AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE MAGNITUDE OF LIFE CHANGE AND THE TEACHER BEHAVIOR OF THE ELEMENTARY INTERN TEACHER Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ALICE LAVONNE HOSKINS 1972 r) LIBRARy Michigan State University -‘- ‘ '————=————- _ V‘_’ __ E" amoma av 1" IIIIAII & SONS 800K BINDERY INC. moans LIBRARY 8| Ismuaron. uses”; * A! A / I ABSTRACT AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE MAGNITUDE OF LIFE CHANGE AND THE TEACHER BEHAVIOR OF THE ELEMENTARY INTERN TEACHER By Alice Lavonne Hoskins The acceleration of change in our time is an elemental force which has personal and psychological, as well as sociological, consequences which require adjustive behavior that can be used in coping With the internal and external stress which may result from the magnitude and continual change of life events. It has been pointed out in the literature that the teacher is in one of the most "exposed" positions in the professional world tOdaY- Nevertheless, the personal life events and the character of the teacher as they affect his behavior in the classroom have reC'eived little attention, even though there is evidence to suggest that personal maladjustment is prevalent among PFOfeSSional Alice Lavonne Hoskins The pace of life profoundly influences behavior, for it implies a constant interaction between the organism and its environment. Therefore, in an effort to develop a greater under - standing of the impact that life change experiences have on the behavior of the teacher, this study was designed to assess the correlation between the magnitude of life change and selected classroom behavior of the elementary intern teacher. The sample selected for this study consisted of forty-one elementary intern teachers from Michigan State University who were teaching in the Greater Lansing Area Schools during 1971 - 1972. The primary instruments used in this study were the S_chedule of Recent Experience and the Social Readjustment Rating Sialgwhich were utilized to measure the magnitude of life change. Data related to teacher behavior were exemplified through intern absenteeism, student absenteeism, consultant-intern contact, and student referrals. This information was obtained from school and 'personal records and was reported by the intern consultants. Six major hypotheses were developed and subsequently tested statistically using the Pearson product—moment formula. Also, a test was used as a means of comparing the significance of the difference between the correlations of paired groupings within the sample. Alice Lavonne Hoskins Major Findings With the criterion for significance established at the .05 alpha level, the following findings were revealed: 1. Intern teachers who had higher scores on the Schedule of Recent Experience had more days of intern absenteeism than those who had lower scores. 2. Single female intern teachers who had higher scores on the Schedule of RecentExperience had more days of intern absenteeism than those who had lower scores. 3. For intern teachers who were categorized as the oldest in birth order position within their family, those who had higher scores on the Schedule of Recent Experience had more units of student absenteeism than those who had lower scores. 4. For intern teachers who were categorized as the oldest in birth order position within their family, those who had higher scores on the Schedule of Recent Experience had more consultant-intern contact than those who had lower scores. 5. For intern teachers who were categorized as the middle in birth order position within their family, those who had higher scores Alice Lavonne Hoskins on the Schedule of Recent Experience had more days of intern absenteeism than those who had lower scores. 6. The correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and student absenteeism units differed significantly when the oldest and youngest birth order groups were compared. 7. The correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and student absenteeism units differed significantly when the oldest and middle birth order groups were compared. 8. The correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the consultant- intern contact differed significantly when the oldest and youngest birth order groups were compared. 9. The correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the consultant- intern contact differed significantly when the middle and youngest birth order groups were compared. 10. The correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the consultant- intern contact differed significantly when the oldest and middle birth order groups were compared. 11. The correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the intern absenteeism days differed significantly when the oldest and middle birth order groups were compared. AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE MAGNITUDE OF LIFE CHANGE AND THE TEACHER BEHAVIOR OF THE ELEMENTARY INTERN TEACHER By Alice Lavonne Hoskins A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Elementary and Special Education 1972 [i QLI /I ’I © Copyright by ALICE LAVONNE HOSKINS 1973 ii PREFACE "A discerning mind gains knowledge and the ears of the wise search for wisdom. " Proverbs 18:15 iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to take this opportunity to express my appreciation and indebtedness to some of the persons who have contributed immeasurably to the successful completion of this dissertation. To my chairman, Dr. Howard Hickey, who has been a faithful guide and friend, I owe my deepest gratitude. To the other members of my committee, Dr. Bruce Cheney, Dr. Dale Alam, and Dr. James McKee, who willingly have assisted me in numerous ways, I am sincerely grateful. A special tribute goes to my family who have supported me-with their love, faith, and prayers. Without their understand- ing and encouragement, the task would have beenless rewarding. It would be most difficult to adequately thank all of my friends who have made innumerable contributions to the enjoyment and accomplishment of this endeavor. Therefore, I simply will say "thank you" and hope that each of you will feel the warmth of my sincere appreciation. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES CHAPTER I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction Purpose of the Study Need for the Study Definition of Terms Statement of Delimitations Statement of Assumptions . Overview of the Thesis 11. REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE . Introduction . Mental Health and Maladjustment of Teachers Influence of Teacher Behavior on Student Development . . . . Mental Health and the Implications for Teacher Preparation Relationship of Life Change Events to Health and Behavior Summary III. PRESENTATION OF THE DESIGN AND PROCEDURES . Introduction Population Page . viii xi 10 12 13 14 16 16 18 29 43 . 56 61 65 65 65 CHAPTER Sample . . . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . Instrumentation Procedures . . Methods of Analyses Summary IV. ANALYSES OF THE DATA Introduction . . . . Data Related to the Magnitude of Life Change Data Related to the Teacher BehaviOr Data Related to the Correlation Between the Magnitude of Life Change and the Teacher Behavior Summary V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOM- MENDATIONS Summary . The Problem The Procedures The Findings Conclusions Recommendations . . Specific Recommendations General Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY Books . . Periodicals and Unpublished Materials APPENDIX A. PERSONAL DATA SHEET . B. EDUCATIONAL DATA SHEET . vi Page 66 68 69 70 73 74 75 75 75 81 83 104 112 112 114 115 117 119 125 125 126 133 133 137 145 146 APPENDIX C. SCHEDULE OF RECENT EXPERIENCE (SRE) . D. SOCIAL READJUSTMENT RATING SCALE (SRRS) . E. RELATED RESEARCH DATA OF HOLMES AND RAHE F. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL G. LETTER FROM DR. THOMAS H. HOLMES . vii Page 147 153 155 156 157 TABLE LIST OF TABLES Distribution of the Ages of the Interns Within the Sample Distribution of the Sex and Marital Status of the Interns Within the Sample Distribution of the Race Classification of the Interns Within the Sample . Distribution of the Birth Order Position of the Interns Within the Sample . Frequency Occurrence of Life Events for a Three-Year Period as Recorded From the Schedule of Recent Experience Schedule of Recent Experience Scores in Rank Order as Derived from Application of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale . Interval Classification and Frequency Distribu- tion of the Schedule of Recent Experience Scores as Reported in Figure 4. 1 Occurrence, Mean and Standard Deviation Statistics for the Teacher Behavior Variables for Group A and Group B Results of the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables for Group A viii Page 67 67 67 67 76 79 81 82 84 TAB LE 4. 4. 4. 4. .10. 4. 11. 6. 7. 8. 9. Results of the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables for Group B Results of the Test Comparing the Corre- lations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the Single and Married Female Interns in Group A Results of the Test Comparing the Corre- lations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the Single and Married Female Interns in Group B Results of the Test Comparing the Corre- lations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the' Oldest and Youngest Interns in Group A as Categorized by Birth Order Within Their Family Results of the Test Comparing the Corre- lations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the Oldest and Youngest Interns in Group B as Categorized by Birth Order Within Their Family . . . . . Results of the Test Comparing the Corre- lations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the Middle and Youngest Interns in Group A as Categorized by Birth Order Within Their Family . . . . . Page 84 90 91 94 95 98 TABLE 4. 12. 4. 13. 4.15. Results of the Test Comparing the Corre- lations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the Middle and Youngest Interns in Group B as Categorized by Birth Order Within Their Family Results of the Test Comparing the Corre- lations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the Oldest and Middle Interns in Group A and Group B as Categorized by Birth Order Within Their Family Summary of the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables for the Single and Married Females in Group A and Group B . Summary of the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables for the Youngest, Middle, and Oldest Interns in Group A and Group B as Categorized by Birth Order Within Their Family Page 99 101 104 105 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 4. 1. Graphic Representation for the Frequency Distribution of the Schedule of Recent Experience Scores 4. 2. Scatter Diagram of the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables for the Single and Married Females in Group A and Group B . 4. 3. Scatter Diagram of the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables for the Youngest, Middle, and Oldest Interns in Group A as Categorized by Birth Order Within Their Family . . . . 4. 4. Scatter Diagram of the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables for the Youngest, Middle, and Oldest Interns in Group B as Categorized by Birth Order Within Their Family . . . . . xi Page 80 106 107 108 CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction In 1965, Toffler1 coined the term "future shock" to describe the shattering stress and disorientation that is induced in individuals by subjecting them to too much change in too short of a period of time. Thus, "future shock"2 as related to life change may be defined as the distress, both physical and psychological, that arises from an overload of the human organism' 3 physical adaptive system and its decision-making processes. Ogburn, with his celebrated theory of cultural lag, pointed out how social stresses arise out of the uneven rates of change in various sectors of society. The concept of ”future shock"--and the theory of adaptation that derives from it--strongly suggests that there must be balance, not merely between rates of change in 1Alvin Toffler, Future Shock (New York: Random House, Inc., 1970), p. 2. 21bid., p. 326. various sectors of society, but between the pace of environmental change and the limited pace of human response. Unfortunately, this balance is continually subjected to internal and external forces which may offset its equilibrium. Hinkle emphasizes this view by suggest- ing that "life implies a constant interaction between organism and environment. "3 The pace of life is frequently commented on by ordinary people. Yet, according to Toffler, it has received little attention from either psychologists or sociologists. He explains that "this is a gaping inadequacy in the behavioral sciences, for the pace of life profoundly influences behavior, invoking strong and contrasting reactions from different people. "4 The acceleration of change in our time is an elemental force which has personal and psychological, as well as sociological, consequences which require adjustive reactions. Hamachek pro- poses that "our effectiveness in using certain adjustive reactions has a lot to do with how successful we are in meeting the daily stress and strains of living. "5 fir 31bid., p. 334. 41bid., p. 37. 5Don Hamachek, (ed. ), Human Dynamics in Psychology and Education (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. , 1968), p. 617. The relationship of adjustment and life Situations is exemplified by Coleman: Adjustive reactions can best be understood in terms of the total personality organization of the individual and his specific life situation. The particular adjustive reaction that occurs will vary widely depending upon these two sets of factors. However, even the most divergent attempts at adjustment follow certain basic dynamic principles and can be understood as attempts to cope with actual or perceived stress in such a way as to main- tain psychobiological integrity by satisfying basic needs. The viewpoints of these authors and other researchers indicate that there is definitely a stress resulting from the magnitude and continual change of life events. This stress, in turn, requires that the individual develop adjustive behavior that can be used in coping with these events. Consequently, the awareness and under- standing of these phenomena are important for "change is a frighten- ing and threatening experience. "7 Rogers, in relating these needs to our modern culture, makes the following statement: There can be little doubt that our culture needs, as never before, individuals who are capable of intelligent, informed, discrimi- nating, adaptive, effective involvement in a process of change. 6James Coleman, Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life (New York: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1950), p. 78. 7Carl Rogers, "What Psychology Has to Offer to Teacher Education, " in Mental Health and Teacher Education, Forty-Sixth Yearbook of the Association for Student Teaching (Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Company, Inc. , 1967), p. 41. He relates this need to teachers and teacher training by saying: We need teacher training institutions which can prepare teachers who have these qualities, and who can, in their turn, develop students who have these same capacities for coping with the modern world. Purpose of the Study This study has been developed to incorporate the factors pertaining to life change experiences with the factors relating to the teacher and the educational processes. In an effort to develop a greater understanding of the impact that these life change experi- ences have on the behavior of the teacher, this study is designed to explore the following question: Is there any relationship between the personal life experiences and the observable classroom behavior of the elementary classroom teacher? This question, in turn, has led to the formulation of this investigation and the major purpose of this study, which is to assess the correlation between the magnitude of life change and selected classroom behavior of the elementary intern teacher. 8Ibid., p. 40. Need for the Study According to Baths, 9 a historical review of education in the United States cannot help but impress the reader with the notion that the major role of schools was and is to free individuals to develop their own potentialities. The importance of this role is pointed out by Bernard when he states that "there is no challenge facing us as a nation which transcends that of developing the potential, and making the best use of, human resources. "1 The educational system with its vast body of educators faces a prime responsibility in meeting this challenge, for approxi- mately sixty million American children are influenced each year by this enormous enterprise. Goodlad11 estimates that from birth to high school graduation, today' 3 young man or woman spends an average of just over 12, 000 hours in school. 9James Raths, "Mutuality of Effective Functioning and School Experiences, " in Learning and Mental Health in the School (Washington, D. C. : National Education Association, 1966), p. 12. 10Harold Bernard, Mental Health in the Classroom (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1970), p. 3. 11John Goodlad, "The Schools vs. Education, " Saturday Review, 52:60, April, 1969. Delp12 points out that because teachers as a group have a very long and close contact with children in our civilization, it is probable that they have more influence on the emotional development of children than any others, with the exception of the parents. Henry Adams, the historian-philosopher, emphasized this idea when he related that "a teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where his influence stops. " In his book, The Professional Education of Teachers, 0. Combs13 discusses a changing emphasis in reference to teacher significance. He suggests that just as we have had to shift our understanding of the learning process from the process to the learner, so we are now discovering the understanding of teaching is not to be found in the methods, but in the teacher. The shift in thinking from a mechanistic to a personal approach in teaching is one that now views the teacher as an intelligent human being using himself, his knowledge, and the resources at hand to solve the problems for which he is responsible. 1 2Harold Delp, "Mental Health of Teachers: Still a Problem, " Journal of Teacher Education, 14:143, March, 1963. 13Arthur Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1965), p. 8. Combs emphasizes the personal importance of the teacher by stating that "a good teacher is first and foremost a person, a self, and this fact is the most important and determining thing about him. "14 He is not a library, not a machine, not a disseminator of knowledge. He is a human being interacting with other human beings in a very human process. The implications of this point of view seem to suggest that teaching is not a question of learning12_d_o_ something; it is a matter of learningtqbe something. Ringness illustrates the importance of teacher behavior when he states that "the teacher demonstrates a value system; he is an example of how emotions are expressed, how interaction is handled, and how social problems are considered. "15 The relation- ship of the teacher' 3 behavior to the child' 3 development is portrayed by Long, Morse, and Newman in the following statement: Thus, what a teacher is, who he is, and how he reacts to the hundred million situations, crises and interactions that occur in class every day is the child' s armory of knowledge of the . outside world. From this he learns how e world works and how one copes with anxieties and drives. 14Ibid., p. 8. 15Thomas Ringness, Mental Health in the Schools (New York: Random House, 1968), p. 40. 16Nicholas Long, William Morse, and Ruth Newman, Conflict in the Classroom (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Pub- lishing Company, 1965), p. 306. ,. IV .D. ‘r III unL‘ hr. \ TA Bernard17 contends that a great part of the good that teachers can do in contributing to the mental health of the child lies not in what they can do for the child, but what they do in front of the child. In an examination of the dynamics which motivate human behavior, Kaplan proposes that primary motivating forces may be viewed as originating from certain basic needs that create tensions within an individual and cause him to seek a means whereby these tensions will be released. He goes on to say that "human behavior is the result of a complex network of internal psychological forces, together‘with responses to environmental conditions. "18 According to Allport, "psychological states do not organize themselves or lead independent existences. Their arrangement merely constitutes part of a larger arrangement--the personal life. "19 Bower and Hollister point out that "man' s equilibrium and disequilibrium with his own bodily system is intricately and signifi- 2 cantly tied up with other systems in which he functions. " 0 Likewise, 17Bernard, op. cit., p. 19. 18Louis Kaplan, Mental Health and Human Relations in Education (New York: Harper and Row, 1959), p. 250. 1,?Gordon Allport, "The Person in Psychology, " in Human- istic Viewpoints in Psychology by. Frank Severin (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, 1965), p. 39. 20Eli Bower and William Hollister, Behavioral Science Frontiers in Education (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , 1967), p. 23. these authors refer to a concept of Hippocrates which pointed out that it is change which is chiefly responsible for diseases; that changes in living conditions which are too rapid or abrupt do not permit adaptive mechanisms to function effectively. Cassel rein- forces this notion by suggesting the following supposition: . . . disproportionate rates of change in any one of the four linked systems of man--the physiological, psychological, social, and cultural--could effect the others in a way that might lead to..illness or breakdown. Through extensive research beginning in 1949, Holmes and Rahezz have developed the Schedule of Recent Experience (see Appendix C) and the Social Readjustment RatirLg Scale, (see Appen- dix D) as a valid and reliable means of measuring the effects of personal and environmental changes upon the adjustment of the individual. In summarizing a series of studies which use these instruments, Holmes and Masuda23 indicate that there is a strong 2 1John Cassel, "Social Science Theory as a Source of Hypotheses in Epidemiological Research, " American Journal of Public Health, 54:1482-1488, September, 1964. 22Thomas H. Holmes and Richard H. Rahe, "The Social Readjustment Rating Scale, " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11:213-218, August, 1967. 3Thomas H. Holmes and Minoru Masuda, "Life Change and Illness Susceptibility, ” presented as part of a "Symposium on Separation and Depression: Clinical and Research Aspects" at the Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Chicago, Illinois, December 26-30, 1970, p. 1. 10 positive correlation between the magnitude of life change and major health difficulties. The results of these studies suggest that a clustering of social or life events achieves etiologic significance as a necessary but not sufficient cause of illness and accounts in part for the time of onset of disease. Although written more than four decades ago, this remark by Groves and Blanchard is still relevant to our present conditions and summarizes the need for this study. They point out that: . education, marriage, parenthood, industry--all the relationships of individuals to each other and to their environ- ment--have their mental hygiene aspects. All need to be studied in order to determine wherein they contribute to human adjustment or undermine mental health. Definition of Terms In order to provide clarity and consistency, terms frequently used are operationally defined for the purpose of this study. Life Change: The occurrence of significant events usually evoked or associated with some adaptive or coping behavior on the part of the involved individual. 24Ernest Groves and Phyllis Blanchard, Introduction to Mental Hygiene (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1930), p. 7. 25 Holmes and Masuda, op. cit., p. 2. 11 Behavior: The actions of an individual which are the result of a complex network of internal psychological forces working together with the responses to environmental conditions. 26 Mental Health: The measure of a person's ability to shape his environment, to adjust to life as he has to face it, and to do so with a reasonable amount of success, satisfaction, and happi- 27 ness. Elementary Intern Pr_o_gram: A four—year teacher prepara- tion program at Michigan State University that features a one -year teaching internship in which the intern has full responsibility as the teacher of an elementary classroom and is offered consultation services by an intern consultant. Intern Teacher: A person who is enrolled in the Elementary Intern Program and has been assigned to instruct and guide children for the duration of the internship. Intern Consultant: An experienced teacher who has been assigned on a full-time basis to supervise five to ten intern teachers. 