A QUANTITATIVE CR9$S£CULTURAL STUDY
6F IQ? $ATTSFA-CTIGN EN THE UNITED STATES,
ITALY ANS FUEQTG i320

TI'a’esIs for ”ac Degree oI pIm. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Hector Puig Arvelo
1959

 

Jams

A QUANTITATIVE CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY OF JCB SATISFiCTIOK

IN THE UNITED STATES, ITALY AND PUBRTO RICO

By

Hector Puig Arvelo

Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate
Studies of Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Psychology

1959

ACKN WLEDGMSNTS

For their kind and thoughtful assistance in
the preparation of this thesis, the writer wishes to
express his a preciation to Dr. H. C. Smith, Chairman
of the committee, to Dr. Charles F. Wrigley and to Dr.
Hans H. Toch. Grateful thanks go to Dr. Walter F. Johnson
of the Faculty of Education, to the helpful staff members
of the Psychology Department, to his fellow students,
to all industrial workers and firms who cooperated with
the investigation, and to his mother who unknowingly
provided the incentive.

The author is also indebted to Howard E. Trier,
whose research was basic in the preparation of the thesis.

Special thanks go to the John Hay Whitney
Foundation which provided the financial support to make

the study possible.

ii

Dedication

A mi Madre

iii

A QUANTITATIVE CROSS—CULTURAL STUDY OF JOB SATISFACTION
IN THE UNITED STATES, ITALY AND PUERTO RICO

By

Hector Puig Arvelo
AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate
Studies of Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Psychology

1959

A 4

ABSTRACT \

The study was designed to check the results
obtained by Trier in testing eight hypotheses regarding
job satisfaction among Michigan industrial workers with
the results obtained with Italian and Puerto Rican indus-
trial workers. The Italian and Spanish translations of
Trier's questionnaire were administered to 196 Italians
and to 398 Puerto Ricans. The primary method of analysis\
consisted of matching pairs of workers on all but one
pertinent variable and computing the differences in satis— “
faction due to the variable. The variables included 00- I
cupational status, income, company, age, sex, education,
and father's occupational status. Questions on a Likert
type scale were also used to measure the worker's con-
ception of how his family, friends, and neighbors perceive
his job.

The perceived status scores of the professional
class were found to be the highest in the two countries
studied (United States and Puerto Rico). In Puerto Rico,
as well as the United States, the professional group per-
ceptual scores differ significantly from the clerical
and skilled classes. In Puerto Rico, however, the pro-

fessional group did not differ significantly in their

perceived status scores from the semi—skilled and unskilled
groups, as it occurred in the States. The correlations
between satisfaction scores and the perceived status scores
were .89 for the United States and .56 for Puerto Rico.

The results indicated that those of higher oc—
cupational status were significantly more satisfied in
all three countries. Also, the American, Italian and
Puerto Rican workers receiving higher wages were signifi—
cantly more satisfied than those receiving lower wages.

As Trier had found in the United States, the
average satisfaction from company to company in Puerto
;Rico scored significantly different even when the workers
compared in different companies were equated for status,
income and age. Three equated Italian companies, however,
did not show significant differences.

Older workers were significantly more satisfied
than younger workers in the United States and the direc—
tion of the results in Italy and Puerto Rico was consis—
tent though not significant. The assumptions that women
workers would be more satisfied, that workers at a higher
occupational status would be more satisfied, and that
those with less education would be more satisfied received
only inconsistent and insignificant support. In Puerto
Rico, rural and urban employees did not differ signifi-

cantly in satisfaction, nor did early and late emancipated

vi

employees.

The study illustrated the two major advantages
of the cross-cultural method. First, the data from Puerto
Rico and Italy extended the range of job satisfaction
available for study; that is, the Puerto Rican results
extended the range upward, the Italian results, downward.
Second, the results showed that some findings in the
United States have cross-cultural validity (for example,

status, wages and company) and some do not (sex and age).

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

IE‘TTRODUCTIC.INTO O O I O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O I 1

Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Occupational St-~tus and Job Satisfac—
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Perception of Primary Group .tttitudes
and Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . 3
Company and Job Satisfaction . . . . . 7

5.
4. Age Differences and Job Satisfaction . 8
5. Sex Differences in Job Satisfaction. . 10
6. Wag es and Job Satisfaction . . . . . . 11
7. Occupational mobility and Job Satis-
faction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
8. ‘ucation and Job Satisfaction . . . . 2
9. Urban-Rural Differences in Puerto Rico 1}
10. Emancipation in Puerto Rico. . . . . . 14

IIIETIIOD o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o n o 13

Employees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Companies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
The Job Satisfaction Questionnaires. . . . . . 23
The Nature of the Questionnaires . . . . . 23
Scoring of the Questionnaires. . . . . . . 24
Reliabilities of the Questionnaires. . . . 25
Administration of the Questionnaire. . . . 26
Method of Analyzing the Data . . . . . . . . . 27

RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Hypothesis 1: Status. . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Hypothesis 2: Perception. . . . . . . . . . . 32
Hypothesis 3: Company . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Hypothesis 4: Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Hypothesis 5: Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Hypothesis 6: Wages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Hypothesis 7: Mobility. . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Hypothesis 8: Education . . . . . . . . 44
Hypothesis 9: Urban—Rural . . . . 46
Hypothesis IO: Emancipation. . . . . A7

viii

DISCLTSSIONO o o o o o o o o

Tn‘e Discrepancy among Clerical Yorke

An Explanation of the Higher Satisfaction of

Puerto Ricans . . . . . . . . .

The Importance of the Perceptual Factor.

The Company Factor . . . . . . . .
The Age Factor . . . . . . . . . . .
The Sex Factor . . . . . . . . .
The Relative Importance of Wages . .
Comments on Unsupported Hypotheses .
Advantages and Limitations of the Met
Matching. . . . . . . . . .
The Cross— Cultural Method. . . . . .

SUthARY O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 0
REFERENCES 0 O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O
APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

ix

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4\.
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53
53
54
55
56
57

59
62

64
66
74

LIST OF TABLES
Table Pay

I EMPLOYEES USED IN THE UNITED STATES, ITALY
AND PUERTO RICO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

II ITALIAN AND PUERTO RICAN EMPLOYEES BY AGE
.ALND ANNUAL INC OIVLE o a o o a o o o o o o o o l 7

III ITALIAN AND PUERTO RICAN EMPLOYEES BY EDUCA-
TION AND BY THEIR OCCUPATIONAL STATUS IN RE-
LATION TO THAT OF THEIR FATHERS. . . . . . . 18

IV AMERICAN, ITALIAN AND PUERTO RICAN EMPLOYEES
BY OCCUPATIONAL STATUS AND COMPANY . . . . . 20

V AVERAGE SATISFACTION SCORES AND STATUS . . . 31

VI PERCEIVED STATUS SCORES FOR OCCUPATIONAL
CLASS IN THE UNITED STATES AND PUERTO RICO . 34

VII JOB SATISFACTION BY COMPANY IN THE UNITED
STATES, ITALY AND PUERTO RICO. . . . . . . . 36

VIII THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THOSE OVER 40 AND
THOSE UNDER 30 IN UNITED STATES, ITALY AND
PUEszO RICO. . O O I C O O C O O O O O O O O 39
IX SEX DIFFERENCES IN JOB SATISFACTION. . . . . 40

X THE DIFFERENCE IN JOB SATISFACTION BETWEEN
EMPLOYEE S NITH HIGH AND THOS EWITH LOW WAG ES 42

XI THE DIFFERENCE IN JOB SATISFACTION BETWEEN
THOSE ABOVE FATHERS' STATUS AND THOSE NOT
ABOVE FATHERS' STJXTUSO o o o o o o o o o o o 44

XII THE DIFFERENCE IN JOB SATISFACTION BE"1 NEE
EMPLOYEES WITH LOW AND HIGH EDUCATION. . . . 46

XIII RURAL AND URBAN JOB SATISFACTION SCORE . . . 47

XIV JOB SATISFACTION OF EARLY AND LATE ENANCI—
PATED PUERTO RICAN WORKERS EMPLOYED IN DIF—
FICULT JOBS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~. 48

"V SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE ON THE HYPOTHESES. . . . 50

INTRODUCTION

Our major purpose was to compare the determin-
ants of job satisfaction found among United States workers
by Trier (79) with the determinants of job satisfaction
among Italian and Puerto Rican workers. As Whiting (35) ..~
has recently pointed out, cross-cultural studies have
two general values: (1) they ensure that one's findings
relate to human behavior in general rather than to a
single culture; (2) they increase the range of variation
of the variables studied. The cross—cultural method had
its start with E. B. Tylor (81) in 1889 who used it in
Great Britain to investigate cultural evolution. In
the last fifteen years the cross-cultural method has
not only become more popular but has changed in its theor-
etical orientation toward general behavior issues. A
very recent example of this trend is R. B. Cattell's
analysis of personality questionnaires administered in
Italy, France and the United States that is to be pub-
lished in the near future (7). The present study seems to be-
the first quantitative application of the method to the

study of job satisfaction.

Hypotheses

In 1954, Trier (79) completed a study of job

satisfaction among workers in Michigan. His major re—

sults were as follows:

I

The higher a worker's occupational status, the greater
his job satisfaction.

The more favorable a worker perceived the attitudes
of his family and friends to be toward his job, the
greater his job satisfaction.

Workers in different companies doing similar work

at similar pay differed markedly in their satisfac—
tion.

Older workers were more satisfied than younger work-
ers.

Female workers were more satisfied than males.
Workers receiving higher wages were more satisfied.
Workers at a higher occupational status than their
fathers were slightly more satisfied than workers
who were not at a higher status than their fathers.
Workers with higher education were slightly more
satisfied than workers with less education on the
same job.

The present study was designed to check these

results among Puerto Rican workers. It was hypothesized

that the results would be the same. It was further hy-
pothesized that similar results would be found among
Italian workers from the analysis of data collected by
Smith in Italy in 1955-56.* Throughout the present re-
port the hypotheses are referred to by the numbers given
above. In addition, two hypotheses (9 and 10), having

reference only to Puerto Rican workers, were tested.
,History of the Problem

Previous studies of job satisfaction have been
organized under the hypotheses to which they are most
directly related. Trier's results, because they are

discussed in more detail later, are not included.

1. Occupational Status and Job Satisfaction

One frequent finding in the studies of job
satisfaction has been that the higher the level of the
occupation, the higher the morale. These studies covered
a wide range of occupations from unskilled laborers through
professional and managerial positions. The first findings

go back to Hoppock (27) in 1935 and Super (76) in 1939.

 

*Henry Smith visited Italy in 1955—56 on a
Fulbright Grant and administered job satisfaction ques-
tionnaires in three Italian companies.

 

Although Super was not able to include unskilled workers
in his study, he concurred with Hoppock in finding that
professional men and managers were more satisfied than
the lower occupational groups. In Hoppock, professional
and managerial personnel were the most satisfied, then
sub-professional and supervisory personnel, and next
white collars and skilled workers, followed by semi-Skilled
and unskilled workers. In Super's study, 80% of profes-
sional and managerial people were satisfied with their
jobs, whereas only 52% of skilled and semi-skilled work—
ers were satisfied.

