__\ THESlS “3mm Michigan grate University W A: This is to certify that the dissertation entitled A TAXONOMIC ANALYSIS OF REFLECTION-ELICITING TECHNIQUES IN EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING presented by Robert Stephen Hough has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. degree in Administration and Curriculum Major professor Date January 1983 MS U i: an Affirmative Adieu/Equal Opportunity Institution 0- 12771 MSU LlBRARlES ._:_‘—. RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. A TAXONOMIC ANALYSIS OF REFLECTION-ELICITING TECHNIQUES IN EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING By Robert Stephen Hough A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of ’ DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curriculum l983 ABSTRACT A TAXONOMIC ANALYSIS OF REFLECTION-ELICITING TECHNIQUES IN EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING By Robert Stephen Hough The purpose was to identify the use of action/reflection method- ology in theological education. The study indicates uses of experien- tial learning in selected seminaries and the content, character, and extent of the educative reflection upon applied experience. Question- ing is assumed to be a major reflection-eliciting strategy for the reporting on and debriefing of four major modes of experiential learning: block placement, concurrent field education, practicum, and the case method. Individual interviews were carried out with seminary faculty (N;29) in institutions (NfB) related to the North American Presbyterian and Reformed Council (NAPARC). Written questionnaire responses were voluntarily requested from faculty-selected senior seminarians. Four- teen chose to respond. The analysis of reflection-eliciting techniques used the five-division Steinaker and Bell experiential taxonomy: Exposure, Participation, Identification, Internalization, and Dissemi- nation.. Major findings indicate that praxis is not expressed as a major curricular concern in faculty definitions of experiential learning. Robert Stephen Hough A general verbal interest in higher-order theological reflection was found. However, no evidence was displayed of a programmed flow of questions designed to move the respondent through an orderly thought process from cognitive recognition and recall toward higher-order reflection and praxis. Instead, informational recall and skill acqui- sition were primary concerns. Individual student growth and develop- ment including feelings generated with respect to an experience were secondary. Little identifiable difference existed between questions prepared for written or oral response. Both fall into the lower cate- gories of the taxonomy focused primarily on factual recall, classifi- cation, and evaluation of data. Oral reporting and group discussion in either the classroom or larger or small-group configurations was the preferred format for debriefing activities. Interpersonal inter- action between a student and faculty member was not a primary value generally expressed in the action/reflection process. Further study of action/reflection methodology and especially the character of reflection as part of experiential learning (in terms of both theology and the student's self-search into divine truth) are suggested to encourage praxis. Dedicated to- the Still Small Voice who kept impressing upon me that biblical admonition: No one who puts his hand to the plow and looks back is fit for service in the kingdom of God. Luke 9:62 ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A special word of gratitude to Dr. Edward Seely, who inspired the program that fostered this thesis. His encouragement to become acquainted with Dr. Ted Ward, chairman of my committee, led to a period of personal growth and development of which this thesis is but a culmination. The other members of my committee, Dr. George Myers, Dr. Charles Blackman, and Dr. Donald Melcer, responded warmly when called upon to serve in their respective capacities. Dr. Ward is an unusual mentor. His fertile mind and appreciation for the rigor of careful study and written expression from a perspec- tive of Christian servanthood have been and will continue to be a singular inspiration. Appreciation beyond words must somehow be expressed to my wife, Betty, children Stephanie, Thomas, and Gwendolyn, and my parents, who have given years of immeasurable devotion in support of my being well equipped for ministry. Finally, I remain eternally grateful for the 29 faculty members of the eight NAPARC-related seminaries who so willingly gave of their time for the interviews but also for scheduling in order to accommo- date the dictates of my own ministry. May the ultimate glory, however, go to the primary focus of the theological reflection about which this thesis speaks: the Lord Jesus Christ. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ......................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ......................... ix LIST OF APPENDICES ....................... x Chapter I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ................ l Foundational Rudiments ................ 2 Problem Statement ................... ll Theological Criteria for the Justification of Value Judgments ................... l4 Pedagogical Assumptions ................ l5 Purpose and Significance of the Study ......... 16 Research Questions .................. l7 Summary ........................ l8 Definitions of Important Terms ............ l9 11. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................ 23 Historical Perspective ................ 24 Classification of Questions .............. 28 Summary ........................ 32 III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ............. 33 Description of Type of Research ............ 33 Overview of the Research ............... 33 Subjects ....................... 34 Setting ........................ 34 Interview Procedure .................. 35 Instrumentation .................... 36 Limitations ...................... 39 Summary ........................ 41 IV. FINDINGS ........................ 42 Classification of Findings .............. 42 Orientation of the Institutions Toward Experiential Learning ...................... 43 Page Evidence From the Interviews: Section A ........ 54 Evidence From the Interviews: Section B ........ 64 Summary ........................ 90 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........ 100 Summary ........................ 100 Discussion of the Findings .............. 102 Conclusions ...................... lll Implications ..................... 113 Recommendations .................... 115 Postscript ...................... 126 APPENDICES ........................... 127 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................... 219 vi Table 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 LIST OF TABLES Faculty Definitions of Experiential Learning ....... Distribution of Purpose Statements According to the Experiential Taxonomy ................. Process Verbs Included in Faculty Definitions of Experiential Learning ................. Process Descriptors as Indicated in Faculty Definitions of Experiential Learning ................ Distribution of Faculty Using Specific Modes of Experiential Learning ................. Distribution of Faculty Using Specific Methods of Reporting and Debriefing an Experiential Learning . . . . Distribution of Faculty Using Specific Methods for Student Orientation and Preparation for Experiential Learning ........................ Distribution of Faculty Using Specific Groupings and Locations for Debriefing Activity ........... Distribution of Courses of Study Relative to Degree Programs and Modes of Experiential Learning ...... Institutional Concerns .................. Person-Centered Growth Purposes and Values ........ Process-Oriented Growth Purposes and Values ....... Field Education .......... ~ ........... Practicum ........................ Case Method ....................... Field Education ..................... vii Page 55 58 59 59 60 61 62 63 64 66 66 67 72 73 74 75 4.17 Practicum ....... 4.18 Case Method ...... 4.19 Faculty Perceptions of Student Benefits From Experiential Learning viii Page 76 77 91 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 3.1 Four Selected Basic Modes of Experiential Learning and Their Definitions ................. 37 3.2 Eight Generally Accepted Methods of Reporting the Content of an Experience and Their Definitions . . . . 38 4.1 Selected Indicators Representing the Five Categories of the Experiential Taxonomy ............. 45 ix LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A. B. CD'T'II'HUO THE EXPERIENTIAL TAXONOMY ................ COMPARISON OF COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, AND EXPERIENTIAL DOMAINS ........................ CRITERIA FOR THEORIES OF INSTRUCTION .......... INTERVIEW QUESTION SCHEDULE ............... LETTERS OF REQUEST ................... STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE .................. BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE EIGHT INSTITUTIONS AND REPRESENTATIVE RESPONSES ............... SOME IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS: THEOLOGICAL REFLECTION PROCESS, ZETA SEMINARY ................ SELF-EVALUATION OF INTERNSHIP EXPERIENCE: EPSILON SEMINARY ....................... GENERAL SELF-ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION: SHORT-ANSWER FIELD EDUCATION TERM REPORT, ETA SEMINARY ....... STUDENT PREPARATION INSTRUMENT FOR CLASS REFLECTION SESSION: ZETA SEMINARY ................ FACULTY-PREPARED QUESTION SEQUENCE FOR THEOLOGICAL REFLECTION ON FIELD EDUCATION: ZETA SEMINARY ..... SAMPLE DEBRIEFING GUIDE FOR SUMMER FIELD ASSIGNMENT . . . A CASE STUDY AND ITS DEBRIEFING GUIDE .......... Page 128 134 137 139 144 148 204 CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM "Men's activity consists of action and reflection" (Freire, 1970, p. 119). If action is emphasized exclusively to the detriment of reflection, "activism" results. If there is a "sacrifice of action," "verbalism" results (p. 75). Another scholar similarly warned that "purely functional Christian faith is likely to become mindless acti- vism, and that activity may well be short lived'I (Groome, 1980, p. 65). Groome also observed, "The most significant advocate for an education grounded in an experiential way of knowing is John Dewey himself" (p. 145). Dewey's (1944) appreciation for the relationship between knowledge and experience is seen in his belief that "information severed from action is dead, a mind-crushing load" (p. 153). The Apostle James earlier spoke a similar injunction, "Faith [knowledge based] without works is dead" (James 2:17 [NIV]). The appropriate relationship between action and reflection as expressed by these scholars awakens a concern with respect to the emphasis and direction of contemporary theological education and more specifically reflection-eliciting techniques in experiential learning. Theological reflection is an integral dimension of experiential learning and stands in need of further reflection in order to enhance its effectiveness in theological preparation for ministry. The extent and character of theological reflection with respect to reflection- eliciting techniques and reflective-questioning techniques forms a major dimension of that research need. Therefore, this study is intended to show something of the present level of faculty involvement in experiential learning in theological education as well as an indication of the content, character, and extent of the reflection upon that experience. Foundational Rudiments Experiential learning, as defined by Hamilton (1980), speaks of "educational programs functioning outside of conventional school classrooms that place participants in responsible roles and engage them in cooperative, goal-directed activities with other youth, with adults, or both" (p. 180). Hamilton's definition should be expanded for purposes of this study to include classroom case study, which is a vicarious form of experiential learning. Reflection and transforming action upon that reflection has been labeled "the praxis" by Freire (1970). A similar concern for continu- ing and transforming action based on reflection upon concurrent experience was termed "educational praxis" by Small (1978). Relative specifically to theological education, Kaseman (1977) spoke of "Christian praxis," and Groome (1980), "shared praxis." Praxis The term "praxis" is the transliteration of a Greek word that designated action or deeds (Friedrich, 1968). The first-century writers of the Greek New Testament employed the term in the title of the fifth book, entitled Acts [Praxes] of the Apostles. Over time, the term "praxis" has evolved in Christian thought to relate to not only life's action, but also reflection upon those experiences. The intent of praxis is a continuing life response, an action/reflection cycle. The Apostle Paul speaks of this action/reflection cycle in terms of the transformation of one's person as well as one's trans- forming action upon the world with the following imperative: "Do not conform any longer to the pattern of this world, but be trans- formed by the renewing of your mind. Then you will be able to test and approve what God's will is" (Romans 12:2 [NIV]). The inference in this text suggests both personal and global transformation to the likeness and person of Jesus Christ as the proper response to Chris- tian reflection upon experience in the context of the teachings of the Bible. Experience, and reflection upon these events relative to learner response, have a long history in terms of Christian thought. From a strictly Christian perspective dating back to the early first century, the model of Jesus Christ training his disciples provides a classic example of action/reflection methodology in terms of learning process as well as teacher and learner behaviors. The disciples were commis- sioned to demonstrate in life and living, into action, the growth and maturity borne as a result of reflection upon experience. They were commissioned to praxis. The Biblical imperative was, and is, to "go" and to "teach," i.e., the "Great Commission" (Matthew 28:19). Theological Reflection Whitehead and Whitehead (1975) defined theological reflection as "the ability to bring Christian tradition (Scripture and our multi- leveled historical tradition) into dialogue with our contemporary experience in such a way as to yield both understanding of God's action in the church today and decisions about the building of Chris- tian community adequate to the future" (p. 273). Furthermore, it has been said that theological reflection must be essentially heuristic, the kind of reflection that impels to action (Whitehead, 1977). Christian Praxis The focus of this study was on reflection-eliciting techniques relative to reflection upon experience in the context of theological education. Therefore, Kaseman's (1977) definition of Christian praxis provides a Biblically sound basis for this research. She defined praxis as "the purposive, shared, human action growing out of, and guided by, the distinctively Christian identity of its agents and the community that most decisively shapes their identities as Christians, i.e.,theChurch" (p. 75). Christian praxis forms the heart of not only theological experi- ential learning but of life itself. Jesus said, "by their fruit you will recognize them" (Matthew 7:16 [NIV]). In Christianity, "fruit" is the empirical results of the ongoing integration of faith-knowledge into daily life and living. Secular Education From the perspective of secular education, John Dewey maintained a place of prominence with respect to the relationship between educa- tion and experience in terms of his conception of learning as the reconstruction of experience. Basic to Dewey's (1963) philoSOphy of learning is the dictum that "education in order to accomplish its end both for the individual learner and for society must be based upon experience--which is always the actual-life experience of some indi- vidual" (p. 89). In one of his earliest writings (1902), Dewey touched upon this fundamental concern. No number of object lessons, got up as object lessons for the sake of giving information, can afford even the shadow of a substitute for acquaintance with the plants and animals of the farm and garden acquired through actual living among them and caring for them. . . . Verbal memory can be trained in commit- ting tasks, a certain discipline of the reasoning powers can be acquired through lessons in science and mathematics; but, after all, this is somewhat remote and shadowy compared with the training of attention and of judgment that is acquired in having to do thin s with a real motive behind and a real outcome ahead. (pp. 11-12) (Italics added.) Lest Dewey's emphasis on experience as a basic action component of education be misconstrued, he provided a word of caution that "bare doing, no matter how active, is not enough" (1959, p. 122). The burden of proof for experience as a dimension le learning is relative to the consequences of that action. Secular and Theological Higher Education Both secular and theological higher education have for some years included the element of experience and reflection upon that experience as a basic component of the educational program and process. This has been exemplified in clinical experience as well as field-based learn- ing activities. Experience-oriented methodology in education tradi- tionally includes some form of reflective dialogue between faculty or supervisory personnel and the student by means of either written or oral debriefing. Land-Grant Philosophy An early form of action/reflection methodology from the field of _ secular higher education was introduced with the land-grant philosophy. The land-grant movement began with the Morrill Land-Grant College Act of 1862. This legislation passed into law during the Lincoln presi- dency paved the way for an ongoing relationship between a number of educational institutions of higher learning throughout the country and their geographically immediate constituency by means of agricultural extension. The land-grant colleges initially developed the oppor- tunity for experiential learning by application of the demonstration method in agriculture. Consequently, persons who were and are engaged in farming are brought into an ongoing dialogue with their respective educational institutions. Thus, theory and experience are brought together in an action/reflection teaching methodology. Cooperative Extension Service Shortly after the turn of the century, Knapp became a leading proponent of the land-grant demonstration method conjoining theory and experience (Bailey, 1945). Through the dedicated efforts of agricultural educators such as Knapp and others, the land-grant philosophy evolved into what is known today as the Cooperative Extension Service, which was officially established under the Smith- Lever Act, 1914. The Cooperative Extension Service, as an indigenous component of the program of the land-grant universities with its emphasis on action/reflection, is one of the prominent models of field-based experiential learning in existence today within the United States. The land-grant movement and cooperative extension provide fundamental elements of process evident in both contemporary theological education and agricultural field-based learning as well. Examples of these key elements are the concepts of cooperation, par- ticipation, variation of methods according to needs of groups, recog- nition of interests and needs, and recognition of cultural differences (Wilson, 1944). Clinical Method Another instructional procedure applied in higher education that provides a model for experiential learning in theological education is the clinical method as first developed in medical education. Early in this century, recognition of clinical experience as a necessary component of professional training was given impetus by means of Flexner's (1910) Carnegie Foundation study of medical education in the United States. Once it was recognized as an essential ingredient in education for modern medicine, the field experience has been increasingly acknowledged as a valid aspect of the curriculum in virtually every professional field (Ward, 1972). Today, in profession after profession, the practicum or guided simulation has become essen- tial though it might be called practice teaching, moot court, field work, or some other similar term (Houle, 1977). Most theological schools since the beginning of the century have built some form of clinical-based learning into the educational process. Before that time, practical experience was gained primarily from the apprentice form of training (Beisswenger, 1977). Theological Education In part as a result of the success of secular models of experi- ential learning, theological education has likewise adopted a philo- sophical posture relative to teaching methodology which includes experience and concurrent theological reflection upon that experience as an integral dimension of the curriculum. The experiential com- ponents in theological education generally fall into four major cate- gories: concurrent field education, block placement, practicum, and the case method, the latter being a vicarious form of concrete experience. Rogers (1969) suggested that "placing the student in direct experiential confrontation with practical problems, social issues, and research problems, is one of the most effective modes of promot- ing learning" (p. 162). Theological experiential learning tends to involve all three types of confrontation. The Association of Theological Schools' (1976) "Procedures, Standards and Criteria for Membership" for the Master of Arts in Religious Education and the Master of Religious Education degrees expresses as a criterion and anticipates that "Field experience and supervisors function as integral to the educational program; with colloquia in which full—time faculty (from varied fields), adjunct faculty, and students seek integration of the academic and experien- tial learnings" (p. 28). Theological reflection upon student experi- ence is clearly indicated and anticipated in this statement of principle. It was suggested by Wentz (1975) that "the most produc- tive reflection takes place where action and instruction interpene- trate" (p. 110). One seminary's basic statement of principle undergirding field- based learning states that "effective training of ministers requires not only academic training, but practical experience and case study. Hence the field work is an integral part of the student's full-rounded training" (Calvin Theological Seminary, 1967, p. 15). Implicit in this philosophical statement is the element of theological reflection upon experience as an integral dimension of the seminary curriculum. Action/Reflection Methodology Theological education for many years has traditionally given tacit if not outright approval to the desirability for action/ reflection methodology in program design as a critical element in preparation for ministry. The evolution of this principle of action/ reflection methodology within given theological institutions has been in terms of shape and form, as well as intensity of involvement in life-related experience. Rowen (1981) pointed out that the dichotomy between theory and practice continues to be questioned, and the present approach to theological education is to increase the emphasis on bridging the gap between them. He further noted that this bridge- building strategy involves "either nominating a particular field 10 (i.e., practical theology) to build the bridge or the development of a series of bridges from each pedagogical enterprise" (p. 8). ("Peda- gogical enterprise" refers to such courses as Bible, church history, dogmatics, and practical theology.) Theological Education by Extension As fundamental components of theological education, clinical and field—based learning have evolved yet another step into what has come to be known as Theological Education by Extension (TEE). TEE is a compromise between the traditional training program and one focused on experience. As a philosophy of learning, TEE was born of neces- sity in Guatemala in the early 19605. Faced with an economic crisis precipitated by a problem of insufficient faculty/student ratio, the Evangelical Presbyterian Seminary determined to give positive response by reaching out to students beyond the campus confines. The target group was students for whom a typical seminary-structured experience in one central location was quite a physical and social impossibility (Covell & Wagner, 1971). Fundamental to the curriculum of TEE is the concurrent programmed seminar in which theological reflection upon field-based experience is conducted between students and faculty, usually once per week. The instructor's primary responsibility is to facilitate reflective discussions that will encourage the partici- pants to integrate their cognitive learning with their ongoing life experience (Elmer, 1980). Extension theological education has more recently developed within the United States as a means of reaching potential church leadership persons with theological content and ministry methods. 