26Kaplan, op. cit., p. 251. 27H. Frederick Kilander, School Health Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968), p. 149. 12 Day of Absenteeism: The absence of the intern or student from school on a day in which school is formally in session. Unit of Absenteeism: A tabulation of days in which uninter- rupted absences are recorded as a single unit of absenteeism. Consultant-Intern Contact: Any written or verbal com- ' munication with the intern consultant which is initiated by the intern teacher. Student Referral: The recourse used in which the student is the recipient of a disciplinary action initiated by the teacher and which is subsequently reported to the intern consultant. Statement of Delimitations Due to the nature of the population from which the research sample was drawn, the data obtained in this study pertain specifically to intern teachers of the Michigan State UniVersity Elementary Intern Program, teaching during the school year 1971- 1972. Therefore, generalizations must reflect these delimitations. The data related to teacher behavior are limited to the areas of intern absenteeism, student absenteeism, consultant- intern contact, and student referrals. Since the areas of teacher behavior are measured by the subjective observation of the intern consultants, the consistency and accuracy of the data must portray these delimitations . 13 This study will concern itself only with exploring and assessing indications of a possible relationship between the magni- tude of life change and the teacher behavior as defined in this study. It is not the purpose of this study to establish any cause and effect relationship related to life change events and teacher behavior. Statement of Assumptions The development of this study is based on several broad assumptions relating to education and mental health. These assumptions are: 1. The experiences related to life change events have an effect upon the mental health of the teacher. 2. There is a relationship between the mental health of the teacher and the behavior displayed by that teacher. 3. The mental health of the teacher is important to the welfare of the child. 4. The responses of the individuals to the requested informa- tion are presented honestly and accurately. 14 5. Information related to the life events of the teacher will give the educator and administrator greater insight into the factors affecting teacher behavior. 6. The reciprocal relationship between intern teachers and certified teachers suggests that, if a positive correlation is found to exist, there is value in developing studies related to members of the teaching profession. Overview of the Thesis The purpose of Chapter I was to provide a brief introduction to the study, relate its purpose, and establish its need. Also included in the first chapter were the assumptions and delimitations by which this study was conducted. The purpose of Chapter II is to present a review of the literature. This review will include opinions and research related to mental health and maladjustment of teachers, influence of teacher behavior on student development, mental health and the implications for teacher preparation, and relationship of life change events to health and behavior. The purpose of Chapter III is to discuss the research design and procedures used in the study. This discussion incor- porates a description of the sample, states the hypotheses, and 15 details procedural questions related to types of data, sources of data, methods of securing data, and methods of analyses. The purpose of Chapter IV is to present the analyses of the data. A presentation of each analysis is given in the context of its hypothesis. The purpose of Chapter V is to provide a summary of the findings and present conclusions and recommendations based on the review of the literature, the analyses of the data, and the personal reactions of the researcher. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE Introduction Human behavior has been described as the result of a complex network of internal psychological forces which work together with responses to environmental conditions. In reacting to these inner forces and attempting to reconcile them with environmental conditions, it seems inevitable that one will encounter obstacles both within himself and his social world. Consequently, living, in the optimal meaning o'f-mmmd, requires learning to adjust to possible stress situations while making them learning experiences. Living and learning are not a discrete series of isolated events or experiences. On the contrary, social -interaction theory seems to suggest that the major perceptions of oneself are derived through interaction with significant others. These perceptions, in turn, become the foundation and impetus in the acquisition and application of learning experiences. Thus, the elementary school 16 17 years are crucial in that during this stage a child' s development is formative, impressionable, and easily molded. The fact that the child spends a considerable portion of his day in the classroom leads one to the conclusion that the school has a considerable impact on the life of the child. Coupled with this is the fact that the teacher has continuous contact with the student. Because of the nature of this relationship, the teacher is in a prime position to affect the child' 3 growth and development. According to some educators, the capacity to use oneself as an effective instrument to promote mental health among students will depend, to a large extent, on one' s own persOnal happiness and freedom from severe psychological stress. In view of this speculation, it seems imperative that educators strive to make this aspect of mental health in education a focus of their concern. Obviously, because of the range of variables relating to human behavior, it would be difficult within the limits of this study to explore every element. Therefore, as background for this specific study, a review of the literature will be delimited to the following areas: .mental health and maladjustment of teachers, influence of teacher behavior on student development, mental health and the implications for teacher preparation, and recent research on the magnitude of life change. 18 Although the writings related to these areas are numerous, research evidence, which is directly relevant to the specific aspects of this dissertation, is by no means abundant. Therefore, research and professional opinions, which are pertinent to the underlying principles of this study, will be reviewed in an effort to help the educator become more aware of the significance of teacher behavior on the educational and personal development of the individual student. Mental Health and Maladjustment of Teachers Human behavior, according to Bernard, 1 is always complex, always individual, and always the result of multiple causes. To further explain this idea, Menningerz has suggested that our back- ground experiences play an important part in our behavior and personality development. Szasz3 has questioned the assignment of mental and emotional disorders to the realm of illnesses and has suggested that "problems in living" be considered as a more realistic and meaningful substitute. 1Harold Bernard, Mental Health in the Classroom (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1970), p. 184. 2William Menninger, "Self-Understanding for Teachers, " National Education Association Journal, 42:331 -333, September, 1953. 3Thomas Szasz, The Myth of Mental Illness (New York: Paul B. Hoeber, 1961), pp. 1-15. 19 In relating "problems of living" to stress, Klein4 stated that the ability of the individual to cope with stress determines whether or not his well-being is affected. Others have pointed out that individuals differ markedly from one another in respect to situations they perceive as stressful. Whitehorn5 has taken the view that it is not the avoidance of stressful situations that is sig- nificant, but the organization of life toward energetic efforts in setting upmeaningful goals for the advancement of one' s purposes. This idea is explained by Combs: Changes in behavior, including changes in one' s personality, are most effectively brought about, not by introspection and analysis, but through slow changes in perceptions about outside events and their relation to self. He continued by suggesting that "behavior is a symptom of external states . . . [and] that the necessity for 'coping' with life becomes greatly reduced in the experience of adequate persons. "7 4Donald Klein, "Some Concepts Concerning the Mental Health of the Individual, " Journal of Consultingjsychology, 24:288- 293, August, 1960. 5John Whitehorn, ”Stress and Emotional Health, " American Journal of Psychiatry, 112:773-781, April, 1956. 6Arthur Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1965); p. 8. 71bid., p. 107, 72. 20 The suggestion that the increase in maladjustment is due primarily to the increased stresses of modern life has been made by Roberts in this statement: Where the potential exists, it is the crisis that brings on the full-blown neurosis or psychotic break. The personal factors (the inner dynamics) exist previous to the break, but the sudden increase of stress, frustration, and threat breaks through the defenses, and behavior runs amuck. A great need, according to Shaffer and Shoben, 9 is to insure that education will be a positive and constructive influence in the life of every student. However, Kaplan and O' Dea relate that "teachers who are under stress cannot exert the best possible influ- ence upon the mental health of children. 10 In describing teacher adjustment, Shaffer and Shoben pre- sented the following concern: It must be remembered that teachers are human beings and, like all others, have their own problems of personal adjust- ment. They are subject to all the common influences that determine the mental health of people in our culture, in child- hood development and in the circumstances of adult living. 8Guy Roberts, Personal Growth and Adjustment (Boston: Holbrook Press, Inc., 1968). p. 10. 9Laurance Shaffer and Edward Shoben, Jr. , The Psychology of Adjustment (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1956), p. 552. 10Louis Kaplan and David O' Dea, "Mental Health Hazards in School, " Educational Leadership, 10:351, 1953. 11Shaffer and Shoben, op. cit., p. 564. 21 After considering the implications of teacher maladjustment, Kaplan expressed this opinion: The fact that teachers are disturbed, threatened or annoyed by factors within their environment is considered to be a matter of serious concern to all educators. People who are insecure and disturbed can hardly be expected to give adequate guidance to the personality development of children. 1 In a discussion of characteristics of good teachers, Hama- chek remarked "that if a teacher likes himself, trusts himself, and has confidence in himself, he is likely to see others in the same light, for how we perceive others is highly dependent on how we . H1 perceive ourselves. . 14 15 L1ndgren and Armstrong have asserted that the teacher is in one of the most "exposed" positions in the professional world today. Nevertheless, Rogers16 has indicated that the personal 12Louis Kaplan, "The Annoyances of Elementary School Teachers, " Journal of Educational Research, 45:651, May, 1952. 3Don‘Hamachek, "Characteristics of Good Teachers and Implications for Teacher Education, " Phi Delta Kappan, 50:344, February, 1969. 14Henry Lindgren, Mental Health in Education (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1954), pp. 508-510. 15 Roderick Armstrong, "Improving the Mental Health of School Personnel, " in Mental Health and Achievement by Paul Torrance and Robert Stromm (eds.) (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , 1965), p. 161. 16Dorothy Rogers, Mental Hygiene in Elementary Educa- tion (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1957), p. 401. 22 problems of teachers have received little attention, even though Townsend17 has presented evidence to suggest that personal mal- adjustment is prevalent among professional teachers. Studies related to teacher behavior and maladjustment vary in results and interpretation of those results. An examination of these studies, however, does provide evidence of teacher maladjust- ment and offer impetus for further exploration in this area. Broxson18 supported this contention by suggesting that in spite of the wave of job analyses, there has been very little done in the realm of indi- vidual and personal analyses. A study by Townsend19 indicated that the chances are seven to one that a child will be under the influence of at least two unstable, neurotic or psychopathic teachers during the course of his twelve years in school. Kaplan20 concluded, however, after a survey of several studies, that teachers are no more maladjusted than other adults. Although the statistical difference between 17Ernest Townsend, ”Mental Hygiene and Teacher Recruit- ing, " Mental Hygiene, 17:598-604, October, 1933. 18John Broxson, "Problem Teachers, " Educational Admin- istration and Supervision, 29:117-182, March, 1943. 9Townsend, loc. cit. 0Louis Kaplan, Mental Health and Human Relations in Education (New York: Harper and Row, 1959), p. 62. 23 maladjusted teachers and other adults is not significant, Altman advised that there is a tremendous difference in the effects of the maladjustment. In his explanation, he stated that ”. . . in no other profession or occupation can a mentally unbalanced person do as much damage to the lives of others. " 22 Rogers has suggested that perhaps the most significant conclusion of recent research is that the really serious frustrations faced by teachers are of a personal nature rather than a profes- sional structure. In a study of 700 maladjusted teachers Mason pointed out that teaching as a profession did not seem to be the direct 2 cause of the psychoses. An inspection by Symonds 4 of ninety -eight Personal essays supported these suggestions. A tabulation of prob- lems presented in these essays showed that family relationships and love -life are the areas in which the greatest tension resides. Symonds clearly indicated that personal problems quite overshadowed all others. \ 21Emil Altman, "Our Mentally Unbalanced Teachers, " The Amman Mercury, 52:392, April, 1941. 22Dorothy Rogers, op. cit., p. 411. 23Frances Mason, "Study of 700 Maladjusted Teachers, " lelgriene, 15:576-599, July, 1931. 24Percival Symonds, "Problems Faced by Teachers, " Mural of Educational Research, 35:1- 15, September, 1941, 24 In an effort to determine the conditions which frequently threaten the teacher and lower his effectiveness, a selected sample of sixty -seven graduate students responded to questions concerning health hazards. Kvaraceus25 reported that an analysis of the respondent' 5 replies indicated that the importance of interpersonal relationships involving the teacher was given considerable emphasis. Another investigation by Kaplan sought to discover the nature of adjustment problems considered by teachers to be a source of concern or emotional disturbance. The responses of 204 experi- enced elementary teachers revealed that ”the patterns of child behavior most distressing to teachers were those which violated the teacher' s personal standards or challenged their roles as leaders, disciplinarians and instructors. " Henry presented discussion of data taken from direct Observation of elementary school classrooms. These observations indicated that: 1. Although often unconsciously, teachers projected feelings of insecurity and unacceptance. 2. The teacher' 3 own need to carp and criticize gets in the way of adequately developing the creative and supportive possibilities of the students. 25William C. Kvaraceus, ”Mental Health Hazards Facing Teachers, " Phi Delta Kappan, 32:349-350, April, 1951. 2 6Kaplan, ”The Annoyances of Elementary School Teachers,‘ 913. 649-665. 25 3. Teachers' unconscious needs naturally dominate their behavior. Based on these observations, Henry presented the follow- ing suggestions as a possible solution for this dilemma: The solution to the problem of the contradiction between the requirements of a democratic education on the one hand, and the teacher' 5 unconscious needs on the other, is not to carp at teachers, and thus repeat the schoolroom process, but to give them some insight into how they project their person into the classroom situation. A study of teacher absences, in excess of ten days, was conducted in the Los Angeles School System during the period from 1942 to 1950. The results of the data indicated that nervous and emotional problems were the main cause of absenteeism. Randall28 has emphasized the significance of absenteeism by suggesting that because of teacher absences children must be taught by substitutes, Which is a distinct loss to many children because of the interruption 0f their previously scheduled classroom work. 2 Blair 9 used the Multiple -Choice Rorschach Test to survey the mental health of 205 experienced and 152 prospective teachers. 27Jules Henry, "Attitude Organization in Elementary School Cla-‘:‘4srooms, " American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 27:117 -133, January, 1957. 28Harriett Randall, "Health Is for Teachers Too, " National wtion Association Journal, 40:467-568, October, 1951. M 29Glenn Blair, "Personality Adjustment of Teachers as E easured by the Multiple -Choice Rorschach Test, " Journal of &:ational Research, 39:652 -657, May, 1946. 26 On the basis of this testing technique, he found that the percentage of maladjustment was 8. 8 for experienced teachers and 2. 0 for prospective teachers. He also found that no significant difference existed between younger and older experienced teachers. A similar research design was used by Boynton in a study of 1022 women teachers. The results of this investigation were as follows: 1. Age apparently can be said to be associated positively, to a slight extent at least, with emotionality or personality adjustment, as measured in this investigation. The two most significant aspects of this association appear to involve the youngest and oldest teachers studied. Very young teachers appear to have more personality or emo- tional problems, whereas the oldest teachers appear to have adjusted their personality problems most adequately. 2. Elementary teachers, as a group, appear to have more distinct problems of adjustment than high school teachers. Peck31 conducted a survey of the mental health of 100 women tea chers using the Thurstone Personality Schedule. Results indi- c38.1:ed that 21 percent of the teachers were classified as maladjusted and 12 percent were in need of psychiatric advice. \ 30Paul Boynton, ”An Analysis of the Responses of Women :Eachers on a Personality Inventory, " Peabody Journal of Educa- Q, 20:13-19, July, 1942. 3 1Robert Peck, "Student Mental Health: The Range of I eI‘sonality Patterns in a College Population, " in Personality ktors on the CollegiCampus by Robert Sutherland, et al. (eds.) Austin, Texas: Hogg Foundation for Mental Health, 1962), p. 161. 27 In 1933, Hicks did a similar study using 600 teachers. Kaplan32 reported that 17 percent of the total group were unusually nervous, and that 11 percent had experienced ”nervous break- downs. " The Bell Adjustment Inventory was used with a group of fifty—one women classroom teachers in various school settings from a one-room rural school to a large city school system. BI‘oxson33 found that 35.2 percent were emotionally maladjusted 1:0 a definite or serious degree, 28. 8 percent were socially mal- adjusted, 49. 0 percent were maladjusted with reference to personal health, and 49. 0 percent were maladjusted with reference to home life and personal relationships. Wall' 834 analysis of fifty women teachers who were hOSpitalized between 1920 and 1935 for psychoses disclosed that, While these women were in the classroom, they were tense, over- active, and unable to relax. Significant, also, was the fact that all of these women were active in the profession when their ill- r1e'sses began. \ 32Kaplan, Mental Health and Human Relations in Education, D - 62. 33Broxson, op. cit., pp. 177-182. 3 4James Wall, ”Psychiatric Disorders in Fifty School Teachers," American Journal of Psychiatry, 96:137-145, July, 1939. 28 The data from two decades of intensive investigation related to teacher maladjustment has led Altman35 to suggest that there were probably close to 4500 teachers in the New York City School System in need of psychiatric care. In conjunction with his view, Altman36 also cited research conducted by Winslow of Yale University. Winslow found that of the 100 teachers studied, 19 percent were well —adjusted, 33 percent were definitely mal- adjusted, and 12 percent were in need of personal psychiatric treatment. Studies related to teacher maladjustment are extremely inadequate and often lack scientific research techniques. In spite of this limitation, however, the evidence does suggest that there is maladjustment among the teaching profession which is serious enough to cause concern and provide the impetus for developing techniques and strategies which can be used to help alleviate this problem. 35Altman, op. cit., pp. 391-401. 36Ibid. 29 Influence of Teacher Behavior on Student Development Miller37 has characterized the school as the most vital public institution in the mental health effort. Hamachek emphasized this point by suggesting that "what happens to a youngster as he goes through school must certainly rank as one of the most important experiences in his life. "38 The importance of this experience and the long -term consequences of its effects are presented by 0' Neal and Robins39 in a thirty -year follow -up study of children who were referred to a child guidance clinic. Results of this study indicated that childhood behavioral problems are related to the future onset of adult psychiatric difficulties. The educational implications of this study suggest that the school should be an agency for the prevention and amelioration of mental and social disorders and for the promotion of positive growth 37Alan Miller, "The Role of the School System in a Mental Health Program, " in Orthopsychiatry and the School by Morris Krugman (New York: American Orthopsychiatric Association, Inc. , 1958), p. 135. 38Don Hamachek, Encounters With the Self (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. , 1971), p. 219. 39Patricia 0' Neal and Lee Robins, "The Relation of Child- hood Behavior Problems to Adult Psychiatric Status: A 30-Year Follow -Up Study of 150 Subjects, " American Journal of Psychiatry, 114:961-969, May, 1958. 30 in mental health. Therefore, to get a more complete perspective related to the significance of the role of education in promoting mental health, pertinent information will be presented. In the past few decades the verbalized role of the teacher has changed from a concept of the teacher as a purveyor of knowledge to a concept of him as a catalyst for learning. As an agent in this learning process, the teacher serves as a guide to assist children in the process of cultivating a competency to more effectively deal with the world as it presently exists or as it may exist in the future. According to Almy, clinical studies have indicated that children' s propensities for learning are‘related to their ways of coping with the emotional conflicts inherent in growing up. Almy related the following view: The crucial test of any school' 8 contribution to mental health lies not so much in the Skills and knowledge it purports to teach as in its effectiveness in helping youngsters to incor- porate these into their day-by-day living. It is a matter of using such skills and knowledge to strengthen and enhance each child' 3 personal resources. Allinsmith and Goethals observed that "one category of health that teachers always affect is the pupil' 3 present and 40Millie Almy, "Mental Health and Intellectual Mastery, " in Integration of Mental Health Concepts With the Human Relations Professions (New York: Bank Street College, 1962), p. 3. 31 future capacity both to understand and to cope with the world. "41 Furthermore, Mulholland proposed that "what the teacher passes on in the way of attitudes, impressions, and values will also be the basis for future adult behavior. ” He also expressed that "teachers point the way for the next generations. "42 Socrates referred to teacher excellence in the following assertion: The best teacher is not one who crams the mind of the students with the greatest number of facts in the shortest possible time, but the one who is able to kindle a fire of spiritual and intel- lectual enthusiasms; who strengthens high moral, spiritual, and cultural aspirations; who develops within the student a knowledge of what he can become. This philosophy is extended by Hinkston43 in his contention that what a student becomes depends to a considerable extent on what his teacher can become. In emphasizing this point, Lindermann 41Wesley Allinsmith and George Goethals, The Role of Schools in Mental Health (New York: Basic Books, Inc. , 1962), p. 139. 