields Andrews
1928

 

 

 

LOCALIZATION OF CERTAIN FACTORS

INFLUENCING THE SIZE OF

Thesis

Submitted to the Faculty of the Michigan State
College of Agriculture and Applied Sci—
ence in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree
of Master of Science.

1/ ”J
A// by
, I/
a Flood Shields Andrews

, (1 '
0f / / June 1928

THESIS

Acknowledgments

The writer wishes to acknowledge the
valuable assistance received from Professor
V. R. flardner, head of the department of horti—
culture of Michisan State ColleQe, who supervised
the planning and conducting of this work, and
reviewed the manuscript; also the helpful sug-
gestions received from Professor F. 0. Bradford
and Dr. John W. Grist, who also reviewed the

manuscript.

93782

Introduction

The demand for large fruit has long been
recognized, but the relative importance of producing
uniformly larger apples has been more seriously
considered since the recent studies by Gaston (?1)
revealed the fact that small size is responsible
for a large percent of the culling that is done in
grading apples.

The cause for variation in the size of
apples (within certain varieties) has been studied
more or less from the standpoint of conditions af-
fecting individual trees; consequently there is a
considerable body of data on the influence of various
environmental factors on the size of fruit borne by
the tree as a whole. However, there is comparative-
ly little information on the localization of factors
within the parts of the tree to eXplain the variation
in the size of the fruit borne on individual limbs,
branches, or spurs. Obviously, any information as
to how the factors influencing the size of the fruit
can be localized, or segregated so that the response
of the various units of the tree may be more uniform,

hereby producing uniformly larger apples, would be

of interest.

In these investigations a study was made
of the localized and general responses of the tree

to such environmental factors as (l) the plication

ap
of water and nitrogen to certain roots, (2) root
pruning, (3) trunk, limb, and Spur girdling, (4)
defoliation, and (5) shading, as might be indicated
by the subsequent variation in the size of the

fruit.

I
m
I

Review of Literature

Factors influencing tree as a whole

Nutrients, water, cultivation:

Hendrickson and Veihmeyer (30) in some ex-
periments with irrigation water found that the size
of peaches has increased about sixty percent by
irrigation in the dry areas.

Batchelor, (cited by @ardner, Bradford and
Hooker (18)) in reporting upon results of irrigation
experiments with peaches, states no amount of water
applied early in the season to a crop of peaches on
a gravelly soil will compensate for the lack of water
a month before harvest.

Ruth and Baker (50) gave data to show that
the growth of the deeper roots was not materially
affected by the distribution of water, where the trees
are on a slope and the water table is relatively low.
However, the length and character of the root system
was found to be associated with soil differences.

Ralston (44) concludes that the size of
apples may be increased by the early application of
nitrogenous fertilizers, while the later applications

had less influence on the size and yield of fruit.

COOper (9) in working with apple trees,
found that nitrogen is the most effective element
in orchard fertilization and that the fruit matured
somewhat later but was considerably larger in size
when nitrogen was applied.

Bedford and Pickering (4) present data to
show that sod reduces the size and weight of the
leaves; decreases the depth of rooting; influences
the color of fruit leaves and bark; and reduces the
vigor of the tree.

Malpighe, (cited by Palladin) concluded that
soil solutions move upward through the wood and that
the organic substances move through the "cortex".

His work was later substantiated by Pfeffer (41),

Czapek (l4), Palladin (40), Chandler (7), Rumbold

(47), Auchter (2), Garner (18), and Curtis (12).

The works of Curtis and Garner give evidence which
conflicts with the views of Czapek wherein he stated
that reserve plant food passes from the roots to the
growing point through the xylem, and with the state-
ment made by Atkins (1) that xylem tissue is essential
for the upward translocation of foods, Curtis presents
evidence to show that synthesized plant foods pass

both upward and downward through the phloem, and Garner

furnished further evidence that the movement of food
is restricted to the phloem.

Eames and McDaniels (16) suggest that the
younger xylem cells function in the conduction of
nutrients while the older thick walled cells function
only in water conduction.

Curtis (13) noted that girdling injured the

xylem tissue and interfered with its function.

Girdling and pruning:

Marshall (40) found that the total yield of
apples, in some cases even the total yield of large
apples, was reduced by pruning (but there were rela—
tively more large apples on the pruned than on the

unpruned trees.)

Shading, leaf area, thinning:

Dorsey and Mchunn (15) have shown that the
size of the fruit on peach trees is larger when it
has been thinned.

Lincoln (39) states: "It is evident that
young pear trees may lose nearly as much nitrogen by
shedding their leaves as the tree was able to take

from the soil during the season."

Factors influencing the variation within

different parts of the tree.

Cross transfer of water nutrients and plant foods:

Hartig (Cited by Dankin (45)) introduced
some colored solution into the growing stems of trees
and found that the colored solution would be con-
ducted to the tops of the trees, but only those
vessels directly above the points of injection were
colored.

Pfeffer (41)(translated by Ewart) "If two
saw cuts are made one above the other on opposite
sides of twigs of the oak or of the fir each passing
the center of the stem, sufficient water will reach
the leaves to keep them turgid." He states further
that ”Lateral connections in the vascular bundles
allow water to pass along oblieue paths."

Chandler (8) in some winter injury studies
gave evidence to show that materials made by the
foliag , which tend to mature and make the wood
hardier are not uniformly distributed throughout the
branches and trunk but are confined to the area
directly beneath the linb bearing the foliage.

Heinicke (29) noted that when nitrate of soda

was applied to one side of apple trees the limbs
directly above retained their leaves longer in the
fall.

Blake (5) cites a case where fertilizers
applied to only one side of certain peach trees
caused a greater variation in size of the fruit
than upon the trees receiving full share of nitrogen
on all sides.

Oils and Carrero (32) in some cultural ex-
periments with corn showed that roots growing in a
complete nutrient solution assimilated potassium and
phosphorus at a greater rate than when the roots
were divided into three incomplete solutions. In
explanation of the results the authors state:"Probably
the chief inhibition to translocation (the slowness
of translocation which they claimed reduced assimi-
lation) arises froh the fact that nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium were more or less scattere , as it were,
in different parts of the plant, as a result of having
been absorbed by different roots."

