AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS
OF SELECTED SIMULATED CLASSROOM .
SITUATIONS ON STUDENT TEACHER- .

ATTITUDE AND EMPATHY I

Thesis for the Degree of .Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
HAROLD WESLEY HUBER.

1 9 7 2

 

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Michigan State
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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS
OF SELECTED SIMULATED CLASSROOM
SITUATIONS ON STUDENT TEACHER

ATTITUDE AND EMPATHY

presented by

HAROLD WESLEY HUBER

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph,D, degreein Teacher Education ,

 

 

[Major professor _

Date August 9, 1972

 

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annuals: "

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LIBRARY BINDERS
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ABSTRACT

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF SELECTED
SIMULATED CLASSROOM SITUATIONS ON STUDENT
TEACHER ATTITUDE AND EMPATHY

By

Harold Wesley Huber

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of
selected simulated classroom situations on student teacher attitude
and empathy. It attempted to determine whether attitude and empathy
can be changed significantly in a positive direction through the use
of a specific simulation technique.

A randomly selected group of 160 student teachers from Slippery
Rock State College made up the sample. Of this sample, 80 were in
the general elementary education curriculum, and 80 were from the
general secondary curriculum. From each of these levels, 40 were
placed in the control group and 40 were placed in the experimental
group: Each 40 was subdivided into 10 four-member groups.

Over a period of 12 weeks, these small experimental groups of
four were shown films from the Teaching Problems Laboratory by Donald
Cruickshank. Research assistants were rotated throughout the groups
with a film, so each film was seen by different groups each week.

Of the original sample, 114 student teachers were administered
the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory, and the Affective Sensitivity

Scale during the final week of student teaching. The data were hand

Harold Wesley Huber
scored and subjected to repeated measures analysis of variance. A
one-tailed test was computed on three of the four hypotheses. The

findings are discussed below.

Discussion

 

1. No significant difference in attitude was found between
elementary student teachers receiving simulation and elemen-
tary student teachers not receiving simulation as measured

by the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Invento_y. There was a

 

strong movement in the predicted direction.

2. No significant difference in empathy scores was found between
elementary student teachers receiving simulation and elemen-
tary student teachers not receiving simulation as measured by

the Affective Sensitivity Scale.

 

3. No significant difference in attitude scores was found
between secondary student teachers receiving simulation and
secondary student teachers not receiving simulation as

measured by the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory.

 

4. Statistical significance was found at the .05 level in
empathy scores between secondary student teachers receiving
simulation and secondary student teachers not receiving

simulation as measured by the Affective Sensitivity Scale.

 

Conclusions

 

While the results of this investigation cannot be considered
final, there is evidence to indicate that the simulation technique

used had a significant effect on the empathy level of secondary

Harold Wesley Huber
student teachers.

Because of the strong movement in attitude of elementary student
teachers, there is the possibility that the simulation technique could
have been a factor. There is room to suggest that there is more to
be done in bringing about desired change than is now possible in the
student teaching experience.

There is the need for preparation in non-academic areas which
will increase human relations skills in the classroom. This study
also indicates the need for professional laboratory experiences

throughout the teacher preparation program.

Recommendations

 

1. Teacher education programs should include experience in
interpersonal relations.

2. Prospective teacher candidates should be tested to determine
their suitability for teaching, especially in the area of
attitude.

3. A program using simulation should be instituted to
sensitize student teachers to classroom situations and their
own feelings.

4. Further study should be undertaken, using films which are
appropriate for the level of student teaching.

5. Further study with more extensive use of the film-
discussion variable.

6. Further study should utilize a pre-test, posttest design.

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF SELECTED
SIMULATED CLASSROOM SITUATIONS ON STUDENT

TEACHER ATTITUDE AND EMPATHY

By

Harold Wesley Huber

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education

1972

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In the completion of a project of this nature, one becomes
so indebted to so many peOple that it hardly seem adequate or
sufficient to say thank you. It just does not seem as though
it is enough. The work done by all who have helped to make this
writing a reality is so appreciated. And so it is here that I
give my humble, heart-felt thanks to those who have had a part
in this paper's development.

To Dr. George Myers, my committee chairman and advisor for
these many years, for his patience, understanding, assistance,
and guidance throughout the entire length of my program.

To Dr. J. Geoffrey Moore, Dr. Dale Alam, and Dr. Herbert
Karp, the members of my committee, for the willingness to
serve and be of help when requested.

To Dr. Andrew Porter of the research office and his staff
for the expert help and advice given when so badly needed.

To Dr. William H. R. Willkens, Director of Student Teaching
at Slippery Rock, and my friends and former colleagues of the
student teaching staff without whom the real work of the exper-
iment would not have been completed. Also to the student teachers
who took an active part in the study, it could not have been
possible without you.

There are so many others that it is impossible to name them
all. I am sure they know who they are, and how much they have

ii

meant to this study cannot be told in a few words on paper.
Last but not in any way the least, I should like to offer
a special gift of gratitude to my beautiful wife Norma, who has
endured faithfully until the end. She has done as much work as
I in finishing the tasks. Words can never express my feelings
or thoughts. So, to her and my three sons, Steve, Paul, and
David, and my daughter Michelle, I can finally say--It is finished!

Harold Wesley Huber

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWII EWNT S O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O I O C O i 1

LIST OF TABLES o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Vi

Chapter

I.

II.

III.

NATURE OF THE STUDY 0 O O O O O O O O O O C O C O 0 O O 1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l
The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Rationale for the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Need for the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Significance of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll
Assumptions Underlying the Investigation . . . . . 12

Definition Of Tems O O O O O C I O O O O O O O O O O 13
Delimitations . C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O 13
overVieWO 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 14

REVIEW OF LITERATURE O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O I 15

Attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Empathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory . . . . . . . 29
Affective Sensitivity Scale . . . . . . . . . . . 31

smary O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O I O O 34
DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
sample 0 O O O O I O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O 37

Procedure for Gathering Data . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Statistical Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter

Analysis . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . .

IV. ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS . . . .

Introduction . . . . . .

Findings - Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory
Findings - Affective Sensitivity Scale . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . .

Findings With Respect to

V. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . .

Discussion . . . . . . . .

Additional Findings . . . .

Conclusions . . . . . . . .

Recommendations . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDICES

Appendix

A. Letters and Information Form

Specific Hypotheses .

B. Individual Scores and Group Mean of Attitude and

Empathy . . . . . . . . .

C. Instrumentation. . . . . . .

Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory . . . . .
Affective Sensitivity Scale . . . . . . . . . .

Page

47
48

50
50
5O
52
54
55
56
56
59
6O
61
62

65

71

75

79

79
85

LIST OF TABLES

Table

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6
4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

Student Teachers Winter Term, 1971, by Sex . . . .
Characteristics of the Sample . . . . . . . . . .
Age of Student Teachers in Study . . . . . . . . .
Student Teachers in Groups by Sex . . . . . . . .

Number of Male and Female Student Teachers by
Level and Group 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Selected Films Viewed by Bach Group . . . . . . .
Comparison of Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory

Analysis of Variance, Minnesota Teacher Attitude
Inventory 0 O O C I O O O O O C O O O O O O 0

Comparison of Affective Sensitivity Scale. . . . .

Analysis of Variance, Affective Sensitivity Scale.

V1

Page

37

38

39

40

42

44

51

52

53

53

NATURE OF THE STUDY

Introduction

Every day in the classroom, teachers find themselves in decision-
making situations. The situation may be one centered on an academic
issue, or it may concern itself with students' learning or personal
difficulties. Whatever the situation, major or minor, the time and
attention of the teacher is in demand.

In order to reach a conclusion to the problem, the teacher must
have an understanding of the situation. He needs to know the student
involved and perhaps some of the difficulties faced by that individual.
The teacher needs to be aware of his own attitudes and feelings toward
the situation.

Hudgins relates that student teachers are not very skillful in
handling such encounters.1 He suggests that student teachers are
more concerned for details of subject matter than the complexities
of human interaction. He continues by stating that "it is not
until the intern learns to assess and to respond more realistically
to the interests and motives of his students that this difficult

problem of his initial teaching is resolved."2

 

1Bryce B. Hudgins, The Instructional Process, Rand McNally &
Company, (Chicago: 1971), p. 14.

21bid., p. 14.

The Problem

 

Teacher educational institutions are attempting to prepare
individuals to teach in the classrooms of our schools. To be ready
to meet the challenge of the classroom of today, we need people who
have a feeling for the students. Melby writes, "In preparation of
the teacher, the all important challenge is to humanize him."3
This calls for changes in the way he is seeing, believing, and
feeling about things. Combs relates that this "calls for sensiti-
vity and understanding in those who would help him. He must acquire
the ability to feel and perceive as the other does."4

B. O. Smith comments that teachers must perceive, diagnose accur-
ately, and appropriately react to classroom events.5 In other words,
the teacher must know his own feelings, sense the feelings of the
students so the reaction to those feelings will make the learning
atmosphere more favorable than unfavorable to learning. The problem
of this study is to find a way to make student teachers aware of and

more sensitive to their own feelings and the feelings of the students

in their classroom.

 

3Ernest O. Melby, "The Contagion of Liberal Education;Symposium,'
The Journal of Teacher Education, Volume XVIII, No. 2, (Summer, 1967),
p. 136.

 

4Arthur W. Combs, The Professional Educationgpf Teachers, Allyn
and Bacon, Inc., (Boston: 1965), p. 58.

5B. 0. Smith, "A Concept of Teaching," Teachers ColleggiRecord,
Vol. 61, (1960), pp. 229-241.

Purpose of the Study

 

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of
selected simulated classroom situations on student teacher attitude
and empathy. It attempted to determine whether attitude and empathy
can be changed significantly in a positive direction through use of

a specific simulation technique.

Rationale for the Study

 

Teaching is a human relationship. "To behave effectively, good
teachers must possess the most accurate understandings about people
and their behavior available in our time."6 Combs writes that it is
not enough to have teachers prepared academically to take their
places in the classrooms. He continues by stating that "the good
teacher is not stupid insofar as his responsibility for knowing sub-
ject material. Teachers fall short because they have been unable to
transmit what they know so that it makes a difference to students."7

In order to have some effect on the teacher's behavior towards
subject and student alike, we need to guide his teaching preparation
toward his humane qualities as well as the academic aspects. His
behavior towards students is governed by what he believes about them.
His beliefs, therefore, are directly related to and combined with his
attitudes. "Teacher attitudes are more important than subject know-

ledge,‘ says Melby, and he continues by stating ...

 

6Combs, op, cit., p. 21.

7Ibid., p. 20.

4
"teachers who are subject matter achievement oriented

produce less subject matter achievement than teachers who

are pupil development oriented. We are learning that self—

concept on the part of children is the greatest single

factor in learning. Moreover, one's self-concept results

from one's perception of the attitude of others towards

oneself. Thus, the teacher becomes the major influence

in the school education of the child."8

Kelley and Perkins relate that it is much more necessary that
children develop wholesome, well-adjusted personalities than that
they fulfill the traditional academic objectives.9

Teachers must be trained who can help children improve their
learning efficiency. Basic to this process is the diagnostic ability
of the teacher. Monroelo, Leell, and McDonald12 also stress that a
teacher must be able to make accurate diagnoses of learning diffi-
culties and to make appropriate decisions to lessen specific instruc-
tional problems. Only with the combined awareness of students' feel—
ings and perceptions can teachers effectively influence the instruc-

tional process. The Association for Supervision and Curriculum

Development stated that two of the seven characteristics of good

 

8Melby, op. cit., p. 136.

9Ida B. Kelley, Keith Perkins, "An Investigation of Teachers'
Knowledge of and Attitudes Toward Child and Adolescent Behavior in
Everyday School Situations," Studies in Higher Education, Purdue
University, (Lafayette, Indiana: 1941), p. 8.

 

10Walter S. Monroe, Encyclopedia of Educational Research, The
Macmillan Company, (New York: 1950), p. 315.

11Doris May Lee, "Teaching and Evaluation," Evaluation as Feed-
back and Guide, 1967 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, (Washington, D. C. National Education Asso-
ciation, 1967), p. 73.

 

”Frederick J. McDonald, Educational Psychology, (2nd ed; Belmont,
California: Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1965), pp. 43-69.

 

5

teaching are: (l) to encourage discovery, creativity and help
achieve new insights, and (2) to guide pupil learning and behavior
to develop self-direction and reliance.13 Monroe supports this by
reporting that lack of sympathetic understanding of pupils is one
of the major reasons teachers fail.14 In conclusion, Combs pro-
vides stronger impact by stating that "if we can understand how
the child is perceiving in the present, there are things we can do
right now to help him grow and develop -- even if we know nothing
whatever about his past or his family life."15

Procedures of viewing films of simulated classroom situations
and discussing the individual viewer's feelings relating to the
filmed sequences provide the testable basis for this study.
Need for the Study

In dealing with the problem of developing empathy in prospec-
tive teachers, certain questions arise. Is there a better method
of teacher education or preparation than now known, that will help
teachers become more humane? Is there something which can better
prepare them, prior to entering the classroom, for the kinds of
situations to be faced in the classroom? Can the classroom be
brought to the college in such a manner as to sensitize the student
teacher to the needs of pupils? Will this method have an effect on

the student teacher? And finally, is the use of simulation an

 

13Frederick Shaw, "The Changing Curriculum," Review of Educa-
tional Research, Vol. XXXI, (June, 1966), pp. 343-350.

 

14Monroe, 0p. cit., p. 1448.

15Combs, op. cit., p. 58.

6
effective means to deal with the problem as presented?

Cunningham expresses the opinion that simulation is "one

of the most promising single innovations that we have today, ..."16
Simulation of classroom situations is a supplement to supervised
experience in the actual classroom. According to Twelker, "it
allows the student to practice decision-making without censure or
embarrassment."l7

Student teachers have little or no opportunity, in their
preparation, to learn to discriminate between and evaluate cues
that are the basis for decision-making and cues that represent
problem-free activities. Twelker states that "The student teacher
has had little opportunity to practice responding to these situations,
making decisions, and considering the consequences of his actions."18
Simulation "allows mistakes to be made without hurting anyone and
to learn from these mistakes."19 Broadbent writes that "Simulation

provides involvement in a special role or in many roles in the same

organization."20 According to Cruickshank,

 

l6LaVerne L. Cunningham, "Simulation and Preparation of Educa-
tional Administrators," Paper read at the University Council on
Educational Administrative Conference, University of Michigan, l966,p. 27.