42Walter Mulholland, "The Whole Teacher Teaches: Mental Health Invades the Classroom, " Peabody Journal of Education, 45:102, September, 1967. 43Eugene Hinkston, "Teacher Know Thyself, " Social Studies, 59:6, January, 1968. 44Erich Lindermann, "Recent Studies on Preventive Inter- vention in Social and Emotional Crises, " in Recent Research Looking Toward Preventive Intervention by Ralph Ojemann (ed.) (Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1961), p. 32. 32 commented that although information -giving and guidance are important, what a teacher communicates in terms of his own mental health is likewise of serious consequence. Mulholland stated that "good mental health of the teacher is necessary if there is to be good mental health in the classroom. ”45 Armstrong offered the following opinion: The degree to which classroom instruction can be successful is in part contingent upon the mental status of the teacher. Should he be mentally healthy, there is greater likelihood his teaching will be more effective. [However], if unable to deal effectively with his own difficulties, he will undoubtedly fail to see children with problems, rather he will only see problem children. 4 After reviewing a study of teacher -child relationships, Tenenbaum concluded that "the evidence indicates that when a student dislikes school, it is largely because of the teacher. "47 The ramifications of this study are related to teacher maladjustment in the following remark by Delp: "One maladjusted teacher, or even one radical incident in the life of a child, might be all that is necessary to place the child beyond the breaking point. "48 45Mulholland, op. cit., p. 98. 46Armstrong, op. cit., p. 158. 47Samuel Tenenbaum, "Attitudes of Elementary School Children to School, Teachers and Classmates, " Journal of Applied Psychology, 28:134-141, 1944. 48Delp, op. cit., p. 143. 33 Ryans49 has pointed out that teacher behavior has long been a primary interest of teacher education institutions, school systems, and the society at large that depends primarily upon teachers for the propagation of accumulated knowledge and culture values. Therefore, as a matter of significant concern, inquiry has been centered around investigating the possible impact that teacher-pupil interactions have upon the development of children. As one of the pioneer investigators in the area of inter- personal relationships, Barr contended that "the interaction of teachers and pupils in the situation in which teaching takes place is the focal point of teaching and one of the critical factors in teacher effectiveness. "50 In reviewing various aspects of research related to this area, Bovard51 pointed out that the typical classroom situation may either impede or foster the emotional anchorage of the student. The specific impact of the teacher as a direct influence in this situation is related by Bernard in his assertion that "there is 49David Ryans, Characteristics of Teachers: A Research Study (Washington, D. C. : Merican Council on Education, 1969?, p. 16. 50A. S. Barr, et al. , Wisconsin Studies of the Measure- ment and Prediction of Teacher Effectiveness (Madison, Wisconsin: Dembar Publications, Inc., 1961), p. 148. 51Everett Bovard, Jr. , "The Psychology of Classroom Interaction, " Journal of Educational Research, 45:222, November, 1951. 34 abundant evidence to prove that a key person in the life of a youngster 2 can counter balance many negative mental health factors. "5 Since the teacher is a key person in the classroom, the question of whether or not the school can promote mental health lies directly with the teacher. Sarason contended that "the teacher does influence the psychological development of his pupils--this is hardly a question H53 . , 54 for debate. The opinions of other authors such as Bernard, 55 . 56 . . . Ryans, and Seldman, seem to be summarlzed 1n this statement by Hamachek: "No matter how you look at it, the teacher is an important factor in the interpersonal field of forces which influence a student' 3 developing self. "57 Combs58 submitted that people learn who they are and what they are from the kinds of experiences they are provided and the 52Bernard, op. cit., p. 25. 3Seymour Sarason, et al. , Anxiety in Elementary School Children (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , 1960), p. 275. 54Bernard, loc. cit. 55Ryans, op. cit., p. 16. 6Jerome Seidman (ed. ), Readings in Educational Psy- chology (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1965), p. 107. 57Hamachek, Encounters With the Self, p. 195. 58Arthur Combs, "A Perceptual View of the Adequate Personality, " a monograph distributed at the Mott Colloquium, Southwestern High School, Flint, Michigan, March 11, 1971, pp. 3 —4. 35 ways in which they are treated by those who surround them in the process of their growing up. Therefore, whether or not the teacher is aware of his impact, the fact still remains that what a teacher does in class affects the individual' 5 ways of seeing himself. Bower exclaimed that "one cannot readily separate the nature of the child's learning experiences in school from his total growth as a personality. "59 Further implications of this idea lend support to the hypothesis that educational experiences contribute to the potential of either favorable or unfavorable mental health and personality development. After reviewing the data from several studies relating to student maladjustment, Kaplan60 concluded that 25 percent of the Children and youth in American schools and colleges are sufficiently maladjusted to require professional care and therapy. Using these figllr‘es, Roberts reported that there are more than twelve million Seriously disturbed students in our schools. He related these Sta’tistics to the elementary level by suggesting that "a dozen studies Could be cited, covering several hundred schools and tens of thou- Sands of pupils, which show between 10 and 29 percent of elementary \ 59Eli Bower, "Mental Health in Education, " Review of @ational Research, 32:444, December, 1962. 60Kaplan, Mental Health and Human Relations in Education, P- 58. 36 school children seriously maladjusted and another 20 to 40 percent poorly adjusted. "61 Regardless of policy dilemmas and attitudinal conflicts concerning the responsibilities of schools for mental health, McGuire62 has submitted that there is mounting evidence to show that noncognitive dimensions are just as important as purely cog- nitive factors in accounting for educational achievement and other forms of valued behavior. Shaffer and Shoben have proclaimed that "the ideal of the modern teacher is one who teaches students, not subjects. "63 According to Mouly, ”the most important single factor in the mental health picture is the teacher' s ability to generate warm pupil- teacher and pupil-pupil relationships based on under- standing, mutual acceptance, and respect. "64 Rogers65 commented that there is ample evidence to indicate that children learn more 1 6 Roberts, op. cit., p. 381. 62Carson McGuire, "Cultural and Social Factors in Mental Health, " Review of Educational Research, 32:455-463, December, 1962. 63Shaffer and Shoben, op. cit., p. 557. 64‘George Mouly, Psychology for Effective Teaching (Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968), p. 526. 65Dorothy Rogers, op. cit., p. 11. 37 effectively in a mentally healthy atmosphere. More specifically, Mulholland said that "good teaching, with consequent good learning, can take placefl in a psychologically healthy atmosphere. "66 Thus, according to Ojemann, 67 it is the teacher' 3 responsibility to foster in the classroom and in the school environment an emotional climate which will contribute to the building and maintaining of an effective learning atmosphere. Data from a study by Mensh and Mason68 on psychological atmosphere have supported previous studies related to this subject. They concluded that environments in which less frustration occurs tend to provide conditions under which the individual is most likely to utilize his own initiative in developing his capabilities. The Research Office of the Division of Teacher Education in the city of New York undertook a longitudinal study of graduates of teacher education programs in four municipal colleges to determine 66Mulholland, op. cit., p. 102. 67Ralph Ojemann, "The Development of Selected Aspects of the Mental Health Movement in Teacher Education, " in Mental Health and Teacher Education, Forty-Sixth Yearbook of the Asso- ciation for Student Teaching (Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Company, Inc. , 1967), p. 23. 68Ivan Mensh and Evelyn Mason, "Relationship of School Atmosphere to Reactions in Frustrating Situations, " Journal of Educational Research, 45:275-286, December, 1951. 38 the effects of emotional climate. Emotional climate was defined as the amount of hostility observable in a classroom and the OScAR69 technique was used as a means of quantifying this element. The results of the data, as reported by Medley and Mitzel, 70 suggested that pupil -teacher rapport was most closely related to an atmosphere in which external manifestations of warmth and friendliness were common and hostile reactions were rare. Although it is evident that the teacher' 5 overt behavior affects children, the effect of his own mental health on children is much less certain. Much of the information in the research is personal and professional speculation, for the results of empirical investigations are inconclusive and inconsistent. In spite of this limitation, however, the value of exploring and reviewing the research that has been done lies in the development of greater insight and understanding concerning the possible effects of the teacher' 3 personal characteristics on the child' 3 development. 69Donald Medley and Harold Mitzel, "A Technique for Measuring Classroom Behavior, " Journal of Educational Psychology, 49:86 -92, April, 1958. 70Donald Medley and Harold Mitzel, "Some Behavioral Correlates of Teacher Effectiveness, " Journal of Educational Psychology, 50:239-246, December, 1959. 39 "Teacher personality and behavior, " according to Hamachek, "does seem to have a kind of contagion potential in the sense that students can be influenced for better or for worse by a teacher' 5 personal characteristics. "71 Baxter.72 found marked evidence that the behavior of the teacher affects the pupil' s sense of security, freedom from tension, courtesy, resourcefulness, and seeking of social recognition. Corroborating with these findings were those of Anderson and Brewer73 who showed that the viewpoints of teachers affect group atmosphere as well as the personalities of children. Further ramifications of teacher influence were suggested by Sears and Hilgard74 when they discovered that teachers who like pupils tend to have pupils who like each other. 71Hamachek, Encounters With the Self, p. 197. Berniece Baxter, Teacher-Pupil Relationships (New York: Macmillan Company, 1941), pp. 11-93. 73 Herald Anderson and Joseph Brewer, "Studies of Teachers' Classroom Personalities, II, " Applied Psychology Monographs, No. 8, American Psychological Association (Cali- fornia: Stanford University Press, 1946. 74Pauline Sears and Ernest Hilgard, "The Effect of Class- room Conditions on Strength of Achievement Motive and Work Out- put of Elementary School Children, " in Theories of Learning and Instruction by Ernest Hilgard (ed. ), Sixty -Third Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), p. 195. 40 By gathering data from among students in grades four through six, Davidson and Lang75 found that students who perceived their teacher' 5 feelings as being positive likewise had better aca- demic achievement. Reed76 also studied the relationship of teacher' 3 personal characteristics to the student' 3 academic work and found that teachers who had a high capacity for warmth favorably affect their pupils' interests in science. Cogan77 found that the friendly teachers were able to get more self-initiated and required work from their pupils as compared to those who weren' t as friendly. Illustrative of the inevitable enmeshment of teaching and thinking is a six-year study by Sarason78 and others. This study revealed that there were many children with good intellectual potential who were unable to function adequately in school. It appeared that the techniques used by their teachers mobilized rather than allayed the children' s anxieties. 75Helen Davidson and Gerhard Lang, ”Children' s Percep- tions of Their Teachers' Feelings Toward Them Related to Self - Perception, School Achievement and Behavior, " Journal of Experi- mental Education, 29:107 —118, December, 1960. 76Horace Reed, "Implications for Science Education of a Teacher Competence Research, " Science Education, 46:473-486, December, 1962. 7Morris Cogan, "The Behavior of Teachers and the Pro- ductive Behaviors of Their Pupils, " Journal of Experimental Edu- cation, 27z89-124, December, 1958. 8 Sarason, et al. ,-_ op. cit., p. 276. 41 The principal objective of a study by Spaulding79 was to identify the significant components in the classroom behavior of teachers as they interact with their pupils. Results of this study suggested that the self-concepts of elementary school children were apt to be higher and more positive in classrooms in which the teacher was "socially integrative" and "learner supportive. " Major conclusions from a study by Flanders which was related to interaction styles were as follows: 1. The "teacher-centered" behavior characterized as directive, demanding, and deprecating elicited student behaviors of hostility toward self or the teacher, with- drawal, apathy, aggressiveness, and even emotional disintegration. 2. The ”learner -centered" behavior of accepting the student, being evaluative or critical only by public criteria and being usually supportive, elicited problem -orientation, decreased personal anxiety, and led to emotionally healthy and integrative behavior. 80 In discussing factors related to attendance problems, Altrneyer81 related that the teacher and the classroom environment 79Robert Spaulding, "Achievement, Creativity, and Self- Concept Correlates of Teacher -Pupil Transactions in Elementary School Classrooms, " in United States Office of Education Coopera- tive Research Project, Number 1352 (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois, 1963), p. 117. 80Ned Flanders, "Personal -Social Anxiety as a Factor in Experimental Learning Situations, " Journal of Educational Research, 45:100-110, October, 1951. 81John Altmeyer, "The School Social Worker and Problems of School Attendance, " Social Work, 2:65-69, October, 1957. 42 have a great influence on the truancy of a child. According to Altmeyer, some classroom situations were filled with anxiety to such a point that the student found need to remove himself from its pressure by truancy. Lichter82 did a systematic, clinical analysis of a group of 105 intellectually capable high school students who were potential school drop -outs. Reports from the schools were examined for evidence of malfunction in the areas of academic achievement, attendance, and classroom behavior. Analyses of this study indi- cated that boys had histories of malfunctioning originating in grade school, whereas girls seemed to develop more acute problems in the adolescence period. It was found that 80 percent of the girls had problems in school attendance, 76 percent were underfunction- ing academically, and 38 percent had classroom behavior problems. Academic achievement was a problem for 74 percent of the boys, whereas 53 percent had attendance problems, and 34 percent had behavior problems. The significance of opinions and studies such as these can be seen in the impact that teacher behavior has on factors such as personality development, academic achievement, school attendance, 82Solomon Lichter, et al., The Drop -Outs (New York: Macmillan Company, 1962), p. 251. 43 and behavior problems. The data suggest implications, not only for immediate consideration, but for future development of techniques whereby teachers can be aided in becoming more effective educators. Mental Health and the Implications for Teacher Preparation If the teacher is to assist the child in realizing his funda- mental needs in socially acceptable ways, it seems imperative that an attempt be made to acquire a basic understanding of concepts inherent in good mental health. Bernard83 has contended that mental health is not a mystery. On the contrary, it is the result of scientific and empirical knowledge applied to the inevitable problems of daily living. Clinicians and mental hygienists have consistently demon- strated the importance of self-understanding and self-acceptance for emotional maturity and good mental health. Therefore, the teacher who hopes to help others grow in self-understanding should seek to gain insight into tendencies within himself that influence his attitudes and relationships with students. The National Institute of Mental Health has advised that ”the more that you as a teacher understand of yourself and your motives, and the causes of your own 83Bernard, op. cit., p. 19. 44 emotional responses, the better equipped you will be to help your pupils. "84 Hatfield85 commented on the idea that it is important for educators to become interested in developing positive teacher attitudes as a factor in the growth of a healthy personality. Shaffer and Shoben86 concluded that attitudes are as important in teacher education as are scholarship and skill. Even more explicit was a statement in the Times Educational Supplement which pointed out that "right attitudes are more important than right techniques. . . . 87 The interrelationship of attitudes and the personality was illustrated by Rocchio and Kearney in the following remark: Both educators and administrators should be cognizant of the fact that desirable teacher-pupil attitudes may not be effectuated by lectures or a course, but rather that these attitudes ma be basic and deeply rooted in the personality of the teacher. 8 84The Teacher and Mental Health, National Institute of Mental Health, Public Health Service Publication Number 385 (Washington, D. C. : Government Printing Office, 1954). 85Agnes Hatfield, "An Experimental Study of the Self - Concept of Student Teachers, " Journal of Educational Research, 55:87 -89, October, 1961. 86Shaffer and Shoben, loc. cit. 87"Teacher' 8 Need to Alter Their Attitudes, " Times Educational Supplement, 2873:3, June, 1970. 8Patrick Rocchio and Noland Kearney, "Does a Course in Mental Hygiene Help Teachers?" Understanding the Child, 25:94, June, 1956. 45 According to Hatfield89 there is a growing concensus among the authorities in the field that personality organization is one of the most important elements in determining the behavior of the teacher in the classroom. In an effort to study this element, the University of Texas, through a grant from the National Institute of Mental Health, began an extensive program in which psychological factors would be studied. Specifically, the study sought to determine the relationships among selected personality characteristics and con- structive teaching behavior. Significant correlations were found between constructive teaching behavior and ratings from a standard- ized psychological instrument called A Self -R eport Inventory by Brown. "It may be inferred from these findings, " related Martin, "that students who are well -adjusted, effectively functioning persons are likely to work in positive ways with children. "90 J ames91 drew the conclusion that to know psychology was absolutely no guarantee that one will be a good teacher. However, to ignore the possibility of the positive effects that exposure and 89Hatfield, op. cit. , p. 87. 90Clyde Martin, "The Emotional, Social and Psychological Make -Up of the Teacher and Its Relationship to Teaching, " Child- hood Education, 44:236, December, 1967. 91William James, Talks to Teachers on Psychology (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1958), p. 24. 46 instruction in mental health concepts may have on the teacher is to limit the potential, and consequently the benefits. It has been emphasized by Farnsworth that "in our schools and, colleges, mental health education is inseparable from good education. " He goes on to say that "knowledge of mental health principles should be considered fundamental in the training of all teachers. "92 Ryan has endorsed the general principle that "the childhood period offers the best opportunity for constructive mental hygiene efforts. "93 An educational implication of this principle was offered by Otto94 in his exclamation that the field of mental health in educa- tion allows manifold opportunities for developing preventive programs at a comparative minimum level of cost while reaching a maximum of the growing population. Melby has expressed concern for incorporating interpersonal development concepts into teacher preparation programs. He stated that: V 92Dana Farnsworth, "Mental Health Implications for Teachers, " in Mental Health and Achievement by Paul Torrance and Robert Strom (eds.) (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , 1965), p. 194. 93W. Carson Ryan, Mental Health Throggh Education (New York: The Commonwealth Fund, 1938), p. 6. 94Herbert Otto, "Developing a Mental Health Program in a Teacher -Training Institution, " Mental Hygiene, 44:188-196, April, 1960. 47 Unless we in teacher education come to grips with what the teacher is and set about producing the environment in which the teacher can grow as a person--and in all his uniqueness-- little else that we do will have substantial effect. The growth of the teacher as an individual human being is the central prob- lem of teacher education. . . . In addition, even though this is our central problem, it gets little attention in teacher educa- tion. Goodlad presented support for this view when he made this observation: In schools run by humans, we have not succeeded in developing intensely humanistic learning environments--not in process, not in content, and not in perspective. The schools do not, in general, foster man' s most creative traits, nor grapple with his great ideas, nor relate his ideas and talents to the con- temporary environment where man' s dramas are continually re -enacted. Melby and Goodlad were very explicit in their feelings concerning the lack of humanistic learning environments in teacher education. Furthermore, Bernard demonstrated the significance of this deficit by relating that "the essential prerequisite for the maintenance of our nation' s emotional and mental maturity is a 9 body of properly trained and personally adequate teachers. " 7 95Sam Wiggins, "Teachers Colleges: Evolution or Devolution, " in Criticism, Conflict, and Chang by Emanual Hurwitz and Robert Maidment (eds.) (New York: Dodd, Mead, and Company, 1970), p. 469. 96John Goodlad, "The Schools vs. Education, " Saturday Review, 52:61, April 19, 1969. 97Bernard, op. cit. , p. 139. 48 This philosophy has been supported by the Mental Health Committee of the United States Office of Education in this statement, as related by Abramovitz and Burnham: The theory that teachers tend to teach as they are taught applies with equal force to mental health. Unless teachers are prepared to teach and practice under conditions favorable to mental health, they are not likely to understand what it means to children to work in a favorable emotional climate. Indirectly, therefore, the road to mental health for children is mental health for teachers. Mason99 suggested that it is more valuable to direct effort toward helping teachers form wise mental habits themselves in order that they, in turn, may be effective guides for the young children in their care. Further implications of this view have been pointed out by Rogers100 in her contention that a major avenue for helping children is to assist their teacher. Broxson briefly sum- marized the significance of these views when he stated that "as long as we have problem teachers and problem parents, we shall have problem children. "101 98Abraham B. Abramovitz and Elaine Burnham, "Exploring Potentials for Mental Health in the Classroom, " Mental Hygiene, 43:253, April, 1959. 99Mason, op. cit., p. 599. 100 . Dorothy Rogers, op. c1t., p. 383. 1Broxson, op. cit., p. 182. 49 There seems to be a general consensus among educators that mental health in teacher preparation programs is significant. Combs illustrated this view through the following remark: Teacher educators must concern themselves with creating an atmosphere in the college and within its classrooms and activities which encourages and facilitates the student' s dis- covery of himself as a more adequate person and teacher; providing experiences designed to help students see themselves as adequate effective people; and assisting actively the student's personal search for meant? and the discovery of himself as a person and as a teacher. 