Subsequent research has also supported the
relation of job satisfaction to social status. Center's
study (2) reports 25% of the unskilled workers but not
one of the businessmen in his large national sample to
be dissatisfied with their jobs. In a survey conducted
by Elmo Roper for Fortune magazine (70), the answers
to questions on the sustained interest of their jobs
showed that professional people were most interested,
salaried workers next, and factory workers least inter—
ested. Katz (42), in his study with employees of a large
insurance firm, found that even when pay, age, and length
of service are held constant, professional and semi-pro-
fessional workers were more satisfied with their jobs

than skilled workers. Mann (46), in a study of 8,000

non-supervisory employees, found that more highly skilled
workers were higher in their overall satisfaction. Ash
(2) noted the lowest morale in a steel plant among pro—
duction and maintenance workers, higher in office and
clerical workers, higher yet in supervisors, and highest
among sales personnel.

Kelly (43) has shown indirectly the degree
of satisfaction of unskilled workers. In his study only
8% of a group of coal miners stated that they would re-
turn to mining if they were 16 years old. Only 2 per
cent of a group of textile workers said they would not
prefer another job, in a Fortune survey (19). Thirty-
nine per cent of factory workers said they would not
choose the same occupation if they were to start over.
In another Fortune survey (18), 16% of a group of clerks
and manual workers said they would not enter their present
occupations again if they had an Opportunity in one with
a higher status.

More recent studies (6, 23) have added support
to the hypothesis in favor of greater satisfaction in
higher status positions. In Cantoni's study (6) workers
were found to improve both in personal adjustment and
satisfaction as they gained in job status. Grivest (23)
found that head nurses as a group were more satisfied

than nurses in lower positions. Mann's (47) dissertation

also supported hypothesis 1. His most satisfied occupa-
tional groups were the service occupations of doctors
and ministers.

Two studies done in 1958, however, are incon-
sistent with these conclusions. In one study (40) only
those professional groups that received intellectual
stimulation in their work were highly satisfied. In

athe other study (65) only those with high status

ammmgother professional people were highly satisfied.

2. Perception of Primary Group Attitudes and Satisfac—

tion

Warner's (84) large scale investigation of a
small New England city used social association as a basis
for describing the class structure of the city as the
peOple in the city themselves perceive it. Here, as in
a number of other community studies (14, 15), the atti—
tudes people had towards their jobs were often found
to be part of the commonly held value system of the class
rather than entirely an individual matter.

Bullock (5) suggested the way in which the
social status of a job exerts its influence on the work—
ers' attitudes. He measured the satisfaction of three
different groups of employees and to all three he admin—

istered a questionnaire of 105 items concerned with social

factors which were assumed to be related to job satis-
faction. When Bullock divided the three groups of em—
ployees into satisfied and dissatisfied and studied their
answers to the 105 items, he found as the most discrim-
inating ones the following: Did the members of your
family think this was a good job? Did your neighbors
where you lived think your labor was a good one? Is

this organization generally considered a good one to

work for?

Dyer (l6) interviewed the families of 87 work-
ers, and administered a job satisfaction questionnaire
to the workers themselves. He reported that on the av-
erage the less satisfied worker perceived his family
as being more frequently dissatisfied with his job than

the family of the satisfied worker.

éZ;Q;JL3° Company and Job Satisfaction

/
Worthy (87) wrote about the effect on employee

attitudes of several aSpects of company's organizational
structure and philOSOphy. His observations emerged from
his experiences with Sears, Roebuck and Company. He
indicated that morale seemed to decrease with the increas—
ing size of the physical plant or organization. He added
that the fewer the horizontal levels the better. This

not only allowed for more freedom of interaction among

employees and managers but also required some independent
decisions of all executives. Sears attempted to protect
the advantages of a small organization through adminis—
trative decentralization, which appeared to help in de—
veloping in the employees a feeling of responsibility

for the tasks assigned. The results were judged_as posi—
tive. Likewise, some ngaral-Motoraadprppration results
indicated the importance of companyéwidefmolicies in
regard to satisfaction with a variety of specific fact—

ors in the essays submitted by employees in a "My Job"

contest sponsored by the Corporation (17).

4. Age Differences and Job Satisfaction

 

Increase in morale with increasing age was
noted by HOppock (27, 35) in one of the earliest studies
of job satisfaction among teachers, as well as in his
classical study of job satisfaction in the town of New
HOpe, Pennsylvania. Super (77) tested a group with a
wider range of occupations. He reported that the job
satisfaction of nearly 300 men who were members of vari-
ous hobby or avocational groups was substantial in the
group aged 20 to 24; that men in the 25-34 year period
became dissatisfied with their jobs; then in the 35-44
year period satisfaction ran high again. It decreased

slightly between 45-54.

Benge and COpell (3), in a survey of workers
in a confectionery plant, found that those under 90 had
high morale, that the lowest level of morale occurred
in those between 20 and 29, and that after 30, morale
went up with increasing age.

In studies like those of Ash (2), mann (46),
Miller (51), Stagner (73), and Inlow (37), which included
blue collar workers as well as college students, job
attitudes of workers in the middle age groups were meas—
ured. The results showed a regular increase in morale
with increasing age. More recent studies have been con-
sistent with these findings. Robinson (68), in 1956,
found older reading specialists (median age of 47) to
be more satisfied than specialists with a median age
of 37. Meltzer, in 1958, (50) comparing the attitude
of workers in different age groups: below 30, 21-45,
46-60, and 61 years over, found the two oldest groups
to be more satisfied. Increasing seniority and security
feelings, broadening of interests, and a general rise
in adjustment and satisfaction with life have variously
been suggested as possible explanations for these find-
ings.

Although fewer in number, there are some stud—
ies which do not fit the pattern. Stott (77) and Korn-

hauser and Sharp (45) found no support for the hypothesis

10

of increasing morale with age, but they dealt with very
restricted age ranges (18-21 in one case). Shriver (71),
in her study with airplane pilots, found that morale
drOpped with increasing age. Handyside, in 1956, (26)
found that satisfaction was related positively but not
significantly to age. Two studies in which no relation
between age and job satisfaction were found are those

of Habbe (24) and Quayle (64). Habbe compared insurance
agents over and under 40. Quayle compared stenographers

(19-31)-

5. Sex Differences in Job Satisfaction

 

The studies comparing men and women in job
satisfaction do not lead to any single conclusion.
The idea, however, prevails that women, having greater
difficulty in achieving occupational status, are more
satisfied than men at the same level when they do achieve
such status. In most cases, the studies made a rough
overall comparison between men and women workers to whom
a job attitude questionnaire had been administered.
Habbe (24) and Stockford and Kunze (72) reportadthat women
liked their jobs more than men did theirs. On the other
hand, Cole (12) presented data showing women to be more
critical of their jobs and of the managements of the

companies than men. Deck (54) described women school

11

teachers as more poorly adjusted than men to their jobs.
But a more recent study with teachers (53) showed women

school teachers to be higher in satisfaction than men.

6. Differences in Wages and Job Satisfaction

The University of Michigan Survey Research

Center (78) has concluded, on the basis of studies with

    
  
  

many different kinds of workers, that the amount of money
arned was itself less important in determining the work-
'er's morale than his thinking that his pay rate was_fair«
2__Efliair. There was some evidence, however, that in-
come as such affected job attitudes. Centers and Can—
tril (9) reported that the degree to WhiCh people were
satisfied with their incomes went up as income went up.
Troxell (80), using the interview method with 705 male
workers in various occupational groups, concluded that

those with higher incomes were more satisfied.

7. Occupational Mobility and Job Satisfaction

Nhyte (86), in his study of the restaurant

industry, and Gardner (21), in his work, Human Relations

 

in Industry, both stated that persons who come from pro-
fessional or business families often have severe diffi-

culties in adjusting to jobs such as those of waitress

12

or factory worker because of the emphasis in such fami—
lies on upward social mobility. Warner (84) suggested
that if a worker's occupational status surpassed that
of his father, he would be more satisfied. Dyer (16),
in his comparison of high and low satisfied workers and

families, reported that the children of the less satis—

fied workers were not proud of their fathers' jobs.

8. Education and Job Satisfaction

Although some studies reported lower morale
among more educated workers, results were inconsistent.
Centers and Cantril (9) found a drop in the workers'
liking for his job with increased education (for that
part of their national sample earning over $60.00 per
week). They did not find such a trend for workers earn-
ing less than $60.00 per week. Mann (46) reported a
similar tendency for "blue collar" workers with high
education to have low job satisfaction. Mossin's results
showed tnis to hold true for a group of female sales
clerks (52). However, in dealing with home economics
teachers, a study sponsored by the American Vocational
Association (1) reported increased morale with education.
Kessler (44), in a study of disabled veteran trainees,

found similar results.

13

Other studies have failed to show any differ-
ences in job satisfaction among workers differing in
amount of education. Ash (2) noted this result in a
large sample of steel company employees. Quayle (64)
obtained similar results with a group of stenographers.
Kornhauser and Sharp (45) did not find any difference
in job satisfaction with a population of factory girls.
Fryer (20), investigating a group of men with varied
occupations coming to an employment agency for help in
finding jobs, also failed to show any differences in
job satisfaction among workers differing in education.

Troxell (80) stated, from his interviews with
workers, that those with more schooling were more sat-
isfied. However, no control for variables such as money,

status, etc., was reported.

9. Urban-rural Differences

Until recent years there has been little in-
dustry in Puerto Rico. When manufacturing started, it
was concentrated in and around the capital (56). Most
workers in rural communities have had only one position
in manufacturing. Previously most of them had been em—
ployed in agriculture. Workers from the MetrOpolitan
Area have had more industrial job opportunities. It

was hypothesized that the rural employee who is having

14

his first industrial experience sees his work as a better
way of earning a living and will thus be more enthusias—

tic about work than the experienced urban worker.

10. Emancipation in Puerto Rico

This hypothesis is based on the assumption
that the failure of many employees is due to their rela—
tion with their parents. Late emancipation from parents
and over-protection can be considered as the foundations
for failing in certain demanding, challenging and respon—
sible jobs. The hypothesis tested here is that individ-
uals who are emancipated early have more positive atti—
tudes toward "difficult" jobs (requiring more than aver-
age responsibilities) than those of late or no emancipa—

tion.

METHOD

An anonymous questionnaire was administered
to 398 Puerto Rican employees of ten industrial firms
established in different parts of Puerto Rico. The ques-
tionnaire used was the Spanish translation of the one
used by Trier in 1954 with two hundred forty American
employees and by Smith in an Italian translation to meas—

ure the satisfaction of I96 Italians in Milan, Italy

(Apps. A, B, C).

Employees

Table I shows the employees in the samples

from the U.S., Italy and Puerto Rico in terms of occu-
pational status, mean age, mean income*, median educa—
tion and number of males and females. The United States
data are reproduced from Trier (79), p. 7. The Italian
data collected by Smith were analyzed here and through—
out the study by the present author. The wages of the
IItalians have been converted from lire to their dollar
equivalents at the time of the present study (one dollar =

625 lire).

 

*The median was employed with the Italian data.