Crane (cited by Auchter (2)) in some pruning
experiments, found that in general larger and more

roots had developed directly under the larger limbs.

-U-

The top of one side of a tree which had been dwarfed
by pruning had roots on that side smaller than those
on the opposite side.

Auchter (3) in some experiments with woody
plants, found that when roots were removed from one
side of a tree and then nitrate applied to the ground
evenly under the spread of all limbs, "the leaves on
the side to which the roots had been pruned lost
nitrogen". He also found that when nitrate was ap-
plied to one side of a tree and the other side is
used as a check (1) the catalase activity on the
nitrated side is much greater, (9) the leaves on the
nitrated side did not have as high a sap concentra—
tion, (3) the rate of transpiration is higher on the
nitrated side, (4) the foliage on the nitrated side
became greener and somewhat Iarger.

When halves of certain trees were defoliated
and the other half used as a check he found that the
sap expressed from the bark of the roots directly
under the undefoliated halves had a larger total con—
centration in every case than that expressed from the
bark of the roots directly under the defoliated halves.

Where nitrogen was applied to one side of the tree the

moisture content of the leaves appeared to be the
same on both sides of the tree. He suggests, however,
that water may move through or around the tree with—

out much difficulty.

Girdling and bending:

Curtis (ll) in studying the influence of
girdling and ringing on woody plants, concluded that
defoliated stems from which a ring of tissue extend-
ing to the xylem is removed ceased to grow. If the
leaves above a ring are not defoliated the leaves
are able to supply sufficient food for considerable
growth. When dormant stems are ringed the growth
above the ring ceases soon after the starch supply
is depleted. The greater the starch supply above
the ring the longer growth will continue. "Then a
ring is made on that part of a stem from 5 to 15 or
more years old or from 1 to 4 centimeters in diameter
the growth above the ring approximates that of a
nornal stem, which fact indicates that upward move—
ment of food fron points below the ring is not essential
for growth above the ring." When shoot growth is

well started much of the food used for continuous growth

-1i-

may be produced by the leaves of that shoot, which
fact indicates that considerable growth may take
place where but little stored food is available.
Garner (19) in some ringing experiments
with Bartlett pears found that ringing interfered with
the passage of water due to injury of the xylem;
bending, however, did not seem to interfere with the
passage of water. He also states: "Ringing, bending,
and heading back of shoots resulted in the growth
of buds immediately below the ring."
Howard (33) states concerning the position
of the liab which may influence growth: "The crude
sap from the roots rises most rapidly in those branches
and twigs which are nearest in a straight line upward
from the ground."
Dorsey and Xchunn (15) mentioned that limbs
which are bent by heavy crops tend to grow slower
.and become weakened because of shading and crowding

of lower limbs.

Pruning and other factors:
Cooper (9) found that pruning will change the

performance of spurs, but that the effectsof pruning

“LL—

are limited to the areas in close proximity to the
cut, and do not at all correspond to the size of the
cut.

Harvey (27) supported the work of Cooper
that the effect of pruning is rather localized and
that individual limbs respond to pruning in the
same way as do whole trees.

Hooker and Bradford (31) in a study of the
individual behavior of spurs in fruit bud formation,
report that the spur, or branch of the tree, act as
units, but that the individual spurs are influenced
by other portions of the tree.

Roberts (47) in studies concerning the
individual behavior of spurs in fruit bud formation
states: "Spurs act largely as individuals -- fruit—
fulness is related to spur length" and that pruning
and biennial bearing both had influences on spur

length.

Light, shading, leaf area and temperature:
Gourley and Nightingale (27) reported some
interesting results from shading certain horticultural

plants. They state: "The intensity of sunlight re~

of the plants treated responded in the same manner

J.

-rate plant.

O)

as if it had been a sep

Coville (10) found that when certain portions
of a plant were exposed to cold the response of the
plant was :enerarl localized.

From the evidence based on the observations
and experiments of previous investiwators the follow—
ing statements seem warranted:

Such environmental factors as available plant
nutrients and water, cultivation or sod, distance of

planting and type of pruning, temperature, li

_ '\
“—Ifijlt ’

0')

hading, and other factors msy influence the tree as
a whole or some of its individual parts.

There is some evidence of cross transfer of
water in woody plants, but the amount of cross transfer
in specific kinds of trees under different Conditions
Las not been worked out. That there is little or no
cross transfer of plant nutrients or elaborated plant
food in an apple tree is fairly evident. The theory
first advanced by Pfe.fer that water may pass through
the lateral connections in the vascular bundles and
thus through or around the stem is supported by the

results of all subseouent investigators so far.

ceived by the plant had a marked influence on the type
of growth, the size, structure and color of their
leaves; their roots and upon the reproduction processes."
(It may be noted here that the writers failed to
mention the possible influence of the difference
in the temperature and humidity of the shaded areas)
They noted that the air temperature runs higher in
the shaded areas than in the open, while the soil
temperatures are cooler under the shade than in the
open. They point out further that different species
and horticultural varieties of species responded
somewhat differently but in the same general direction.
They also found that the leaf area was increased but
the thickness was reduced by shading and that the
leaves drOpped several days earlier on the shaded
portions.

Kraybill (33) suggests that shading is
effective either by reducing carbon assimilation or
by increasing nitrogen or by both actions. He points
to the fact that shading decreases while ringing in-
creases fruit bud formation.

Garner and Allard (20) in studying the in-

fluence of light on plants, report that each portion

-14-

Pruning has been found (by Marshall and
others) to influence the size of the fruit, while
other investigators (Cooper and Harvey) agreed in
their findings that the influence of pruning is
localized within close proximity to the cut made.

Investigators dealing with light, shading,
and leaf area, present evidence to support the con—
clusion that any degree of shading or defoliation
may have more influence on the variation in size of
fruit than has been commonly believed.

The recent work of Dorsey and Mchunn has
confirmed the long accepted belief that thinning in—
creases the size of fruit. The findings of Heller and
hagness concerning the leaf area requirements of in—
dividual fruit may be accepted as a reliable criterion
whereby the degree of thinning necessary for the normal
develOpment of fruit may be determined.