11 A Renaissance A number of factors, combined, foster within theological education a renaissance of interest in the concept of Christian praxis. The implicit action/reflection methodology and its implications for a more wholistic, humanistic, and person-centered education are advo- cated for all students aspiring to church leadership. Theological reflection is the sine qua non which to a significant degree assures success in any of the four selected modes of experiential learning: its character, its content, and its basis in the Scripture. Problem Statement The action component of theological education, the planned experiential portion of the curriculum, has become fairly well estab- lished programatically by means of some form of the following models: concurrent field education (part-time during the school year while in residence), block placement (full-time in specified time block), practicum (simultaneous along with classroom instruction), and case method (vicarious involvement in a real-life situation). However, the depth of the theological-reflection element of these experiential learning activities with respect to student/faculty interaction is open to question. This weakness is apparent in the context of the integration of classroom theory and life-related experience with respect to meaningful conclusions. Sherman (1973), writing from the perspective of the case method, regretted that We do not in fact think or reflect theologically, case groups have commonly found that theological questions, let alone 12 answers, are seldom offered. . . . Is there something in the case method which inhibits theological discussion and an airing of theological differences? . . . Or is it perhaps that our faith has grown so thin that men, even the clergy, will not talk theology lest they expose their thinness? (pp. 7-8) In Kennedy's (1978) judgment, much work needs to be done in refining the ways of reflection in action/reflection learning. When compared to the energy devoted over centuries to methods of exegesis and "book learning" research, it is obvious that the method of action/ reflection learning needs intensive development. A bit later, Kinsler quoted Kennedy (personal letter, 1979) as saying that "the action/reflection mode of learning is one that in fact dominates most pastoral ministries, but because we have done relatively little analysis and experimentation and conceptualization of it, we do not do it as well as we might." The assessment, evaluation, and analysis of experience in the light of Scripture with an overt emphasis on continuing action is found to be deficient. As an integral dimension of experiential learning, theological reflection stands in need of further research in order to enhance its effectiveness in theological preparation for ministry. The Problem This study is designed to address the question to what extent action/reflection methodology, i.e., programmed experience and theo- logical reflection upon that experience, is being carried out among selected faculty representing eight NAPARC-related institutions for theological education. More specifically in this study, the present 13 use of experiential learning in theological education is examined. Furthermore, what constitutes the content, character, and extent of reflection upon that experience is studied. Theological Reflection Irrespective of the mode of experiential learning, theological reflection as a curriculum content is carried out by means of some form of reporting and/or debriefing process. This process may take several forms with respect to the interrogation or discussion intended- to increase the conceptual meaning and judgmental reflection upon a given learning experience. It may involve a written guidance instru- ment designed for a student's written or oral response. Or it may simply involve a prepared debriefing schedule to be used by the instructor or field supervisor as a strategy to initiate a student's oral response in reflection upon a given activity. At the least, the reporting and debriefing processes might involve no more than a dialogue between staff and student(s) with no organized or prepared discussion format. Questions Because of the nature of instructor-directed theological reflec- tion, it was assumed that questions were a major strategy for the reporting on and debriefing of all four modes of experiential learn- ing identified for this study. Given the concern for the extent of theological reflection and continuing action upon that reflection, the focus of this descriptive study was to probe by means of orderly assessment the reflection-eliciting techniques relative to the four 14 selected modes of experiential learning in theological education: block placement, concurrent practicum, field education, and case method. This assessment of reflection-eliciting techniques and reflective-questioning techniques was carried out for the purpose of estimating their emphasis and direction in light of the Taxonomy of Experiential Learning (Steinaker & Bell, 1979, Appendix A). This study does not presume the existence of, or intend to assist in developing, some type of ideal question content or sequence for reporting or debriefing experiential learning. What was sought was evidence of a process designed to move a student from simple recall of facts beyond analysis toward Christian praxis. This pursuit focused primarily upon questions as an approach to the broader con- cern for student reflection upon experiential learning. Theological Criteria for the Justification of Value Judgments Theological reflection is viewed as critical thinking regarding all the dimensions of life. It encourages the student's involvement with the Scripture relative to life's possibilities as well as prob- lems. An adequate response to theological reflection demands an individual obedience to God and one's fellowman in both life and living; a Christian praxis. This obedience is reflected in lived experience within the dictates of God's Law, the Ten Commandments, under the Lordship of Jesus Christ. The educational institutions represented in this survey sub- scribe to a Reformed theology of the Christian faith which is 15 confessional in nature. Therefore, the following statements are consistent with the Reformed confession of the Christian faith. Certain assumptions underlying this study have a basis in faith rather than empirical research. Three such faith assumptions follow: 1. The Bible is the infallible word of God which forms a basis for the valuing of life's experience. 2. God is Lord of all and nothing exists or happens apart from His sovereign will. Therefore, experience in life must be judged and valued with respect to His divine will as revealed in the Scrip- tures which are sufficient for both faith and life. 3. The Christian functions in his daily walk under the Lordship of Christ and is empowered by His Spirit to live a life of obedience to the sovereign will of the Father God as revealed in Scripture. Pedagogical Assumptions The body of literature relating to reflection on experience and the role of questions offers at least the following pedagogical assumptions. 1. Questioning relative to experience can be analyzed to deter- mine its taxonomic structure. 2. The use of questions is one of the most common teaching techniques. 3. The educational outcomes which are intended will be affected by the characteristics of the questioning techniques. 4. Instructor-controlled questioning processes frequently focus on factual recall and analysis. 16 5. The extent to which the questioning process moves beyond simple analysis toward a more comprehensive involvement with the totality of an experience is relative in part to student/staff time commitments and workload. 6. Debriefing questions will tend to focus on cognitive con- cerns with a lesser emphasis on the affective responses to an experi- ence. 7. Problem solving versus critical thinking is determined by the content and progression of instructor-designed questions. 8. Valued educational objectives in a specific setting aid in the definition of effective types of questions. 9. Experiential learning is enhanced by orderly reflection. 10. Questions may serve as an instructor-controlled stimulator to higher-level critical thinking. 11. Well-posed questions contribute significantly to student growth and achievement. Purpose and Significance of the Study The purpose of this analysis of reflection-eliciting techniques in theological education was to obtain and classify data on which hypotheses may be drawn to provide a basis for further study into the learner's task of reporting on and debriefing experiential learning. This study was intended to provide data regarding the levels and sequence of reflection-eliciting techniques presently being pursued relative to the taxonomic continuum from simple recall (1.0 Exposure) 17 to praxis (5.0 Dissemination).1 The data analysis and conclusions are intended to assist faculty to determine what types and sequences of debriefing questions they might employ to secure maximum theologi- cal reflection. Maximum theological reflection is rooted in the Scriptures with the ultimate goal of continuing action. Research Questions Research questions fall into two categories: descriptive ques- tions and analytic/evaluative questions. The following questions form the basis for research in the selected eight institutions for theological education. Descriptive Questions 1. How do the four selected modes of experiential learning in theological education rank relative to faculty implementa- tion? 2. How do the eight methods of reporting and debriefing rank relative to faculty implementation? 3. How do methods employed for student pre-orientation and preparation for experiential learning rank relative to faculty implementation? 4. Is there any pattern of sequence or level which relates particular questions to particular experiences? 5. What primary emphasis is displayed in the balance between convergent (1.0 Exposure, 2.0 Participation) and divergent (3.0 Identification, 4.0 Internalization, 5.0 Dissemination) questions? 1"Dissemination" in this taxonomy is intended to mean more than the spreading of information and is more a matter of pre-Hellenistic concern for action on the basis of what one knows. "Demonstration" might be a better word for what Steinaker and Bell described in the highest level of their taxonomy. 18 6. What identifiable differences, if any, exist between report- ing and debriefing questions prepared for written response as opposed to oral seminar presentation? Analytic/Evaluative Questions 1. Does the process used within given reporting and debriefing activities and across the progression of the whole curriculum reveal movement or impetus toward higher-order theological reflection (3.0 Identification, 4.0 Internalization, 5.0 Dis- semination)? 2. To what extent do the reporting and debriefing questions induce theological reflection, i.e., a direct confrontation with the Scripture? 3. What evidence exists of a programmed flow of questions designed to move the respondent through a process of orderly reflection from cognitive recognition and recall (1.0 Expo- sure) to Christian praxis (5.0 Dissemination)? 4. To what extent does the formulation of questions indicate a concern for the individual student's growth and development in the combined areas of cognition and affect? Summary This descriptive curriculum study, ll Taxonomic Analysis of Reflection-Eliciting Techniques in Experiential Learning, was con- cerned with the quality of theological reflection in the experien- tial learning curriculum of theological education. Classroom cognitive input should be tried and tested in the arena of life-related experi- ence. As one theological educator pointed out, "Learning theology by doing theology is a necessity. Being where the people are is not learning outside the classroom. It is the classroom" (Hahn, 1977, p. 293). Furthermore, life-related experience and its consequences should be analyzed and debated in light of the revealed will of God in the Bible. Reflection upon experience should have within it a 19 cyclical dynamic that moves a student to continuing experience rela- tive to the conclusions of the reflective activity. The new experi- ence, in turn, calls for further reflection. Praxis is defined as a cyclical phenomenon that requires a balance between action and reflec- tion. Within and as a result of this dialogue between theory/theology and experience, the opportunity for growth and development is enhanced. Action demands reflection in theological education. And that reflection demands continuing action. Anything less tends to become either of two faulty responses: activism or verbalism (Freire, 1970). Neither of these two responses can be supported as Biblical ideals for ministry. Definitions of Important Terms The following definitions will be of help in explaining some of the key terms and phrases used in this study: Action/reflection methodology: A circular ongoing process lead- ing on into further intentional action, deepened by the analysis of the reflection and grounded in the active engagement (Kennedy, 1978). Block placement: Engagement of a student in an intensive full- time ministry within a specific block of time, apart from the normal routines of the school year (Hunter, 1977). Case: A written description of an event or series of events presented in such a manner as to elicit from the reader(s) an analy- sis of the situation, an isolation and evaluation of available options, and a concrete commitment to a specific course of action (Rosell & Weeks, n.d.). 20 Case method: A method that requires students to participate actively in problem situations, hypothetical or real (Good, 1973). Christiangpraxis: Purposive, shared, human action growing out of, and guided by, the distinctively Christian identity of its agents and the community that most decisively shapes their identities as Chris- tians, i.e., the Church (Kaseman, 1977). Clinical experience: First-hand participation in patient and patient-related services occurring as part of an educational program (Good, 1973). Concurrent field-based learning: A supervised field experience of up to 12 to 25 hours of direct ministry during the academic year while the student is in residence (Hunter, 1977). Curriculum: A series of planned events that are intended to have educational consequences for one or more students (Eisner, 1979). Debriefing: Any interrogation or discussion intended to increase the conceptual meaning and judgmental reflection upon a given learning experience (Ward, 1979). Dialogue: A conversation between individuals or groups carried on especially for the purpose of mutual instruction and understanding (Good, 1973). Experience: A hierarchy of stimuli, interaction, activity, and response within a scope of sequentially related events beginning with exposure and culminating in dissemination (Steinaker & Bell, 1979). Experiential learning: Educational programs functioning outside of conventional school classrooms that place participantsiriresponsible 21 roles and engage them in cooperative, goal-directed activities with other youths, with adults, or both (Hamilton, 1980). Field-based learning: Exposure to the environment and "life problems"mmu:w gsoem N Nuocxm cow cowumcmamga :N w_ mm mamm_ paupzum\pmcos a co usages couupgz x .wgzuae on» ou mcwxoo_ “an aw we “no mcwmwgo use oucmwgmaxm c_mww mgu co ummaoow mo>muownno mo umm :muuwcz vacuum a ogmamgan .mocmpconxm we usages couu_c3. .ugonoc cuuuwcz .mcpmg .mmczou use see; mcwccomp acouaum mo ccmmmau 1mwu aaogu cow mwmcn on» mace» mamopowv mwgu ease xumncmou .muuuucoo ape.» ouwmuao new mucouaum cmmzuoa a: new my ozmoFNFu oca couscouem ==3ouxpau= new cowuo=_o>u .scoweoa on NAN—a ope; cm>wm use mucouaum .copuvmpzaoo pppxm mm ppm: me mg? m .moco_cmnxm mo cowuoapm>o cmua_czo .mcoeme .mmsmomppou mo mocwpuzo couuwcxu .ugoawc cmuapgz pmcpmo .ucoqoc coauwcz pecpua .ocvwmwgnofiav new mcwugcaoamvu n N m m m m o m —p mp N m m m m N o— N— mN mpmu0h _ P F p — p p — muwgh N P F e m N N N N m m —— mum Nd” N N N _ N N N N N N N e a e N NSNN i a. _ _ _ _ N _ N 5.33.. m we 1 _ P _ N 3:5 o_ P _ P _ p oEEmw n— p p F wave F — F p p — _ uga—< o m a m o m o m o a o a o a a x an ax mzwp>gwucm >\< acogmm _N:L:oa .msumwo xcaum .Egom .nmom :omuaupumcm gmcuo .coguom_m Pmuouomc< \xcmwo aaogu ommu swumncw> .awcauwwmum page No Longs: o:_=cum4 _owucmvsmaxu cm m:_wopcamo new m:_ucoqmm Co muogumz uwwwumam acpma Napaumu Co cowuznwcum_o No.¢ opnmp (52 .u_ we eee mcwmwce no: .eeeewceexe epeww :e cemeoew me>wueenee we aceseueum :euuwwz e megeeeee uceeeum; .ceweeecewceece we ecexee: e sew e—eww me» :e aceeeum meme; gemw>gee=m epewom .Feeeee mcwm: eezew>geuew Napeeew Neueeweew Amy geese: mew .mueeeeum ceew we megs» we neeem N cew ceases Nupeeew ece .ceweeepwem _eowmepeegw cw ee>Pe>cw ea ea eegweeew use can Fences mwgu em: wepeuew ecwuee egww .mcwuuem Neweeesee pageupeoummece eee peweecwupas e ewguwz Newpweweece gmw—neeme ea we: mwnw .mueeeeum segw m—_eo mew>weoec ea epee: uezu Nezecesu ea anew we: xceeewueum Nupeuew ee geuuep ee ecee .xgumwewe e_eww meweoee oz» euew eeuecm -eecw ape>wuue on usmwe Neweeuee one sews: cw was: eemmsemwe eee memgeee eewueeeeelepeww acesceeeee e2» emueeecuew Lemmewegee N . N e _ e N. Nam :38 _ Neogw F _ _ p _ N. New M" N e _ wN N NeoN a. _ N =o_wmau a e. _ N e_oo e_ _ p _ Nazca _ p Noam n_ P NP N F N;a_< Aceeuwgzvme>we seem emceemem eeeeeewceu eoeeemweeu .weeu ueeeeum cesuo -eenno we aces eeceeece eeeco\xupeeew eemceeueelcemgea \cemw>eee:m peace: mzew>ceuc~ -meNeN ecoeaem -Ne_=eau ecoe=NN\Ne_=eNu epowe\ae_=eau Nemeaem wo seesaz coweaewemce mcwm: Neweeew we cease: "meenuez eewueueewgo zapeeeu ezem e—eww mcweeeee _eweemwgeexw Lew coweeceeega eee cewueucewco eeeeeum Lew Neesuez ewwweeem mewma Au—eeew we eewuenwcumwo ”w.e epeew 63 Table 4.8: Distribution of Faculty Using Specific Groupings and Locations for Debriefing Activity Kinds of Groupingsa Locat1on Small One-on- Class Single Student/ Groups One Faculty Comm. Classroom/ V-2,VI-3 I-1,IV-l Seminary Room VII-2, V-1,VI-6 VIII-1 VII-4 (8) VIII'] (14) Faculty Room VII-8 VI-8 (8) (8) Faculty Office VI-l I-1,II-1 III-1,IV-l V-l,VI-5 VII-3 (1) VIII-l (14) Field Setting I-1,VI-1 II-1,VI-2 VII-1 VII-l VIII-l (3) (5) Faculty VI-l I-l Residence (1) (l) aInstitutions indicated by Roman numerals: Alpha = I Epsilon = V Beta = II Zeta = VI Gamma = III Eta = VII Delta = IV Theta = VIII 64 Table 4.9: Distribution of Courses of Study Relative to Degree Programs and Modes of Experiential Learning Degree Programs ”we 3.0. 11.12.15. M.A.R. M.Div. D.Min. 111.11. Other Concurrent field 1 1 7 education Block placement 1 l l 7 Practicum 2 1 13 Case method 2 l 9 2 Other 1 Evidence From the Interviews: Section B Section B of the Interview Question Schedule was analyzed accord- ing to the categories of the experiential taxonomy (Appendix A). They consist of the convergent categories (1.0 Exposure and 2.0 Participa- tion) and divergent categories (3.0 Identification, 4.0 Internaliza- tion, and 5.0 Dissemination) (Egan, 1975). This section reflects the broad diversity of course content and individual fields of study represented by the 29 faculty interviewees. Data are derived from several academic departments: practical theology including homiletics and counseling, biblical theology, philosophical theology. church history, missions, and church education. Question B-l What kinds of things do you hope to have happen in the lives of your students with respect to your reporting and debriefing processes? What growth purposes does your process tend to serve? What values have you sought to uphold in your reporting and debriefing activities? 65 Question B-l produced 85 different responses from 29 interviewees. Although the focus of this question is student growth and development purposes and values in reporting and debriefing, a number of the responses center on institutional concerns. The data are clustered into three categories: Institutional Concerns, Person-Centered Growth Purposes and Values, and Process- Centered Growth Purposes and Values. These statements form a basis for interviewees' theological reflection-eliciting techniques and question formulation. (See Tables 4.10-4.12.) Question B-2 What sortsweeu AaeeN .aemv eweeee saw: mcwweee cw xuwcepes cavemen- Ampemv zwwsew we ewgmgeeeep cw aeeeumwmeeeu AegeN .eumv epeeee we eewueeecee eee meweeeumeeecz cw guzeem- €33 eweeee e>ew BE 32:. 3 new 3 3.3.5? Ange—wewmcem geueegmu meegpo "meeew .e Aepmv mcwzesm eeex ea xuwwwee- Aeamv mewcgeep we Leew eseece>eu Aeumv peeeeweu wees: Aeep wad“: xeeweeéw eeesbtemmeeee we: ewe Emwpemce>e cw mmeee—ee peg» eeeesemme- Aeepwmemw Emwpemce>e we ugee Pee; e we eeumww eu eweeeew cw eeeeewweee- Aeewwmemv eeueewgeueemcee ea peeeeee- Aeuemv ewww peeewpe>ee eee Peeemcee cw xeeepmwmcee mewzegmu AeueN .ege~wmeewee eseeee>e- AepmN .epm .eepwmemV eeeeewweeeuwwem egos apeeceewmeee- Ange—eemweu AmpeNv eeeeeeeeeeew eeeweueweE- AmpeNv aepmwewe cw eeeeecweueeeew egos. AmpeNv meemmeeeee egos- wwem "mzeew .m meeeuwpu< peeemgee mcweeeee Fewueeweeexm seed mpwweeem aceesum we meewueeeeee appeeed "mp.¢ «peek 92 AeueNv eeeewceexe mewecezec e mw agpmwewe peeepmee cw eewuee was» :ewuwemeeeg- Aepmv eew Lew seamexeem e mcwee we emcee- AmpeN .epmv acumwcws we 3ew> ewpmwweeg egos. AeueN .eumv mewpwee mw; we eeeegemme- Acepwmemv eewege weeewueue> e axes aw; emewezu eewueee> AeneNv me>wueenee eee mpeem weeemgee eu exewum- AeueNv aw epew gee ece eeeewgeexe meewgeew> em: e» auwwwee- Aeumv Leueeweeseee meewmwwec e» eeeeeee awewee- Aaemv e>weaaee an 0» sewpwem- Aesaeov mcweepmwews we mam: mom on apwwwee- mppwxm emazweeoe "mp.e apnaw 93 The compilation and analysis of questions employed by faculty both verbally and in faculty-designed reflection instruments is of particular significance. To what extent do these questions and their formulation cue a theological student to higher-order theologi- cal reflection upon completed action, toward critical thinking, and ultimately to Christian praxis? The primary data from faculty interviews plus secondary student data from written questionnaires are meant to provide a perspective on theological reflection at each of the eight institutions plus something of a composite view of theological reflection as these schools provide theological training for denominations of the NAPARC Consortium. Research Questions The six descriptive questions and the four analytic/evaluative questions are answered in the findings as briefly indicated below. Descriptive questions. l. How do the four selected modes of experiential learning in theological education rank relative to faculty implementa- tion, i.e., block placement, concurrent field education, practicum, case method? Table 4.5 indicates the distribution of faculty using specific modes of experiential learning. The practicum and the case method involving vicarious experience were the two modes most often employed by faculty represented in the study. 