1‘\ 2‘ _ ”~ . 1
x.» ~~ ‘- '

EMPLOYEES USED IN THE

16

Table I

UNITED STATES,

RICO

ITALY AND PUERTO

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Country Occupational Mean Mean Median Employees
Status Age Income Educa— Male Femab Total
tion
United Managers 38.3 $7,545 '11.7 *u32 1 33
States Clericals 32.5 4,333 ‘11; l4 19 33
(Trier, Skilled 39.5 4,250 10. 47 l 48
1954) Semi-skilled 38.2 4,095 10.1 71 21 92
Unskilled 37.1 4,085 .9.9 32 2 34
Total 37.1 $4,856 cot 196 44 ({2&0>\~
Italy Managers (none in data collected)
(Smith, Clericals 34.1 $888 6.0 9 6 15
1955- Skilled 37.7 1,100 8.0 18 13 31
1956) Semi-Skilled 34.5 635 6.0 28 109 137
Unskilled 25.5 480 5.0 7 6 13
Total 32.9 $775 6.2(;/8§) 139 (198;
Puerto Managers 33.0 $3,542 ”13.5\\ 20 4 24
Rico Clericals 30.4 2,370 12.5 g 22 19 41
(1957) Skilled 29.5 2,006 10.0 1106 34 140
Semi-skilled 28.0 1,786 10.0 j 73 28 101
Unskilled 30.6 1,323 \ 8.3 f 76 16 92
Total 30.3 329205

 

10.9 297(:101)) 398

J

 

ITALIAN AND PUERTO RICAN

17

Table II

EMPLOYEES BY AGE AND ANNUAL

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I NC 17113
Annual Age Total
Income 30 and 30—40 40 and
under over
5 Italy 3480 or less 10 27 10 47
3481-950 2 81 37 120
3951—1440 0 14 10 24
31441—1920 0 O 5 5
Total 12 122 52 196
Puerto 31000-2000 36 197 30 263
Rico 32001-3000 5 91 9 105
83001-4000 1 l3 4 18
$4001 + O 7 5 12
Total 42 308 48 398

 

 

Table III
ITALIAN AND PUB TO RICAN EMPLOYEES BY EDUCATION AND BY
THEIR OCCUPATIONAL STATUS IN RELATION TO THAT OF THEIR
FATHERS'

 

Country Years of Father's Occupational Status in Rela—
Eduoation tion to that of Emploxee

 

 

 

 

Below Same Above Total

Italy 0-5 21 103 24 148
6-10 14 13 14 41

over 10 1 0 6 7

Total 36 116 44 196

Puerto 0-8 62 86 31 179
Rico 9—12 46 64 24 134
over l2 19 33 3 85

 

Total 127 183 88 398

 

 

19

It is evident that the Puerto Rican and Ital-
ian employees had considerably lower incomes than the
American workers. ‘

Table II shows the same Italian and Puerto
Rican employees analyzed by age and annual income. It
is apparent that the Puerto Rican employees were some-
what younger and had considerably higher incomes than
the Italian subjects. Table III compares the education
and the occupational status of Italian and Puerto Rican
i mployees in relation to the status of their fathers'.

[it may be seen that the Puerto Rican employees had con—

iderably more education than the Italian subjects.

Companies

Table IV again shows the United States, Italy
and Puerto Rico employees, this time by their occupational
status and company. The companies are identified by
initials that are used to identify them in the remainder
of the study.

The six American companies were a motor (UA),
machine (UB), milk (U0), wood (UD), furniture (U3), and
screw manufacturing company (UF). All six were small
industrial plants located in midwestern Michigan. The
three Italian companies were: a textile plant (IA) and

two large ice cream and candy manufacturing companies

AMERICAN,

ITALIAN AND PUERTO RICAN EMPLOYEES
TIONAL STATUS AND COMPANY

Table IV

BY

OCCUPA-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Country Company Mgrs. Cler. Sk. Semi—8k. Unsk. Total
United UA 4 8 8 18 3 41
States UB 16 8 16 26 6 72
U0 4 6 3 23 10 47
UD 5 3 15 23 5 51
UE 3 8 2 0 0 13
UF 1 0 3 2 10 16
Total 33 33 48 92 34 240
Italy IA 4 10 37 8 59
IB 4 13 47 2 66
IC 7 8 53 3 73
Total 15 31 137 13 196
Puerto PA 4 8 l7 9 4 42
Rico PB 3 4 ll 12 3 3’
PC 2 l 29 10 3 45
PD 3 5 ll 4 9 32
PE 2 8 10 14 3 37
PF 3 O 2 7 21 33
PG 1 3 2O 2 5 31
PH 1 3 27 6 3 40
PI 1 2 5 5 36 49
PJ 4 7 8 32 5 56
Total 24 41 140 101 92 398

 

 

(1B and IC). The three were located in Milan, the most
industrialized area of Italy.

The ten Puerto Rican companies were: a shoe
(PA), metal (PB), electric devices (PC), textiles (PD),
plastics (PE), circuit breakers (PF), grinding wheels
(PG), carpets (PH), furniture (PI), and field-coil as-
semblies company (PJ). Two of these factories were lo-
cated in each of five parts of the country, north, south,
east, west and center.

The factories from the northern part were the
PA and PB. PA produces boy's, girl's and women's shoes.
Sixty per cent of its personnel is female. The wages
paid average about 55 to 63¢ per hour. PB produces alum—
inum extrusions to be used in "Miami windows" and doors.
The wages compare favorably with the average in Puerto
Rico and are above the minimum. The company is not un-
ionized.

The factories from the southern part were the
PC and the PD. PC produces molded tubular capacitators
of various sizes used largely for electronic devices on
radios, televisions, refrigerators, and automobiles.
Wages paid are minimum wages or above. The workers are
not unionized. PD produces cotton and linen cloth that
are mostly processed in the island. Wages paid are those

required by law. However, the wages set by the government

F0
{\J

are below the national standard. This is true for all
of these kinds of factories hiring primarily females.
The dependency relationship of this factory with the
main branch in the United States weakens and delays local
management action on many issues. Workers are unionized
to a local independent union.

The factories located more toward the east
are the PE and the PF. PE produces plastic dinnerware.
Employees receive a $1.00 to a $1.10 per hour, with no
exception made for sex. Workers are not unionized. PF,
a subsidiary branch of the home plant in the States,
produces circuit breakers. Wages paid are above the
minimum required by law. Local management operates al-
most independently from the home office with respect
to most decisions. The workers are not unionized.

The factories from the west were the PG and
the PH. PG produces silicon carbide and aluminum oxide
abrasives used for the construction of grinding wheels
for the automobile industry. Wages paid ($1.00 to 32.00)
are above average for this type of community. Workers
use protective masks while at work. Workers are not
unionized. PH is a heavy mechanized industry which pro-
duces woolen and jute yarn for the manufacturing of car-
pets. Wages paid are the minimum. The company is union-

ized.

23

The industries from the center of Puerto Rico
were the PI and the PJ. PJ produces field coil assem-
blies and armatures used frequently for power tools (drills),
power saws and spray guns. Wages (more than 31.00) are

higher than any other employment in the neighborhood.

The Job Satisfaction Questionnaires

 

The job satisfaction questionnaire used in
the U.S. study and described by Trier (1954) is shown
in Appendix A. The abbreviated and translated form used
in Italy is shown in Appendix B. The complete and trans—
lated form used in the Puerto Rican study is shown in

Appendix C.

The Nature of thegguestionnaires

The American, Puerto Rican and Italian forms
of the questionnaires included a Likert type scale whose
items aimed to serve as the measuring instrument for
job satisfaction. This scale was constructed by Robert
Bullock in 1952 and is an adaptation of HOppock's satis-
faction scale. A shortened form of this scale consist-
ing of five of the 10 items in the original scale was
used in Italy (App. B), while the complete form was used

in U.S. (App. A) and Puerto Rico (App. C).

24

With the exception of the Italian form, the
other questionnaires included a section consisting of
five multiple choice questions concerning the worker's
conceptions of how his family, friends and neighbors
perceived his occupational status.

The questionnaires used in the three countries
contained personal background information questions about
the workers such as their age, marriage age, sex, income,
etc. The Puerto Rican questionnaire included further
questions concerning the nature of the subjects' work
(ease or difficulty) and about the workers' attitude

toward the difficulty level of the work.

Scoring of the questionnaire

In scoring the American and Puerto hican forms,
total satisfaction scores were computed for each case
by adding scores for questions one to ten; the minimum
score was 10, the maximum 50. The total score of the
employee's conceptions of how his primary group perceives
his job was computed through adding scores for questions
eleven to fifteen. In scoring the Italian form, total
satisfaction scores were computed for each case by adding
the score for the five questions (shortened form of the
original scale) presented. Since the maximum score was

25 and the minimum 5, each score was multiplied by two

25

for comparison purposes.

Equivalence of the English and Spanish Forms of the Ques-

tionnaire

 

A comparison of scores on the Spanish question-
naire with scores on the English questionnaire was made
by using 16 Puerto Rican bi-lingual students who were
doing graduate work at Michigan State University during
the spring term of 1958. The English form of the ques-
tionnaire and the Spanish form were given to the students
with a two week period between administrations. The
correlation between the scores of the two forms was .98.} ‘
It may be concluded, therefore, that the two forms gave

identical scores.

heliabilities of the Questionnaires

The test—retest coefficient of reliability
of the English form calculated at Ohio State University
was .94. Successive split-half reliabilities of .93,
.94 and .90 have also been obtained there. In Cheek's
and Jones' theses the reliabilities found were .79 and
.81. The reliability of the Spanish form corrected by
the Spearman-Brown Prophecy formula was .87, and that

for the Italian form was .67.

Validity of the English Form

The validity of the English form was originally
obtained through comparison of its content with the judg-
ments of a panel of experts at Ohio State University and
reported as high (79). In 1954, Cheek (11) and Jones
(41) were concerned with appraising the validity of the
scale against other measures of satisfaction (e.g., S.R.A.
inventory). Cheek found the scale's validity to be .31

and Jones found it to be .43.

Administration of the Questionnaire

 

Related Materials

The Spanish form of the questionnaire was ac-
companied by a covering letter. It explained the study,
emphasized the omission of the subject's name, added
the idea of significance and value that the subject's
cooperation was to have, and stated the support of the
University of Puerto Rico to the study (See Appendix D).

In two small factories, all of the employees
were called together and given the questionnaire. In
the other companies one or more departments completed
the questionnaire. In all cases, the employees completed

the questionnaire in a group meeting (generally held

in the last 10 or 15 minutes of working time, but in
one case after working time). At these meetings the
subjects were informed about the study. The question-
naire was given to each subject and the cover letter
was read. The importance, seriousness and confidential
nature of the study were emphasized. In one factory
(PL) the subjects completed the questionnaires in the
presence of the author. In the others, employees com-

pleted them at home and returned them the next day.

Method of Analyzing the Data

A general procedure followed in testing each
of the hypotheses with the Italian and Puerto Rico sam—
ples was to attempt to equate the groups compared on all
variables except the one being tested. For example,
in dealing with the differences in satisfaction between
males and females, an attempt was made to keep them evan-
1y represented for the social status classes, as well
as among the age, income and education distributions.
The procedure sometimes drastically reduced the number
of matched pairs.

The "t" test was used to determine the signif-
icance of the differences for seven of the ten hypotheses.
For the other three hypotheses those dealing with the

effect of social status, the relation between status and

job's perception, and the effect of companies' policies,
an analysis of variance was employed. The Tukey D Test
was then applied to locate significant differences. For
example, in the case of the differences between the status
groups an analysis of variance gave an F = 3.42 which
proved to be significant at the 5% level. The Tukey D
test showed a D = .95 which suggested that the differences
among those status groups which surpassed .95 were sig-
nificant. Such differences were found between managers
and Clericals, managers and skilled, management and un—
skilled, clericals and semi-skilled, semi-skilled and

unskilled.