10 Farnsworth related the use of previous research to teacher preparation by saying: It is now high time for leaders in education and the other helping professions to find ways and means of using to better effect the vast array of knowledge derived from research in the behavioral sciences. 103 Bidder concluded that: How well education, in its practice, can take into account the stream of effective life that is concurrent in the intellectual processes will depend upon advances in theoretical analysis and upon the restructuring of teacher education programs. From progress along these lines should eventuate an integrated and workable theory of education and mental health. 104 102Combs, op. cit., p. 77. 103Farnsworth, op. cit., p. 193. 104Barbara Bidder, "An Adaptation of the Teaching Role to New Purposes and Knowledge, " in Integration of Mental Health Concepts with the Human Relations Professions (New York: Bank Street College, 1962), p. 24. 50 Margolin briefly summarized the previous viewpoints in the following remark: There is no doubt that we must expand our work in mental health in the teacher training institutions, in the schools of education, and in in-service training courses. Several attempts have been made in an effort to determine and develop the most effective methods and utilization of time and energy in offering experiences which will better prepare teachers in the area of mental health understandings. Underlying each of these attempts, however, seems to be this view as related by Townsend: Small advance will be made in the mental hygiene program of public education until the teacher--the primary contact person--shall become aware of the significance of education as applied mental hygiene and shall himself, or herself, be a living example of good mental health. The American Association of Colleges for Teacher Educa - tion submitted the following thoughts related to the necessity for developing techniques and methods effective in coping with all aspects of mental health in education: 10E’Reuben Margolin, "New Perspectives for Teachers-- An Evaluation of a Mental Health Institute, " Mental Hygiene, 37: 407, July, 1953. 06Townsend, op. cit., p. 603. 51 The prospective teacher! 3 attitudes and feelings are too important to leave the shaping of them to the accidents of human association. . . . A definite plan for identifying personality problems and attitudes should be developed in every program of teacher education. 107 In connection with this idea, Farnsworth related this point Of View: If the basic problems of promoting and maintaining mental health are considered relevant to the educational process, some methods should be devised whereby all teachers may become aware of their nature. 109 . . . Morse has concluded that present tralnlng deSIgns in mental health are inadequate in giving teachers diagnostic and management skills. This conclusion was reached as a result of a study for the Michigan Society for Mental Health. Through the use of surveys, questionnaires, and personal interviews, Morse found that most teachers felt that the traditional college courses did not meet their needs. Abramovitz and Burnham, in quoting from proceedings from a conference on Human Relations and Human. Development at the University of Michigan, made the following statement: 107B. Othanel Smith, Teachers for the Real World (Wash- ington, D. C. : American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1969), p. 92. OBFarnsworth, op. cit. , p. 187. 109William Morse, "The Mental Hygiene Dilemma in Public Education, " American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 31: 324-331, April, 1961. 52 Although there is a priority, of need for teachers to understand the social and emotional aspects of child development, it is clear that understanding on a conceptual -verbal level is insuf- ficient. The inadequacy of frequently used methods is expressed by Hinkston in this statement: We want our young people to be emotionally secure, socially . responsible, and self-activating, but the subject-centered, lecture monologue is not promoting these goals. 1 A more integrative type of approach was proposed by 1 2 Otto 1 in his suggestion that mental health understandings need to be incorporated throughout the program rather than developed as a separate course. The results of a study by Rocchio and Noland pointed out that a single course in mental hygiene "does not neces - sarily increase a teacher' 3 ability to affect interpersonal relation- ships in the classroom. "113 The teacher education program at Bank Street College in New York has been the focus of intensive research and reconstruc- tion. Bidder explained the general objective of the program in the following quotation: 110Abramovitz and Burnham, op. cit., p. 258. 111Hinkston, op. cit., p. 5. 112Otto, loc. cit. 113 Rocchio and Noland, op. cit. , p. 93. 53 Our goal at Bank Street is to create a program of teacher education in which-we can apply the principle of cognitive- affective reinforcement on the teacher education level; to provide for each student a meaningful subjective experience of what a dynamic learning experience can be, and thus offer her a model of learning as a live experience which is not only understood, but felt. 114 Furthermore, as the result of a six-year study on anxiety in 1 children of elementary school age, Sarason 15 and others concur with the idea that to accomplish the objectives of positive mental health would require the introduction of a clinical approach in the training of teachers. The in-service training approach has been explored by the Massachusetts Association of Mental Health116 in cooperation with local educators. Annual mental health institutes have been conducted as a means of discovering ways by which democratic interaction will have a greater effect on the development of well -adjusted personalities. Otto reported the major significance of a survey taken after the completion of a teacher education project which used in -service education sessions as a means of developing mental health concepts. The following outcomes of the project were noted: 114Bidder, op. cit., p. 26. 15Sarason, et al., op. cit., p. 276. 116Margolin, op. cit., p. 394. 54 1. Teachers reported more self-confidence, a better understanding, and greater sensitivity to needs related to mental health. 2. Teachers noted a gain in self-understanding and aware- ness of the importance of their own mental health. 117 Kaplan conducted a study in which he found that teachers were being disturbed by child behavior patterns which are normal for children, but unpleasant for adults. The general implications h... of this study may be summarized in this statement: The elementary school teacher of today is attempting to implement a modern program of education with only a hazy understanding of the principles upon which this education is based. To improve their mental health, teachers need a broader background in the psychological sociological, and philosophical bases of education; they need to understand, accept and tolerate the normal behavior patterns of chil- dren. . . . 118 The educators involved in teacher education programs have the prime responsibility for organizing the subject matter and establishing the instructional techniques to be used in training teachers in mental health concepts. Another aspect of improving the teaching profession, however, is to consider selection of teacher candidates. In connection with this view, Delp119 has 117Otto, op. cit., p. 190. 118Kaplan, "The Annoyances of Elementary School Teachers, " pp. 649-665. 119Delp, op. cit., p. 147. 55 recommended that devices and techniques should be developed which would have a high predictive value in screening good candidates related to teaching success. Hatfield120 has suggested that selective recruitment is perhaps the single most important problem in teacher education today. Likewise, Rogerslz1 has contended that no matter what improvements are made in the professional aspects of teaching, the poorly adjusted student will hardly become a first-rate teacher. According to Ryan122 there has been little effort to select teacher training. candidates who are good prospects from the point of view of mental health.“ On the other hand, Shaffer and Shobenlz3 have suggested that at least as much care must be taken to choose sound personalities as to choose good intellects. Although the task of teacher training has many facets, Townsend has advised that the first and most obvious purpose is to: . insure, through a wise and carefully administrated policy of selection and advisement, that only those shall he graduated and presented for certification who are competent--as persons-- to undertake the highly personal service of teaching. 124 120 Hatfield, op. cit., p. 87. 121 . Dorothy Rogers, op. at, p. 400. 122Ryan, op. cit., p. 86. 123 Shaffer and Shoben, op. cit., p. 565. 24Townsend, op. cit., p. 601. 56 One can readily recognize that the opinions and research data related to mental health in teacher preparation programs differ widely in regard to the emphasis, organization, and methodology which is most appropriate and most effective. In spite of this diversity, however, there seems to be a consistent consensus con- cerning the idea that concepts inherent in good mental health should be incorporated into teacher preparation programs. The urgency and yet the inadequacy of the conceptual and innerpersonal training within the affective domain, therefore, is cause for concern and action on the part of educators who have the prime responsibility for constructing and developing teacher preparation programs. Relationship of Life Chanége Events to Health and Behavior According to Lief, 125 much research related to life change was generated through the interest of Adolph Meyer in psychobiology. Psychobiology is that branch of biology which explores the relation- ship or interactions between the body and mind. Meyer' s invention of the "life chart, " a device for organizing medical data as a dynamic biography, provided a unique method for demonstrating the 125A1fred Lief (ed. ), The Commonsense Psychiatry Of Dr. Adolf Meyer (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1948), p. 17. 57 relationship of biological, psychological, and sociological phenomena to the processes of health. Since then, through the efforts of Wolff126 and his asso- ciates, the concepts of Pavlov, Freud, Cannon, and Skinner have been incorporated into Meyer' 5 scheme. Research resulting from this synthesis adduced powerful evidence that "stressful" life events, by evoking psychophysiologic reactions, played an important causative role in the natural history of many diseases. Beginning in 1949, at the University of Washington School of Medicine, Holmes127 and his associates adapted the life chart for research related to the quantity and quality of life events empirically observed to cluster at the time of illness and disease onset. The two categories of items used in the life chart were: (1) those indicative of the life style of the individual, and (2) those indicative of occurrences of life events involving the individual. Each of these events pertain to major areas of dynamic significance in the social structure of the American society. These include 126Harold Wolff, Stewart Wolf, and Clarence Hare (eds. ). Life Stress and Bodily Disease, Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Diseases, Volume 29 (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1950). pp. 1089-1094. 127 Thomas H. Holmes and Minoru Masuda, "Life Change and Illness Susceptibility, " presented as part of a "Symposium on Separation and Depression: Clinical and Research Aspects" at the Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Chicago, Illinois, December 26-30, 1970. 58 family constellation, marriage, occupation, economics, residency, group and peer relationships, education, religion, and health. Although the life events contained in the research project carried different values and various connotations, it was noted that a basic underlying theme was common to all of the events. This theme, according to the researchers, suggested that the occurrence of each event usually evoked or was associated with some adaptive or coping behavior on the part of the individual involved. The emphasis was on change from the existing state rather than on the psychological meaning or social desirability of the event. Due to the design of the research, data from these studies had yielded only the number and types of life events requiring change and adjustment. Therefore, in order to provide for a more functional dimension, Holmes and Rahe128 adapted a method whereby a magnitude value could be assigned to each of these events. The method they used was derived from psychophysics which has been defined as the study of the psychological perceptions of the quality, quantity, magnitude, and intensity of physical phenomena. Research related to the estimation of the magnitude of life change events was initiated through the development of the Social 128Thomas H. Holmes and Richard H. Babe. "The Social Readjustment Rating Scale, " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11:213-218, August, 1967. 59 Readjustment Rating Questionnaire. An American sample consisting of 394 subjects responded to the questionnaire by rating the magni- tude of forty -three life events as compared to a given score of a modular item. The data collected from the Social Readjustment Rating__Questionnaire resulted in the formulation of the Social Readjustment Ratifing Scale (see Appendix D) which signifies the mean amount of psychosocial readjustment required for the life events which are recorded in the Schedule of Recent Experience (see Append-ix C). Ruch129 and Pasley130 replicated the previous scaling method using two American samples of different age classifications. Ruch compared a college population to the original sample and found a high-correlation between the two groups in estimating the relative magnitude of life change events. Pasley reported results using the youngest sample yet studied. Intercorrelations between seventh grade students and ninth and eleventh grade students, college fresh- men, and the original sample of adults indicated that a remarkable 129Libby Ruch and Thomas H. Holmes, "Scaling of Life Change: Comparison of Direct and Indirect Methods, " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 15:221-227, June, 1971. 1305, Pasley, The Social Readjustment Rating Scale: A Study of the Significance of Life Events in Age Groups Ranging from College Freshmen to Seventh Grade, as part of Tutorial in Psy- chology. Chatham College, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1969. 60 consensus about the magnitude of life change events was well established by the beginning of adolescence. In the development of the Social Readjustment Rating S9313, the high correlations between minority groups and the white population suggested the desirability of extending the investigation further into the cross-cultural area. In a study comparing a Japanese and American sample, Masuda and Holmes presented the following results: There was a high concordance between the Japanese and the American samples in the manner in which they establish a relative order of magnitude of life events. This remarkable consensus about common life events was obtained in spite of the obvious cultural differences. The high concordance between cultures as diverse as the American and the Japanese suggested that cross-cultural studies between Europeans and Americans would demonstrate an even greater consensus. In an effort to investigate this hypothesis, Harmon, Masuda, and Holmes conducted a study which revealed the following conclusions: This investigation establishes a high concordance between French, Belgian, and Swiss samples on the Social Readjust- ment Rating Scale and a striking concordance between the 131Minoru Masuda and Thomas H. Holmes, "The Social Readjustment Rating Scale: A Cross-Cultural Study of Japanese and Americans, " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11:227 -237, August, 1967. 61 combined European sample and the corresponding American sample. The data derived from research involving the relationship of life change events to health and behavior produced evidence that "stressful" events, by evoking psychophysiologic reactions, played an important causative role in the natural history of many illnesses. Likewise, the occurrences of these life change events usually evoked or were associated with some coping or adaptive behavior on the part of the individual involved. There is an indication in the literature which suggests that the health and behavior of the teacher has a contagion potential in the sense that the student can be influenced by the characteristics inher- ent in the teacher' 3 personal being. Therefore, the significance of applying the knowledge gained from this type of research to the realm of teacher education can be seen in the relationship that exists between teacher health and behavior and student development. Summa ry The term ”future shock" has been coined to characterize the shattering stress and disorientation that is induced in individuals 13zDavid Harmon, Minoru Masuda, and Thomas H. Holmes. "The Social Readjustment Rating Scale: A Cross-Cultural Study of Western Europeans and Americans, " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 14:391-400, December, 1970. 62 by subjecting them to excessive changes in short periods of time. This pace of life is frequently discussed, yet it has received little attention from either psychologists or sociologists. The lack of research in this area is a gaping inadequacy in the behavioral sciences for the pace of life profoundly influences behavior, evokes stress, and creates strong and contrasting reactions from different people. The elementary school years have been cited by some researchers as the most crucial years in a child' 3 life. During this stage, the child' 3 development is formative, impressionable, and easily molded. Therefore, the relevance of exploring the reciprocal relationship between the teacher behavior associated with life change events and the educational process lies in the impact that the school experience has on the individual involved. According to social -interaction theory, people develop perceptions of who they are and what they are from the ways in which they are treated by those who surround them in the process of their growing up. Since some research indicates that the teacher is a significant person in the life of a child, it seems likely that the teacher will exert a great influence on the child' 3 growth and development. 63 Although research conclusions vary, the evidence indicates that approximately 25 percent of the children and youth in American schools and colleges are sufficiently maladjusted to require profes - sional care and therapy. Since one cannot readily separate the nature of the child' 5 learning experiences in school from his total growth as a personality, it is significant that the educational experience seek to be a positive and constructive influence in the life of every student. Some studies suggest that the chances are seven to one that a child will be under the influence of at least two unstable, neurotic or psychotic teachers during the course of his twelve years in school. Statistically, teachers seem to be no more maladjusted than other adults. However, the significance of maladjustment among teachers lies in the fact that in no other single profession or occupation is a mentally unbalanced person in the position to do as much damage to the lives of others. Research directly related to this study is meager. There- fore, the review of the literature has focused upon the possible effects that the mental and emotional health and behavior of the teacher may have upon students within the school setting. Hopefully, this background information will establish the need and urgency for the development of innovations and reorganization of programs in 64 teacher education to include learning related to the concepts of stress and change. This, in turn, should provide a means whereby the teacher can cope more effectively with the impact of stress caused by the magnitude of life change associated with the ever accelerating pace of life. CHAPTER III PRESENTATION OF THE DESIGN AND PROCEDURES Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to describe the research design, the instrumentation, and the procedures used to conduct this study. This chapter includes identification and description of the sample, statements of the hypotheses, discussion of the instruments, and a delineation of the data methodology. Population The population used in this study consisted of those students who were enrolled in the Elementary Intern Program at Michigan State University. The intern teachers teaching in the specialized areas of the emotionally disturbed and the blind and deaf were excluded from the population of interest because the explicit nature of their role allowed for possible discrepancy in the conditions under which the data for teacher behavior were collected. 65 66 The intern teachers were selected for this study because the role of the intern teacher most nearly resembled the role of the regular elementary classroom teacher. Also, due to the design of the Elementary Intern Program, an intern consultant has close contact with the intern teacher throughout the school year, thus allowing for a more accuratecollection of the desired data. Sample The sample used in this study consisted of forty -one (N = 41) elementary intern teachers from Michigan State University who were teaching in the kindergarten through sixth grades and the specialized area of the mentally retarded in the Greater Lansing Area Schools during the school year 1971-1972. The intern teachers of the Lansing Elementary Intern Center were selected for this study because of the willingness of the staff and students to cooperate by disclosing the necessary information. Also, this sample was selected because of the proximity of the various school locations and the close affiliation of the intern consultants. These factors provided for a closer communication and a greater assistance in compling the data. The following tables provide a quantitative description of demographic data related to the intern teachers in the research sample . 67 Table 3. 1. --Distribution of the Ages of the Interns Within the Sample Years Less than 21 21-30 31-45 Number of Intern Teachers 3 34 4 Table 3. 2. --Distribution of the Sex and Marital Status of the Interns Within the Sample Single Married Divorced Male 0 1 0 Female 2 0 2 0 0 Table 3. 3. --Distribution of the Race Classification of the Interns Within the Sample Caucasian Negro Oriental Number of Intern Teachers 38 Table 3. 4. --Distribution of the Birth Order Position of the Interns Within the Sample Around Only Oldest Youngest Middle Child Number of Intern Teachers 15 11 15 0 68 Hypotheses In an effort to determine whether the magnitude of life change is correlated with selected teacher behavior of the elementary intern teacher, six major research hypotheses were developed. These hypotheses were: 1. Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more days of absenteeism than intern teachers who score lower. Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more units of absenteeism than intern teachers who score lower. Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more days of student absentee- ism than intern teachers who score lower. Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more units of student absentee- ism than intern teachers who score lower. Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more consultant-intern contact than intern teachers who score lower. 69 6. Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more student referrals than intern teachers who score lower. Instrumentation The primary instrument used for this study was the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) and was developed by Thomas H. Holmes, M. D. , and Richard H. Rahe, M. D. 1 This questionnaire consisted of two sections: a personal history section, eliciting demographic data; and a recent experience section, eliciting occurrence of life change events. The recent experience section consisted of two categories of items: Part A consisted of items which were indicative of the life style of the individual, and Part B consisted of items which were indicative of life incidents involving the individual. The forty-two life event items recorded in the Schedule of Recent Experience were derived from persons through empirical clinical observations and usually evoke or require some adaptive or coping behavior on the part of the individual involved. Thus, 1Thomas H. Holmes and Minoru Masuda, "Life Change and Illness Susceptibility, " presented as part of a "Symposium on Separation and Depression: Clinical and Research Aspects" at the Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Chicago, Illinois, December 26-30, 1970. 