ABSTRACT THE RELATIONSHIP OF ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT IN MICHIGAN TO STATE FISCAL POLICY by Elmer S. Anttonen The Problem This study was concerned with the participation of the public school districts of Michigan in the con- duct of adult education programs and to determine the changes that have deve10ped since the discontinuation of state financial aid to the public school adult ed- ucation programs in 1959. Methodology The procedure followed in the study included: (1) a study of the records of Operation by securing the annual reports on adult education which were sub- mitted by the various participating school districts to the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the years 1956 through 1964; (2) the profiling of these reports for each participating school district; (3) the construction of questionnaires to secure Opinions Elmer S. Anttonen of the superintendents of both participating and non- participating districts relative to their concerns for adult education within their school districts; and (4) the collection and analysis of the data. Findings Enrollments in adult education increased sharply during the years in which state financial aid was avail- able to the public school districts for the support of adult education programs. Since the discontinuation of state financial aid the enrollments have fluctuated and decreased, with a sharp decline experienced in 1964. Leadership by the superintendents of the public school districts in adult education is not considered to be a major concern. The actual supervision is ac- complished by personnel devoting less than one—quarter of their time to adult education. The financing of adult education programs is mainly accomplished by charging student fees. Thirty percent of the total adult education program costs come from appropriations from the budgets of local pub— lic school districts. Elmer S. Anttonen The adult education programs in Michigan have never served more than 5.2 percent of the total adult population. At the end of the school year of 1964 the participation ratio was 4.7 percent of the total adult pOpulation. Adult education in MiChigan is urban centered. Thirty-two public school districts, with populations ranging from 25,000 and more, account for more than 72 percent of all the courses offered and for more than 70 percent of all the enrollments. Sixty percent of the cities under 25,000 population in Michigan do not offer adult education programs. Eleven percent of the rural fourth class districts conduct prOgrams in adult education. Conclusions Further research into the areas of community and individual needs, barriers to participation in pro— grams by individuals, involvement of business and in— dustry, and new educational media are indicated. The State of Michigan should assume more positive leadership in the deve10pment of a state-wide system of adult education, and for providing the financial means whereby adult education programs will truly be- come a member of the educational family within the pub— lic schools of Michigan. THE RELATIONSHIP OF ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT IN MICHIGAN TO STATE FISCAL POLICY by Elmer SImAnttonen A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION College of Education 1966 5' M 2 :32 A, / V/J 773bég7f AC KNOWLEDGEMENT S The writer wishes to express his sincere ap- preciation to all who have helped make this StUdY POS- sible. Particular appreciation and acknowledgement is extended to Dr. Stanley Hecker, chairman of the writer's doctoral committee, for his encouragement, patience, and counsel. Appreciation is also expressed to Dr. Harold Dillon and Dr. William Roe who were on the writer's doctoral committee until their departure from Michigan State University. To Dr. Floyd Parker, Dr. Max Smith, and Dr. Dalton McFarland a sincere expression of thankful- ness is rendered for their advice, time, and encourage— ment for which the writer is indebted to them. The writer extends his thanks to the many mem- bers Of the Department of Education, State Of Michigan, who assisted in securing many of the historical records used in this study. A very special word of appreciation is extended to my wife, Dora, whose help and encouragement made this study worthwhile. Thanks are also extended to my children, Sylvan, Alice, and Eric for their con- sideration and forbearance. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER I. II. INTRODUCTION AND NATURE OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statement Of the Problem . . . . . . Importance Of the Problem. . . . . . The Problem of Human Obsolescence. The Changing Nature of American Society . . . . . . . . . . . . The Terminal Concepts of Educa- tion No Longer Valid . . . . . Public School Adult Education in Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . METHOD OF THE STUDY. . . . . . . . . . Assumptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . . Definitions Of Terms . . . . . . . . Method of Research . . . . . . . . . The Design . . . . . . . . . . . . The Population . . . . . . . . . Selection of the Sample. . . . . . Collection and Recording the Data. Construction Of the Survey Ques— tionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . . Reporting of the Findings. . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Page ii vi ix ll l3 l7 l9 19 20 21 23 26 28 30 30 31 34 35 36 CHAPTER III IV Page REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . 38 Part I PhiloSOphy of Adult Education . . . . - 38 Definition of Adult Education . . . . . 48 General Needs of Adults . . . . . . . . 53 Part II Rationale for Grants in Aid . . . . . - 58 Effects of Stimulation Grants . . . . 64 Effects of State Aid on Public School Adult Education PrOgrams . . . . - 66 Role of the Public School in Adult Education . . . . . . . . . . . . - 70 Role of the Superintendent in Public School Adult Education. . . . . . . . 75 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 EVALUATION OF THE DATA Part I Total Enrollments in Public School Adult Education Programs in Michigan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 The Number of Participating Dis— tricts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Percent of Total Adult POpulation Served by Public School Adult Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Sources of Revenue fOr Adult Educa- tion Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Participation by Subject Matter Areas . 95 Participation in Adult Education by Class of Districts. . . . . . . . . .102 Leadership in Adult Education Programs in Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . .115 Fees Charged for Adult Education Pro- grams in Michigan . . . . . . . .116 Teacher Pay for Adult Education in the Michigan Public Schools . . . . . .118 Instructors Employed for Adult Educa- tion in the Michigan Public Schools .119 Organization of Special Classes for Certain Age Groups. . . . . . . . . .120 Organization Of High School Completion Courses for Adults. . . . . . . . . .122 iv CHAPTER Organization of Vocational Education Courses for Adults. . . . . . . . . Organization of Non-credit, College Level Courses for Adults. . . . . . Use of Citizen Advisory Committees and AdOption of Written Policies. . Part II Leadership in Adult Education Pro- grams . O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Adult Counseling as a Part of the Total Adult Education PrOgrams. . Fulfillment of Program Objectives by Public School Districts . . . . Interest in Adult Education in the Non- Participating Districts . . . . Financial Assistance for Adult Educa- tion Programs . . . . . . . . . . Professional Preparation in Adult Education by Superintendents. . . . Program Enrichment Through College or University Extension . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. CODCIuSiOnS O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . smary O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 122 123 124 127 134 135 138 139 142 143 145 147 148 153 156 157 163 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1. Comparison of Gross Adult Education Ex- penditures Against Gross Expenditures Made for Elementary and Secondary Educa- tion in Michigan. 1945-1964. . . . . . . . . 2. Comparison of Attendance in Adult Educa- tion Programs Conducted by the Public Page 96 School Districts of Michigan by Instructional Areas. 0 O O C O O O C O C O O O O O O O O O 98 3. Comparison of the Number of Courses Conducted by Public Schools in General Adult Education Programs by Instructional Areas. . . . . . . 4. Comparison of Michigan Public School Adult Education Courses by Instructional Areas for 99 Selected Years. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..100 5. Comparison of Courses Offered in General Adult Education Programs in Michigan by Public School Districts in Cities Having Populations of 100,000 to 500.000 and Over, 1963-1964. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Comparison of Courses Offered in General Adult Education Programs in Michigan by Pub— lic School Districts in Cities Having Pop- ulations of 50.000 t0100.000. 1963-1964. . . 7. Comparison Of Courses Offered in General Adult Education Programs in Michigan by Public School Districts in Cities Having Populations of 25.000 to 50.000. 1963—1964 . 8. Comparison of Total Courses Offered and In— structional Personnel Used in Adult Educa- tion Programs in Michigan by School Dis- tricts Having Population of 25.000 and Over, 1957-1959 and 1962-1964. . . . . . . . . . . 9. Comparison of School Expenditures for Gen- eral Adult Education in Public School Dis- tricts Having Populations of 100.000 and Over. 1957-1964. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vi 103 105 106 109 111 TABLE Page 10. Comparison of School Expenditures for General Adult Education in Public School Districts Having POpulations of 50.000 to 100.000. 1957-1964. . . . . . . . . . .112 11. Comparison of School Expenditures for General Adult Education in Public School Districts Having Populations of 25.000 to 50.000. 1957-1964. . . . . . . . . . . . .113 12. Comparison of Participation in Adult Ed- ucation Programs in Michigan by Class of District. 1956-1964. . . . . . . . . . . .114 13. Comparison of Leadership Exercised in Adult Education Programs in Michigan, 1956-1964.ll6 14. Comparison of Fees Charged for Adult Educa- tion Programs in Michigan, 1956-1964. . . 117 15. Comparison of Pay for Teachers Employed in Public School Adult Education Programs in Michigan. 1956-1964. . . . . . . . . . . .118 16. Comparison of Categories of Instructors Employed in Public School Adult Educa- tion Programs in Michigan, 1956-1964 . . .120 17. Organization of Special Classes for Adults in Public School Adult Education Programs in Michigan. 1956-1964 . . . . . . . . . .121 18. Organization of High School Completion Courses for Adults in Public School Adult Education Programs in Michigan. 1956-1964.122 19. Organization of Vocational Education for Adults in Public School Adult Education Programs in Michigan. 1956-1964. . . . . .123 20. Organization of Non-credit College Level Courses in Public School Adult Education Programs in Michigan, 1956-1964. . . . . .124 21. Use of Citizen Advisory Committees and AdOption Of Written Policies in Public School Adult Education Programs in Michigan, 1956-1964. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125 vii TABLE Page 22. Allocation of Time by Superintendents to Adult Education. . . . . . . . . . . . 128 23. Areas of Responsibility by Superintendents to Adult Education. . . . . . . . . . . . 129 24. Supervision of Adult Education Programs by Job Classification . . . . . . . . . . 130 25. Allocation Of Time by Supervisors of Adult Education . ..... . . . . . . . . 131 26. Opinions of Public School Administrators as to State Leadership in Adult Education Programs in Michigan . . . . . . . . . . 132 27. Adult Counseling as a Part of the Total Adult Education Program . . . . . . . . . 134 28. Program Objectives for Adult Education in Public School Districts. . . . . . . . 135 29. Fulfillment of Program Objectives by Public School Districts. .. . . . . . . . 137 30. Interest in Adult Education in the Non- Participating Districts. . .. . . . . . . 139 31. Opinions of Administrators on Financial Support for Adult Education Programs. . . 141 32. Professional Preparation of Superintend— ents in Adult Education. . . . . . . .. . 142 33. Participation by Universities and Colleges in Providing Extension Credit and Non- credit College Level Courses . . . . .. . 144 viii LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. Total Enrollments in Adult Education Pro- grams Conducted by K-12 School Districts in Michigan. 1945-1964. . . . . . . . . . 2. Participation in Adult Education by K-12 Districts in Michigan, 1945-1964. . . . . 3. Portion Of Total Estimated Population Served by Adult Education in Michigan, 1945-1964. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 4. Sources of Revenue for Public School Adult Education Programs in Michigan. . . . . . ix Page 88 9O 92 94 LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX Page A. SAMPLE COVER LETTER. . . . . . . . . . . 164 B. GENERAL ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAM QUES- TIONNAIRE (FORM A) . . . . . . . . . . 165 C. GENERAL ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAM QUES— TIONNAIRE (FORM B) . . . . . . . . . . 168 D. SAMPLE REPORT OF GENERAL ADULT EDUCA— TION PROGRAM (FORM AE—2) . . . . . . . 170 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND NATURE OF THE PROBLEM State financial assistance for general adult educa- tion programs in the public school districts of Michigan was first made available for the school year ending in June, 1945 with an apprOpriation of $110,000. This fund was increased to $300,000 for the school year ending June, 1949 and was kept constant through the school year ending June, 1957. The 1956 session of the Legislature Of the State of Michigan voted to reduce the state apprOpriation for general adult education programs to $200,000 annually, and during the 1959 session the Legislature voted to dis- continue the fund. Since that time Michigan public school districts have continued to Offer adult education programs through allocation of funds from their general budgets. They have had some assistance in financing these prOgrams by assessing nominal fees from the students enrolling in various classes and programs offered. Participation in the general adult education programs by the public high school districts in Michigan increased from 45 districts in 1945 to 223 districts in 1956. The latter number represented a 42.7 percent participation 1 2 ratio as there were 538 public high school districts in Operation. Eighty—four public school districts have dis- continued the Operation of adult education programs between 1956 and 1964 with the result that the participation ratio has decreased to 143 districts, or 28.6 percent Of the total public high school districts. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The specific problem is to determine what changes have taken place in administrative leadership, financing, and the content Of instructional programs in adult educa- tion since the discontinuation of state financial aid for these programs. The study will also attempt to determine the course Of future action by the Michigan Deparflment of Education and the Michigan public school districts to insure the continuation Of general adult education programs within the public schools, or to the reactivation of these programs in districts which do not currently Offer them. IMPORTANCE OF THE PROBLEM In ancient times the education Of adults was con- sidered most essential to the continuity Of societal functions. The organiZed programs Of education were adult oriented, and the great teachers were concerned with the mature mind. Youth learned through Observa- tion Of their elders. 3 The American educational plan, however, has some— how viewed the education Of adults with misgivings and apprehension. The optional plan has been its guiding principle, and our public school traditions and educational policy has been based on the assumption that adults can acquire in their youth the knowledge and skills necessary for social and economic adequacy. Consequently, the major portion Of educational effort in training teachers, securing finance, and providing for facilities has been centered on youth. The educa- tion Of adults has been shunted to the periphery of the arena with remedial programs forming the bulk of pro— gram Offerings in literacy, vocational skills, and citizenship.1 A. The Problem of Human Obsolescence In recent years, however, an urgency has been evidenced in educational thought, not only in America, but throughout the world. The urgency has been a call to arms for adults to continue to learn; that learning is a requirement all adults should cultivate; that learning is a life-long process based on the acceleration of change in society and technology; that the mature adults have witnessed and have attempted to manage a culture quite different from that into which they were born; that human obsolescence has become a reality in vocational skills, in social organizations, and in regard to the total field of knowledge. 