2. How do the eight methods of reporting and debriefing rank relative to faculty implementation, i.e., oral report, staff- prepared response form, verbatim, case study, group discussion, diary/journal, anecdotal report, electronic report? 94 Table 4.6 indicates the distribution of faculty using specific methods of reporting and debriefing an experiential learning. Oral reporting and group discussion were the most-often-employed methods in both the reporting and debriefing processes. Staff-prepared response forms have minimal use as a tool for debriefing. Various forms of written reports were indicated. 3. How do methods employed for student pre-orientation and preparation for experiential learning rank relative to faculty implementation? Table 4.7 indicates the distribution of faculty using specific methods for student orientation and preparation for experiential learning. Less than half the interviewees programmed an orientation with their students before the structured experience. Extensive use of the case method, which involves no such conference, must be kept in mind relative to these data. 4. Is there any pattern of sequence or level which relates particular questions to particular experiences? The data reflect no particular pattern of sequence or level which relates particular questions to particular experience. However, faculty response relative to the field of pastoral counseling did indicate some progression of questions that were intended to move the respondent toward higher-level reflection. 5. What primary emphasis is displayed in the balance between convergent (l.O Exposure, 2.0 Participation) and divergent (3.0 Identification, 4.0 Internalization, 5.0 Dissemination) questions? The primary emphasis in questioning was on the convergent cate- gories, and the first level (3.0 Identification) of the divergent categories. Few questions fell into the (4.0 Internalization) 95 category. Questions in the (5.0 Dissemination) category were rela- tively nonexistent. 6. What identifiable differences, if any, exist between reporting and debriefing questions prepared for written response as opposed to oral seminar presentation? The data indicate little identifiable difference between report- ing and debriefing questions prepared for written response as opposed to oral presentation. Questions fell principally into the (2.0 Par- ticipation) and (3.0 Identification) categories of the experiential taxonomy. Analytic/evaluativeyguestions. l. Does the process used within given reporting and debriefing activities and across the progression of the whole curricu- lum reveal movement or impetus toward higher-order theologi- cal reflection (3.0 Identification, 4.0 Internalization, 5.0 Dissemination)? There is minimal evidence of any overt attempt on the part of faculty to provide in their reporting and debriefing activities a process that encourages movement or impetus toward higher-order theo- logical reflection. Questions primarily focus on data collection and analysis, the (2.0 Participation) category of the experiential taxonomy. 2. To what extent do the reporting and debriefing questions induce theological reflection? Data related to this question provide a great diversity of opinion because of a lack of consensus regarding a definition of "theology" in regard to reflection on experience. Furthermore, the role of Scripture in theological reflection lacks both consistency and consensus among faculty interviewees. 96 3. What evidence exists of a programmed flow of questions designed to move the respondent through a process of orderly reflection from cognitive recognition and recall (l.O Exposure) to Christian praxis (5.0 Dissemination)? Data provide no evidence of a programmed flow of questions designed to move the respondent through a process of orderly reflec- tion from cognitive recognition and recall to Christian praxis. 4. To what extent does the formulation of questions indicate a concern for the individual student's growth and develop- ment in the combined areas of cognition and affect? The formulation of faculty questions for both reporting on, and debriefing of, experiential learning indicates a primary emphasis on cognition, i.e., know the facts, and acquire the skills, at the expense of affect, i.e., individual student feelings generated as a result of the experience. Individual student growth and development in the combined areas of cognition and affect were a secondary consid- eration. Highlights The following highlights focus the findings as reported according to the structure of the Interview Question Schedule. Questions A-l through A-8. Although the findings display a great diversity of definitions regarding experiential learning, the single point of consensus is best stated, "learning from and in experience." Changed behavior is assumed in experiential learning, while projected consequences of the experience in continuing action are left primarily to inference. The praxis concept as a critical dimension of theologi- cal education was not stated. 97 The practicum and the case method involving vicarious experi— ence were the two modes of experiential learning most employed in theological education. Four of the eight institutions employed the block placement and concurrent field modes as well. Oral reporting and group discussion were the most popular methods employed for the reporting and debriefing processes. Both methods suggest a critical role for faculty facilitators, as well as the use of questions. Less than half the interviewers programmed an orientation session with their students in either a person-to-person, faculty/group, or faculty/field supervisor/student conference before the structured experience. After the experience, debriefing activity was carried out pri- marily in a classroom setting involving larger or small-group con- figuration. Experiential learning was most often applied in the Master of Divinity program, while nearly half the interviewees were involved in the practicum mode within that degree program. Questions B-l through 8-8. The study indicated a preoccupation with the process for attaining personal growth rather than the stu- dents' individual growth and development. Although the focus of the interviewer's question 8-1 was student-centered, a good portion of faculty response was devoted primarily to institutional concerns. Faculty response to the interviewer's inquiry regarding the use of questions in the reporting and debriefing processes revealed that theological reflection has its beginnings in data collection, analysis, 98 and definition, with little evidence of a programned or thoughtfully structured attempt to move students to higher-order reflection. Data collection and analysis appeared to be the primary value in theological reflection. A sincere personal interest in students' feelings was expressed among all faculty. However, there was also expressed a discomfort with attempting to meld together the objectivity of a systematic approach to faith with the subjectivity of human response. A primary value on objective truth and the acquisition of that truth as a ground- ing for ministry was evident at all eight institutions. The term "theology" as used in theological reflection is open to multiple interpretation. Therefore, there was no consistent perspec- tive from interviewees on assisting the student to recognize the theological implications of an experience. Students,egew eeeeweweé Nd mewgmeewuewem we $9252 «6 Fecemcee m.m eewe> we eeeeueeee< w.m meeeEewm we mwmxwee< w.e weeewuesm N.m pceseeeewewem w.m :ewueewwwueeew o.m mewewe> o.m mwmxwee< o.e :ewueewwweez N.N »_eaa>e N.F.N awuee>eu w.w.~ mewewe> o.m :ewpeueemmgeem w.~ eewpemwewpgee o.m :ewpeewwna< o.m emceemem cw :ewpeewmwpem m.m eewpeweeeeuxm m.~ eceemem e» mmeemcwpww: N.N eewueueweweueH ~.N mmeeweemm m._ meweeeemem_eweeeeemeweee< w.~ eewpewmeeww w.~ (meweceemem o.~ eewmeeseweseu o.N :ewpceep< eweww e ew meewpeewpme< 3.833. N; 3333 we 8:228 m4 eeemwemceiea e5 we enemies. m.— mowwwuaam sew; m=w_aee 3.82:. ea $39.25: N; we 232 BB mxezwe emempzeeg «A agemeem w._ mmeeeee3< _.w mewwweeem we emeewzeex p._ ewememxm o.w mew>weeem o.w anew—zeex o.— eweseo wewueewgeexm eweseo e>wueeww< eweseo e>wuwemeu m w a mzHkumum< .w>Hthwou no zom~mwueewwe .e>wuw=uee we :emwgeeeeu .mp-~w .aa a .welom .ee .wmmw .mcwxeez we mcweeee e>wueewwe eee m>wuwemee we cemwceeseue ewea_weo= N.m _a=oweaeaowce _.m eewueeweemmwe o.m c OP#MNwmeumLm:u N.m «em eeuwweeeeeo P.m xeweEeu eewe> we ewceuwgu weegeuxm we mewew cw mueesmeee ~.m eeeeew>u weewepew we msgew cw maceEmeee F.e eewe> e we cewperceueegegu o.m eewueewe>u o.o ewmcweeeH N.¢ cewmeeexm w.e meewuewe>em peegame< . we new e we :ewue>wgee m m eewuerweeweueH o.e seumxm meewueweeo we new eemeeege eewe> e we :ewpe~weemco N.e we sewn e we :ewuezeewe N.m eewe> :ewueeweeseeu e we eewue~wwe=peeeeeu w.e eeewca e we :ewueeeeee P.m eewpereemuo e.¢ mwmmguexm o.m newesee Fewpeewceexm eewesee e>weeeww< newesee e>wuwemeu APPENDIX C CRITERIA FOR THEORIES 0F INSTRUCTION 137 10. APPENDIX C CRITERIA FOR THEORIES 0F INSTRUCTION A statement of an instructional theory should include a set of postulates and definition of terms involved in these postulates. The statement of an instructional theory or subtheory should make explicit the boundaries of its concern and the limitations under which it is proposed. A theoretical construction must have internal consistency--a logical set of interrelationships. An instructional theory should be congruent with empirical data. An instructional theory must be capable of generating hypotheses. An instructional theory must contain generalizations that go beyond the data. An instructional theory must be verifiable. An instructional theory must be stated in such a way that it is possible to collect data to disprove it. An instructional theory not only must explain past events but also must be capable of predicting future events. At the present time, instructional theories may be expected to represent qualitative synthesis. Source: I. J. Gordon (Ed.), Criteria for theories of instruction (Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curricu- lum Development, 1968), pp. 16-24. 138 APPENDIX D INTERVIEW QUESTION SCHEDULE 139 APPENDIX D INTERVIEW QUESTION SCHEDULE SECTION A 1. Have you heard the term "experiential learning?" In your under- standing, what does this term mean? Please complete the grid with respect to the five areas indicated. CONCURRENT FIELD-BASED LEARNING: a supervised field experience of up to twelve to twenty-five yours of direct ministry during the academic year while the student is in residence. BLOCK PLACEMENT FIELD EDUCATION: engagement of a student in an intensive full-time ministry within a specific block of time, apart from typical academic routines. PRACTICUM: a part-time field assignment as part of a particular academic course. CASE METHOD: student participation in problem situations hypotheti- cal or real. Concurrent Block Practicum Case Other Field Ed. Placement Method As you view your seminary's program, does it involve.... Should your semi- nary be using ...... In which modes of experiential learn- ing have you been involved: a)present place of employment ....... b)prior places of employment ....... In which modes are you currently involved ........... 140 141 In which courses do you use any of these experiential modes of teaching? To what degree programs are these courses related? Course What forms of preparation do you provide for your student's experi- ence (orientation, etc.) (During) (After) Report- Debrief- Periodically during the expe- i i rience, what kinds of report- ing or followup dialogue take place? --What sorts of reports are your students required to make? RESPONSE FORM After the experience, what kinds of debriefing or follow- up dialogue take place? --What sorts of reports are your students required to make? In what kinds of groupings does this dialogue take lace? (individual conferences, small groups, class-sharing activities) Where does this reporting/debriefing activity take place? 1. 142 SECTION B What kinds of things do you hope to have happen in the lives of your students with respect to your reporting and debriefing process? --What growth purposes does your process tend to serve? --What values have you sought to uphold in your reporting and debriefing activities? What sorts of uestions have you found to be valuable in getting students to discuss their learning experience? What kinds of uestions have you found which move your students beyond simple recall into deeper thinking? Are you interested in how students are feeling about their experi- ences? --How do you encourage reflection focused on feelings? 143 How do you get students to recognize the theological implications of their experience? Do you find students more prone to talk about the theological implications of their present experience, or to talk about the same sorts of theological debates common to other classes? Have you found ways to help students bring Scripture to bear on their experience? --What are examples of how you accomplish this task? Can you give an example of a student who has really benefited from experiential learning? --What have you seen in this student which has encouraged you? APPENDIX E LETTERS OF REQUEST 144 APPENDIX E-l SAMPLE LETTER TO INSTITUTIONAL PERSONS Calvin Theological Seminary 320l Burton Street, S.E. Grand Rapids, Michigan 49506 Dear President provided me with your name as the proper respondent relative to the following request. I am preparing a Ph.D. research project under the guidance of Dr. Ted Ward at Michigan State University. The focus of this descrip- tive study is the questioning process employed by faculty with respect to reporting and/or debriefing experiential learning activities. The basic modes of experiential learning to be considered are concurrent field education, block placement, practicum, and case method. The interview would focus on the kinds of questions asked of students during and after an experience. Or again, what kinds of questions are asked in order to make sense of a given experience for the student as well as for others. Would you kindly supply the names and phone numbers of your faculty or adjunct faculty who are involved'in experiential learning and the supervision and debriefing of students involved in this method of teaching. The time spent fulfilling this request and your prompt response will be deeply appreciated in order that responsible persons might be contacted for carrying out the study. Serving with you, Robert S. Hough RSH/bh 145 -n APPENDIX E-2 SAMPLE LETTER TO INTERVIEWEES Calvin Theological Seminary 320l Burton Street, S.E. Grand Rapids, Michigan 49506 , Coordinator of Field Education, has given your name as one whose students are involved in some form of experiential learning. For example, the following types of activities: Concurrent Field-Based Learning, Block Placement, Field Education, Practicum, Case Method, etc. I am preparing a Ph.D. research project under the guidance of Dr. Ted Ward at Michigan State University. The focus of this descrip- tive study is the questioning process employed by faculty and field supervisors with respect to debriefing experiential learning activities. May I request your willingness to share with me in a pilot study by means of a personal interview? This would be conducted at your con- venience with a maximum time involvement of one and one-half hours. The interview would focus on the kinds of questions asked of students during and after an experience. Or again, what kinds of ques- tions you ask in order to make sense of a given experience for the student as well as for others. May I call you within a few days to obtain your answer to this request for assistance? Given a positive response, we can hopefully establish a time of meeting. I look eagerly forward to sharing with you in what we trust will be an area of mutual interest in theological education. Serving with you, Robert S. Hough RSH/bah 146 APPENDIX E-3 SAMPLE LETTER TO STUDENTS January 6, l982 Dear Fellow-student, Your name was purposely submitted to me by a faculty member who is assisting me in a research project through Michigan State Univer- sity focused on experiential learning. Such experiences are normally programmed in terms of block placement (full-time ministry during a specific block of time), concurrent field education (12 to 25 hours of direct ministry during the academic year), internship practicum (part- time field assignment as part of a course), and case method within the classroom activity. During and after such events, you were likely given opportunity to provide written and/or verbal feedback to your supervisory profes- sors who coordinated these events. Would you please assist us by completing and returning in the enclosed stamped envelope the attached questions. Your cooperation and input are critical. I'm deeply grateful and thank you for the time and effort you will be investing on our behalf. Serving with you, Robert S. Hough Director 147 APPENDIX F STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE 148 APPENDIX F STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE Student Name (may remain anonymous) Seminary Name: Regarding the *REPORTING and *DEBRIEFING process relative to your experi- ences: 1. What are your general reactions? (use reverse side for expanded remarks) What personalugrowth purposes were served? What values were operative in the process and gypes of questions asked? How were you moved beyond facts into deeper thinking? How were yuur feelings dealt with? In what ways were you encouraged to focus on theological issues? To what degree were the Scriptures and/or Confessions introduced? What's been your greatest benefits from experiential learning during your seminary training? *"REPORTING" --durin the experience, as for example in periodic review sessmns or written papers filed with faculty supervisor. *"DEBRIEFING"--after the experience, as in discussion or counseling-style sessions or written final reporting to the seminary or faculty supervisors. 149 APPENDIX G BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE EIGHT INSTITUTIONS AND REPRESENTATIVE RESPONSES 150 APPENDIX G-l ALPHA SEMINARY Alpha is a midwestern denominational seminary established in 1956 for the chief purpose of providing a program of studies and training for those called of God to the ministry of his Word (Catalogue, 1981). A faculty of 22 provides instruction leading to the M.Div., M.A., Th.M., and D.Min. degrees. Alpha believes that pastors must be able to live out Biblical principles with creativity, enthusiasm, and maturity. It is the real responsibility of institutions training individuals for modern ministry to provide broad opportunities for the development of these adaptive qualities through actual experience. Alpha is committed to experiential learning and concerned that their students gain more than a factual knowledge of Biblical, historical, and philosophical truth. They want them to receive adequate guidance in working out their theological education in the actual situation of the ministry. Furthermore, classroom principles are applied in real-life situations as students and faculty participate in various community outreach pro- grams (Brochure, 1982). Alpha seminary conducts a Senior Internship Extension Program some distance from the main campus. All interview data come from this extension. Although the program can accommodate 20 students, one full-time faculty person plus adjunct teaching staff, there are at present five students, five field supervisors, plus one full-time professor. Students enter this block placement after their first two years of the M.Div. curriculum. The internship, which aims at a high degree of integration of theory and practice of ministry, 151 152 involves a continuation of disciplined study in those courses directly related to the life and ministry of the church. Professor Hunt shared a personal aim: "I felt it was important for this program to not be just an academic program but to develop some kind of sense of commu- nity of faculty and students." He with his students think through just how the extension courses can be actively integrated into their ongoing ministry to churches as alternatives to the same courses taught on the main campus. Professor Hunt's fundamental concern for establishing a clear sense of community surfaced time and again. Several months of weekly meetings with students were scheduled prior to their moving to the field for purposes of prayer, fellowship, and getting to know one another. In reflection he said, "I think that students sensed that they were just as much a part of this [extension program] as I was in terms of creating it and bringing it into exist- ence." Arrival on the field was followed by a three-day retreat for students, faculty, field supervisors, and their respective wives. The purpose was the building of community and preparation for ministry. Two special lectures, one focused on the history and theology of the church in that geographical area, and one on the role of ministry, formed the basic content. Consistent with Professor Hunt's concern for community is his desire to spend time on the person-to-person level with students, and also with them and their wives often in his own home. He reflects upon one opportunity he had with a student during a long walk. "[I wanted] to see where he was at both in his present experience and internship, and where he feels the Lord might be calling him in the future. I knew that he was a man that had some 153 concern about his call and I was interested in whether the internship situation was helping to give him direction." One student said of his internship, "I have learned more about my strengths and weaknesses and have also learned, first-hand, the real-life struggles faced by the professional in ministry. . . . I found my experience quite profit- able." QuESTION B-l. "What kinds of things do you hope to have happen in the lives of your students with respect to your reporting and debriefing process? What growth purposes does your process tend to serve? What values have you sought to uphold in your reporting and debriefing activities?" Faculty Response. (Note: All facult response to questions is from the one interviewee, Professor Hunt. Accuracy in theology-- soundness in faith--personal maturity in student's walk with the Lord-- stronger personal relationships to one's wife and children, and mem- bers of the church and community--effectiveness and growth in ministry-- effectiveness in preaching. As a professor of homiletics functioning in a concurrent field structure, Professor Hunt wants "to move my stu- dents away from a more stilted textbook approach to preaching and see if they can't come alive now that they are preaching real sermons to real people." He desires to bridge the gap between strictly the aca- demics of preaching, the classroom activity, and a congregation of living persons. Student Response. "I learned about my capacity to satisfy respon- sibilities that were not academic in nature. I was given opportunity to creatively design certain presentations I had to give." QuESTION B-Z. "What sorts of questions have you found to be valu- able in getting students to discuss their learning activities?" Faculty Response. Professor Hunt follows no prescribed questioning process. He requires students to read a selected article on preaching at the outset of the course. He then asks that they identify for them- selves a list of areas of strength and weakness in their own preaching as viewed in the light of this article. These self-evaluations are used to critique their preaching tapes throughout the term. At the end of the course, they are reviewed with the student to measure progress in the stated areas of concern. What students are learning in the field portion of their practicum tends to come out pretty easily according to Professor Hunt. Often in the brief devotional time before each class, students will share prayer concerns regarding their experience 154 which will surface in future conversation. With regard to concerns of ministry, "It is not hard to get them to talk. I almost have to get them to stop talking about this in order that we get a little bit more into them [the concerns of ministry]" (Hunt). QUESTION B-3. "What kinds of questions have you found which move your students beyond simple recall into deeper thinking? Faculty Reeponse. "What would you have done in that situation?" Another method is to give students an impromptu assignment to write their response to a given problem including a stated rationale. Too often an immediate response is emotional rather than rational. Each student is required to present his paper in order that the professor can gain some sense of where the group is at. The differences of opin- ion will surface in the process. Hunt saves his own convictions until last and then freely shares them. Often he does not want to push for any kind of conclusion or solution. Rather, he desires to raise an issue for them to ponder. "This whole program [extension seminary] is geared to student facing a potential problem before facing it as a pastor of a church where he has not had time to think the problem through, makes a rash statement, or goes off irresponsibly." The stu- dent may come down on either side of the question as long as he has thought it through and is willing to make some commitment on the basis of more than just "I never heard of that before." QUESTION B-4. "Are you interested in how students are feeling about their experience? How do you encourage reflection on feelings?" Faculty Resppnse. Professor Hunt is very interested in feelings. He tries not to just let those that are expressed "evaporate." Either at the moment or later he tries to deal with them. This was confirmed by a student who felt his feelings were dealt with "very well--I received a sensitive response." The issue of race is of continuing concern among his students in their existential ministries, and fosters diverse feelings. "This is an ongoing discussion that I do not want to let die," says Hunt. "There are various ways I continue to bring it up and encourage students to keep thinking about it." One method of probing his students is using the two questions, What does your wife think about this? and Is your wife happy with your decision? With these two questions, he finds feelings are dealt with at a very personal level. QQESTION B-S. "How do you get students to recognize the theologi- cal implications of their experience?" Faculty Response. One formal way is when students are assigned to lead the weekly devotional time: "I encourage them to focus on a pas- sage or topic that comes out of their own experience." These talks are rarely ever detached from their ongoing experience, and are usually pretty close to the surface. 