‘ i A8}! 7"; NS .CHERSD . 1 I Elma _' f.“ AME :‘ ALUE 13 v Emmi EOF‘SE 1 tam-.100; mm: m m A; z 5.3 W _ re m A . ' magAstm m ms I'm . 9-9931 answ- g'ree a: Way . mm mmmmV 1 MEGPQGANSIAYEF'QW ""1113 I”... .Hd‘ 5 . .r...» em»? . . .. 2.x” .. xv. .. .9 Warm ...., .. . .z..: .1 fibuzww . . 11?: I: : r L (him... ‘I' Eu, 7. I r, - LIBRARY Michigan State ‘ University This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Study of Value Orientations as a Characteristic of Secondary School Students and Teachers of Chemistry and as a Factor in Learning presented by Peter Henry Huston has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D . degree inEducation _// \ J . Major prof ssor Date July 28,1971. 0-7639 l 1 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF VALUE ORIENTATIONS AS A CHARACTERISTIC OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS AND TEACHERS OF CHEMISTRY AND AS A FACTOR IN LEARNING By Peter Henry Huston Many observers have recognized that recent high school science curricula, which have placed emphasis on the abstract, theoretical aspects of science, have been ineffective in stimulating secondary school science students. They have suggested that modern students would be more receptive to applications of science in their contemporary technological culture and to concerns such as pollution which affect the human status. This study measured and compared the value orientations of students and teachers of secondary school chemistry to the theoretical, humanistic and technological aspects of chemistry. To do this a Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument of 24 sets of alternative statements was developed, containing in each set alter— natives stressing the theoretical, humanistic and technological aspects of particular chemical phenomena or facts. The content validity of the instrument was established by the categorization of a panel of five experts. The construct validity of the instrument was supported by higher scores of the Theology students towards the humanistic and Engineering Science students on the theoretical with both differences significant at the .001 confidence level. l_.‘ (‘3 -. ‘A‘oo Mr... H... « Hun.-. FM», , ”\ MW“ Aq,y¥ \Ll“ 2"”; \u,__ . i r... ‘\\| d“~ . “A. “‘U“ V ”n “H. 5121‘ "e Peter Henry Huston The instrument was administered to 120 grade 12 chemistry students in secondary school A in London, Ontario and to 39 chemistry teachers employed by the London Board of Education. The reliability coefficients, all significant at the .001 confidence level were: humanistic .85 and .78; theoretical .90 and .85; technological .77 and .72 for students and teachers respectively. The relationships of levels of value orientation to student and teacher characteristics were examined. Male students scored significantly higher on the technological and female students on the humanistic. A higher humanistic and technological orientation was associated with fewer courses in university chemistry preparation and a greater number of years teaching experience whereas a higher theoretical orientation was associated with a greater number of courses in university chemistry preparation and fewer years teaching experience. The teaching of biology at least quarter time was associated with higher technological and lower theoretical orienta- tions. The differences in the means of the scores obtained on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument between students and teachers were all significant at the .001 confidence level. Teachers Students Humanistic Value Orientation 21.0 30.1 Theoretical Value Orientation 30.6 17.3 Technological Value Orientation 20.2 26.1 Evidence on advance organizers and the retention of controversial material supported the general concept that learning was related to the extent to which the learner perceived the material to be learned as meaningful. onuun :4 h 0. fin 6.5-1 on... - a _.n.. .‘~u\.‘ bibs] A Ag . 5‘, . y b“). \ Ste: Peter Henry Huston A fixed effects factorial model was employed with the subjects blocked into three levels on the humanistic value orienta— tion scores and two levels on their chemistry grades. Three treat- ments, consisting of humanistic, technological and placebo intro- ductions to each of five programmed units in organic chemistry, were administered during regularly scheduled class periods. The dependent variables were a humanistic subscore on 23 humanistic items and a total score on all 59 test items. The reliability coefficients, both significant at the .001 confidence level, were .75 and .88 respectively. The data was analysed by means of three way analysis of variance and significant interactions were gaphed for analysis. There was no significant difference in learning between experimental treatments or that could be attributable to levels of humanistic value orientation. The interaction of treatments with chemistry grades was significant at the .05 confidence level for humanistic subscores only. The interactions of levels of chemistry grades with levels of humanistic value orientation was significant at the .05 confidence level for both humanistic subscores and total scores . A STUDY OF VALUE ORIENTATIONS AS A CHARACTERISTIC OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS AND TEACHERS OF CHEMISTRY AND AS A FACTOR IN LEARNING By Peter Henry Huston A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Curriculum and Secondary Education 1971 © Copyright by PETER HENRY HUSTON 1971 ii DEDICATION Dedicated to the memory of the late L. Glen Mitchell who made Science come alive for so many. His intellectual curiosity, personal concern for his students and emphasis on excellence will always be an inspiration. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to the many students and teachers whose co-operation made this research possible. My thanks also, to members of the panel, to Dr. R.G. Stennett and his colleagues, and to Dr. J.R. Brandou and Dr. J.B. Kinsinger of the guidance committee, for their generous assistance and advice. Most particularly, 1 would sincerely like to thank Professor Wm. J. Walsh for his gracious understanding, kindly encouragement and sagacious advice in the deve10pment of this study. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . The Purpose of the Study . The Statement of the Problem . Definition of Terms . . . . Delimitations of the Study . . The Importance of the Study . The Organization of the Study II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . Science and Values . . . . . Values and Attitude . . The Measurement of Values . . Values, Attitudes and Learning Summary . . . . . . . . . . . III. PROCEDURE AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STUDY The Study of Value Orientations Development of the Instrument The Generation of Items . Content Validity . . . . . Reliability . . . . . . . Construct Validity . . . The Sample . . . . . . . . . Students . . . . . . . . Teachers . 0 PAGE 13 14 15 18 19 19 19 19 20 21 22 23 23 24 CHAPTER PAGE Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Students . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Hypotheses Tested . . . . . . Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Student Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Teacher Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Learning as a Function of Value Orientation . , . 26 sample 0 O s L E 0 I 9 I O O O 6 Fr 0 U 6 0 9 o 9 26 Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 DeSign o O a 9 C C O O 6 O O G 9 0 O 0 P 0 0 l O 28 Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Statistical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Hypotheses Tested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 IV. RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Value Orientations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 StUdents O L D 0 O O O O O I D 0 v 0 i O O 9 9 I 34 Intelligence and Value Orientations . . . . . 34 Academic Averages and Value Orientations . . . 35 Chemistry Grades and Value Orientations . . . 35 Sex and Value Orientations . . . . . . . . . . 35 vi CHAPTER PAGE Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . 37 The Effects of Level of University Chemistry Preparation and Number of Years Teaching Ex- perience on Value Orientations . . . . . . . . . 37 The Effect of Teaching Biology on Value Orientations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Comparison of Students' and Teachers' Orienta- tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Humanistic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Theoretical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . 44 Technological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Learning as a Function of Value Orientation . , . . . 45 Main Effects due to Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Main Effects for Levels of Humanistic Value Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Interaction of Treatments with Humanistic Value Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Interaction of Treatments with Chemistry Grades . . 48 Interaction of Chemistry Grades with Humanistic Value Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . , . , . . , 55 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Value Orientations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Procedure and Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 vii 4L.) I“ u + id‘s“ CHAPTER PAGE Learning as a Function of Value Orientation . . . . 57 Procedure and Implementation . . . . . . . . . . 57 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Conclusions and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . 58 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 APPENDIX A: Response Form and Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument . . . . . . . . . 68 APPENDIX B: Panel Members, Validation and Teacher Survey 0 o o e e o a I e o 0 o o O 0 O ' 7 7 APPENDIX C: Treatments, Programmed Units and Tests . 39 APPENDIX D: Data Matrices and Interaction Graph . . 141 viii LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 3.1 Comparison of Scores of Theology and Engineering Science Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 4.1 ANOVA Table: Humanistic Subscore . . . . . . . . . 46 4.2 ANOVA Table: Total Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 A.l Data Matrix for Humanistic SubscOres , . . . . . . . 141 A.2 Data Matrix for Total Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 ix FIGURE 1.1 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 A.1 LIST OF FIGURES Axes of Scientific Significance . . . . . . . . . Statistical Model . . . . . . . . . . . The Effects of Teaching Experience and University Chemistry Preparation on the Humanistic Value Orientation of Teachers . .'. . . . . . . . . The Effects of Teaching Experience and University Chemistry Preparation on the Theoretical Value Orientation of Teachers . . . . . . The Effects of Teaching EXperience and University Chemistry Preparation on the Technological Value Orientation of Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interaction of Treatments with Levels of Chemistry Grades for Humanistic Subscores . Interaction of Levels of Humanistic Value Orientation with Levels of Chemistry Grades for Humanistic Subscores . . . . . . . . . . . . Interaction of Levels of Humanistic Value Orientation with Levels of Chemistry Grades for Total Scores Interaction of Treatments with Levels of Chemistry Grades for Humanistic Subscores . . . . . PAGE 29 38 4O 42 50 52 53 143 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION I. THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study was to measure and compare the orientations of secondary school chemistry students and teachers towards three aspects of chemistry: the humanistic, the theoretical and the technological. The relationship of levels of orientation of selected student and teacher characteristics was examined to discover patterns of orientation that may have occurred. The study attempted to determine whether the level of orientation of students towards a particular value, such as the humanistic, affected the measured learning of humanistic and nonnhumanistic material given by programmed instruction. This experiment also attempted to determine whether any change in learning could be measured and attributed to written program introductions oriented towards a particular aspect of chemistry, in particular the humanistic. II. THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The focus of the problem under study was multiadimensional: A. To measure the value orientations of secondary school chemistry students and to examine the correlation of theoretical, humanistic and technological values with student characteristics of sex, measured intelligence, general academic average and performance 1 2 . as measured by chemistry grades. B. To measure the value orientations of secondary school chemistry teachers and to examine the relationship of these measured values with teacher characteristics of number of years teaching experience, levels of university science preparation, and biology as a significant part of the assigned teaching load. C. To compare the value orientations of secondary school chemistry students with those of secondary school chemistry teachers. D. To study possible variations in measured learning of materials classified as both humanistic and non-humanistic with levels of humanistic value orientation of students. E. To study the effect on measured learning caused by varying the value orientation of the introduction to a module. III. DEFINITION OF TERMS Theoretical value — the strength of this value is indicated by the extent to which the individual prefers or considers most worthwhile those activities which order and systematize knowledge. (i.e. the principles, models, systems and hypotheses of science) Humanistic value - the strength of this value is indicated by the extent to which the individual prefers or considers most worthwhile those activities which involve a concern for human nature and improvement of the human condition. Technological value - the strength of this value is indicated by the extent to which the individual prefers or considers most worthwhile those activities which involve the production and utilization of material goods. mfg--1. I 3 Module - a short learning eXperience with specified objectives. Placebo - a treatment similar in appearance to the experimental treatments which is given to the control group to preclude the~ appearance of inequality acting as a confounding variable. Advance organizer - concepts or principles introduced before the main body of instructional material so as to explain and organize the material and facilitate learning. IV. DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY A complete profile of values was not measured, but only those selected as important: theoretical, humanistic and techno. logical. Long term changes were not measured since these would be inconsistent with the evaluation of a modular experience. Value orientations of subjects and instruction were limited to those directly applicable to the study. The effectiveness of changing the modular experience was measured by a curriculum embedded test so as to be consistent with modular instruction. V. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY The intrinsic preference of students for various aspects of the field of chemistry would seem to be of particular importance to secondary chemistry teachers in planning instruction. Recent attempts to improve chemistry curricula have been increasingly ‘r’ ~Il’h I 4 theoretical} and lacked appeal for many students.2 Ronald S. Ratney described the current situation in this way: Tell a class that chemists are mounting an assault on the unknown and it will yawn; show how the atomic theory is as mighty an intellectual achievement as Shakeaspeare's plays and it will tune you out. But show how chemistry helps fight disease, hunger, poverty and pollution, and then, maybe students will come and listen. A similar situation has been recognized in secondary school K" .a ' z t -‘ _ physics with the resulting intent of humanistic emphasis in Harvard Project Physics.4 Experimental evidence which would suggest that students indeed do view the humanistic and technological aspects of chemistry as being equally important as the traditional theoretical aspects would provide strong support for efforts to increase instructional emphasis on these aspects of chemistry. This emphasis might be provided in the construction of the curriculum itself or by en- richment activities provided by the classroom teacher. Comparisons of the relative value orientations of students and chemistry teachers would provide evidence for the question of whether present instruction in chemistry is oriented towards the areas that students 1Eric Hutchinson, "Fashion in Science and in the Teaching of Science," Ihe_Journal gf_Chemical Education, 45 (September, 1968), 606. 2Derek A. Davenport, "Elevate Them Guns a Little Lower," The Journal 2; Chemical Education, 45 (June, 1968), 419. 3Ronald S. Ratney, "Two Views," The Journal g£_Chemical Education, 45 (April, 1968), 246. 4G. Halton, F. G. Watson and F. J. Rutherford, "A Message from the Directors," Newsletter 2, Harvard Project Physics, (Spring, 1968), 4. ""“" an *‘1 (0 phenc to th techn 5 or teachers view as being most important. As Butts has said, "Students must feel that they are studying something of value and not merely executing intellectual minuets."S The theoretical, humanistic and technological dimensions are not mutually exclusive but occur simultaneously in varied proportions. Both theory and technology, for example, require people for their very existence, but their main thrust is not directed toward the persons involved. Could not some of the power of objective theory or modern industrial production in fact be related rather to their very impersonality? The significance of a particular scientific event or phenomenon may be conceptualized as being located in space relative to the three values, or dimensions, humanistic, theoretical and technological as illustrated in Figure 1.1. Therefore the Theoretical Dimension Technological Humanistic Dimension Dimension FIGURE 1.1 AXES OF SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE 5 a ----Ifi--fiwih,--, , -i_ David P. Butts, "Opening the World to the Student," Designs for Progress in Science Education, (Washington: National Science Teachers' Association, 1969), 32. Most 0-15 s 2 T6 :61; MU A.“ u a "\0 “H a “IVA lflsau‘gflfij strr tea the int 6 relevance of perceived location of significance of a scientific event depends upon the perspective, or value orientation, of the individual. The optimal learning situation occurs when instructional variables can be matched with individual learning characteristics.6 This is an aim in personalizing instruction in such innovative programs as BSTEP7 under deve10pment at Michigan State University. Modules are employed to provide the necessary flexibility in in- struction, but the relationship between learner characteristics and the effectiveness of various modular variations requires invest- igation.8 The use of various types of introductions to a module 9 could provide to motivate and perhaps serve as an advance organizer an economical method of introducing variation. This study was designed to explore the influence of a modular introduction upon measured learning. An integral part of the study was to examine the effect on learning which occurred when both the module and the introduction were oriented toward a particular learner perspective w v fiv v fijv—v vvv vvv Vvfirvv vv 7 6Lee J. Cronbach, "The Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology," Ihg_American Psychologist, 2(November, 1957), 681. 