The method of testing the hypotheses in Italy
and Puerto nico was the same as that employed to test
these hypotheses with the sample from the United States
in 1954. The results of Trier's U.S. study are included

for comparison purposes.

Hypothesis 1: The higher the employee's occupational

status, the more job satisfaction

In testing the hypothesis in Italy and Puerto
Rico, the average satisfaction score for each of the
social statuses represented in each of the two countries
was obtained. The unequated scores and the statistical
analysis of the data are included in Apps. E and F.
Although there are minor differences, the analysis of
variance clearly suggests a trend toward greater satis~
faction for higher status groups in Italy and Puerto
Rico. The results are consistent with those obtained
by Trier when he analyzed the American job satisfaction
scores in 1954. In Trier's investigation, sex and age
were held constant in testing the hypothesis of status

in View of the fact that he found age and sex to influence

29

significantly the job satisfaction of the American en-
ployees. Since the author wanted the Italian and Puerto
Rican results to be comparable to those obtained in the

Trier study, the same procedure was followed (Table V).

(D

The Italian and Puerto Rican samples were 3 p—
arated into the following three groups: the indifferent
or dissatisfied, the mildly satisfied, the highly satis-
fied. The division followed Trier's method: 34.9 below,
"dissatisfied"; from 35-42.9, "mildly satisfied"; and

43 and over, "highly satisfied".

The United States data

The analysis of the data in status in the United
States showed the difference between the professional
class and the semi-skilled class, and professional class

and unskilled classes to be significant at the 1% level.

The Italian data

 

In Italy the clerical class was matched with
the skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled classes reseeet-
ively. ln each comparison the difference exceeded the
level required for significance (D = 3.54). When all

possible comparisons were made between the skilled, semi-

skilled and unskilled classes, omitting the clerical

31

Table V
AVERAGE SATISFACTION SCORES AND STATUS

(A11 males with varying statuses matched for age)

 

 

 

 

 

Percentages
Country 0cc. N 1nd. or Mildly *Highly Aver. Total
St. Dissat. Sat. Sat. Satisfaction

United 1 27 11.1 40.7 48.2 41.5
States 2 13 7.7 61.5 30.8 41.1

3 38 15.8 65.8 18.4 39.0

4 63 28.4 47.8 23.9 38.1

5 25 26.9 57.7 15.4 36.8

:1;

Italy 1 - - - — -

2 9 33.3 66.7 0 36.4

3 18 27.8 61.0 11.1 35.5

4 25 40.0 52.0 8.0 35.8

5 5 60.0 40.0 0 24.8
Puerto 1 2O 0 35.0 65.0 43.4
Rico 2 20 35.0 25.0 45.0 39.6

3 82 7.4 59.7 32.9 41.9

4 51 9.8 23.5 66.7 2.8

5 43 32.5 37.2 30.3 39.3

 

\5-1
f‘.)

group, no significant differences were found. Despite
the lack of differences within these three classes, the
results suggest the general trend that the higher the

4:

status, the higher the job satisfaction.

The Puerto Rican data

 

In Puerto Rico differences among equated status
groups did not follow the same order as in the United
States and Italy. The analysis of variance was signif—
icant. The D test (1.37) showed that managers, skilled
and semi-skilled were significantly more satisfied than
the unskilled class. The professional clas differed
significantly from the clerical, skilled and unskilled
classes. However, semi-skilled and skilled classes were

significantly more satisfied than the clerical class.

Hypothesis 2: The more favorable the attitude the worker
feels that his family and friends have
toward his job, the greater will be his

satisfaction

This hypothesis was tested through computing
coefficients of correlation between satisfaction scores
and the perceived status scores. The correlations were

.89 for the United States and .56 for Puerto Rico.

Information concerning the perceived status scores was
not available for Italian data.

Since the actual occupational status appeared
to be an important variable in job satisfaction, it was
important to check if the perceived status effects in
job satisfacticn were or were not confounded by the oc—
cupational status effects. Thus, the average perceived
status score for each occupational status was computed
and the significance of the differences was tested.

Table VI gives the average perceived status
scores for each social status in United States and Puerto
Rico. In the United States, the Tukey D test showed
that the difference between the perceived scores among
the occupational status groups corresponded to the dif—
ferences found in satisfaction among the status groups.

The difference betxeen the professional group
and the unskilled and semi—skilled groups was reported
as significant at the 1% level. Between the professional
group and the skilled group the significance was foun
to be borderline (10% level). In Puerto Rico, the D
test obtained showed (D = 56) that the professional class
and the clerical and the skilled class differed signifi-
cantly in their perceived scores. However, the profes-
sional group did not differ significantly in their per-

ceived status scores from the semi-skilled and the unskilled

\r1
4).

Table VI
PnhCiIVSD STATUS SCCHBS FCR OCCUPATIONAL CLASS IN THS

UNITED STA”ES AND PUERTO RICO

 

Country Occupational Status N Perception of
others' Opinions

 

 

United States 1 33 21.5
2 33 21.3
3 43 20.6
4 92 19.1
5 34 19.9
Puerto Rico 1 2 21.8
2 41 19.9
3 140 21.2
4 101 21.7
5 92 21.3

 

5‘

groups. As in the case of the social status analysis
(Table V), the clerical group ranked low in average per~
ceived status score and the semi-skilled group surpassed
the clerical group significantlr. The unskilled group
surpassed the clerical group significantly, too. In Puerto
Rico, as in the United.States, the perceived and occupa—
tional status scores were highly correlated. This might

suggest a combined effect of occupational status and the per—

ceived primary group opinion of one's job on job satisfaction.

Hypothesis 3: Workers in different companies doing sim—
ilar work and receiving similar pay differ

in their satisfaction

Testing the differences between companies re—
quires companies with sufficiently large samples so that
enough subjects would be left after matching the compan-
ies on relevant variables. When the hypothesis was tested
in the United States(79), only three companies out of
six were used. In Italy it was possible to use all the
three companies in the sample. In Puerto Rico five com—
panies out of a total of ten were used.

Table VII shows an analysis of the companies
used from each of the countries with their average sat-
isfaction scores. Trier found for the United States

data that companies UA and UB were significantly different

36

Table VII
JOB SATISFACTION BY COMPANY IN THE UNITED STATES, ITALY
AND PUERTO RICO

“

Company N Median Age Average Average

 

 

 

Dollar Satisfaction
Income
United UD 45 40.7 3,482 41.7
States 00 45 36.9 5.600 40.2
Italy IA 53 32.0 742 34.2
13 53 41.1 729 32.9
10 53 36.1 702 33.7
Puerto PC 24 27.5 2,467 41.6
Rico PF 24 28.8 2,757 43.5
PD 24 32.5 2,012 38.9
PH 23 29.2 1,690 42.6

PG 23 31.5 2,483 41.9

 

37

‘from company UC. In Italy the companies used were not
significantly different from each other.

In Puerto Rico, the analysis of variance was
significant and the Tukey D test was used. A "D" equal
to 1.96 suggested that four of the five companies were
significantly more satisfied than the PD, although not
significantly different from each other. Company P had
the highest average satisfaction score of all the com-
panies compared.

The differences between job satisfaction in
the companies in Italy and Puerto Rico were not consis-
tent with either income or age (Table VII). Therefore,
the hypothesis emerges that differences between the com-
panies themselves were related to job satisfaction.
Available information suggested that there were differ-
ences in company policies and management procedures in
the companies compared in the United States and Puerto
Rico. The importance in satisfaction of these aspects
concerning company related variables will be further
discussed.

Hypothesis 4 The older the workers, the higher the

job satisfaction

The hypothesis was tested among Italians and

Puerto Ricans by dividing the pOpulation into one group

38

of 40 years and older and one of 30 years and younger.
This was the method employed by Trier when he tested

the hypothesis among Americans(79). .All factors were
controlled in matching the two groups in each country.
After matching, in the United States the average income
reported of those over 40 was $4,697, and of those under
30 was 33,946. The average education reported for the
over 40 group was 10.6 years and of the under 30 group
11.4 years. In Italy the average income of those overt}
40 was $708, and of those under 30 exactly the same.

Both the over 40 group and the under 30 group were peo-‘

Q ple with elementary education. 0f the 45 matched pairs

“ in Puerto Rico, 41 were males and 4 females. Each group
compared had the same status distribution as the other.
The average income of those over 40 was $2,368, and of
those under 30 $2,068. The average education of the
over 40 group was 9.1 years and of the under 30 group
8.9 years.

Table VIII indicates the average satisfaction
scores and the nature of the significance of the differ-
ence.

In the United States the older workers were
found to be significantly more Satisfied than the younger
workers. The significant differences in satisfaction

obtained between the age groups in the States is considered

39

Table VIII
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THOSE OVER 40 AND THOSE UNDER 30
IN UNITED STATES, ITALY AND PUERTO RICO

 

N Over 40 Under 30 Diff. ”t" Significance

 

United

States 60 41.9 38.3 +3.6 3.56 1% level of
confidence

Italy 39 35.8 34.4 +1.39 .99 Not signif.

Puerto

Rico 45 42.2 41.6 + .55 .54 Not signif.

 

to be confounded by differential incomes among them.

he statement will be explained later. While the dif-
erences between young and old workers in Italy and Puerto
Rico were in the same direction, the differences were

ot significant.

Hypothesis 5: The closer the status of women approxi-
. mates that of men, the higher will be
their satisfaction compared to that of

men

This hypothesis was tested in the three coun-
tries by first attempting to match male subjects to fe-

male subjects on all variables. In the United States

40

study, the average age reported of the females was 33.4
years, while that of the males was 34.3 years. The av-
erage income of the females was $2,981, while that of
the males was $4,255. In Italy the 40 matched pairs,
with an equal status distribution, had an average age

of 38.2 years for the females, and an average age of
39.0 for the males. The average income of the females

Q was $754 and that of the males was $754. In Puerto Rico
the 87 matched pairs, with an equal status and education
distribution, had an average age for the females of 33.1
and an average age for the males of 36.6. The average
income for the females was $1,790 and for the males was
$2,025. Table IX indicates the average satisfaction
scores of each group in each country and the nature of

the significance of the difference.

Table IX
SEX DIFFERENCES IN JOB SATISFACTION

 

N Females Males Diff. t Test Significance

 

United 43 41.8 38.8 +5.0 2.69 2% level of

States confidence
' Italy 40 33.9 34.6 -0.6 .40 Not signif.
Puerto

Rico 87 42.8 41.3 +1.5 1.82 Not signif.

 

41

The United States figures indicated the female

roup was significantly more satisfied than the male

roup. In the samples studied from Italy and Puerto

Rico the results showed no significant difference among

the sex groups. In the case of Puerto Rico, however,

the trend supports the hypothesis. This was not the case {5
in the Italian sample. The retention of American and i
Puerto Rican findings on the hypothesis are not clear
since there is a possibility of selective factors in

matching which will be discussed further.

Hypothesis 6: The higher the employees' wages, the

greater the job satisfaction

This hypothesis was tested by dividing the
N of each country into two groups: those receiving high
salaries and those receiving low salaries. Employees

were again matched as fully as possible in all variables.