70 each item denoted a significant change in the ongoing life pattern of the individual. The Social Readjustment Rating Scale was developed by Thomas H. Holmes, M. D. , and Richard H. Rahe, M.D. , 2 in an effort to measure the magnitude of the forty -two life events con- tained in the Schedule of Recent Experience. The method for scaling the life events was derived from psychophysics, the division of psychology which addresses itself to man' s ability to make sub- jective magnitude estimations about certain of his experiences. The consensus concerning the relative order and magnitude of the means of the items was demonstrated by the high coefficients of correlation obtained when various statistical analyses were applied to the data collected from the individual research subjects in the original sample. (See Appendix E.) Procedures The Schedule of Recent Experience was used to obtain data related to the life change events of the intern teachers for the immediate preceding three -year period. This instrument was administered during the first two weeks of October, 1971, to the 2Thomas H. Holmes and Richard H. Rahe, "The Social Readjustment Rating Scale, " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11:213-218, August, 1967. 71 elementary interns of the Lansing Elementary Intern Center through the cooperation of Dr. Glen Cooper, University Coordinator, the intern consultants, and the intern teachers. In an effort to obtain accurate data and to assure the intern teacher that personal information would remain anonymous and con- fidential, the intern consultants were asked to assign a random number to each of the intern teachers. This number was used by the intern teachers to report information for the Schedule of Recent Experience. The random numbers were also used to report the data for teacher behavior. However, after all the data had been recorded, the random numbers were changed to consecutive numbers that corresponded to the sample size. Therefore, data for the intern teachers are reported interms of intern numbers rather than by means of random numbers. It should be noted that the information obtained from the Schedule of Recent Experience was not disclosed to the intern con- sultants due to the possibility of contaminating the teacher behavior data. Likewise, the names of the intern teachers were withheld from the researcher in order to preserve anonymity. The Social Readjustment Rating Scale was used to assign a magnitude value to each item of information obtained from the Schedule of Recent Experience. The value of each item then was 72 combined to produce a total score (SRE score) for each intern teacher. In November of 1971, a letter of transmittal (see Appen- dix F) was sent to each of the intern teachers informing them that a study was being conducted which would require that the intern con- sultants serve as resource personnel for the observation of various dimensions of teaching characteristics, techniques, and styles. The specific format of the study, however, was not revealed since it was felt that the detailed information might alter the behavior which was to be observed. Throughout the first ten weeks of January, February, and March of 1972, research data were collected for teacher behavior as exemplified through intern absenteeism, student absenteeism, consultant~intern contact, and student referrals. Absenteeism data were obtained from school records and reported by the intern consultants, while consultant- intern contact and student referrals data were obtained from the personal records of the intern con- sultants. The demographic data, teacher behavior data, and Schedule of Recent Experience score for each of the intern teachers were coded and transferred to program cards by means of the IBM 29 Printing Card Punch. These program cards then were processed by the Michigan State University CDC 3600 Computer. 73 Methods of Analyses 3 The Pearson product-moment formula was used as a means of calculating the correlation coefficients for each pair of variables. The formula used for these calculations was‘as follows: Nzxv 4): X) (Z Y) r: “\[INZX2 421021 [NEY2 -(ZY)2] The "t" test4 was used as a means of testing the significance of the correlation from the zero level. The formula used for this test was as follows: The . 05 alpha level was selected as the criterion of sig- nificance for each of the statistical analyses. 3William Hayes, Statistics (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1963). p. 506. 41bid., p. 529. 74 Summary The Elementary Intern Teachers in the Greater Lansing Area Schools, teaching during the school year 1971-1972, con- stituted the sample for this study. Data depicting the magnitude of life change were obtained from the Schedule of Recent Experience, while data representing intern absenteeism, student absenteeism, consultant- intern contact, and student referrals were obtained from school records and intern consultant records. The Pearson product-moment formula was used to calcu- late the correlation coefficient for the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the teacher behavior data as exemplified by intern absenteeism, student absenteeism, consultant-intern contact, and student referrals. The "t" test was used as a means of measuring the significance of the correlation coefficients from the . 05 level. The data from these statistical analyses were used to test each of the six research hypotheses. CHAPTER IV ANALYSES OF THE DATA Introduction This research project was designed to explore the relationship between the personal life experiences and the observ- able behavior of the elementary classroom teacher. The specific focus of this study was to assess the correlation between the magnitude of life change and selected classroom behavior of the elementary intern teacher. Data Related to the Magnitude of Life Change The Schedule of Recent Experience was used to secure data related to the life change events of the intern teachers for the immediate preceding three -year period. The data in Table 4. 1 depict the frequency of occurrences of the forty -two life events as recorded from the Schedule of Recent Experience. It should be noted that the life change events occurring most frequently were those that are commonly associated with college training. 75 76 S omsoam 5MB monogamous mo song: 5 ow:an mm ma , mmmwunwz cm 2 mass? 5 so“? @3595. pm 3 Eco? pm cough mm 3 33 on“ mo 96330? .852 we 2 moon 8:3 30.595. mm m mosmswmim mm m zoo? deem no Ewen. was? ow v :ofifldosooon Hmfinflz mm v ocogmshcmoc mmofimsm. as m coo .Ss sooo omamtoz S m mac: wager: amanmsmc so now an m mooofim S H psmfioofiom mm H Sumo. 3mm be c smofi no ommwfuofi Ho cosmoHoouom mm o nofimamaom H3334 mm o omsoam mo goon me a re... mosowooaxm «sooom mo masconom o5 Room pocooomm mm COCOA chWioonSB a so.“ masokm mad mo coconong mo mocosowomiufi .w 3an 77 mm; :3 ma mofi mm vm mm Hm om mm Hm S 5.4 we. mm :5. ow. ow mm mm pm on mm m: mosoEmou E omswnu sofiwom> msEEcsoo no mason soc? E omcwso Eofiofizsow finsomnoa chsflmEO Ego? mo oEH “count? 9. Owsmnu mEEEpom HEoom E omsmsu 33m REESE.“ E Owsmsu msEEpcoo mEEH E 09830 $5888 EEEE mo Eamon E owswsu suck on mEEflEmsoamoa E OmEEU mth: manon. E ownmsu mines Hmsompma mo sEmEOm mfinwn mEomo E mmsmnu mHoonom E owsmsu mnofiomoofloow EEEE mo .8385: E Omega Hoonom one so Emmm mmoEfi so 133?: stomoom cofimonoon E ownmnu coo .on swfi mom: smoH no owmyuoz mEEEuom 39:50 E Owcmsu nonEoE DEER“ Boa mo EmU mEfisEmmc Mom nonEoE EEEE omoHo m we Emma can?“ omoHo w mo Econ may we mm mm mm mm mm mm mv rm. mm Hm om mm mm pm 3... mm mm mm we mm. :4 mw 78 The Social Readjustment Rating Scale was used to apply a magnitude value to each of the life change events. The magnitude value of each item was then combined to produce a total score (SRE score) for each intern teacher. The data in Table 4. 2 show the SRE scores in rank order from the lowest to the highest. A graphic representation for the frequency distribution of the SRE scores is shown in Figure 4. 1. It should be noted that the scores basically follow a normal bell -shaped curve with the exception of one score. This score is the highest score and represents an extreme variation from the normal distribution. The data in Table 4. 3 Show the interval classification and the frequency distribution of the SRE scores as represented in Figure 4. 1. Due to the fact that there was one score that repre- sented an extreme discrepancy from the frequency distribution of the other scores in the sample, it was felt that the extreme score might have a skewed effect on the correlations. Therefore, in an effort to exhibit a more accurate portrayal of the research informa- tion, the data will be presented and analyzed in terms of two separate groupings. Group A will represent the group including the data of the intern with the extreme score, and Group B will represent the group excluding the data of the intern with the extreme score . 79 Table 4. 2. --Schedule of Recent Experience Scores in Rank Order as Derived from Application of the Social Readjust- ment Rating Scale Intern Total Score for Intern Total Score for Number Three :Year Number Three :Year Period Perlod 35 292 23 848 38 333 20 852 30 434 22 ‘ 882 3 481 1 889 24 493 13 946 35 504 32 954 9 578 37 974 10 578 34 1038 6 594 8 1050 4 507 5 .1052 23 613 27 1079 21 544 33 1103 14 656 39 1183 2 673 41 1187 29 730 12 . 1207 40 734 36 1258 15 771 31 1516 13 73° 11 1705 26 789 19 1998 7 825 16 5233 17 839 N = 41 Mean 973.219 . Standard Deviation 766. 293 80 noncom oosEuoaxm Eooom mo ofiscmsom 9: mo GEEEEED mocosvocm 55 no.“ sowafinommuaom 03980-.. A .v onswrm whoom ooom scam oooH cogv ooom ooom In .19qu OH 81 Table 4. 3. -- Interval Classification and Frequency Distribution of the Schedule of Recent Experience Scores as Reported in Figure 4. 1 Interval Frequency Interval Frequency 1-200 0 3001-3200 0 201-400 2 3201-3400 0 401-600 7 3401-3600 0 601-800 10 3601-3800 0 801-1000 9 3801-4000 0 1001-1200 7 4001-4200 0 1201-1400 2 4201-4400 0 1401-1600 1 4401-4600 0 1601-1800 1 4601-4800 0 1801-2000 1 4801-5000 0 2001-2200 0 5001-5200 0 2201-2400 0 5201-5400 1 2401-2600 0 5401-5600 0 2601-2800 0 5601-5800 0 2801-3000 0 5801-6000 0 Data Related to the Teacher Behavior The teacher behavior variables were designed in an effort to measure selected physical and affective aspects of teacher behavior as they influence the teacher! 3 role in the elementary classroom. The data in Table 4. 4 illustrate the occurrence, mean and standard deviation statistics of the teacher behavior variables for both Group A and Group B. 82 oov .H one A omo .H who .H we we. mfiwnoflom Emofiw Hmo .v ”2.6 mums smog. Hon How poflsoU camaEuEmfismcoO mfio .m. moo .v mmm .E HNH .: mew omv BED EEmoEomflw “smooch mom .2 one .2 mam .mm vmo .mm 33 mama when EEooEomn< Eoogm ohm .o How .o omm .o mom ..o E 3 mfisb EEooEomn< some“: moo .o vmo .o oow .o vow .o mm mm when EEooEomflw sooth m 950.20 < 95.10 m @5910 < 98.50 m 96.10 < @5910 moHnEom> unocsoaom msEfimEOQ cowocfim smog noocouosooo m macaw one < 95an no.“ moSEom> sogmnom sosowoh o5 o3 mofimfiflm sonEoQ oumcsflm use smog .oosooosooOI .v .w 3nt 83 Data Related to the Correlation Between the Magnitude of Life Change and the Teacher Behavior In an effort to determine whether the magnitude of life change is correlated with the teacher behavior of the elementary intern teacher, six major research hypotheses were developed. As a means of testing these research hypotheses, the Pearson product-moment formula was used and the . 05 alpha level of sig- nificance was selected as the criterion of significance for each of the statistical analyses. The results of the computed correlations (r) between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the teacher behavior variables are recorded in Table 4. 5 and Table 4. 6. A concomitant presentation of the data and their analyses will be given in the context of each hypothesis. The first hypothesis refers to intern absenteeism and reads as follows: Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more days of absenteeism than intern teachers who score lower. The correlation coefficient for Group A is 0. 22, which is not sig- nificant at the . 05 level. Therefore, in Group A, there seems to 84 Table 4. 5. --Results of the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables for Group A Correlation Between SRE Score N = 41 and Teacher Behavior Variables Dependent Variables rxy 95% Confidence Interval Intern Absenteeism Days 0.22 -0. 15 < r < 0.46 Intern Absenteeism Units 0. 14 -0. 22 ? rxy 2 0. 46 Student Absenteeism Days -0. 10 -0. 44 2 rxy 2 0. 26 Student Absenteeism Units -0. 18 -0. 53 2 rXy 2 0. 18 Consultant- Intern Contact 0. 17 -0. 52 2 rxy 2 0. 18 « Student Referrals 0. 14 -0. 22 E is: 3 0.46 No significance at the . 05 level Table 4. 6. --Results of the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables for Group B Correlation Between SRE Score N = 40 and Teacher Behavior Variables Dependent Variables - rxy 95% Confidence Interval Intern Absenteeism Days 0. 42* 0. 08 < r < 0. 67 Intern Absenteeism Units -0. 03 -0. 38 2 rxy2 0. 34 Student Absenteeism Days 0. 07 -0. 28 -<_ rxy? 0. 41 Student Absenteeism Units -0. 13 -0. 46 "<- rxy? 0. 23 Consultant- Intern Contact 0. 1 1 -0. 25 2 r"‘y 2 0. 44 Student Referrals 0. 11 -0. 25 3 r2 3 0. 44 *Significant at the . 05 level 85 be no significant relationship between intern absenteeism days and SRE score. In Group B, however, the correlation coefficient is 0. 42. This falls well within the .05 level of significance which indicates that there is a strong relationship between SRE score and intern absenteeism days. Thus, it appears that the inclusion of the one extreme score in Group A tended to skew the actual correlation. The second hypothesis likewise is related to intern absen- teeism. It states: Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more units of absenteeism than intern teachers who score lower. The correlation coefficients for Group A and Group B are 0. 14 and -0. 03 respectively. Since neither of these correlations fall within the established level of significance, the second hypothesis was not confirmed. A comparison of the correlations for Group A and Group B, however, does reveal that the correlation relationships changed in the opposite direction from the zero point of reference. The third hypothesis focuses attention upon student absenteeism. The statement reads: Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more days of student absentee- ism than intern teachers who score lower. 86 Examination of the data related to student absenteeism days for Group A indicates that the correlation coefficient, -0. 10, does not fall within the established significance level. The correlation coefficient for Group B is 0.07 and likewise does not meet the required level of significance. Therefore, the hypothesis as pre- sented was not supported with this data. It should be noted, however, that a comparison of the correlations for Group A and Group B shows that the correlation relationships changed in exactly the opposite direction. The fourth hypothesis also refers to student absenteeism. This time, however, the focus is upon units of absenteeism rather than days of absenteeism. This statement says: Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more units of student absentee- ism than those who score lower. The data for Group A show that the correlation coefficient is -0. 18 while the data for Group B show that the correlation coefficient is -0. 13. Since the 95% confidence interval about each correlation contains the zero reference point, the hypothesis as stated was not confirmed. It should be noted that both of these coefficients are correlated in the negative direction. 87 The fifth hypothesis places consultant-intern contact as the dependent variable. This hypothesis is expressed as follows: Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more consultant -intern contact than intern teachers who score lower. The data for Group A reveal that the correlation coefficient is 0. 17, whereas the correlation coefficient for Group B is 0. 11. Inasmuch as neither correlation coefficient falls within the established level of significance, this hypothesis was not supported. The sixth hypothesis relates to student referrals. This hypothesis is phrased as follows: Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more student referrals than intern teachers who score lower. The correlation coefficients for each group exhibit only a slight variance. For Group A, the correlation coefficient is O. 14 and 0. 11 for Group B. Neither of these correlation coefficients fall within the .05 level of significance. Therefore, the hypothesis as presented was not upheld with this data. The sample used in this study was not randomly selected and, therefore, each independent variable does not contain a numerical representation large enough to statistically analyze. 88 There are, however, two independent variables that are similar in numerical composition. These variables are: (1) the marital status within the female classification and (2) the birth order position of the interns within their family. Due to the likelihood that each of these factors, in some way, affects the occurrences of life change events, it was felt that an assessment of related data within these categories was germane to this study and would contribute to a more thorough examination of pertinent factors not considered in the original hypotheses. Thus, although the following information is not directly related to the original design of the study, the impetus for including it in this study was provided by the analyses of the data derived through the initial investigation. Therefore, the following data will refer to the single and married status within the female classification and the birth order position of the interns within their family. The birth order positions will be referred to as youngest, middle, and oldest and will be analyzed within paired categories. Each table shows the correlation coefficient (r), the Z statistic, and the significance levels. The correlation (rl-rz) coefficient was computed by using the Pearson product-moment formula and a test of significance was used as a means of testing the difference between the correlation coefficients. It should be 89 noted that Fisher' 3 r to z transformation was employed in this test and is portrayed in the calculation of the Z value. The . 05 alpha level again was selected as the criterion for significance. Once more, it whould be emphasized that the data within each category will be presented and analyzed in terms of two separate groupings, due to the fact that there was one SRE score which represented an extreme discrepancy from the frequency distribution of the other scores in the sample. The results of the test comparing the correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the teacher behavior variables of the single and married female interns in Group A and Group B are presented in Table 4. 7 and 4. 8. By comparing the number of interns in each category within the two groupings, it can be seen that the intern with the extreme SRE score was classified as a single female. This factor should be kept in mind throughout the analyses. The data related to intern absenteeism days for Group A reveal that the significance level is . 36, which is not significant at the established level. Likewise, the data for Group B show that the significance level is . 14 and is beyond the established level of significance. Thus, there appears to be no significant difference between the correlations related to intern absenteeism days. 90 Table 4. 7. --Results of the Test Comparing the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the Single and - Married Female Interns in Group A Correlations Between SRE Score Z Values and and Teacher Behavior Variables Significance Levels Dependent Variables r r Z(r - r ) p s m s m Intern Absenteeism Days 0. 19 0. 30 -0. 34 . 36 Intern Absenteeism Units 0. 13 -0. 07 0. 57 . 28 Student Absenteeism Days -0. 27 -0. 14 -0. 40 . 34 Student Absenteeism Units -0. 29 -0. 18 -0. 34 . 36 Consultant -Intern Contact -0. 34 0. 19 -1. 54 . 06 Student Referrals 0. 02 0. 37 -1. 06 . 14 No significance at the . 05 level r = Sample Correlation for Single Female Group (N = 20) r = Sample Correlation for Married Female Group (N = 20) However, by comparing the correlation coefficients for the single female interns in Table 4. 7 and 4. 8, it can be seen that the correlations for the two groups differ significantly. Group A has a correlation coefficient of 0. 19 while Group B has a correlation coefficient of 0. 60. Although the correlation coefficient for Group A is not significant at the .05 alpha level, the correlation coefficient for Group B is significant at the established level. Thus, the change in the significance levels was caused by the inclusion of the divergent score. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is a 91 Table 4. 8. --Results of the Test Comparing the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the Single and Married Female Interns in Group B Correlations Between SRE Score Z Values and and Teacher Behavior Variables Significance Levels . Z Dependent Varlables r r (r - r ) p s m s m Intern Absenteeism Days 0. 60* 0. 30 1. 10 . 14 Intern Absenteeism Units -0. 07 -O. 07 0. 00 . 50 , Student Absenteeism Days 0. 16 -0. 14 0. 85 . 19 ' Student Absenteeism Units -0. 2 1 -0. 18 -0. O8 . 46 Consultant-Intern Contact 0. 15 0. 19 -0. 11 .29 Student Referrals -0. 12 0. 37 -1. 45 . 17 *Significant at the . 05 level Sample Correlation for Single Female Group (N = 19) Sample Correlation for Married Female Group (N = 20) I‘ I:,S m significant relationship between intern absenteeism days and SRE score in the single female category when the screened data is used. In reference to intern absenteeism units, the significance level is . 28 for Group A and . 50 for Group B. Inasmuch as both of these are beyond the established level of significance, it can be presumed that there is no significant difference between the corre- lations related to intern absenteeism. Analyses of the data related to student absenteeism days Show that the significance level for Group A is . 34 and . 19 for 92 Group B. Since both of these exceed the . 05 level of significance, there appears to be no significant difference between the corre- lations associated with student absenteeism days. It should be pointed out, however, that the correlations within the single female category vary from -0. 27 for Group A to 0. 16 for Group B. This variation demonstrates a significant change from a negative to a positive correlation when both groups are compared. The data pertaining to student absenteeism units reveal .36 as the significance level for Group A and .46 as the significance level for Group B. The difference between the correlations for each group was not significant enough to fall within the established criterion level. Thus, there appears to be no significant difference between the correlations related to student absenteeism units for the single and married female interns. The data associated with consultant -intern contact show that Group A has a significance level of .06 and Group B has a significance level of . 29. Although the significance level for Group A is much closer to the established level of significance than that of Group B, neither fall within the . 05 level of significance. Conse- quently, it is probable that there is no significant difference between the correlations related to consultant-intern contact. 93 By referring to the correlation coefficients related to consultant-intern contact for Group A, it can be seen that the coefficient for the single female interns is -0. 34 and 0. 19 for the married female interns. This discrepancy represents a significant change in the direction as well as the amount of the correlation when the coefficients for the single and married categories are compared. Likewise, the correlation coefficients of Group A and Group B for the single female interns should be noted since there is an obvious discrepancy between -0. 34 and 0. 15. An examination of the data related to student referrals reveals that the significance level is . 14 for Group A and . 