1The Adult Education Association Of the U.S.A., Adult Education - A New Imperative for our Times (Chicago: The Association, 1963), page 4. 4 The consequence of this rapid developmentin social change is clear. The pattern of emphasis on the education Of youth only can be continued and reduce the chance of national survival, or a modification Of the educational structure can be made in such a way as to include the adult population in all the educational plans in order that national survival can be more assured and that the elements of early human Obsolescence can be greatly reduced. B. The Changing Nature Of American Society The characteristics Of the American population as a whole are represented in good measure within the pOpulation Of Michigan, and these characteristics loom even larger in importance in the necessity for adequate adult education programs when consideration is given to the kinds of in— dustrial and technological organizations that are currently in operation in Michigan, and what the industrial complex will be like a few years hence. Six major characteristics Of the American population have been identified in studies made by the Adult Education Association of the United States of America. They are: 1. Our American pOpulation has a high degree of ethnic and racial heterogeneity. We have a multi- cultural society in which nearly every nationality. race, and creed in the world is present. 5 2. Our American population is now largely ur- banized and is becoming increasingly so. The great- est population increases have been occurring in our metropolitan areas. In addition, due to mass media, improved transportation, and technology, our fringe area populations tend to have the same social and economic characteristics as those Of the urban pop— ulation. 3. Our American population is highly mobile. It is estimated that at least twenty percent Of the people move from year to year. Another type of movement is that of change in residence within a given community. Under those conditions our normal norms lose their sanctions and tolerance Of noncom— formity develops. 4. Our American population has a relatively high proportion Of married persons. The character of the family, and the roles of its members, have changed with the growth of urbanization and many of the former functions of the family have been taken over by other institutions in the community. 5. Our American population is experiencing a low morality rate, demonstrating the relatively high level of medical care, sanitation, and standards of living. There are many consequences to education that follow in the wake of increased life expectancy. 6. Our American pOpulation possesses a rather high educational status. At present the average American adult has completed 10.5 years Of schooling. Of the nearly 10 million adults who have less than five years of elementary schooling, the majority are those over sixty-five years of age. Over 16% millions of Americans have completed one or more years of college.1 1The Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., Com- munity and Adult Education - Theory and Method.(Chicago: The Association, June, 1962), pages 13 and 14. 6 Add to this a report made by the Cooperative Extension Service Of Michigan State University of conditions that will be faced but a brief four years in the future: By 1970, our national pOpulation will be about 210 million people. At that time, nearly four out of every five people will be living in or near ur- banized metropolitan areas. Only one in twenty of our population will be living on farms. Our expand— ing population will include a higher proportion Of people under twenty years Of age than ever before, and this increase in numbers Of younger people is expected to continue. Our labor force will expand greatly in the next decade. There will be an upsurge Of young, relatively untrained workers. More women will be in the labor force. There will also be relatively more Older, seasoned and experienced workers kept on the job. Although employment and new job Opportunities will in- crease, the population will increase faster. Mass unemployment will be the result unless something is done. The labor force in the United States will number 87 millions by 1970 - up 13.5 million, or 20 percent above 1960. (In Michigan the labor force will in— crease from 2,944,000 to about 3,750,000 in 1970 — up 27 percent.) The most dramatic change now going on is tremendous influx of young people into the labor force — 26 million. This age group will in- crease about 6.4 million during the 1960's compared to only about a 400,000 increase during the 1950's. This explains why so many young people are having a hard time in finding employment. Workers under twenty—five and those forty-five years of age and over, together will account for seven-eights of the increase in growth of the labor force by 1970. These are the age groups in which employment problems are the greatest today and will be for the next ten years. Michigan follows closely the national pattern. The number of women workers'will increase at nearly twice the rate for men. In 1970 there will be about thirty million women workers - 6 million more than in 1960. This represents a 25 percent increase for women, compared to 15 percent for men.1 Current literature suggests that adult education pro- gram requirements will expand tremendously in numbers of students and in kinds of programs. By 1982 the adult population of the United States will have increased by some thirty-five percent and that the increase in the numbers of adult between the ages Of twenty and thirty—five will be much higher than this - in fact more of the order Of a seventy percent increment in all.2 The changes which will occur in the composition of the population will have a striking impact upon the field of adult education. Johnstone and Rivera point out the effects of these changes in the population composition: Even very conservative projections suggest that within two decades the population will contain as many as 64 percent more adults who have been to college, 59 percent more who have attended high school, and by contrast, some 15 percent fewer with only a grade-school education. It should be abundantly clear, then, that the potential audience for adult education is increasing at a much faster rate than the population as a whole.3 lArthur Mauch, ”Will There be Enough Jobs?" Michigan Farm Economics (East Lansing: Michigan State University), Vol. NO. 257, June, 1964, page 1. 2John W. C. Johnstone and Ramon J. Rivera, Volunteers for Learning (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1965), page 19. 3Ibid., page 20. 8 To summarize findings made by the Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, a quotation from the report supports earlier data: The typical adult education participant is young, urban, and fairly well educated; this is exactly the type of person who will be around in 1982 in increased numbers. Just as in the 50's and 60's the public schools had to accommodate the greatly increased numbers Of young persons in the population, so in the 70's and 80's the field of adult education will experience greater demands as this pOpulation cohort moves into the social categories where greatest use is made of adult education. The prospects for increased numbers of Older partic- ipants are also very good. More fixty, sixty, and seventy- year olds will engage in educational activities twenty years from now; and that in time the average educational attainment of persons in these age groups will be considerably higher than it is today. The potential audience for programs of adult learning appears to be assured. The challenges to the adult educator will be many. Not only will he have to accommodate the growing numbers of educated persons coming of age each year into his programs, he will have to find new methods of tempt- ing those who have the time but not the inclination to use education as a leisure time activity. 1Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, Second Report on the National Opinion Research Center Study (Chicago: Bulletin NO. 56, May 31, 1956), page 2. 9 These concerns are appropriate for the State of Michigan as an industrial complex and to the educational programs that will be necessary to keep the pOpulace in step with the many ramifications of technology, increased longevity, and growing population density. Regarding the population growth in Michigan, Dr. John Thaden, Demographer for the Michigan State University Institute for Community Development, has projected trends that further support the National Opinion Research Center studies and amplifies them in several important details: The national population growth rate during the 1950's was 18.5 percent, while for Michigan it was 22.8 percent. Population explosions occurred in 18 of the state's 83 counties during this census interval; 10 of these 18 counties were predominantly urban and only one (Iosco) was entirely rural. Suburbs experienced the most rapid population growth. This conclusion is reached upon analyzing the state's 10 Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA's) for which pOpulation data are pre— sented in considerable detail. (An SMSA is a county or group of economically integrated counties with a central city or twin cities having a population greater than 50,000. Michigan's SMSA's are comprised Of the central cities Of Ann Arbor, Bay City, Detroit, Flint, Grand Rapids, Jackson, Kalamazoo, Lansing, Muskegon-Muskegon Heights, and Saginaw. The re- mainder Of the counties in which these cities are located, and the adjacent counties are Clinton, Eaton, Macomb, and Oakland.) The population Of Michigan's SMSA's rose from 4.5 million in 1950 to 5.7 million in 1960 - an increase of 25.7 percent. Despite territorial annexation, 10 the number of peOple inhabitating the central cit— ies of these SMSA's actually declined by 3 percent, while the suburban areas around these cities re- corded a collective population increase Of 65.7 per- cent. Looking again at the state as a whole, the most noticeable pOpulation increase during the most re- cent census interval took place at the base and the apex of the pOpulation age-pyramid. The number of young peOple, those 20 years Of age or under, in- creased 44.1 percent, the ranks of those 65 years Old and over expanded 38.2 percent. Meanwhile, population growth in that group which is most pro- ductive econOmically, ages 20 through 64, was only 7.9 percent. In a sense, therefore, bread— winners carried a heavier burden in 1960 than they did in 1950. ‘There were only 71 persons in the relatively non-productive age groups (under 20 and over 64) per 100 persons in the 20 to 64 age group in 1950. The ratio was 94 per 100 in 1960. Another interesting fact about Michigan's pOpu— lation explosion is that the female population is increasing more rapidly than the male. It occurs because the longevity Of females is rising faster than that of the males, but the 1960 Decennial Cen- sus is the first one in which females outnumbered males. The same trend is also revealed in statist- ics on the labor force. The number of women in the 20 to 64 age group rose by 10.4 percent, nearly double the corresponding 5.4 percent increase in male labor in the state. Another section of the population in Michigan which registered a pOpulation explosion is the non- white population, consisting mostly of Negroes (97 percent). It was caused by considerable in- migration Of non-whites which, coupled with a high birth rate, brought about a pOpulation increase Of 62.4 percent for this group between 1950 and 1960. At the same time, the white population rose by 19.7 percent. . . . the indicated increase in population dur- ing the next decade is l, 840. 000. which means that Michigan should have about 9.660.000 inhabitants by 1975.1 lJohn Thaden, "Michigan's Population Explosions," The Michigan Economic Record (East Lansing: Michigan State University), Vol. 7. NO. 2. March, 1965. page 3. 11 Still another dimension of the problem confronting the education Of the adult pOpulation is presented by Sullivan: We no longer have any assurance that mere pas- sage Of time will resolve any Of the difficulties of a mass-oriented society. For the first time in the history of man, we must face the implications of living within a world in which the future is very uncertain. By having the future in doubt, or in admitting that its shape may be inconceivably different from the present, may well result in the great cause of freedom and democracy making little, if any, sense. He may think it better not to make any commitment of time or effort that will encumber him to his future. C. The Terminal Concept Of Education is no Longer Valid The lack ofgaconsistent philOSOphy concerning adult education, the channels through which programs can best be inaugurated and maintained, the peculiar nature Of the populace, and the changing system of values within the American society are areas that have not been the primary concern Of any group, but instead have been divided into fractions. each of which has been handled by groups and institutions that have had a particular or special reason or interest. The proliferation of services, most of which are in Operation under the aegis Of adult education, have been brought about mostly by the individual seeking answers to his many questions and to his most pressing and immediate concerns and needs. The realization that the terminal 1Richard L. Sullivan, "The End Of the Long Run." Centennial Review (East Lansing: Michigan State University). Vol. IV, NO. 3. Summer 1960, page 402. 12 concept Of education is no longer valid at any of the stages, or plateaus, which in the past were recognized as socially and economically adequate in completing the formal preparation Of youth to adult life, has become forcibly evident. An increasing awareness has also develOped that education is a constant and deep-rooted involvement, or process. by which the individual prepares himself for the responsibility of adapting to change. The concept of lifelong learning is not new in theory or in practice. The idea that society will expect its members to be involved in educational activities in the future is already very much in evidence in the profes— sional fields - management, medicine, law, engineering, teaching, and agriculture - just to mention a few. The further explosion Of knowledge will make it mandatory for all people to be invOlved in educational activities as parents. as members Of groups in occupational and social activities, and as citizens of their respective communit- ies. The small costs invested in individuals would be repaid to the public many times Over in increased efficiency at higher levels of employment, in greater participation as involved citizens, and in the promotion of democratic ideals. ’ The Adult Education Association of the United States Of America presents a further point to consider in the total field of adult education develOpment: 13 Adult education has quietly built up a constit- uency estimated at nearly 50 millions (nine million in formal instruction, forty million in informal education activities) during the past thirty-five years. Unfortunately most of these adults participate in spasmodic courses rather than in a continuous plan Of lifelong learning. Many more millions have experienced no organized learning at all. The con- stituency will be full grown when America expects an adult to spend part of his time in organized learning as it now expects youth to attend school. D. Public School Adult Education in Michigan Public school responsibility for adult educa- tion has been acknowledged in practice and law for well Over a century. Today all states except Kansas have legislation relating to adult education. Pro- visions range from prohibiting use Of school funds for general adult education (New Mexico, Vermont, and Wyoming), through many intermediate stages, up to mak- ing adult education costs a regular part of general budgets and annual apprOpriations.2 Michigan is one of thirty-two states which does not provide funds for adult education purposes. Nine states (Alaska, Arkansas, Delaware. Louisiana, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and South Carolina) have specific limitations as to how apprOpriated funds can be used. Nine states provide funds in varying degrees to public school districts for programs which must be ap— proved by the State Departments Of Education. They are: California, $11,000,000; Connecticut, $250,000; Florida. $2,924,000; Hawaii. $241.984 for 1965-1966; Maine, one-half 1The Adult Education Association of the U.S.A.. 22. cit., page 6. 