_ —. _ ..__-—Im:—"—-_-._

 

In the United States, those over 34,000 were matched
to those under. In Puerto Rico those over 32,000 were
matched to those under. In Italy those earning over,
$960 were matched to those earning less than 3960. N
In the United States the average income of

those over $4,000 was $5,662, while that of those below

was $3,000. The age of those above was 35.7 years and

42

of those below 33.5 years. In Italy 22 matched pairs
which provide an equated status, sex, age and education
distributions had an average income of $1,128.96 for the
high-salaried group and an average income of $480.00 for
the lower salaried group. The average age of the high
salaried group was 40.0 and of the low salaried group,
38.7 years. In Puerto Rico 88 matched pairs, 30 females
and 58 males in each group presented same status, age
and education distributions. The average income of those
with high salaries was $2,900 and of those with low,
$1,720. The age of those higher in income was 31 years
and of those lower in income was 28 years.

Table X indicates average satisfaction scores

for both groups and the significance of the differences.

Table X
DIFFERENCE IN JOB SATISFACTION BETWEEN EMPLOYEES WITH
HIGH AND THOSE WITH LOW SALARIES

 

Satisfaction Score
N High Sal. Low Sal. Diff. "t" Significance

 

United 53 40.2 37.9 +2.3 2.53 2% level of
States confidence
Italy 22 56.4 29.5 +6.9 3.72 5% level ofg.
confidence ’
Puerto 88 42.4 40.5 +1.9 2.29 1% level of

Rico confidence

 

43

The difference between high and low wage groups
was significant in all three countries. Cross-culturally,
it appears that the relation between money and job sat-
isfaction is the most firmly established of all relations

studied.

Hypothesis 7: Workers who surpass the occupational status

of their fathers are more satisfied

The hypothesis was tested through matching
those above their fathers' occupational status with those
the same as their fathers' occupational status or below
this level. The Italian and Puerto Rican groups were
again matched as closely as possible on all variables.
This had also been done with the U.S. data. In the United
States the average age reported for those above their
fathers' level was 35.8 years and that of those below
was 54.2 years. The average income of those above their
fathers' occupational status was 34,524 per year and
those below $4,513 per year. In Italy the average age
for those above their fathers' level was 36.4 years,
while that of those below was 34.0 years. The average
income of those above their fathers' occupational status
was $754 and of those below $818 per year. In Puerto
Rico the average age for those above their fathers' level

was 27.7 and that of those below was 26.4. The average

 

.V’“ LJWLL II t. u

.Illlwd

lllvitl) (- .

44

income of those above their fathers' occupational status
was $2,100 and of those below $1,940.

Table XI indicates average satisfaction scores
for both groups in the United States, Italy and Puerto
Rico. There was no significant difference between any
of the groups tested and the direction of differences
was inconsistent. The hypothesis, therefore, is not

supported.

Table XI
THE DIFFERENCE IN JOB SATISFACTION BETWEEN THOSE ABOVE
FATHERS' STATUS AND THOSE NOT ABOVE FATHERS' STATUS

 

 

N Above Same or Diff. "t" Signif.
(matched Fathers' Below
pairs) Fathers'

United 37 40.5 38.5 +2.00 1.75 Not Sig.
States

Italy 30 33.7 34.7 -l.00 .63 Not sig.
Puerto 36 41.4 41.5 - .11 .09 Not Sig.
Rico

 

Hypothesis 8: The higher the education of the worker,

the greater the satisfaction

This hypothesis was tested in the United States

by dividing the population into a group with high school

 

IUIFIi; irvlliio I .
“fl . . .I
..

will-

45

education or above, and one with eighth grade education
and below. The same two types of groups were obtained
in Italy and Puerto Rico. In Italy, however, the groups}
were composed of those subjects with elementary educa— g
tion or below and those with educational levels beyond
the elementary.

The groups compared in the three countries were
equated for occupational level, pay, sex, company, and
father's occupational status. In the United States the
reported average age of those with higher education was
38.9 years, and of those with the lower education, 41.0
years. The income of those higher educated was 34,395
and of those with less education $4,383. In Italy the
average age of those with higher education was 25.3 years,
and of those with lower education 26.4 years. The income
of those higher educated was $758, and of those with
lower education 3710. In Puerto Rico the average age
of those with higher education was 26.8, and of those
with lower education 29.8. The income of those higher
educated was 32,106, and of those with less education
$1,651.50. Results of the analysis are given in Table
XII.

The differences between the two groups in all
three countries were not significant, and their direction

was inconsistent. The hypothesis, therefore, is not

46

supported. Eduaatinn_appeare~te~have~ne-relation.to

job satisfaction in the present samplesi__
g_ 1.1

 

 

 

Table XII
DIFFERENCE IN JOB SATISFACTION BETWEEN EMPLOYEES WITH
LOW AND HIGH EDUCATION

 

 

N Lower Higher Diff. "t" Signif.
(matched Educ. Educ.
pairs)

United .

States 61 39.4 39.9 -.50 Not sig.
Italy 40 34.8 34.3 +.52 .88 Not sig.
Puerto

Rico 130 42.6 42.2 +.52 .36 Not sig.

 

Hypothesis 9: Rural workers are more satisfied than

urban workers

The hypothesis was tested by comparing factor-
ies located in the central agricultural part of the is—
land (PI and PJ) with those of the metropolitan area
(PE and PF). The results obtained are presented in Table
XVIII. Sex and income ($2,000 or below) were kept con—
stant.

The t test for paired comparisons employed

showed that the differences were not statistically

47
significant. The hypothesis, therefore, was not sup—
ported (Table XIII).

Table XIII
RURAL AND URBAN JOB SATISFACTION SCORES

 

Employees N Average Job Diff. t test Significant
Satisfaction Difference

 

Rural 57 41.52 1.62 .72 Not signif.
Urban 57 43.14

 

Hypothesis 10: Workers who have achieved emancipation
early are more satisfied than those who

have achieved it much later

The hypothesis was tested by selecting a cer-
tain age to serve as an arbitrary line for division of
subjects into two groups. The emancipation age selected
was 25. Thus, subjects emancipated before 25 were con-
sidered as having emancipated themselves early and those
who emancipated after 25 years were considered as having
emancipated themselves late. The questionnaire used
for the study in Puerto Rico contains a question about
the nature (difficulty or ease) of the work of the sub-
jects (item 16). The two groups mentioned above (matched

in terms of the nature of their work and in other variables)

48

were compared as to their average satisfaction scores.
(See Table XIV).

The results do not support the hypothesis;
the difference is insignificant and the direction is

Opposite to that predicted.

Table XIV
JOB SATISFACTION 0F EARLY AND LATE EMANCIPATED PUERTO
RICAN WORKERS EMPLOYED IN DIFFICULT JOBS

 

 

N Early Emancipa- Late Emancipa- Diff. t Sig.
tion Job tion Job test Diff.
Satisfaction Satisfaction

34 41.61 41.91 -.30 .12 Not

pairs sig.

 

DISCUSSION

Table XV summarizes the results of the hypo-
theses tested in the United States, Italy and Puerto
Rico and of other studies relevant to the hypotheses.

Only differences in status and wages were sig—
nificantly related to job satisfaction in all these coun-
tries. The result is supported by the results of 11
other studies in the case of status and 4 others in the
case of wages. The perceptual hypothesis also was eig-
nificantly supported in the two countries, where it was
studied and was consistent with the results of 4 other
studies.

The company hypothesis was significantly supported
in the United States and Puerto Rico and the direction
of results in Italy was consistent. The age hypothesis
was significantly supported in the United States, the dir-
ection of results was consistent in Italy and Puerto Rico
and 12 of 20 other studies supported the hypothesis. The
sex, mobility and educational hypotheses received only

inconsistent support.

The Discrepancy among Clerical Workers

The status results in Italy and Puerto Rico

49

50

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51

were generally consistent with those obtained by Trier
(79) and with other studies. The differences among the
status groups, however, did not follow the same order
in all countries. In the United States the clerical
workers were shown to be significantly more satisfied
than the skilled and semi-skilled workers. In Italy and
Puerto Rico they were not. In Italy the clerical workers
were not more satisfied than the skilled or semi-skilled
workers. In Puerto Rico, when the status groups were
equated for age and sex, the clerical workers were shown
to be significantly less satisfied than the skilled and
semi-skilled workers. The findings concurred with Super's
results (76). He found the commercial category to have
a smaller percentage of satisfied people than the skilled
and semi-skilled workers.

The relatively low scores obtained for the
Italian and Puerto Rican clerical workers appears to be
related to economic circumstances in these countries.
The clericals in Puerto Rico were apprehensive at the
time that the study was conducted because the applicabil—
ity of the law regarding minimum salary was under dis-
cussion and the law favored skilled and unskilled workers
who were earning less than $1.00 an hour. In Italy, where
money ranks first among the factors creating differences

in satisfaction, the clerical workers were receiving lower

52

salaries than the skilled workers. An equally likely
explanation regarding both countries concerns the
relationship between academic preparation and the
expected socio—economic rewards. Clerical workers

might feel that they should receive more than the lower

“-1,
j‘

echelons.

An Explanation of the Higher Satisfaction of Puerto

rs; a: . .‘ I" " ‘

Ricans

The Puerto Ricans' higher percentages in the
highly and mildly satisfied categories is related to four
aspects of this country's development, which appears to
enhance industrial jobs regardless of status. A review
of references on the economic development of Puerto Rico
(55. 56. 57, 58, 59, 6o, 61, 62, 63), suggests that:

(a) the unemployment and underemployment sit-
uation in the island gives relatively high status to any-
one who is employed.

(b) factory jobs provide a new, challenging
and prosperous work atmosphere which is attractive to
workers.

(c) salaries in manufacturing concerns are much
higher than those paid in other kinds of work.

(d) industrial employment provides more job

security than that provided by the seasonal sugar and

coffee work Opportunities. These factors apply with
less force in Italy and with considerably less force in

the United States.

 

The Importance of the Socio-Perceptual Factor 5*

The opinions of family, friends and neighbors :

influence the worker's satisfaction not only in the United i
States but also in Puerto Rico. The agreement of these ET

results to Warner's (84), Bullocks<5), Davis'and Gardner's
(l4) and Triers(79) lend confirmation to Warner‘s ideas.
He has stated that the attitudes which people have toward
their jobs were not entirely an individual matter. En-
couragement ought to be given to research which would

study job satisfaction in relation to social factors.

The Company Factor

The results of the present study give strong
support to the idea that company and management procedures
are an important variable in job satisfaction. In Puerto
Rico only one of the five compared companies, PD (with
the lowest satisfaction),had irregular shifts, lacked
some kind of bonus or incentive system and did not show

evidence of workers' participation in company issues.

54

Trier reported that the least satisfied of the American
companies (UB) offered the workers neither a union nor
any representation on policy committees. There appeared
to be no major differences among Italian companies, which

might suggest that there are more similarities with re- F"

spect to management policies than among the American and
Puerto Rican companies. In any case, the results indi—
cate that companies which make an intelligent effort to
remove sources of dissatisfaction are very likely to have E
these efforts rewarded. From a research point of view,

it would be extremely desirable to study the differences

and determinants of the differences more intensely and

in a much larger sample of companies.

The Age Factor

The fourth hypothesis was concerned with the
relationship between age and satisfaction. In the United
States study where the hypothesis was supported, adequate
matching for income was not possible. In Puerto Rico
and Italy where the hypothesis was not supported, adequate
matching for income was possible. It would be desirable
to control these factors to assess their possible influ-
ences. There is a further possibility that age and in-
come interact to produce effects in satisfaction exceed-

ing their separate influence. The evidence preceding

55

this study is not conclusive as to whether morale increases
with age. This is suggested by some studies (27, 73,

77, 51, 36, 3, 37, 46) but not by others (20, 45, 64,

74, 24, 71, 26). Future research should compare age

groups in similar economic circumstances to see if income

or security accounts for the difference.