155 Student Response. "I felt encouraged to focus theologically in developing a rationale for what I intended to do and by evaluating whether I truly succeeded in my task." QQESTION B-6. "Do you find students prone to talk about the theo- logical implications of their present experience, or to talk about the same sorts of theological debates common to other classes?" Faculty Response. "Students want to talk about what is happening now!“l‘Professor Hunt indicates that his students, because of their extension status, have a tendency "to kindly make fun of the seminary" and the typical esoteric discussion prevalent there. Students tend to share a lot--there is a lot of teaching going on with each other. "I listen and am present for those who are less prone to talk but who should speak up." QUESTION B-7. "Have you found ways to help students bring Scripture to bear on their experience? What are some examples of how you accomp- lish this task?" Faculty Response. "In the formal sense, in that early morning devotional?“ *This is an assignment not to be prepared very far in advance of presentation. Furthermore, always in the back of our minds are the questions, "Is this Biblical?", "Is it Reformed?" Our norm is the ethic set forth in Calvin's regulative principle, i.e., what we do is what the Bible teaches us to do. Thus, students are constantly driven back to Scripture for guidance. Students tend to root their experience in the Scripture. The professor, on the other hand, finds it necessary to point out that these truths are summarized in the con- fessional statements of the church. There is among (Alpha) students "a reaction to people who are too Reformed or too rigid" in their faith. AQQESTION B-8. "Can you give an example of a student who has really benefited from experiential learning? What have you seen in this stu- dent which has encouraged you?" Faculty Response. Freedom for self-expression--overcoming a defen- sive attitude--greatly increased sensitivity to people in terms of a manner of speaking that was often read as belligerence in even afriendl y comment. The needed change in this student "would not have happened in a typical classroom situation." The milieu of these extension practi- cum experiences permit a level of criticism of this student to which he was able to make positive response. Summar . Two related concepts appear foremost at Alpha Seminary's Extension: community and person-centeredness. They permeated the entire interview with Professor Hunt and are likewise reflected in student response. APPENDIX G-2 BETA SEMINARY Beta Seminary, founded in 1886, is a denominational East-Coast school. With a faculty of eight and student body of 70, its stated purpose is for educating and systematically training men according to the faith of the great Reformers for the Gospel ministry, especially in connection with their denomination (catalogue, 1981). However, students from as many as 30 denominations have been served. Its pro- fessional program leads to the 8.0. degree. Beta is unique in that it advocates seminary training before college in order that students learn "first" the Scripture's view of life. A proper order of education is to study in a "sound" theological seminary before going to college. The person whose life is given to Jesus Christ for His work wants, most of all, to know more about Him. Not until this "primary interest is, in ameasure, fulfilled can he recognize for what they are and also reject false ideas of unregenerate man" (Brochure, 1982). Professor Ladd, the single interviewee, expressed strong feelings in support of Beta's approach to theological education: The whole model of education as we have it in Reformed circles denies the Bible which basically says that a man's primary char- acteristic has to be character quality. And what we do is we take the man who has character quality, who has a family and children, and practically exclude him from the ministry because we demand in a residential setting four years of college before seminary. A man with three kids can't do that. So I think that what we've done, we've written out exactly the prime candidates to create a Christian community in the learning situation, as well as the prime kind of candidate it takes to be a genuine elder in the church. I think the whole situation has been created, or we've inherited, precisely excludes exactly the kind of people we ought to be serving. 156 157 Two further catalogue statements lend perspective to Beta's view of the educational process: "In studying for the ministry it is even more important that the youth should learn God's truth first. The mind yearns for logic and consistency. . . . The first task of the student is to learn the Bible's system of truth. [At Beta] he will be given a systematic theology 'to master' which is in accord with the Bible. . . One needs a system by which, intelligently, to say, 'I accept this, I reject that.'" Experiential learning at Beta Seminary appears limited to the field of Practical Theology and more particularly the four-semester concurrent field education component. Dialogue with faculty regarding field work either during or after the experience is an option for the student. However, Professor Ladd encourages them to meet with him one-on-one since they frequently do have problems where he can be help- ful plus supplying personal support. None of the students chose to respond to the written questionnaire. The primary concern of Beta's curriculum is in the area of knowl- edge acquisition and clarity of thought as reflected in their belief that teaching must be motivated by the desire to impart exact knowledge of what the Bible sets forth. Professor Ladd's personal goals as regards experiential learning center on growth in Christian character quality and consistency in lifestyle and relationships. 158 QUESTION B-l. "What kinds of things do you hope to have happen in the lives of your students with respect to your reporting and debriefing process? What gupwth_purposes does your process tend to serve? What values have you sought to uphold in your reporting and debriefing activities?" Faculty Response. (Note: All faculty responses are from the single interviewee, Professor Ladd.) Help students to be self- reflective--evaluate what they have done to cause problems, make prob- lems fester, and what can they do to avoid the same problems in the future--growth in terms of character quality---to first of all delineate areas where they need growth in character and then try to move into steps of action to rectify areas of need. "To grow in terms of char- acter quality is probably the biggest lack in all seminary education." QUESTION B-2. "What sorts of questions have you found to be valuable in getting students to discuss their learning experience?" Faculty Response. Focus: Concurrent or block placement. First the positive appranh: What have you learned?--What have you learned about yourself? Secondly, the problem questions: Were there any prob- lems?--If so, what caused the problems?--What did you do that could have increased the problem? "We've been taught to think negatively. . In order to recognize truth, you have to define error." QUESTION B-3. "What kinds of questions have you found which move your students beyond simple recall into deeper thinking?" Faculty Response. Focus: Block placement. How will your next assistant pastorate, for instance, be different?--How will you apply some of these questions with your youth group next year? Professor Ladd encourages memorization of Biblical passages that apply to the issue dealt with in order that they can be in the forefront of a stu- dent's thinking for their next experience. He always "stresses applying in their next situation or charge lessons they learned about themselves being a different person, that is, doing things differently. What- ever things were positive should be underscored and developed, capital- ized upon." QUESTION B-4. "Are you interested in how students are feeling about their experiences? How do you encourage reflection focused on feelings?" Faculty Response. "1 don't encourage students to reflect upon feelings necessarily. I think that that can lead to an over subjective approach. However, feelings must be recognized and dealt with. If the feelings are negative; anger, hatred, bitterness, I help the stu- dent deal with those feelings biblically, but not just reflect upon them."--"Feelings are symptomatic of great blessing or harm and have to be dealt with or enjoyed, not just reflected upon themselves." Professor Ladd relates to students' feelings in his practice of praying 159 a lot with them both in group and on the one-on-one. He also indicates a high level of sensitivity to the marriage relationship and family responsibilities of his students which have direct implications for their feelings about their experience. QUESTION B-5. "How do you get students to recognize the theologi- cal implications of their experience?" Faculty Response. Professor Ladd is ill at ease with the term Biblical theology and prefers to talk in terms of the application of Scripture, i.e., are students willing to live by Scripture and test every question in life by Scripture? He finds that students are increasingly willing to see the implications of their experience in the light of Scripture. QUESTION B-6. "Do you find students more prone to talk about the theological implications of their present experience, or to talk about the same sorts of theological debates common to other classes?" Faculty Response. Students, particularly the younger ones, are more eager to talk about typical theological struggles than what Sapo labels "real life theology." He speaks of a non-biblical dichotomy between theology or doctrine and praxis. "The whole idea that theoreti- cal reasoning is prior to practical reasoning is stupid! Biblically, doctrine is just as much a didache; how you treat your wife, how you raise your children, how you relate to people, as it is to the two natures of Christ. . . . I really believe that to do theology biblically and properly, one has to talk about life and people. I think there's a whole new way of education. In fact, it's an older way." QUESTION B-7. "Have you found ways to help students bring Scrip- ture to bear on their experience? What are some examples of how you accomplish this task?" Faculty Response. The ideal of an inductive approach in bringing Scripture to bear on experience is voiced by Professor Ladd. But in reality he acknowledges that he usually comes with the Scriptural application to the student's experience. QUESTION B-8. "Can you give an example of a student who has really benefited from experiential learning? What have you seen in this student which has encouraged you?" Faculty Response. A student who displayed a growing consistency in his personal and family life--in loving people and going after the person who is absent-~in caring about the person who is sick--all of the foregoing coupled with a growing consistency in his personal devotional life and in his leadership of his wife and children. APPENDIX G-3 GAMMA SEMINARY Gamma Seminary is a denominational school founded in 1810 to provide a succession of Godly and able men for pastoral ministry and other special lines of Christian service (Catalogue, l981). Although a small school with seven faculty, it is unique in that two-thirds of the 55-member student body are not of its own denomination. The M.Div. degree is granted by Gamma. All four basic modes of experiential learning are employed primarily in the departments of Pastoral Theology, Missions, and Homiletics. Professor Trip of the Pastoral Theology Department provided the data for this study plus written responses from two students. At Gamma, Junior or Middler year students are required to serve in a summer block placement. Middlers or Seniors also may serve in a concurrent program of field work. A unique dimension of preparation for these experiential programs is the Field Work Covenant. It is drawn up between the student and his assigned church and contains a general job description, specific duties, and financial arrangements. Gamma also offers practicums in Evangelism, Pastoral Counseling, and Homiletics. Professor Trip shared his own personal appreciation for involve- ment in experiential learning when he observed that, "Sometimes the seminary can become a cloister." One Gamma student noted that, "There is little room for being insulated from the working gospel when you are in an internship." Another shared the value of the reporting and debriefing processes in terms of "indicating to both student and pastor 160 d 161 that each is watching the other, and that neither is in a social vacuum but is learning as he goes along." QUESTION B-l. "What kinds of things do you hope to have happen in the lives oflyour students with respect to your reporting and debriefing process? What growth purposes does your process tend to serve? What values have you sought to uphold in your reporting and debriefing activities?" Faculty Response. (Note: All faculty responses are from Professor Trip.) Student development--student maturity in learning--helping them to become aware of their shortcomings--preparing them to do a better job the next time. "And to some extent, it is for my benefit to see if the program is being carried on effectively." Student Response. Supremacy of the Scriptures--necessity of the church--relevance of ministry to all individuals. QUESTION 8-2. "What sorts of questions have you found to be valuable in getting students to discuss their learning experience?" Faculty Response. Focus: practicum. What do you do?--What do you feel you learned from this?--These kinds of questions open up other areas of things for discussion. QUESTION 8-3. "What kinds of questions have you found which move your students beyond simple recall into deeper thinking?" Faculty Response. Focus: practicum. This question raised some hesitancy for Professor Trip because he feels he has not been too effec- tive in this area. He suggested a couple of possible questions: How do you handle this when you actually get into the ministry yourself?-- If you would do this again, how would you handle it? Student Response. Student response would confirm that the debrief- ing process gotllittle beyond simple recall; beyond the facts, but rather into seeing the existential side of the ministry--that which could only be seen as the gospel affected people. Another student indi- cated that the debriefing didn't involve "deeper thinking." QUESTION B-4. "Are you interested in how students are feeling about théir experiences? How do you encourage reflection focused on feelings?" Faculty Response. The response was a qualified "yes" but a reit- eration that the greater concern is on recording what happened. When the student is asked how the experience helped him or whether it has been a help to him, Professor Trip indicated that feelings do get involved. One area of concern which involves feelings is with regard 162 to the student's call to be a minister. When this question is raised as a result of an experience, he seeks to determine if they are respond- ing to their own feelings, or that of their spouse, or economics. "I'd just try to pin down why they have this uncertainty." He further notes that "several of the fellows, the majority, have felt more convinced than ever of their call because of that kind of experience." He feels that the academic year becomes too much of a routine and therefore placing the students in summer field assignments provides them more of a sense of ministry. With respect to the practicum on Pastoral Care, Professor Trip indicates that, "The formal kinds of questions we deal with deal with the kinds of ministry we would have to those people, but a lot of our discussion is certainly in the area of feelings." Student Response. A student responded that his feelings were dealt with—only in the context of "how I got along with, or had diffi— culty with, various people." QUESTION B-5. "How do you get students to recognize the theo- logical implications of their experience?" Faculty Response. "Essentially through the whole curriculum. Being of Reformed baEkground, we try to help them to see everything in a covenant relationship and to see the Word of God has application to every area of life. Kinds of questions asked: How do we view this in light of our own ministry to them? How do we see this in God's general providence or common grace? People have these experiences, how do you explain why people are [mentally retarded]?" Student Response. Both students indicated little emphasis on theology in their debriefing of field activities. QUESTION B-6. "Do you find students more prone to talk about the theological’implications of their present experience, or to talk about the same sorts of theological debates common to other classes?" Faculty Response. Professor Trip shared strong feelings regarding students' desire to talk about theology. He finds students almost too willing to talk theologically about their experience. "I'd like to see them sometimes be more involved in just the practical applications. I think there is a tendency sometimes to conceptualize to the extent that you don't really get into the nitty-gritty of how you are going to deal with it. You can talk about all the theological implications but here's the mentally retarded child, or the fellow who has been involved in a drug bust--what do you do then?" He affirmed what had been expressed elsewhere that students in Reformed circles are schooled to think more theologically about their contemporary experiences now than they might have been at one time. He believes the presence of a congre- gation meeting at, but not organically related to the seminary, has been helpful to students in this regard. "There is more of a sense of get- ting on with the job rather than just having bull sessions. And I think that has been helpful." 163 QUESTION B-7. "Have you found ways to help students bring Scripture to bear on their experience? What are some examples of how you accomplish this task?" Faculty Response. The touchstone of all Gamma's activity is the Scripture, with a lesser involvement with the confessions. This is partly because two-thirds of the student body are not of their denomi- nation and therefore, they are not a homogeneous group with respect to the confessions. QUESTION B-8. "Can you give an example of a student who has really benefited’from experiential learning? What have you seen in this student which has encouraged you?" Faculty Response. Yes, a fellow who is very sharp academically but who had not had much actual experience in the church. Benefit: the ability to feel that he could get to know and love people. "In his own eyes he was tremendously blessed by that experience and we see a greater maturity particularly just in dealing with people and his ability to see ways of ministering." Summary. A major goal of Professor Trip is to assist the stu- dents to see "that their continued studies in seminary are more rele- vant because of what they have experienced." APPENDIX G-4 DELTA SEMINARY Delta Seminary is a nondenominational Eastern school founded in l97l to train men who will be intellectually keen and spiritually fervent to direct God's people through the study of the Scripture for themselves, thinking problems through in the light of the Word of God, and reaching their own conclusions (Catalogue, 1981). A faculty of ten directs some lOO students in their pursuit of either the M.Div. professional or the S.T.M. academic degree. Consecrated Christian scholarship is a concern of first magnitude at Delta. Students are trained in the disciplines of thorough study, independent thought, and effective expression. The basis of instruction and the central feature of the curriculum is the exegetical study of the Scriptures in the original languages. The Bible is to be kept at the very center of the curriculum. All the courses are to be considered in relationship to it. Delta's curriculum is very heavily academic. Therefore, experien- tial learning has only limited employment, primarily in Pastoral Coun- seling and Homiletics. Professors Feld and Lidy provided interviews plus the written response of one student. Professor Feld's comments were primarily with respect to the Pastoral Counseling practicum. The limited data from Professor Lidy relate to Homiletics. Lidy's primary interest was rooted in cognition, "getting the material into their heads." The student respondent said of his involvement with experien- tial learning, "My burden for the needs of people was expanded, per- sonal growth in holiness advanced, sensitivity for the outreach 164 165 possibilities available increased, desire to expand the Scriptures in a clear, dynamic and practical fashion deepened." QUESTION B-l. "What kinds of things do you hope to happen in the lives of your students with respect to your reporting and debriefing process? What grOwth‘purpOSes does your process tend to serve? What values have you sought to uphold in your reporting and debriefing activities?" Faculty Response. Open their eyes so far as what happens in a counseling session--sensitivity to the kinds of problems people have-- what can be done in interaction with people who are troubled-~impresses them with the fact that they can potentially do the same thing--takes away the fear and gives a certain amount of self-confidence--provides the motivation to work hard on their own skills in the counseling area-- encourages them to seek out training. In this counseling practicum, the students sit right behind the counselees and are introduced as counselors in training. Therefore, they have a maximum exposure to the counseling process (Feld). Student Response. A student commenting on his own perception of the purposes and"Values of debriefing questions noted "a strong emphasis on right Biblical ethics, consistent doctrinal maintenance, and correct handling of the Gospel in practical terms." QUESTION B—2. "What sorts of questions have you found to be valuable in getting students to discuss their learning experience?" Faculty Response. Focus: Pastoral Counseling. There is usually little need to stimulate discussion. After the students have sat in a counseling session, they are full of questions. However, questions like the following are often asked by faculty: What did you see?