2Charles H. Radcliffe and JOhn Holden, "Adults in the Public Schools," School Life, Vol. XL, April, 1958, page 8. 14 Of instructional costs which were $50,000 for 1963—1964; Tennessee. $250.000 appropriated for 1966-1967. up $200.000 from 1964; Virginia. $40,000; Washington, $2,847,300; and Wisconsin. $1.785.000.l The report of Michigan's Post Twelfth Grade Educa- tion Committee contained six recommendations which were included in the 105th Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the Biennium 1958-1960. They were: 1. Adult education in these times is so import- ant that every community school district should pro- vide comprehensive and diversified educational services for adults. 2. Adult education should be an integral part of the total community school educational program. 3. Every community school district board of educa- tion should provide a budget for adult education. 4. Public school adult education should receive the same ratio of financial support through state sources based upon cost as is provided for other phases of public school education. 5. Long range plans for financing adult educa- tion should anticipate the day when time honored concepts of equal educational Opportunity will apply to adult education as itdoes to other phases of public school education. 6. State support should, in so far as is pract- ical. include such equalizing factors as are applied to other educational services of the public schools.2 1National Education Association, Division of Adult Education, ''Report of Survey Of Use of State Funds for General Adult Education," Washington, D.C.: May, 1963. Mimeographed. Updated to 1966 by correspondence to each of the 30 State Departments of Education. Department of Public Instruction, State of Michigan, 4%05th Report Of the Superintendent of Public Instruction or the Biennium 1958-1960. Lansing, pages 51-52. 15 In the same report, the Superintendent of Public Instruction recommended to the Governor and to the Legis- lature of the State of Michigan that (l) the Legislature provide adequate state financial support to school dis- tricts so that they may receive the same ratio of such support as is received for other phases of public school education; and (2) that local school districts be encouraged to establish adult education programs that will meet the demands and requirements of the individual school districts.1 Again in the 107th Report, published in 1965, the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the State of Mich- igan recommended that "the continued leadership of Michigan in the area of adult education can be maintained if efforts, financial and otherwise, are made now to do $032 That adult education in Michigan is not considered to be very important is evidenced by the record of the Legislature in refusing to consider a funding program for this phase of the educational program of the State. and by the record of public high school district participation, even though permissive legislation grants them license to spend publh:money for this purpose. The record of public high school participation speaks for itself. With the help of 1Ibid., page 4. 2Department Of Public Instruction. State Of Michigan, 107th Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the Biennium 1962-1964. Lansing, page 10. 16 state financial assistance nearly forty-two percent Of the high school districts offered programs of adult education during the 1956—1957 school year. By 1964 the percentage had decreased to 27 percent. A further concern becomes evident when one considers the actions of the boards of education in providing for community leadership of administrative and supervisory personnel for the Operation of public school adult educa- tion programs. Of the one hundred forty-three public school districts Operating adult education prOgrams during the 1963-1964 school year, only eight districts had more than one person responsible for administration and supervision, 13 had one person only, 13 had half-time directors, 18 had quarter-time directors, and 72 districts had less than one quarter-time employee to handle their adult education programs. Fourteen districts reported "no time," and five districts did not respond. The lack of administrative leadership, and the fact that as our Michigan colleges and universities find it increasingly more difficult to accept the growing numbers Of students who apply for admission, creates a peculiar dilemma. The public schools will find increasing pressure imposed upon them for the formulation of policies that will 1Department Of Public Instruction, State of Michigan, Public School Adult Education in Michigan, Lansing, Pub- lication No. 512. June 1964. page 5. 2Ibid., page 3. l7 permit additional training for those who have no aspiration for college-type study but who, nevertheless, need additional education in order to compete satisfactorily in the labor market. The increased longevity in living is already de— manding new and imaginative programs in order that people may maintain and upgrade their occupational and social par— ticipation and adequacy. To the end that these pressuresfor more programming for adult concerns may be implemented, school board members, individually and collectively, would do well to become quickly aware Of the consequences of the social and tech- nological advances in order that current policies of their school districts can be updated and modified, and that the existing traditions can be viewed and reviewed in the light of contemporary and projected trends. SUMMARY Adult education within a given community has not in itself gained recognition as a social problem in the same level as the availability of adequate public utilities, transportation systems, medical care, sanitation, leisure, or economic and social adequacy. Nor can adult education be coordinated by the use of the same channels that are used for the solution of major social problems. Adult education is, instead, a process employed in achieving coordination among the many organizations and agencies l8 concerned with major social concerns. AOhieving a well— educated citizenry is in itself a persistent problem, but adult education has not as yet been recognized by the soc- iety with an intensity or faith to compel the formation of adequate organization devoted solely to that function. This has resulted in separate and unorganized proliferation : of activities by organizations serving adult groups as a consequence of their functions rather than as a systematic effort to provide for the educational needs of the adult pOpulation. The programs of adult education in Michigan suffer because (1) there is no consistent and continuous system for adequate financial support; (2) there is no generally recognized identification of function; and (3) there is no persistent and sustained involvement and par- ticipation of local agencies concerned with the educa- tional requirements of adults. CHAPTER II METHOD OF THE STUDY This chapter is concerned with creating an under— standing of the basic method of research and the methods and precedures used in conducting the pre- sent study. A description Of the population, sample, and design will be included in the methods and pro- cedures. The present chapter also contains a dis- cussion of the collection and recording of the data. ASSUMPTIONS It was assumed at the outset of this study that adult education is of growing importance in the total educational program of a community. and that a study of the existing programs would be valid and of im— portance to the people and school officials of the State of Michigan. The second assumption is that the basic program Objectives Of public school districts in Michigan are influenced by decisions made by the chief administrative officers of a particular school district. These prOgram objectives are determined in a large part 19 20 according to the definition and philosophy of adult education as expressed by the board of education and the superintendent, and that it is the expression Of the superintendent's executive powers that determine the flavor and direction Of the total program as it is he who recommends the outlay of financial resources. A third assumption is that data can be secured as to the breakdown of program content, leadership exercised, and the financial reports as they relate to the conduct of adult education programs. A fourth assumption is that the smaller public school districts need state finan- cial aid, or some other type Of financial assistance, in order to maintain and/or to reactivate programs of general adult education. HYPOTHESIS In the present study an attempt will be made to uncover facts which will indicate the necessity of adequately funding adult education programs if the re- sponsibility of the public schools to their communities is to be fully implemented and realized. 21 This concern would suggest the following hypotheses: 1. The leadership exerted by the superintendent and the board of education is the strongest and most influential force in establishing the character and direction of adult education programs within any school district in the State of Michigan. 2. The administrators of public high school dis— tricts in the State of Michigan do not identify them- selves with the major problems confronting the adult education movement. 3. Most public high school districts of Michigan cannot maintain an adequate program Of adult education without financial assistance from the State or Federal governments. 4. In order to maintain and to coordinate an ef— fective program of general adult education, the State of Michigan should encourage and support trained per- sonnel and staff at the state level, and in some com— bination at the intermediate and local levels in order that an adequate coordination can be secured. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The study will be confined to selected public school districts which have in Operation a continuous 22 program of education from kindergarten through grade twelve. In some instances these districts may operate a technical institute or a community college, but in no instance will they award a baccalaureate degree. The study will involve the period July 1, 1955 through the school year ending on June 30, 1964, ex- cept as information relative to adult education prior to 1955 is included for historical comparisons. The study will be confined to the fourteen program areas approved by the Department of Public Instruction, State of Michigan, for remuneration from appropriated funds as provided by the Legislature Of the State Of Michigan, and which were disbursed on an annual basis through the Adult Education Division of the Department of Public Instruction, Lansing, Michigan, under pro- visions of the State Aid Act of 1948, and revised in 1954. The study will not attempt to measure enrollments in any particular public school district, but will rather be concerned with changed influenced by the adoption of a nonparticipating policy on the part of the Legislature of the State of Michigan. 23 DEF INIT IONS OF TERMS There are terms used by the Department of Public In- struction which have a specific connotation relating to this study.1 1. Administration: Those activities which have as their purpose the general regulation, direction, and control of the affairs of the school district that are system—wide and not con— fined to one school. 2. Adult Education: Those organized public educational programs, other than regular full-time and summer elementary and secondary day school, community college, and college programs, which provide Opportunity for adults and out-of—school youth to further their education, regardless of their previous educational attainment. Only those programs which have as their primary purpose the development of skills, knowledge, habits, or attitudes are included. This development may 1Department of Education, State of Michigan, Ap_ Analysis of the Revenue and Expenditures Of the Michigan Public Schools for 1963-1964 (Lansing: Bulletin NO. 1011, 1965). pages 1 and 2. 24 be brought about by formal instruction or by informal group leadership directed toward recognizable learning goals. Activities which are primarily social, re- creational, or for the purpose Of producing goods are not included. 3. Community Services: Those services which are provided by the school district for the community as a whole, or some segment of the community, outside Of the pupil education pro- grams provided under Instruction. 4. K - 12 School District: A public school district that is under the super— vision and leadership of a board Of education and which has in Operation a continuous program of education from kindergarten through grade 12, or was moving toward that goal with approval Of the Michigan Department of Education. A K-12 school district board may also conduct grades 13 and 14 as a community college, or technical institute, but does not grant the baccalaureate degree. The classification of the K-12 school districts, based on school law or on general population, is as fol— lows: Class A (lst Class District) 500.000 and over. Class B (2nd Class District) 100,000 to 500,000. 25 Class C (3rd Class District) 50,000 to 100,000. Class D (3rd Class District) 25,000 to 50,000. Class E (3rd Class District) Cities under 25,000. Class F Fourth Class Districts Operating K - 9/12 Grades. Class L Large Fourth Class Districts Outside of Corporate Limits.1 5. Membership: A pupil is defined as a child in membership in a public school, and school children are defined as child— ren in membership in any school. All pupils to be counted in membership shall be at least 5 years of age on December 1 and under 20 years of age on September 1 of the school year except that all pupils regularly enrolled and working toward a high school diploma may be counted in membership regardless Of age. Any former member Of the armed ser— vices in attendance in the public schools, the cost of whose instruction is not paid for by other state funds or by the federal government, shall be counted in membership regardless of age. lIbid, page 3. 26 NO pupils enrolled in school programs organized under federal or state supervision and in which the teaching costs are fully subsidized from federal or state funds shall be eligible to be counted in member- ship.1 METHOD OF RESEARCH The basic method of research used in this study re- lates closely to patterns of descriptive investigations as outlined by Van Dalen in which he classifies the numerous possible types of descriptive studies under three arbitrary headings: (1) survey studies, (2) inter- relationship studies, and (3) developmental studies. These are not rigid categories, since many studies have characteristics of more than one area. However, all descriptive studies have certain common elements of agreement and Objectives. They portray current status and sometimes identify relationships that exist among developing phenomena or trends. Occasionally, the studies attempt to make predictions about future events. As in any reputable study, investigators seek more than bare description. Rather than simply tabulating facts, 1Department of Education, State of Michigan, State Aid Act of 1965-1966 (Lansing,undated), pages 6 and 7 (Mimeo- graphed). 27 competent researchers collect evidence on the basis of some hypotheses, or theory, tabulate and summarize the data, and then thoroughly analyze it in an endeavor to draw meaningful generalizations. Scientific methods of research require scholars to make “intelligent guesses" which will solve problems and to test whether hypotheses present accurate explanations of phenomena. Regarding the use of hypotheses in descriptive studies, Van Dalen comments: If descriptive studies present hypotheses, they are usually of a somewhat lower order than those found in explanatory studies. In the latter, the hypotheses Offer general explanations of why cer— tain phenomena behave as they do. Descriptive studies simply portray the facts - they describe what exists but rarely seek to account for why the present state of affairs has occurred. Descriptive studies may describe the rudimentary groupings of things by com- paring and contrasting likenesses and differences in their behavior. They may classify, order, and cor- relate data seeking to describe relationships that are discoverable in knowledge that lies beyond that which can be gained directly from the events or con- ditions. They do not fully analyze and explain why these relationships exist. Seeking higher-order meanings is left to explanatory hypotheses.l While a descriptive study does not possess great predictive power, it is useful in that it does contribute to science by helping to build a foundation of facts upon which explanatory hypotheses can be constructed. The great lDeobold B. VanDalen and William J. Meyer, Understand ing Educational Research11An Introduction (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., 1962), page 215. 