The Sex Factor

In reference to the fifth hypothesis, the U. S.
figures indicated significantly higher job satisfaction
scores for the females than for the males. However, the
interpretation of these differences is not unequivocal.
There are possible effects from the process of matching
on income. In order to equate the two sexes on income
a selective factor probably operated to admit lower in-
come males who would be expected on the basis of other
evidence to have lower job satisfaction.

In Puerto Rico the females also exceed males
in job satisfaction but the difference was not signifi—
cant. Here, once again, income may have Operated to pro-
duce differences but perhaps in different direction than
for the U.S., since the average income for females ap-
proaches that of the average per capita income.

In Italy, where there was closer matching for

age and income, the differences in job satisfaction scores

56

for the two sexes is small, not significant, and in the
Opposite direction from the previously discussed differ—
ences for the U.S. and Puerto Rico. This appears to
strengthen the importance of wages as a variable in job

satisfaction.

. ;- .,

A frequent explanation of the sex differences
in the States is that women have surpassed men in job
satisfaction because they have been in less actual need
of work and can quit more readily than men can (79).
Another likely explanation of the sex differences is that
women are less motivated to seek positions because they
realize that they have little Opportunity to achieve this
goal. However, to apply adequately these interpretations
to the findings of this study, it is necessary to get
better matching in each country by bringing in groups
which are of the same relative income, avoiding matching
which would either bring females up to males or males

down to females.

The Relative Importance of Wages

The sixth hypothesis (6) which stated that
those receiving higher wages would be more satisfied
than those receiving low wages has been cross—culturally
supported. The Americans, Italians and Puerto Ricans

receiving higher salaries are more satisfied than those

57

receiving low salaries. However, the rank of income as
an important variable in satisfaction decreased prOpor—
tionately from the most economically troubled country

to the least economically troubled. In Italy wages cre-
ated the highest significant differences in satisfaction
(T-XV). In Puerto Rico income ranks third in creating
satisfaction differences (Table XV). In the U.S., how-
ever, wages rank 5th among the variables creating differ-
ences in job satisfaction. In Italy money was a much
more important variable in creating satisfaction differ-
ences than any other variable (including status) in all
three countries. The application of the principle of

the hierarchy Of needs would explain the findings in terms
Of the immediacy of the money need in Italy as compared
to that existing in Puerto Rico and the United States (48,
49). Hence, the common generalization that money is the
most important determinant of job satisfaction should be
modified. The comparison of samples from even more coun—
tries with varied economic standards can provide grounds

for sounder conclusions.

Comments on Unsupported Hypotheses

The seventh hypothesis (#7) which posited that
workers who surpassed the occupational status of their

fathers would be more satisfied than those who did not

. . h...”

58

surpass them was not supported in either the American,
Italian or Puerto Rican sample. The results are in dis—
agreement with Warner's findings (84) and Whyte's (86)
and Gardner's (21) Observations. The growing tendency
or emphasis on individual achievement which Operates in
the family as well as elsewhere may account for these
results.

The last hypothesis (#8) which related educa- 3
tion and.satisfaction was not supported in the present
study. The research evidence had been inconclusive as
to whether workers with less education are more satisfied
than those with higher education (9, 45, 64, l, 2, 44,

80, 52, 46). The present study is more in agreement with
those studies which have not shown differences between
educational groups on job satisfaction (2, 64, 45). The
explanation given by Trier to his United States results
was that a selection factor such as income or age may

have entered to account for the differences. In the
Italian and Puerto Rican study the results could have
been clouded by other variables which surpassed education
in importance as determinants of job satisfaction in these
countries.

The two hypotheses (#9 and #10) locally tested
in Puerto Rico, concerning differences in satisfaction

between rural and urban employees and between early and

59

late emancipated employees, were not supported. However,
again other confounded variables could account for these
results. Because of the relative newness of the two hy-
potheses in the field, research to test them with other

samples may be called for.
Advantages and Limitations of the Method of Matching

Investigations carried out in the field often
use the method of matching as a way of dealing with samples
which have not been randomly selected. In the present
study of job satisfaction, the method of matching permitted
us to isolate differences on one particular variable while
holding constant the effects of the other variables studied.
In dealing with the variables tested in each of the hy—
potheses on job satisfaction, the variables which were
controlled were those shown by other studies to be related
to job satisfaction. For example, some studies (Table
XV) have indicated that age was related to job satisfac-
tion. Therefore, age was one of the variables used in
matching when testing the differences in job satisfaction
between the groups on each of the other variables (e.g.,
sex, status, company, income, social mobility, and edu-
cation). Conversely, sex was used as one of the controlled

variables when studying differences in job satisfaction

60

between age groups. Again, similar relationships were
used for testing each of the hypotheses. The advantage
of matching the age groups on the other variables con-
sidered as positively related to job satisfaction (e.g.,
sex, status, income, education, etc.) was to reduce the r"
possible confounding effects which could be produced by

these variables in which the age groups were matched.

- ‘ .4. _ _, .— __.-.____‘ u

That is to say, that if differences in satisfaction be-
tween the age groups were found, the matching made it E-
more likely that the differences could be attributed to
the age factor rather than to the effects of either sex,
status, income, or education. On the other hand, if there
had not been matching, differences apparently due to age
might really reflect an income difference because older
workers also tend to earn more.

The advantage of the matching method should
not obscure the limitations of the procedure. There are
also several objections to the use of the method. First,
any interaction or combined effects of the variable being
tested and the matching variables is lost or obscured.
_For example, age asga factor in job satisfaction might
interact with income to produce some joint effects in
satisfaction which would exceed their separate influence.
Because by matching only one factor is considered at a

time, any such Joint effects cannot be detected. Second,

) I
h

61

you run the risk of introducing a bias in some unknown

and thus some controlled variable which might also be

Wrelated to the variable being tested. That is, factors_

-not studied in this investigation related to job satis-

faction and to any of the variables being tested might
enter and introduce bias effects. Of two men matched

with the same income, one younger and one older, the young
man has been more successful (as evidenced by his attain-
ing the given income level earlier). We cannot be sure
that the observed difference is not attributable to degree
of occupational success rather than to age. Third,the_
act of matching generally reduces the sample size result—

“—5

ing in a loss of reliability and also a possible bias in

_ __ -w,

the sampling so that we may come to have an artificial

sample which fails adequately to represent the real life

situation under study. A further objection to the method

’0..."

of matching is that the variables for which the compared
groups are equated might not have the same meaning for
each of the groups. For example, in matching sex groups
for age and income in testing for differences in job sat—
isfaction, a definite age or a definite income might not
be perceived in the same way by both males and females.

That is, at the same salary level women are more likely

' to be more satisfied with their income than are men.

Even though there was the risk of incurring

62

any or all of the possible disadvantages mentioned above,
matching was considered to allow for a sharper test of

the hypotheses than could be achieved by unmatched groups
in which the variables would be confounded and which would
also run the risk of being biased or unrepresentative to

some unknown degree.

The Cross-Cultural Method

The present study amply illustrates the two
major advantages of the cross-cultural method mentioned
by Whiting (85). For example, the data from Puerto Rico
and Italy greatly extend the range of job satisfaction
available for study; the Puerto Rican results extend the
range upward, the Italian results, downward. Further,
the results show that some findings in the United States
have cross-cultural validity (for example, status, wage,
and company) and some do not (sex and age). Thus, even
the relatively crude and superficial application of the
cross—cultural method employed in the present study has
provided enlightening results which could not have been
obtained by restricting the study to the United States.
Refinements and extensions of the method in the future
should give even more valuable information.

More specifically, certain hypotheses seem to be
directly suggested for further testing by cross—cultural
methods.

63

(a) The lower the satisfaction of biological
needs, other things being equal, the closer the relation
between wages and satisfaction.

(b) The more adequate the satisfaction of bio—
logical needs, the more influential will become the oc—
cupational status factor.

(0) The lower the general status of women and
the more voluntary their entrance in the labor force is,
the greater their satisfaction will be compared to men
on similar jobs.

(d) Job satisfaction increases with age because

of the decreasing desire for upward mobility.

SUMMARY

In 1954 Trier (79) tested eight hypotheses re-
garding job satisfaction with Michigan industrial workers.
The present study checked Trier's results with those ob—
tained for Italian workers with the analysis of data col-
lected by Smith in Italy in 1955-1956 and with those ob—
tained for Puerto Rican workers with the data collected
by the author in 1957-1958. The Italian and Spanish
translations of the English questionnaire used by Trier
were administered to 196 Italians and to 398 Puerto Ricans.

Only differences in status and wages were sig—
nificantly related to job satisfaction in all three coun-
tries. The perceptual hypothesis which stated that those
workers who thought their families and friends perceived
their occupation as relatively high were more satisfied
than those who did not was significantly supported in
the two countries where it was studied (United States
and Puerto Rico).

The company hypothesis which stated there were
differences in satisfaction among companies doing similar
work and receiving similar pay was significantly supported
in the United States and Puerto Rico, and the direction

of the results in Italy was consistent. The results give

64

65

support to the idea that company and management procedures
are an important variable in satisfaction.

The age hypothesis which stated that older workers
were more satisfied than younger workers was significantly
supported in the United States and the direction of the
results was consistent in Italy and Puerto Rico. The hy—
potheses which stated higher satisfaction for: females
than for males; for workers who surpassed the occupational
status of their fathers than for those who did not; and
for those with less education than for those with higher
education; received only inconsistent support. Two hypo—
theses were locally tested in Puerto Rico, concerning
differences in satisfaction between rural and urban em-
ployees and early and late home emancipated employees.
Neitherwas supported.

The study illustrates the two advantages of
the cross-cultural method mentioned by W. M. Whiting (85).
The data from Puerto Rico and Italy extend the range of
job satisfaction available for study; the Puerto Rican
results extend the range upward, the Italian results down-
ward. Further, the results show that some findings in
the United States have cross-cultural validity (for exam—
ple, status, wages and company) and some do not (sex and

age).

\O

10.

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Rgz., 1958, 86, 251-252.

 

Robinson, H., & Hoppock, R., Job satisfaction re-
searches of 1951. Occupations, 1952, 30, 594-598.

Robinson, H., Job satisfaction researches of 1952,
Personnel guid. J., 1953, 32, 22-26.

Robinson, H. A., An occupational survey of secondary
school reading specialists in junior and high schools.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York Univ.,
1957.

ROper, B., Fortune Survey, Fortune, 1938, 17, 183—
84; 86; 88; 91-92.

ROper, B., Fortune Survey, Fortune, 1947, 35, 5-6;
10; 12; 16.

Shriver, B. E., Age and Behavior: II, A study
the effects of aging in aircrew performance, ,

r of
I tts—
burgh, Pa., American Institute of Research, 19 2

i
5

Stockford, L. O., & Kunze, R. R., Psychology and
the paycheck, Personne , 195C, 27, 129-143.

 

78.

79.

80.

81.

(1)
U1

72

Stagner, R., Job Attitudes: 1, Defense workers,
Personnel J., 1941, 35, 175-181.

Stagner, R., A note on communists attitudes and job
satisfaction, Pers. Psychol., 1958, 11, 509-513.