7Behavioral Science Teacher Education Pregram, Project Number 89025, United States Department of Health, ducation, and Welfare, 3 Volumes, (1968). 8PeasibilityStud Behavioral §cience Teacher Education Pro ram, Project Number 424, United States Department of Health EducatIon, and Welfare, (1969), pp 360-362. QDavid P. Ausubel, Educational Psychology; A Co nitive View, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Incorporateg, 1968), “pp 136-138. J‘w wwaifimi ”poi-u- l .ovvaV"| an Laiyg 7 as well as the use of an introduction which emphasized a different dimension than the module itself. The possible interaction between characteristics of the learner and the dimension of modular intro— duction, in itself would be valuable in module design and construction. The study recognized that learning may be a function of the value orientation of the instruction along the varying dimensions of the theoretical, humanistic or technological and that this direction could be derived either from the orientation of the instructor or the orientation inherent in the curricular material itself. Therefore the amount of measured learning may depend on whether the instruction on this particular phenomenon emphasized humanistic applications, such as a medicinal use, or the principles and models involved in an explanation of the phenomenon. VI. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY In chapter two the literature of values in modern science is reviewed as well as an approach to measuring values. Some of the exPerimental evidence relating learning to attitudes is identified and the use of advance organizers briefly considered. An instrument to measure value orientations in chemistry is described in chapter three and its use to measure and compare the value orientations of teachers and students outlined. An experimental procedure to study the effect of value orientations on measured learning is described as well. In chapter four the experimental data are summarized and analysed according to the procedures outlined in chapter three. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE I. SCIENCE AND VALUES Rokeach has defined a value as "an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally and socially preferable to alternative modes of conduct or end-states of existence."10 Wilson has indicated that contemporary education does not reflect and is often at variance with the values that present day students hold important.11 She called for science to become more humanistic and consonant with the great idealism and deep concern that modern students hold for human needs. Much earlier, Bacon had eXpressed the aim of science to be the improvement of man's lot, but more recently science has been stressed as an intellectual adventure whose justification was the exercise of man's mind upon the world of physical phenomena.12 According to a study 10Milton Rokeach, "A Theory of Organization and Change Within Value-Attitude Systems", Journal gf_Social Issues, 24 (1968), 16. ”Evelyn H. Wilson, "Why Not Science?", The Journal _o_f_ Chemical Education, 46 (August, 1969), 484. 12Moody E. Prior, Science and the Humanities (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1962), 60. 8 9 by Kimballls, 58 percent of the teachers questioned disagreed with the statement, "The primary objective of the working scientist is to improve human welfare", and 72 percent disagreed with emphasis on the practical being an important part of scientific enterprise. Recent high school science curricula have been "more logical, more rigorous and more abstract"14 than their predecessors. Curriculum development was funded by the National Science Foundation which Gatewood15 has suggested was staffed largely by research scientists who supported projects dominated by other research scientists. This caused a process of natural selection whereby technology and other applied science were omitted in order to produce courses oriented towards higher study in pure theoretical sciences. C. P. Snow16 has illuminated the attitudes of the research scientists whose assumed superiority to the "second-rate minds" in applied science varied directly with the extent of removal from any practical application. A similar trend was observed by Hopkins who stated, "Currently the developing curricula in science show a rapid movement away from the technical to the theoretical bases of the science."17 13Merritt E. Kimball, "Understanding the Nature of Science: A Comparison of Scientists and Science Teachers," Journal pf Research in_Science Teaching, 5 (1967-1968), pp. 110.120. 14Derek A. Davenport, 9p: cit. 15Claude Gatewood, "The Science Curriculum Viewed Nationally," The Science Teacher, 35 (November, 1968), pp. 18-21. 16C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1959), 34. 17Stephen HOpkins, "Science—Technology: An Introduction to Technology for High School Students," The Science Teacher,35 (May,1968), 39. 10 Certainly the theoretical aspects of science should not be ignored, and writers such as Poincaré18 have made a strong case for the importance of the structure of science. There were two dangers, however, in too great an emphasis on the theoretical aspects of science. First there was the danger of loss of contact with reality. The emphasis on model building with several degrees of abstraction concerning a host of individually invisible particles might lose touch with reality for the student. Hutchinson19 has drawn a parallel with medieval scholasticism which applied great logic and imaginative argument to sOphisticated models but died because sophisticated argument was given priority over concrete reality until the arguments and models were almost completely divorced from reality. Secondly, the curricula tended to become elite science curricula which were "essentially irrelevant to the needs of the major portion of the students."20 Students should not find their contact with science an unhappy experience21 but find it stimulating, vital and relevant. Science may have appeared to lack relevance for many students22 because it was unrelated to their vocational goals, to their view of 18Henry Poincare’, The Value 9}: Science, (New York: Dover Publications Incorporated, 1958). 19Eric Hutchinson, _p, cit. 20Claude Gatewood, pp, cit., 19. 21Elizabeth A. Wood, "The Physical Science for Nonscience Students Project," The Journal gf_Chemical Education, 46 (February, 1969), 69. 24%. Abraham and P. Westmeyer, "Chemistry is in Trouble," Chem 13 News, (November, 1970), 8. 11 the solution to social and other problems in the real world and because science appeared mechanistic and dehumanized in contrast to their studies in the humanities.23 Maslow has rejected the concept of science being value free and having nothing to say about the "goals, the purposes, the rewards or the justification of life."24 Bronowski25 claimed that the truly important thing about science was the values of tolerance, independence and dissent demonstrated by the community of scientists. This respect for others, while questioning their views, has led to rejection of early theories, while still honoring the men who first stated them. The critical aspect of the "scientific method," as Bronowski saw it, was the values which made it work; values of justice, honor, and respect between man and man which were necessary for science to continue to explore truth. The separation between science and humanities could be reduced by stressing the humanistic aspects of science in order not only to reduce the separation between scientists and humanists, but also to reduce this tension within individuals.26 Thus a consideration of the value components of science might help students to find "a sense of the unity of science 23Wm. F. Henry, "The Issues in Campus Unrest," £hl_Kappa Ehi_Journal, (Fall, 1969), pp. 21-27. 24Abraham H. Maslow, The Psychology 9; Science, (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1966}, 120. 25J. Bronowski, Science and Human Values, (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 26W. T. Jones, The Sciences and the Humanities, (Berkeley: The University of CaliforfiIE'Press, 1965), 10. 12 with life as a whole,"27 especially if the role of science in solving some of mankind's problems such as hunger and disease was emphasized.28:29:30 In an address to the AAAS meeting of Educa- tional Policies Commission, I. I. Rabi stressed the importance of orientation towards the humanistic values in science in these words: So what I propose as a suggestion for you is that science be taught at whatever level, from the lowest to the highest, in the humanistic way. By which I mean, it should be taught with a certain historical under- standing, with a certain philosophical understanding, with a social understanding and a human understanding in the sense of the biography, the nature of the people who made this construction, the triumphs, the trials, the tribulations.31 Another aspect of chemistry which it has been suggested would promote more student interest was the application of the prinicples learned in the classroom to the technology of modern industry.32-33 If directed to local industries or consumer 27Harry S. Broudy, "Science and Human Values," The Science Teacher, 36 (March, 1969), 27. 28James Bryant Conant, Modern Science and Modern Man, New York: Columbia University Press, 1952), 86. 