28 advances in science have begun from single, unique, unitary events, and from the various interrelationships the ultimate Objective of establishing universal laws with predictive power to control decisions. Descriptive studies are limited in that applications to particular problems have a relatively short span Of life. This does not mean, however, that descriptive research is any the less important. It does contribute to better under- standings Of educational problems. Van Dalen emphasizes the value Of descriptive research by stating: A. Descriptive studies that Obtain accurate facts about existing conditions or detect significant relationships between current phenomena and interpret the meaning Of the data provide educators with practical and immediately useful information. Factual information about existing status enables members of the profession to make more intelligent plans about future courses of action and helps them interpret educational problems more effec- tively to the public. Pertinent data regarding the present scene may focus attention upon needs that other- wise would remain unnoticed. They may also reveal developments, conditions, or trends that will convince citizens to keep pace with others or to prepare for probable future events. Since existing educational conditions, processes, practices, and programs are constantly changing, there is always a need for up-to- date descriptions Of what is taking place.1 The Design The selected material regarding program content, leader- ship, finances, and operational details covers a nine-year ¥ 11bid, page 212. 29 period of time. The period commences with the beginning of the fiscal year on July 1, 1955 and concludes with the end Of the fiscal year on June 30, 1964. The report does not include the figures of Operational details for the fiscal year commencing on July 1, 1961 and concluding on June 30, 1962 as these reports could not be found in the historical archives of the State of Michigan. For each of the 314 public high school districts that had submitted reports to the Department of Public Instruc— tion, a profile sheet Of the information requested on the AE-2 Forms(Appendix D),was completed, and the results were tabulated on control sheets. The reporting school districts were assigned into three groups. One group consisted of 95 districts which had elected to discontinue the offering of general adult education programs either after the partial withdrawal Of state financial aid in 1956, or after the total discontinuation Of state financial aid for adult education in 1959. The second group consisted Of 150 public school districts which have a continuous record of main— taining general adult education programs through June 30, 1964. A third group of 69 public school districts did not participate during the 1955-1956 school year but did par— ticipate during the period 1959 through 1964 on an irregular basis. 30 B. The Population All Of the subjects in the present study are public school kindergarten through grade level twelve districts which were in operation within the State Of Michigan during the period July 1, 1955 through June 30, 1964. There are a total Of 314 districts in the population. They are located in all areas of Michigan and vary in pupil membership from 271 to 294,000. C. Selection of the Sample The public school kindergarten through grade level twelve districts of Michigan were chosen as the sample for this study because: 1. They are the only agencies through which the fourteen basic program areas, as approved by the Michigan Department of Public Instruction, can be offered. 2. The public school district boards of education are the only legally constituted authorities sanctioned by law to expend public money for general adult education programs. 3. The public school districts are charged with the responsibility of providing programs of education for all adults, rather than for selected individuals. 31 4. The public school districts are requested to submit reports Of activities on an annual basis with some degree of continuity and standardization. 5. The public schools are required to employinstruc— tional personnel who have been certified by the Michigan Department of Public Instruction. D. Collection and Recording the Data Since the study involves a historical description of programs and Operations it was necessary to profile each of the participating public school districts for the years 1956 through 1964. This was accomplished by securing the historical files Of all the annual Adult Education Forms (AB-2) submitted by the various public school dis- tricts to the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the State of Michigan. This procedure eliminated any potential bias as all participating public school districts were in- cluded and utilized in the data collecting process. A record sheet for each school district was used to tabulate the Operational data on the following items Of information: 1. Enrollment and attendance. 2. Program areas for each of the years by numbers Of courses Offered. 32 3. Fees charged. 4. Rate of pay for instruction. 5. Financial expenditures and revenue from student fees and state aid for the years in which state aid was appropriated. 6. Leadership and amount of time allocated to adult education. 7. Number of teachers employed categorized by staff, lay leaders, and college teachers. 8. Special programs Offered for the aging, workers, and young adults. 9. The conduct of high school completion programs. 10. The organization and utilization of a citizen's advisory committee. 11. The conduct of college level non—credit programs. 12. The conduct of vocational education programs. 13. The approval by the board of education of written policies governing adult education programs. In addition to the above operational data, a question- naire was prepared to secure statements concerning the Opinions and attitudes Of the administrators of the public high school districts toward adult education concerns. Form 33 A (Appendix B) was submitted to those administrators of school districts which had elected to discontinue programs with the withdrawal of state financial aid for adult education purposes. Form B (Appendix C) was submitted to those administrators of school districts which have con- tinued an uninterrupted history of participation in adult education programs. The questionnaires included the fol- lowing items of information: 1. Tenure Of the superintendent. 2. Time allocated to adult education concerns per week by the superintendent. 3. Listing of tasks which the superintendent assumes as a part of his responsibility concerning adult education. 4. Identification of the over-all supervisor of adult education by job title. 5. The availability Of adult counseling as a part of the total adult education program. 6. Adult education program Objectives of the school district. 7. Opinion as to what financial assistance should be provided by the state or federal governments. 8. Opinion as to whether current programs are meeting individual and community needs. 34 9. Opinion as to what leadership should be provided by the state for adult education. 10. Professional preparation in adult education by the ‘superintendent. 11. The conduct of credit and non—credit programs by universities and colleges within the school district. E. Construction of the Survey Questionnaire The survey instruments used in this study were de- signed primarily to gather additional data concerning the operation of adult education programs, and to secure the Opinions of the administrators of the study groups re- lative to their participation and concerns in adult edu— cation activities. The instruments were reviewed by members of the doctoral committee, and on completion of the suggested amendments, were reviewed by Dr. Irwin Lehman, Office of Evaluation Services, Michigan State University. The questionnaire forms were then presented to a panel consisting of Mr. Robert Sharer and Mr. Henry Ponitz, former Chiefs of the Adult Education Division of the Department Of Public Instruction; Dr. Jack Rom- bouts, Chief of the Adult Education Division. Department of Public Instruction; Mr. Duane Tester, member of the board of education, Linden, Michigan public schools; Mr. Charles 35 Bode, former superintendent of the Leslie, Michigan public schools; and Mr. Walter Scott, former superintendent of the Holland, Michigan public schools. It was the considered opinion of the panel that a pilot study was not necessary for refinement of the questionnaire forms. The instru- ments were then printed and submitted by mail to the 245 respondents. Also enclosed were self-addressed, stamped envelopes for the use of the respondents. There were unsusable questionnaires returned. F. Reporting of the Findings The findings Of the study are reported in Chapter IV as follows: PART I - Summary of Historical Comparisons. A. Total Enrollments in Adult Education Programs in Michigan. B. The Number Of Participating Districts. C. Sources of Revenue for Public School Adult Education Programs. D. Percent of Total Population Served by Public School Adult Education Programs. E. Participation by Enrollees in Subject Matter Areas. F. Professional Preparation in Adult Education by Superintendents. 36 G. Comparison of Participation in Adult Education by Class of Districts. H. Comparison of Leadership Exercised in Adult Education Programs. I. Comparison of Fees Charged in Public School Adult Education. J. Comparison of Teacher Pay in Public School Adult Education. K. Comparison of Instructors Employed in Public School Adult Education. L. Comparison of Expenditures for Adult Education for 32 Districts Having Population Of 25.000 and Over. PART II - Evaluation of the Survey Data. A. Leadership and Supervision by Job Classification. B. Availability of Adult Counseling. C. Program Objectives. D. Interest in Adult Education by Districts Which Have Discontinued The Offering of Adult Education Pro- grams. SUMMARY The problem of providing for the education of adults in any adequate way is persistent and is increasing in 37 intensity due to the changes that are every day placing more pressure on individuals and on communities. The need for more adequate funding Of adult education programs through sources other than local school district budgets and student fees is apparent. This study was designed to describe the operational development of adult education in the public schools of Michigan. The public schools were chosen as the sample because they are the only agencies through which program objectives and financing can best be achieved, and which by law are the only public agencies through which public monies can be expended for this purpose. The study examined some of the aspects of state and local relationships in order to provide information that might be helpful to administrators and which might serve to generate further research. CHAPTER I I I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A. Review of the Literature Relative to the Philosophy of Adult Education That mankind must continuously face problems and predicaments about which decisions must be made and solu- tions attempted is not novel nor new. Man has proved again and again that he has the capability and capacity for growth and development in a wide and complex variety of areas. This natural divergence of interests and moti- vations has caused at least two major schools of thought to emerge from the various philosophies that have been Operational. The earliest philosophy concerning adult education was centered around the concept that the ac- quisition of knowledge was the way to acquire a culti— vated mind. The emphasis was on content. With the pas- sage Of time the "liberal arts" philosophy goals have shifted from the strict acquisition of knowledge to the sharpening of judgment and from scholarship as such to an understanding of ideas and values in relation to social 38 39 and personal goals in living. Typical of the liberal arts philosophy is the statement made by Burch: I believe the adult educator should find his central purpose in the cultivation Of fitness and excellence of the human mind. He should delight in man thinking, using his mind, and using it well. He should believe that man's dignity as a human being, his self—fulfill— ment as an individual, his usefulness as a member Of society, are all inextricably related to the culti- vation of the mind.1 Typical, too, of the more contemporary liberal arts philosophy is the statement made by Bradford when he wrote: Adult education should have the goal of freeing the individual to reach toward his potentials of growth and toward the effective use of his resources. Adult education should help the individual to understand and control the dynamic forces affecting his living and to reach appropriate decisions and solutions to his problems and predicaments.2 Two more quotations will serve to bring the liberal arts philosophy into focus - one by Bryson, and the other from a statement Of the Fund for Adult Education Report Of 1957-1959. Both statements have as their central theme the freedom of the individual. Bryson had this to say: What we mean by adult education, and what we want this freedom for is so that every man will learn everything that he is capable of taking. And we believe, in adult education, that if any man or any woman can face a more difficult fact, can feel some kind of deeper beauty, or can grasp a moral truth lGlen Burch, ”Adult Education's Great Purpose,” Adult Leadership, Vol, VII, June 1958, page 36. 2Leland Bradford, “Toward a PhilOSOphy of Adult Education,” Adult Education Vol. VII, Winter 1957, page 83. 40 which he couldn't grasp before, that is a gain no- thing can ever change. That's a gain forever. The material things will go, the human things stay. The purpose of our civilization is in humanity.1 The report of the Fund for Adult Education in- cluded the following statement: Human beings must be educated for freedom. Edu- cation for freedom is liberal education. Liberal education has an essential meaning for all members of society, and for the society as a whole. We believe that every human being is entitled to develop his talents to the fullest. 'We have entrusted the basic social power to all people. Therefore, we must create and improve opportunities for all people to continue their liberal education through—out life. The goals of liberal education are such qualities as sound values, awareness, knowledge, understanding and sympathy, such abilities as straight thinking, disciplined creativity, continuous learning and re- sponsible cooperation — the human essentials of en— during freedom. While these enhance an appreciation of life, they are not only for the purpose of ap— preciation; the goals of liberal education are also directed toward action - the able exercise of all rights and obligations, both private and public. Self-government is not a spectator sport.2 The developmental school of philosophy in adult education is represented by such writers as Wilbur Hallen- beck, Coolie Verner, Jack London, Paul Bergevin, and Robert Smith.3 Their concerns for adult education are lLyman Bryson, Reason and Discontent, The Bryson Lec- tures (Pasadena: Fund for Adult Education 1954), page 19. 2Fund for Adult Education, Continuing Liberal Education (New York: A Report Of the Fund for Adult Education, 1957— 1959), page 14. 3Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., Community and Adult Education, op. cit., 33 pages. 41 centered around the community in all the complex relation- ships to individuals and with other communities. Four con- ditions are present in every community which makes their philosophy community and action oriented: (1) a community generates the needs, interests, and motivations for the education of its adults; (2) the community depends upon adult education for certain processes in its corporate life; (3) a community, with its wide variety of institutions, with their different specific purposes, and their mani- fold resourses, makes a broad adult education program com- prehensible, feasible, and possible; and (4) a community is an ever—present laboratory useful for many kinds Of learning experience in adult education. The developmental philosophers recognize that social needs for adult education are a product of time and place. Five social functions of adult education are presented: (1) that as our civilization continues to become more technical, more specialized, more interdependent. and more complicated, an ever-rising standard of educational require- ments are imposed; (2) that a changing world imposes many personal adjustments and readjustments on its people; (3) that improvement Of interpersonal and:intergroup relations is necessary: (4) that democracy as a principle of social 42 organization and as a system of values is basic to adult education programs; and (5) that the promise Of civili- zation and democracy is the enrichment of each individual's personality, the opportunity to be free, to feel and to be important, to have more and deeper satisfactions and to enjoy many broadening experiences. Another philosophy, that of the fully functioning personality, was expressed by John Gardner, former pre— sident of the Carnegie Corporation, when he said: Our educational purposes must be seen in the broader frame—work of our convictions concerning the worth of an individual and the importance of individual fulfillment . . . What we must reach for is a conception of perpetual self-discovery, perpetual reshaping to realize one's goals, to realize one's best self, to be the person one could be.1 The difficulty, however, of producing the fully functioning personality has been presented by Earl Kelley.2 The difficulty starts in our elementary schools. Kelley points out that most adults and teachers in our society and classrooms have a mental set that prohibits them from 1John W. Gardner, "The Servant of All Our Purposes” (New YOrk: Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1959), pages 1 and 2. 2Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop- ment, National Education Association, Perceiving, Behaving. Becoming - A New Focus for Education, (washington: Year- book 1962), pages 9-20. 43 respecting the individuality Of the child. The reason, he says, is that although we claim to be democratic, the methods we use are authoritarian. This is especially true of the education process where children observe the ac- tions of adults in ways that are far more convincing than are the words we use. The result is that early in life children acquire authoritarian and conforming concepts and ways. He claims that this produces a dilemma in the minds of children and they frequently react by withdrawing to avoid the “lines of authority" and coersions and thus at- tempt to hide their apparent differences. The withdrawal pattern, he claims, is continued throughout life. Maslowl, in discussing the concept of growth of individuals toward becoming integrated personalities, stresses the idea of need gratification. He points out that as one need is satisfied, the individual comes to recognize that there are other needs to be satisfied; that the more one knows, the more he wants to know. Mas- low further points out that as schools help individuals to continuously experience satisfaction of needs through exploration, contemplation, manipulation, and enjoyment of the world, it appears very likely that the process will continue throughout life. The function Of the teacher and of the school should provide the support that individuals lIbid, pages 34-48. 44 need when they move from the comfortable past into new and unfamiliar areas Of inquiry. Still another “needs“ approach to the philosophy of adult education is expressed by Havighurst and Orr1 in their "developmental tasks" concept of the adults themselves in their roles as parents, spouses, homemakers, children of aging parents, workers, users of leisure time, association and organization members, citizens, and friends. Incor— porated into these developmental tasks are the "teachable moments" - those new situations that call for a quick response or adaptation. In these new situations adults find that learning comes readily when they are not fettered by frameworks of academic bookkeeping or accounting for credits. Not only is it difficult to provide for indivi- duality in adult education programs, but it is probably more difficult to place a philosophy into the context of an acceptable operational scheme. This synthesis of philosophy to operations was brought into focus by Edwards when he raised three issues: As mankind has traveled the long and painful road from barbarism to civilization it has accumulated a lRobert Havighurst and Betty Orr, ”Adult Education and Adult Needs," Cente; fQ£_The1§tudy of Liberal Education for Adults (Chicago: 1956), 66 pages. 45 body of ideas, knowledge, values, and skills which constitutes the capital of human experience. Deci- sions with repect to the use of this experience in the educational program are of primary importance. Three important issues are involved: (1) to what extent is racial experience to be drawn upon? (2) how shall the essential elements in this experience be identified? and (3) what organization shall these elements be given.1 This problem was also considered by Jensen in terms of decentralization and diffusion: All of our societies live precariously within the balance of knowledge and power. We are committed to the decentralization of these two elements, to their distribution, because we believe that no man knows enough to exercise complete power in the interest of other men. But knowledge attracts power, and it is only by maintaining the diffusion of knowledge that we can prevent the accumulation of power. Only by constantly turning individual programs into learning programs can we come close to maintaining this dif- fusion and the freedom of all of us.2 Since educational administration is the agency through which decisions regarding program content and direction are developed and implemented, the need for philosophy and an administrative theory on the part of lNewton Edwards and Herman Richey, The School in the American Social Order (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1947). Pages 851-852. 2GaleJenson, Adult Education: Outlines of an Emerging Field of University Study, (Chicago: Adult Education Asso- ciation Of the U.S.A., 1964), pages 265-266. 46 of those administering programs was expressed by Simon. His statement, while made primarily to executives of business and industry, has application also to those who manage our schools: The need for an administrative theory resides in the fact that there are practical limits to human rationality, and that these limits are not static, but depend upon the organizational environment in which the individual's action and decision takes place. The task of administration is so to design this environment that the individual will approach as close to rationality in his decisions.1 The accomplishment of the above is no easy task since educators must be in competition with other public agencies in securing financial support from local and state authorities and legislative bodies. On this point Sheats quotes Robin Make, past president of the Depart- ment of Adult Education, National Education Association, as follows: The position of the superintendent of schools in these days admittedly is not an easy one, with many vexing problems of increasing enrollments, costly building programs, broadened curricular Of- ferings and limited financial resources to mention only a few. However, the superintendent who fails to do what he can do to provide for the education of adults in the community is neglecting a re- Sponsibility and overlooking an opportunity.2 lHerbert Simon, Administrative Behavior (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1960), page 241. 2Paul Sheats, Clarence Jayne, and Ralph Spence, Adult Education (New York: Dryden Press, 19531 page 149. 47 In spite of the many apparent limitations certain common guidelines have been presented by the National Association of Public School Adult Educators by which public schools may assess their roles on the basis of the needs of their communities and in relation to their institutional associates in adult education. These roles are as follows: 1. Public schools have the ultimate role of public responsibility. Public schools hold the public injunction to fill in gaps, to pro- vide unbiased enlightenment, and to Offer broad training in plentiful measure, and they cannot . be exclusive as may be private institutions. 2. Public schools have the role of ready availability. They exist in every community and they have staffs that can meet with little reorientation many educational demands. 3. Public schools have a role of accessi- bility in terms Of costs and hours convenient to the citizens. 4. The public schools have the role of a- daptive flexibility, to change with times to suit new priorities. 5. The public schools have the role of ini— tiative - they can not escape the need to assess their communities, to analyze existing levels of adult educational competence, to survey educational resources, and to determine edu- cational minimums for responsible adulthood. 48 6. The public schools have the role of respon- siveness - they must be ready to cooperate with any problem concerned with the public interest.1 B. Definition of Adult Education The necessity for adult education programs ap- pears to be historically and universally accepted, and much effort has been exerted throughout the world in its behalf. From the earliest times of the nation's history, a concern for education of adults in the United States has been expressed in word and deed. It is interesting to note a reaction to the American search for improvement as expressed by de Tocqueville in his observation of our society following his visit to this country in 1831. On this theme he wrote: In proportion as castes disappear and the classes of society approximate - as manner, cus- toms, and laws vary, from the tumultuous inter- course of man - as new facts arise - as new truths are brought to light - as ancient opinions are dissipated, and others take their place - the image Of an ideal perfection, forever on the wing, presents itself to the human mind. 1The National Association of Public School Adult Educators, Focus, (Washington: 3rd Yearbook of the NAPSAE, 1963), pages 41-42. 49 Continual changes are then every instant oc- curring under the observation of every man; the position of some is rendered worse; and he learns but too well that no peOple and no in- dividuals, how enlightened soever they may be, can lay claim to infallibility - the conditions of others is improved; whence he infers that man is endowed with an indefinite faculty of improvement. His reverses teach him that none may hOpe to have discovered absolute good - his success stimulates him to the never-ending pursuit of it. Thus, forever seeking - for- ever falling, to rise again - Often disappointed, but not discouraged - he tends unceasingly to- ward that measured greatness so indistinctly visible at the end of the long track which human- ity has yet to tread.1 The search for improvement and the necessity of continuing education for all men provide a basis on which adult education can be broadly defined. The necessity of adult education was treated by Davidson in an essay written in 1898 in which he concluded: It is clear enough that the uneducated man, however well endowed with health and wealth, is a slave. In the first place, he is a slave to other peOple's opinions, as every one must be who fails to think for himself. He who acts upon the thoughtcfi3another is practically that other's slave. This we see daily in the polit- ical world, where the great body of the peOple, on account of their ignorance, are deprived of their rights by selfish men who have received a good education. In the second place, he is continually faced by circumstances the bearing of which he does not understand, and hence is com- pelled either not act at all, or else to act in the Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Vintage Books, 1954). pages 263-264. 50 perilous dark. Worst of all, he is cooped up in a pitiful, beggardly world of facts and interests mostly of a material sort, knowing nothing of the world of science, philosophy, art, and lit- erature. The great drama Of history is blank to him.1 The classic report of the Adult Education Committee of the British Ministry of Reconstruction, published in 1919. introduced a new era in adult education history. For the first time a definite statement was issued by a governmental agency giving general direction, force, and definition to adult education by stating that citizenship is an integral part of national necessity. The report read in part: . . . the necessary conclusion is that adult education must not be regarded as a luxury for a few exceptional persons here and there, nor as a thing which concerns only a short span of early manhood, but that adult education is a permanent national necessity, an inseparable aspect of citizenship, and therefore should be both universal and lifelong.2 As the years of American history progressed, other writers added their views to the growing literature con- lThomas Davidson, as quoted in American Ideas About Adult Education, (C. Hartley Grattan, Editor)(New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, 1959), pages 85-86. 2R. D. Waller, A. Design for Democracy, (New York: Association Press, 1956), page 55. 51 cerning the necessity of education for adults and added their definitions. Alexander Meikeljohn, in a speech delivered before the American Library Association in 1924, echoed the basic concept of the ”American Dream" in these words: I think America, more than anything else, and more than any other nation that ever existed, is a vision, a spiritual adventure, a desire for something better, a purpose, an inspiration, a determination, an enter- prise into which a hundred million people have thrown themselves. And I don't believe you can understand America unless you interpret it in these terms. It is what America wants to be, what she intends to be, what she is determined to be, what she is leading the whole world toward being. That is what you have to think of when you try to understand anything in America. I believe that America intends to be and must be a democracy. That is our mission, that is what we are living for, that is our Opportunity. And, he continues: . . . democracy is education. There is only one thing a people can give to its citizens safely. There is only one thing a community can give to its members on a large scale and do it successfully, so far as I know, and that is education. In so far as we can educate the peOple, in so far as we can bring people to an understanding of themselves and of their world we can have a democracy. In so far as we cannot do that we have got to have control by the few.1 Many years later, another American writer, Eli Gins- berg, wrote the following On the same general topic, again lAlexander Meikeljohn, as quoted in American Ideas About Adult Education, gp.cit., page 125. 52 expressing the national security aspect of adult edu- cation: A wise society will invest liberally in its people in order to accelerate its economic expan- sion and strengthen its national security. But‘ it will also do so because in helping each citizen to realize his maximum potentialities it contri- butes to the well-being of all.1 And fourteen years after Meikeljohn delivered his “education for all” speech,12eeves reported to the New YOrk State Board of Regents on the condition of adult edu- cation in New York. His report contained a definition of adult education that has found general acceptance and agree— ment among most adult educators to the present time. His statement reads in part: As a process adult education may be thought of as that activity which enables a person more efficiently to meet his personal needs, problems, or desires; more effectively to participate as an intelligent function- ing member of society: and more understandingly to ap- proach the appreciation and realization of ultimate values. Benefits, therefore, accrue to both the in- dividual and to society.2 More recently a rather formal and structured defi- nition has been presented by Verner: Adult education is the action of an external educational agent in purposefully ordering behavior into planned systematic experiences that can result in learning for those for whom such activity is sup- plemental to their primary role in society, and which lEli Ginsberg, Human Resources: The Wealth of a Nation (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1958), page 170. 2Floyd Reeves, et a1, Adult Education: The Regents Ingpiry (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1938), page 5. 53 involves some continuity in an exchange rela- tionship between the agent and the learner so that the educational process is under constant supervision and direction. Thus the definition has been broadly conceived as individual improvement, as a national necessity to guarantee security, as continuous and supplementary, and the ful- fillment of the democratic ideal. New terminolOgy has also been added into the literature of adult education as thagoals and objectives become more sharply defined. Kallen has added the word "closure" to the Operational definition of adult education in the following statement: It is a closure that the schools begin and job and home consummate and conserve. Whatever its survival function, it renders the adult mind an imprisoned mind, whose walls adult education, whether vocational or liberal, must need either raze or raise. It is only in recent years that the function of adult education has designated as liberating the learner by razing the walls of ignorance.2 C. Review of the Literature Relative to the General Needs of Adults The first step in the review of the literature pertaining to the general needs of adults was to secure Opinions from nationally reCOgnized authorities who have had many years of study and Observation of the overall 1Coolie Verner, Adult Education - Theory and Method (Chicago: Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., 1962). pages 2 and 3. 