 

Stott, M. B. A., A preliminary experiment in the
occupational analysis of secretarial works s, Human

Factors, London, 1935, 9, 249-258.

Suee r, D. 3., Occupational level and job satisfac-

J.

ti on J. app. Psychol., 1939. 23, 547—564.

Super, D. B., Avocations and vocational adjustment,
Character and Pers., 1941, 10, 51-61.

 

Survey Research Center, Effective morale, Part 3,

Fortune, 1950, 42 (8), 46-50.

Trier, H. 8., Job sa isfaction and occupational
status, Unpublished master's thesis, Michigan State
College, 1954.

Troxell, J. B., Elements in job satisfaction: a
study of attitudes among different occupational and
status groups. Personnel, 1954, 31, 199-205.

 

Tylor, E. B., A method of investigating the develop-
ment of institutions; applied to laws of marriage
and descent. J. AnthrOp. Inst. Gr. Brit. Ire1.,
1889, 18, 245-269. Cite d by Whiting, J. W., in
Gardner and Lindzey (ed. ), Handbook of Social Psy-
cholo Addison, Wesley, 1954, pp. 523- 531, VOI.
I: 199%-

 

U. S. Department of Labor, U. S. Labor Market, page
68, March 19, 1959, Bureau of Employment Sc ecurity.
U. S. Survey of Current Business, U. S. Department
of Commerce, Table 6, page 8-9, July, 19 58.

Warner, W. L., The Social Life of a Modern Commun—
ity, Yankee City Series -- Vol. I, YaleUniversity
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Whiting J. W. M., The Cr oss cultural method. In
Gaidner & Lindzey (ed. ), Handbook of Soci- 1 Psycho-
logy, Addison Wesley, 195 523-531.

86.

87.

-fl'llyt e , W o F o ,

73

Human Relations in the hestaurant

Industry, New York, NcGraw—Hill, 1948.

Worthy, J. C., Factors influencing employee morale,
Harv. Bus. Rev., 1950, 28, 61—73.

how you feel about your job.

APPENDIX A

The following statements will help you to describe

Think about your experience

while working on this job and check those statements which
most accurately and honestly tell how you feel about it.

”11>

Place a check mark in front of the statement which
best tells how good a jobjyouhaveb

._‘A. The job is an excellent one, very much above the
average.

__B. The job is a fairly good one.

[__C. The job is only average.

D. The job is not as good as average in this kind

of work.

__E. The job is a very poor one, very much below the
average.

Place a check mark in front of the statement which

best
__A.
B.
C.

D.

:E.

describes yourgfeelingS>about your job.

I am very satisfied and happy on this job.

I am fairly well satisfied on this job.

I am neither satisfied nor dissatisfied--it is
just average.

I am
I am

a little dissatisfied on this job.
very dissatisfied and unhappy on this job.

Check one of the following statements to show how much
of the time you are satisfied with your job.

Most of the time.

A good deal of the time.
About half of the time.
Occasionally.

Seldom.

a check mark in front of the statement which best
what kind of an organization it is to work for.
It is an excellent organization to work for-~one
of the best organizations I know of.

It is a good organization to work for but not
one of the best.

It is only an average organization to work for.
Many others are just as good.

It is below average as an organization to work
for. Many others are better.

It is probably one of the poorest organizations
to work for that I know.

Place a check mark in front of the statement which best
tells how your feelings compare with those of other
people you know.

_A.
B.

C.

I dislike my job much more than most people
dislike theirs.

I dislike my job more than most peOple dislike
theirs.

I like my job about as well as most people like
theirs.

74

75

__D. I like my job better than most people like theirs.
__E. I like my job much better than most people like
theirs.

Place a check mark in front of the statement which
best tells how you feel about the work you do on your
job.
,__A. The work I do is very unpleasant. I dislike it.
‘__B. The work I do is not pleasant.
__C. The work is just about average. I don't have
any feeling about whether it is pleasant or not.
,__D. The work is pleasant and enjoyable.
__E. The work is very enjoyable. I very much like
to do the work called for on this job.

Check one of the following which best describes any
general conditions which affect your work or comfort
on this job.
__A. General working conditions are very bad.
I__B. General working conditions are poor-~not so good
as the average for this kind of job.
0. General working conditions are about average,
neither good nor bad.
__D. In general, working conditions are good, better
than average.
__E. General working conditions are very good, much
better than average for this kind of job.

Check one of the following statements which best tells

how you feel about changing your job.

__A. I would quit this job at once if I had anything
else to do.

B. I would take almost any other job in which I could
earn as much as I am earning here.

C. This job is as good as the average and I would
just as soon have it as any other job but would
change jobs if I could make more money.

D. I am not eager to change jobs but would do so if
I could make more money.

E. I do not want to change jobs even for more money
because this is a good one.

Suppose you had a very good friend who is looking for
a job in your line of work and you know of a vacancy in
this organization which your friend is well qualified
to fill. Would you:

__A. Recommend this job as a good one to apply for?

.__B. Recommend this job but caution your friend about
its shortcomings?

C. Tell your friend about the vacancy but not any—
thing else, then let him decide whether to apply
or not?

D. Tell your friend about the vacancy but suggest
that he or she look for other vacancies elsewhere
before applying?

E. Try to discourage your friend from applying by
telling the bad things about the job?

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

forms.
sibly can.

On the line below,
well satisfied you are with this job.

76

place a check mark to show how
You may place

your mark anywhere on the line either above one of
the statements or between them.

1 . I I I

 

Completely
dissatisfied isfied than half

Most

me»

C.
D.
E.

This

More dissat- About More satisfied Completely
than dissatis- satisfied
satisfied and half fied

of my friends think I have an excellent job.

Strongly agree.

Agree.

Neither agree nor disagree-~not sure.
Disagree.

Strongly disagree.

organization is generally considered a good one

to work for.

__A.
__B.
c.

E.

B.
o.
_D.

E

Strongly agree.

Agree.

Neither agree nor disagree—-not sure.
Disagree.

Strongly disagree.

Strongly agree.

Agree.

Neither agree nor disagree—~not sure.
Disagree.

Strongly disagree.

My family thinks I have a very good job.

Most of my neighbors think my job is a very good one.

__A.
B.
__c.
D.

:E.

Strongly agree.

Agree.

Neither agree nor disagree--not sure.
Disagree.

Strongly disagree.

The presence of this organization in our community

is a

_A.

B.
c.
D.
E.

very good thing.

Strongly agree.

Agree.

Neither agree nor disagree-~not sure.
Disagree.

Strongly disagree.

Personal Background Information

The following information is necessary for purposes
of cross tabulation and analysis of data obtained on these

Please check the items as accurately as you pos-

 

77

Check the highest level of education which you have

completed.

'__A. Fourth grade or under.

__B. Eighth grade.

__C. Business school or technical school.
,__ . Junior college.

__E. College with A.B. or comparable.
__F. Masters degree.

__fiu Ph.D. degree.

__H. High school.

Check one of the following to indicate the age group
in which you belong.

'a'lltlep 0 w 33>

Sex
‘__A.

20 years of age or younger.
20 to 30.

30 to 40.

40 to 50.

50 to 60.

Over 60.

Male.
Female.

Please estimate your average income.

A.
C.
D.

F.

What

Less than $2,000.

$2,000 to 84,000.

$4,000 to $6,000.

$6,000 to $8,000.

38,000 to $12,000.
Over $12,000.

is your official occupational title?

 

 

Name

counting, central inspection, assembly, etc.).

the department in which you work (such as: ac~

 

 

Name

the company for which you work.

 

 

Please tell what kind of work you do in your department.

 

What was your father's occupation?

 

 

APPENDIX B

Ottobre, 1955

Si prega di non scrivere il prOprio nome su questo foglio.
Le seguenti spiegazioni 1'aiuteranno a descrivere come
lei si sente riguardo a1 suo lavoro.
Controlli quests dichiarazioni che descrivono le sue sen-
sa21on1.

1.Metta un segno (x) davanti alla dichiarazione che
meglio indica come lei si sente riguardo al lavoro
1 preferitc».
A. ll lavoro é eccellente molto a1 di SOpra della
media.
B. 11 lavoro é piuttosto buono.
C. II lavoro e di bonta media.
D. II lavoro non e 0081 buono come la media di
simili lavori.
n. 11 lavoro é pessimo, molto a1 di sotto della
media.

2. metta un segno (x) davanti alla dichiarazione che
meglio descrive 1e sue<0p1nion1>r1guardo a1 lavoro.
_A. 10 sono molto soddisfatto e felice di questo
lavoro.
__B. Io sono abbastanza soddisfatto di questo lavoro.
__C. Io non sono né soddisfatto he scontento di que sto
lavoro é un lavoro di valore medic.
D. Io sono poco soddisfatto del lavoro.
E. Io sono molto insoddisfatto e scontento di questo
lavoro.

3. Controlli 1e seguenti dichiarazioni per mostrare per
quanto tempo é soddisfatto del suo lavoro.

. La maggior parte del tempo.

. Una buona quantita del tempo.

. Circa meta tempo.

__ . Talvolta.

‘__L. Raramente.

J UIO ml»

4. Metta un segno (x) davanti alla dichiarazione che
meglio specifics quali sono 1e sue ppini in confronto
a quelle degli altri.
__A. Mi dispiace il mio lavoro molto piu che non dis-

piaccia agli altri.

__B. Mi dispiace piu il mio lavoro che non dispiaccia
agli altri.

C. Mi piece il mio lavoro come agli altri.

D. Mi piace il mio lavoro meglio che agli altri.

E. m1 piece il mio lavoro molto piu che agli altri.

78

 

79

5. Facoia un segno davanti ad una delle seguenti dichi-
arazioni riguardo la sua opinione suikgampiongel lavoro.
__A. Lasoerei immediatamente questo lavoro se avessi

qualcoealtro da fare.

.__B. Prenderei qualsiasi altro lavoro nel quale po~
tessi guadagnare quanto guadagno qui.

__C. Questo lavoro é buono in generale e lo farei
come qualunque altro ma oambierei se potessi
guadagnare di pifi.

D. Non desidero oambiare lavoro ma lo farei per
un maggiore oompenso.

E. Non voglio oambiare lavoro nemmeno per un mag-
gior oompenso, perché questo é un buon lavoro.

Si prega di controllare 1e verie parti il pifi acourata-
mente possibile.

1. Sesso 3. Quanti anni ha?
__A. Masohile __A. 20 o meno?
__B. Femminile. __B. D3 20 a 40

__C. Da 40 in poi?
2. Quanti anni di souola?

__A. Da 0 a S 4. Quale é la vostra paga per

__3. Da 5 a 10 un anno?

__C. Ba 10 in poi __A. Da 0 a mezzo milione
di lire

__B. Da mezzo a due milioni
__C. Oltre 1 due milioni?

5. Quale e la sua occupazione?

 

6. Quale é l'ocoupazione di suo padre?

 

APPENDIX C

Universidad de Puerto Rico
CCLEGIO DE AGRICULTURA Y ARTES MECANICAS
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico

C U E S T I 0 N A R I O

Este cuestionario pretende averiguar algunos dato§ sobre
la satisfacci6n que siente el obrero puertorriqueno en el
trabajo. En el llenarlo usted estara cooperando con una
bonita investigaoi6n.

PARTE I.

l. Marque con una (x) la linea de abajo que mejor identifi—
que "ouan bueno es en trabajo."

A. El trabajo es excelente, mucho mejor que el "pro-

medio de ellos." (trabajos).