After reviewing the work of previous in—
vestigators the following questions arise:

(1)‘Fhat causes the variation in the size
of apples on the different trees within a variety;
on different limbs or branches of the same tree?

(2) To What extent will environmental factors,

affecting only Specific roots or branches, influence

-15....

the size of fruits in close proximity to the treated
areas, and to what extent, if any, will the fruit on
remote parts of the tree be affected?

(3) Does the water, or the nutrients, ab-
sorbed on one side of an apple tree influence the size
of the fruit on that side, only, or is there an appre—
ciable transfer of water or mineral nutrients or plant
food to the developing fruit on the other side?

(4) That effect will an excess of carbohy-
drates or an excess of available nitrogen in certain
parts of the tree have on the size of apples, locally
or generally throughout the tree?

(5) Does the removal of the older leaves
from certain parts of a tree (such a condition as spray
burn or insects may cause) influence the size of the
fruit locally or generally?

(6) Is there a correlation between the number
of leaves on a spur and the size of the fruit, or can
the fruit draw freely for synthesized food materials
from adjacent leaves?

(7) Does the fruit draw more of its food
materials from the leaves near the growing points or
from the base of the limbs? That is, from what di-

rection does it come?

(8) What influence has the position of the
limb (whether it be upright or lateral) on the size
of fruit?

(9) fhat local or general influence on the
size of apples has shading of small branches, large
limos, or the whole tree?

The purpose of this investigation was to ob—
tain evidence that would at least partially answer
some of these Questions.

The experiments were conducted at the Graham
Horticultural EXperiment station, of the Michigan
State College, located at Grand Rapids, Iichisan.

Only those trees bearing a.full crOp of
apples, evenly distributed on both sides of the tree,
were selected for the experiments. The fruits on
all trees, including the checks, were thinned to
approximately six inches apart at the time the treat-
ments were applied,

In some cases more apples were measured on
one side than on the other side of a tree, due to the
presence of such factors as certain limbs being bent,
broken, or growing across from one side of the tree
to the other, causing the fruit on those limbs to be

discarded,

 

 

Presentation of data.

Experiments concerning translocation or cross transfer

of water, nutrients and plant food.

The work of previous investigators, cited
in the review of literature, has confirmed the long
_accepted view that water greatly influences the size
of apples. Their conclusions also indicate that exact
evenness in the application of irrigated water is un-
necessary, and that the individual variations in size
as we find them on the tree are not due to localized
irregularities or variations in the water supply.

Cne experiment was conducted in the course of this
investigation that further information on this point
might be obtained.

Water was applied, at the rate of ?OO aallons
per tree per week from June 13 to October 1, to the
soil on one side of each of two trees, one Ontario and
one Wealthy. On the opposite half of the tree the
ground was made rain proof by the use of tar paper

roofing covering an area of 10' x 90'. Around one

pi
(D

whole tree the ground was ma' rain proof by tar paper
roofing covering an area of 20' x 90'. To one whole

tree water was applied at the rate of A00 sallons

each week. Two trees were used as checks. At

the time the roofing was put around the trees the
soil contained a high percent of moisture due to the
previous rains. The moisture content was determined
on soil samples taken September 1 and October 17.
These data are siven in table 1.

The increase in the size of apples on the
watered side of the trees, as compared with the dry
side (shown in table 1), was very slight. The dif—
ferences associated with differences in water ap—
plication were greatly exceeded bythe individual
tree variation. It appears from the r sults of
this and previous experiments that water may pass
through or around a limb, and when applied to one
side of a tree will tend to be distributed to all
parts of the tree in sufficient quantities to pro-
duce apples of practically the same size and weight
on both sides. Since so few trees were included in
this eXperiment, the results cannot be considered
conclusive; however, they are in line with those of
several investigators who have already been cited.

The large size of the apples on tie sup-

*

posedly "dry" tree was doubtless due to a deeper

root system supplying necessary water from below,

or to some soil variation not accounted for. The
water supply in the first three feet of soil taken
from the covered area ran well under the requirements
for the normal development of the fruit, as shown

by supplement sheet a tached to table 1.

 

 

 

 

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Fertilizer applications:

Accepting the general view that apple trees

resfond to nitrates more readily than any other fer—

tilizer, nitrates were the only fertilizers used.

The nitrate experiment was conducted as follows:

10

Nitrate of soda at the rate of four pounds per
half tree was applied to one side of three
VcIntcsh trees June 10.

Nitrate of soda at the rate of four pounds per

half tree was applied to three McIntosh trees

June 10. The trunks of these trees were girdled

(0

June _3.

Nitrate of soda was applied at the same rate to
one side of two Ontario trees June 6. On the
opposite side of these trees the roots were
pruned at the same time.

*Nitrate of soda was applied a the rate of eight
pounds per tree to two McIntosh trees June 10.
Nitrogen was applied at the rate of eight pounds
per tree to two McIntosh trees June ll. One side

of these trees received root pruning.

*Where eight pounds of nitrates was applied it was

distributed evenly to all parts of the ground beneath

the tips of the limbs.

6. Nitrogen was applied at the rate of eight pounds
per tree to one Ontario tree June 6.

7. Three Ontario trees received nitrogen at the rate
of eight pounds per tree June 6, with certain limbs
and branches girdled.

8. Two Ontario trees received eight pounds of nitrate
of soda per tree June 6. These trees were trunk
girdled at the same time.

9. Six McIntosh trees received an application of four
pounds ammonium sulphate per half tree August 1?.

‘

Ch of two McIntosh trees received eight pounds

[11
0)

10.

of ammonium sulphate August 18.

A study of the results given in table 2 re-
veals evidence which supports the findings of previous
investigators wherein they concluded: (a) that nutrients
applied to one side of a tree are used or stored main-
ly on that side; (b) that the mid-summer application
of nitrogen has very little influence on the size of
the fruit.

These data show a substantial increase in size
of the apples on the nitrated side of the trees as com—
pared with the check side, which evidence holds true

for all trees receiving early application of nitrogen.

-24..

In combination with the other treatments the nitrated
sides of the trees produced larger apples in every
instance (that is, including where the limbs or branches
were girdled and also where the opposite roots were

pruned).