—-What was the problem?--What did you observe?--What do you think was troubling this person? Each of the 10 or 12 students in the class makes a presen- tation before four or five counselors. The respective counselor fills in the details and a round table dialogue ensues (Feld). Focus: Homiletics. Professor Lidy requires students to discuss their colleagues' preaching with two basic questions designed for writ- ten response: What do you think would have made the message more effective?--What was the preacher trying to get you to do? QUESTION B-4. "Are you interested in how students are feeling about their experiences? How do you encourage reflection focused on feelings?" Faculty Response. Without amplification, Professor Lidy answered "Yes.“1 However, he did note that feelings weren't a problem, "at least in the negative sense." I can't say I put a great emphasis on 166 how they feel," said Professor Feld, "though I think that comes through." He noted that in the method they use, they don't put a great emphasis on the subjective elements; the feelings of the student. Rather, the emphasis is on the cognitive and behavioral aspects of problems. "This is by design." Feld goes on to state that "feelings are secondary to thinking and behavior. The way you think and behave will pretty much shape the way you feel." Student Response. "They [his feelings] were considered with great respect, but always guided back to a biblical foundation if they seemed apart from it. My professor was keenly sensitive to the needs and pro- gressions that were present in my total thrust." QUESTION B-5. "How do you get students to recognize the theo- logical implications of their experience?" Faculty Response. Using the example of fear, Professor Feld would ask, What does the SCripture teach about fear?--What is the Scriptural answer?--Does it touch on the problem at all?--Is fear a theological problem?--Is fear strictly a nontheological issue? Feld believes that good counseling is based on good exegesis. Therefore, it's appropriate to ask students such questions as: What does the whole corpus of Scrip- ture teach about the problem?--What does the specific passage of Scrip- ture teach? Student Response. A student cited "the necessity of joining both theology and life into a unity; the 'positive' inculcation of what we maintain as accurate theology. and the 'negative' warning against rejecting clear Biblical teaching." QUESTION 8-6. "Do you find students more prone to talk about the theological implications of their present experience, or to talk about the same sorts of theological debates common to other classes?" Faculty Response. Whether students talk theologically about their own experience or the typical theological debates often depends on whether they are involved in "living situations," or simply working with "obscure theological questions." In a living situation, many of the students project themselves into their future ministry where they have to face the issue. That's one of the best experiences to get people to think theologically in a realistic way rather than obscure answers. This is one of the best stimuli to good theological thinking where people are faced with real issues and have to think in terms of applied theology. Most of the better students in seminary are those who have faced problems in their lives before they come to seminary. Therefore, they are very zealous to find answers. That's experiential learning too. They've had the experience. Now they are getting the learning (Feld). 167 QUESTION B-7. "Have you found ways to help students bring Scrip— ture to bear on their experience? What are some examples of how you accomplish this task?" Faculty Response. At Delta the primary emphasis is Scripture, the confessions tangential. There are a lot of areas to which the con- fessions do not directly speak. "Our basic task as theologians is to find out what the Scripture says and stand on that, and not take any system, whether it's a confession or other system, and more or less force the Scripture into that system" (Feld). Student Response. "The Scriptures were cited as the central point of my ministry from which all else must issue forth." And another, "I was continually admonished to exegete and expound the Word." QUESTION B-8. "Can you give an example of a student who has really—Benefited from experiential learning? What have you seen in this student which has encouraged you?" Faculty Response. Yes, a psychology major who came to Delta to get a thefilogical education and became deeply interested in counseling. He graduated from Delta and pursued graduate work at a state univer- sity, getting his Ph.D. in Neurology. His Delta experience in the counseling practicum plus the emphasis on Scripture allowed him to do his thesis on neurology; on the workings of the brain, supported by a knowledge of Scripture. "He didn't have to depend on non-Scriptural theories." His classroom and field work at Delta prepared him well for this challenge. APPENDIX G-5 EPSILON SEMINARY Epsilon, a nondenominational East-Coast seminary, was established in 1929. A faculty of 36 provides leadership for 420 students from 50 denominations leading mathe M.A.R., M.Div., and Th.D. professional degrees and the Th.M. and Th.D. academic degrees. Epsilon's curriculum is unique in that all graduate-degree aspirants are required to first complete the two-year M.A.R. degree, which has three possible foci: (l) Ministerial, which provides for ordination; (2) Biblical; and (3) Theological, both in preparation for advanced study in religion and other disciplines. Experiential learning is generally limited to the departments of Practical Theology and Missions, from which the three faculty inter- views were acquired. Two students submitted written responses. A three-month block placement field experience is required for all M.A.R. graduates who aspire to the M.Div. or Th.M. degrees. This full- time or equivalent part-time activity serves as a test of the appli- cant's effectiveness in Christian service. Assessment is accomplished by means of a comprehensive written field evaluation. A student com- mented that this evaluation process was "a disappointment; little deliberate review of my internship, prompted more by me than the pro- gram leaders, questions were not open-ended, little concern for emotions/perceptions, etc., more for information sake, values shown appeared to be pragmatic ones." Another student felt "the experience was not real helpful." 168 169 The required January course for third—year M.Div. candidates, Seminar-in-Ministry, is a major experiential learning opportunity. Students are exposed to various forms of practical experience and encouraged to reflect upon their own unique individual gifts and interests for ministry. This reflection process is designed to encom- pass the student's entire prior life experience. Professor Hill indi- cates that "this one month course in part represents feedback and interaction with relation to field work. But it's not specifically related to field work." The student is required to prepare a three- to five-year projection for his life involving plans for study, career, family, marital relationship, devotional life, etc. This Seminar-in-Ministry and the written self-projection form the basis for a one-hour reflection dialogue with a faculty member. The intention is to assist the student in deciding--where he's presently at--where he desires to go in life given his unique gifts and calling to ministry-~to help him inductively determine if he is, in fact, properly fitted for professional ministry. Vocationally speaking, this is a turning point in life of many students. "An important personal deci- sion concerning career alternatives was in the balance," notes one student, and "the nature of the issue and the surrounding circum- stances at the close of my internship forced deeper thinking." A practicum in Missions places the student directly into an urban community radically different than his own both theologically and ethnically. Weekly small-group "talk-down" sessions with the faculty member, creation of a journal, and a final paper provide abundant opportunity and data for feedback and reflection. The last session of 170 the practicum is a student-planned dialogue between themselves and representatives of the other faith community. Professor Nino judges this dialogue to be "a rich part of our learning experience. After the session ended, everybody in the group was talking for about two hours straight. I said, 'let's go over for a cup of coffee and talk together and debrief there.‘ It was a great time! A good learning experience." A student indicated that this practicum gave him a great deal more self-confidence and a lot more assurance that boldness (in evangelism) did not necessarily mean immediacy-~that learning to listen is a real part of evangelism. Experiential learning and theological reflection in pastoral counseling involve three phases: observation of client-counselor interaction--direct participation including a reporting/debriefing process--counseling under faculty supervision. Skill acquisition is a primary objective of the weekly two-hour sessions including faculty/ student case discussion. The sessions provide for faculty evaluation of student learning as well as an opportunity for student reflection and response. Individual student written reports are a completion of the statement, "This is what I have personally gotten out of this learning experience." Professor Valk describes the process as "very telling. These guys need more time taking the material not so much for others but for themselves." Students are not challenged to further indepth reflection on their reports unless a very real and serious problem is reported or assistance requested. A student's program at Epsilon tends to form something of a praxis--two and one-half years of class instruction--a three-month 171 block placement field experience--a one-month intensive exposure-to- ministries field experience--a period of evaluation and personal reflection--fina11y, a projected plan of action involving both prepara- tion for, and demonstration in, family living and ministry. Yet concerns are voiced. Time: "The pressure around here, you know what it's like," says Professor Nino. "Guys are very enthusiastic and keen. Then they start on this [practicum] and they come to me very tired and look very guilty and say, "I'd just love to do more of this, but I just can't.'" Orientation: concept-oriented rather than people- oriented. In response to a question of how much he has to "undo" which students are learning elsewhere in the curriculum focused on concept- orientation, Professor Valk replied, "I don't know if I can give you a number: 90%?" Curriculum: Professor Valk suggests that students have the practical year before they start. "They come here, most of them are really 'gung-ho.' They want to minister. What do we do? Six weeks of Greek!" In short, "[Epsilon] students are still removed from the real world." A student shares his evaluation: "Personally, I am thinking the educational system presently used to train ministers is not very well suited at all. On-the-job training is the way to go. [Epsilon], as most seminaries, is tied to an educational system ill-suited for what they are trying to do. Some courses are tied in with 'doing' but that type of training is rare." 172 QUESTION B-l. "What kinds of things do you hope to have happen in the liVes of your students with respect to your reporting and debriefing process? What growth purposes does your process tend to serve? What values have you sought to uphold in your reporting and debriefing activities?" Faculty Response. "A huge percentage of students are coming to seminary with uncertain career goals." Growth purposes: assist stu- dent to determine where he is at in his calling to ministry and where he desires to go--self—reflection on being properly fitted for min- istry (Hill). The course focus was reaching unreached people. Growth purposes: sensitivity to cross-cultural concerns and alternative belief systems-- learn to listen rather than talk--trying to diffuse their own fears (Nino). "Our program is skill-oriented, trying to teach the skills of pastoral counseling." Growth purposes: evaluation of student's ability to sort out key issues--are the questions they are asking zeroing in on what was really going on in that session (Valk). QUESTION B-2. "What sorts of questions have you found to be valuable’in getting students to discuss their learning experience?“ Faculty Response. Focus: Summer block placement (Hill). What did you really enjoy last summer?--What aspect of the work you did, did you not enjoy?--What gave you satisfaction?--What did you see as meaningful and valuable?--What turned you on?--What gave you ego satisfaction?-- What did you do that when you were done you said, "That was really fun, I enjoyed it, I want to do that some more?" Focus: Diffusing fear and acquiring data on community interaction (Nino). What kind of reaction did you get there, did they kick you out the door, anybody break your leg?--How do you evaluate the general size of the Moslem community?--How many would be members of Islam in the West, how many expatriates? Focus: Case discussion seminar focused on observations plus "Each student has to counsel in a role-play situation where somebody is pre- tending and acting out a problem" (Hill). All right, I said "so and so," now why do you think I said that?--How do you think she responded to what I said?--Why do you think that? QUESTION 8-3. "What kinds of questions have you found which move your students beyond simple recall into deeper thinking?" Faculty Response. Focus: Self-evaluation of call to ministry. "The critical thing in ministry is your attitude toward yourself, and other people" (Hill). What gives you a good feeling about yourself, your day, your life, and your future?--What do you want to do with your life? 173 Focus: Preparation of a chapel to express response to the course. "A concern of mine was that students in a theological seminary are taught to verbalize and not listen" (Nino). What have ygu_learned in this?experience?--What about your own personal growth in this experi- ence. Focus: Debriefing of observations in pastoral counseling. "These guys [students] need more time taking the material not so much for others but for themselves" (Valk). What is the course doing for you?-- How is it changing your life?--What have you personally gotten out of this experience? QUESTION B-4. "Are you interested in how students are feeling about their experience? How do you encourage reflection focused on feelings?" Faculty Response. "Yes" (Hill, Nino). Professor Valk has some hesitation about the encouragement of reflection upon feelings. He wants the student to reflect on his feelings but to see how they are tied in with the other levels: emotional, behavioral, and cognitive. "Feelings don't exist in abstraction" (Valk). Professor Hill asks, Why do you want to be a minister?--What do ou dream about?--What are you excited about?--If you don't like that [the ministry you were in], whose job would you like to have of all the jobs in the world, of all the things out there to do?--How do you get that job? Hill's approach to negative feelings is to try imme- diately to make it a positive discussion. "I would say that they [feelings] got minimized because my con- cerns were just helping them to get over their initial fears and suspi- cions" (Nino). Professor Nino brings in students who had previously been through the program and asks them to discuss their feelings and experiences. "That opened the doors for a willingness on the part of the pgesent students to talk about their own feelings and actions" Nino . Student Response. Two student responses regarding feelings: "They were addressed in questions but paper is not the best medium for most to speak regarding feelings." "At first, they weren't [feelings weren't dealt with]. I forced the issue, however." QUESTION B-5. "How do you get students to recognize the theologi- cal implications of their experience?" Faculty Response. "No one sits down and with them discusses the theological implications of the experience they have just had. We talk more about the self-expression, the experiential dimensions of the experience; its relation to you, to your life" (Hill). Hill assumes the person knows at least the generalities of what the Scripture says 174 about how two people get along and that Christians ou ht to know how to get along with one another (context: team ministry). Possible questions which might be asked: Why are you unable to know that which you know to be true?--What was the problem? "That was done at a minimum. . . . Theological reflection would have come out in terms of the dialogue that took place" (Nino). With respect to communication, "What was the process that went on when God revealed His Word?" "The tendency is to be very precise theologically, not very sensi- tive to where clients are at. One thing we find guys do again and again, they talk too much. And they don't do enough reflective listen- ing. Our job is to remind them of this" (Hill). If there is a student who is not oriented theologically: Let's think through what you are doing.--How do you justify that?--How does that fit your framework? Student Response. With regard to focusing on theological issues: "Very slightly" and—llhere was little encouragement to focus on theo- logical issues" (both comments relative to internships). QUESTION 8-6. "Do you find students more prone to talk about the theological implications of their present experience, or to talk about the same sorts of theological debates common to other classes?" Faculty Response. "1 think our students in general desperately want to apply Scriptural principles to their lives and their minis- tries. . . . They overlook some things that have to do with common human relationships, with human interaction. . . . They at times become gver zealous to apply Biblical principles and do so simplistically" Hill . "The problem is reversed around here. The problem is trying to get away from theology. Around here you can theologize at the drop of a hat" (Nino). One of the benefits of experiential learning (at Epsilon) is "simply moving students beyond the theoretical, that which is simply the theological answer to all the world's problems." QUESTION B-7. "Have you found ways to help students bring Scrip- ture to bear on their experience? What are some examples of how you accomplish this task?“ Faculty Response. "No" (Hill). “Students are quite zealous to apply Biblicallprinciples to experience. . . . Here the system of theology of the Westminster Confession is very important to us. How- ever, we very much keep in order the fact that Scripture alone is ultimate." "You don't have to pull for bringing Scripture to bear on experi- ence. It's something you have to pull away from here" (Nino). 175 QUESTION B-8. "Can you give an example of a student who has really benefited from experiential learning? What have you seen in this student which has encouraged you?" Faculty Response. Helped him to make a vocational choice--stimu- lated and encouragedlhim to make a commitment to missions--gave a great deal more self-confidence and a lot more assurance that boldness in evangelism did not necessarily mean immediacy--much more confidence in seeing the component of learning to listen as a real part of evangelism--more sensitive to his wife, her gifts and how she could develop them--began to realize some things about himself, his whole life was transformed--changed from a concept-oriented person to a people-oriented person. APPENDIX G-6 ZETA SEMINARY Zeta Seminary is a midwestern denominational school founded in 1876 for the primary purpose of supplying a theologically and profes- sionally well-prepared ministry for their denominational churches. A faculty of 17 serves 260 students who are pursuing the M.Div., M.T.S., (N‘ M.C.E. professional degrees or the M.Th. academic degree. The program seeks to integrate a classical theological curriculum with supervised field education in contemporary ministry (Catalogue, 1981). Data support a concerted effort to meet this objective. Experiential learning is operative in concurrent, block placement, and practicum modes. Zeta is unique with its required theological reflection curricu- lum component: field work interviews and two-day Theological Reflec- tion debriefing sessions. The Theological Reflection component involves the entire faculty who are assigned to individually meet with three or four students following a block placement. All departments are involved in experiential learning. The nine faculty interviews repre- sent six departments. Five students chose to respond to the question- naire. In Theological Reflection, one focused theological issue is determined from the dialogue regarding each student's experience. He is then required to prepare a reflection paper during the evening for presentation to the group as a basis for dialogue the following morning. Preparation materials indicate that "one can be frank, non-defensive, for this is an internos, peer-oriented theological discussion." Also to be noted is the fact that "the professor in charge will later make 176 177 a report to the academic office as to how you functioned theologi- cally, and whether or not full credit should be given for each session." Data from students would indicate that these sessions vary greatly, depending on the faculty in charge. One said that "In general, such activities were extremely superficial and not too relevant to the learning or experiential process." Another responded, "The experience was a very positive analysis of the theological undergirding of our practice. It tied theory and practice together to give a wholeness to the educational experience." An observable tension exists between the academic and experiential which has likely become focused because of the introduction of Theological Reflection. Professor Agos provides his perspective: Though we do get involved in experience-based education here, there is a strong component of skill acquisition and improvement involved. . . . Though we talk about thorough integration so that everything is professionally oriented, we tend yet to oper- ate with skill in one bag, intellectual knowledge in another. . . . You have trappings of Godliness and a little skill prepara- tion but you are basically "tanking up" intellectually for your future ministry. The element of time has important implications for the quality and quantity of theological reflection at Zeta. Time is merely a mat- ter of limiting student work load because they have theological reflec- tion they must do in addition to their regular course work in order to validate their field education. Proper credit is based on this vali- dation. Students' world, culture, and education have not conditioned them to be reflective before they come to seminary (Kets). Professor Redy sees a fundamental change taking place when students arrive at Zeta which bears on theological reflection. Students are less afraid 178 of expressing themselves in their first years than in their last years. Hanging over them in that last year is the faculty recommendation for candidacy so "we gotta play it safe, not raise any waves that might lead to a negative recommendation." Self-expression of students is also of concern. "[Zeta] is supposed to be a graduate level institu- tion. But for the happy exceptions, students come and almost want to be mouth fed, babied in a way. I [Gall] want to give students a chance to speak what is on their heart and to dialogue with each other--you feel just kind of frustrated at every level in the sense of developing the man or some canned knowledge." Professor Redy observed that stu- dents at Zeta generally appreciate experiential learning though a few think the entire program should be "purely academic and skull fracturing." Student response to Zeta's role in experiential learning and theological reflection displayed a wide range of opinion. For example, "The greatest benefit in it for me was to see that education can be accomplished in a more wholistic way than is presently being carried out at [Zeta]." Or another, "I have benefited much from field experience in terms particularly of confidence and self-appraisal. However, this has accrued entirely apart from the reporting and debriefing processes at the seminary.