B. El trabajo es bastante bueno.

C. El trabajo es del promedio. (regular)

__D. El trabajo no es tan bueno como el "promedio" en
esta clase de trabajo.

__‘. El trabajo es uno muy pobre,

promedio."

"muy por debajo del

2. Marque con una (x) la linea que mejor describe e1
grado de satisfacoi6n que ustcd deriva de su trabajo.

A. Estoy muy satisfecho y contento en este trabajo.
. Estoy bastante satisfecho con este trabajo.

C. No estoy ni satisfecho ni insatisfecho. Asi..
. Estoy un pooo insatisfeoho con este trabajo.

E. Estoy muy insatisfecho y disgustado con este trabajo.

.asi.

3. Marque con una (x) la linea que sefiala la parte del
tiempo en su trabajo que usted esta satisfecho con

éste.
‘__A. Casi todo el tiempo.
__B. Una gran parte del tiempo.
.__ . Aproximadamente la mitad del tiempo.
__ . Ocasionalmente. De cuando en cuando.
.__”. haras veces.
4. Senale con una (x) la linea que mejor describe la clase

de organizaci6n en y para la que usted trabaja.

A. Es una exoelente organizaci6n para trabajar en ella.
Es una de las mejores que conozco.
__B. Es una buena organizaoi6n en donde trabajar, pero
no es una de las mejores.
C. Es una organizaci6n "promedio". Muchas otras son tan

buenas como ella.

80

5.

6.

7.

8.

__A.

__B.

Marque con una (x) la linea que mejor describe

81

2?.

Es una organizaoi6n oonsiderarse inferior a1 pro-
medio para trabajar en ella. Muohas otras son me-
jores que ella.

Es probablemente una de las mas (malas) organiza-

ciones donde trabajar de las que conozco.

Marque con una (x) la linea que mejor exprese como en
Opini6n y sentir oomparan con otras personas.
Me disgusta mi trabajo, mucho mas que a lo
otras personas 1e disgusta el suyo.

Me disgusts mi trabajo mas que a lo que a otras

que a

 

personas le disgusta el suyo.

Me gusta mi trabajo tanto como a muchas personas
gusta el suyo.

Gusto de mi trabajo Eéfi que lo que otros gustan del
suyo.

Me gusta mi trabajo mucho mas que lo que a la mayoria
de la gente gusta el suyo.

Marque con una (x) la linea que mejor eXprese su sentir
ante el tipo de trabajo que usted hace en su actual

empleo.

El trabajo
Bl trabajo
El trabajo
posioi6n.
El trabajo es agradable y placentero.

El trabajo es muy agradable. Me gusta mucho
hay que hacer en 61.

que hago es muy desagradable.
que hago no es agradable.
que hago es del "promedio".

No me gusta.

No tengo una

lo que

su
Opini6n ante las oondiciones que existen en su actual

trabajo.

Las condiciones
Las oondiciones
buenas como las
trabajos.

Las oondiciones generales de trabajo pueden consider-
arse como "del promedio". Puede decirse no son ni
buenas ni malas.

En general, las condiciones de trabajo son buenas.
Mejor que el promedio.

Las oondiciones generales de trabajo son muy buenas;
mucho mejor que las del "promedio."

generales de trabajo son muy malas.
de trabajo son pobres. No son tan
que existen en el promedio de estos

Marque con una (x) la alternativa que mejor describa
como usted se sentiria ante e1 cambiar de trabajo.

Yo dejaria este trabajo inmediatamente si tuviese
la oportunidad de trabajar en alguna otra oosa.
Yo cogeria "casi" cualesquier otro trabajo si yo
pudiese ganar en 61 tanto dinero como el que gano
en mi actual empleo.

9.

10.

82

Este trabajo es tan bueno "como el promedio"
prefiero a otro; no obstante le cambiaria si
encontrar donde ganar mas dinero.

No estoy "ansioso" ni deseoso por cambiar de
pero...lo haria si pudiese ganar mas dinero.
Yo no cambiaria de trabajo aun existiendo otros con
mejor "paga" porque mi actual trabajo es bueno.

y le
pudiese

trabajo,

Si un amigo estuviese buscando empleo y hubiese opor—
tunidad donde yo trabajo.

Yo le recomendaria a mi amigo como buena esa opor-
tunidad.

Yo le hablaria a mi amigo sobre esta oportunidad

pero informandole sobre las ventajas e inconvenientes
del trabajo.

Yo 1e informaria a mi amigo sobre la
y nada mas.

Yo le informaria a mi amigo sobre la oportunidad,
pero le diria que busoase en otros sitios primero.
Yo trataria de desalentar a mi amigo para que no
solicitase.

oportunidad

En la linea que se presenta marque con una (x) donde
usted cree que va.

Completamente mas insatis- n1 satis- mas satis- completamente

insatisfecho fecho que fecho ni fecho que satisfecho
satisfecho insatisfecho insatisfecho

ll. Muchos de mis amigos (la mayoria) opinan que tengo
un trabajo excelente.

._‘A. Estoy muy de aouerdo con que asi opinan.

__ . Estoy de aouerdo

__C. No estoy muy seguro

._;D. No estoy de aouerdo

.__“. Estoy muy en desacuerdo, pues creo no opinan asi.

12. Esta organizaoi6n es generalmente considerada como
muy buena para trabajar.

__A. Estoy muy de aouerdo con que asi es considerada.

B. Estoy de aouerdo.

No estoy muy seguro de ello.
No estoy de aouerdo. No se considera asi.
Estoy muy en desacuerdo. No se considera asi.

Mi familia cree tengo un buen trabajo.

Estoy muy de aouerdo con que asi lo cree mi familia.
Estoy de aouerdo.

No estoy muy seguro.

No estoy de aouerdo.

Estoy muy en desacuerdo.

83

La mayoria de mis veoinos creen mi trabajo es muy
bueno.

Estoy muy de aouerdo con que opinan asi.
Estoy de aouerdo.

No estoy seguro de ello.

No estoy de aouerdo. Ellos no oreen asi.
Estoy muy en desacuerdo. Ellos no creen asi.

El que esté esta fébrioa u organizaoi6n en esta comu—
nidad es algo bueno.

Estoy muy de aouerdo con que asi es.
Estoy de aouerdo.

No estoy seguro.

No estoy de aouerdo.

Estoy muy en desacuerdo.

Mi trabajo es:

Fuerte

Exige responsabilidad

Ni exige mucha responsabilidad, ni es muy fuerte

Es un trabajo c6modo

Es un trabajo suave y no exige gran responsabilidad

A mi me interesa trabajar en cosas que requieran
mucha responsabilidad y esfuerzo.

A mi me gusta trabajar en cosas que requieran bastante
responsabilidad y esfuerzo.

A mi me interesa trabajar en cosas
alvuna responsabilidad y esfuerzo.
A mi me interesa trabajar en cosas
poca responsabilidad y esfuerzo.

A m me interesa trabajar en cosas
reaponsabilidad.

 

que requieran
que requieran

que no requieran

s4

INFORMACION PERSONAL Q'E NECESITAMOS PARA EL ESTUDIO
l. Marque e1 grado o nivel de educaci6n a que usted haya
llegado. Sino fuese exacto marque el mAS a que usted

se acerc6.

__A. segundo grado

__B. cuarto grado

‘__C. octavo grado

'__D. cuarto ano

__E. Escuela de comercio

__ . Colegio (incompleto)

__ . Colegio (completo)

.__H. Master

__I. Ph.D.

2. Marque la edad que corresponds a usted
__A. 20 afios o_menos

._;B. 20 a 30 anos

__C. 50 a 40 anos

__D. 40 a 50 anos

__E. 50 a 60 angs

__E. sobre 60 anos

3. Sexo

.__A. Var6n

‘__B. Mujer

4. Cuando usted se independiz6 de sus padres?...sali6

IPJIPIPIPL

U1
>

.J lo! I

I

0‘
0

de su hogar?

10 a 15 afios de edad

15 a 20 anos

de 20 a 25 afigs

mayor de 25 anos

aun no me he independizado.

Usted se cas6

antes de los_20 afios
de 20 a 25 anos

25 a 30 afios

después de los 30

no me he casado

gEstuvo usted mucho tiempo viviendo con sus padres?
$31 0 No?

aCuantos anos mas o menos?

 

7.
8.

9.

10.

85

gCual fue la ooupaci6n de su papa?

 

 

dC6mo se le llama al trabajo que usted hace?

aC6mo se le llama al departamento donde usted trabaja?

 

aUsted cobra semanal, quincenal 6 mensual?

 

aQué cantidad?. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

 

APPENDIX D

UNIVERSIDAD DE PUERTO RICO

Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico
2 de marzo de 1959.

Estimade compafiero:

Estamos interesados en conocer mas sobre todo aquello
que se relaoione con el sentirse satisfecho en el trabajo.
Otros paises_se han preocupado por esto. Nosotros los
puertorriquenos también lo hacemos.

En el poder hacer uso de la Opini6n suya agradecemos
llene el cuestionario pegado a esta carta. Usted no tiene
que escribir su nombre cuando termine. Su cuestionario
sera unido al de otros puertorriquenos que cooperan en
este estudio.

Para poder hacer comentarios justos, confiamos poder
recibir ouestionarios que hayan sido llenados con seriedad
y sinceridad.

Esperando recibir de usted su bondadosa COOperaoi6n,
le eXpresamos el agradecimiento de la Universidad.

Cordialmente suyo,
HECTOR PUIG

Director Investigaoi6n

:I'C

86

87

Appendix E
PEBCEYTAGB 0F DISSATISFIED AND SATISFIED EMPLOYEES IN
EACH OCCUPATIONAL STATUS WITH THE AVERAGE SATISFACTION
AT EACH STATUS IN UNITED STATES, ITALY AND PUERTO RICO

 

Country 000. N Ind. or Mildly Highly Aver. Total

 

 

 

St. Dissat. Sat. Sat. Satisfaction
United Mg. 33 39.4 51.5 42.7
States Cl. 33 48.5 45.5 42.9
Sk. 48 52.1 35.4 40.6
88k. 92 51.1 25.0 38.8
Unsk. 34 44.1 20.5 38.0
Italy Mg. - - - —
Cl. 15 53.3 0 36.0
Sk. 31 61.2 9.6 36.1
88k. 137 44.6 8.0 35.6
Unsk. 13 46.2 15.3 31.5
Puerto Mg. 24 39.2 70.8 43.7
Rico Cl. 41 31.7 43.9 41.0
Sk. 140 53.6 57.9 41.
83k. 101 35.7 58.4 42.5
Unsk. 92 43.5 32.6 40.9

 

Appendix F
SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES AHONG THE SATISFACTION SCORES 0F
OCCUPATIONAL STATUS GROUPS IN ITALY AND IN PUEHTO RICO AS
SHOWN BY THE TUKEY D TEST

 

Tukey D Occupational Average Differences
Status Satisfac—
tion Score

 

 

 

 

 

Puerto 3369.55 1139.65 Sci-41.91
Rico
1.37 Managers 43.45 4.10 3.80 1.54
Semi-skilled 42.86 3.51 3.21
Skilled 41.91 2.56 2.26
Clericals 39.65
Unskilled 39.35
Italy 1131.54 32235.65 3266.00
1.69 Skilled 36.06 4.52
,Clericals 36.00 4.46

Semi-skilled 35.65 4.11
Unskilled 31.54

 

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