17Paul A. Twelker, "Classroom Simulation and Teacher Preparations,"
The School Review, Volume 75, no. 2, (Summer, 1967), p. 197.

 

18Ibld., p. 197.
19lbld., p. 199.

20Frank W. Broadbent, "Simulating Problems of Beginning Teachers,"
The Elementary School Journal, Volume 20, no. 1, (Spring, 1969), p. 39.

7

"Simulation is without a doubt a process that by design
permits a trainee to become well acquainted with significant
aspects of work he may not be able to encounter in any other
way. It is possible to have a trainee encounter, in just
two weeks, the most critical problems he will have to face
in his first year of teaching, in a threat-free, failure-free
environment unlike that of student teaching."21

Although various studies deal with attitudes, empathy, and
simulation in the field of teacher education, there is a necessity
of bringing the three elements together into one central focus.

Sigpificance of the Study

 

Haskew refers to the student who enters the classroom as a
"non-knower."22 Later this person may be a knower who is vastly
different from his former self. The difference is the result of
the process which has taken place. Hudgins states that ..

"Teaching is an interactive process between

teacher and pupil, involving each of them in perceiving

classroom events, diagnosing them, and reacting to them.

... performance can be assumed to improve as the teacher

improves his skills in perceiving events, assessing their

meaning and reacting appropriately. Flexibility is a criti-
cal feature of reacting and can be fostered through training.23

The intent of this study is to determine whether significant
positive changes in attitude and empathy can be effected in pros-
pective teachers. If significant change can be accomplished, then

it might be possible for the student teacher to develop greater

sensitivity to the needs of his students. They might also be able

 

21Donald R. Cruickshank, "The Use of Simulation in Teacher Educa-
tion: A Developing Phenomenon," The Journal of Teacher_Education, Vol-
ume 20, no. 1, (Spring, 1969), p. 24.

22Laurence D. Haskew, Jonathon C. McLendon, This is Teaching,
Scott, Foresman and Company, (Chicago; 1962), p. 3.

23Hudgins, op. cit., p. 24.

8

to perceive anxieties-and frustrations of learning situations.
Bruner states that "if all students are helped to the full
utilization of their intellectual process, we will have a better
chance of surviving as a democracy."24

Classroom management is the chief influence of the climate
of the classroom. Within management are included all the acti-
vities of the students and teachers alike. The entire emotion
of the class can be regulated or determined by the smoothness
with which acts and/or actions of the class occur. Bugelski
states that "the teacher must be fully aware of his function as
an emotion conditioner."25 If the teacher knows what he is
attempting to do, how he wants to do it or can adjust the situation
to the learner's level, he becomes a fully functioning individual
who is, as Maslow describes, more perceptive, wastes no effort ...
and whom the students observe as calm sureness, knows what he
is doing, ... sure of himself, with little doubt about what his
decision is or has to do.26 What a difference this person's
effect would be on a class as compared to one with opposite
characteristics!

In classroom management, positive reinforcement of those

 

2('Jerome B. Bruner, The Process of Education, Random House,
(New York: 1960), p. 10.

 

25B. R. Bugelski, The Psychology of Learning_Applied to Teaching,
The BobbséMerrill Co., Inc. (New York: 1964), p. 255.

 

26Abraham H. Maslow, Toward A Psychology of Being, D. Van Nastrand
Company, Inc., (Princeton, New Jersey: 1962), pp. 99-100.

 

9

desirable areas of behavior does much to insure a classroom with a
low-frustration or threat level. Hudgins suggests that skill in
classroom management is as necessary as skill in teaching.27 If the
teacher is settled and organized, the students are more likely to
take the cue and react similarly. With the process of instruction,
in which Hudgins combines teaching and managing,28 Bruner states
that "the teacher imparts attitudes toward a subject and, indeed,
attitudes toward learning itself."29 Combs adds, "It is only when
persons feel fundamentally adequate that self can be transcended
and attention given to the needs of others."30

The difference between high level and low level classroom

hostility as listed by Haskew,32

is noticed by comparing the manner
of teacher-pupil interaction within each classroom type. One is
rigid and strict. The other is relaxed, and a warm person to person,
student-centered relationship exists.

Fattu lists five significant domains of teacher performance,

two of these are:

 

27Hudgins, op. cit., p. 24.
281bid, P. 18.

29Jerome S. Bruner, Toward A Theory_of Instruction, W. W. Norton
and Company, Inc., (New York: 1966), p. 123.

 

30Combs, op. cit., p. 72.

31Haskew, op. cit., p. 123.

10
"(a) ability to inspire and motivate students. Counseling
and understanding, helping them set and achieve goals, seeing
that they experience the feeling of success or achievement;

(b) ability to diagnose instructional shortcomings and to

prescribe specific activity to remedyzthem at least to pre-

vent cognitive strain to the pupil."

If the prospective teacher can grow in sensitivity and concern
for others, he should be more alert to the learning needs and possi—
bilities that exist among his students. Thus, he will be more ready
to meet the challenge of his classroom. This study is an effort to
improve one part of teacher preparation.

Theopy

The attitudes displayed by a classroom teacher greatly effect the
level of acceptance or rejection held by the student. His empathic
ability will have an effect on how he perceived a student's feeling
of his position. These two concepts, attitude and empathy, are
considered integral and necessary to the development of a comfort-
able, threat-free atmosphere in the classroom. To aid in the develop-
ment of a wholesome classroom climate is to lessen the threat posed
by the constant state of decision making.

Decisions made are influenced by the teacher's own perception
of, and the attitude held toward, the importance of a particular need.

Kagan and Krathwohl write that "The ability to make sound decisions is

greatly influenced by the empathic ability of the one making the decision."33

 

32N. A. Fattu, "A Model of Teaching as Problem Solving," Theories
of Instruction, Edited by James B. Macdonald and Robert R. Leeker,
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, (Washington,
D. c.: 1965). p. 67.

 

33Norman Kagan, David Krathwohl, Studies in Human Interaction,
(East Lansing, Michigan, Educational Publication Services, College of
Education, Michigan State University, 1967).

11

Decisions are not made specifically for the purpose of restricting an
individual, but rather of assisting him in the process of becoming a
more effective person.

One does not become more effective if he is convinced of his
worthlessness. He will become more negative and less functional.
In the 1962 A. S. C. D. yearbook, Maslow considers at some length
the necessity for schools to be concerned with developing a fully

34 If attitude and empathy level of today's

functioning person.
student teachers can be significantly changed in a positive direc-
tion through the use of simulation, perhaps a more fully-functioning
person will enter the classroom of tomorrow. Supportive of this,
Combs and Snygg write --
"If it is important that students learn to perceive
themselves as liked, wanted, acceptable, and responsible,
then it follows that education must provide them with the

kinds of experiences which help them see themselves so and

avoid treating them in ways that destroy positive self-feeling."35

Hypotheses

 

As previously stated, the purpose of this study is to investigate
the effects of selected simulated classroom situations on student
teacher attitude and empathy. An attempt will be made to cause a
significant, positive change in student-teacher attitude and empathy
with the technique of simulation. The investigation will test the

following hypotheses:

 

34Abraham Maslow, "Some Basic Propositions of a Growth and Self
Actualization Psychology," Perceivinngehavinngecoming, Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1962 Yearbook, (Washington,
D. c.: 1962), The Association, p. 36.

35Arthur Combs and Donald Snygg, Individual Behavior, (Harper
and Brothers, 1957), p. 379.

12

H1 Elementary student teachers receiving simulation will have sig—
nificantly higher scores in empathy than elementary student teachers not
receiving simulation.

H2 Secondary student teachers receiving simulation will have sig-
nificantly higher scores in empathy than secondary student teachers not
receiving simulation.

H3 Elementary student teachers receiving simulation will have sig-
nificantly higher scores in attitude than elementary student teachers not
receiving simulation.

H4 Secondary student teachers receiving simulation will have sig—
nificantly higher scores in attitude than secondary student teachers not
receiving simulation.

Assumptions Underlying the Investigation

 

Several assumptions inherent in this investigation are listed as
follows:
1. Empathy and attitude can be measured.

2. The instruments used in this investigation are valid and measure
what they are reported to measure.

3. Changes do take place in student-teacher attitude and empathy
during student teaching, but any significant difference between
the experimental and control groups, as measured by the instru-
ments, is the result of varying the independent variable.

4. All research assistants who cooperated in the administration of
this investigation were free of bias.

13

Definition of Terms

 

Attitude -- the sum total of man's inclinations and feelings,
prejudice or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and
convictions about any specific topic. (Note Chapter 2, p. 17).

Empathy -- the ability to put one's self in the other person's
position, establish rapport, and anticipate his feelings, reactions,
and behaviors. (Note Chapter 2, p. 22).

Humanize -- to make sensitive to and aware of the feelings of
self and others with whom one associates.

Research assistants -- colleagues who assisted in the carrying
out of the experimental process of the investigation. Also referred
to as college coordinators and/or supervisors.

Student teacher -- a senior student of the college, assigned
to a school district or districts for a period of 18 weeks to work
under or with a certified teacher of that district for the purpose
of participating in the first experience of regular teaching in a

school classroom.

Delimitations

 

1. This investigation is limited to randomly selected general
elementary and general secondary student teachers of Slippery Rock
State College who took the Affective Sensitivity Scale and the
Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory.

2. Health, physical education, and recreation, library science,

and special education majors were not included ip the study. The

l4
seminar classes which these people attended consisted of these majors
only with little or no mixing with the general elementary and secon-

dary student teachers.

Overview
The study will be reported in five chapters. In chapter II, the
literature which relates to this study will be reviewed. In chapter
III, the design of the study will be presented and will include the
description of the sample, and the method of doing the experimen-
tation. Analysis of the data will be discussed in chapter IV. In
chapter V, the findings, conclusions, and recommendations for further

study will be presented.

Chapter II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Several items will be reviewed in this chapter. Since the
central focus of this research is changing attitudes and empathy,
studies which relate to both will be presented. A brief history
and use of simulation will be presented because of the simulation
technique used in this investigation. Finally, the background
and development of the instruments selected for this study are
presented.
Attitude

The concept of attitude is probably the most widely researched
topic in the existing literature. In reviewing the concept, Allport
concludes that ...

"Attitudes are never directly observed, but, unless they

are admitted, through influence, as real and substantial

ingredients of human nature, it becomes impossible to

account satisfactorily either for the consistancy of

any individual behavior or for the stability of any

society."
Earlier he wrote that ...

"An attitude characteristically provokes behavior that is

acquisitive or overtive, favorable or unfavorable, affirm- V

ative or negative toward that object or class of objects
with which it is related."2

The above illustrates the need for positive attitudes on the

 

1Gordon W. Allport, "Attitudes," in C. M. Murchison, ed.
Handbook of Social Psychology, (Worcester, Massachusetts: Clark
University Press, 1935), pp. 798-839.

21bid., p. 819.

15

16

part of teachers, particularly when dynamic or direct influence
is exerted toward the student. It also illustrates the need for
teachers to have positive rather than negative attitudes because
of the effect upon a child's learning. In later writing, Allport
states that "one always has an attitude toward something or someone
and the attitude is usually identifiable as either positive or
negative."3

Katz and Stotland refer to an attitude as a "tendency or
disposition to evaluate an object or the symbol of that object
in a certain way."4

According to Drobda, an attitude is a mental disposition of
the human individual to act for or against a definite object.5
Newcomb defines an attitude as a predisposition to set.6 It is
not the motive that prompts the action nor is it the action itself:
it is a readiness to act.

As noticed, definitions of "attitude" are nearly as plentiful
as studies on attitude change. As a working definition, this

writer accepts the definition of L. L. Thurstone, who defines

 

3Gordon W. Allport, Pattern and Growth in Personality, Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, (New York: 1961), p. 347.

4D. Katz and E. Stotland, "A Preliminary Statement to a Theory
of Attitude Structure and Change," in S. Koch ed. Psychology:
A Study of a Science, Vol. III, 1959, quoted in Chester Insho,
Theories of Attitude Chapgg, (New York: Meridith Publishing Co.,
1967), p. 2.

 

 

 

5D. D. Drobda, "The Nature of Attitude," Journal of Social
Psychology, Volume 4, (1933), pp. 444-463.

6T. M. Newcomb, Social Psychology, Dryden Press, (New York:
1950), p. 119.

l7

attitude as:

"the sum total of man's inclinations and feelings, prejudice

or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and

convictions about any specific topic."7

Sherif et. a1. find that "attitudes prevalent among individuals
in various groups are derived from the value sets and special con-
cerns of their groups."8 The groups may include any number or sets
of individuals, each having an influence upon the teacher's atti—
tude. The attitude may be either desirable or undesirable, favor-
able or unfavorable, positive or negative. A teacher has an atti-
tude about or directed towards any thing or person connected with
his profession. According to Cook, et. a1., if his attitude is
positive or favorable, the teacher

"... should be able to maintain a state of harmonious

relations with his pupils characterized by mutual affection

and sympathetic understanding. The pupils should like the

teacher and enjoy school. The teacher should like the

children and enjoy teaching."9

In his study which placed teachers at the desirable end of the
scale for teaching, Gage describes the behavior on attitudes of

teachers by saying "Teachers at this desirable end tend to behave

approvingly, acceptantly and supportively; they tend to speak well

 

7L. L. Thurstone, "Attitudes Can Be Measured," American Journal
of Sociology, Volume 33, (1928), pp. 531.

 

8Carolyn W. Sherif, Muzafer Sherif, and R. E. Nebergall,
Attitude and Attitude Changg, W. B. Saunders and Company, (Phila-
delphia: 1965) p. 11.

9Walter W. Cook, Carroll H. Leeds, and Robert Callis, "Pre-
dicting Teacher-Pupil Relations," The Evaluation of Student Teaching,
The Association for Student Teaching, 28th Yearbook, (Washington,
D. C.: 1949), p. 67.

 

18

of their own pupils and people in general."10

The relationship of a teacher as a fully functioning person
or psychological healthy person and desirable attitudes and values
were investigated by Dandes who concluded: "The relationship is
as predicted; the greater the psychological health, the greater
the possession of attitudes and values characteristic of effective
teaching."11

One's attitude tends to change in relation to his personal
involvement in an issue or problem, also the degree of his involve-
ment and how he perceives this through one with whom he speaks
concerning the problem. Concerning this, Sherif writes . . .