“ QUESTION B-l. "What kinds of things do you hope to have happen in the lives of your students with respect to your reporting and debrief- ing process? What gpowth purposes does your process tend to serve? What values have you sought to uphold in your reporting and debriefing activities?" Note: Some of the Zeta faculty are directly involved in the field education program, others only in the Theological Reflection seminars. 179 Faculty Response. Progress toward the goal of pastoring--at least minimally prepared for ordained ministry--ability to be rela- tively contented in his work; not project for himself and others frus- tration, difficulty and anger--deepening awareness of the dimensions of Scripture and the stance of the church: their relevance for his life and life of others (Agos). To know God and enjoy him forever (Amor). Foster the discovery process; to discover himself--emphasize what is necessary for effective ministry of the Gospel (Kets). Gain self-confidence--recognize gifts and strengths--retain a memory of behavior-~sensitivity to and interpretation of behavior of others--be responsible and accountable for ministry assignment-- evaluate use and distribution of time (Evan). Skill and gift identification--know themselves--personal growth in empathy to others-~become open with their own fears--growth in lov- ing and being loved--increasing awareness of living in the presence of God in their ministry--growth in personal attributes; integrity and honesty, ability to deny self for the sake of another (Nebo). How to learn from your own experience--how to plan experience for learning-~plan additional experiences beyond field work (Lear). Share different ways to accomplish a given end--help them to see that there is a lot of freedom in the structure of the church--sensi- tivity to changes that are taking place in the church--first-hand knowledge of how a church actually operates at the gut level of the congregation-~sensitize them to the pastoral nature of ministry (Redy). Motivation for learning--career guidance--gain skills, tools, insights for ministry--help learning to have a more permanent effect-- open the student up to life; to the world (Dahl). Conscious sense of self-identity--servant leadership--quit thinking individualistically and atomistically--break down suspicion and build trust--trust the Spirit in each other--build up a sense of worth to God and Kingdom (Gall). Student Response: Became more confident to think theologically-- the emphasis was placed on the theological meaning of only one aspect of internship; questions were more theoretical and not geared very much to the practical lessons learned--growth took place in the actual experience and not in connection with seminary procedures--a reduction- ism of the experience to educational process: experience was received basically in terms of educational growth--tied theory and practice together to give a wholeness to the educational experience--education can be accomplished in a more wholistic way than is presently being carried out at Zeta-~affirmed my self-critique and self-analysis 180 --integration of academic into the totality of my preparation for ' ministry--forced me to ask questions of myself which I might have otherwise left unasked--taught me humility--provided a clearer under- standing of certain parts of Scripture--challenging me as to whether or not things had been handled in a truly Biblical way. QUESTION B-2. "What sorts of questions have you found to be valu- able in getting students to discuss their learning experience?" Faculty Response. Focus: field education (Agos). I read it and this is the way itllooks to me, how do you respond? I've read reports from different peOple and here is where I see convergence, and here dissonance. How do you account for the dissonance?—-If you had to do it over again, how would you do it differently? "I ask clarification type questions." Focus: field education (Kets). Now what are the theological issues involved? "I use the Socratic method." Focus: field education (Evan). What did you do?--Why did you do i t?--What was the person's response?--How did they respond to what you said or did?--What did you do with their response? Focus: field education (Lear). Did you find you had an "Achilles" heel? What was it?--Where do you feel you are inadequate?--What do you feel good about?--What do you do really well?--What do you put first and last in your agenda?--If you sit back and dream about the kind of work you'd like to see yourself doing, what do you do? Focus: practicum (Redy). What is behind it (live illustration)?-- Is it good or bad?--How could it be done better?--What model of lead- ership did you see operative? Focus: field education (Dahl). What happened? "data questions"-- Why did it happen? "why questions"--How did you react? "relationship questions"--What are the aims for the future of your ministry? Focus: field education (Gall). What did this do for you?--Are you the same "John Doe"?--What is the "John Doe" you project?--How do other people read you?--What kind of person did you leave in the minds of the people there?--What are your expectations for the commu- nity as a church and the individual as part of that church? QUESTION B-3. "What kinds of questions have you found which move your students beyond simple recall into deeper thinking?" Faculty Response. Focus: field education (Agos). Why did you do "so an so . urt er regressive 'why' questions." 181 Focus: case method (Amor). How would you characterize the moral being of this community?--To whom are you sympathetic?--Whom do you support? How does this community parallel your community? Focus: field education (Kets). How would you go about giving an answer to that question (re: a theological issue)?--Where would you have to go to get an answer?--Is that issue capable of further analy- sis?--Do you have to answer any prior questions?--How has the theologi- cal position you have taken bear on that situation?--How might it affect your ministry in that situation? Focus: field education (Evan). How do you interpret how others are responding?--Why did you do what you did?--How could you have done it better?--In reflection, what do you wish you had done?--What truths are there from Scripture associated with this situation?--What really are we facing here? Focus: counseling (Nebo). Do you think God cared whether you did it or not?--What kind of healing had to take place?--Who needed to be reconciled with whom?--Who needed to make decisions about the incident? Focus: practicum (Lear). Why did you drop certain objectives?-- Why did you select that "insight" to write about?--What insight did you get into yourself regarding where you think you are vulnerable?-- When you see yourself in ministry, there are things you have to work around in yourself. How do you cover for yourself? Focus: field education (Gall). In what areas of ministry must you particularly develop?--Did the experience point you in the direc- tion of any specialized ministry? QUESTION 8-4. "Are you interested in how students are feeling about their experience? How do you encourage reflection focused on feelings?" Faculty Response. Am interested in feelings and indirectly ask where embarrassment or agitating is evident—-don't encourage the exploration of feelings--do affirm rather than probe feelings (Agos). How do you apprehend the world around you?--What kinds of visions, images, dreams motivate you?--How do you get released from tyrannical feelings? (context: study of a novel) (Amor). "That's a hard one for me to get ahold of. Our culture promotes preoccupation with inhibiting feelings" (Kets). "Be open about my own feelings and expressive regarding both ups and downs."--use modeling of myself to initiate feelings of interns-- analysis of pastoral calls initiates feelings (Evan). 182 What were you feeling at the time?--Can you identify your emo- tions?--"Use empathetic listening and sometimes affirm their weakness or fear" (Nebo). "Probably the first question I ask is, 'How do you feel about your experience?'"-~encourage reflection on feelings especially if student is shattered (Lear). "Yes, I approach feelings pastorally" (Redy). "Yes, but I neglect them somewhat since I don't feel qualified to handle. . . . I'm probably not sufficiently aware or sensitive to the matter of feelings" (Dahl). Do you identify with that church or do you hold them at arm's length?--Do you really love the church; really love the sinner? (Gall). Student Response. Feelings were not dealt with to a large extent-- basically were not dealt with--to my surprise, Iwas allowed the freedom to be wrong and that allowed me the opportunity to really relax and think--were respected greatly; encouraged to express them. QUESTION B-5. "How do you get students to recognize the theologi- cal implications of their experience?" Faculty Response. Ask questions for clarification; factual in nature, contextual--What are some of the theological issues you see in this experience?--Here we have a little problem hithat we don't always know what a theological problem or question is: for example, a psychological issue. Does that belong in the area of psychology, sociology, or theology? Some regard it as theological and some don't-- some think that "theological" indicates dogmatic theology. or what doctrine applies--we do try to push through to that narrow view of theology: God talk (Agos). By teaching them theology that will open their eyes to what the experience means--press them with theological questions over and over again (Nebo). What kind of theological statement are you making?--I set up a dissonance where the theology set up by the experience runs counter to the theology of the confession: a juxtaposition (Lear). How do ou conceive of the church; people of God? temple? or flock? (Redy). What is the theological significance of "so and so"? (Dahl) Why does that guy anger you, where is he coming from, where are you coming from? "Everyone lives out a theology but most times it is not consciously understood or articulated" (Gall). 183 QUESTION B-6. ADO you find students more prone to talk about the theological implications of their present experience, or to talk about the same sorts of theological debates common to other classes?" Faculty Response. Discussion often degenerates to general ques- tions, i.e., repropation, etc.--"I press the question, 'how do you handle it?’ You talk reprobation, but now you have one in front of you: How does it feel? How does that look? Do you think he js_a reprobate?"--usual answer, "I'm not sure."--The theoretical framework gets pushed to decision with respect to its applicability in the con- crete case (Agos). Beware of jargon-~beginning with experiences outside the academic situation makes students tend to relate in more common terms and avoid jargon (Amor). "I'm really at a loss because I don't hear students talk theology at all, nowhere. . . . There is no theological talk and that's scary" Kets . Stimulation for theological discussion is not great until we face a crisis--theological reflection only comes when it is stimulated by an existential situation and not in abstraction from it (Evan). Speak on global issues; more abstract issues--"Students have been trained to discuss the global issues."--Analysis and evaluation keep the focus on the existential situation-~"You can't talk about guilt in a vacuum" (Nebo). They do like to talk of old hassles--"Insult them! I tell them, 'your theological nose is too long! You can't smell what's right under your feet.'"--they get caught up in a theological chess game-- "I let them know I know where they are going" (Lear). Keep the issue clear--continue to restate the problem; what are they really talking about?--beware of operating on an agenda or on data not part of the existential problem--"Students are less afraid of expressing themselves [theologically] in the early years of seminary training. Hanging over them in that last year is the faculty recom- mendation for candidacy. Thus, they are going to play it safe, not raise any waves which mightlead to a negative reconmendation" (Redy). They like to discuss old debates--press for a theological rationale for whatever was done or said--conclude with theological issues (Nebo). The bent is not toward abstract theological discussion--"In fact, it is very difficult to get an abstract theological discussion going. Students are very much more moved b the existential situation of the whole Church of Christ today" (Gall . 184 QUESTION B-7. "Have you found ways to help students bring Scrip- ture to bear on their experience? What are some examples of how you accomplish this task?" Faculty Response. "Moving back into the Scripture is a real prob- lem; the whole questibn of how to use and interpret the Scripture, the whole hermaneutical question. I would suggest in part that this is simply a reflection of the confusion that exists. The student is par- ticularly at a disadvantage there because he has traditional ways of getting props from Scripture, has had college profs who have done it a little differently and has a variety of ways in which he sees semi- nary professors doing it even though they say they all agree" (Agos). What do you think "such and such a doctrine" has to say about this?--also suggest things to read (Evan). Begin with broader category than Scripture--begin with the Word of God of which Scripture is one form in which it comes--the Bible can provide the common assumptions of a conversation without ever being explicit--students need to learn how to do "God talk"--"I am concerned that they just don't do with a secular description of a religious reality" (Nebo). "Our tradition isn't good at driving people back to the Bible. . . . We avoid going to the Book for fear of being labeled a funda- mentalist" (Lear). "Generally I give the Scripture to them. The problem of encour- aging them to find it is that students are terribly heavily loaded here and we are just satisfied if they do the assignment" (Redy). Don't particularly focus on Scripture--rather work toward con- fessional rationale--time limit is a problem here-~students are more ready for a confessional focus (Dahl). "I emphasize that the Bible is totally fascinating and rich, and that we just scratch the surface. Too many preachers are just scratch- ing the obvious" (Gall). Question 8-8. "Can you give an example of a student who has really benefited'from experiential learning? What have you seen in this stu- dent which has encouraged you?" Faculty Response. Naive perceptions of people shaken--learned to get into théipkin of opposition: not compromise principles--grapple theologically as well as strategically with the tension between the real and the ideal--ability to use vicarious experience and tap into it--has something of a vision of reality to motivate him--matured considerably in self-confidence about ability to minister--discovered areas of inadequacies, weakness--discovered the great diversity and 185 complexity of human situations--a little humility--growth in their understanding and perception of people--realized damage he was doing to himself by his deferential behavior--more inner-directed in his ministry--maintained independence--sticks to personal goals and objectives--not too likely to conform to the standards and customs of congregational stereotypes--more courageous. APPENDIX G-7 ETA SEMINARY Eta Seminary is an eastern nondenominational school founded in 1964 to fill a perceived need for a thoroughly Reformed seminary that would be committed to the inerrancy of Scripture with its compelling demands for evangelism and Christian nurture (Catalogue, 1981). A faculty of 21 serves a student body of 230 who are aspiring to the M.Div., D.Min., M.C.E., and M.A. degrees. The student body has its own unique personality. "We've tried to have a pan-denominational outlook here, serving primarily students from churches from Reformed persuasion. That's our primary task" (Yard). However, many of Eta's students are new to the Reformed faith. A good number were converted through para-church organizations on college and university campuses and don't have the kind of background you have with an old tradi- tional denominational seminary. They are inclined to be weighted pretty heavily in the extreme understanding of the Reformed faith (Arts, Myer, Witt, Yard). There is generally a healthy interest in experiential learning on the Eta campus. Eleven interviews represent the departments of HiStorical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology, plus Pastoral Care and Counseling, Christian Education, and Christian Mission. Eta Seminary is enthusiastically committed to a strong field education program. "We desire our graduates to be 'fully-equipped' to be servants of God's servants" (Field Educational Manual). Field work is valued as an integral and indispensable element in theological training. The purpose of field education; summer assignment and 186 187 clinical-year block placements, or concurrent field work, is to pro- vide the student with opportunities to exercise and improve his gifts, skills, and equip him with a diversified background of first-hand experience for ministry. Professor Rack, a strong advocate of experi- ential learning, believes that it "helps to give flesh and blood defi- nition to the language you are using." Although experiential learning is widely practiced at Eta, theological reflection, at least in field work, is quite new. "This is our first field work experience ever where we have tried to have reflection on what they are doing in the whole seminary" (Arts). The lack of reflection on experience as a norm was obvious in nearly every interview. When asked to cite a particular student who had really benefited from experiential learn- ing, Professor Girn, who is involved with nearly the entire student body, replied, "I think experiential learning has been a breakthrough for everyone of them." One of three students who responded said by way of evaluation, "It [experiential learning] takes the academic and makes it immediately experiential." QUESTION B-l. "What kinds of things do you hope to have happen in the liies of your students with respect to your reporting and debriefing process? What growth purposes does your process tend to serve? What values have you sought to uphold in your reporting and debriefing activities?" Faculty Response. To think about themself as a teacher; they already see themselves as preachers (Arts). Reflect theologically and emotionally on field experience--integrate classroom experience with the real world of the church and its ministry--be able to verbalize content to their personal growth (Girn). Grow intellectually--mature emotionally and spiritually-~enhance their abilities to communicate the Gospel (Gold). The self-application of the Gospel of God-~help them to face their own 1imitations--come to see that as pastors, and men, they are representers of Jesus Christ (Hobb). Be able to translate 188 a reference in a book into a real life situation--realize historical characters were live persons (Napp). Create a positive mindset toward ministry (Myer). To make student aware of what he is doing in order to compare with what he thinks he is doing or what the theory behind it says he is doing--"This becomes a point of reference about which he evaluates his values, his theory, and his methodology" (Rack). Assist students to become perceptive in terms of their strengths and weak- nesses in dealing with various assignments (Lepp). To be able to shift from critical analysis in the study to creative synthesis in the pulpit (Kolgg. To taste every aspect of ministry while in a church setting Yar . Student Response. The blending of theoretical and the practical (counseling programlE--caused me to evaluate and revise my communica- tion skills, listening abilities and expression of feelings, evaluate biblically based values, moved me to compassion and to a great desire to encourage people toward total communication and intimacy, challenged me to use adult thinking and helped me to really look at myself and make changes. QUESTION B-2. "What sorts of questions have you found to be valuable in getting students to discuss their learning activities?" Faculty Response. Focus: teacher education (Arts). What evidences are there that the teacher has a warm and friendly relationship with their students? What do you think he meant by that (live example)?-- Why was that important? Focus: field education (Girn). What do you think you accomp- lished?--Were the weekly conferences held?--Did you have enough time off?--Did you get support from your supervisor?--Did you receive sup- port from the session? Focus: missions (Gold). What did you learn from your experience?-- Were you able to teach somebody else?--What was the practicality of it? Focus: clinical pastoral education (Hobb). What was the oppor- tunity that you had?--Was it successful? Why or why not?--Where did you change it (student-designed program)?--Where would you change it if you were doing it over? Focus: homiletics (Yard). How do you evaluate your preaching?-- What kind of preaching did you do?--How did you handle a particular text?