Cultivation vs sod:

Apples on both sides of two trees, one side
of which had been in cultivation and the other in sod
for several years were harvested and separately measured.
These trees were on the check row between the cultivated
and sod plots and had been so treated for several years.
Results are shown in table 3. In each case the apples
on the cultivated side were very much larger. This
show that the response to continuous cultivation or
variation in the nutrient supply fron year to year on
one side of an apple tree where the opposite side re-
ceives a different treatment, continues to be localized,
and that cross transfer of nutrients and plant food over
a long period of time is negligible, though presumably
the difference in water content of tissues between the
two sides is negligible. Incidentally, when consider—
ed along with the other evidence that is presented in
this report, it indicated clearly that the main influence
of sod on the apple tnee is through its effect on nutrient

rather than water supply.

 

 

 

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mamAImso coHpm>HpHno use .mpwaoanw adHnosam mo soHpmoHHmow mama mo mpommmm

m meae

Root pruning:

The root pruning was performed on the IcIntosh
trees June 22 and on the Ontario trees June 9 and 10.
All of the roots were cut on one side of each tree
four feet from the outer circumference of the trunk
by digging a trench 18" to ?4" deep. To four trees
nitrogen was applied to the side Opposite that on
which the roots were pruned. On two trees certain
liubs and branches were girdled on the root pruned
side to compare with girdled limbs and branches on
the opposite side. Two trees had their trunks girdled
in connection with root pruning, while two trees re—
ceived no other treatment.

Table 4 indicates that the root pruning on
one side of an apple tree influenced the size of
apples on that side but did not influence the size of
fruit to an appreciable extent on the opposite side
of the tree, except where the trunk of the tree was
twisted. In one case the trunk of the tree was de-
cidedly twisted so that presumably the roots on one
side of the tree did not supply the nutrients to the
linbs above, in which case the apples on the root
pruned side were larger. But generally apples on

the check side of the trees were larger.

-28..

Where the roots were pruned on one side and
nitrogen was applied to both sides of the tree, the
apples tended to show less variation in size than
where root pruning on one side alone was practiced.

In one case the apples were larger on the root pruned
side. There were not enough trees under this treat—
ment for the results to be conclusive, but incidental-
ly, Gardner, Bradford and Hooker (18) cites an analogous
case where Rivers, one of the leading exponents of the
root pruning practice, recommended cutting the roots
around the tree, and filling the trench with manure

in order for the tree to make "short and well ripened
-shoots and bear abundantly".

The data on the root pruning experiments
show that the variation in size of the fruit grown
on different trees is greater than the difference due
to the treatments. Although the evidence is not con-
clusive, the results are interesting and show possi-
bilities for future development.

measurements, as given in table 5, indicate
that trunk girdling does not materially affect the

passage of nutrients, since the apples on the check

(D

ide were consistently larger than those on the root

pruned side. The results of this erperiment were
also substantiated by the experiments shown in table
5 wherein the trunks of certain trees were girdled,
having nitrogen applied to the Opposite side of the

tree, the apples on the nitrated side being laraer.

 

.moonp omen» Op vowed
mes mpmgaHdm adHnosem mo acumen m a

 

 

m.mMH omoge :H.~ weH Hw.m wMH menu goose m
H.mmH Hmo.H mm.n mHH mm.w mMH coup xoono m
m.mMH mHo.a om.s .omm NH.w HHH menu mHoas ammoanz .
Manna Mm.:mH mnemw mw.~ em om.m mw onHm possum mpoom
cmpmHBp n.0mH mmo.w mw.~ mmH wH.m MOH moan m *: sowoanz m
m.mMH mmo.n mm.a mHH mH.m mm oeHm ascend mpoom
.o.omH HMOHH Hm.~ mOH 0:.m MN moan m a: ammoanz H
wIw damn condemn I upmHHe> oHprso
m.wo mmo.H mw.m Hm mm.m mm I oUHm Momeo
:.NM HHo.H ~m.u mm mm.m HHH may» a amazed mpoom I
H.mHH mHo.H m~.m aw mw.r mm - mean sumac
_ m.MHH mHomfl :m.m NNH mn.$ mm emu» m census mpoom g
mw mm.mOH HHo.H ow.m ms -.m mmH I mass sumac
. w.mm mHonn sm.m omH mm.u omH owns a eoesna mpoom m
m.m~ mHo.H oo.m mmH mm.m ma oeHm scone
m.wm :HOHH mm.m wNH w®.m mm ooh» m possum mpoom H
mawmm nonnm .ao.Hv meaqm .50 .eva mmHmmmI psmspwmpe moms
.ps.m>< mHnmnoam mmwnm>< ampedm wwmnm>< Hmpadz
mm nonempaum mm pmsmw< mm mash ngpsHom
pmm>ndg as mpqmsonsmmma mpsmsmnsmmmz ompwmmmI hpmHsmP

 

mo mNHm as» no menu was mo mUHm who so mpoon msHssnm mo mpoommm

muHm ngpHo no mmHme

: oHpaa

Girdling:

Seventeen McIntosh and four Ontario trees
were used in the girdlina experiments. The YcIntos h
trees were girdled June 22 to 27, the Ontario trees
were girdled June 6.

Trunk girdling:

Two trees ringed or girdled at the trunk
received no other treatment, while one tree receiving
root pruning and three trees receiving nitrogen were
girdled at the trunk. The trunk girdling was effect-
ed by the removal of a strip of bark extending to the
cambium, one half inch wide around the trunk one
foot from the ground.

Table 5 gives results of trunk girdling alone
on certain trees, and where nitrogen was applied in
connection with trunk girdling on other trees. This
is another instance where the tree variation due to
unknown factors was greater than the variation re-
sulting frmm the treatnent. There was no appreciable
difference in size between the fruits on the trunk
girdled trees and those borne by the checks. However,
on trees where nitrogen was applied in connection with

trunk girdlinq there was apparently an increase in

i 5-.)

size of fruit, while root pruning with trunk airdling
gave smaller fruits on the root pruned side.

The results of the trunk girdling experiment
indicate that the synthesized materials confined
within the trunk by girdling is not confined within
close proximity to the fruiting spurs available for
use by the developing fruit, as was the case in the

limb and branch girdling which were found to material-

ly increase the size of apples.