291. I. Rabi, Science: The Center gf_Culture, (Cleveland: The World Publishing Company, 1970), 58. 30W. F. Libby, "Values in Chemistry," The Journal gf_ Chemical Education, 46 (April, 1969), pp. 190-192. 311. I. Rabi, "From the address of I. I. Rabi at AAAS meeting of Educational Policies Commission, 27 December, 1966, Washington, D.C.", Ihe_Physics Teacher, 5 Quay, 1967), 197. 32Louise Albertson, "Comparative Analysis of CHEM Study and its Revisions," Canadian Chemical Education, (April, 1971), 11. 33Henry Gehrke, Jr., "Letters to the Editor," The Journal gf_Chemical Education, 45 (June, 1968), pp. 441-442. 13 products, chemistry would thus be prevented from becoming dis- embodied, an entity apart from the real world away from school. Thus opportunity of consolidating knowledge and implementing fresh approaches would constantly be presented. Weinberg34 has gone so far as to suggest that the application of science may become the dominant mode in teaching science. II. VALUES AND ATTITUDES Most discussions and examinations of present day science instruction have been reducible to consideration of three values: theoretical, humanistic and technological. Although these three values were related to three of Spranger's35 six basic types of men, (theoretical, economic, social, aesthetic, political and religious), they were selected in the study on the basis of the literature of modern science instruction rather than acceptance of Spranger's model. Although a value was not sharply distinguished from an attitude, an attitude was generally focused on a specific object and as such was not as fundamental as a value.36 The attitude towards an object was affected not only by one or more values, which may have been supportive or competing, but also by the individual's perception of the object. 34Alvin M. Weinberg, "The Two Faces of Science," The Journal 2f Chemical Education, 45 (February, 1968), pp. 74.77. 35Lee J. Cronbach, Essentials gf_Psycholggical Testing, (second edition; New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1960), 323. 36A. N. Oppenheim, Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement, (New York: Basic Books Incorporated, 1966), 109. 14 III. THE MEASUREMENT OF VALUES Thus value orientations measured with respect to a variety of science objects would be more valid for use in modifying science instruction than values measured with reference to non- science objects. Since an individual holds many values simultaneously, the mere presence or absence of values was of less consequence than the relative strength of the values. Thus a forced choice to rank order three alternatives, each corresponding to a theoretical, humanistic or technological value, would indicate the relative 37 Although this forced choice method strength of these values. produced an ipsative relationship, (i.e. one decreases as others increase) among the value scores, it appeared more intimately re- lated to the definition of value, "...is personally...preferable to alternative modes..." than a system which would attempt to measure the intensity of particular values on separate scales and then assume equal intervals on thse separate scales for the purpose of comparison.38’39 The study of values by Allport, Vernon and Lindsey4° was based on Spranger's six basic types of men and used 37Abraham H. Maslow, 22, £23,, 124. 38Joseph E. Shorr, "The Development of a Test to Measure the Intensity of Values," Journal g£.Educational_Psychology, 44 OMay, 1953), pp. 266-274. 39A. L. Edwards and K. C. Kenny, "A Comparison of the Thurstone and Likert Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction," Journal g£_Applied Psychology, 30 (1946), pp. 72-83. 40Gordon W. Allport, Philip 8. Vernon and Gardner Lindsey, Stud g£_Va1ues: A;Scale for Measurin the Dominant Interests in Personality (third edition?_§bston: HSughton leflinTCompany, I565). 15 a forced choice response. Although the described values of theoretical, economic and social were reasonably parallel to the selected values of theoretical, technological and humanistic respectively, the social value score had low reliability and was described by Meehl41 as ambiguous. The revised forms of 1959 and 1965 did not appear to have overcome this deficiency sufficiently for use in the study where the humanistic value score was of importance. IV. VALUES, ATTITUDES AND LEARNING The old adage, "We teach what teachers think is mean- ingful, but students learn what they think is meaningful" suggested that to increase learning more material which students find mean- ingful should be incorporated in the curriculum. Levine and Murphy42 showed that an individual learned and remembered best controversial material which was consistent with his relevant attitude, however these findings were not confirmed in a replication 43 performed by Waly and Cook. The literature has indicated that students would find increased emphasis on the humanistic and 41Paul E. Meehl, "A Review of Study of Values: A Scale for Measuring the Dominant Interests in Personality," Ihe_Third Mental Measurements Yearbook, (New Jersey: The Gryphon Press, I931), 99. 42J. M. Levine and G. Murphy, "The Learning and Forgetting of Controversial Material," Journal gf_Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38 (1943), pp. 507-517. 43P. Waly and S. W. Cook, "Attitude as a Determinant of Learning and Memory: A Failure to Confirm", Journal g£_Personality and Social Psychology, 4 (1966), pp. 280-288. 16 technological aspects of science both interesting and stimulating, however the relative importance of these aspects compared to the theoretical aspects was not described. Although teachers have traditionally been educated to introduce each lesson in such a manner as to enhance its meaning, Shuck has shown that training teachers to induce a precinstructional mental set to make the material more meaningful, produced a signifi- cant increase in student learning.44 Ausubel has demonstrated the use of an advance organizer to aid retention of meaningful material, but it did not always induce a gain in learning.45 A purely expository organizer was found to facilitate learning only for those with lower verbal ability who apparently had less ability of their own to organize new material in relation to existing cognitive structure.46 Pella and Triezenburg discovered that verbal refer- ences, working models and sketches work equally well as advance organizers when the desired level of understanding was knowledge or application. They failed to show an actual gain in learning due to the presence of the organizer as they omitted a control group.47 44Robert F. Shuck, "The Effects of Set Induction upon the Achievement of Ninth-Grade Pupils and their Perception of Teacher Effectiveness," The Journal 2f_Educational Research, 62 (February, 1969), pp. 279-2852 45David P. Ausubel, "The Use of Advance Organizers in the Learning and Retention of Meaningful Verbal Material," Journal 91 Educational Psychology, 51 (1960), pp. 267—272. 46D. P. Ausubel and D. Fitzgerald, "Organizer, General Background and Antecedent Learning Variables in Sequential Verbal Learning," Journal 2f_Educational Psychology, 53 (1962), pp. 243-249. 47M. 0. Pella and H. J. Triezenburg, "Three Levels of Abstraction of the Concept of Equilibrium and its use as an Advance Organizer," Journal pf Research in_Science Teaching, 6 (1969), pp. 11-21. 17 Winter48 demonstrated that student grades were correlated to the degree of similarity in values between a student and his teacher, although this may have been due to bias in measurement rather than a significant difference in actual learning. It may be difficult for a teacher to effectively implement a curriculum which does not coincide with his value orientations.49 The whole teaching- learning complex may have interactions between many factors such as value orientations, learning styles, instructional methods, teacher behaviors and the nature of the content to be learned. The nature of the content of the learning experience was demonstrated to be a critical factor in the relationship between learner characteristics and the method of instruction.50 The optimal leaning situation for each individual could be closer to realization if interactions between content and learner orientations could be measured. The attitudes toward science have an importance beyond affecting the learning of new material, since they also affect the eventual application of the acquired knowledge.51 ‘1 48W. D. Winter, "Student Values and Grades in General Psychology," Journal gf_Educational Research, 55 (April, 1962),332. 49Robert Emans, "Teacher Attitudes as a Function of Values," Journal 2; Educational Research, 62 (July, 1969), pp. 459- 463. 50James W. Shearer and G. K. Tallmadge, "Relationships Among Learning Styles, Instructional Methods and the Nature of Learning Experiences," Journal 3: Educational Psychology, 60 (April, 1969), pp. 222-230. 51G. A. Ramsay and R. W. Howe, "An Analysis of Research on Instructional Procedures in Secondary School Science. Part I - Outcomes of Instruction," The Science Teacher, 36 (March, 1969), 66. V Pngfi Uni-r tecfi C01 wa: at; “‘3. 