17 for Group B. Since these significance levels are greater than the established level of significance, there appears to be no significant difference between the correlations associated with student referrals. It should be pointed out, however, that there is a notable change between the correlation coefficients of the single female interns and the marriedfemale interns in Group B. The data related to the birth order position of the interns within their family are presented and analyzed in terms of paired categories. These paired categories are: (1) oldest and youngest interns in Group A, (2) oldest and youngest interns in Group B, (3) middle and youngest interns in Group A, (4) middle and youngest 94 interns inGroup B, and (5) oldest and middle interns in Group A and Group B.. By comparing the number of interns in each category within the two groupings, it can be seen that the intern with the extreme SRE score was classified as the youngest member in the family. This factor should be kept in mind throughout the analyses. Table 4. 9. --Results of the Test Comparing the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the Oldest and Youngest Interns in Group A as Categorized by Birth Order Within Their Family Correlations Between SRE Score Z Values and and Teacher Behavior Variables Significance Levels . Z Dependent Varlables r r (r -r ) p o y o Intern Absenteeism Days 0. 03 0. 22 -0. 41 . 34 Intern Absenteeism Units -0. 05 0. 45 -1. 15 . 12 Student Absenteeism Days I 0.04 -0. 23 . 59 .27 Student Absenteeism Units 0. 52* -0. 38 2. 13 . 01* Consultant -Intern Contact 0. 55* -0. 55 2. 70 . 003* Student Referrals 0. 38 0. 2 1 . 41 . 34 *Significant at the . 05 level I‘ O I‘ 3’ Sample Correlation for Oldest Group (N = 15) Sample Correlation for Youngest Group (N = 11) The data related to intern absenteeism days demonstrate a significance level of . 34 for Group A and . 23 for Group B. Since 95 both of these are greater than the established significance level, there seems to be little difference between the correlations for the oldest and youngest groups as related to intern absenteeism days. Table 4. 10. -- Results of the Test Comparing the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the Oldest and Youngest Interns in Group B as Categorized by Birth Order Within Their Family Correlations Between SRE Score and Teacher Behavior Variables Z Values and Significance Levels Z Dependent Variables ro ry Intern Absenteeism Days 0.03 0. 35 Intern Absenteeism Units -0. 05 0. 28 Student Absenteeism Days 0. 04 0. 17 Student Absenteeism Units 0. 52* -0. 31 Consultant -Intern Contact 0. 55* -0. 43 Student Referrals 0. 38 0. l5 (ro-ry) p -0.70 .23 -0.70 .23 -0.27 .39 1.87 .03* 2.25 .01* 0.52 .30 *Significant at the . 05 level 1" O I‘ 3’ Sample Correlation for Oldest Group (N = 15) Sample Correlation for Youngest Group (N = 10) In an inspection of the data related to intern absenteeism units, it can be seen that the significance level is . 12 for Group A and .23 for Group B. These values do not fall within the established level of significance. Thus, they do not denote any significant dif- ference between the correlations for oldest and youngest interns as related to intern absenteeism units. 96 The significance level for student absenteeism days is .39 for Group A and . 27 for Group B. These levels surpass the established level of significance and, thus, there appears to be no significant difference between the correlations for oldest and youngest groups in regards to student absenteeism days. An examination of the data related to student absenteeism units reveals that the correlation coefficient for the interns in the oldest group is 0. 52. This correlation coefficient is significant at the . 05 alpha level. This suggests that there is a definite relation- ship between student absenteeism units and the SRE score for the oldest group. The data referring to the significance levels for student absenteeism units reveal a significance level of .01 for Group A and . 03 for Group B. Since both of these fall within the .05 level of significance, there seems to be a significant difference between the correlation coefficients related to student absenteeism units for the oldest and youngest groups. The data related to consultant-intern contact indicate that the correlation coefficient is 0. 55 for the oldest group. This correlation coefficient is well within the established level of sig - nificance, which suggests that there is a definite relationship between consultant-intern contact and the SRE score for the oldest group. 97 The data pertaining to consultant-intern contact display a significance level of . 003 for Group A and . 01 for Group B. Both of these levels fall well within the criterion of significance that was established for this study. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference between the correlations for the oldest and youngest groups concerning consultant-intern contact. The data related to student referrals reveal that the sig- nificance level for Group A is .34 and . 30 for Group B. Both of these are beyond the established significance level. Therefore, in regards to student referrals, there appears to be no significant difference between the correlation coefficients. The results of the test comparing the correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the teacher behavior variables for the middle and youngest interns are presented in Table 4. 11 and Table 4. 12. An examination of the data related to the correlation coefficients for the middle and youngest interns for both Group A and Group B shows that there is only one correlation that is sig- nificant at the . 05 level. This is found in the middle group and is related to the teacher behavior variable designated as intern absenteeism days. This data suggest that there is a definite rela- tionship between the SRE score and intern absenteeism days for the interns within the middle birth order group. 98 Table 4. 11. -- Results of the Test Comparing the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the Middle and Youngest Interns in Group A as Categorized by Birth Order Within Their Family Correlations Between SRE Score Z Values and and Teacher Behavior Variables Significance Levels . Z Dependent Varlables r r (r - r ) p m Y m Y Intern Absenteeism Days 0. 57* 0. 22 0. 91 . 41 Intern Absenteeism Units 0. 03 0. 45 -0. 98 . 16 Student Absenteeism Days -0. 04 -0. 23 0. 41 . 34 Student Absenteeism Units -0. 34 -0. 38 . 11 . 45 Consultant-Intern Contact 0. 11 -0. 55 1. 59 .05* Student Referrals -0. 07 0.2 1 0. 6 1 . 27 *Significant at the . 05 level I‘ m r y Sample Correlation for Middle Group (N = 15) Sample Correlation for Youngest Group (N = 11) A review of the data related to intern absenteeism days for Group A and Group B indicates that the significance levels for these two groups are . 41 and . 28 respectively. Both of these exceed the established level of significance. Therefore, there seems to be no significant difference between the correlations for the middle and youngest interns as related to intern absenteeism days. The data for intern absenteeism units show a significance level of . 16 for Group A and .29 for Group B. Both of these levels 99 surpass the . 05 alpha level. Thus, there appears to be no significant difference between the correlations for the middle and youngest interns for either group in relationship to intern absenteeism units. Table 4. 12. -- Results of the Test Comparing the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the Middle and Youngest Interns in Group B as Categorized by Birth Order Within Their Family Correlations Between SRE Score Z Values and and Teacher Behavior Variables Significance Levels . Z Dependent Variables r r (r -r ) p m Y m Y Intern Absenteeism Days 0. 57* 0.35 0. 58 . 28 Intern Absenteeism Units 0.03 0. 28 -0. 54 . 29 Student Absenteeism Days -0. 04 0. 17 -0. 43 . 33 Student Absenteeism Units -0. 34 -0. 3 1 -0. 06 . 47 Consultant-Intern Contact 0. 11 -0. 43 1. 18 . 11 Student Referrals -0. 07 0. 15 -0. 45 . 32 *Significant at the .05 level rm = Sample Correlation for Middle Group (N = 15) r = Sample Correlation for Youngest Group (N = 10) Y By referring to the data related to student absenteeism days, it can be observed that the significance level for Group A is . 34 and .33 for Group B. Neither of these values fall within the established level of significance. Therefore, according to this data, 100 it can be assumed that there is no Significant difference between the correlations for the middle and youngest interns as related to stu- dent absenteeism days. The significance levels associated with student absenteeism units are . 45 and . 47 for Group A and Group B. Since these are greater than the established alpha level of significance, there seems to be no significant difference between the correlations for the mid- dle and youngest interns in reference to student absenteeism units. The consultant-intern contact data reveal that the signifi- cance level for Group A is . 05 and . 11 for Group B. The signifi- cance level for Group B is not significant at the established alpha level of significance. However, the significance level for Group A is within the . 05 level, which is an indication that there is a sig- nificant difference between the correlation coefficients for the middle and youngest interns in relationship to consultant-intern contact. An examination of the data pertaining to student referrals indicates that the significance levels are . 27 and . 32 for Group A and Group B. Neither of these fall within the significance level established for this study. Consequently, there seems to be no significant difference between the correlations for the middle and youngest interns as related to student referrals. 101 The results of the test comparing the correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the teacher behavior variables for the oldest and middle interns are presented in Table 4. 13. The information for Group A and Group B are one in the same since the intern with the extreme SRE score was classi- fied as the youngest in the family birth order positions. Table 4. 13. -- Results of the Test Comparing the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables of the Oldest and Middle Interns in Group A and Group B as Categorized by Birth Order Within Their Family Correlations Between SRE Score Z Values and and Teacher Behavior Variables Significance Levels . Z Dependent Variables r r (r - r ) p o m o m Intern Absenteeism Days 0. 03 0. 57* -2. 38 . 008* Intern Absenteeism Units -0. 05 0.03 -0. 30 . 37 Student Absenteeism Days 0. 04 -0. O4 0. 30 . 37 Student Absenteeism Units 0. 52* -O. 34 3. 57 . 0002* Consultant -Intern Contact 0. 55* 0. 11 1. 96 . 02* Student Referrals 0. 38 -0. 07 0. 42 . 33 *Significant at the . 05 level Sample Correlation for Oldest Group (N = 15) Sample Correlation for Middle Group (N = 15) I‘ O I‘ m A survey of the correlation coefficients for the oldest and middle interns reveals that there are three correlations which are 102 significant at the . 05 level. These are related to intern absenteeism days for the middle group, student absenteeism units for the oldest group, and consultant-intern contact for the oldest group. The data related to intern absenteeism days indicate a significance level of . 008. This value falls well within the . 05 alpha level of significance. Thus, it can be assumed that there is a definite difference between the correlations for the oldest and middle groups in regards to intern absenteeism days. An observation of the data pertaining to intern absenteeism units shows that the significance level is . 37. This value surpasses the established significance level. It can be implied, therefore, that there is no significant difference between the correlations for the oldest and middle groups as related to intern absenteeism units. By looking at the data for student absenteeism days, it can be seen that the significance level is .37. This level exceeds the established level of significance. Consequently, there appears to be no significant difference between the correlations for the oldest and middle groups in relationship to student absenteeism days. The data related to student absenteeism units show a sig- nificance level of . 0002. This figure definitely falls within the established level of significance. Thus, according to the data used 103 for this study, it can be concluded that there is an extreme difference between the correlations of the two groups as related to student absenteeism units. An analysis of the data pertaining to consultant-intern contact reveals that the significance level is . 02. Since the alpha level of significance for this study was established at .05, it can be concluded that there is a distinct difference between the corre- lations for the designated groups in reference to consultant-intern contact. The information related to student referrals shows a sig- nificance level of . 33. This is larger than the established level of significance. Therefore, there does not appear to be any signifi- cant difference between the correlations for the oldest and middle groups as related to student referrals. In an effort to assist the reader, summations of the correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the teacher behavior variables are presented in the following tables and figures. The data in Table 4. 14 are related to the single and married-female interns and the data in Table 4. 15 are related to the birth order position of the interns within their family. Figure 4. 2, Figure 4. 3, and Figure 4. 4 are graphic representations of the information presented in Table 4. 14 and Table 4. 15. 104 Table 4. 14. -- Summary of the Correlations Between the Schedule of Recent Experience Score and the Teacher Behavior Variables for the Single and Married Females in Group A and Group B Single Married Correlations Between -_ _ _ _ SRE Score and Teacher N ' 20 N " 19 N — 20 N T 20 Behav1or Varlables Group Group Group Group A B A B Intern Absenteeism Days . 19 . 60* . 30 . 30 Intern Absenteeism Units . l3 -. 07 -. 07 -. 07 Student Absenteeism Days -. 27 . 16 -. l4 -. 14 Student Absenteeism Units -. 29 -. 2 1 -. l8 -. l8 Consultant-Intern Contact -. 34 . 15 . 19 . 19 Student Referrals . 02 -. 12 . 37 . 37 *Significant at the .05 level Summary In an effort to determine whether the magnitude of life change, as exemplified by the Schedule of Recent Experience score, is correlated with selected classroom behavior of the elementary intern teacher, six research hypotheses were developed. 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Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more units of absenteeism than intern teachers who score lower. 3. Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more days of student absentee- ism than intern teachers who score lower. 4. Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more units of student absentee- ism than intern teachers who score lower. 5. Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more consultant-intern contact than intern teachers who score lower. 6. Intern teachers who score higher on the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) will have more student referrals than intern teachers who score lower. Due to the fact that there was one score which represented an extreme discrepancy from the frequency distribution of the other scores in the sample, the data were presented and analyzed in terms of two separate groupings. Group A represented the group 110 including the data of the intern with the extreme score, and Group B represented the group excluding the data of the intern with the extreme score. The data for Group A, as derived from the information utilized in this study, did not support any of the research hypotheses. However, the data for Group B did show a positive correlation between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and intern absenteeism days which was significant at the .05 level. Throughout the investigation which was conducted to test the six research hypotheses, information was compiled which was indirectly related to the initial study, but was not a part of the original design. This information consisted of the analyses of the differences between the correlations of paired groupings. These groupings were (1) single and married interns within the female classification and (2) birth order position of the interns within their family as categorized by youngest, middle, and oldest. Likewise, these analyses were conducted for Group A and Group B using the rationale described earlier. The data related to the single and married female interns revealed that the only significant correlation was between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and intern absenteeism days for the single female interns in Group B. There were no significant 111 differences between the correlations of the single and married female interns. However, it should be noted that the significance level (. 06) for consultant-intern contact was close to the . 05 level of significance. The data related to the birth order position of the interns within their family showed three significant correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the teacher behavior variables. These correlations were related to the following: (1) student absenteeism units for the oldest group, (2) consultant- intern contact for the oldest group, and (3) intern absenteeism days for the middle group. The significant differences between the correlations for the oldest and youngest interns were related to student absenteeism units and consultant-intern contact. For the middle and youngest interns, a significant difference between the correlations was related to consultant-intern contact. Data pertaining to the oldest and middle interns revealed a significant difference between the correlations related to intern absenteeism days, student absentee- ism units, and consultant -intern contact. The data related to this study have been presented and analyzed in this chapter. The conclusions and recommendations derived from these analyses will be discussed in Chapter V. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The concluding chapter of this dissertation is devoted to presenting a summary of the study, discussing the conclusions of the study, and submitting recommendations and implications for further research. Summary The acceleration of change in our time is an elemental force which has personal and psychological, as well as sociological, consequences which require adjustive behavior that can be used in coping with the internal and external stress which may result from the magnitude and continual change of life events. The term "future shock" has been coined to describe both the physical and psycho- logical stress and disorientation that is induced in individuals when they are subjected to too much change in too short of a period of time. Thus, it seems imperative that our society needs, as never before, individuals who are capable of an intelligent and adaptive 112 113 understanding of the process of rapid change. Concurrent with this understanding is the necessity for developing the competency to effectively adjust to the impact inherent in this ever accelerating rate of change. ' Some research suggests that the equilibrium or disequilibrium of one' s own bodily system is significantly tied up with other systems in which he functions. Consequently, physical and psychological states do not lead independent existences. On the contrary, their organization merely constitutes part of a larger arrangement, namely the person' s total life. A historical review of education in the United States cannot help but impress the reader with the idea that a major role of schools was and is to assist the individual in developing his own potential to the greatest extent of his capacity. Thus, due to its long and close contact with children, the educational system with its vast body of educators faces a prime responsibility for helping the child to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills inherent in coping effectively with the present and future world in which he will live. The fact that the child spends a considerable portion of his time in the classroom leads one to the conclusion that school may be a significant influence in the life of the child. A great need, 114 therefore, is to insure that the educational process will be a positive and constructive force in the child' 3 growth and development. The Problem The elementary school years have been cited by some researchers as the most crucial years in a child' 8 life in that during this stage his development is formative, impressionable, and easily molded. Others have suggested that what happens to a child as he goes through school must certainly rank as one of the most important experiences in his life. Social interaction theory suggests that people develop perceptions of who they are and what they are from the kinds of experiences they encounter with those who surround them in the process of their growing up. Therefore, due to his role in the classroom, the teacher functions as a significant person in the child' 3 developing self and can either impede or foster his mental, social, emotional, and psychological anchorage. It has been pointed out in the literature that the teacher is in one of the most "exposed" positions in the professional world today. Nevertheless, the personal problems and behavior of the teacher as they affect his work in the classroom have received little attention, even though there is evidence to suggest that personal maladjustment is prevalent among professional teachers. 115 The pace of life profoundly influences behavior, for it implies a constant interaction between the organism and its environ- ment. Yet, a review of the literature indicates that there is a definite lack of research in this area of the behavioral sciences. Therefore, in an effort to develop a greater understanding of the impact that life change experiences have on the behavior of the teacher, this study has been designed to assess the correlation between the magnitude of life change and selected classroom behavior of the elementary intern teacher. The Procedures The population used in this study consisted of those stu- dents who were enrolled in the Elementary Intern Program at Michigan State University. The intern teachers were selected for this study because the role of the intern teacher most nearly resembled the role of the regular elementary classroom teacher. The sample used in this study consisted of forty -one (N = 41) elementary intern teachers from Michigan State University who were teaching in the kindergarten through sixth grades and the specialized area of the mentally retarded in the Greater Lansing Area Schools during the school year 1971-1972. During October, 1971, the Schedule of Recent Experience (SRE) was administered to the elementary intern teachers as a 116 means of obtaining data related to the magnitude of life change events. The Social Readjustment Ratingficale (SRRS) was then used to assign a magnitude value to each item of information obtained from the Schedule of Recent Experience. The value of each item was subsequently combined to produce a total SRE score for each intern teacher. In November, 1971, a letter of transmittal was sent to each intern teacher informing him that a study was being conducted which would require that the intern consultants serve as resource personnel for the observation of various dimensions of teaching characteristics, techniques, and styles. Throughout the first ten weeks of January, February, and March, 1972, the research data were collected for teacher behavior as exemplified through intern absenteeism, student absenteeism, consultant-intern contact, and student referrals. Absenteeism data were obtained from school records and reported by the intern consultants, while consultant- intern contact and student referrals data were obtained from the personal records of the intern consultants. The Pearson product -moment formula was used as a means of calculating the correlation coefficients between the SRE score and each of the teacher behavior variables. The "t" test was then used as a means of testing the significance of the correlation from 117 the zero level with the .05 alpha level of significance used as the criterion for each of the statistical analyses. Due to the fact that there was one SRE score which repre- sented an extreme discrepancy from the frequency distribution of the other scores in the sample, the data were presented and analyzed in terms of two separate groupings. Group A represented the group including the data of the intern with the extreme score, and Group B represented the group excluding the data of the intern with the extreme score. In addition to the statistical analyses for each of these groups, separate analyses were conducted for the following categories: (1) females within the married and single classification and (2) the birth order position of the intern within his family as exemplified by the youngest, middle, and oldest rank. Along with the correlations compiled for the previously stated groupings, statistical analyses were conducted to test the significance of the difference between the correlations for paired groupings related to marital status and birth order position. The Findings The data compiled for the total sample, designated as Group A, did not reveal any significant correlations. However, the data for the screened sample, designated as Group B, did 118 reveal a significant correlation between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and intern absenteeism days. There was one significant correlation associated with the subgroups classified as single and married female interns. This significant correlation was between the Schedule of Recent Experience score andintern absenteeism days for Group B. The correlations for the subgroups classified according to youngest, middle, and oldest birth order position show three significant relationships between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the teacher behavior variables. In the middle group, the significant correlation was associated with intern absenteeism days. The other two significant correlations were affiliated with student absenteeism units and consultant -intern contact in the , oldest group. No significant correlations were found within the youngest group. The differences between the correlations for the single and married female interns were not significant enough to fall within the .05 level of significance. It should be pointed out, however, that the difference between the correlations related to consultant-intern contact for Group A was shown to be at the . 