 

 

 

om.mma mmo.m :H.N wda Hm.m Nma omup xomno
0H.mwa emcew mm.w oaa wm.m wma coup xomno m
oo.o~a mmo.+ m~.~ Mm o:.m mas swap maoga seom mpaap
‘ sac aw mafia eoHeHHw amass m
o~.~ma Omens mm.~ mmm mm.m mHH mtg» maogsflmosmzv awmoup
nag aw asap amHeHHm Masha H
m oszh umpwmnv I hpmfinw> ofinwpso
mm.mma mmo.w mm.m mma o..w mm Anflw xcsnpv moan gumbo
m.mma Hmo.a wm.m wma mm.m mma swap w amassa mpoon
smHaHHm Masha N
mm.maa mmo.fl mm.m mm m~.m mma A.Ham assapvmeam sumac
o:.msa omen” ~m.~ aw aw.m mmfl swap casaumco
momma a: emfieuam sauna .m
No.mma mac.“ HH.N mma n--- :1 won» sumac m
m:.mma mmo.w mo.” Ha Ho.m mm emu» aomno m
mm.mma omoJH mm.~ mm wm.m or swap somgo
ms.maa ado.“ ma.~ ma mH.m was emaanam Manse. m
Hm.mma mmo.w mH.~ HHH mm.m HNH emaonaa henna H
manna Honnm .so .fip mmflmaw .so .ssHU modems pnmapmmne owns
.p3.m>¢ oHQoQOHMImmem>< seesaw owmum>w 909533
om pmpsmpomm om panama mmnmm mass gmoaaHos
pmm>nm£ pm mpcmsoHSmamm mpnmsmmsmmmu ompmmfim hamfiawb

 

.mmaddm mo mNHw so .decSHQ poon spas
wnaapnfim xcsyp was .smmonpaa :pHs.acfiHUHfiu xnsHp .wqfiapuaw xqsnp mo wpommmm

m magma

Limb girdling:

On five trees receiving no other treatment
certain limbs, branches and Spurs were girdled. On
ten trees certain limbs were girdled in connection
with other treatnents.

In ringing limbs a strip of bark one ouarter
of an inch wide extending to the cambium around the

/
limb was removed.

TQLlGS 8 and 7 show a decided increase in
the size of apiles on girdled limbs. Where nitrogen
was applied to the roots beneath the girdled limbs
the fruit on the linbs above averaged larger than those
under any other treatment. One may reasonably assume
that the increase in the size of the apples on the
girdled linbs is due to the fact that airdlins stops
the translocation of synthesized foods. Donbtless
the girdled limbs had a relatively larger leaf area
per fruit than did the girdled branches, while the
relative amount of injury to the xylem tissue was less
on the girdled limbs. This accounts for the difference
in the size of the fruit on the girdled limbs and branches.

(It may be noted here that linb girdling was performed

in connection with the late application of nitrogen men—

tioned under "nitrogen application". The results of
either treathent applied at this time, as shown in
table 3, indicate that the size of fruit is not in—
fluenced to any appreciable degree by nitrogen ap-
plication or linb girdling in mid season)

Linb girdling in case of apples or vine
girdling in case of grapes has been a practice more
or less in vogue for a number of years where increased
size of the fruit at the expense of the tree or vine
was desired. The evidence submitted from these ex—
periments suggests that the practice may be of practical

value on filler trees which are to be removed.

Branch girdling:

Branch girdling was performed on three trees
receiving no other treatment; on two trees having the
roots pruned on one side; and one tree receiving nitrogen.
Each girdled branch was allowed to carry approximately
the same number of apples.

The branch girdling was performed by’the removal
of a strip of bark extending to the Cambium, one eighth
of an inch wide around the branch.

Apples on girdled branches were consistently

larger than those on the check limbs (of same size and

I
’: fl
(7}
I

relative position on the tree) except where the branches
were girdled above the pruned roots, in which case a
reduction in size of apples occurred on the girdled
branches, compared with the check side of tree.

A count was made of the number of blossoms
and the number of fruit to set on certain branches
which were girdled and on other branches which were
not girdled. Out of BOO blossoms on the girdled
branches 230 set fruit, while out of BOO on the un-

girdled branches 61 set fruit.

 

 

 

 

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mm.mma Hmotm o~.a an -.m mm amaenam manoesun Haasm :
om.a:a om0p+ mm.m aw IIII II monoqdnp Momao
:m.muH mmo.w mm.m :m Hm.m mm codenaw monosman Hawam .m
mm.:oa mmoJfl :m.m Hm mm.m mm coup m beefing mpooa
I emaenaw monocwnp Hamsm
m~.maa smotw m~.m m mw.m mm m sweets maoowI head sumac
mm.yma wHo.a :u.~ ma mm.m o w ascend mecca I saw mnsaq
mm.mma IIII IIII m: mm.w mm mean somao I .HHm .qnnm
aw.mma mac.“ mm.m mos mo.m 0N mesa aomgo I Dana sumac
mm.mma Amos“ mm.~ Hm Hm.m mm seam somaoI.Haw amass m
m~.moa maonw 03.0 mm mo.m mm soap w omsdnd mpoos
IvoHpHH. monocmnp Hamsm
3:.30H Hon“ mm.o Hm mm.m Ha emesnh mpoOHIpus sumac
mm.maa Hons mm.~ mm mm.o 0H emesnp spoonI.nHa mass;
oa.mma mmotw NH.N mm mm.w mm seam sumac I .Haw mmeoeeum
Hm.oaa mao.w Na.o as oa.m mm oeam house I pass sumac
:m.~:a «mods w.~ mma m:.m mm seam sumac o emaewam mpaag a
.mamsmi. Henna .so .ap moaned .so .aman moangm pamausmna comm
.pa.m>¢ mapwpoam owmnm>< Rebeca owwum>< mopedz IIII
om amasmpmem OMImm pagans :mImm mass anchos
pmo>nmn pm macmSoHsmsmm mammSoHdmmmA uopwmnmvl hpoaneb

 

mmagaw mo muam so wsflapnaw nocmap was QEHH mo monogamcH

m sagas

. .mmnp maons on venom
was .mmnp Hog .mpH w .moom mo opprHz .