2Horace M. Kallen, PhilOSOphical Issues in Adult Education (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1962). page 77. 54 efforts being made toward providing educational opportunity for adults under many different varieties of sponsorship and organizational levels in both public and private in- stitutions. Kempfer,l one of the earlier writers reporting ob- servations and practices in the adult education field, reported at length on the growth of interest in adult education, methodologies employed, and the administrative procedures as they existed prior to 1955. His textbook is typical of many reports and books regarding general increases in enrollments and classes in public school adult education programs. Kempfer also studied and reported on the responses of adult educators themselves in an effort to determine adult education needs and interests. His study of twenty professional people in adult education revealed eleven “best“ determiners, or identifiers, of adult education needs as follows: 1. Local directors of adult education, or their equivalents. 2. Area or speC1f1c field advisory committees. lHomer Kempfer,.Adu1t Education (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1955). 55 3. Temporary advisory committees appointed to consider a definite problem, need, course, or sub- field. 4. Guidance officials. 5. A joint committee Of faculty and laymen. 6. The board of education or other board Of control. 7. A faculty committee. 8. An over-all lay advisory committee or council. 9. Individual members of the lay community. 10. Individual faculty members. 11. The superintendent, day school principal, or other general administrator.l In still another study, Kempfer reported on the relative merits of thirteen methods of identifying adult educational needs and interests. A panel of professional workers in the field of adult education helped to develop a list of criteria which were taken to be indices of the effectiveness of methods used in identifying educational needs and interests of adults. Data on 530 public school adult education programs were gathered, as well as infor- mation on 40 junior and community colleges, to permit lHomer Kempfer . "WW Interests of Adults," (Washington: U. S. Office of Edu- cation, Circular 330, 1951, pages 31-39. 56 testing the relationships among the various indices using the Pearson correlation. Interrelationships between size Of program, number Of educational approaches used, number of coordinating practices and number of cooperative activities were all positive and significant although low. Thirty-seven common practices were measured against each of the six indices. Each administrator rated each practice according to use in his program: 0 is seldom or never used, 1 if occasionally or sometimes used, and 2 if ordinarily or usually used. Mean index scores were computed for each rating for each practice reflected against each index. The ”best" ways of identifying edu- cational needs and interests were the following in rank order Of merit: 1. Cultivation of "coordinators”or liaison people in industry, business, and community organizations who watch for Opportunities for education to perform a service. 2. Receiving requests from business, industrial, labor, and community groups. 3. Study of deficiencies of adults. 4. Maintenance of extensive personal acquain- tances with community leaders and groups. 5. Examination Of census and similar type data. 6. Making systematic surveys of industrial, business, civic, and organizational life of the community. 57 7. Examination of published surveys of other communities and similar literature. 8. Examination of catalogs, schedules, publicity, and program materials of comparable institutions. 9. Acting on ”hunches." 10. Being sensitive to civic, personal, and social problems of people which can be alleviated by education. 11. Checking on known interests Of people. 12. Utilization of checklists and other interest finders. 13. Receiving individual requests.l Kempfer sees the questionnaire and checklist as utilized more by newly appointed directors than by ex— perienced program builders. The latter relies on com- munity coordinators in business and industry and other civic and community-organization leaders who in a way act as an advisory council to help determine direction and offerings for his programs. Kempfer also believes that the discovery of needs and interests is best achieved through a variety of ways, that all ways have some value, but that greater reliability of analysis is accomplished by qualified community leaders.2 lHomer Kempfer, Ibid, page 63. 2Homer Kempfer, Op. cit., pages 67-70. PART II A. Rggionale for State Grants-in-Aid Legal responsibility for the conduct of education has traditionally been vested in the several States. The Tenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States gives to the States those powers which are not specifically delegated to the Federal Government by the Constitution. This amendment has served to establish the plenary authority of the individual states in their relation to public edu- cation as a state function. From the point of view of organization and adminis- tration, the State has become the key to educational develop- ment in America. The basic policies and framework for education is provided by the people of each state through the constitutional provisions they approve, and the laws that their legislatures enact. Whereas the rights of the fifty States are equal, the ability to initiate and to sup- port adequate funding programs is unfortunately not so. Morphet, Johns, and Reller, writing in regard to the ability of a community to provide support for education, state: By wise and far-sighted provisions the people of any state can encourage and stimulate the develop— ment of a superior program of education throughout 58 59 the state. By incorporating narrow and restrictive provisions they can handicap the development of educa- tion and make it difficult for the people in many communities to have good schools even though they may desire to do so.1 And, they continue: If every district in each state had equal ability to support schools and if each state had the same ability as each other state, the need for State or Federal support of schools would be less urgent than under present conditions, except as a means of broad- ening the tax base and providing greater equity for taxpayers. In no state or local system can a reason— ably adequate program be provided unless sufficient funds are available to meet the costs of that program. The people in each state and community must, therefore, be concerned with adequacy of funds as well as with efficiency in organization and operation. To deny funds for schools until maximum efficiency has been attained would be somewhat comparable to the idea Of denying a person an education until he can demon- strate that he can make a constructive contribution to society.2 The fact that local school districts can not pro- vide adequately for the total education of the public is well documented. Moehlman states that equalization of opportunity can be accomplished by a partnership attack on the problem of providing for the total social needs of a community. His statement reads: The responsibility of the state for public school finance is the determination of total needs from the lEdgar Morphet, R. L. Johns, and Theodore Reller, Educational Administration, Concepts, Practices, and Issues (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1959), page 14. 2Edgar Morphet, R. L. Johns, and Theodore Reller, Ibid, page 495. 6O kindergarten through institutions of advanced learn- ing, the parallel program Of adult education, the development of general plans whereby this total social need may be satisfactorily met, and the allocation of relative responsibility for producing this revenue between the community and the state. The state responsibility should be for the equal- ization of educational Opportunity between communities and the improvement of the educational program through leadership and stimulation. NO program contemplating the equalization of educational opportunity can be considered satisfactory unless it includes provision for eliminating the economic inequalities that make it impossible for hundreds of thousands of individuals to participate in opportunities.1 Wahlquist also voices his concern over the inability of local school districts to raise the necessary revenues for an adequate educational program, and stresses the need for states to provide more generously to the total program in these words: As education continues to become a national con- cern certain structural changes in educational ad- ministration may be forced upon us. Schooling as a fundamental function of society has outgrown the local community. There seems to be but one answer to the dilemma faced by public education, and this answer will be far from satisfactory to many of us. The answer, of course, is that the basic structure of education must reside at the state level rather than with the local community. For lack of structural provisions, many types of education are neglected in the various states. The great majority of school districts in lArthur Moehlman, School Administration, Its Develop- ment, PrTnciples. and Future in the United States (Cam- bridge: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1940), page 766. 61 in the United States have no provisions for the ex- ceptional child, the crippled, the blind or partially blind, the deaf or hard of hearing, the mentally de- fective, the behavioral problem child. Almost as neglected as the handicapped children are the adults. American schools have been organized pri- marily for children; the staff, equipment and the ap- proach are not suited to adults. The extension work of colleges and universities, commendable as it is, rarely touches the adults who have not been to college. Yet it is generally conceded that education must be a life—long project in a democracy Where all have the right to vote. Up to this time, little has been done in American education in the realm Of adult education.1 The literature on state support of education is ex- tensive and as the awareness of the severe limitations of local school districts to support total programs become more apparent to administrators and citizens, the demands upon the state to assume more direct financial responsibi— lity becomes more urgent. Benson, in his analysis of the economic aspects of public education, summarizes the pro- blem as follows: State grants-in-aid can be defended in terms of the three basic purposes they may serve: equalization, tax relief, and stimulation. First, the grants may be used to reduce extreme differences among districts in lJohn T.-Wahlquist, et a1 . The Administgation Of Tublic Education (New YOrk: The Ronald Press Company, 1952), pages 578-579. 62 local tax burden. The second major purpose is to afford relief from local taxes. The third major purpose is to stimulate local expenditures. Sti- mulation may be directed toward the general level of spending or toward the extension of certain specific measures. Benson further states that the economic aspect for grants-in—aid can be stated (1) in terms Of certain econo- mic changes that have taken place in our society, or (2) in terms of the assumption that state authorities can make "better“ estimates of the need for public services than local authorities.2 The economic interdependence that has become an in- tegral part of community life is characterized by specia- lization in business and industry. The American economy has moved from the self-sufficiency of the household to the self-sufficiency of small geographic areas. The development Of vast networks of transportation, communi- cations, and the mobility of the labor force gives rise to conditions affecting the fiscal condition of local units of lCharles Benson, The Economics of Public Education (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1961), pages 223-224. 2Charles Benson, Ibid, page 215. 63 government over which they have no control. They affect levels of employment, the size of the industrial tax base, and basic wage rates. Thus, school districts, whose benefits and services have become to be widely dispersed, vary greatly in the income level of their residents with the result that parents in poor districts pay a much greater proportion Of their earnings in taxes, which in most cases do not produce sufficient revenues to support an adequate educational program. Consequently their children are handicapped throughout life due to the lack of educational opportunity. The problem is compounded further because specialization makes it increasingly more important to lengthen and to provide a higher quality in education. The mobility of the labor resources Opens the competition for jobs in any community to the graduates of any other school system re- gardless of the quality of education they may have received. Thus interdependence establishes a concern on the part of state governments for either the subvention or the assump- tion of local services.1 lCharles Benson, Ibid, pages 216-220. 64 The conclusions of the various writers regarding the necessity for grants—in-aid to public schools by the various states appear to express agreement that public school districts vary widely in the tax effort which the people are willing to make fOr the support of education, that great variations also exist in the manner in which local properties are assessed for taxation. Other rea— sons include the fact that constitutionally education has long been organized as a state function, and that the state can more adequately tax the resources of the state than can the local school districts. Most writers agree that a well planned partnership between the state and the local districts can be the most efficient way Of providing for education to meet the total social needs of the people. B. Effects of Stimulation Grants Stimulation grants have been used in many instances to encourage school districts to expand their level of expenditures toward some specific unusual need, or to sti- mulate some new activity. The major difficulties with these grants have been identified by Wahlquistl as follows: 1John T. Wahlquist, et a1, op. cit., page 377. 65 (1) Aid provided as a stimulant has come to be re- garded as a permanent continuing Obligation of the state, and has not been eliminated even when its use— fulness has passed. (2) If carried beyond a certain point, these grants have resulted in the state's participating in educa- tional costs most largely in those districts which are best able to meet financial costs on their own. Many poor districts simply have not been able to raise the necessary local share of funds which would make pos— sible the provision of added services. (3) Stimulation grants may have a tendency of splintering the educational program, and to encourage districts to provide for a new activity without in- tegrating them into the total program. In addition, stimulation grants require that a school district already have some money available. Because of this, the gap between the poor districts and the school districts with adequate financial resources tends to widen. The poor districts will not have the resources necessary to take advantage of the benefits of the stimulation grants. Thus, the stimulation grants cannot be expected to solve the basic problems involved in the support of educational programs. The capstone to this portion of the review of the literature has been stated by Knezevich: The most significant change in the years ahead will be a movement toward consideration of the local finan— cial resources as supplementary rather than the major 66 sources Of school support. This is where some states are now and others will soon follow.l C. The Effects of State Aid on Public School Adult Education PrOgrams The evidence for the support of public school adult education prOgrams through state aid on a continuous basis appears to be significant. Studies made by the Adult Education Association of the United States of America dealing directly with the problems concerning state aid for public school adult education programs reveal positive results in both participation by in- dividuals, and in the expansion of the curriculum. The report reads in part: There is substantial evidence to indicate that where state funds are employed, a far more compre- hensive program of adult education develops. In ten states and the District of Columbia which have relatively adequate state aid provisions for adult education, three times as large a prOportion of the adult pOpulation is engaged in public school adult education activities as in those states with little or no state aid. This means that if all states could be persuaded to deal as generously with adult education activities as do ten states. then ten million adults might be taking part in public school adult education rather than but a fifth that number. Once state aid for general education has been secured the curriculum of an adult evening school also undergoes expansion. This expansion leads mainly toward programs in health and physical ed- ucation, fine arts, civics and public affairs, remedial special parent and family life education, high school completion subjects, and practical arts. lStephen Knezevich, Administration of Public Education (New York: Harper and Brothers, l962).page 434. 