"The problem of whether an individual will change his

attitude depends, therefore, on how he categorizes a

communication and communicator. To the extent that

an individual is highly involved in a stand toward the

object of communication, his own stand will serve as an

anchor for his evaluations and his placements will reveal

assimilation-contrast effects relative to his reference

scale."12

That attitudes do change is shown in research. The noted
attitude change may be the result of the influence of another's

change in attitude and affect the attitude of still a third individual.

Sandgren and Schmidt found that attitudes of student teachers improve

 

10N. L. Gage, "Can Science Contribute to the Art of Teaching?"
Phi Delta Kappan, (March, 1968), p. 402.

11H. M. Dandes, Psychological Health and Effective Teaching,
Journal of Teacher Education, Volume XVII, Fall, 1965, p. 305.

12Sherif, et. al., op. cit., p. 16.

19
during the period of time in which practice teaching is taken.13
Also, women tended to have more positive attitude change than men,
and likewise, elementary curriculum student teachers have more
favorable attitudes than student teachers in other curricula.

Results of a study by Elwell indicate that student teachers'
attitudes toward children change as a result of contact with
children.14

A study conducted by Brim15 showed the following results. He
used 250 undergraduates of teacher education throughout five sepa-
rate phases of becoming involved and gaining contact with students.
He found that the mean scores on the Minnesota Teacher Attitude
Inventory were higher (more liberal) with each level of pro-
gression through the program of teacher education. This study
added support to an earlier writing by Graff in which he stated
that ...

"Attitude change should occur as a result of the dis-

crepancy between students'expectations of concepts and

his subsequent perception of these same concepts as he

moves from teacher preparation institutions to the
new experience of student teaching."1

 

13Duane L. Sandgren, Louis C. Schmidt, "Does Practice Teaching
Change Attitude Toward Teaching?" Journal of Educational Research,
Volume XIV, (1956), p. 679.

14Albert Roland Elwell, "Attitude Change as a Function of
Differential Student Teaching Placement," Unpublished Ph. D.
dissertation, Michigan State University, (1964).

15Burl J. Brim, "Attitude Change in Teacher Education Students,"
Journal of Educational Research, Volume 58, No. 10, (July, 1966).

16F. J. Graff, "Dissatisfactions in Teaching the Child," Phi
Delta Kappan, Volume 45, (November, 1963), p. 76.

 

20
Finally, in their research completed on attitude change of
student teachers, Corrigan and Grisswold noted a diversity of change

either positively or negatively depending on the quality of super-

vision they received, and the help given by the cooperating teacher.17

They drew several conclusions including the following:

1) The same student might have a high positive change with
certain supervisors and negative with others.

2) Student teachers in lower grades had a high positive
change as compared to a low positive or negative change for
those in the upper grade levels.

3) Student teachers having one placement had a high positive
change, and students working with more than one cooperating
teacher were less positive or negative.

4) Students with background other than psychology and sociology
had a high positive change.

5) Lower grade student teachers had higher initial positive
attitudes.

6) Younger students had a slightly higher positive change
than older students.

7) There was no relationship of change with type of school,
city, suburban, or private.

8) There was no correlation between attitude change and
high or low initial scores.

9) Greater positive changes were present where harmony and
cooperation between faculty and administration were perceived
rather than contradiction and disagreement or non cooperation.

 

17Dean Corrigan, Kenneth Grisswold, "Attitude Change of Student
Teachers," The Journal of Educational Research, Volume 57, No. 2,
(October, 1963), pp. 93-95.

 

21
Empathy
Gompertz states that references to the concept of empathy
can be found in the writings of Pluto, Aristotle, St. John, Plotinus,

St. Augustine, and St. Thomas Aquinas.18

Empathy has been stressed
according to Strunk's review of empathy theory and research, and
studied in such fields as psychology, sociology, industry, educa-
tion and counseling.19

The beginning acknowledgment of the concept empathy is recorded
by Buchheimer who writes that the word empathy was first used as

20 Einfuhlung, labeled in

the word Einfuhlung, by Theodore Lipps.
English as the term empathy, is translated as "feeling into."
With all the studies in the various fields concerning the
concept empathy, there is no one commonly held definition of
empathy. There are several definitions which are similar to
Dymond's. They are operational in nature. She defines empathy
as ... the ability to sense the problem as another sees it, the
sensitivity to another's problems.21

For the purpose of this study, as a working definition, this

reviewer accepts the definition of Speroff, who explains empathy as:

 

18Kenneth Gompertz, "The Relation of Empathy to Effective
Communication," Journalism Quarterly, Volume 37, (1960), pp. 533.

 

19Orlo Strunk, "Empathy: A Review of Theory and Research,"
Psychological Newsletter, Volume 9, (1957), pp. 47-57.

 

20A. Buchheimer, "The Development of Ideas About Empathy,"
The Journal of Counseling Psychology, Volume 10, (1963), pp. 61-70.

 

21Rosalind Dymond, "Personality and Empathy," Journal pf
Consulting Psychology, Volume 14, (1950), pp. 343-350.

 

22

"the ability to put yourself in the other person's position,

establish rapport, and anticipate his feelings, reactions,

and behavior."22

Research shows a variety of influences having an effect on the
empathy level. These influences may include natural expectancies
as well as the induced experimental type. Dymond, Hughes, and Raabe,23
and Walton24 agree that empathic ability increases as one gets older.
This is further emphasized by Olden, who offers one qualification.
She states that though empathy increases with age, the longer one
teaches the less one has the ability to empathize. She also
finds that adults empathize more easily with other adults than
with children.25

In other studies, Dymond finds a slight empathic level advan-

tage of females over males.26 This was later confirmed by Alpert

in his study of empathy and reading comprehension at the University

 

22B. J. Speroff, "Empathy and Role Reversal as Factors in
Industrial Harmony," Journal of Social Psychology, Volume 37,
(1953), pp. 1170

 

23Rosalind Dymond, Anne S. Hughes and Virginia Raabe, "Meas-
uring Change in Empathy With Age," Journal of Consulting_P§ychology,
VOlume 16, (1952), pp. 202-2040

 

24W. E. Walton, "Empathic Responses in Children," Psychiatric
Monographs, Vol. 48, (1936), pp. 40-67.

 

 

25Christine Olden, "On Direct Empathy With Children," Psycho-
analytic Study of Children, Volume 8, (1954), pp. 111-126.

 

26Rosalind Dymond, "Personality and Empathy," Journal of
Consulting Psychology, Volume 14, (1950), pp. 343-350.

 

 

23

of Florida. He finds that females tend to have a higher degree of
empathy.27

There seems to be some disagreement about one's ability to
empathize with another who has a differing empathic level of
characteristic. Studies by Wolf and Murray indicate that without
empathy one cannot make accurate diagnosis and he can best empathize
with those who resemble himself.28 This is reinforced by Halpern
who states there is greater accuracy when individuals resemble
each other in specific areas of prediction than when they differ.29
Lerner indicates that empathy is a consciously learnable skill.
He states that some people learn better than others, the variation
reflecting their different skill in empathy.3O

If empathy can be learned, can it be affected by training or

other means. Luchens states that empathy is amendable to training.31

The study by Kandler and Kyde noted that empathy level changed in

 

27H. Alpert, "The Relationship of Empathy to Reading Compre-
hension, Dissertation abstracts, (1955), 155, pp. 2093.

 

28R. Wolf, and H. A. Murray, "An Experiment in Judging Person-
alities," Journal of Psychology, Volume 3, (1937), pp. 346-365.

 

29H. M. Halpern, "Empathy, Similarity and Self-Satisfaction,"
Journal of Consulting:Psycholggy, Volume 19, (1955), pp. 449-452.

 

30Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society, Free
Press, (Glencoe: 1958), p. 412.

 

31A. I. Luchens, "Affective Sensitivity: A Variational Approach
to Empathy," Journal of Social Psychology, Volume 45, (1957), pp.ll-l8.

 

24

student nurses before and after psychiatric affiliation and that
the change took place in eleven weeks.32

Danish noted that T-grouping, or sensitivity training, had a
positive effect on the empathy level.33

In another study, Underhill investigated change in empathy
level of student teachers when placed with teachers with a different
empathy level. His study indicates that the empathy level of stu-
dent teachers will change in a predictable direction with the
empathy level of the cooperating teacher in all but one instance.
Student teachers with a low empathy level placed with a cooperating
teacher with a high empathy level tended to score lower in affective
sensitivity on a posttest.34

Grossman concludes that specifically designed programs can

lead to significant improvement in individual accuracy. He stated

that females showed slightly greater improvement over males on his

 

32Harriet M. Kandler, R. W. Kyde, "Changes in Empathy in Student
Nurses During Psychiatric Affiliation," Nursing Research, Volume 2,
NO. 1’ (1953) ’ pp. 33-360

 

33Stephen J. Danish, "The Influence of Leader Empathy (Affec-
tive Sensitivity) Participant Motivation to Change in Affective
Sensitivity of T-group Participants," Unpublished Ph. D. disserta-
tion, Michigan State University, (1969), p. 12.

34Robert G. Underhill, The Relation of Elementary Student Teacher
Empathy (Affective Sensitivity) Change to Supervising Teacher and
Student Teacher Success." Unpublished Ed. D. dissertation, Michigan
State University, (1968), pp. 87-94.

25
criterion and that age or intellectual capacity had no clear rela-
tionship to improvement or individual accuracy.35 In closing,
Katz writes that "an individual has the capacity for objective
understanding both of others and of himself and enjoys the sense
of psychological security that comes from such accurate reliable
knowledge."36

Simulation

 

Since World War II, simulation has been noted as an extremely
effective method for training administrative personnel in business,
industry, and government. Vlcek37 and Gustafson38 trace the work
done with simulation from its early development to the present.

Simulation is easily understood. Simply -- it is a recon—
struction of any situation, event, or object to a life-like being.
The purpose of simulation is to enable a person or persons to
closely examine the topic or object for evaluation or re-evaluation

of some past or future set of circumstances.

 

3SBurton A. Grossman, "Evaluation of a Training Program to
Improve the Ability to Differentiate Between People," Unpublished
Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State University, (1967), p. 41.

36Robert Katz, Empathy: Its Nature and Uses, Free Press,
Glenco, (New York: 1963), p. 112.

37Charles W. Vlcek, "Assessing the Effect and Transfer Value
of Classroom Simulator Technique," Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation,
Michigan State University, (1965).

38Kent L. Gustafson, "Simulation of Anxiety Situations and its
Resultant Effect on Anxiety and Classroom Interaction of Student
Teachers," Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State Univ., 1969.

26
Vlcek records 5 major services of simulators:

1) Simulators serve as a vehicle for stimulating
discussion of management principles and concepts.

2) They provide practice in obtaining informa-
tion upon which to make decisions.

3) Simulators are used to provide experience in
group decision~making and competitive interaction.

4) They can provide experience in making
top-management decisions.

5) Simulators can suppress time to provide more
experience in a shorter time interval.39

It has not been too long ago that simulation was first used as
an instructional medium in teacher education. Twelker records the
first use of simulation with Bert Kersh in 1961. Kersh built a
simulation facility under Title VII of the N. D. E. A.40

Although there is little evidence to back the idea that
simulation produces better trained or taught individuals, research
shows that individuals having had simulation experience are at
least as well trained as those individuals who have not had simu-
lation training. Boocock41, Twelker42, and others state there is

conflicting evidence of learning and that there is little transfer

 

39Vlcek, op. cit., p. 33.

40Paul Twelker, "Classroom Simulation and Teacher Preparations,"
The School Review, Volume 75, No. 2, (Summer, 1967), p. 197.

418arane S. Boocock and James Coleman, "Games With Simulated

Environment in Learning," Sociology of Education, Volume 39, (Summer,

 

1966), pp. 215-263.

42Twelker, op. cit., p. 197.

27

from simulation to real life experience. But Twelker continues by
stating that student teachers who had had simulation training were
able to assume full time classroom responsibility three weeks
earlier than a comparable group with no training.43 On the other
hand, Boocock relates that having had simulations, students were
appreciative of the complexities of their situations.44

Simulation provides a much broader aspect to the total situation
than just the immediate problem. The individuals undergoing simula-
tion training get opportunities to sense their emotional build—up.
They are now faced with the question of how to resolve the situation
as well as noting or controlling the self involvement in the event
as well. Broadbent writes that within the simulation training
many students learned more about themselves and their methods of
reacting to and attacking problems and their relationship to others.l'5
Vlcek found that teacher trainees provided with simulated classroom
problems are better able to identify and cope with actual repre-
sentative classrooms than are teacher-trainees not provided
with such experience. He expresses that "simulation experience

increases self-confidence in teaching ability."46

 

43Twelker, op. cit., p. 197.
44Boocock, op. cit., pp. 215~263.

45Frank W. Broadbent, "Simulating Problems of Beginning Teachers,"
The Elementary School Journal, Volume 68, No. 1, October, 1967, p. 42.

46Vlcek, op. cit., p. 129.

28

There is some discussion in the literature about the effective-
ness of varying methods in simulation training. Most writers agree
that photographs are better than no photographs or just lecture.
Few seem to feel that a life-like reproduction of the actual situa-
tion must be viewed. Twelker responds that findings have suggested
that realism in simulation ... is not an important variable in
enhancing transfer.47

How to the individuals receiving simulation training react
to their training? On a post-experiment study form, Vlcek re-
ceived the following responses from his "Student Reaction to
Simulator Training" questionnaire of students receiving simulator

training:

1) 96% had a favorable reaction regarding their enjoyment
of simulation.

2) 49% thought it was life-like.
3) 60% did not feel involved in the situation.

4) 100% thought the discussion accompanying the training
was valuable in developing concepts.

5) 100% believed the simulator experience was meaningful
in relation to real classroom problems.

6) 97% felt that the experience would help them identify
classroom problems.

7) 93% believed that the experience helped them develop
methods to cope with classroom problems.

8) 97% thought simulation more beneficial than lectures.

9) 100% would recommend simulator experience to their
friends.48

 

47Twelker, op. cit., p. 201.
48Vlcek, op. cit., pp. 118-121.

29
At this point the background for the development of the instru-
ments to be used in this study will be presented. To measure

attitude, the Minnesota Teacher_Attitude Inventory Form A will

 

be used. Empathy will be measured by the Affective Sensitivity

 

Scale, Revised Form B.

Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventoryl'9

 

Getzels and Jackson state that the Minnesota Teacher Attitude
Inventory is "by far the most popular instrument for the measure-
ment of teacher attitudes."50 According to the writers, it was
designed ...

"to measure those attitudes of a teacher which will

predict how well he will get along with pupils in

interpersonal relationships, and indirectly how

well satisfied he will be with teaching as a vocation."51

Of the original 756 items administered in 2 tryout forms of
378 each, 115 items were discriminated at the .05 level and 188
items were discriminated at the .10 level. From these items,

164 of the most discriminating comprised the first experimental
form.

The first experimental form was administered to 100 teachers.

The scores were correlated with three outside criteria of teacher-

pupil rapport:

 

49A copy of the M. _'l_‘. A. I, may be found in Appendix C.

50J. W. Getzels and P. W. Jackson, "The Teacher's Personality
and Characteristics," Handbook of Research on Teaching, N. L. Gage,
ed.; Rand McNally, (Chicago: 1963), p. 508.

 

51W. W. Cook, C. H. Leeds, and R. Callis, The Minnesota Teacher
Attitude Inventory, Psychological Corporation, (New York: 1951), p. 3.

 

 

30

l) The Pupil-teacher Rating Scale, which was administered to
25 pupils of each of the 100 teachers.

2) The Principal-teacher Rating Scale, which was administered
to each principal of the 100 teachers.

3) Baxter's Rating Scale of the Teachers Personal Effective-
ness.

The selection of the final 150 items was based upon six
factors: 1) The discriminating power of the item, 2) the extent
to which the item responses are influenced by professional educa-
tion classes, 3) the extent to which item responses are influenced
by teaching experience, 4) the extent to which the content of the
item duplicates that of another item, 5) the clearness of the
statement, and 6) the consistence of the response patterns of
the superior and inferior teachers.

The possible scores on the inventory range from a positive
150 to a negative 150. There are 5 possible answers for each
statement from which the score is determined, these are: strongly
agree (SA), agree (A), undecided (U), disagree (D), and strongly
disagree (SD). The rationale on which these statements are based
has been described by the authors on page 3 of the manual. Simply
stated, teachers who rank at the high end of the scale should --
like children and be liked by them, have a good rapport with students,
develop a cooperative atmosphere in the classroom, have a low
disruptive frequency, and respect the pupils.

On the negative end of the scale, one would find a teacher

31

who would be authoritarian, would have a threatened classroom
atmosphere, would have a distrust of students and not be trusted
in return, and be oriented toward subject matter rather than
student centered.

There are separate norms on high school seniors, university
freshmen, beginning education juniors, graduating education seniors,
graduate students, and experienced teachers.

Affective SensitivityScale52

 

During the research on human interaction, Kagan, Krathwohl,
and Farquhar developed the Affective Sensitivity Scale to measure

a component of empathic ability.53

The Affective Sensitivity Scale
is an instrument with sufficient reliability and validity to study
empathic processes. It is a multi-sensory instrument which uses a
carefully restricted operational definition of empathy.

The Affective Sensitivity Scale is a situational test of
empathic ability. It consists of video-taped scenes between
counselors and counselees. The scenes run from 20 seconds to
two and one half minutes. In taking the scale, the respondent
views a scene, then reacts to two or three written multiple choice

items related to the scene. The statements concern themselves

with the feeling and attitude of the counselee. The respondent

 

52A copy of the Affective Sensitivigy Scale may be seen in
Appendix C.

 

53N. Kagan, D. R. Krathwohl and W. W. Farquhar, "Interpersonal
process recall: Stimulated recall by videotape in exploratory
studies of counseling and teaching-learning-Final Report," (NDEA
Title VII, Grant No. OE 7-32-0410-216) East Lansing, Michigan,
Michigan State University, 1965.

32
is permitted 30 seconds to answer each of the first 12 items and
20 seconds for each following item. The instrument consists of
thirty-three scenes and sixty-six items similar to the following:

Client I
Scene I

A young man is talking to the counselor (female) about his
problems in having success in his academic studies. He discusses
his prowess as a football player and the expectation he perceives
his family and friends have for him. She asks some questions
concerning his expression of placing importance on several things
he mentioned. He tries to express as well as possible, but dis-
plays some feeling in visual and verbal reactions.

The respondent viewing the scene then has to react and choose
one of the following items which he feels the scene attempted to
convey.

Item I

1. I'm a little annoyed with my family's ambitions for me.

2. That's a lot to ask! It makes me mad!

3. I feel sorry for myself, and I want others to feel the
same.

Item II
1. She (counselor) really understands me! She's with me now.

2. I don't feel much either way towards the counselor; she's
not important to me.

3. I wonder if she appreciates the pressure that's put on me.54

 

S4Items I and II quoted from Client IV, Scene 2, Items l6,
17, of the Affective Sensitivity Scale, page 5.

33

Several approaches to finding the most appropriate answering
format were attempted. First, there were lists of adjectives des-
cribing the feelings of the client. This proved inconclusive
because of a lack of qualifying phrases to narrow the possible
meanings of isolated adjectives.

Multiple-choice items replaced the lists of adjectives and
phrases that were used as descriptions of emotive states. Three
scale forms were developed and administered. Three item analysis
procedures were used on the data from the three forms on 1) total
scale forms, 2) peer ratings of counselor effectiveness, and
3) staff ratings of counselor effectiveness. Of the 224 items in
the three scales, 109 were found to be significant at the .04
level against one or more of the three criterion variable. From
these, a new scale was constructed and called the Revised Form A.

Form B was constructed primarily from items which worked
well on Form A. Items which had worked well on Forms I, II, and
III, but because of subsequent changes, did not work well on
Form A, were returned to their original form and included in
Form B.

Form B was administered to 9 groups including 232 individuals.
From a total of 89 items, 73 were significant in point biserial
correlation at or above the .05 level.

Studies were conducted to determine the Concurrent, Predictive,

and Construct Validity of Form B. These studies revealed that a

34
positive relationship exists between Form B scores and other
measures.55 Also, these studies provided evidence of the scale's
content validity.56

Form B-Revised is essentially the same scale as Form B. Two
basic differences may be noted. First, some items were removed
without affecting the validity of the instrument. Second, the
revised form can be administered in thirty minutes less time than
the older forms. As a result, fatigue in taking the revised form
is less a factor than true with the Forms A or B.

The Affective Sensitivity Scale affords an opportunity to
study a specifically defined aspect of empathy in student teaching.
For this reason, it was chosen for use in this study.

Summapy

The review of the literature relating to attitudes, empathy
and simulation has not been exhaustive. Research studies relating
to this investigation have been presented in order to show that
attitude and empathy do change, though not always in the predicted
direction. Research does show the possibility of attitude change,
both in controlled experiments and under actual classroom conditions.

Also, literature shows the value of use of simulation in teacher
preparation. Though the superior ability of simulation's use is

not conclusive, there is evidence that simulation is as good as

 

55Robert J. Campbell, "The Development and Validation of a
Multiple Choice Scale to Measure Affective Sensitivity (Empathy),"
Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Michigan State Univ., (1967), p. 52.

56Ib1d0, p. 53.

35
any method now being used in teacher preparation.

The literature reviewed in this chapter established the guide-
lines of importance to this study. First, the importance of teachers
having positive, favorable attitudes, is paramount in having a
threat-free, comfortable learning atmosphere in the classroom.
Second, one's attitude tends to adjust as he gets more involved
with a situation, therefore the closeness of teacher-student rela-
tionship will be related to the teacher's attitude as perceived
by the student. Third, attitudes do change and will change in
relation to the attitude of another. Fourth, empathy can be and
is affected by a number of circumstances very much like one's atti-
tude. Fifth, empathy can be influenced and learned by specifically
designed programs. Sixth, the empathy level of a teacher in the
classroom will have an effect on the learning atmosphere of that
class. Seventh, simulation was shown to be an effective training
method, one which teacher trainees might use to improve their
effectiveness in dealing with classroom situations in a threat~free
atmosphere.

The Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory has been cited as
an outstanding instrument for determining teacher attitudes toward
children and the probability of an individual's success in teaching.

The Affective Sensitivity Scale has been shown to be an effec-
tive instrument with significant reliability and validity to measure
the empathic process. Studies in Concurrent, Construct and Predictive

validity provided data to support the scale's content validity.

36
Validity support was given by developmental procedures used in the

creating of the scale.

Chapter III

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

This chapter provides a detailed description of the design
of the investigation, the population from which the sample was
chosen, and the nature of the sample is specified. The hypotheses
are stated in testable form. The procedures used in gathering
the data from the experimental exercises are described.
Sample

The population from which the sample was randomly chosen
consisted of senior student teachers of the 1971 winter term from
Slippery Rock State College, Slippery Rock, Pennsylvania.

Table 3.1 shows the numbers of male and female members of

the population from which the sample was selected.

Table 3.1

General Elementary and General Secondary
Student Teachers, Winter Term, 1971, by Sex

 

 

 

LEVEL Female Male Total
Elementary 113 26 139
Secondary 66 75 141

 

37

38

In a general meeting with all Winter/Spring term, 1971,
student teachers, information was given concerning the study to
be undertaken. Anyone not wishing to participate was permitted
to withdraw. Only 5 withdrew. In a meeting with each of the
five regional centers, student teachers were given a form1
to complete and return to the seminar instructor, who in turn
gave it to the research director. These completed forms were
then numbered in order as they were received. Using a Table of
Random Numbers2 and the method suggested by Downie and Heath,
the sample was selected. The first number was assigned to the
control or experimental group by a flip of the coin. Numbers were
assigned to alternate groups as they were drawn. Each seminar group

used in the study was handled in the same manner. Table 3.2 shows sex

of the student teachers involved in the study by level and group.

Table 3.2

Summary of the Characteristics of the Sample
By Level, Group, and Sex

 

 

 

Level Group Total
Control Experimental
Female Male Female Male
Elementary 36 4 32 8 80
Secondary 32 8 28 12 80

 

 

1This form may be found in Appendix A.

2N. M. Downie, R. W. Heath, Basic Statistical Methods, Harper
Row, Publishers, (New York: 1965), pp. 316-317.

39
The age range of the sample varied from 21 to 30 as shown In

table 3.3.

Table 3.3

Age of Student Teachers Involved in the Study by Group

 

 

 

Group 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Total
Control 48 14 7 4 2 2 l 2 80
Experimental 47 14 8 3 2 2 l 3 80

 

A sample of 160 students was selected; 80 elementary student
teachers and 80 secondary student teachers. Of each 80, 40 were
placed in the control group and 40 were placed in the experimental
group. These groups of 40 were then divided into ten sub-groups of
4 students each. These individual 4 member groups were considered
as individuals in analyzing the data by using the mean of the
scores of the individuals in each group as the individual score.

Several items need to be clarified at this point. First:

At first glance, when analyzing the data, it will appear that only
40 persons participated in this investigation. While it is true
there were only 40 scores submitted for the repeated measures
analysis of variance, each score represents the mean of the scores
of the individuals in that particular group. In other words, each
score represents the mean of 2 or 3 separate scores. The 4 cells,

then, actually represent 114 individuals. A tabulation of all

40
individual scores in attitude and empathy are listed with group
divisions and group mean scores, in Appendix B.

Second: The total number included in the original sample
was 160. As noted above, the total scores computed into a group
mean score which made up the sample, was 114. Even with a loss
of 46 student teachers, there were no groups having fewer than
2 individuals' scores included when computing the group mean.
Also, there was no group which was assigned to a cell that did not
have a group mean score included in that assigned cell.

Third: It should be noted that there was a total of 46 fewer
student teachers who took part in the total experiment than were
selected in the original sample. At the completion of the study
when both instruments were administered, the number of respondents

was 114. Table 3.4 shows the sample tested, by sex level and

 

 

 

group.
Table 3.4
Student Teachers by Sex in Elementary and Secondary
Control and Experimental Groups
Level Group Total
Control Experimental
Female Male Female Male

Elementary 25 3 23 6 57

Secondary 22 6 20 9 57

 

41

An investigation was made of the information forms of those
student teachers who did not stay with the research project to
its completion. There were no unusual single outstanding char-
acteristics to be noted. The following are recorded for informa-
tional purposes and may be checked by comparing table 3.2 with
table 3.4. Those who dropped were:

1) 11 female and 1 male student teacher in the Elementary
Control group.

2) 10 female and 2 male student teachers in the Secondary
Control group.

3) 9 female and 2 male student teachers in the Elementary
Experimental group.

4) 8 female and 3 male student teachers in the Secondary
Experimental group.

The student teachers who did not stay with the study until
its completion were representative of the entire age range. Table
3.5 presents the number of males and females in each age range for
experimenta1 and control groups of student teachers in the elemen-

tary and secondary levels.

42

Table 3.5

Number of Female and Male Student Teachers
By Age for Control and Experimental Groups
On Both Elementary and Secondary Levels

 

 

Age

21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Total

Elementary Secondary
Control Experimental Control Experimental
Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male
22 14 2 l9 4 l7 7
2 3 3 l 2 1 l
l 2 l 1 1 l
2 l
l l l
__ _ _2_ _ _ _ _1_ _
25 3 23 6 22 6 20 9

 

Researcher's bias was controlled in the study by: 1) not having

any control or influence on any student's assignment to a school, or

school district, or seminar group, 2) random sampling of participants,

3) having the research assistants responsible for following the

procedure used during this investigation, and 4) rotating the

research assistants around to all the groups so each assistant

could work with every group during the study.

Following the establishing of the groups, a letter3 was sent

to each of the members of the sample. It simply stated that they

 

3The letter may be seen in Appendix A.

43

had been randomly chosen for the study and that they may have an
active or inactive part to play. It announced the date for the
administering of-the instruments to be used. It pointed out that
this would in no way directly affect their student teaching evaluation.
Procedure for Gathering Data

A brief instructional period was arranged for the research
assistants. They were shown exactly how to do the experimental
part by means of role playing session. They were reminded that the
length of time required for the treatment sessions was determined
by the demand of the participants in the study. The assistants were
cautioned not to make actual suggestions or participate as one of
the group members.

A letter4 of "Introduction for the First Week of the Study"
was then sent to each member of the experimental groups by way
of the research assistant. It re-stated some items mentioned in
the first letter and briefly explained the format of the sessions
to be attended.