06 level, and was very close to the established level of significance. 119 Several significant differences between the correlations associated with birth order position were noted. The significant differences between the correlations for the oldest and youngest interns were affiliated with student absenteeism units and consultant- intern contact. These significant differences were observed for both Group A and Group B. A review of the data related to the middle and youngest groups shows one significant difference related to the correlations between Schedule of Recent Experience score and the teacher behavior variables. This significant difference was related to consultant-intern contact. There were three significant differences related .to the correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the teacher behavior variables for the oldest and middle groups. These were associated with intern absenteeism days, student absenteeism units, and consultant-intern contact. It should be noted that this paired grouping had the most differences between correlations that were significant at the .05 level. Conclusions The following conclusions were derived from the findings of this study. 120 1. Intern teachers who had higher scores on the Schedule of Recent Experience had more days of intern absenteeism than those who had lower scores. The data for the total group did not reveal correlations which were significant at the established . 05 alpha level of sig- nificance. However, when the analyses were conducted excluding the data for the intern with the extreme SRE score, a significant relationship was found between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and intern absenteeism days. This conclusion supports similar findings by Dr. Thomas H. Holmes and his associates in that high SRE scores seem to be related to minor health problems. The following conclusions were not directly related to the original hypotheses developed for this study. However, it was felt that additional analyses of the available data were germane to this study and would contribute to the original investigation. There- fore, the following conclusions were derived from the additional analyses which pertained to marital status and birth order position. 2. Single female intern teachers who had higher scores on the Schedule of Recent Experience had more days of intern absenteeism than those who had lower scores. When the correlations were computed for the total group of single female interns, no significant correlations were found. 121 However, when the analyses were conducted excluding the data for the intern with the high SRE score, a significant relationship was found between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and intern absenteeism days. 3. For intern teachers who were categorized as the oldest in birth order position within their family, those who had higher scores on the Schedule of Recent Experience had more units of student absenteeism than those who had lower scores. As another means of analyzing the data for the total sample, the interns were categorized according to birth order position within their family- When the correlations between the SRE score and student absenteeism units were computed, the data for the youngest and middle groups revealed negative correlations. The data for the oldest group, however, revealed a significant correla- tion between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and student absenteeism units. 4. For intern teachers who were categorized as the oldest in birth order position within their family, those who had higher scores on the Schedule of Recent Experience had more consultant -intern contact than those who had lower scores. By surveying the data showing the correlation coefficients for the birth order groups, it can be seen that the correlation 122 coefficients related to the consultant-intern contact are 0. 55 for the oldest, 0. 11 for the middle, and -0. 55 (Group A) and -0. 43 (Group B) for the youngest. It is interesting to note that the correlation coefficients for the oldest and youngest (Group A) are the same in amount, but differ in exactly the opposite direction from the zero point of reference. However, due to differences in sample sizes, only the correlation for the oldest group was significant at the .05 level. 5. For intern teachers who were categorized as the middle in birth order position within their family, those who had higher scores on the Schedule of Recent Experience had more days of intern absenteeism than those who had lower scores. Although no significant correlations for intern absenteeism days were found in the youngest and oldest groups, this conclusion, which is related to the middle group, does concur with the conclusion presented in regards to the total sample. 6. The correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and student absenteeism units differed significantly when the oldest and youngest birth order groups were compared. 7. The correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and student absenteeism units differed significantly when the oldest and middle birth order groups were com- pared. 123 The data showing the correlations for the birth order groups reveal the correlation coefficients to be 0. 52 for the oldest, -0. 34 for the middle, and -0. 38 (Group A) and -0. 31 (Group B) for the youngest. By comparing the correlation coefficients, it can be seen that they all are negative with the exception of the one for the oldest group. Thus, due to the amount and direction of the correlations, these groups reveal significant differences when the youngest and middle birth order groups are compared with the oldest birth order group. 8. The correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the consultant-intern contact differed significantly when the oldest and youngest birth order groups were compared. 9. The correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the consultant-intern contact differed significantly when the middle and youngest birth order groups were compared. 10. The correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the consultant -intern contact differed significantly when the oldest and middle birth order groups were compared. All paired groupings related to birth order and consultant- intern contact showed significant differences between their correla- tion coefficients with the exception of the paired grouping for the middle and youngest in Group B. 124 One factor that should be considered relative to the differences in consultant ~intern contact is related to the socializa- tion and interaction processes, the growth and development experiences, and the differential expectations that seem to be associated with the birth order position. Some research indicates that the birth order position is a factor in the behavior and life experiences of an individual. Therefore, it seems possible that these elements may be reflected in these conclusions. Another factor that should be considered relative to consultant -intern contact is related to the time and distribution of various needs for contact. Since the teacher behavior data were collected in January, February, and March, there is the possibility that a major portion of the consultant -intern contact took place in the beginning of the school year when the interns were in the initial process of setting up their classrooms for the entire year. Due to the complexity of interpersonal behavior, it would be most difficult to make any factual statements concerning the interpretation of this data. Therefore, these speculations are presented in an effort to give the reader some possible thoughts for consideration. 11. The correlations between the Schedule of Recent Experience score and the intern absenteeism days differed significantly when the oldest and middle birth order groups were compared. 125 Significant correlations related to intern absenteeism days were found in the total group, the single female group, and the middle birth order group. However, the data for this paired grouping, designated as oldest and middle birth order groups, revealed the only significant difference between the correlations related to intern absenteeism days. This difference was significant at the . 008 level. Recommendations Specific Recommendations The following recommendation is based on the data, analyses, and conclusions which were previously presented in this study. The Elementary Intern staff should investigate the mag- nitude of life change of the intern teachers as a factor in predicting and preparing for intermittent days of absenteeism. The research of Dr. Thomas H. Holmes and his associates revealed that there was a definite relationship between the occur- rences and magnitude of life change events and minor health problems. This research produced evidence that life changes tended to cluster significantly around health changes. The opposite also was confirmed in that subjects were much less likely to 126 experience minor health problems on days of less than average life change. The findings of this study likewise indicate that there is a strong relationship between days of absenteeism and magnitude of life change. Since the absence of the regular teacher often creates a change in routine, an alteration in instructional patterns, and a need for adjustment to a different personality, it seems crucial that the regular teacher be present. Due to the existence of these factors, it is probable that, if the regular teacher is frequently absent, the educational and personal development of the child may be affected in some way. Therefore, a knowledge of the life changes of the intern teacher should be a contributing element in the endeavor to improve the educational process. General Recommendations The following recommendations are based upon a review of the related literature, the findings of this study, and the personal reactions of the researcher. The recommendations presented are not intended to encompass every possible consideration resulting from. this research project. However, it is a desire of the researcher that those stated will serve to challenge and inspire the thinking of the reader. 127 1. Educational institutions should investigate factors such as the teaching style, personality, and age of teacher candi- dates and supervisory personnel to determine if the matching of contrasting patterns is a factor in communica- tion and interpersonal contact. Interpretation of data related to human behavior is difficult and complex. However, as a matter of speculation, it is possible that teaching style, personality, and age may be contributing factors in accounting for a discrepancy in the amount of interper- sonal contact between teacher candidates and supervisory personnel. The difference in teaching styles may be the result of changes in educational philosophy and practices which often coincide with differences in age and changing times. Therefore, it seems that a knowledge of the teaching styles, as well as the philosophies inherent in these styles, should be a contributing factor in pairing teacher candidates with supervisory personnel. Likewise, the personality of the individual is a significant factor in communicating and interpersonal relationships. Thus, in a situation where supervisory personnel and teacher candidates are required to work closely and yet within different role positions, personality differences may have an effect on the amount of inter- personal contact, as well as the communication that takes place between the individual persons. 128 Another factor that should be taken into consideration has to do with the classical "generation gap. " Since supervisory per- sonnel often represent an authority figure and may be somewhat removed from the peer group of the teacher candidate, it is possible that these elements may cause a communication breakdown. 2. Research pertaining to the affective domain of teachers should be conducted and subsequently applied to the edu- cational aspects of teacher behavior. Research related to the affective domain is limited. Much of what has been done pertains to the student dimension and reflects only indirectly on the effects of the teacher' 3 behavior in the class - room. Some of the opinions and works of various educators are suggesting that the educational development is just as contingent upon skills and knowledge pertaining to the affective .domain as those which are associated with the cognitive domain. Therefore, it appears that the lack of research in this area is acting as a hindrance to the improvement of education. . 3. Instruments, such as the ones used in this study, should be developed and explored as a means of acquiring a better understanding of possible factors which may affect teacher behavior in the classroom. 129 The realm of human behavior is broad, complex, and difficult to test using scientific methodology. Consequently, even though there is a strong indication in the literature that the behavior of the teacher has an effect on the growth and development of the child, the means whereby the influence of behavior can be explored and tested are limited and inadequate. Educational researchers, therefore, should strive to develop techniques and instruments which can be used for assessing the phenomena of human behavior as it affects the educational and personal develop- ment of the individual child. 4. Educational institutions should investigate and evaluate the further utilization of research instruments, such as the ones employed in this study, as resource devices for counseling, in-service education, and selection of teachers and teacher candidates. The educational system is undergoing rapid changes. As a consequence of these changes, the teachers are exposed to per- sonal and professional stress which may affect their behavior in the classroom. Since the educational process is one of the major forces in the lives of each person, a more effective way should be found to assist the teacher in coping with this stress in pre -service as well as in -service education. 130 5. The mental health of teachers and its subsequent effects on teacher behavior should be investigated and documented more thoroughly using reliable research techniques. Although the writings related to mental health are numerous, research that focuses specifically on the mental health of teachers is clearly inadequate. Much of what has been written is mere opinion and speculation. These factors alone are by no means a basis for degrading these ideas. However, there is a definite need for research, using scientific techniques, which will produce empirical evidence that can be carefully documented and made applicable to teachers. Hopefully, the knowledge gained from this type of research will produce information which will help educators become aware of the impact that the teacher' 3 mental health has on the student' 3 growth and development. 6. The impact of stress associated with the acceleration of change should be investigated and the findings made applicable to the educational processes. The pace of life is ever accelerating. This acceleration implies a. state of continual change which may likewise involve various degrees of stress. The awareness of the impact of stress is not a new phenomenon. . However, educators need to take a serious look at the effects of stress as it contributes to the impedi- ment of educational achievement and personal development. 131 7. Due to the limiting factors associated with the collection of data for this study, it is recommended that this study be replicated- Also, it is recommended that a similar study be conducted with investigation and revision related to the characteristics of the population, the size and composition of the sample, and the inclusion of additional teacher behavior variables. Although the data used to test the major hypotheses revealed only one significant correlation, it is not necessarily a fact that such relationships do not exist. Several factors related to the collection of data for this study should be pointed out. First, two of the intern consultants participated in a program which required them to be absent from their-regular position for a period of five weeks. Even though other consultants made an effort to col- lect the desired data, it seems likely that some of the teacher behavior was altereddue to the nature of the interpersonal elements incorporated in the design of this study. Second, during part of the period in which data related to teacher behavior were collected, the intern consultants were responsible for the pre -service education of interns who had been selected for future internship positions. These limiting factors, in addition to the subjective nature surrounding the collection of the teacher behavior data, point out the need for replication of this study. The development and findings for this research project revealed the need to revise the design of this study as well as 132 investigate other sources of information related to the characteristics of the sample and additional teacher variables. For example, the use of random sampling would allow for exploration of relationships related to characteristics such as age, sex, and race classification. Also, some of the values of the correlations were found to be rela- tively high, but did not come within the . 05 level of significance due to the small sample size. In order to get a more complete representation of the total teacher population, it would be beneficial to conduct this type of research using in -service teachers from both the elementary and secondary levels. 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Lief, Alfred (ed. ). The Commonsense Psychiatry of Dr. Adolph Meyer. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1948. Lingren, Henry. Mental Health in Education. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1954. Long, Nicholas, William Morse, and Ruth Newman. Conflict in the Classroom. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1965. McGrath, Joseph (ed. ). Social and Psycholgical Factors in Stress. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. , 1970. Mental Health and Teacher Education. Forty -sixth Yearbook, The Association for Student Teaching. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Company, Inc. , 1967. Mouly, George. Psychology for Effective Teaching. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. , 1968. Ojemann, Ralph (ed. ). Recent Research Looking Toward Preventive Intervention. Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1961. Ringness, Thomas. Mental Health in the Schools. New York: Random House, 1968. Roberts, Guy. Personal Growth and Adjustment. Boston: Hol- brook Press, Inc., 1968. Rogers, Dorothy. Mental Hygiene in Elementary Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1957. Ryan, W. Carson. Mental Health Through Education. New York: The Commonwealth Fund, 1938. Ryans, David. Characteristics of Teachers; A Research Study. Washington, D. C. : American Council on Education, 1960. Sarason, Seymour, et al. Anxiety in Elementary School Children. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , 1960. 136 Seidman, Jerome (ed. ). Readings in Educational Psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1965. Selye, Hans. The Stress of Life. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1956. Severin, Frank. Humanistic Viewpoints in Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965. Shaffer, Laurance, and Edward Shoben, Jr. The Psychology of Adjustment. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1956. Shipley, Joseph. The Mentally Disturbed Teacher. Philadelphia: Chilton, 1961. Silberman, Charles. Crisis in the Classroom. New York: Random House, 1970. Smith, B. Othanel. Teachers for the Real World. Washington, D. C. : American Association of Colleges for Teacher Eduation, 1969. Sutherland, Robert, et al. (eds. ). Personality Factors on the College Campus. Austin, Texas: Hogg Foundation for Mental Health, 1962. Szasz, Thomas. The Myth of Mental Illness. New York: Paul B. Hoeber, 1961. The Teacher and Mental Health. National Institute of Mental Health, No. 385, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1954. Toffler, Alvin. Future Shock. New York: Random House, 1970. Torrance, Paul, and Robert Strom (eds. ). Mental Health and Achievement. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , 1965. Traxler, Arthur, and Agatha Townsend. Eight More Years of Reading. New York: Educational Records Bureau, 1955. 137 Waetjen, Walter, and Robert Leeper (eds. ). Learning and Mental Health in the School. Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Washington, D. C. : National Education Association, 1966. Wolff, Harold, Stewart Wolf, and Clarence Hare- Life Stress and Bodily Disease. Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Diseases, Volume 29. Baltimore: The Williams and Wilkins Company, 1950. Periodicals and Unpublished Materials Abramovitz, Abraham B. , and Elaine Burnham. ”Exploring Potentials for Mental Health in the Classroom. " Mental Hygiene, 43:253 -259, April, 1959. Allen, E. B. "Psychiatric Disorders in Forty Male Teachers. " Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 95:204-206, October, 1942. Altman, Emil. "Our Mentally Unbalanced Teachers. " The American Mercury, 52:391-401, April, 1941. Altmeyer, John. "The School Social Worker and Problems of School Attendance. ” Social Work, 2:65-69, October, 1957. Anderson, Herald, and Joseph Brewer. "Studies of Teachers' Classroom Personalities, II. " Applied Psychology Mono- graphs, No. 8, American Psychological Association. Stanford University, California: Stanford University Press, 1946. Barnard, E. F. "They Made Good in College: An Eight Year Study of Progressive School Graduates. " Progressive Education, 20:356-359, 1943. Blair, Glenn. "Personality Adjustment of Teachers as Measured by the Multiple Choice Rorschach Test. " Journal of Edu- cational Research, 39:652 -657, May, 1946. Blos, Peter. "Aspects of Mental Health in Teaching and Learning. " Mental Hygiene, 37:555, 1953. 138 Bovard, Everett, Jr. "The Psychology of Classroom Interaction. ” Journal of Educational Research, 45:215-223, November, 1951. Bower, Eli. "Mental Health in Education. ” Review of Educational Research, 32:441-454, December, 1962. Boynton, Paul. "An Analysis of the Responses of Women Teachers on a Personality Inventory. " Peabody Journal of Educa- tion, 20:13-19, July, 1942. Broxson, John. "Problem Teachers. " Educational. Administration and Supervision, 29:177-182, March, 1943. Casey, Robert, Minoru Masuda, and Thomas H. Holmes. "Quantitative Study of Recall of Life Events. " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11:239-247, 1967. Cassel, John. "Social Science Theory as a Source of Hypotheses in Epidemiological Research. " American Journal of Public ‘Health, 54:1482 -1488,~ September, 1964. Cogan, Morris. "The Behavior of Teachers and the Productive Behaviors of Their Pupils. " Journal of Experimental Education, 27:89-124, December, 1958. Combs, Arthur. "A Perceptual View of the Adequate Personality. " A monograph distributed at the Mott Colloquium, South- western High School, Flint, Michigan, March 11, 1971. Cooper, James, and Earl Seidman. "Helping New Teachers Focus on Behavioral Change. " Clearing House, 43:301 -306, January, 1969. * Davidson, Helen, and Gerhard Lang. "Children' s Perceptions of Their Teachers' Feelings Toward Them Related to Self - Perception, School Achievement, and Behavior. " Journal of Experimental Education, 29:107 -118, December, 1960. Delp,. Harold. "Mental Health of Teachers: Still a Problem. " Journal of Teacher Education, 14:142 -149, March, 1963. Farnsworth, Dana. "Emotion and Curriculum. " Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 58:119, 1955. 