01"1 18 V. SUMMARY Recent high school science curricula have emphasized theoretical a5pects of science at the expense of humanistic and technological aspects. This emphasis on the theoretical appeared to be at variance with student values and contributed to seeming lack of relevance and resultant decreasing student interest. Stress on humanistic aspects of science was not only in accordance with the spirit of scientific inquiry but while helping to bridge the gulf between the humanistic and scientific communities would integrate these outlooks within individuals to help them perceive the unity of science with all of life. Similarly more stress on the technological aspects of science would promote student interest and prevent divorce of science from the real world. However the relative importance which either students or teachers perceived in the various value components of science had not been reported. An individual holds many values simultaneously, but as Maslow has indicated, a study of preferences may be used to study values and thus their relative strengths. Evidence on advance organizers and the retention of controversial material supported the general concept that learning was related to the extent to which the learner found the material meaningful. The perception of the inherent meaning of material was related to the individual's frames of reference or value orientations. CHAPTER III PROCEDURE AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STUDY I. THE STUDY OF VALUE ORIENTATIONS Development of the Instrument The Generation of Items In order to gain an indication of an individual's preference for the humanistic, theoretical and technological aspects of chemistry, the individual was presented with sets of three alternative statements, one dominated by each value, and asked to rank order them according to his personal preference or idea of their importance, The individual was in. structedsz to consider the three alternatives as equally correct and not to attempt to assess their relative correctness. Following is a sample item from the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument.53 The Haber Process makes ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen, a) The use of ammonia as a fertilizer raises food pro. duction closer to population requirements. b) Ammonia is a basic compound for the fertilizer and explosives industry. c) To maximize production of ammonia by this process, pressure and concentration must be regulated accord. ing to the principles of chemical equilibrium. This item was designed to present option a) as appealing to the humanistic value of a concern for the improvement of the human condition, while option b) stressed the technological value of producing material goods whereas the selection of option c) was vwv T v fi‘vvv‘ ‘vwv' vTVrfivvfj‘v'vv T 52Appendix A,68. $3Appendix A,69. 19 sec 1:11 a r te: to j. In St St ar PE 20 consistent with a concern for the theoretical aSpect of chemistry: in this instance the principles of chemical equilibrium. After the individual had indicated his first and second choices on a number of sets of alternative statements, the selections were scored with two points for a first choice and one point for a Fe second choice. Points were summed for all sets of alternatives ultimately providing three scores for each individual, representing a measure of his orientation towards the humanistic, theoretical and technological values in chemistry. As the test items were developed they were administered to classes of students in secondary schools B, C and D in London judged similar to the experimental student population of school A, The results of the tests were key-punched and scored by computer. Students were then rank ordered on one set of scores, such as the humanistic, and the degree of discrimination analysed by comparing the total score of the top and thebottom twentyt-five percent of the sample on the same item. The items themselves were then re. vised after this experimental testing and many were discarded to successfully develop alternative statements which were discriminating and would be selected with equal frequency, This revision procedure was continued until twenty-five sets of alternative statements were developed. Content Validity The content validity of the categori. zation of the sets of alternatives as being humanistic, theoretical or technological was established by submitting the statements to a panel for categorization. In order that the panel encompass a 21 range of experts, it was composed of a professor of chemistry, a professor of curriculum and chemistry methods, a science consultant, a high school science teacher and a female graduate student in education.54 The panel members were asked to categorize the alternative statements of each item as humanistic, theoretical, technological or "none of these" according to the definitions pro. vided them.55 Only items for which at least eighty percent of the panel had agreed on the classification of the three alternative statements as humanistic, theoretical and technological were retained. Reliability, The statistical reliability for each type of score, such as the humanistic, was determined by using a Kuder. Richardson reliability coefficient as a measure of internal consis- tency. Since one alternative of a particular set of items could receive either a first or second ranking score, conventional formulae for reliability coefficients based on correct and incorrect responses were not appropriate. The general KudereRichardson Formula,S6 permits a score to be tabulated for each item, thus it was appropriate in calculating the reliability coefficients. r= k 1.nzgz.:rz kc]. nf-X '- (2X) V V '1‘ VV‘VVV'VV'V'V‘V‘V "v‘j WVV’VVVv-v v ‘Fv v S4Panel, Appendix B,‘77. SSAppendix B , 78. 56 Robert L. Ebel, Measuring Educational Achievement, (Englewoods Cliffs, New Jersey: renticeaHall'Ihc5rporated} 1965), 328. 22 in which: k is the number of items n is the number of students §:Q2 is the sum of the squares of the k times n individual question scores 23T2 is the sum of the squares of the k question total scores EZXZ is the sum of the squares of the n student total scores EZX is the sum of the n student total scores Since administration of the instrument produced three scores, a reliability coefficient was required for each score. The reliability coefficients obtained on the experimental populations of 120 students and 39 teachers were: students teachers humanistic 0.86 0.78 theoretical 0.90 0.85 technological 0.77 0.72 All coefficients were statistically significant at the .001 con. fidence level. Construct Validity The final set of twentyefour items was ‘ v v ‘v v v v v v 1' distributed to twentycfive third year Engineering Science students and twentyafour Theology students in their third or fourth year of university. Nineteen volunteers from each group returned the response sheets soon enough to be included in the study. The mean scores of each group were as shown in table 3.1. 23 TABLE 3.1 COMPARISON OF SCORES 0F THEOLOGY AND ENGINEERING SCIENCE STUDENTS Theology Engineering Science Students Students Mean Humanistic Score 31.5 20.4 * Mean Theoretical Score 15.7 25.7 * Mean Technological Score 24.7 25.5 As Raths57 has pointed out, it is difficult to establish construct validity in the values area, however the Theology students were more highly oriented towards the humanistic as would be expected from their vocational commitment and training. Similarly the higher theoretical orientation of the Engineering Science students was con- sistent with their training and also the validity of the instrument. The Sample Students The p0pulation was comprised of 120 students enrolled in grade twelve chemistry at secondary school A, enrollment 1150, in London, Ontario. The school was in a suburban setting, drawing from middle socio-economic levels. Students in the popula- tion, equally divided by sex, had completed two years of general science and one year of physics in secondary school. They were enrolled in university preparatory courses and comprised the upper academic two-thirds of the grade twelve enrollment. The mean IQ of the population was 114. v ‘Wf‘ Vvv vfi wVV—wwfiV—vvv v—vv'fiv 7‘ v 57James Raths, "Values and Valuing," Educational Leader- ship, (May, 1964), 544. * The difference is significant at the 0.001 level. 24 All students in the population were in the sample in order to employ a fixed effects model. Teachers The study population was the thirtyenine teachers employed by the London Board of Education teaching chemistry in a secondary school for the school year 1970e197l. Measures Students The student characteristics of IQ, academic average, chemistry grade and sex were obtained from the Ontario School Record files in the school. The test instrument seeking the humanistic, theoretical and technological orientations was adminis- tered during a chemistry class. The reliability coefficients obtained on the student population with this instrument indicated that the scores were sufficiently reliable for the purposes of the study. 59 and Teachers An explanatory letter,58 a questionnaire the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument were distributed to all chemistry teachers in the secondary schools in London. Teacher characteristics were obtained from the responses on the question. naires. The reliability coefficients obtained on the teacher papulation with the test instrument were all significant at the .001 level indicating that the value orientation scores possessed adequate reliability for the study. v v v 1’ T v v ‘ tv—rv-v 1 v v v v w ‘v—v—vv r .7 58Appendix B, 87. 59Appendix B, 88. 