Each student teacher in the experimental group followed the
same exercise procedure. A selected simulated classroom situa-
tion film was seen. All films were selected from Donald R.

Cruickshank's Teaching Problems Laboratory,5 and depicted various

 

4A c0py of the letter may be seen in Appendix A.

5Donald R. Cruickshank, Teaching Problem Laboratory, Science
Research Associates, Produced by Skyline Films, Inc., Made in
Cooperation with the Campus Demonstration School, State University
College, Brockport, New York, 1967.

44

kinds of trying classroom situations.

Nine films in all were selected;

three from the Critical

Teaching Problems, and six from the Inner-City Simulation Labor-

atory. Table 3.6 shows the selected films and indicates those

seen by the various experimental groups.

Table 3.6

Selected Films Viewed by Each Group

 

 

Group Critical Teaching Problems

1

\DmNChUTbUJNH

p.»
H
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

4

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Film Selected

29 l 2 3
X X XX
X X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X XX
X X XX
X X X
X X X X
X X X
X X X
X X XX
X X X
X XXX
X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X XX

8 10

X X

X X
X
X

X X
X

X X

X

X X

X X

X

X

X X

X X

X X

X

X X

11

xxxxxxxxxxxx

NXMMX

Inner City Simulation

Total

\ONVNONOVNOQNQQNQVVQW

 

After viewing the films, each student was requested to write

on the following items:

1) What did you see in the film?

2) Describe

45

your feelings as you saw the different phases develop on the film.
After everyone had completed the written portion, each person was
asked to tell what he wrote--first about what was seen, and then
about his feelings. Any differences heard in this portion were
brought to the attention of the group and discussions were permitted
when desired.

The following items relating to the film viewed were freely
discussed. Each person was encouraged to participate.

1) What was the critical situation in the film? (Perhaps
there were several).

2) Describe the feelings of those students in the film.

3) How would you handle the situation presented in the
film?

Finally, when the students requested a second showing of the
film after the discussion, they were given a second viewing with
no discussion following.

The control groups received no experimental manipulation beyond
the normal student teaching experience.

Statistical Hypotheses

As stated in Chapter I, the hypotheses are restated here
with their null form.

H1 Elementary student teachers receiving simulation will have
significantly higher scores in empathy than elementary student
teachers not receiving simulation.

Symbolically - H1 : Ees'> Ee

Ho No significant difference will be found in empathy scores

1

between elementary student teachers receiving simulation from

46
elementary student teachers not receiving simulation.
Symbolically - H01 : Ees = Ee
Legend - Ees; Elementary student teachers' scores in empathy
receiving simulation.
Ee; Elementary student teachers' scores in empathy
and not receiving simulation.

H2 Elementary student teachers receiving simulation will have
significantly higher scores in attitude than student teachers not
receiving simulation.

Symbolically - H2 : Eas > Ea

Ho2 No significant difference will be found in attitude scores
between elementary student teachers receiving simulation and
elementary student teachers not receiving simulation.

Symbolically - H02 : Eas = Ea

Legend - Eas; Elementary student teachers' attitude scores

receiving simulation.
Ea; Elementary student teachers' scores in attitude
and not receiving simulation.

H3 Secondary student teachers receiving simulation will have
significantly higher scores in empathy than secondary student teachers
not receiving simulation.

Symbolically - H3 : Ses > Se

H03 No significant difference will be found in empathy scores
between secondary student teachers receiving simulation and secondary
student teachers not receiving simulation.

Symbolically - H03 : Ses = Se

47

Legend - Ses; Secondary student teachers' scores in empathy

and receiving simulation.

H4 Secondary student teachers receiving simulation will have
significantly higher scores in attitude than secondary student teachers
not receiving simulation.

Symbolically - H4 : Sas,> Sa

H04 No significant difference will be found in attitude scores
between secondary student teachers receiving simulation and secondary
student teachers not receiving simulation.

Symbolically - H04 : Sas = Sa

Legend - Sas; Secondary student teachers' scores in attitude

and receiving simulation.
Sa; Secondary student teachers' scores in attitude
and not receiving simulation.
Analysis

A "posttest only" design was selected in order to avoid test
sensitization as suggested by Campbell and Stanley. They write
that "this design involves two randomly selected groups of
subjects; one of which receives a manipulation and then a
posttest, and one of which receives only the posttest."6 The
experimental design takes the following form:

0 x 01

0 01

 

6Donald T. Campbell, Julian C. Stanley, "Experimental and
Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research in Teaching," Handbook
of Research on Teaching, N. L. Gage, ed., Rand McNally and
Company, (Chicago: 1963), p. 188.

 

48

The symbols "0" represent the two randomly sampled groups.

x indicates the manipulation of the one group. 01 represents
the posttest which consisted of the two instruments administered
during the last week of student teaching.

The design is a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial: two levels, two groups,
and two independent variables. The data were hand scored and group
means computed. The data were then subjected to analysis by repeated
measures analysis of variance, programmed by Jeremy Finn of the
State University of Buffalo.7 Significance was accepted at the
.05 level or less. It was noticed that there was a large differ-
ence between the elementary control and elementary experimental
Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventogy mean scores. A t-test was
computed and the results are presented in Chapter IV.

Summapy

A sample of 160 randomly sampled student teachers from the
elementary and secondary level was divided into experimental and
control groups. Of these 160, 114 were administered the instru-
ments used to measure attitude and empathy levels. The student
teachers were placed in small groups in which the group mean was

used as the individual score for analysis.

 

7Jeremy D. Finn, Univariate and Multivariate Analysis of
‘Variance and Covariance: A FORTRAN IV Program Modified for the
Michigan State University CDC 3600 and 6500 Computer System by
David J. Wright. Occasional Paper No. 9, East Lansing, Michigan,
IMichigan State University, Office of Research Consultation,

March, 1970 .

49
The instruments selected to measure both groups were the

Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory, and the Affective Sensitivity

 

Sgglg, These instruments are deemed reliable and measure what
they are purported to measure.

The design of the study is a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial; two levels,
two groups, and two independent variables. Repeated Measures

Analysis of Variance was used to test the hypotheses.

Chapter IV

ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS

Introduction

 

The findings of the study are presented in this chapter.

The results of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory are pre-

 

sented in Tables 4.1 and 4.2. The results of the Affective

Sensitivity Scale are presented in Tables 4.3 and 4.4.

 

To add to the interpretation of the study, t-tests were
computed on the independent variables and the results are pre-
sented.

The null hypotheses are stated and will be rejected at the
.05 level or lower.

Findings of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventogy

The results of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventogy

 

revealed there were no significant differences in the scores
between the experimental and control groups on the elementary
or secondary level.

Table 4.1 presents the data on the Minnesota Teacher Attitude

 

Inventory for both experimental and control groups.

50

51

Table 4.1

A Comparison of the Results of the M.T.A._I_. Scores
for Control and Experimental Groups on
the Elementary and Secondary Level

 

 

 

Groups N X SD d
Elementary Control 10 31.58 9.21
Elementary Experimental 10 42.16 17.47 10.58
Secondary Control 10 35.93 15.64
Secondary Experimental 10 34.13 16.95 -1.80

 

The scores for both the elementary and secondary groups are
below those established as national norms for this inventory.

A possible reason for the low scores obtained on this
inventory lies in the fact that not more than four students in the
elementary, and none in the secondary, samples had had any planned
professional laboratory experiences with children prior to student
teaching.

It should be noted that a t-test was run because of the 10.58
mean score difference between the elementary control and experimental
groups. For 18 degrees of freedom at the .05 level, the critical
ratio should be 1.73 or larger. The computation of a one-tailed
test revealed a 1.72 critical ratio at the .05 level of confidence.

Thus, the differences were not statistically significant.

52

Table 4.2 presents the results of analysis of variance on the

level, group, and interaction of the Minnesota Teacher Attitude

 

Inventory.

 

Table 4.2

An Analysis of Variance of Level, Group, and
Interaction on the M, T, A, I.

 

 

 

Source df MS F P less than
Level; Ele.-Sec. l 33.91 .147 .704
Group; Exp.-Control 1 192.85 .836 .367
Interaction; Level X Group 1 383.34 1.66 .206

 

Analysis of Variance revealed no significant differences in

level, group, or interaction.

Findings of the Affective Sensitivity Scale

On empathy, the results of the Affective Sensitivity Scale

 

revealed a statistical significance between the experimental and

control groups at the .003 level. Table 4.3 presents data for

both experimental and control groups on the elementary and secon-

dary level.

53

Table 4.3
A Comparison of the Results of the Affective
Sensitivity Scale for Control and Experimental Groups
on the Elementary and Secondary Level

 

 

 

Group N X SD d
Elementary Control 10 32.78 3.49
Elementary Experimental 10 33.98 4.74 1.21
Secondary Control 10 30.66 3.68
Secondary Experimental 10 36,99 3.55 6.33

 

The difference of 6.33 in Secondary Control and Experimental
group empathy scores was noted. A one-tailed test was computed to
a critical ratio of 1.8, which is significant at the .05 level of
confidence. There was no statistical significance of elementary
student teachers in empathy.

Table 4.4 shows the analysis of variance of the Affective

Sensitivity Scale by level, group, and interaction.

 

Table 4.4

An Analysis of Variance of Level, Group,
and Interaction on the Affective Sensitivity Scale

 

 

 

Source df MS F P less than
Level; Ele.-Sec. 1 1.967 .138 .7126
Group; Cont.-Exp. 1 142.24 9.97 .003

Interaction; Level X Group 1 65.66 4.60 .03

 

54
No significance is revealed on the elementary and secondary
level. However, a one-tailed test does reveal significance at
the .05 level. Significance at the .003 level is revealed between
the experimental and control groups. In interaction, there is sig-

nificance at the .03 level of confidence.

Summary

There were no significant differences in elementary control
and experimental groups on attitude. Although there was move-
ment in a positive direction, it was not statistically significant.
It should be pointed out that at the .05 level of confidence, a
critical ratio of 1.72 was computed on a one-tailed test, although
expected statistical significance level is 1.73 or higher.

There were no significant differences in elementary control
and experimental groups in regard to empathy.

There were no significances in secondary experimental and
control groups in attitude. There was a significant difference
in the secondary experimental and control groups in empathy.

The differences were significantly different at the .05 level of
confidence on a one-tailed test.

In the analysis of variance, there were significant differ-
ences between the control and experimental groups on empathy at

the .003 level of confidence.

Findings With Respect to Specific Hypotheses

55

The hypotheses are presented in null form with the outcome.

Ho °

1.

H02:

H03:

Ho :

No significant difference will be
scores between elementary student
simulation and elementary student
receiving simulation.

No significant difference will be
scores between elementary student
simulation and elementary student
receiving simulation.

No significant difference will be

found in
teachers
teachers

Fail

found in
teachers
teachers

Fail

found in

empathy
receiving
not

to reject.

attitude
receiving
not

to reject.

empathy

scores between secondary student teachers receiving
simulation and secondary student teachers not
Reject P < .05

receiving simulation.

No significant difference will be found in attitude
scores of secondary student teachers receiving simu-
lation and secondary student teachers not

receiving simulation.

Fail

to reject.

Chapter V
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

This final chapter begins with a summary of the study. The
results of the investigation will be discussed and recommendations

for future study will be made.
Summa

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of
selected simulated classroom situations on student teacher atti-
tude and empathy. It attempted to determine whether attitude
and empathy can be changed significantly in a positive direction
through the use of a specific simulation technique.

It was assumed that the most effective classroom teacher is
one who has a favorable, non-threatening learning atmosphere
for the students. This teacher has a good, healthy, positive
rather than negative attitude towards students. The teacher
is more concerned with the students' total learning than just the
subject matter. The teacher sees the student, senses the student's
feeling toward the situation in which he is working, and relates
to the student in such a manner that learning can continue. The
empathic ability of the teacher will determine the degree of
understanding of students' problems and enable the teacher to

56

57
respond so as to eliminate as much threat as possible.

The development and use of simulation has enabled business,
industry, and government to train personnel just as effectively
as the real situation and at reduced cost and risk factor. Numbers
of student teachers alone make it difficult for students to get any
pre-student teaching contact experience in interpersonal relations.

One method of effecting empathy and attitude, with no harm
done to students while in the process, was attempted in the investi-
gation.

A randomly selected group of 160 student teachers from Slippery
Rock State College, Slippery Rock, Pennsylvania, made up the sample.
Of the sample, 80 were selected from the general elementary educa-
tion and 80 were selected from the general secondary education
curriculum. From each level, 40 were placed in the control group,
and 40 were placed in the experimental group.

Over a period of 12 weeks, the experimental groups were shown
a series of films depicting various classroom scenes. The scenes
were typical of any classroom. The films were shown by research
assistants who rotated so as to be able to show a specific film
to each experimental group.

Of the original sample, 114 student teachers were administered

the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventogy and the Affective Sensi-

 

 

tivity Scale during the last week of the student teaching experience.
The data were hand scored and subjected to repeated measures analysis

of variance. The findings of the study are discussed below.

58

Repeated measures analysis of variance revealed the following
information.

1) No significant difference in attitude was found between
elementary student teachers receiving simulation and elementary
student teachers not receiving simulation.

2) No significant difference in empathy was found between
elementary student teachers receiving simulation and elementary
student teachers not receiving simulation.

3) No significant difference in attitude was found in
secondary student teachers receiving simulation and secondary
student teachers not receiving simulation.

4) Statistical significance in empathy was found between
secondary student teachers receiving simulation and secondary
student teachers not receiving simulation.

A one-tailed test was computed on three of the four categories
and revealed the following results:

1) No significant difference in attitude was found between
elementary student teachers receiving simulation and elementary stu-
dent teachers not receiving simulation. There was, however, a strong
movement of attitude in the predicted direction. A critical ratio
of 1.73 is statistically significant at the .05 level of confi-
dence. A one-tailed test computed a critical ratio of 1.72 at the
.05 level.

2) No significant difference in empathy was found between
elementary student teachers receiving simulation and elementary

student teachers not receiving simulation.

59
3) Statistical significant difference in empathy was found
between secondary student teachers receiving simulation and sec-

ondary student teachers not receiving simulation.

Discussion

 

Data from the Affective Sensitivity Scale on the secondary
level revealed significant differences between the experimental
and control groups. An examination of the data indicates that
the experimental group scored a higher total mean score than the\
control group, 36.997 to 30.663, which is significant at the .05
level. The inference is that the simulation technique used is
an effective method of affecting a positive change in empathic
ability of the secondary student teachers in this investigation.