2Adult Education Association Of the U.S.A..Hand- book of Adult Education in the United States, Malcolm S. Knowles, Editor (Chicago: The Assoc..l960). pages 348-349. 67 Further statements Of the effects of state aid in support Of adult education in the public schools were made by two of the largest professional education organizations - the National Education Association, and the National Association Of Public School Adult Educators. The National Education Association report stated: Another probable effect of state aid has been to stimulate the enrollments in small and medium-sized cities as compared with the enrollments in large cities. The NEA study of urban public school adult education programs found that during the period 1946-1947 to 1950-1951 small cities (2,500 to 30,000) enrollments increased 100.3 percent;, medium cities (30,000 to 100,000) enrollments increased 187.7 percent; while large cities (over 100,000) enrollments increased 37.2 percent. These data tend to prove that state aid is an important factor in equalizing educational Opportunity for adults.1 The NAPSAE statement read in part: The importance of state aid for adult education cannot be overemphasized. Such aid is essential to the encouragement of the growth of public adult education. One of the conclusions Of the recent study on ”Financing Adult Education" by Edward Olds was that every state should provide specific financial aid to adult education as a part of its foundation program of assistance to public schools and essentially on the same basis as that provided for elementary and secondary education.2 1National Education Association, Division of Adult Education Service, ”A Study of Urban Public Schools Adult Programs of the United States" ( Washington: 1952), page 15. 2National Association of Public School Adult Educators, Public School Adult Education - A Guide for Administrators (washington: The Association, 1963), pages 8-9. 68 In support of this policy it was pointed out that ‘ ‘4" "r '—-=-‘z...r.._ :H in the ten states with considerable aid, three times as large a proportion Of adults were enrolled as in 38 states .L: . ' h__.___,,r. _ with little or no aid. The increase in the State of New York of state aid by five times from 1944 to 1952 was accompanied by an increase in adult enrollments by fifteen _ ".4. f.._'-—— p: .<* times.l The NAPSAE report continued: State aid is a potent force both in absolute amount and because of the regulations which usually accompany it. These regulations may touch on or control the following details which must be met if the school is to have its activities approved and be reimbursed: 1. Subject matter content. Formal course outlines may have to be filed with the state education department. 2. Type of Activities. Often classes are the only acceptable from Of instruction. 3. Certification of leadership. Certification regulations are Often patterned after those required of teachers in elementary and secondary schools. 4. Minimum age of participants. 5. Occupation of enrollees. 6. Length of course, class period, season, time of day, and other factors. 7. Systematic report forms. 1Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., "Financing Adult Education in America's Public Schools and Community Councils,”Edward Olds, Coordinator(Washington: The Associa- tion, 1954), pages 27-29. 69 In spite of such regulation, districts located in states offering considerable aid typically enroll three times as many adults as do communities in states without aid. The difference cannot be ex- plained in terms of degree of urbanization, per capita income, or educational levels and is undoubt- edly due to the extra financial stimulation. Adult schools in states providing aid generally operate on more flexible schedules, offer activities in more subject matter areas, and utilize a wider range of educational approaches than do schools in other states.1 One further statement from the Adult Education Association's Handbook concerning state aid and adult tuition fees is worthy of review: The National Commission of Adult Education Finance found that school districts supported by state aid served 6.3 percent of their adult populations, those limited to local funds served 3.6 percent, and schools in districts which relied entirely upon tuition served only 2.7 percent. As an issue, tuition fees evoke a wide variety of opinions even among adult educators. Proponents of tuition fees cite (a) the danger of spreading resourses too thinly and undermining free public education; (b) the self-respect which adults get from paying for what they want; (0) the ability of adults to pay for what they get, and (d) the in- creased stability of enrollment which arises from discouraging those without serious or well—formed intention. Opponents of tuition fees emphasize that 1National Association of Public School Adult Educators, Ibid, page 42. 70 (a) limitations are placed upon those who most need adult education, and who are most easily discouraged - those with low educational level, with low income,and those with low incentive; (b) fees limit the ability of leadership to adjust the nature of the program to public need rather than public demand; and (c) public affairs, community development, literacy education, citizenship education, and elementary and high school courses are unlikely to be sufficiently popular for financial independence. Regardless of the merit of the argument, experience shows that three fourths of the schools which charge fees have enrollments of three hundred students or less.1 D. The Role of the Public School in Adult Education The literature relevant to the role of the public schools in their efforts to carry through the mandate im- posed upon them reveals a consistent pattern of concern from the organizational standpoint, and for the roles that have been prescribed to the administrators of adult edu- cation programs. It is not an easy role to resolve, for generally the administrators of adult programs have nei- ther the authority, nor control, of the basic ingredients essential for minimal success. Spence and Spanghold2 point out that in several ways the most logical agency to assume the responsibility for 1Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., op.cit., page 143. 2Ralph Spence and Benjamin Spanghold, Public School Adult_§ducation in New York State, 1944-1947(A1bany: Uni- versity of the State of New York), Bulletin NO. 1391, May 1. 1950. page 27. 71 adult education are the public schools. They are geo- graphically accessible to nearly everyone, they have well recognized lines of organization and administration, they possess channels for distribution and collection Of funds and information. Numerically, the public school staffs represent the largest collection of educational competence within the country. Theoretically, this combination of staff, facilities, and financial resources of the public schools potentially give adult education a firm operational basis. Clark, however, points to the marginality of adult education with the public schools in these words: One of the striking features of adult education in this country, organizationally, is that adult education agencies have very little freedom to develop on their own terms. They are nearly always dependent rather than independent, located within large organizations that are mainly concerned with other tasks. Adult education programs within universities, public schools, trade unions, museums, and libraries all share this dependency. Furthermore, adult eudcators are handi- capped in becoming established because their aims and programs are not integrally related to the core tasks of the parent organization. .Within adult education, both programs and educators, are in a word, marginal. Organizationally, the public school structure im- poses a marginal position on its adult education pro- grams. From the beginning of the public school system in this country, education for the young has been the prime concern of tax-supported institutions of learning. 72 Elementary schools, high schools, and in some states junior colleges fit easily into the public's image of appropriate tax-supported education. Organization- ally their programs become of central importance and are strengthened by the progression of grades. Adult schools, however, present themselves as something of an anomaly. Their students are older than and dif— ferently motivated from ”regular“ students. Their purposes are additions to the main purposes Of the public schools and are in ways dissimilar. Their organizational structure is separate from any se- quence of grades. It is not surprising, then, that state and local authorities do not look upon adult education as mandatory in the sense that education of the young is mandatory upon local officials. Nor is it surprising that when laymen and school Officials have to consider priorities in budgets, they rank adult education programs as non-essential. As a consequence, most adult education schools lack physical facilities Of their own and generally have little fixed capital. They are frequently adminis- tered by officials whose basic responsibilities lie in other directions. Finally, adult education school administrators — whether in long established programs or in new ones - must constantly “sell” their programs inside and outside the school walls. A second feature that complicates decision-making for adult education agencies is that each unit is not only a part of a local, complex organization, but also of a level of field of education. From the parent field comes some image of orientation and action. What image does the adult provide? What guides does it give its agencies in determining purpose? At best, the adult organizations receive an ambiguous charge. There is a degree of goal ambiguity in current adult education that is uncommon even in the history of American institutions. This ambiguity has conse- quences for decision-making that affect the character Of organizations in the field.1 lBurton Clark, “The Marginality of Adult Education," Notes and Essays (Chicago: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1958), No. 20, pages 1-2. 73 Public school administrators have for many years followed the line and staff form of organization that has been handed down to them by hundreds of years of tradition. The centralized authority concept, and its descending scale of power, can be traced to the Egyptian empire.1 The authority at each level in the operation of schools is most often received from a superior above. Superintendents, in this type of organization, have as one of their many res- ponsibilities the delegation of authority for adult edu- cation and the appointment of adult education directors. Among the thousands of administrators in public and private organizations, according to Dimock,2 very few are ever priviledged to begin with a concept or a set of Objectives from which to build. Rather, they are more likely to become a part of an on-going established or- ganization with goals already defined. with personnel functioning in their prescribed or ascribed roles, and with the financial meansand/or support already established. 1John C. Almark, ”The Historical Development of School Administrators,“ School and Society, Volume 43, May 9, 1936, page 625. 2Marshall and Gladys Dimock, Public Administration (New York: Rinehart and Company, 1953), page 104. 74 They must, however, have the three basic tools of authority, coordination, and control with which to function. Boards of education, by legislation, find them- selves in the roles of establishing basic policies regarding the total dimension for adult education programs within their communities, and delegating the authority and respon- sibility to the chief administrative Officer for the ex- ecution of the policies. If there are no policies for adult education by the board of education, the superin- tendent has nothing to delegate concerning adult programs. Sheats, in discussing the responsibilities of the public schools, states in a very straightforward manner that: Public schools in a democracy are responsible for meeting the educational needs of all the people of any age group when such needs are consistent with the pub- lic interest and welfare. This responsibility does not require the duplication of educational facilities controlled by non-public groups already satisfactorily meeting educational needs nor the elimination of such non-public organizations. However, the responsibility requires the public schools to act as the judge Of the adequacy of other educational organizations. This latter provision exists in part in the right given most state departments of education to accredit or to re- fuse to accredit public schools within their juris- diction.l lPaul Sheats, et a1, Adult Education (New York: The Dryden Press, 1953), pages 146—147. 75 McCluskyl, another early writer in the field of adult and community adult education, attempted to formulate a statement of consensus Of professional workers in the field of adult education concerning the role of the public schools toward adult education. He proposed three admini- strative responsibilities of the American public School for the organization and administration of adult education. They are: (l) to provide such educational facilities and services as it can Offer more effectively than other agen- cies; (2) to cooperate with and to assist non-school agen- cies with an educational function to increase the value of their educational services; and (3) to take or to see that some other agency takes chief responsibility for the coordination of the non-school educational activities of the community, unless some other agency is already ef- fectively carrying on such leadership. E. The Role of the Sgperintendent in Public School Adult Education Since one of the objectives of the present study has as its concern the identification of the leadership lHoward McClusky, “Adult Education and Public Schools,” (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan School of Education), Bulletin No. 16, February 1945, pages 65-69. 76 role that superintendents of public school districts exer- . cise on programs of adult education, it was important to discover whether they actually do consider the viewpoints of authorities in the formulation of policies governing the development of adult education programs for their communities. The studies of both Oldsl and Kempfer2 show that the many advantages Of adequate local administration can be identified, and that they consider it significant that the increase in local administration was greater by far in states that had full time administration in state departments of education. It is significant, too, that the same states had stronger professional organizations. Cave,3 in a study of preparation programs for adult educators, concluded that (1) adult education programs have taken on a service character, that they were highly sensi- 1Edward B. Olds, ”Financing Adult Education in America's Public Schools and Community Councils”(Washington: The Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., 1954), 124 pages. 2Homer Kempfer and Grace Wright, “One Hundred Evening Schools,“ (Washington: U.S. Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office 1949), Bulletin No. 4, 71 pages. 3William Cave, ”Implications of a Graduate Training Program in the Preparation of Public School Adult Education Administrators, Based on an analysis of Administrative Practices Of Directors in Selected Michigan Communities (Unpublished PhD dissertation, Michigan State Unitersity. 1957. 