--Why do you think there was some negative reaction? Additional comments: Professor Rack uses few questions in his reflection process. "I think the value of questions is to articulate. Open-ended questions put parameters on the topic of conversation. Close-ended questions are valuable only to make clear, clean, articu- late distinctions. Outside of that, I think they are a hindrance rather than a help." 189 QUESTION B-3. "What kinds of questions have you found which move your studentslbeyond simple recall into deeper thinking?" Faculty Response. Focus: teacher education (Arts). What can you do to replly build a relationship with your students?--What can you do in preparation for the teaching/learning process?--How do you know when you have prepared sufficiently?--What is the criterion on which you evaluate your preparation? Focus: field education (Girn). What did you learn about your- self?--What were your frustrations?--What were your victories?--What were your joys?--What did you feel like: alone, alienated?--Did you feel positive about what was going on? Focus: missions (Gold). How does that relate to your mission as God's evangelist among the people?--How does that relate and how impor- tant is it to the people you are serving?--How can you communicate how that relates to them? Focus: clinical pastoral education (Hobb). What did you learn about God?--about yourself?--about the church? (These appear to be stock questions among the Eta faculty.) Focus:_church history (Napp). What about this martyr's life and death made the deepest impression on you?--Explain what you think this is going to mean in your life and ministry?--What does this bit of history mean to your perception of ministry?--What does this mean to the church today? "I think this [case study in church history] is analogous to the experience you are getting out of field work which is impossible at least in ancient history." Focus: field education (Lepp). How do you feel about so and so?-- What difficulties did you have?--Did you feel people were more respons- ive or less responsive to what you were doing?--What did you feel the most comfortable with?--In which activities did you feel the most secure?--Which things seemed the most threatening to you? "Generally I ask the more or less kinds of questions." Focus: homiletics (Koln) (context: sermon criticism). Have you lost a close relative through death? Or had a relationship with a young lady broken off? Or you or your family been through a crisis?-- If you had had some of these experiences how would it have helped you understand better some of the difficulties which Jeremiah faced? Focus: systematics (Wirt) (context: case study). Having studied the Doctrine of God and the biblical data, how would you approach this from a pastoral perspective? 190 Focus: field education (Yard). How do you think you might have handled the situation better in order to cope with the problem?--How could you have built a relationship with that man?--Is this a Scrip- tural approach to your problem?--Did you follow a really Biblical approach? QUESTION B-4. "Are you interested in how students are feeling about their experience? How do you encourage reflection on feelings?" Faculty Response. "I would be but I can't sa that I've worked with that allot because the class is so big" (Arts). "When I sense there has been a problem, I just say 'let's get together and talk about that'" (Girn). For Professor Girn, the big thing is sincerity on his part and to express reassurance and love. "I would like them to feel positively about them [their feelings]" (Myer). Professor Myer's method is to draw the student away a little bit from the situation so they can look at it more objectively--the conflict is not usually as serious as they think--he tries to get them to step back and see the big picture. "I don't approach homiletics simply from the basis of content, structure, rhetoric or oratory. I think there is a definite relational aspect to preaching which is essential" (Koln). "When they talk to me, I try to give them sufficient time to reach the point where they are not just defensive about the unpleasant experiences but will begin to recognize that they themselves posed some problems to the minister and the church" (Yard). Professor Napp shares some real question regarding any form of introspection regarding experiential learning, "The trouble with these boys is they come off college cam- puses to this campus and everything is 'pickled in an academic bottle' so you are always introspecting and dissecting that stuff including what's inside your skin. . . . They don't need a teacher to be ana- lytical or introspective. They've got that running out of their ears." QUESTION B-5., "How do you get students to recognize the theologi- cal implications of their experience?" Faculty Response. "I don't know if I do that in any planned way. I start Ell’my classes with a theology of whatever" (Arts). "If they haven't taken systematics, it is very difficult. They are not trained to think theologically. If they have, I just try to add a framework of theology and ask them to fit in their experience" (Girn). "If I really knew the answer to that, I'd have a lot more peace than I have now. I'm struggling and groping" (Gold). "In the verbeta for example, I want to see theological evaluations. Where does the Doctrine of God give you counsel?" (Hobb). M.Div. students have a bit of a barrier. They usually have an academic approach to theology. "I find that people who are given to Reformed theology like to put their theology in a box and have certain categories that fit there" (Myer). "More students avoid theological definition and diagnosis because they are emotionally afraid to be that personal, rather than because they don't know" (Rack). 191 EQUESTION B-6. "Do you find students prone to talk about the theological implications of their present experience, or to talk about the same sorts of theological debates common to other classes?" Faculty Response. "Students have their theology very compartmen- talized and it doesp‘t really relate to all of life" (Arts). "Relating field experience to theology is just not an issue for big discussion" (Girn). It is very difficult for a student who has not really done concentrated study of theology for a year or so to relate it to their experience--depends where they are at in their training. The first step is to begin by starting where they are (Rack). "Most theology students are rigidly academic in their theology and so I will try to start out with a good theological foundation." Students cannot just transfer theology into the practical world. "Depends on the classes and varies from year to year" (Koln). QUESTION B-7. "Have you found ways to help students bring Scripture to bear on their experience? What are some examples of how you accomplish this task?" Faculty Response. I ask what biblically gives us some insight into that partiEplar problem or situation. In this school we reach back to the Scriptures rather than the confessions--not because we are more biblical--our roots are more in the evangelical, fundamentalistic school (Arts). If I know a passage which would be helpful, I encourage them to read it, or go Open up a Bible and read it with them. "And then I ask them to put the passage into their own words; how it applies" (Girn). If they can't read Scripture (because it is rejected by the patient), then they should quote it. I set before them as a goal, reading Scripture on pastoral.calls (Hobb). There is the tendency on the part of some to fall into the proof-text approach; to have a scripture and deductively conclude from it. "That's what I fight constantly" (Rack). Scripture is a point of belief and not a founda- tion from which you can deductively include every act you take as a Christian. Bringing Scripture to bear on experience is the expectation of our students because of the tradition and because of the expectation of this institution (Lepp). QUESTION B-8. "Can you give an example of a student who has really benefited from experiential learning? What have you seen in this student which has encouraged you?" Faculty Response. More tolerant of people--more understanding of people--ability to be creative--gained self-confidence--assured of his calling--gone from a pulpit pounder to an effective pastor and religious communicator--came to realize that persons in history were live people-- fear was gone--more realistic view of ministry--realized that ministry is a long-range thing--ability to keep on growing-~overcame the fear of learning from the uncertain, moving into the unknown--had a sense of being a spokesman for God-~believed the power of the proclaimed word to transform people. APPENDIX G-8 THETA SEMINARY Theta is an eastern school which had its formal beginning in 1978. The formal movement began in 1968. It is unique in almost every respect. The average age of the students is 40 years. Theta serves two degree programs: the B.A. in Biblical Studies from a local college and the M.A.R. through a neighboring seminary. Besides the resident director, faculty are enlisted from these neighboring institutions. Theta has the aim of taking seriously the extensive education already received by urban leaders through life-experience. These ministers expressed a need for further training in ministry and formal theologi- cal education in order to meet the challenges in their ministries. All sensed a need for each other and the riches of each other's church traditions (Catalogue, 1981). At Theta, those persons directly involved in or aspiring to urban church leadership are given further on-the-job training as well as classroom experience. "Christian com- munity development is encouraged, resources are found to meet felt needs, and bridges are built between Christian groups hitherto unknown to each other" (Cary). Theta has a dual ministry to provide further training and education for urban church leaders and to be a means reconciliation between the urban, predominantly black, church and the suburban, predominantly white, church. Data were received from Pro- fessor Cary, Theta resident director. To be part of the M.A.R. program, a student must live in the urban context, get grounded in a church that will be cross-cultural to him, and win a position of 192 193 respect and involvement wholly on his own. Theta aims for students to "develop normally." "We're not going to place [a student] arti- ficially in a leadership position, because one of the very basic things is you've got to have a real appreciation for that church's place in ministry" (Cary). One of Theta's major goals is to enlarge people's views of ministry so that they recognize that the church is larger than their own limited gifts. Many of the churches have in the past just been preaching centers. Professor Cary strongly affirmed the existence of a richness at Theta which is directly related to students' involvement in life experience. He recalled a typical seminary classroom experience where the answers to a case study were "just off the wall." This, he says, doesn't happen at Theta. QUESTION B-l. What kinds of things do you hope to have happen in the lives of your students with respect to your reporting and debriefing process? What gtowth purposes does your process tend to serve? What values have you sought to uphold in your reporting and debriefing activities?" Faculty Response. Enlarge people's view of ministry--self— recognition that the church is larger than their own limited gifts-- recognition that the Church is larger than the resources of the local church--help students to identify other people who can do ministr -- if you have a need in the local church, the Lord has a resource for meeting that need; perhaps in your own church--appreciation of the concept of a larger body (Church universal)--minimize the threat to a pastor of seeking help from others; build security--develop the abil- ity to identify gifts--emphasize teamwork and shared decision making. QUESTION B-2. "What sorts of questions have you found to be valu- able in getting students to discuss their learning experience?" Faculty Response. Focus: case method (Cary). Professor Cary extensively employs the case study approach which "readily opens up people because they can identify the experiences, or ones like that, and they just respond very well behind that. They are very motivated because it is sometimes a case which is still unsolved and they really want an answer." Questions: What's the problem?--What steps would you take in determining the precise problem?--What would you do? 194 --"What I'm really working at is problem definition." Another means Cary employs for problem definition is the use of slides. Questions: What's going on?--Who's who in the situation?--"I'm getting them to question the status-quo and not just saying 'that's the way it is,‘ but really thinking through what it should be. And then what's neces- sary to get it where it should be." Cary maintains that good problem solving involves critical thinking. What you define as the problem may not be the problem at all but just a copout. "You have to question their definition of the problem." QUESTION B-3. "What kinds of questions have you found which move your students beyond simple recall into deeper thinking?" Faculty Response. There is very little of the recall process because 1'people have such high agendas around here. They are ministry people with a real history behind them. They are always putting 'the rubber on the road'" (Cary). The basic facts will usually come out and someone in the class will always question them. This moves the group into another level of conversation. Professor Cary believes that a key to moving students from simple recall to deeper thinking is "the willingness of the faculty to make themselves vulnerable." The ground rule at Theta is that "we are going to test what we are saying by the Bible." The faculty member then articulates a Biblical posture on a given problem and tells the students in effect, "You can shoot me for all you are worth!" The success of this method is related in part to the faculties' belief that there is within any given classroom "a reservoir of understanding that will lay out all that the Bible says about a subject eventually, if you allow it to happen, and will offer all the correction that you need, which gets posited by somebody." The inductive method is a primary mode of teaching at Theta. QUESTION 8-4. "Are you interested in how students are feeling about their experience? How do you encourage reflection focused on feelings?" Faculty Response. "That's an area we don't do a whole lot with unless the student is explicit about their feelings" (Cary). If a student brings up some feelings in class, the faculty deals with them. Otherwise, they assume that the student talks with somebody sitting around their lounge where they all spend a good deal of time convers- ing. Cary indicates that "There's an esprit de corps here that really is supportive if someone really lets it hang out; gets picked on. Somebody, or bodies will always rise to their support." QUESTION B-S. "How do you get students to recognize the theo- logical implications of their experience?" and QUESTION 8-6. "Do you find students more prone to talk about the theological implications of their present experience, or to talk about the same sorts of theological debates common to other classes?" L 195 Faculty Response. "It tends to happen by nature around here, very much 50“ (Cary). QUESTION B-7. "Have you found ways to help students bring Scrip- ture to bear on their experience? What are some examples of how you accomplish this task?" Faculty Response. "We stress very much that theology is the application of Godls Word to all areas of life--exposition is really the ground of application" (Cary). "Bringing the Word to experience is the way they [students] function, but what we have helped them to do is to understand that that is_how they function." Cary offers this interesting observation regarding Theta. "Black experience sees life as a whole. They see God touching every area of life. It's God who brought them through. That's one of the hallmarks of the black church. One of their key Scriptures is 'the earth is the Lord's and the fullness thereof.'" The black community has great celebration in the fact that God is really there and will see them through. QUESTION 8-8. "Can you give an example of a student who has really benefited from experiential learning? What have you seen in this student which has encouraged you?" Faculty Response. Because Theta's program is almost totally experientally oriented, it is impossible to cite one student. How- ever, one was mentioned who underwent a com lete transformation in which he could testify that Theta and his student colleagues have "made me see God's working in my midst." APPENDIX H SOME IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS: THEOLOGICAL REFLECTION PROCESS, ZETA SEMINARY 196 APPENDIX H SOME IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS: THEOLOGICAL REFLECTION PROCESS, ZETA SEMINARY Prior to the first session you will be required to prepare a two- page description (double-spaced) or an event or incident in your ministry. This paper should be descriptive in an objective-analytical sort of way, not theologically reflective. Describe in an adequate way the dynamics of a situation so others can get into the situation and plumb its significance with you. Who said what, and what did you answer? Who did what and how did you react or respond? What was the . history of the parties involved in the situation? Did this incident have root causes in the past? Was this situation expressive of a deeper or broader situation, attitude, relationship, etc.? How did you feel, what did you think, what did you project in that situation? The theological reflection group usually consists of three or four participants along with the professor. Hence, the first day will demand three or four hours of time, plus approximately forty-five minutes of introduction by the professor. The opening session will begin at 1:00 p.m. It will be a round-the-table discussion, with each participant making his contributions, asking probing questions, suggesting what in his view are the significant theological issues which surface in that pastoral/preaching situation, or evangelistic/ missionary situation described in each participant's paper. What theological issues are more obliquely related? These will be tabu- lated, and then the participant will be asked to prepare a four to five page theological-reflection paper on that issue that evening. That is why we keep the first evening open in order to prepare this paper. The following morning we begin meeting at 8:30, and one must figure on an hour to an hour and a half on each paper. This varies accord- ing to the subject and according to the interrelation of the papers. We then carry on till about 1:30 to 3:00 depending on whether we have two, three, or four participants. We discuss the papers in turn in sort of dialogue fashion, the group serving as a sounding board, and communal stimulus (encouragement) for the individual. Usually this results in very supportive and provocative relationships; a sense of community and collegiality grows, and leads to rewards for the par- ticipants. A sense of "being in this together" usually eventuates. One can be frank, non-defensive, for this is an inter-nos, peer- oriented-theological discussion. 197 198 The professor in charge will later make a report to the academic office as to how you functioned theologically, and whether or not full credit should be given for the session. Copies should be made of the papers, in order that each participant might have one before him. These matters are inter-nos, that is to say, they are considered confidential. APPENDIX I SELF-EVALUATION OF INTERNSHIP EXPERIENCE: EPSILON SEMINARY 199 APPENDIX I SELF-EVALUATION 0F INTERNSHIP EXPERIENCE: EPSILON SEMINARY Please respond to the following questions by circling the number which best identifies where you see yourself on the scale. How do you evaluate your spiritual growth during the internship? Deteriorating -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Much progress Were you able to establish meaningful relationships with non-Christians? Withgreatdifficulty -3 -2 --1 +1 +2 +3 With great ease Did you take initiative in ministering to others? Not at all -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very often How well do you receive criticism? Poorly -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very well What was the degree of satisfaction and fulfillment you felt in carry- ing out your ministry? Unfulfilleddrudgery -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Verysatisfying&rewarding Overall, how do you feel the pe0p1e responded to your ministry? Critically -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Enthusiastically When you admonished others, was it received by them as having been done in a spirit of love? Almost never -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Nearly always Evaluate your ability to make and implement plans for personal growth: Unable -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very able In general, how well do you express yourself? With difficulty -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very well 200 201 How do you respond to others' advice? Unduly influenced -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Responsiblyconsiderit Did you give expressions of encouragement to other Chrisitans? Very seldom -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very frequently To what extent have you been able to withstand pressure and remain calm in crisis situations? Not at all -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 To a great extent How well did you relate to other Christians in your church? Poorly -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Excellently How well do you manage your time? Poorly -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very well Do you believe you were effective in communicating respect for the views of those who differed with you? Ineffective -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very effective How do you respond to assuming added responsibilities? Reluctantly -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Eagerly How do you feel you handle situations where people differ with you? Poorly -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very well How did you feel when placed in positions of leadership? Very uncomfortable -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very comfortable Do you feel that you are able to demonstrate personal concern and love to others who differed with your views? Poorly -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very well Evaluate your ability to make decisions: Poor -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Excellent 202 How do you respond to being under authority? With resentment -3 Do people seek you out for counsel concerning their personal problems? Very seldom -3 How do you receive advice Ungraciously -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Frequently from others? -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Graciously To what extent do others desire your company? They avoid it -3 How well do you relate to With difficulty -3 How well do you relate to With difficulty -3 How well do you relate to With difficulty -3 How well do you relate to With difficulty -3 How well do you relate to With difficulty -3 How well do you relate to With difficulty -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 They seek it men of your own age? -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very well men who are younger? -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very well men who are older? -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very well women of your own age? -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very well women who are younger? -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very well women who are older? -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very well How well do you meet new people? With great difficulty -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 With willing acceptance With great ease 203 How do people respond to your leadership? Reject -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Willingly accept Do you enjoy meeting new people? Not at all -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very much How do you feel about entering the pastoral ministry? . Not sure -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Firmly convinced (FOR MARRIED INTERNS) How did you feel you were able to manage your time between church responsibilities and home responsibilities? Poorly -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Very well In general, how do you evaluate your relationship with your wife? Poor -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Excellent Did the quality of your relationship with your wife change during the internship? Greatly deteriorated -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Really improved Write two words that describe your relationship with your wife: Write two words that describe your relationship with your children (if applicable): How does your wife feel about your entering the pastoral ministry? Much reservation -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 Enthusiastic & supportive APPENDIX J GENERAL SELF-ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION: SHORT-ANSWER FIELD EDUCATION TERM REPORT, ETA SEMINARY 204 APPENDIX J GENERAL SELF-ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION: SHORT—ANSWER FIELD EDUCATION TERM REPORT, ETA SEMINARY Student'slName Period of Service Total Hours of Service Name and address of the institution or organization (school/ church) under whose auspices you worked. Name and address of person most responsible for the supervision of your work. Please write a short job description of the acts in which you engaged at the above institution. (Please use separate sheet.) What in your judgment has been the strongest contribution you made to the ministry of the above institution? What areas do you consider to be your strongest abilities based on the above experience? In what areas have you discovered personal weaknesses? What growth have you experienced in professional understanding and competence (teaching, counseling, administration, etc.)