Considering the difference in the data relating to atti-
tude, one explanation might be found in films used. They depicted
scenes from an elementary classroom. This might result in no
influence or impact whatever on the attitude of secondary level
student teachers. It must be remembered, however, that there was
a strong movement in the predicted direction on the elementary
level.

A second explanation for the difference in scores of the experi-
mental groups might be found in the possibility that secondary
student teachers have a less favorable attitude towards students
than do elementary student teachers. Therefore, any change in
attitude in the experimental group of secondary student teachers

could have been negatively influenced when one considers the filmed

60
classroom sequences.

When considering the differences found in the scores on
empathy, one explanation might be that elementary teachers are
found to have a higher empathic ability than secondary teachers.
Therefore, the effect of student teaching alone could have
effected the empathy level as greatly as the student teaching
experience and the experiment with the other elementary student
teachers. On the secondary level, the experiment was responsible
for the difference in empathy as measured by the Affective Sensi-
tivity Scale.

Another explanation here might be found in the design of
the study. While a posttest only design does offer some control
on test sensitization, it also leaves room for speculating as to
the level of empathy (and attitude) of the student teachers of
the control group (8).

These possibilities should be examined in future investiga-
tions.

Additional Findings

 

There were some results of the study which do not show in the
statistical measurements. These relate more closely to the human
relations aspect of a student teacher's professional preparation.
This evidence was obtained during interviews with the student
teachers who participated in the experimental part of the study
and upon their completing the test instruments.

Most students who were included in the experimental part of the

61
study thought it was helpful to them in their student teaching
experience. Many stated that they wished they had had this
experience prior to student teaching. Others stated that when first
entering the study, the films had little or no effect on their feel-
ing or thinking. As time went on, though, they could feel them—
selves getting emotional about the scenes they were viewing. One
student in particular admitted that one of the scenes aroused him
to the extent that he wanted to "smash" the student pictured
right in the mouth.

Some teachers with whom these student teachers were placed,
commented about the student teachers' remarks relating to the
study. These remarks related to the seemingly greater awareness
of classroom events and management. The teachers stated that the
student teachers seemed more alert to classroom situations and could
deal with them more easily. The student teachers stated that they
felt more aware of how to look about the class and sense potential
problem areas.

Most of the student teachers felt more should be done in the
earlier college years to prepare them for the human relations aspect
of teaching. They commented that as a result of the experiment they
felt more aware of the importance of human relationships in teaching.

Conclusions

The results of this investigation cannot be considered as
final, but there is evidence to indicate that the simulation
technique used had a significant effect on the empathy level of

secondary student teachers.

62

Empathy is considered one of the elements necessary in the
humanizing of a teacher; therefore, more extensive study should
be undertaken to determine the role and functions of the empathic
person in the classroom.

Because there was strong positive movement in attitude of
elementary student teachers, there is indication that the simula—
tion technique used in this investigation could have produced
that movement. Although these results do not justify wholesale
retooling of teacher preparation programs, they do suggest that
we examine the possibility of giving more variety in teacher
training programs than is now offered in student teaching alone.

At Slippery Rock State College, the student teaching assign-
ment is made for a complete semester, which is eighteen weeks in
length. Perhaps this study did not extend over a period of time
sufficiently long to fully test the hypotheses. Perhaps a fifth
year of preparation is needed. Too much cannot be said for the need
for preparation in non-academic areas which will increase human
relations skills in the classroom. Perhaps the study indicates
the need for professional laboratory experiences throughout the
preparation program.

Recommendations

 

The following recommendations are based on the results of
this study:
1) Teacher preparation programs (at Slippery Rock State

College) should include some experience in interpersonal relations.

63
At the present time, there is no mandatory or elective program
of study in teacher education available to students entering
teaching other than that carried on through federal funding,
and this serves only a small portion of the number of teacher
trainees.

2) As a result of the low level of attitude scores obtained
on the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory, it might be well to
test prospective teacher candidates in this one particular area.

If low scores are prevalent, these persons should be given specific
activities aimed at affecting attitude change in the positive
direction, re-tested and/or counsel those with low or near negative
scores into some other field of study.

There is much more to be done in the area of human relationships
than the experiences as referred to in recommendation #1.

3) It is suspected that most teacher preparation institutions
have little place or time scheduled into their programs where a
prospective teacher has contact with the kinds of situations he
might encounter as he enters the classroom. An experience using
real or simulated conditions might be instituted which would sensi-
tize the prospective teacher to situations that might be encountered.
With this experience, the student would have a broader use and under-
standing of alternatives to be employed which would help reduce the
threat of any type of decision-making situation. Not only would these
experiences alert the student to the feelings he might have when

encountering the real situation, but they might affect his attitude

64
to a more favorable level and result in a better classroom learning
situation.

4) A study should be conducted in the same manner as this
using a control group and an experimental group, but with secon-
dary level films for secondary level student teachers. This
might make some difference on the attitude change of secondary
student teachers.

5) It might be well to do an investigation with a pre-test --
posttest design. This would reveal any change in either attitude
or empathy.

6) It is recommended that a similar study be conducted with
more intensive and extensive use of the variable (simulated human
relations situations) than did this investigation.

7) Simulation does provide a unique type of experience not
otherwise obtainable outside the real-life classroom scene. This
type of training would serve a very useful function in any teacher

preparation program.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, Dwight W., and Robert A. Mackin, "Toward '76: A Revolution in
Teacher Education." Phi Delta Kappan, LI, No. 9, (May, 1970).

 

Allport, Gordon W. "Attitudes." Handbook of Social Psychology. Edited
by C. M. Murchison. Worchester, Massachusetts: Clark University
Press, 1935.

Allport, Gordon W. Pattern and Growth in Personality. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1961, 137.

Alpert, H. "The Relationship of Empathy to Reading Comprehension."
Dissertation Abstracts, 155: 2093, 1955.

 

Bartels, Martin H. "Index of Teacher Demand." The Educational Forum,
XXXIV, No. 1 (November, 1966), 59-62.

 

Bender, I. E., and A. H. Hastorf. "On Measuring Generalized Empathic
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Broadbent, Frank W. "Simulating Problems of Beginning Teachers."
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Brunet, Jerome 8., The Process of Education. New York: Random House,
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Bruner, Jerome S., Toward A Theory of Instruction. New York: W. W.
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65

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Bugelski, B. R., The Psychology of LearninggApplied to Teaching. New
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Campbell, Donald T. and Julian C. Stanley, "Experimental and Quasi-
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Cherryholmes, Cleo, "Development in Simulation of International
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Combs, Arthur, and Donald Snygg, Individual Behavior, Harper and
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Combs, Arthur W., The Professional Education of Teachers. Boston: Allyn
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Corrigan, Dean, and Kenneth Grisswold. "Attitude Changes of Student
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Cunningham, Laverne L. "Simulation and Preparation of Educational
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Danish, Steven J., "The Influence of Leader Empathy (Affective
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Grossman, Burton A. "Evaluation of a Training Program to Improve
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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

LETTERS TO STUDENT TEACHERS

INFORMATION FORM

71

LETTER TO MEMBER OF SAMPLE GROUP

Dear Student Teacher:

Several weeks ago, you were in attendance at a general meeting where
you heard about a study to be undertaken during the time you do your
student teaching. Subsequently, you completed an information form
and turned it in to your seminar instructor.

This letter is to inform you that you have been chosen as a member

of the randomly sampled group. For this study, you are to do only

as instructed by your seminar professor. You may have an active or
inactive role to play. In any case, you will be informed by letter
as to your next step.

It is important that you understand this: your level of success as
measured by the instruments will not be considered in any way with
your student teaching evaluation.

The only date you should be aware of is that of Tuesday, May 25, 1971.
On that date you people involved in the study are to take the instru-
ments selected to determine any changes which have taken place during
the interim of this study. Arrangements must be completed with Dr.
Wayne Walker and you will be notified accordingly.

Yours truly,

Harold W. Huber
Research Director and
Student Teaching Coordinator

72

LETTER TO MEMBER OF EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

Dear Student Teacher:

This is a letter of introduction for the first week of the study
being carried on. You were randomly selected for the experimental
group, therefore you will have some exercises in which to partici-
pate during your student teaching. Please understand that this
will in no way effect your student teaching evaluation, nor is this
study designed to harm your student teaching progress.

By this time, you have become known to others in your seminar, and
therefore, this smaller group should bring only minimum of anxiety

to you as you participate in this study. You should feel free to
speak out as you please. There are activities which you will under-
take. If you have feelings one way or the other, you should partici-
pate freely and openly.

In each session, you will be shown a short film which may have a
positive or negative, physical or emotional influence on your think-
ing. Do not feel restricted in the expression of your feelings.

Each session will be directed by a different person from the former
session. Each will show a different film. If you do not know this
person, please feel free to ask his or her name.

You will need a pen or pencil for each session. Paper for recording
the necessary items will be furnished.

As you watch each film, try to view it in its completeness. Pat
Taylor is the teacher, male or female, as you wish. Her eyes are the
lens of the camera. Her words are those printed, the emotion to be
supplied by you as you feel.

Each session will last only long enough to complete each step designed
for the sessions. It should not take longer than forty minutes. If

a session should last longer, please try to stay through the entire
session if at all possible. Your help in this matter is greatly
appreciated.

Finally, please remember the date of Tuesday, May 25, 1971. On this
day, all the random groups will be given the tests designed to
measure the changes which have taken place.

Yours truly,

Harold W. Huber, Student Teaching Coordinator

73

LETTER SENT TO SAMPLE GROUPS

Dear Student Teacher:

Earlier in the semester, you filled out an information form. Later,
you received a letter stating that you were randomly selected to par-
ticipate in the study. You were asked to keep the date of Tuesday,
May 25, 1971, open, and that time will be here in two weeks.

You should report to the auditorium of the education building at
9:30 a.m. At that time you will be given the two instruments which
were selected for this investigation: The Minnesota Teacher Atti-
tude Inventory and the Affective Sensitivity Scale.

Thank you for your help during the time of this study. Without
your cooperation, this study could not have been completed. My
personal thanks to each of you for your effort.

Sincerely,

Harold W. Huber
Student Teaching Coordinator
and Research Director

Name

Date

Home

High

What

In which specific field are you prepared?

74

INFORMATION FORM

 

 

 

Miss
Mrs.
Mr.

(last) (first) (initial)
of Birth

(month) (day) (year)
address

(no.) (street) (city)

school graduated from
' (city)

is your college major? Ele. Sec. Spec.Ed. HPER Lib.Sci. LibAts.

 

 

 

Approximate Grade Point Average

List

List

List

What

 

the number of brothers you have. Ages , , , . ,
the number of sisters you have. Ages , , . . . -

all jobs you've held or activities performed while a high school
student.

jobs have you had while in college? (on campus, home, community,
church)

(for these last two replies, please use the backside of this
Paper)

APPENDIX B

INDIVIDUAL AND GROUPéMEAN SCORES IN

ATTITUDE AND EMPATHY

Respondents
Number

1
2
3

O‘U1D'

\O<D'd

10
ll
12

13
14
15

l6
l7
18

19
20
21

22
23
24

25
26
27

28
29

75

INDIVIDUAL SCORES IN ATTITUDE AND EMPATHY
OF THE SECONDARY EXPERIMENTAL GROUP WITH

INDIVIDUAL GROUP-MEAN SCORES

Individual
score

43
-4
59

33
57
53

87
34
-3

45
60
61

-ll
9
45

9
-4
17

10
52
31

36
-ll
48

13
13
57

65
55

Attitude

Group

mean

34.

47

39

55

14

31.

24

27

60.

33

.66

.33

.33

.33

.33

.33

.66

Empathy

Individual Group

score

38
40
45

42
33
35

41
36
27

33
43
37

29
40
40

35
30
32

45
27
37

43
36
41

32
36
34

41
41

mean

41.

36.66

34.66

37.66

36.33

32.33

36.33

40.

34.00

41.

Respondents

Number

30
31
32

33
34
35

36
37
38

39
40
41

42
43
44

45
46
47

48
49

50
51
52

53
54
55

56
57
58

76

INDIVIDUAL SCORES IN ATTITUDE AND EMPATHY
OF THE ELEMENTARY EXPERIMENTAL GROUP WITH

INDIVIDUAL GROUP-MEAN SCORES

Individual
score

19
25
92

-14
20
86

63
77
0

16
77
-13

29
36
59

13
70
94

60
46

97
39
94

-3
51
28

28
66
-8

Attitude

Group

mean

45.33

30.66

43.33

23.33

41.33

59.

53.

76.66

20.33

28.66

Empathy

Individual
score

23
24
41

31
31
36

42
36
41

30
40
42

34
41
33

29
23
28

34
26

26
26
32

36
26
42

41
46
39

Group

mean

29.33

32.93

39.66

37.33

36.

30.

30.

28

34.66

42.

Respondents
Number

59
60
61

62
63

64
65
66

67
68
69

70
71
72

73
74
75

76
77
78

79
80
81

82
83
84

85
86

77

INDIVIDUAL SCORES IN ATTITUDE AND EMPATHY
OF THE SECONDARY CONTROL GROUP WITH

INDIVIDUAL GROUP-MEAN SCORES

Individual
score

-6
-10
30

42
-4

54
41
43

58
35
34

39
57
-2

54
34
75

-2
47
74

35
40
ll

12
60
77

65
29

Attitude

Group
mean

4.66

19.

46.

42.33

31.33

54.33

39.66

25.33

49.66

47.

Individual
score

22
40
23

25
35

38
35
27

27
31
42

22
37
24

35
33
33

33
33
25

22
25
26

27
23
36

48
26

Group
mean

28.33

30.

33.33

33.33

27.66

33.66

30.33

24.33

28.66

37.

Respondents
Number

87
88
89

90
91
92

93
94
95

96
97
98

99
100
101

102
103

104
105
106

107
108
109

110
111

112
113
114

Individual

score

70
42
24

6
50
42

6
44
11

12
51
21

28
66
-7

86
14

45
48
l

31
30
25

29
20

-3
17
64

78

Attitude

Group

me an

45.33

32.66

20.33

28.33

28.66

50.