77 tive and adaptive to the expressed interests of their clien- tele; (2) that the basic administrative orientation of the local adult education director was “other directed," or community centered, that though all directors were generally responsible for program administration and organization, they tended to minimize the relative importance of these internal factors in favor Of external non-institutional factors; and (3) that programs were found to be marginal in status. As a result directors were insecure in their positions and seemed to be somewhat detached from the regular public school staff; (4) the primary role of the adult educator was conceived to be one of service to the clientele and to significant community agencies and/or organizations. The role of service was a legitimizing basis for the programs; and (5) public relations emerged as the most important operational area in terms of pro- gram growth and development. Cave's study, although made a year later, appears to be someWhat in conflict with a study made by Dillon and Tomlinson in which the authors state: Service alone does not make up an adult education program. The quality Of personnel selected to im- plement the program is Of prime importance for the ultimate fate of all programs in adult education. The quality is determined to a great extent by the personal qualities and professional training of the 78 director and his staff. The most immediate crisis appears to be the lack of professionally qualified individuals who are imbued with the personal qualities necessary to assume leadership roles as directors of adult education.1 No studies were found which focused primarily on the selection of adult education directors by superin- tendents, or boards Of education. One study was com- pleted by Dillon and Treloar2 in 1957 on factors that inhibit the development of adult education programs in Michigan. The need for funds to support adult education programs, the lack Of qualified teachers, and insufficient time for the directors to develop programs were cited by the study as the three most serious factors inhibiting the development of adult education programs. More recently the Research Division of the 3 conducted an opinion poll National Education Association of school superintendents relative to adult education concerns. The findings reveal that nearly eighty percent 1Harold Dillon and William Tomlinson, "The_AQpT§pEgg— cation Director - His Qualifications and Training,“ College of Education Qparterly, April 1956, (East Lansing: Michigan State University), page 3. 2Harold Dillon and William Treloar, Factors Inhibiting Adult Education Programs in Michigan (East Lansing: Michigan State University, College Of Education, 1958), 21 pages. 3National Association of Public School Adult Educators, "Superintendents and Adult Education,” Focus, 1964 Yearbook Of the Association, pages 130-137. 79 of the superintendents with programs were Of the opinion that public schools should accept major responsibility for adult education as against 55 percent of those super- intendents without programs. Eighty percent of the superintendents with programs also indicated that adult education programs should have a multiple-purpose function as against 65 percent for superintendents without programs. The two groups of superintendents were in agreement that it was “very important“ to Offer adult trade and vocational programs, but the teaching of recreational skills were considered "important" or ” of little or no importance" by 90 percent of the superintendents with programs, and 89 percent of the superintendents without programs. On the question of finance, however, both groups Of super- intendents were in agreement that adult education pro- grams, except the teaching of recreational skills, should be financed by public funds, or by some combination of public funds, tuition, and "other“ sources. Recreational skills were to be taught through tuition only in the opinion of 60 percent of both groups of superintendents. The ”other” source of funds was identified by superintendents as Federal support and was favored by 70 percent of the superintendents with programs and by 58 percent of the superintendents without programs. 80 SUMMARY The review of the literature suggests strongly that adult education within the public schools needs a thorough review, and that adult education is practiced more in theory than in reality, and that new sources of revenues must be found if the objectives and responsi- bilities of the program are to be fully realized. The adult education programs do not receive their propor- tionate share of administrative time, nor have they been accepted as a member of the academic family. The role of the public schools for adult education purposes has been clearly stated. The public schools are publicly supported, they have existing plants and facilities which are acceptable and would be inexpensive to use. The public schools have trained personnel, and as a local educational resource, can provide educational leadership to other educational activities for adults through a variety of partnership arrangements with the agencies and interests existing in their communities. Adult education in order to be fully realized must be seen as a different type Of education from that Offered in elementary and secondary schools. It requires a dif- ferent curriculum, different course content, different 81 materials, different teaching approach, a broadly con- ceived counseling service, and flexible teaching facilities. It is the intent of the author to relate the re- view of the literature to the adult education programs in Michigan in later chapters of this study. 82 PART III Review of the Literature Relative to Education Research, Studies on Opinion and Attitude Surveys, and the Methodology of Constructing Questionnaires. Part III of the review was centered and directed toward reports and studies on education research, and on studies on opinion and attitude surveying and reporting, and on methodology of constructing questionnaires. NO information was found which applied directly, or speci- fically, to the problems identified with interest of superintendents, or boards of education, to adult edu- cation programs within their districts. The writing on the subject of educational research by Hansenl, Goodz, Dixon3, and Travers4 were helpful in determining the acceptability of the study in regard lMorris Hansen, et a1, Sample Surveerethods and Theory (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1953. 2Carter Good, and Douglas Scates, Methods of Research (New YOrk: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954. 3Wilfred J. Dixon, and Frank Massey, Introduction to Statistical Analysis (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1957). 4Robert M. Travers, An Introduction to Educational Research (New York: The MacMillan Company). 1964. 83 to the total problem in terms of the appropriateness and timeliness of the study. The references were helpful, too, in determining the design Of the study, particularly in the choice of survey methods and in the choice of primary sources of information. McNemarl, in a detailed study, has thoroughly re- viewed the methodology, measurement, reliability scales, and administration of instruments used in educational research. Twelve criteria to be considered in the construc— tion and organization of survey instruments were treated by Romine.2 The construction of the survey forms, the organization of individual questions and statements for which responses were sought, and suggestions for the identification of a selective sample were based on these criteria. Wang3 presented several specific criteria for writing attitude and opinion statements. His suggestions lQuinn McNemar, ”Opinion—Attitude Methodology,” Psychological Bulletin XLIII, No° 4, July 1946, pages 289-374. 2Stephen Romine, ”Criteria for a Better Questionnaire," Journal of Educational Research, Vol. XLIII, NO. 1, Septem- ber 1948, pages 69-71. 3Charles Wang, ”Suggested Criteria for Writing Attitude Statements,” Journal of Social Psychology, III, 1932, pages 367-373. 84 were that attitude statements must be debatable, and that each statement must contain but one thought. He further suggested that a researcher must avoid the grouping of two or more complete sentences as one at- titude or opinion statement. These suggestions were considered in the formulation of Items 6 and 7 of Form B, and Items 7 and 8 on Form A. SUMMARY The education of adults has come to be recognized by many as a national necessity for survival of a demo- cracy, but the philosophy that all who might conceivably benefit from education should have an Opportunity to continue to learn, has not yet been accepted by those who make educational decisions at the state and local levels. Three considerations have made this difficult to achieve: (1) the definition of adult education makes the problem difficult to resolve in terms of curriculum; (2) the methodology of teaching in the public schools does not fit the pattern Of ”life” situations; and (3) the finan- cial support for adult education has not been resolved. As a result adult education is marginal in concept, and is marginal in practice. CHAPTER IV EVALUATION OF THE DATA PART I Summary of Historical Comparisons In this chapter comparisons of the historical Opera— tional data of the public schools participating in adult education programs in Michigan for the years 1956 through 1964 are presented. These data present the trends in enrollments, program content by instructional areas, school district participation, portion of the total pOpulation served by public school adult education, comparisons of adult educa- tion expenditures as against those made for elementary and secondary school purposes, and sources of revenue for adult education. These data also include information on fees charged, rates of pay for instructors employed, leadership exercised in behalf of adult education, and categories of instructional personnel employed. Further data are presented showing total courses offered, and of instructional personnel em- ployed by thirty-two public school districts having pOp— ulations of 25.000 to more than 500,000. as well as par- ticipation ratios and expenditures of funds for adult ed- ucation made by these districts. 85 86 Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4 present the history of total enrollments. school district participation, portion of the total pOpulation served by adult education programs, and comparisons of expenditures made for adult education against instructional and current expenditures made for elementary and secondary education. Tables 1 through 8 present data on sources of revenue for public school adult education, comparison of attendance and numbers Of courses offered by instructional areas, comparison of leadership exercised, comparison of fees charged, teacher pay, and instructional personnel employed for selected years. Tables 9 through 13 provide comparisons regarding the organization of special courses for the aged, workers and young adults; high school completion prOgrams; vocational education; non-credit college level courses; and the use of citizen advisory committees and the formulation Of written policies governing adult education activities for the years 1956 and 1964. Table 14 compares the participation in adult educa- tion programs by the various classes of districts for the years 1956 and 1964. Tables 15 through 21 compares courses Offered, and instructional personnel employed by the thirty-two school districts Offering the bulk of adult education programs in Michigan, as well as comparisons Of courses Offered by instructional areas for the year 1963-1964.2nd comparisons 87 of school expenditures made for adult education by these districts for the years 1956 through 1964. A. Total Enrollments in Public School Adult Education Programs in Michigan Enrollments in adult education programs have fluctuated from year to year with the sharpest rise being during the years 1951 through 1956 when enrollments increased from 112,418 to 241,628 (Figure 1). Previous to that time, and with the termination of World War II, the State Of Michigan initiated a three-year experimental program of aid in an effort to extend educational Opportunity to the adult pOp- ulation of Michigan by apprOpriating $110,000 annually to 45 selected communities, mainly the larger cities, for the support of adult education programs in the public schools. Enrollments for the first year were 52,170, and by 1947 the enrollments had increased to 81.700. On expiration of the experimental program. and after a lapse of one year. $300.000 was appropriated for the 1948—1949 school year. Enrollments jumped to 146.862. The funding of $300,000 annually con- tinued for eight years and enrollments continued to increase. For some unexplained reason at the height of school dis- trict participation in 1957. enrollments decreased by some 26.000 from the previous year's high of 241,628. The Leg- islature of the State of Michigan decreased the adult ed- ucation appropriation to $200.000 for the years of 1958 and 1959. After another decrease of 17.000 enrollments in ~».-...- u n u u omamq wanna oeumq qoumo Nouao oonmm mm mm on mm gm mm mm Hm I u mouwo Houoo mmuwm mmnom mmuem mmumm Hmuom aduwe we be me «O whom” amumOHm Housmawumd new» emu: om mama Oz 88 sowuwfiumouam< Hmsss< coo. 88 8 pw¢ Oumum Oz cowumfiuaoumm< HmOOO< ooo.oon Ampcmmsonfi OH OOmHumqqa mm~ Z,- u...~.:_2........_: .,.~l...~ .f: Z-~L.<.J::m. 542:1... Z~ ZAO.~L.u0m sowuwasdom sowumfisaom OH=p< . 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The number of participating districts in adult education had also decreased from 223 to 143. Thus it may be Observed that from the period 1945 through 1964 a major change in the relationship between state and local arrangements for financing adult education had taken place. E. Participation by Subject Matter Areas The major emphasis of study by adults in Michigan is on the practical rather than on academic. and more peOple are concerned with applied study as against theoret- ical, and on skills rather than on study for the sake Of gaining information or knowledge. Of the five highest instructional areas in enrollments, parent and family life education accounted for better than 40 percent of the total enrollments during each of the past three years, with high 96 TABLE 1 COMPARISON OF GROSS ADULT EDUCATIQQ EXPENDITURES AGAINST GROSS CURRENT EXPENDITURES MADE FOR ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION IN MICHIGAN FOR THE YEARS 1945 TO 1964 Gross Current Percent Adult Gross Expendi- Expenditures Education to tures for Adult for Public Current Expendi- Year Education1 Schools2 tures 1944-1945 $ 175.485 $ 108.805.271 .161 1945-1946 182.554 120.798.491 .151 1946-1947 201.778 139.873.826 .144 1947-1948 No Data 168.844.095 1948-1949 814.924 193.160.466 .421 1949-1950 No Data 211.271.627 1950-1951 901.552 234.003.930 .385 1951-1952 980.097 258.040.299 .379 1952-1953 1.202.741 283.820.095 .423 1953-1954 1.343.866 312.842.713 .429 1954-1955 1.502.444 346.858.064 .433 1955-1956 1.885.165 400.574.765 .470 1956-1957 201640105 44403270168 .487 1957-1958 2.156.795 487.217.955 .442 1958-1959 203150491 51905100972 .445 1959-1960 2.281.566 560.970.621 .406 1960-1961 2.494.185 611.633.960 .407 1961-1962 205110452 65102890176 .385 1962-1963 2.500.467 691.489.615 .361 1963-1964 2.313.187 737.201.220 .313 1State of Michigan, Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, "Public School General Adult Education, 1959-1960." Lansing, Bulletin NO. for the years 1961 to 1964. 512, 1961, page 7,and Bulletin No. 512, 2State of Michigan, Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, "An Analysis of the Revenues and Expenditures of the Michigan Public Schools." Lansing, Bulletin No. 1011 for the years 1945 to 1964. 97 school completion, business and commercial, practical arts, and recreational skills following in that order. The attendance comparisons for each of the instructional areas is presented in Table 2. A comparison of the number of courses offered by each of the instructional areas for the years 1957-1958 through 1963-1964 is presented in Table 3. For the year ending June, 1964 the five instructional areas for which the highest number Of courses were conducted.were in the following order: practical arts, high school completion, parent and family life education, business and commercial. and recreational skills. The percent that each of the instructional areas accounted for of the total courses offered during the two- year periods of 1958-1960 and for 1962-1964 is presented in Table 4. For the period 1962-1964, high school completion ranked first, followed by practical arts, parent and family life education, business and commercial. and recreational skills. During the 1958-1960 period practical arts ranked first, followed by high school completion, business and commercial, parent and family life education, and health, safety, and driver education. 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