? 205 10. 206 What aspect of the above experience did you appreciate the most? What aspect of the above experience did you find to be most dis- appointing? How has the above experience affected your plans for the future? APPENDIX K STUDENT PREPARATION INSTRUMENT FOR CLASS REFLECTION SESSION: ZETA SEMINARY 207 APPENDIX K STUDENT PREPARATION INSTRUMENT FOR CLASS REFLECTION SESSION: ZETA SEMINARY Reflection sessions: The Consistory 1. 10. 11. How did the Church Order function in the meetings you attended? Was it consciously observed or were its requirements a part of accepted procedures? If the council referred to the Church Order, in what attitude did they do so: was it limiting and directive, or did they look to the Church Order for guidance? What role did the pastor play in the meetings: did he dominate the discussions, serve as a resource person, or . . . ? Were all office bearers given equal status in the discussions and decision-making process? Was the consistory conscious of the needs of the congrgation and of its Opinions in various matters? Did they seek such informa- tion? What kinds of decisions did the consistory reserve for itself without consultation with the congregation, or with fellow office bearers--e.g., elders, deacons? Were committees given clear mandates and power to act? What was the relationship of the consistory to these committees? Did the consistory know where it was going? Had any goals been consciously set? If you observed the nominating process for office bearers, was this process meaningful? What would you do differently if you were an elder, deacon, or pastor of the church you observed? If the congregation had a multiple staff, or a team ministry, how well was this working? Would you propose any changes? 208 APPENDIX L FACULTY-PREPARED QUESTION SEQUENCE FOR THEOLOGICAL REFLECTION 0N FIELD EDUCATION: ZETA SEMINARY 209 APPENDIX L FACULTY-PREPARED QUESTION SEQUENCE FOR THEOLOGICAL REFLECTION 0N FIELD EDUCATION: ZETA SEMINARY What did you learn about yourself? a. Who you are? Can you work with self-confidence or unto the Lord? b. What kind of skills do you have? l-What are your strong points? 2-What are your weak points? c. How well do you relate to people? l-Have you identified with them? 2-Or is it still "I" vs. "them"? 3-Can you work ujth people rather than for pe0ple? 4-Do you love the people of God? 5-Did you present the Gospel to any person? In regard to special areas: a. Did you take time for and enjoy old people? b. Can you with ease speak to young people? c. The acid test: What do children think of you? Did you enjoy making sermons, preparing for a lesson, visiting the sick in the hospital, etc.? Did you take any course in a neighboring university, college, or seminary? What sort of a person do you project to the congregation? How did your wife react in the situation? a. How were relationships between yourself, your wife, and your children? b. Could you work together on any project? c. Did she gain satisfaction from the ministry? In what areas of ministry must you particularly develop? Did the experience point you in the direction of any specialized ministry? 210 APPENDIX M SAMPLE DEBRIEFING GUIDE FOR SUMMER FIELD ASSIGNMENT 211 APPENDIX M SAMPLE DEBRIEFING GUIDE FOR SUMMER FIELD ASSIGNMENT STEP ONE: Exposure (Developing a consciousness.) 1. 2. 4. What kind of summer experience did you have? What feelings are generated as you look back upon those summer weeks? How did your summer assignment align or not align with your expectations? Was the alternative lifestyle culturally shocking for you? STEP TWO: Participation (Looking at the facts.) 1. 2. 4. Describe your primary duties? Discuss the leadership expectations of the church? of the pastor? How do you assess the program's content and process from the youths' perspective? Describe the attitude of the community to your activities? STEP THREE: Identification (Interpreting the facts.) 1. Which ministry tasks gave you the greatest satisfaction and why? What did you find out regarding your own leadership style including strengths and weaknesses? How did you manage your time with respect to your assigned tasks as well as free time? Describe the balance? To what degree did you identify with the church as your people? And that community as your people? STEP FOUR: Internalization (Going beyond the facts.) 1. How did the experience challenge your previous perspective on Christian ministry? In what ways does the Scripture affirm or deny your present understanding of ministry, and leadership in ministry? 212 213 How have your values been altered with respect to the economics of ministry within and without a congregation as viewed in the light of Scripture? Describe what you believe to be the perceptions of the congre- gation with respect to your leadership which demand altera- tion? STEP FIVE: Dissemination (Voluntary life response.) 1. In what ways will you seek to bring change in specific class content or your seminaries' curriculum structure as a result of your summer experience? What challenges from this ministry experience cannot be over- looked as you again begin your course work? What effects will this experience in a different community with an alternative lifestyle have on your own lifestyle? And what you judge to be important in life in general? What will you impress upon your professors, pastor, fellow- students and family as a direct result of your summer experi- ence and reflection upon it in the light of Scripture? APPENDIX N A CASE STUDY AND ITS DEBRIEFING GUIDE 214 APPENDIX N A CASE STUDY AND ITS DEBRIEFING GUIDE A Case Study: "The Hillside Chanenge"1 Hillside church hasa youth group for ages 16 through 19, although many of the members stay on a few more years. Traditionally these older members become the leaders, although the church council insists that older adults "monitor" the group's activities, studies, etc. Hillside church has about 40 young people in the group's age range although the average attendance is 20-25, depending on the program. Each year the leaders meet for a planning session with the adult monitors to decide the study material, dates for meetings, fund- raising events, etc. This information is shared with the group at their first fall meeting for approval and then with the church coun- cil for final approval. This year, the leaders took a poll of the members to find out what their impressions of the youth ministry program were and what their suggestions might be for this year's program. Here are the most frequently recorded comments: 1. "Some of us think we get enough Bible in catechism, at home and, for those at Christian High, in school. Do we need it here too?" 2. "I have to be honest. I like the group for the fellowship. I know the studies and fund raisers are important, but I like having a good time." 3. "Our group seems to be a lot of little groups. We need to work on being one in the Spirit." 4. "Our group has a lot of good, creative people. I wish the church would use us." 5. "Do the younger ones always have to wait their turn to be leaders?" 6. "I like the group, but find it hard to choose between school and group events." 1Designed by Dale Dieleman, Young Ca1Vinist Federation, 1981. 215 216 7. "I wish I felt more comfortable bringing my friends to group, but I don't now. The Hillside leaders also polled the church council members. Here are a few of the most frequent comments: A. "We'd like to see all the young peOple of the church in the group. Please work on getting them all to attend." 8. "Most of what the congregation hears about the youth group is the fun 'n games. We trust there's more going on too." C. "We'd like to see the young people get involved in projects." D. "We like the youth group. It keeps them involved in church and helps prepare them to take leadership in the church, someday." The leaders and the monitors met for their planning meeting. Before them were the comments taken from the polls and a full year's program to plan. As they compared these comments along with their own ideas about youth ministry, it was apparent that what they had was a real challenge, not only in planning, but also in being leaders. STEP ONE: 1. STEP TWO: 1. 217 DebriefingsGuide (For use with Dieleman's "The Hillside Challenge") Exposure (Developing a consciousness.) As a group, read over the comments 1-7 in the case and discuss what general feelings are being expressed by the young people. Read over the comments A-D in the case and discuss what general feelings_are being expressed by the church council members making these comments. If you were a Hillside youth leader, what would be your initial feelings as you reflected on the two sets of comments? Participation (Looking at the facts.) Read the first two paragraphs of the case. What picture of the youth program at Hillside Church is presented? Is it basically formal or non-formal? Explain your response. Based on the information given, what can be said about the leadership style of the leaders of the Hillside group? Is there a hidden agenda in this case as you perceive the facts? If so, describe the content. STEP THREE: Identification (Interpreting the facts.) 1. Compare and/or contrast the youth comments 1-7 with the council's comments A-D. How does each set of comments view the church and the youth program of the church? Imagine you are the leaders of the Hillside Church youth program: a) select two comments from 1-7 and one comment from A-D of the case study. b) share what you think each of the three comments is REALLY saying: - what is the writer of the comment implying? - is there a NEED being expressed here? If so, what is the NEED? Does this NEED relate to FAITH, FELLOWSHIP or SERVICE? c) discuss some creative ideas of how the expressed NEED can be met. d) reflect on each idea shared in part "c." Does this idea fit a formal or a non-formal approach to youth ministry? Explain. 3. 218 As you perceive the issues presented, prepare a hierarchy of values for both the youth group and for the Hillside Church council members. STEP FOUR: Internalization (Going beyond the facts.) 1. In what ways does the "Hillside Challenge" compare or con- trast with your situation? To what extent do you use a formal or non-formal approach in your youth program? Which seems to best fit your style of leadership? And why? What does your style of leadership say to the young people about the church? STEP FIVE: Dissemination (Voluntary life response.) 1. What changes will you quite likely make in your leadership style based on your involvement with the "Hillside Chal- lenge"? How might you influence your fellow youth leaders to develop a non-formal model for your youth group process? Describe a program design which you may well implement which will fit the time frame and expectations of your present youth group. m- BIBLIOGRAPHY 219 BIBLIOGRAPHY Articles of Dordt. Psalter hymnal. Grand Rapids: Pub. Comm. of the Christian Reformed Church, 1959. Bailey, J. O. Seaman A. Knapp, schoolmaster of American agriculture. New York: Columbia University Press, 1945. Bartolame, P. "Teachers'" objectives and questions in primary reading. The Reading Teacher, 1969, 23(1), 27-33. Beisswenger, D. F. Locating clinical or field-based learning within theological education. In D. F. Beisswenger, A. H. Tjaard, & D. McCarty (Eds.), Theolo ical field education: A collection of Key resources (Vol. 1). e Association forTheological Field Education, 1977. Belgic Confession. Psalter hymnal. Grand Rapids: Pub. Comm. of the Christian Reformed Church, 1959. Bloom, 8. S. (Ed.). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay, 1956. Boyd, W. M. Repeating questions in prose learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1973, pg, 31-38. Calvin Theological Seminary: Self-study. A paper. 1967-68. Cannell, C. F., & Kahn, R. L. The nature of the research interview. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psy- chology (2nd ed.) (Vol. II). Reading, Mass.: AddisonLWesley, 1968. Carner, R. L. Levels of questioning. Education, 1963, 83(9), 546-550. Clements, R. D. Art student-teacher questioning. Studies in Art Education, 1964, p, 14-19. Coleman, J. S., & others. The Hopkins games program: Conclusions ffom seven years of research. Educational Researcher, 1973, 2 8 , 3-7. Corey, S. M. The teachers out-talk the pupils. The School Review, 1940, 58, 745-752. 220 221 Covell, R. R., & Wagner, C. P. An extension seminarysprimer. South Pasadena: William Carey Library,l197l. Davenport, E. The spirit and philosophy of extension work. R. K. Bliss BlAssociates (EdsT). ‘Washington: Grad. Sch. United States Department of Agriculture & the Epsilon Sigma Phi Nat'l Honorary Ext. Fraternity, 1952. Davis, 0. L., & Tinsley, D. E. Cognitive objectives revealed by classroom questions asked by social studies student teachers. Peabody Journal of Education, 1967, gs, 21-26. Dewey, J. The school and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,’l902. . Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: The Free Press, 1944. (Originally published as Text-book series in education, P. Monroe (Ed.). New York: Macmillan, 1916.) . Dewey on education. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1959. Experience and education. New York: Collier Books, 1963. Dillon, J. T. The effect of questions in education and other enter- prises. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 1982, 14(2), 127-152. . The multidisciplinary study of questioning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1982, 25(2), 147-165. Egan, K. How to promote high level thinking. Peabody Journal of Education, 1975, pg, 228-234. Eisner, E. W. The edUCational imagination. New York: Macmillan, 1979. Elmer, D. H. Career data as indicators for curriculum development in theological education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan tate University, 1980. Flexner, A. Medical education in the U.S. & Canada: A report to the Carnegie Foundationlfor the Advancement of Teachiug, New York: The Carnegie Foundation, Bulletin 4, 1910. Floyd, W. D. An analysis of the oral questioningsactivity in selected Colorado primary claSSrooms. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Colorado State UniverSity, 1960. 222 Frase, L. T. Effect of question location, pacing, and mode upon retention of prose material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1968, 88(4), 244-249. Freire, P. Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury, 1970. Friedrich, G. (Ed.). Theological dictionary of the New Testament (Vol. VI). Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1968. Fuller, Edmund. Banish junkyard minds! Eternity Magazine's Update '82, 1982, ss(3), u17-u24. Gall, M. The use of questions in teaching. Review of Educational Research, 1970, 58(5), 707-721. Gallagher, J. J. Expressive thought by gifted children in the class- room. Elementary English, 1965, 88, 559-568. Good, C. V. (Ed.). Dictionary of education. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973. Gordon, 1. J. (Ed.). Criteria for theories of instruction. Washing- ton, D.C.: Assoc. fpr Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1968. Groome, T. H. Christian religious education. New York: Harper & Row, 1980. Guszak, F. J. Teachers' questions and levels of reading comprehen- sion, No. 8. In T. E. Barrett (Ed.), The evaluation of children's reading achievement. Newark, Del.: International Reading Association, 1967. Hahn, C. A. (Ed.). Interlmet: Bold experiment in theological educa- tion. The Alban Institute, 1977. Hamilton, 5. F. Experiential learning programs for youth. American Journal of Education, 1980, 88, 179-215. Hargie, O. The importance of teacher questions in the classroom. Educational Research, 1978, 88(2), 99-102. Haynes, H. C. The relation of teacher intelligence, teacher experi- ence, and type of sChopl to types of questions. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1935. Heidelberg Catechism. Psalter hymnal. Grand Rapids: Pub. Comm. of the Christian Reformed Church, 1959. The Holy Bible. New International Version. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978. 223 Houle, C. E. Deep traditions of experiential learning. In M. T. Keeton & Associates (Eds.), Experiential learning: Rationale, characteristics and assessment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1977. Hunkins, F. P. The influence of analysis and evaluation questions on achievement in sixth grade social studies. Educational Leadership_(Research Supplement), January 1968, - . The effects of analysis and evaluation questions on various levels of achievement. The Journal of Experimental Education, 1969, 88(2), 45-58. Involving students in questioning, Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 976. Hunter, G. I. Theological field education. Newton Centre: Boston* Theological Institute, 1977. Hyman, R. T. Fielding student questions. Theory Into Practice, 1980, 18(1), 38-44. - Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. Handbook in research and evaluation. San Diego: EdITS Publishers, 1977. Kaseman, C. Field-related courses as analysis of Christian praxis. Fourteenth biennial consultation on theological field education. Berkeley: *Assoc. of Theological Field Education, Assoc. of Theological Schools, January 1977. Kennedy, W. Educational theory (Part Two). Annual report, Atlanta Assoc. for International Education, December 1978. Kinsler, F. R. Personal correspondence, February 28, 1979. Klooster, F. H. Theology, confessions and the church. Church and theology in the contemporary world. Grand Rapids: Reformed Ecumenical Synod, 1977. Krathwohl, D. R. (Ed.). Taxonomy of educational objectives, Hand- book II: Affective domain. New York: DavidlMcKay, 1964. McGaw, 8., & Grotelueschen, A. Direction of the effect of questions in prose material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1972, 88, 580-588. McKean, R. B. Uses of research in curriculum development. Unpub- lished paper, 1977. 224 Mills, S. R., Rice, C. T., Berliner, D. C., & Rosseau, E. W. The correspondence between teacher questions and student answers in classroom discourse. The Journal of Experimental Education, 1980, 88(3), 194-204. Noyce, G. 8. Methods of reporting experience in ministry. Fourteenth biennial consultation on theological field education. Berkéley: Assoc. of Theological Field Education, Assoc. of Theological Schools, 1977. Procedures, standards, & criteria for membership, Vandalia, Ohio: The AEsoCiation of'Theological Schools, 1976, Bulletin 88(3). Redfield, D. L., & Rousseau, E. W. A meta-analysis of experimental research on teacher questioning behavior. Review of Educational Research, 1981, 81(2), 237-245. Rogers, C. Freedom to learn. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1969. Rosell, G., & Weeks, L. Case methods. Mimeographed handout, n.d. Rothkoph, E. 2. Variable adjunct question schedules, interpersonal interaction, and incidental learning from written material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1972, 88, 87-92. Rowen, S. F. Curriculum foundations, experiences and outcomes: A participatotyscase stugy in theOlpgiEalleducation. Unpublished doctoral’dissertation, Michigan State University, 1981. St. Clair, R. J. Toward a social field theory of supervision. Journal of Pastoral Care, 1969, 88, 142-152. Schreiber, J. E. Teachers' question-asking techniques in social studies. Unpuhlished doctoral dissertation, University Of’ Iowa, 1967. Shaver, J. P. Ability of teachers to conform to two styles of teach- ing. Journal of Experimental Education, 1964, 88, 259-267. Sherma?,)A. M. Getting down to cases. The Christian Ministry, 1973, 419 5'8. Sloan, F. A., Jr., & Pote, R. T. Teacher-pupil interaction in two approaches to mathematics. The Elementary Journal, 1966, 81, 161-167. Small, R. Educational praxis. Educational Theory, 1978, 88(3), 214-222. 225 Smith, I. K. Teaching with discussion: A review. Educational Technology, 1978, 18(11), 40-43. Steinaker, N. W., & Bell, M. R. The experiential taxonomy, New York: Academic Press, 1979. The experiential taxonomy: A fresh approach to teaching and learning. International yearbook of education and technology. London: Kogen Page, Ltd., 1978. Stevens, R. The question as a measure of efficiency in instruction: A critical study of classroom practice. ’TeaChers College Con- tributions to Education, No. 48. New York: Columbia University Press, 1912. Stewart, J. S. Toward a theory for values development education. Unpublished doctoral dissertatipn, Michigan State University, 1974. Taylor, M. J. Personal correspondence, April 11, 1979. Ward, T. The split rail fence: An analogy for the education of pro- fessionals. Evangelical Missions Quarter1y, 1972, 8(1), 4-7. Weizmann, R., Brown, R., & Taylor, P. (Eds.). Piagetian theory and the helping professions (Vol. 1). Los Angeles: University of Southern Califbrnia, 1978. Wentz, F. K. Take the seminaries to the candidates. The Christian Century, 1975, 88(5), 109-122. Westminster confession of faith. D. Kelly, H. McClure, & P. 8. R01- linson (Eds.). Greenwood, S.C.: The Attic Press, 1979. Whitehead, J. D. Theological reflection in pastoral theology. In D. F. Beiswenger, A. H. Tjaard, & D. McCarty (Eds.), Theological field education: A collection of key resources (Vol. 1). The Association for Theological Field Education, 1977. Whitehead, J. D., & Whitehead, E. E. Educational models in field education. Theological Education, 1975, 11(4), 269-277. Wilson, M. L. Educational principles of extension work. Land Policy Review, Fall 1944, 9-12.