31.33

28.66

24.50

26.00

INDIVIDUAL SCORES IN ATTITUDE AND EMPATHY
OF THE ELEMENTARY CONTROL GROUP WITH
INDIVIDUAL GROUP-MEAN SCORES

Individual
score

42
45
25

34
33
32

34
41
17

24
25
28

35
25
26

41
29

32
33
46

31
35
41

36
33

33
30
27

Empathy

Group

mean

34.

33.

34.

25.66

29.

35.

37.

35.66

34.50

30.

APPENDIX C

INSTRUMENTATION

MINNESOTA TEACHER ATTITUDE INVENTORY

AFFECTIVE SENSITIVITY SCALE

DO NOT OPEN UNTIL TOLD TO DO SO

 

MINNESOTA TEACHER ATTITUDE

INVENTORY

Form A

CARROLL H. LEEDS
Furman University

WALTER W. COOK
University of Minnesota

ROBERT CALLIS
University of Missouri

 

DIRECTIONS

This inventory consists of 150 statements designed to sample Opinions
about teacher-pupil relations. There is considerable disagreement as to what
these relations should be; therefore, there are no right or wrong answers.
What is wanted is your own individual feeling about the statements. Read
each statement and decide how YOU feel about it. Then mark your answer
on the space provided on the answer sheet. Do not make any marks on

this booklet.

If you strongly agree, blacken space under "SA” ......................................................
If you agree, blacken space under ”A" ..........................................................................
If you are undecided or uncertain, blacken space under "U" ....................................
If you disagree, blacken space under ”D” ........................................................ . ............

If you strongly disagree, blacken space under ”SD" ...................................................

 

 

SA
SA
s}
5'}.

SA

6.52::

30-

SD
50
80

SD

 

 

Think in terms of the general situation rather than specific ones. There
is no time limit, but work as rapidly as you can. PLEASE RESPOND

TO EVERY ITEM.

The inventory contained in this booklet has been designed for use with answer forms
published or authorized by The Psychological Corporation. If Other answer forms are used,
The Psychological Corporation takes no responsibility for the meaningfulness of scores.

Copyright 1951 by The Psychological Corporation.

All rights reserved. No part of this inventory may be reproduced in
any form of printing or by any Other means, eleCtronic or mechanical,
including, but net limited to, phorocopying, audiovisual recording and
transmission, and portrayal or duplication in any information Storage
and retrieval syStem, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed in U.S.A. The Psychological Corporation. 304 East 45th Street. New York. N. Y. 10017

66.14313

 

if"

 

""1

SA—Strongly agree
A—Agree

U—Undecided
or uncertain

D—Disagree
SD—Strongly disagree

 

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Most children are obedient.

Pupils who “act smart” probably have too
high an opinion of themselves.

Minor disciplinary situations should sometimes
be turned into jokes.

Shyness is preferable to boldness.
Teaching never gets monotonous.

Most pupils don’t appreciate what a teacher
does for them.

If the teacher laughs with the pupils in amus-
ing classroom situations, the class tends to get
out of control.

A child’s companionships can be too carefully
supervised.

A child should be encouraged to keep his likes
and dislikes to himself.

It sometimes does a child good to be criticized
in the presence of other pupils.

Unquestioning obedience in a child is not
desirable.

Pupils should be required to do more studying
at home.

The first lesson a child needs to learn is to
obey the teacher without hesitation.

Young people are difiicult to understand these
days. ' .

There is too great an emphasis upon “keeping
order” in the classroom.

16.

17.

18.

19.

21.

27.

A pupil’s failure is seldom the fault of the
teacher.

There are times when a teacher cannot be
blamed for losing patience with a pupil.

A teacher should never discuss sex problems
with the pupils.

Pupils have it too easy in the modern school.

A teacher should not be expected to burden
himself with a pupil’s problems.

Pupils expect too much help from the teacher
in getting their lessons.

A teacher should not be expected to sacrifice
an evening of recreation in order to visit a
child’s home.

Most pupils do not make an adequate efi'ort
to prepare their lessons.

Too many children nowadays are allowed to
have their own way.

Children’s wants are just as important as those
of an adult.

The teacher is usually to blame when pupils
fail to follow directions.

A child should be taught to obey an adult
without question.

The boastful child is usually over-confident of
his ability.

29. Children have a natural tendency to be unruly.

30. A teacher cannot place much faith in the state-

ments of pupils.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

 

31.

32.

33.

35.

38.

37.

38.

39.

41.

42.

45.

SA—Strongly agree
A—Agree

Some children ask too many questions.

A pupil should not be required to stand when
reciting.

The teacher should not be expected to man-
age a child if the latter’s parents are unable
to do so.

A teacher should never acknowledge his ig-
norance of a tapic in the presence of his pupils.

Discipline in the modern school is not as strict
as it should be.

Most pupils lack productive imagination.
Standards of work should vary with the pupil.

The majority of children take their responsi-
bilities seriously.

To maintain good discipline in the classroom
a teacher needs to be “hard-boiled.”

Success is more motivating than failure.

Imaginative tales demand the same punish-
ment as lying.

Every pupil in the sixth grade should have
sixth grade reading ability.

A good motivating device is the critical com-
parison of a pupil’s work with that of other
pupils.

It is better for a child to be bashful than to be
“boy or girl crazy.”

Course grades should never be lowered as
punishment.

U—Undecided

or uncertain

46.

47.

49.

51.

52.

53.

55.

57.

58.

D—Disagree
SD—Strongly disagree.

More “old-fashioned whippings” are needed
today.

The child must learn that “teacher knows best.”

Increased freedom in the classroom creates
confusion.

A teacher should not be expected to be sym-
pathetic toward truants.

Teachers should exercise more authority over
their pupils than they do.

Discipline problems are the teacher’s greatest
worry.

The low achiever probably is not working hard
enough and applying himself.

There is too much emphasis on grading.

Most children lack common courtesy toward
adults.

Aggressive children are the greatest problems.

At times it is necessary that the whole class
suffer when the teacher is unable to identify
the culprit.

Many teachers are not severe enough in their
dealings with pupils.

Children “should be seen and not heard.”

A teacher should always have at least a few
failures.

It is easier to correct discipline problems than
it is to prevent them.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

SA—Strongly agree
A—Agree

U—Undecided

or uncertain

D—Disagree
SD—Strongly disagree

 

61.

87.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

Children are usually too sociable in the class-
room.

Most pupils are resourceful when left on
their own.

Too much nonsense goes on in many ‘ class-
rooms these days.

The school is often to blame in cases of truancy.

Children are too carefree.

Pupils who fail to prepare their lessons daily
should be kept after school to make this prep-
aration.

Pupils who are foreigners usually make the
teacher’s task more unpleasant.

Most children would like to use good English.

Assigning additional school work is often an
efi'ective means of punishment.

Dishonesty as found in cheating is probably
one of the most serious of moral offenses.

Children should be allowed more freedom in
their execution of learning activities.

Pupils must learn to respect teachers if for no
other reason than that they are teachers.

Children need not always understand the rea-
sons for social conduct.

Pupils usually are not qualified to select their

own tapics for themes and reports.

No child should rebel against authority.

76.

77.

78.

79.

81.

82.

83.

84.

87.

39.

There is too much leniency today in the hand-
ling of children.

Difficult disciplinary problems are seldom the
fault of the teacher.

The whims and impulsive desires of children
are usually worthy of attention.

Children usually have a hard time following
instructions.

Children nowadays are allowed too much free-
dom in school.

All children should start to read by the age
of seven.

Universal promotion of pupils lowers achieve-
ment standards.

Children are unable to reason adequately.

A teacher should not tolerate use of slan
expressions by his pupils. *

The child who misbehaves should be made to
feel guilty and ashamed of himself.

If a child wants to speak or to leave his seat
during the class period, he should always get
permission from the teacher.

Pupils should not respect teachers any more
than any other adults.

Throwing of chalk and erasers should always
demand severe punishment.

Teachers who are liked best probably have a
better understanding of their pupils.

Most pupils try to make things easier for the
teacher.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

 

SA—Strongly agree
A—Agree

U—Undecided
or uncertain

D—Disagree
SD—Strongly disagree

 

91.

97.

100.

101.

108.

103.

104.

105.

Most teachers do not give sufiicient explana-
tion in their teaching.

There are too many activities lacking in acad-
emic respectability that are being introduced
into the curriculum of the modern school.

Children should be given more freedom in the
classroom than they usually get.

Most pupils are unnecessarily thoughtless rel-
ative to the teacher’s wishes.

Children should not expect talking privileges
when adults wish to speak.

Pupils are usually slow to “catch on” to new
material.

Teachers are responsible for knowing the
home conditions of every one of their pupils.

Pupils can be very boring at times.

Children have no business asking questions
about sex. ‘

Children must be told exactly what to do and
how to do it.

Most pupils are considerate of their teachers.
Whispering should not be tolerated.

Shy pupils especially should be required to
stand when reciting.

Teachers should consider problems of con-
duct more seriously than they do.

A teacher should never leave the class to its
own management.

106.

107.

108.

109.

l 10.

111.

112.

113.

114.

115.

116.

117.

118.

119.

120.

A teacher should not be expected to do more
work than he is paid for.

There is nothing that can be more irritating
than some pupils.

“Lack of application” is probably one of the
most frequent causes for failure.

Young peOple nowadays are too frivolous.

As a rule teachers are too lenient with their
pupils.

Slow pupils certainly try one’s patience.

Grading is of value because of the competition
element.

Pupils like to annoy the teacher.
Children usually will not think for themselves.

Classroom rules and regulations must be con-
sidered inviolable.

Most pupils have too easy a time of it and do
not learn to do real work.

Children are so likeable that their shortcom-
ings can usually be overlooked.

A pupil found writing obscene notes should
be severely punished.

A teacher seldom finds children really enjoy-
able.

There is usually one best way to do school
work which all pupils should follow.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

SA—Strongly agree
A—Agree

U—Undecided

or uncertain

D—Disagree
SD—Strongly disagree

 

121.

122.

123.

124.

125.

128.

127.

128.

129.

130.

131.

132.

133.

134.

135.

It isn’t practicable to base school work upon
children’s interests.

It is difiicult to understand why some chil-
dren want to come to school so early in the
morning before opening time.

Children that cannot meet the school stand-
ards should be dropped.

Children are usually too inquisitive.

It is sometimes necessary to break promises
made to children.

Children today are given too much freedom.

One should be able to get along with almost
any child.

Children are not mature enough to make their
own decisions.

A child who bites his nails needs to be shamed.

Children will think for themselves if permit-
ted.

There is no excuse for the extreme sensitivity
of some children.

Children just cannot be trusted.

Children should be given reasons for the re-
strictions placed upon them.

Most pupils are not interested in learning.

It is usually the uninteresting and difficult
subjects that will do the pupil the most good.

136.

137.

138.

139.

140.

141.

142.

143.

144.

145.

146.

147.

148.

149.

I”.

A pupil should always be fully aware of what
is expected of him.

There is too much intermingling of the sexes
in extra-curricular activities.

The child who stutters should be given the
opportunity to recite oftener.

The teacher should disregard the complaints
of the child who constantly talks about imag-
inary illnesses.

Teachers probably over-emphasize the ser-
iousness of such pupil behavior as the writing
of obscene notes.

Teachers should not expect pupils to like
them.

Children act more civilized than do many
adults.

Aggressive children require the most atten-
tion.

Teacherscanbeinthewrongaswellas
pupils.

Young people today are just as good as those
of the past generation.

Keeping discipline is not the problem that
many teachers claim it to be.

A pupil has the right to disagree openly with
his teachers.

Most pupil misbehavior is done to annoy the
teacher.

One should not expect pupils to enjoy school.

In pupil appraisal efiort should not be dis-
tinguished from scholarship.

61CA
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AFFECTIVE SENSITIVITY SCALE
Instructions

You will be viewing short scenes of actual counseling sessions. You are
to identify what feelings the clients have toward themselves and toward
the counselors they are working with.

Although in any one scene a client may exhibit a variety of feelings,
for the purpose of this instrument you are to concentrate on identifying
his last feelingg in the scene.

On the following pages are multiple choice items consisting of three
responses each. Most scenes have two items, but a few have one or three
items. After you view each scene, you are to read the items and ask
yourself the following question:

If the client were to view this same scene, and
if he were completely open and honest with him-
self, (i.e., if he could identify his real
feelings) which of these three responses would
he use to describe his feelings?

After you decide which response accurately describes what the client is
actually feeling either about himself or.the counselor he is with, indi-
cate your choice on the answer sheet.

Here is a sample item:

CLIENT I
Scene I
Item 1
1. This exploring of my feelings is good. It
makes me feel good.
2. I feel very sad and unhappy.
3. I'm groping and.confused; I can't bring it
all tgggther.

After you had viewed Scene 1 for CLIENT I, you would read these three
statements (Item 1) and would then decide which one best states what the
client would say about his own feelings after viewing the same scene.
For example, if you decide number two best states what the client is
feeling, you would then find the number 1 on your answer sheet and dark-
en in the space for number two.

1. 1 :=== 2 III. 3 ::=: 2:2: 5 ====
we will only make use of the first three answer spaces following each
item on your answer sheet.

Remember you are to concentrate on the latter part of each scene in
determining the most accurate description of the client's feelings.

After you view the appropriate scenes, you will have thirty seconds to

85

 

answer each of the first twelve items.

86

you will be allowed twenty seconds.

CAUTION:

CLIENT I
Scene 1

CLIENT I
Scene 2

The item numbers on your answer sheet go across the page,

not down the page as you would usually expect!

AFFECTIVE SENSITIVITY SCALE REVISED FORM B

Item 1

l. I feel sorry for my husband and the relationship

we have.

2. I don't really understand what I feel. Yet, I
do feel guilty about creating pain in others
which returns to me.

3. I feel pleased at seeing a possible relationship
between my feelings of anger and pain.

Item 2

1. He (counselor) doesn't have to like me. I just

want him to agree with me and tell me I'm right.
2. I'm trying to please you. Do you like me?
3. He's really understanding me now.

Item 3

1. I feel calm and collected. I just want to think

for a while.

2. Yes, that is when I get angry. I see it all
clearly now.

3. I feel anxious and stimulated.

Item 4

1. I'll pretend I'm agreeing with him (counselor),

but I don't see the connection at all.
2. I like what he's doing. I don't feel as
uncomfortable now.
3. I wish he would stop pushing me in this
direction.