 

 

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mN.MHH mHo.H N~.m mm mm.m Hm mpaaH sumac
mm.smH IIII IIII mmH m:.m mm mst eoHeHHa shah; . H
:m I mm mesa cosmos» I muoHnmp swepsHoH
o.moa Hmonfl om.m mma III» II coup Moono m
o.m0H smona mm.m mHH mm.m ma mmup Mateo :
-r :.~0H Hmo.H am.o mm. mm.m ma I mnsHH sowao
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.
:.me awe.“ om.~ mm m .m om mnsHH Momno
o.osH mmo.a Hm.N MOH wH.o mm emHeHHa mpng . m
mammH mmo.w mH.~ as 0H.m am mpsHH scone
mm.~aH Hi0.“ m:.~ mom mm.m H emHenHm was“; . H
madam, House .80 .Ho moapmw .80 .Eme mmammm pdepmoHB bone
.pa.o>¢ mapmnonm owwnm>< Honssm mmmnm>« Romans
ma Hanovoo Nm pmmwd< N I w mesa oHHmpno
pmm>nmn pm mpsmsoHSmmma mpaoSOHSmwmn umpmmamI upmane>

 

.pHus mo oNHm so ammoupHs mpHa wsHHUHHw nsHH no cosmsawsH

N QHQaB

 

(33
(0

Spur girdling:

On three trees spurs bearing from three to
five leaves, other spurs bearing from five to fifteen
leaves, and a third eroup bearing more than fifteen
leaves, were girdled.

The spur pirdling was performed by the
removal of a strip of bark, approximately one sixteenth
of an inch wide, extending to the cambium around the
spur.

The data shown in table 8 illustrate the fact
that apples borne on the girdled spurs were consistently
smaller than those borne on girdled branches. The
measurements show that the apples on the girdled spurs
are in proportion in size to the number of leaves borne
by the spur. These figures also point to the fact
that the developing fruit depends on the synthesized
food from the leaves of adjacent non—fruiting spurs or
branches for its normal development. There was apparently
no difference in the size of fruit on check spurs bearing
three to five leaves as compared with check spurs bearing
six to fifteen leaves proVided adjacent leaves in close

proximity to the fruiting spur are available.

 

.qupmmOP moxep mm>emH mH Hc>o Umavafim Haw we
wpqmsmndmeme woe mpancs .anH>os ma moxHa .

-40-

 

 

 

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em.m H mmo.fl mm.m ma nun- u: mmsmmH mHnm Mooeo
mm.m H mm03H mm.” m I--- a- mm>mmH mum somno
OH.mw mmo.H Nw.» m: III! II mm>moa mHIm .Umapufim mnsam
mw.mm Hmo.fl mm.: mm sun: In mm>xcH mum .cmHUHHw madam m
mo.mMH mmo.n m~.o mm mm.m mm acumen pa guano
mm.maH mmo.w mm.~ mm oo.m m mmsmoH mHum somno
mo.::H mmo.fl Km.m Rm mH.m m mm>moH mum sumac
om.:HH mmo.n ms.m H . mw.m mH mH Hmpo .emHenHm mnsom
om.HN anon“ N~.m am mm.: o: mmpamH mHum .eoHoHHw mashm
:m.o: NW0,“ mm.: m: mm.: o: mmsamH mum .ewHeHHm madam m
mm.NMH mmotw mo.~ OH. Hm.m NH mmsamH mH Hm>o Moose
m~.mMH mot” HH.H mm Ho.m mm mm>mmH mHum Momma
mm.maH Hmotfi :H.~ ow 0H.m mm mm>amH mum Momeo
om.:HH mmotw m~.m H: om.m m: mH Hm>o .emHeHHw macaw
Ho. N mmo.a .mm.m :H oo.m mH mmpamH mHnm .eoHeuam madam
0H. m awe.“ Hm.: om o~.: wH mopamH mum .emHuHHm mnsam H
macaw Hounm .so .Hp mmamqw .80 .apr mmapgm uncapmona moss
.pg.m>« manwooam omeno>« Hmoadm mmmno>4 amnedz
om ampemamam omrmm pagese :m u mm mess gmopaHoa
pmo>nez pm wpamsmHSmema mpsmamasmmma panache mpmHMWP

 

 

.mmaomw mo mNHm no dead mama was wsHHUHHm HSQm mo cosmSHHGH

\

w magma

Experiments relative to the local or general effects
of defoliation and shading.
Defoliation:

The defoliation experiments were conducted
to determine the direction, or areas, from which
the developing fruit draws its food, and to determine
the influence of defoliation on the defoliated areas,
on the adjacent areas, and on the remote parts of
the tree, as might be indicated by the differences
in the size of the fruit. The defoliation in the
cultivated plot was performed June 15, and in the
sod plot July 5 to 8.

The defoliation experiments were conducted
as follows:
1) Sod plot: From certain branches of three trees
the old leaves, comprising approximately one half
of the foliage, were removed.
2) Same as (1), plus nitrate of soda applied at the
rate of eight pounds per tree July 5.

The data presented in table 9 give conclusive
evidence to show that the removal of the leaves on
certain limbs caused a reduction in the size of the

fruit on the limbs that were defoliated. Vitrogen

l‘

applied July 8 (in this dry year) did not increase the
size of the fruits on the defoliated limbs nor on the
check limbs.

3) Sod Plot: (a) On certain limbs of three trees all
leaves for a distance of ten inches above the fruiting
Spurs were removed, with the leaves on the fruiting
spurs trimmed to approximately one half their normal
area. (b) On certain limbs of three trees all leaves
for a distance of ten inches below the frufling spurs
were removed, with the leaves on the fruiting spurs
trimmed to approximately one half their normal area.

In each case the terminal halves of the spur
leaves were trimmed away with scissors leaving the
basal portion.

(c) On tertain branches of three trees areas for

ten inches above and ten inches below the fruiting
spurs were completely defoliated, leaving the leaves
on the fruiting Spurs intact.

From the measurements shown iniable 10 the
reduction of the leaf area by trimming the leaves on
the fruiting spurs had a greater effect on the size
of the fruit borne threron than did the removal of
a greater number of adjacent leaves either from above

or below the spur.