25 Hypotheses'Tested fi—VV—v—v The main concepts in the study of value orientations were reflected in the null hypotheses which were then rejected or not as the data indicated. In the purposes of the study, it was assumed there would be: A. No correlation between the student characteristics of measured intelligence, general academic average and chemistry grade and the humanistic, theoretical and technological value orientations. B. No difference in the mean value orientations of male and female students. C. No difference in the mean value orientations of teachers between those with a greater number of years teaching experience and those with less teaching experience. D. No difference in the mean value orientations of teachers between those with a greater number of university chemistry back. ground courses and those with fewer courses. E. No difference in the mean value orientations of teachers between those who teach biology at least quarter time and those who do not. F. No difference in the mean value orientations of students and teachers. Analysis Student Data Correlation coefficients between scores on the humanistic, theoretical and technological value orientations and the student characteristics of measured intelligence, academic average and chemistry grade were calculated using an Olivetta Unde Sign SCOT bot} th fi W1 26 Underwood Programma 101 Computer. A t—test was used to test for significant differences between the male and female students' mean scores on the humanistic, theoretical and technological. Teacher Data To investigate the possible relationship of both the level of university chemistry preparation and the number of years teaching exPerience with the value orientations scores, the sample was divided into two levels for each characteristic and the means compared gaphically. The largest differences were tested for significance using a t-test. The levels of teaching experience used included those teachers with less than five years teaching ex- perience and others with five or more years teaching experience. The levels of university chemistry preparation were established on the basis of completing more or less than ten chemistry courses. The means on the value orientation scores of teachers with five or less chemistry courses who taught biology were compared with the means of teachers with five or less chemistry courses who were not teaching biology. The significance of each difference was determined with a t-test. The differences in the mean value orientation scores for students and teachers were compared using a t-test. II. LEARNING AS A FUNCTION OF VALUE ORIENTATION Sample All the grade twelve chemistry students of school A were divided into three levels on the humanistic score as measured by the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument. The population was 27 further divided into two levels of performance in chemistry as determined by the two teacher assigned grades for the year. Thus subjects were assigned to six cells with three levels of humanistic orientation and two levels of chemistry performance. Students with identical scores on either of the two variables were assigned in such a way as to make the cell sizes as nearly equal as possible. The subjects were then randomly assigned to three treat- ment groups, providing 18 cells in all. Since equal cell sizes were necessary for the statistical analysis, subjects had to be eliminated from some cells. The first criterion for this was maintaining independence between subjects. Subjects who had been absent on the day a particular unit of the treatment was adminis- tered received that particular treatment upon returning to school. Since this increased the possibility of collaboration and resulting loss of independence, these subjects were eliminated from the cells wherever possible. The remainder of the eliminations was random. Measures A series of five units of programmed instruction in organic chemistry was written with care being taken to include information which would be classified as humanistic. For example, an item was designed around the operation of the commonly used breathalyzer to detect impaired drivers. A ten minute test of about 12 items was given at the completion of each program. The tests were completion type and included items which were both 60 humanistic and non.humanistic. At least eighty percent of the h v v ' Vv—v Vivvi'vvvff vv—VVWTV f v 6oUnit tests, Appendix C, 132. 28 panel61 was in agreement with the categorization of each item as humanistic or non-humanistic. Both the programmed instruction and the tests were revised on the basis of trials with students judged similar to the experimental population of school A. A score on 23 humanistic items over the five tests had a reliability coefficient of 0.75 and the total score on 59 items over all tests had a reliability coefficient of 0.88. These reliability coefficients were calculated using the KudervRichardson Formula 20 and were both significant at the .001 confidence level. Design Treatments The experimental treatments consisted of the introductory sheets for each programmed unit.62 Treatment I intro- duction gave organizational information, such as "look for the patterns of chemical names and patterns of structure which...", and an appeal to the humanistic aspect of chemistry for motivation. Similarly, Treatment II introduction contained an equal amount of organizational information but the technological aSpect of chemistry was used for motivation. Treatment III was a placebo introduction which gave about the same amount of relevant information as the other two, but did not attempt to motivate learning. The placebo treatment was necessary so the scores of control subjects would not vary due to visibly unequal treatment. At least eighty percent of the panel agreed with the classification of the introduction. The treatments extended over five units and five class periods to provide sufficient contact with this method of instruction 61Panel, Appendix 3,77. 62Experimental Treatments, Appendix C,89. f: g»: 29 and to ensure that response to a novel situation was not an unusual factor. Programmed instruction was featured to minimize the teacher as a confounding variable. Statistical Model The statistical model of the study was a fixed effects factorial model. All independent variables were fixed and crossed. The use of fixed variables permitted generali- zation of the finding to all populations judged similar. Blocking on the factors of levels of chemistry grade and levels of humanistic orientation scores increased the sensitivity of the statistical tests. This model allowed significance tests for all main effects and all interactions. I “ High 2 g II Levels of [5 Low Chemistry III Grade High Medium Low ‘Levels of Humanistic Value Orientation FIGURE 3.1 STATISTICAL MODEL The dependent variable was a) the total score on humanistic items, and b) the total score on all items. 30 Although the blocking variables could be considered pseudo pretests63 no specific pretest on organic chemistry was used. The subjects might have been sensitized to the treatment by such a pre« test and the generalizability decreased. If the subjects were further subdivided on the basis of some receiving a pretest and others not, the cell sizes would have become too small. If the pretest did not have high reliability there would be no gain in precision due to the pretest. Assumptions_ The analysis was robust to violations of the v—va assumption of normality of the independent variables as long as the independent variables were fixed, thus all independent variables were fixed. The analysis was also robust to violations of the assumption of homoscedascity for equal cell sizes and equal cell sizes were guaranteed by the sampling procedure. The independence between groups was maintained to the fullest possible extent by supervision of the subjects while using the programmed instruction and writing the tests. The students did not all write the units simultaneously, however, but treatment groups were dispersed throughout classes. hypotheses_Tested‘ In the study of learning as a function 'v‘- of value orientation the aspects which were of potential importance in personalizing instruction were stated in the null form as an operational basis for the analysis of the experimental data. vrv—v ' r i r v—vfi' vvv Vifi" fi‘wvvvivifijI‘ 'vj—Vr rfiv v v f- V 63Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley, Experimental and QuasieExperimental Designs §91_Reseaxch, (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1966), 26. 31 For this purpose it was assumed there would be: A. No differences in measured learning due to treatments. 8. No differences in measured learning due to levels of humanistic value orientation. C. No interaction between treatments and levels of humanistic value orientation. 0. No interaction between treatments and levels of chemistry grade. B. No interaction between levels of chemistry grade and levels of humanistic value orientation. Analysis The fixed effects factorial design was employed to permit significance tests for all main effects and interactions of interest. In order to analyse the data the Millman Glass Rules64 were used to determine the sum of squares expressions and the Pvtest ratios. The data was then analysed by three way analysis of variance separately for both the humanistic items scores and the total scores. The main effects and interactions were then rejected or not at the 0.05 level of significance using an P-test. The cell means of interactions found significant were examined and graphed to facili. tate interpretation. III. SUMMARY A Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument of 24 sets *7 v 1 v v vvv' wvrvaVVVv—wvi—v—vafivvfifirrrtv r‘ 64Jason Millman and Gene V. Glass, "Rules of Thumb for writing the ANOVA Table," The Journal of Educational Measurement, 4 (1967), pp. 41.51. ' ' """' ‘ ' ' ‘ T ‘ ' II' "V 32 of alternative statements was developed for the purpose of the study. Each set of alternatives with the instrument contained one statement which stressed the humanistic aspect of chemistry; another the theoretical aspect and a third the technological aspect of a partic. ular chemical phenomenon or fact. The content validity of the categorization was established by the responses of a panel. Differ. ences in the mean scores of engineering science students and theology students for the theoretical