139 Flanders, Ned. "Personal -Social Anxiety as a Factor in Experimental Learning Situations. " Journal of Educational Research, 45:100-110, October, 1951. Goodlad, John. "The Schools vs. Education. " Saturday Review, 52:59-61, April 19, 1969. Hamachek, Don. ”Characteristics of Good Teachers and Implica- tions for Teacher Education. " Phi Delta Kappan, 50:341- 344, February, 1969. Harmon, David, Minoru Masuda, and Thomas H. Holmes. "The Social Readjustment Rating Scale: A Cross -Cultural Study of Western Europeans and Americans. " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 14:391-400, December, 1970. Hatfield, Agnes. "An Experimental Study of the Self -Concept of Student Teachers. " Journal of Educational Research, 55:87 -89, October, 1961. Hawkins, Norman, Robert Davies, and Thomas H. Holmes. "Evidence of Psychosocial Factors in the Development of Pulmonary Tuberculosis. " American Review of Respiratory Diseases, 75:768-779, May, 1957. Heil, L. , M. Powell, and I. Feifer. "Characteristics of Teacher Behavior Related to the Achievement of Different Kinds of Children in Several Elementary Grades. " C00perative Research Project, No. 352, United States Office of Educa - tion. New York: Brooklyn College, 1960. Henry, Jules. "Attitude Organization in Elementary School Class- rooms. " American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 27:117-133, January, 1957. Hinkston, Eugene. "Teacher Know Thyself." Social Studies, 59: 3-6, January, 1968. Holmes, Thomas H. , and Minoru Masuda. "Life Change and Illness Susceptibility. " Presented as part of a "Symposium on Separation and Depression: Clinical and Research Aspects" at the Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Chicago, Illinois, December 26-30, 1970. 140 Holmes, Thomas H. , and Richard H. Rahe. "The Social Readjustment Rating Scale. " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11:213-218, August, 1967. Holway, A. R. "Early Self -Regulation of Infants and Later Behavior in Play Interviews. " American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 19:612 -624, 1949. Kagan, Jerome. ”His Struggle for Identity. " Saturday Review, 51:80-88, December 7, 1968. Kaplan, Louis. "The Annoyances of Elementary School Teachers. " Journal of Educational Research, 45:649-665, May, 1952. Kaplan, Louis, and J. David O' Dea. "Mental Health Hazards in School. " Educational Leadership, 10:351-354, 1953. Klein, Donald. "Some Concepts Concerning the Mental Health of the Individual. " Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24: 288 ~293, August, 1960. Komaroff, Anthony, Minoru Masuda, and Thomas H. Holmes. ”The Social Readjustment Rating Scale: A Comparative Study of Negro, Mexican and White Americans. ” Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 12:121-128, August, 1968. Kotinsky, Ruth, and Jules Coleman. "Mental Health as an Educa- tional Goal. ” Teachers College Record, 56:267 -276, February, 1958. Kvaraceus, William C. "Mental Health Hazards Facing Teachers. " Phi Delta Kappan, 32:349-350, April, 1951. Levin, Harry, Thomas Hilton, and Gloria Leiderman. ”Studies of Teacher Behavior. " Journal of Experimental Education, 26:81-92, 1957. Margolin, Reuben. "New Perspectives for Teachers--An Evaluation of a Mental Health Institute. " Mental Hygiene, 37:394-42 9, July, 1953. Martin, Clyde. "The Emotional, Social and Psychological Make -Up of the Teacher and Its Relationship to Teaching. " Childhood Education, 44:235-238, December, 1967. 141 Mason, Frances. "Study of 700 Maladjusted Teachers. " Mental Hygiene, 15:576-599, July, 1931. Masuda, Minoru, and Thomas H. Holmes. "The Social Readjust- ment Rating Scale: A Cross-Cultural Study of Japanese and Americans. " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11:227-237, August, 1967. "Magnitude Estimations of Social Readjustments. " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11:219-225, August, 1967. McFarland, John. ”Forces that Emancipate the Teacher. " Child- hood Education, 44:487 -490, April, 1968. McGuire, Carson. ”Cultural and Social Factors in Mental Health. " Review of Educational Research, 32:455 -463, December, 1962. Medley, Donald, and Harold Mitzel. "A Technique for Measuring Classroom Behavior. " Journal of Educational Psycholog, 49:86-92, April, 1958. "Some Behavioral Correlates of Teacher Effective- ness. " Journal of Educational Psychologz, 50:239-246, December, 1959. Menninger, William. ”Self-Understanding for Teachers. " National Education Association Journal, 42:331-333, September, 1953. Mensh, Ivan, and Evelyn Mason. "Relationship of School Atmosphere to Reactions in Frustrating Situations. " Journal of Edu- cational Research, 45:275-286, December, 1951. Morse, William. "The Mental Hygiene Dilemma in Public Educa- tion. " American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 31:324-331, April, 1961. Mulholland, Walter. "The Whole Teacher Teaches: Mental Health Invades the Classroom. " Peabody Journal of Education, 45:98-102, September, 1967. 142 National Education Association, Research Division. "A Teacher Looks at Personnel Administration. " Research Bulletin, 23:97-100, December, 1945. "Teaching Load in 1950. " Research Bulletin, 29:5-51, February, 1951. . "The Status of the American Public School Teacher. " Research Bulletin, 35:5-63, February, 1957. Ojemann, Ralph, and Frances Wilkinson. "The Effect on Pupil Growth of an Increase in Teacher' 5 Understanding of Pupil Behavior. " Journal of Experimental Education, 8:143 -147, December, 1939. 0' Neal, Patricia, and Lee Robins. "The Relation of Childhood Behavior Problems to Adult Psychiatric Status: A 30 -Year Follow -Up Study of 150 Subjects. " American Journal of Psychiatry, 114:961-969, May, 1958. Otto, Herbert. "Developing a Mental Health Program in a Teacher- Training Institution." Mental Hygiene, 44:188-196, April, 1960. Pasley, S. The Social Reacijustment Rating Scale: A Study of the Significance of Life Events in Age Groups Ranging from College Freshman to Seventh Grade. As part of Tutorial in Psychology, Chatham College, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1969. Peck, Leigh. "A Study of the Adjustment Difficultiesof a Group of Women Teachers. " Journal of Educational Psychology, 27:401-416, September, 1936. Peck, Robert, and J. V. Mitchell, Jr. "Mental Health. " What Research Says to the Teacher, No. 24. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1962. Pickrel, Evan. "The Differential Effect of Manifest Anxiety on Test Performance. " Journal of Educational Psychology, 49:43 -46, February, 1958. 143 Rahe, Richard H. , Joseph McKean, Jr. , and Ransom Arthur. "A Longitudinal Study of Life Change and Illness Patterns. " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 10:355-366, January, 1967 . Randall, Harriett. "Health Is for Teachers Too." National Educa- tion Association Journal, 40:467 -468, October, 1951. Reed, Horace. "Implications for Science Education of a Teacher Competence Research. " Science Education, 46:473 -486, December, 1962. Retan, George. "Emotional Instability and Teaching Success. " Journal of Educational Research, 37:135-141, 1943. Rocchio, Patrick, and Noland Kearney. "Does a Course in Mental Hygiene Help Teachers?" Understanding the Child, 25: 91-93, June, 1956. Ruch, Libby, and Thomas H. Holmes. "Scaling of Life Change: Comparison of Direct and Indirect Methods. " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 15:221-227, June, 1971. Spaulding, Robert. "Achievement, Creativity, and Self -Concept Correlates of Teacher -Pupil Transactions in Elementary School Classrooms. " Cooperative Research Project, No. 1352, United States Office of Education. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois, 1963. Symonds, Percival. "Classroom Discipline." Teachers College_ Record, 51:147 -158, October, 1949. . "Problems Faced by Teachers. " Journal of Educa- tional Research, 35:1-15, September, 1941. "Teachers Need to Alter Their Attitudes." Times Educational Supplement, 2873:3, June, 1970. Tenenbaum, Samuel. "Attitudes of Elementary School Children to School, Teachers, and Classmates. " Journal of Applied Psychology, 28:134-141, 1944. 144 Thompson, Michael. "Identifying Anxieties Experienced by Student Teachers. " Journal of Teacher Education, 14:435-439, December, 1963. Topp, R. "Teachers Must Live Dangerously Whether They Know It or Not. " Illinois Education, 41:8-10, September, 1952. Townsend, Ernest. "Mental Hygiene and Teacher Recruiting. " Mental Hygiene, 17:598-604, October, 1933. Wall, James. "Psychiatric Disorders in Fifty School Teachers. " American Journal of Psychiatry, 96:137-145, July, 1939. Whitehorn, John. "Stress and Emotional Health. " American Journal of Psychiatry, 112:773-781, April, 1956. Wyler, Allen, Minoru Masuda, and Thomas H. Holmes. "Serious- ness of Illness Rating Scale. " Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11:363-374, November, 1967. Zimmerman, Barry. "The Relationship Between Teacher Class- room Behavior and Student School Anxiety Levels. " ngchology in the Schools, 7:89-93, 1970. APPENDICES APPENDIX A PERSONAL DATA SHEET ANSWER SHEET ONE SECTION I 145 00 NOT WRITE IN THIS SPACE DO NOT MARK THESE SPACES —— :5: ::I:: :2: ;3 2:": . - - : :2}: :5: :31 -5- ;:I:: :2: :5 :1: :5: ;52 2:1: :5: ::’j I. NAME —— lAST FIRST MIDDLE 10;. 13L: z ’— :*._ "E" t .7“ :3: :*: 2' DATE / :02: :2I:: :22. 5 ..fi 5 :5: :.T.'. 5: :5: ”0' D" m" -o-~ ~:I:- -z-- s It “5' 1" 7 we: :3: 3 BIRTH - 10.: :LI:: :3: :5. .4 .5. ..c 7: 15: :5: DATE / / # MO, DAY YEAR :5: 2:32: 2 5 ’t: ’35:: ”8' 2:7': .‘:5: 22’: I—— ‘05 ”3': 72“ ‘25:. "t 5 '6' ..Ti: :5: :3: 4' OCCUPATION '5: ::I:: .22- 53' :t: :25: 1:8: :73 '55: 2:5: 5- ;_I 3:. :5: 4 5 6 -11.- .5: ...: MALE FEMALE 5. sex 7 UNITE NEGRO ORIENTAL AM INDIAN OTHER 6. RACE 2: LESS THAN 2| ZI‘SO SI-AS AS-SS OVER SS 7, AGE GROUP 7 2:-:: “2:: .2;: PROTESTANT CATHOLIC JEWISH OTHER NONE 8. RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE 8. 11:: ::... ":2: : MARRIED DIVORCED SEPARATED WIWED (R) M \RTERD 9. PRESENT MARITAL STATUS ::::: ::::: 7.2;: "1:: :t::: O I 2 3 A6 ID. NUMBER OF MARRIAGES I0. '7’? ::::: 0 I 2 3 AI II. NUMBER OF DIVORCES II 3132: :3? "31‘ 21:" o I 2 3 4+ I2. NUMLER OF TIMES lOST SPOUSE BY DEATH I2. 2111: 27?: .; GRADE SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL TECH SCHOOL COLLEGE GR‘BIT‘DECGRIOEE I3 EDUCATION ATTAINED _ ::::' ::::: it": ::;‘: ::::: I YEAR 2 YEARS 5 YEARS I0 YEARS I00 YEARS I4. TIME AT PRESENT RESIDENCE I4. :‘1 :.::: 4:. xxx :77: O I 2 3 A 5 6 7 0 9+ I5. TIMES MOVED IN LAST 5 YEARS I5 :1::: :t' :2: "::' :"': 9.; ::::‘ "12‘ 2:22: ::::: WEST EASE USA EU OPE EUR E ASIA AFRICA AUSTRALIA I6. COUNTRY OF BIRTH ]6_ _::;: ‘ ‘: .-::‘ :::* :::.'.: 1:: NEW SOUTH CENTRAL DONT ZEALANO CANADA AMERICA AMERICA KNOW " i I h ROCKY EAST SOUTH SOUTHWEST MID'EST MOUNTAIN ALASKA I7. GEOGRAPHICAL AREA OF U.$. WHERE 7133? in»- T111» ..-; '::-- ::::: ‘CAOCAFS.E HAWAII OTHER MOST OF UFE HAS BEEN SPENT ;-.': “2:. _:;_ ; RURAL 5000- 5000+ 50,000+ 500.000? I8. PQPULATIQN QF EIRTHPLACE 8. <14- -- .; ’ " EUR-AL AREA 5000- 5000+ 50,000+ 500.000? I9. MQ§T Qf w: §PENT IN I9. ;_ -' . t ST EAST USA EU OPE EUa PE ASIA AFRICA AUSTRALIA 20. FATHER'S COUNTRY OF BIRTH 20. 3‘31: -- 14.» ::;;: NEW SOUTN CENTRAL DONT ZEALA'ND CANADA AMERICA AMERICA KNOW WEST EAgT fl ----- USA EUROPE EUR PE ASIA AFRICA AUSTRALIA 2I. MOTHER'S COUNTRY OF BIRTH 2T. " ’ ‘ _‘ ;:::: NEW SOUTH CENTRAL DONT ZEALAND CANADA AMERICA AMERICA KNOW o I 2 3 AI 22. NUALBER OF BROTHERS YOU HAVE 22. 7‘” ' ' ' , O | 2 S A? 2;, NUMBER or gsrsas YOU HAVE 23. ' CURB Wu OLDEST YOUNGEST MIDDLE CHILD L MOTHER OVER LIVING 0‘5 YEARS S-IO YEARS IO‘IS YEARS lS-20 YEARS 20 YEARS _ 2:, YQUR AGE WHEN MOTHER DIED . " . , : TATE: o-s YEARS 6-IO YEARS IO-IS YEARS Ic-zo YEARS 20 v2“: WAGE WHEN FATHER DIED ’ . y .; FAonFI‘CEEoS CLERICAL MANAGERIAL NONE PROFESSIONAL SALES 27. OCCUPATIONAI GROUP . . . . r:.:: SERVICE SKILLED STUDENT UNSKILLED III! ".6243 APPENDIX B EDUCATIONAL DATA SHEET 146 EDUCATIONAL DATA SHEET Please print the following information: Name Last First Middle Address Phone Student Number Age Sex Year: F reshman Sophomore Junior Senior Major Study Minor Study Degrees Held Previous Teaching Experience Degree Aspirations Career Aspirations Internship School Location Internship Grade Placement Intern Consultant APPENDIX C SCHEDULE OF RECENT EXPERIENCE (SRE) Booklet for SCHEDULE OF RECENT EXPERIENCE (SRE) Thomas H. Holmes, M .D. Richard H. Rahe, M.D. This questionnaire consists of two sections, a personal history section (answer sheet 1) and a recent experience section (answer sheets 2 & 3). Each item of the questionnaire is numbered and is to be answered on the answer sheets according to the instructions. Read each item and the choice of answers carefully, judge the answer as it applies to you and mark it on the answer sheet. The mark is made by blacking out with a pencil the proper space between the 2 short parallel bars on the answer sheet. Make the marks black and heavy. Do not be afraid to make corrections, but erase cleanly. Do not mark in the booklet. © 1967 University of Washington School of Medicine Department of Psychiatry Section 1, Answer Sheet 1, Social History (Items 1 through 27) The first 4 items of this section, the name, date, birthdate and occupation, are to be written in. All other questions are answered by blackening the bars. The questions to be answered are written out on the left hand side of the answer sheet. The answers are to be marked on the right side. Each question in this section has one answer that is appropriate so do not leave any question without an answer mark. Example: Item No. (Religious preference) 8 Protestant Catholic Jewish Other None This means that your religious preference is Catholic. Section 2, Recent Experience, Answer Sheets 2 & 3 Part A (Items 28 through 39) This section of the questionnaire is different from the first section in 3 ways: first, the questions have to do with whether an event did or did not happen and when; second, the questions to be answered are written only in this instruction booklet; third, the answer sheets(2 & 3) have been separated into 4 time period columns. For each numbered question in the booklet: 1. Think back on the item event and decide if it happened to you and when it happened. 2. If the event in question did happen in any of the time periods, mark the answer sheet by blackening the “Yes” bar in the apprOpriate time period columns which are headed: 0 to 6 mos ago 6 mos to 1 year ago I to 2 years ago 2 to 3 years ago 3. If the event in question did not happen to you in any of the time periods, make a mark under “No.” When in doubt of the event happening, then mark “Yes.” If you are not certain of the time period, do not worry; just try to be as close as possible. There must be a mark in each time period. Example: Item No. (Trouble with boss) 28 0 to 6 mos ago 6 mos to I yr ago I to 2 yrs ago 2 to 3 yrs ago Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No - 2222 2222 - 2222 - - III: This means that you have had trouble with the boss in the last 6 months and between 2 and 3 years ago. Item Number 28. Mark under the appropriate time periods when there has been either a lot more or a lot less trouble with the boss. 29. Mark under the appropriate time periods when there was a major change in sleeping habits (sleeping a lot more or a lot less, or change in part of day when asleep). 30. Mark under the appropriate time periods when there was a major change in eating habits (a lot more or a lot less food intake, or very ditlerent meal hours or surroundings). 31. Mark under the appropriate time periods when there was a revision in your personal habits (dress, manner, associations, etc.). 32. Mark under the apprOpriate time periods when there was a major change in your usual type and/or amount of recreation. 33. Mark under the appropriate time periods when there was a major change in your social activities (e.g., clubs, dancing, movies, visiting, etc.). 34. Mark under the appropriate time periods when there was a major change in church activities (e.g., a lot more or a lot less than usual). 35. Mark under the appropriate time periods when there was a major change in number of family—get- togethcrs (e.g., a lot more or a lot less than usual). 36. Mark under the appropriate time periods when you had a major change in financial state (e.g., a lot worse off or a lot better ofl“ than usual). 37. Mark under the appropriate time periods when you had in—law troubles. 38. Mark under the appropriate time periods when you had a major change in the number of arguments with spouse (e.g., either a lot more or a lot less than usual regarding child-rearing, personal habits, etc.). 39. Mark under the appropriate time periods when you had sexual difficulties. Part B (Items 40 through 69) This part of Section 2 is similar to Part A, except that the question now asks you to indicate the number of times that an item event happened in each of the appropriate time periods. Each of the time period columns has bars numbered from O to 4+. “+” means more than. These numbers represent the number of times the event happened. If the event did not happen, mark the “0” bar. There must be a mark in each time period. Example: Item No. (Change in residence) 0 to 6 mos ago 6 mos to 1 yr ago I to 2 yrs ago 2 to 3 yrs ago 46 01234+Ol234+01234+01234+ 22.22 22 22 22 22.22 22 I22 22 22 22 22 22 22.22 This means you changed residence once in the last 6 months, twice 6 months to 1 year ago, and three times between 2 and 3 years ago. Item Number 40. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you experienced major personal injury or illness. 41. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you have lost a close family member (other than spouse) by death. 42. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you have experienced the death of spouse. 43. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you have experienced the death of a close friend. 44. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you have gained a new family member (e.g., through birth, adoption, oldster moving in, etc.). 45. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that there has been a major change in the health or behavior of a family member. 46. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you have had a change in residence. 47. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you have experienced detention in jail or other institution. 48. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you have been found guilty of minor violations of the law (e.g., traflic tickets, jay walking, disturbing the peace, etc.). 49. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you have undergone a major business readjustment (e.g., merger, reorganization, bankruptcy, etc.). 50. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you married. 51. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you were divorced. 52. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you had marital separation from your mate. 53. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you had an outstanding personal achievement. . 54. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you had a son or daughter leaving home (e.g., marriage, attending college, etc.). 55. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you have experienced retirement from work. 56. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that there was a major change in working hours or conditions. 57. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you had a major change in responsibilities at work (e.g., promotion, demotion, lateral transfer). 58. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you have been fired from work. 59. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that there was a major change in living conditions (building a new home, remodeling, deterioration of home or neighborhood). 60. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that your wife began or ceased working outside the home. 61. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you took on a mortgage greater than $10,000 (e.g., purchasing a home, business, etc.). 62. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you took on a mortgage or loan less than $10,000 (e.g., purchasing a car, T.V., freezer, etc.). 63. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you experienced a foreclosure on a mortgage or loan. 64. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you have taken a vacation. 65. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you have changed to a new school. 66. 67. 68. 69. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that yOu have changed to a different line of work. ' Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you have begun or ceased formal schooling. Mark the number of times in each appropriate time period that you had a marital reconciliation with your mate. 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Sn APPENDIX E RELATED RESEARCH DATA OF HOLMES AND RAHE 155 .52 .nmsms< dam- mam": .nonwmmem ennmcnomonommnm no Banach : .ofimom 33mm acogmshpmem amnoom may... .enam .m pnmnonm can mefiflom .m 92:93:." mocenomonm mam .o S. muonmzmm oz «5 E 25883 35. .o 2‘ conmzmm .250 E 2.” Efimmnonn n S. .o 2 Hansen. 3 EN 23885 m; .o a. ozofimu 3 SN Samanonn as .o S 35:0 3 men on; cam .o an 832 3 m8 323 mas. .o man 320 2232 3 E $an 333 5m .o am $35 no 28w w E a: «@360 V mg .22 mom 832080 Em 9» mm 8:888 EN mam .o mom 8:238 vs 3 S condemned an new .o 3 8:228 EN ms. 2 8238ch a: mm; .o S 8 A was. 3 Zn 8-3. was. mas .o S 8 A $4 3 mom on v mm< mam .o n2 8-2.. owns. 2 mom on v awe. com .o mam BEES m> :n 29% mas .o 2 m Sagan E a: £32 nonuwnonnou QuonO anonO no 5 QuonU 5 anonU «mononmmoou nonansz nongsz *oHaEmm e6. 5 mmuonO onenomnm neegem conuflonnou no uqononflooo m .COmnmom APPENDIX F LE TTER OF TRANSMITTAL 156 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY am LANSING . mcmmm 48823 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 0 BRICKSON HALL November 1, 197 1 Dear Interns, By now you have had many opportunities and experiences which I hope have been enlightening and most beneficial. As a teacher myself, may I say that the experience you are having in your present internship will prove to be most valuable in serving as a foundation for your career as a teacher. You are most fortunate to have this opportunity guided by the skillful assistance of your intern consultants. This year I am involved in the organization of learning experi- ences for a teacher preparation program on a national level. As a part of this effort as well as my graduate training, I am seeking a better understanding of some of the factors underlying teaching relationships and the implications of these relationships for evalu- ating and improving teacher preparation programs. Since I am unable to spend a sufficient amount of time in public school classrooms, I have asked your intern consultants for their cooperation in serving as resource personnel for the observation of various dimensions of teaching characteristics, techniques, and styles. These observations will in no way require any tasks above and beyond the regular classroom procedures. These observations are strictly for exploratory purposes and will in no way reflect your teaching or personal being. Therefore, I want to be sure to emphasize that there is no cause for uncertainty or concern for additional requirements. As a fellow teacher, I am interested in any contribution that I can make for the increased quality and status of the teaching pro- fession. I likewise feel confident that persons of your caliber have this same goal. If there is any way in which I can be of assistance to you during your year of internship, please feel free to call on me. Thank you for your cooperation and innumerable contributions to the efforts of this endeavor. With kind regards, Miss Alice Hoskins APPENDIX G LETTER FROM DR. THOMAS H. HOLMES 157 UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON sums, WASHINGTON 98105 February 9, 1972 School of M edicine Department of Psychiatry Miss Alice Lavonne Hoskins 134 East Point C-13 East Lansing, Michigan 48823 Dear Miss Hoskins: Let me express my appreciation of your continued interest in our research here at the University of Washington in the area of the quantification of life changes, attitudes and life styles. It is also a source of satisfaction that investigators like yourself can see the relevance of this research to their own area of study. As far as I know your investigation, "An Assessment of the Correlation Between Life Change and the Teacher Behavior of the Elementary Intern Teacher," is the first use of the scale in this kind of research. I am sure it will prove to be a unique contribution to the domain of behavioral science and will serve as a stimulus to further research in the area of human behavior. With my best wishes to you for your success and your contribution. Sincer 1y yours, ‘7—6’W‘4’ WW3 Thomas H. Holmes, M. D. Professor of Psychiatry THH:ma M'TITI'I‘J’IEII'IILTIJMIfilliflfllfllfljfllfifijflm'as