For each of the remaining items,

87

CLIENT II
Scene 1
Item 5
1. I'm pleased, happy; I feel good all over!
2. It was brought right back,-that amazes me, but it
hits quite bad too. It hurts!
3. I'm not bothered by this. I can handle it. I'm
confident.

Item 6

1. He's (counselor) caught me; careful, I'm not sure
I want that.

2. I like him. He's trying to make the situation a
little lighter and made me feel better about it.

3. I don't feel he understands. He's sarcastic.
I don't like that.

CLIENT II
Scene 2
Item 7
l. I feel a little uneasy and self-conscious, but
not much.
2. This scares me. I feel frightened!
3. I feel flirtatious. I like this!

Item 8

l. I feel a little bit embarrassed, but that's all
right as long as I can keep my composure.

2. I have a feeling of sadness.

3. I feel flustered and embarrassed.

Item 9

1. He's asking for some touchy material, but that's
all right. It's about time he knew.

2. He's being very frank and open! I'm not sure I
want that.

3. I want him to leave me alone--I want out of here.
I don't like this.

88

CLIENT II
Scene 3
Item 10
1. I'm getting so much attention. I really enjoy this.
It makes me feel good.
2. I'm scored by what I'm feeling. I feel embarrassed
and threatened.
3. I have the feeling that what I wanted was wrong, and
I'm a little ashamed of myself.

Item 11

1. This is good. We're really moving into my feelings.

2. He's too perceptive; he's looking right through me.

3. He's getting a little sticky; I'm not sure I like that.

CLIENT III
Scene 1
Item 12
l. I feel protective and defensive of what people may
think about my family.
2. All this seems so pointless! I'm puzzled and
bored.
3. We're having a nice conversation. Some of these
things really make me think.

Item 13

1. This guy (counselor) embarrasses me with the
questions he asks.

2. The questions he asks really make me think.
I'm not sure I like that.

3. I can't follow this guy's line of thought.
What's he trying to do?

CLIENT IV
Scene 1
Item 14
1. I'm concerned about my physical condition. I'm
worried about it.
2. I want pity. I want her to think "oh, you poor
boy".
3. I feel good--nothing's bothering me, but I enjoy
talking.

Item 15

1. She's too young to be counseling, and she's a
girl. I'm not sure I like this.

2. She likes me; I know she does.

3. I'd like her to think I'm great.

 

89

CLIENT IV
Scene 2
Item 16
1. I'm a little annoyed with my family's ambitiors
for me.
2. That's a hell of a lot to ask! It makes me mad!
3. I feel sorry for myself, and I want others to
feel the same.
Item 17
1. She (counselor) really understands me! She's
with me now.
2. I don't feel much either way towards the counselor;
she's not important to me.
3. I wonder if she appreciates the pressure that's put
on me?
CLIENT IV
Scene 3
Item 18

1. This whole thing just makes me feel sad and unhappy.

2. It kind of angers me that they don't appreciate me
when I feel I did my best. I wish I could tell them
off.

3. No matter how well I do, I'm always criticized. It
doesn't bother me too much though because I know that
I did my best.

Item 19

l. I can tell she understands what I'm saying. She's
really with me.

2. I wish I could get out of here; I don't like her.

3. Understand what I'm saying; I want her to know
how I feel.

 

90

CLIENT IV
Scene 4

Item 20

1. I really want to be successful, and somehow I know
that I can be.

2. That makes me feel kind of sad, unhappy. I don't
want to believe that it's true--I want to be good.

3. I don't know what I feel here. It's all very
confusing.

Item 21

1. I feel neutral towards her here. I'm not paying
any attention to her.

2. Please feel sorry for me and try to help me. I
wish she would praise me.

3. I like talking to her. She can be trusted even
to the point of telling her how I really feel
about myself.

CLIENT V
Scene 1
Item 22

l. I feel rejected and empty inside. Am I unloveable?

2. I feel a little lonely. I want my boy friend to
pay a little more attention to me.

3. I really don't feel much here; I'm just kind of
talking to fill up space.

Item 23

1. Please say it isn't fair, Mr. Counselor.

2. He really understands me. I can tell him anything.

3. I'm not sure I care what he says. It's kind of
unimportant to me what he feels about me at this time.

91

CLIENT V
Scene 2

Item 24

1. I'm afraid of marriage--insecure; it might not work
out, and.I'd be lost.

2. I really can give him all the affection he needs, I
feel I'm a worthwhile.person to be desired. He
wouldn't dare step out on me.

3. I'm really not too worried; it'd all work out in
the end even if we have to go to a marriage counselor.

Item 25

1. I don't care if he (counselor) can.help me or not.
I'm not sure I want his help.

2. He's so sympathetic. That makes me feel good.

3. Can you help me?

CLIENT V
Scene 3
Item 26
1. I feel I have some need to be liked, but it's not
real strong.
2. I'm not loveable; I don't really like myself.
3. I'm a good person; I'm loveable. Down deep I know
I am.

Item 27

l. I feel dejected, kind of insecure. I want to be
likeable!

2. My main concern is that it's hard for me to take
criticism. I usually think of myself as perfect.

3. I feel a little sad about all this; I do kind of
want people to like me.

Item 28

1. He thinks well of me; I know he does, I can tell.

2. I want the counselor to really like me, but I'm
not sure he does.

3. I like it when he asks questions like.that. They
make me really think about deeper things.

 

92

CLIENT V
Scene 4
Item 29
1. I wouldn't want to be treated like he treats Mother,
but I don't mind him (stepfather) too much.
2. I feel very little emotion about anything at this
point.
3. I hate him (stepfather)!
Item 30
1. Boy, I'm happy that he (counselor) agrees with me.
He sympathized with me. I feel completely accepted.
2. I'm embarrassed to tell the counselor how strong my
feelings really are.
3. I'm not sure he'll be able to help me much after
all. I'll just have to work this out by myself.
CLIENT V
Scene 5
Item 31
. I'm kind of feeling sorry for myself, but I'm not
really too worried.
2. I want to move out of the house as soon as possible.
I feel I would be better off on my own.
3. My own parents don't want me; I feel cut off and
hurt.
Item 32
1. I don't feel he's (counselor) helpful at all, and
if he can't help me and see my side, I'm not
going to like him either.
2. He's got me in a sport, but I feel I can still get
him to see me as a good girl who is persecuted.
3. I wish the counselor were my father. He's listening;
he understands how I feel.
CLIENT VI
Scene 1

Item 33

1. Disapprove! She'd kill me!

2. I feel jovial; this is real interesting.

3. I'm not sure how she would feel but the whole idea
of her finding out excites me.

Item 34

l. He(counselor) understands me completely. He
certainly is relaxed and comfortable.

2. I really don't care what he feels about me. I
just want someone to talk to--anyone will do.

3. I was wondering how he would feel about me and
what I'm saying.

93

CLIENT VI
Scene 2
Item 35
1. I think my brother is 0.K. We have fun together.
2. I don't know what I'm saying here. I'm a little
mixed up and confused.
3. I'm saying something that's important to me. I
like Doug.

CLIENT VI
Scene 3
Item 36
1. This is very confusing for me. I'm not sure I
understand what is going on. ’
2. This is how I really feel, I'm kind of starting
to be myself.
3. I'm just talking to be talking here; this really
doesn't mean much to me.

Item 37

1. I guess he's (counselor) all right, but I'm still
not sure he understands me.

2. Let's get going. I'm impatient! I want to move
to more important matters.

3. I feel comfortable with him. He understands me.

CLIENT VI
Scene 4
Item 38
1. I love my brother, but not romantically.. We just
have a good brother-sister relationship..
2. I don't know about feeling this way about Doug;
it feels so good, but it concerns me.too.
3. I feel better about my relationship with Doug now.
It helps to get it out in the open. Now I feel
it's all right.

94

CLIENT VI
Scene 5
Item 39
1. I'm not feeling much of anything here. I'm just kind
of talking to be talking.
2. I'm mad at everyone at this point and don't know which
way to turn; I guess I'm mad at myself too.
3. Now I'm talking about things that are real. I'm not
on stage anymore. She is a louse!
Item 40
1. He (counselor) feels she's a bad person too. I can
tell; he agrees with me.
2. Don't you agree with me? I want to know what you
think.
3. He thinks this all sounds petty. He doesn't
understand.
CLIENT VII
Scene 1
Item 41

l. I felt angry with my mother, but this made me feel
guilty. I needed to make an excuse for her.

2. I'm really not angry with mother. It's not her
fault. A

3. I'm in a very passive mood. I'm.just relaxing
and talking about things that interest me.

Item 42

1. This counselor is all right. I feel I can confide
in him.

2. I feel uncomfortable. I'm not sure what this
counselor.wants me to do.

3. I feel he wants me to talk about myself, but I
don't care. I'm going to talk about what I want
to talk about.

95

CLIENT VII
Scene 2
Item 43
1. I'm very sensitive; I'm very easily hurt.
2. I'm somewhat sensitive and easily hurt, but not
deeply so.
3. I'm.not sensitive or easily hurt at all. I just
like to make people think I am.

Item 44

1. That makes me mad, I can do it--I know I can, but
things just keep getting in my way.

2. It's really all his fault, if he just wouldn't
have been such a joker.

3. This makes me feel guilty; I need to blame someone
else instead of blaming myself.

Item 45

1. I'm neutral towards the counselor. I don't care
what he feels about me.

2. I'm afraid he doesn't like me and what I'm saying
about myself. I don't want him to be harsh with
me.

3. He's easy to talk to. He understands what I'm
like, and he still likes me. I can confide in

him.
CLIENT VIII
Scene 1 A
Item 46

1. Say, this is all right. I like this.
2. I'm not feeling anything deeply. I know what

I need!

3. It's embarrassing and difficult. I feel a little
annoyed.

Item 47

1. I feel I can rely on this guy, so I'll let him talk
and I'll just answer his questions.

2. I wonder what you think about this--p1ease respond.
Give me some help!

3. The counselor is a good guy. I like his questions;
they make it easier for me.

96

CLIENT VIII
Scene 2
Item 48
1. I feel very unhappy about what I may eventually have
to do.
2. I don't know what I feel; I'm confused about what I
feel.

3. I'm.damned uncomfortable; it's so confusing. I feel
kind of 'blah' about it all.

Item 49

1. He's (counselor) missing the point. He bugs me.

2. I can't really tell about this guy. I don't know
how I feel about him.

3. He seems like a good guy. He asks nice questions.

I like him.
CLIENT IX
Scene 1
Item 50
1. I'm not sure how I feel about this counselor. I
don't feel one way or the other about him.
2. I like the counselor very much--he makes me feel
good.
3. He understands me pretty well and is trying to
help. I guess I kind of like him.
CLIENT IX
Scene 2

Item 51

1. Goody, goody people don't really know any better,
so I can't be too disgusted with them, but it does
make me angry.

2. I don't really mind people feeling superior to me.
It just makes me a little angry.

3. It tears me up inside when people think they're
better than I am. I want people to be the same
as me.

Item 52

1. I'm every bit as good as they are. I really feel
I am. I know I am.

2. I kind of wished they liked me, but I can live
without being a member of their group.

3. Those smart kids make me feel stupid.

Item 53

l. I feel sorry for them; they just don't realize what
they're doing to people like me.

2. I feel I'm not as good as they are, and it really
hurts when people act that way.

3. It makes me a little angry. I'm every bit as good
as they are.

97

CLIENT IX
Scene 3
Item 54
l. I feel a little insignificant, and this makes me
a little unhappy.
2. I'm a nobody. I'm always left out.
3. I'm unhappy with school. That's what is really
bothering me.
Item 55
1. He (counselor) doesn't quite understand, but I
don' t care. It doesn't matter.
2. I don't feel one way or the other towards this
counselor, we're just having a nice talk.
3. He (counselor) is really listening to me, and I
feel he understands what I'm feeling.
CLIENT X
Scene 1
Item 56
1. I'm feeling scared, concerned. Is this for me?
2. I just feel uncertain about what to talk about.
If I once get started, I'll be all right.
3. I feel very deeply depressed.
Item 57
1. He (counselor) seems to be listening-~can he
understand how I feel?
2. He's really with me. I can tell he understands
me.
3. He doesn't keep things moving enough. I don't
like that.
CLIENT X
Scene 2
Item 58

. I'd like to think I could make it, but I'm not
sure. I feel inadequate.
2. I just have an I-don't-care feeling; that's my
real attitude towards all of this.
3. I'm confused here. I really don't have any
definite feelings.

Item 59

l. I want to impress the counselor. I want him
to believe I can do it.

2. He believes me; he thinks I can do it; I can
tell.

3. I really don't care what the counselor thinks.
It's not important to me.

98

CLIENT X
Scene 3

Item 60

1. What's the use of looking ahead? I'm scared to
think about it.

2. I can accept my situation. Really, things aren't
so bad. Things may bother me a little, but really
not much.

3. I enjoy just living for today.

Item 61

1. He's (counselor) all right. He really understands
me.

2. Nobody can really understand this. I don't think
he will be any different.

3. I don't care what he thinks or feels; he's not
important to my anyway.

CLIENT X
Scene 4
Item 62
l. I feel somewhat unhappy. I don't like to feel

this way.

2. There's something about me; I just don't fit
in, and that makes me feel real inadequate.

3. In some instances, I'm unsure of myself. I'm
afraid I'll do the wrong thing, but I can handle
this just by avoiding these situations.

CLIENT XI
Scene 1
Item 63
1. I'm unhappy about all this, but I'm afraid to
make a change.
2. It's not that I don't like school, it's just
that I want to do the things I like most.
3. I'm not the student type. School bores me,
but it embarrasses me when I say it.

Item 64

l. The counselor is a nice guy. I like him, and
I think he likes me.

2. I wonder what the counselor thinks of me. He'll
probably think less of me for saying this.

3. I don't care what he thinks of me. It doesn't
really matter to me.

99

CLIENT XI
Scene 2
Item 65
1. I've found some new dimensions. I like to feel
that I can have some excitement, but this kind
of scares me too.
2. This doesn't really mean much. I'm not feeling
much of anything.
3. This makes me feel very guilty; I'm very ashamed.

Item 66

1. I suppose he'll (counselor) tell me that's wrong,
too. I'm not sure he understands me very well.

2. He's 0. K.; he's listening to what I have to say.
He really understands me and my feelings.

3. I don't care what he thinks or feels; it's not
important. I don't have any feelings towards
the counselor.

    

   

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