and humanistic value orientations supported the construct validity of the instrument. The reliability coefficients were: humanistic 0.85, 0.78; theoretical 0.90, 0.85; technological 0.77, 0.72 for students and teachers respectively. All these reliability coefficients were significant at the .001 level. All 120 students enrolled in grade twelve chemistry at secondary school A in London, Ontario comprised the population and sample of students. In like manner, 39 teachers employed by the London Board of Education to teach chemistry comprised the teacher population and sample. The Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instru. ment was administered to both groups in the process of the study. The relationship of student and teacher characteristics to measured levels of chemistry value orientation was examined and the mean scores of students and teachers on the humanistic, theoretical and technological value orientations were compared. To study learning as a function of value orientation a fixed effects factorial design was used where the subjects were blocked into three levels on the humanistic value orientation score and two levels on their chemistry grade. The three treatments and THE tot to 33 consisted of three types of introductions, humanistic, technological and placebo, to each of five programmed units on organic chemistry. The dependent variables were a total on all 59 test items and a total on the 23 humanistic items. The analysis of variance was used to test for main effects and interactions. Na re th me. an: tic CHAPTER IV RESULTS The value orientations of both the student and teacher samples towards the humanistic, theoretical and technological aspects of chemistry were measured using the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument. Relationships between characteristics such as student intelligence or number of years teaching experience and value orientations were examined for students and teachers. In addition, the three value orientations of teachers and students were compared using a t-test. As the introductory passages to the programmed units were oriented towards different values, the effect of these passages on measured learning was also investigated using a fixed effects factorial design. I. VALUE ORIENTATIONS Students Intelligence andealue Orientations Hypothesis: There r v—v‘v v f v was no correlation between the measured student intelligence, as recorded in the Ontario School Record files, and the humanistic, theoretical and technological value orientations, respectively, as measured on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument. The correlation coefficients for measured intelligence and the humanistic, theoretical and technological value orienta- tions were 0.00, «0.14 and 0.08 respectively. Therefore the 34 35 hypothesis that there was no correlation between measured intel- ligence and the humanistic, theoretical and technological value orientations could not be rejected. Academic Averages and Value Orientations Hypothesis: There was no correlation between the student academic averages and the humanistic, theoretical and technological value orientations, respectively, as measured on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument. The academic average and the humanistic, theoretical and technological value orientations gave correlation coefficients of 0.13, 0.00 and -0.10 respectively which were not statistically significant. Thus the hypothesis of no correlation between the student academic averages and the three value orientations could not be rejected. ChemistryCradesfiandfiValuefOrientation Hypothesis: There was no correlation between student chemistry grades and the humanistic, theoretical and technological value orientations, respectively, as measured on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument. The humanistic, theoretical and technological value orientations gave correlation coefficients of 0.09, 0.17 and 0.16 with chemistry grades. Therefore the hypothesis of no correlation between student chemistry grades and value orientations could not be rejected. Sex and Value Orientations A. Humanistic. Hypothesis: No difference in the mean humanistic value orientation measured on the Chemistry Preference 36 Evaluation Instrument for male and female students existed. The mean humanistic value orientation was 27.20 for male students and 32.42 for female students with t a 3.08 with 119 degrees of freedom. Therefore, the hypothesis was rejected at the .01 level of significance. This was interpreted to mean that female students found the aspects of chemistry related to people and the betterment of the human condition more important than did male students. B. Theoretical. Hypothesis: No difference in the mean theoretical value orientation measured on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument for male and female students existed. The mean theoretical value orientation was 17.44 for male students and 17.13 for female students with t = 0.16 with 119 degrees of freedom. Thus the hypothesis of no difference in the mean theoretical orientation of male and female students could not be rejected. C. Technological. Hypothesis: No difference in the mean technological value orientation measured on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument for male and female students existed. The mean technological value orientation was 26.78 for male students whereas female students received a mean of 22.35 producing t = 3.82 with 119 degrees of freedom. Thus the hypothesis was rejected at the .001 level of significance which was inter— preted to mean that male students viewed the technological aspects 37 of chemistry as more interesting and more important than did female students. Teachers The Effects of Level of University Chemistry Preparation and Number of Years Teaching Experience on Value Orientations. The two levels of university chemistry preparation employed were more and less than ten university chemistry courses designated as "High Level of Preparation" and "Low Level of Preparation" re- spectively. The two levels of teaching eXperience used were less than five years, designated as "Low Level of Teaching Experience", and five or more years, designated as "High Level of Teaching Experience." The number of teachers within each cell was: Level of Teaching Experience Low High Low 8 10 Level of Preparation High 9 12 The means for the humanistic value orientation were: Level of Teaching Experience Low High Low 21.0 23.6 Level of Preparation High 18.4 20.7 The mean 23.6 was significantly larger than the mean 18.4 at the .10 confidence level. The mean humanistic value orientation was greater for increased teaching experience and a lower level of chemistry preparation. The trends were more evident in Figure 4.1 which showed that teachers with a smaller number of chemistry courses were higher on the humanistic value orientation at both Humanistic Value Orientation 38 25 e 1 s ‘<‘-Low Level of Preparation 20 . k\“ High Level of Preparation d 1 «J 15 u Wa~r~w I‘mm/s. [.mx-c— ./\~r~./‘M’\m a .5, .-. M... 0W 7 Low High Levels of Teaching Experience FIGURE 4.1 THE EFFECTS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE AND UNIVERSITY CHEMISTRY PREPARATION ON THE HUMANISTIC VALUE ORIENTATION OP TEACHERS 39 levels of teaching exPerience. Similarly, teachers with more teaching experience were higher on the humanistic value orientation at both levels of university chemistry preparation. The means for the theoretical value orientations were: Level of Teaching Experience Low High F- L 31.9 24.8 Level of preparation High 34:9 31 3 The mean 34.9 was significantly larger than the mean 24.8 at the i .025 confidence level. The mean theoretical value orientation, , measured on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument was smaller with greater teaching experience but increased with a higher level of university chemistry preparation. It was indicated in Figure 4.2 that teachers with a lower level of teaching ex- perience were higher on the theoretical value orientation than teachers with a higher level of teaching eXperience, for both levels of university chemistry preparation. Similarly, teachers with a higher level of university chemistry preparation were higher on the theoretical value orientation than teachers with a lower level of university chemistry preparation, for both levels of teaching experience. The means for the technological value orientations were: Level of Teaching Experience Low High - Low 19.1 23.3 Level of Preparation Hiflh 17~3 20.0 The mean 23.3 was significantly larger than the mean 17.8 at the .025 confidence level. The mean technological value orientation measured on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument varied Theoretical Value Orientation 4O 35 a “ / High Level of Preparation 30 e . / Low Level of Preparation 251 I . v U U u u! WWMNMW WVMs WMM‘. NA" w./\..~_~.. 