.mHOpomg Hespo pamooom no pmo became ma
.wmfiaflmp poc

 

 

madam .Hspm aquHsam opp scams mceocfl new use o>ogm mmbqu amp How ©m>oama mm>ema HH<§§5
know can
oaopm mmaomfi amp How ©m>oama wmbmma Ham .mmmm mama mac ow bmeaflap masmm mmflpHSHhsa
.asam map
Scamp mononH am» How ©m>oaos mo>mma Ham .mmam mamb mac Op bmaiwnp manna mchHSHms
H.mmm o:o.n mo.m ma anun u- somao
m.HHm Hwo.H a.m om mm.w MH sOHmp was opens .HObma m
as Am.HmHV sun: its: me m:.w mm momma
he HH.m:m mmo.H NH.m He 0:.” Ha aOHmp was mecca .Hommo w
w.mmm awe. ma.w Hm dm.w my sumac
m.emm mmo.n mm.w Hm wo.m NH massage pocv
Scamp mam «pope .Howmmggs m
H.mmw oao.n mo.m m u--- u- sumac
N.mmH Hmo.H Ha.w mH sH.w NH weeps empaHHOMmo m
m.mmm amo.w mm.m am s:.w mH sumac
w. mm mmo.n m~.m mm No.w am msona empaHHoson m
m.:mm awe.“ m».w mm :11. u- sumac
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o.m+m inc.” mm.w om nun: :: sumac
m.omH mmo.s wa.m m No.w mm BOHmn empaHHommm m
m.:mm Nmo.n mm.m an :.w mH sumac
m.~om Mme.“ m~.n am -o.w mm BOHmp empsHHOMoa m
. m.wmm mmo.w mm.m ma ans- u: Moose
2c 0.00m H30.“ mm. mm ms.” . :H BOHmQ empaHHonmo. H
.1...
_ mamamlynoaam .ao .flo moammm .ao .smfib mmammw p: Sascha meme
.mawm>¢ mabmbonm mmmam>< Hmbadu mmmao>< Honssz
wHumH ampsopmmm H nonemsmmm mum aHse Hmsam HHoa
pwm>ne£ pm mpqmamnswmma mammamHSmmma Umpmwmmv zpmHHmp

 

.pHsnw on» mo mNHw mg» no
Hedw.mnfipfisuw map soaob no m>onm macaw mo :oHpmHHommb yo mpoommm

OH manna

.. K, K...

-‘

r

m mama bowammm I menu Hem .mna w I momma a:

.bo>osma mums mnaHH :Hmpamo so wb>moa cap Ham wo mama ambao one a

 

 

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m.HNH aHo.n mm.~ em am.~ mm em>OSQH mmssmH eHo
m.omm mmo.a m~.w mm mm.w em sumac
~.mmw MHH.H Hm.w mm mm.w m: emsosmn mmsme eHo
N.:om um0.s Nu.w mm mm.” mH . sumac
~.mmH omo.s mH.w m: am.a mm eo>osan mmssmH eHo ..
m.HHm amo,m mw.w m om.m mm psHH aomno \
m.mmH omo.+ mH.m m mo.w Hm emsosms mm>mmH nHo w
w.mom omo.s am.m m. mo.w wm nsHH sumac
o.mmH mmo;a NH.w m mm.~ mu emsosmh mmsamH eHo m
m.mom mHH.s Hm.w mm NN.~ mH nsHH nomao
m.me mwo.H mo.w m am.“ Hm emposmn mmpmmH eHo . H
mamamiy House .80 .fio mmHon .so .Ewfiv mmamaw pcmapmmna mane
.ps.m>< manmnonm mwdnm>< Hopes: mwwno>< Hopasz
WHuMH Hmpsmmmam H “massamam m u m sHsn um>Hm “Hos
pmm>nwg pm mummaonzmmmu mpcmammswmmd Umpmmaw humanmb

 

mmaagm mo mNHm so mopmma bao mo QOHpmHHommU mo moqoSHmcH

m mHnas

4) Cultivated Plot: (a) Certain lhnbs of three trees
were partially defoliated by trimming approximately
one third the area from the tips of all leaves leav-
ing two thirds of the basal area of all the leaves
thereon. On three trees the leaves on certain limbs
were in like manner trimmed back to one third their
normal area. Most of these apples dropped from the
tree and the measurements are not shown. (b) The
fruiting spurs on the limbs of two trees were completely
defoliated. (c) The terminal half of certain branches
on three trees and the basal half on certain other
branches was completely defoliated.

Measurements, as shown in table ll, were
taken on treated and untreated portions of the trees
in this experiment. Apples borne on the areas which
were completely defoliated drOpped worse than did the
apples borne on the partially defoliated areas. The
percent of dropping and the size of the fruit were
apparently in proportion to the degree of defoliation
in close proximity to the fruiting spur; yet fruit
borne on the completely defoliated areas shows that
the devebping fruit is able to draw food from adjacent

leaves at least within a certain distance. The apples

on the basal portions of branches of which the tips
had been defoliated were even larger than were those

on the check branches.

 

.Hmpmawflv ca mmaonfl ma mampmawxoaagw cums pcmapmmnp Hops: monocmnm
.mmmo mflqp ca poancsv pm: Howsfiasmn map .mmmo homo ca pmpwmnp mama mmammw 00m»

Apmpmfiaommuss mofipv monocmsp mo mama Hanan pmamflaommp opmaaaoo
Apmpmflaomop mampmao oo mofip :pwav mmzosman ac was: Hmmwn pmpmfiaowopcs opoaoaoo

noswmn msfipco nosm pm>oEmH mo>wma HH<
mmwo pmmnmmn mesa mo M\m ucfl>dma moss M\H posafisp moxoqmnp nflmpnoo so wm>mmH Has no spam M\H

 

 

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m.a:m mac.“ oo.m moa -- HOH Aaomme Hamap mpchaoov
poppfiaowmpc: mamaflanma m
m.omm mmo.n mw.w «m mm.w om mama Momgo
m.mma wwo.H ma.w mm Mo.w Hm ampaaaooma Hamam m
:.mmm Hmota sa.m Hma mw.w mm mama Moons
5.1mm ”no.“ mm.m mm wu.w ON “Houocmpep apflav
monomwnn mo mmmp .Hommpsb m
_ am.omm mac.“ mo.m mm mm.w Mm ,maam ammeo
m“ m:.mma m o.H mm.m Hm om.~ m coapaaaonma Hzom mpmHosoo m
_ :.mmm H o.“ -.w Hma mm.m mm «saw Mpmso
H.0wH w o,“ Ho.w am mm.~ .Nm .Honmu Hanasnmp opchaoo m
mm.omm w 0.“ mm.w mma mo.w mm moan» seam no mgowfio
m.mom macaw Ha.w mm ms.~ mm nonpafiaowma M\H n
made- Henna .ao .Hw mmaocm .Eo .Emflp moamdm pamapmmya pmpmonp
.pa.m>4 manwnosm mmmum>< scoada ommsw>< Hmpasm wmme
-, ma Hopsmpomm ow panama -mH mass Hmpam “Ho:
Pw®>HmQ Hm mpcmmrm Hdmmeq mpflmfimhdmamd Umpwmhs shaman-wk?

Ly

 

.mmaaom mo mNHm map so mmgoamso cflmpnoo Mo cofipwfiaowmo Hmfipnmm Ho opoamsoo mo mocmSAHGH

HH manna

(D
{3’
fl)
Q
H-
:3
0‘1

The shading experiment was conducted on
seven year old Golden Delicious apple trees. Heavy
weight white muslin cloth was used. On three trees
certain branches (about one-half inch in diameter)
were enclosed in white Cloth sacks. On three trees
certain main linbs were likeWise enclosed. One
tree was entirely covered with the cloth stretched
on a wooden frame built around the tree. Ventilation,
temperature, and humidity were not taken into con-
sideration since the purpose of the eXperiment was
to determine the general and localized responses of
the trees to the shading of its different parts.

Table 12 compares the effects of shading
the whole tree with the effects of shading certain
limbs and small branches. Where the whole tree was
shaded the apples were considerably smaller than
were the fruits on the check limbs and even smaller
than those fruits where the limbs were shaded. The
shaded smaller branches produced larger fruits than
did the shaded limbs. The results showed that the
effects of shading tend to be limited to the area

which is shadedpand that the influence of shading

in reducing the size of fruits is apparently in pro-
portion to the area which is shaded. The fact

that the apples on the shaded branches were larger
than those on the shaded limbs or shaded tree may

be readily associated With the fact that the
developing fruit can draw food materials from un-

1

snaded leaves nearbyfbut not from areas a dreat

Q-

istance away. The auestion of lower transpira-
tion and higher temperature may have been factors
conflictin? with the influence of the reduction

in the photosynthetic processes, if so,apparently
he lack of photosynthesis is the vital factor in

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Other Experiments

Position of Limbs:

Measurements were made of the fruits grow-
ing upon the lateral and the upright limbs of two
Ontario and two McIntosh trees, in order to determine
the variation in the size of the fruits as influenced
by the position of the limb. These data are shown
in table 13.

The apples growing on the upright limbs
were consistently larger than those growing on the
lateral limbs. Greater vigor has been recognized
on the perpendicular limbs, due possibly to better
water conduction and to the fact that tops of apple
trees are more Open and less shaded than the lateral

1 ill-D S .

Pruning:

On four trees the apples on the-subs within
one foot of the pruned end of cut back limbs were
measured. Measurements were made only where there
was a normal fruit set. The results presented in
table 13 show a very decided increase in the size
of the apples borne on the stub in close proximity

to the out. One may reasonably conclude that the

l
01
to

I

same impulse which stimulates shoot wrowth under
similar conditions may be responsible for the in-
crease in the size of apples growing on the stubs

of limbs pruned back during the summer.

measurements were made on the apples

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‘

growing on the north, tne east, the west, and the
south sides of several trees, up until September 1.
No consistent differences were found in the size
of the fruit borne on these various portions of

the tree. These data are not presented.

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Summary

1. Individual apple trees bear apples
which show more variation in size than do other
trees of the same varietynin the same orchard,
which are the same age and about the same size
and shape.

2. Certain trees bear apples which 818
consistently larger while other trees produce
apples which average smaller than the fruit borne
on a number of check trees.

3. The size of apples borne on certain
limbs, branches, or spurs, is influenced by the
factors affecting the tree as a whole, but factors
affecting a certain component part of a tree
apparently do not necessarily influence the response
of the tree as a whole.

4. Factors affecting certain main roots
may influence the size of the fruit on the area
directly above, or on the limbs fed by these roots,
with no apparent effect on the size of the fruit on
the remote parts of the tree.

5. Nitrogen applied to one side of an apple

tree had a greater influence on the size of the fruit

on that side of the tree than did water; while the

8.

pples borne on the watered side of a tree were

slightly larger than those borne on the opposite side.

6. Shadinv Within certain limits tends to

reduce the size of apples in proportion to the area
shaded, and the reduction in size is confined
principally to the area shaded.

7. Defoliation of fruiting sours and small
branches tends to reduce the size of apples in
prOportion to the percent of defoliation. However,
apples on the defoliated area are able to draw
food material from nearby leaved areas within
certain limite.

8. The defoliation of the terminal half of
branches increased the size of apples on the unde—
foliated basal portions, while the defoliation of
the basal portions did not increase the size of
apples on the terminal halves.

9. When the ends of certain limbs were sawed
off in July the apples in close proximity to the out

were very much larger than the checks.

01

(0

10.

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Literature Cited

'V

Atkins, W. R. a. — Sone recent researches in

1816

Aucllter,
lug-(’31

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u./.

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P.)
O)

3‘)
0;

7L0
(0

- :‘JQ—

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[U

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PendriC”scn, A. H. and F. J. Veihneyer (V. of Calif)
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C )1
U]

()1
("-3

C r]
(1.)

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 2:?son and m 3. Kore - Vt. Apr.

r . Bu11.133 pp. 43-1.34.

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c e
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"N

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FWD
(1 ‘ O
{00’
()1 (D
(1'

t101481.118,

'on upon blossom

ects of d; o a 1
m c. Asr. EXJ. Sta.

Eff s
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- Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. An Experiment
in r1n‘1n; apple trees.

 

 

 

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