0 tr Low -- High Levels of Teaching Experience FIGURE 4.2 THE EFFECTS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE AND UNIVERSITY CHEMISTRY PREPARATION ON THE THEORETICAL VALUE ORIENTATION OP TEACHERS 41 in the same manner as the humanistic value orientation, increasing at the higher level of teaching experience and the lower level of chemistry preparation. As shown in Figure 4.3, the mean techno- logical value orientation was greater at a higher level of teaching experience for both levels of university chemistry preparation. The mean technological value orientation for teachers with a lower level of university chemistry preparation was greater than for those with a higher level of university chemistry preparation but did not appear as influential as teaching experience. The Effect of TeachingBiology on Value Orientations A. Humanistic. Hypothesis: There was no difference in the mean humanistic value orientation on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument between those teachers who were teaching biology at least quarter time and those teachers who were not. Both groups had five or fewer university chemistry courses. The mean was 25.8 for those teaching biology and 20.8 for those not teaching biology which was not a statistically significant difference. Thus the hypothesis of no difference in the mean humanistic value orientation between those teachers who were teach- ing biology at least quarter time and those teachers who were not could not be rejected. B. Theoretical. Hypothesis: There was no difference in the mean theoretical value orientation on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument between those teachers who were teadhing biolOgy at least quarter time and those who were not. Both groups had five or fewer university chemistry courses. Technological Value Orientation 42 25 I «A q A k‘ Low Level of Preparation II 20 . a High Level of Preparation 15w WWW. Low High Levels of Teaching Experience FIGURE 4.3 THE EFFECTS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE AND UNIVERSITY CHEMISTRY PREPARATION ON THE TECHNOLOGICAL VALUE ORIENTATION OF TEACHERS 43 The mean was 21.3 for those teaching biology and 32.3 for those not teaching biology at least quarter time. The hypothesis was rejected at the .02 confidence level. This was interpreted to mean that for teachers with equivalent university chemistry preparation, those who were teaching biology did not view the theoretical aspects of chemistry as important or interesting as did those teachers who were not teaching biology at least quarter time. C. Technological. Hypothesis: There was no difference in the mean technological value orientation on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument between those teachers who were teaching biology at least quarter time and those teachers who were not. Both groups had a maximum of five university chemistry courses. The mean was 24.8 for those teaching biology and 18.9 for those not teaching biology at least quarter time. The hypothesis was rejected at the .06 confidence level. This was interpreted to mean that for teachers with equivalent university chemistry preparation, those who were teaching biology viewed the technological aspects of chemistry as more interesting and important than those teachers who were not teaching biology. Comparison of Students' and Teachers' Orientations Humanistic. Hypothesis: No difference in the humanistic value orientation measured on Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument existed between chemistry students and chemistry teachers. 44 The mean was 30.1 for students and 21.0 for teachers. The hypothesis was rejected at the .001 confidence level. This was interpreted to mean that students viewed the aspects of chemistry related to human nature and betterment of the human condition as more important than did chemistry teachers. Theoretical. Hypothesis: No difference in the theoretical value orientation measured on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument existed between chemistry students and chemistry teachers. The mean was 17.3 for students and 30.6 for teachers. The hypothesis was rejected at the .001 confidence level. This was interpreted to mean that teachers viewed the theoretical aspects of chemistry as much more important than did chemistry students. Technological. Hypothesis: No difference in the tech- nological value orientation measured on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument existed between chemistry students and chemistry teachers. The mean was 26.1 for students and 20.2 for teachers. The hypothesis was rejected at the .001 confidence level. This was interpreted to mean that students perceived the aspects of chemistry which were related to the production and utilization of material goods as of more importance and more interesting than did chemistry teachers. 45 II. LEARNING AS A FUNCTION OF VALUE ORIENTATION The analysis of variance was performed twice, once with the scores obtained on the 23 questions classified as humanistic and once on all 59 questions. The former score was described as the "humanistic subscore" and had a reliability coefficient of 0.75 while the latter score was denoted the "total score" and had a reliability coefficient of 0.88. Both scores were obtained from responses to the tests administered at the completion of each of the five programmed units. Main Effects due to Treatments v—v—v V. f fir ‘v—vv Hypothesis: There was no difference in measured learning on the unit tests due to treatments. The main effects for treatments were not significant for either humanistic subscores or total scores as shown in the ANOVA Tables. The hypothesis could not rejected for either humanistic subscores or total scores. This was interpreted to mean that the humanistic and technological introductions to the programmed units did not produce a significantly different amount of measured learning than did the placebo introduction received by the control group. Main Effects for Levels of Humanistic Value Orientation v v v fiv—VV vfi-v—v vvvjvvvfivv—vwv‘v ‘vv—Vf Hypothesis: There were no differences in measured learning on the unit tests between levels of humanistic value orientation measured on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument. The main effects for humanistic value orientations 46 TABLE 4.1 ANOVA TABLE: HUMANISTIC SUBSCORES SOURCE SS df MS F TABLE (is) T 2 2 1.0 0.36 3.10 C 246 1 246 189 3.95 H 12 2 6.0 2.17 3.10 TH 17 4 4.3 1.56 2.50 TC 59 2 29.5 10.7 3.1 CH 251 2 125.5 45.5 3.1 R:TCH 250 90 2.78 TCH 101 4 25.25 9.1 2.50 * statistically significant SYMBOLS T Treatments Chemistry Grades Humanistic Value Orientation Replications 47 TABLE 4.2 ANOVA TABLE . TOTAL SCORES SOURCE SS df MS F TABLE (.35) T 390 2 195 2.8 3.10 C 2466 1 2466 35.8 3.95 H 388 2 194 2.8 3.10 TH 170 4 42.5 0.6 2.50 TC 287 2 143.5 2.1 3.1 CH 439 2 219.5 3.2 3.1 R:TCH 6191 90 68.8 TCH 50 4 12.5 0.7 2.50 * statistically significant SYMBOLS T = Treatments C = Chemistry Grades H = Humanistic Value Orientation R = Replications 48 were not significant as indicated in the ANOVA tables. The hypothesis was not rejected for either humanistic subscores or total scores. This was interpreted as indicating that there was no significant difference in learning for the various levels of humanistic value orientation. Interaction of Treatments with Humanistic Value Orientation fivvvfi vvj‘vvv‘fivwvvj—vwv 'v—v Hypothesis: There was no interaction between treat- ments and levels of humanistic value orientation as measured on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument. The interaction between treatments and levels of humanistic value orientation was not significant for either humanistic subscores or total scores as indICated in the ANOVA tables. The hypothesis could not be rejected for either human- istic subscores or total scores. Interaction of Treatments with Chemistry Grades ‘ 'j‘vv‘iv vi rvwr—v vv—V‘wv Hypothesis: There was no interaction between treat- ments and levels of chemistry grades measured as teacher assigned grades in chemistry for the current year. The interaction was not significant for total scores as indicated in the ANOVA table. The hypothesis could not be rejected for total scores. The F-ratio for the interaction of treatments with chemistry grades had a value of 10.7 for humanistic subscores which was significant at the .05 confidence level. The hypothesis was rejected for humanistic subscores at the .05 confidence level. The cell means for treatments versus level of chemistry grades for humanistic subscores were: 49 Level of Chemistry Grades Low High Treatment I (humanistic) 10.8 15.0 Treatment 11 (technological) 12.9 13.8 Treatment 111 (placebo) 11.3 15.4 In the graph of the cell means, Figure 4.4, it was evident that for students at a high level of chemistry grade treatments one and three, humanistic and placebo introductions respectively, were superior to treatment two, the technological introductions. Conversely treatment two, technological introductions, was best for those students who had received a chemistry grade at or below the median. Although the interaction between treatments and levels of chemistry grades was not significant for total scores, the graph of these means65 displayed a similar pattern. Interaction of Chemistry Grades with Humanistic Value Orientation Hypothesis: There was no interaction between levels of chemistry grades, measured as teacher assigned grades, and levels of humanistic value orientation measured on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument. The P-ratio for the interaction of chemistry grades with humanistic value orientation had values of 45.5 and 3.2 for the humanistic subscores and total scores respectively. These were both significant at the .05 level, thus the hypothesis was rejected for both humanistic subscores and total scores at the .05 confidence level. 6sAppendix D. 141. Humanistic Subscores (Cell Means) 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 High Level Chemistry Grade Low Level i(/" Chemistry Grade WWMwh '-1 T2 3 Treatments FIGURE 4.4 INTERACTION OF TREATMENTS WITH LEVELS OF CHEMISTRY GRADE FOR HUMANISTIC SUBSCORES 51 The cell means for levels of humanistic value orientation versus levels of chemistry grades were: Levels of Humanistic Value Orientation High Medium Low Humanistic Subscores High 15.3 14.9 14.0 Levels of Chemistry Grades Low 11.6 13.3 11.4 Levels of Humanistic Value Orientation High Medium Low Total Scores High 37.0 36.8 36.0 Levels of Chemistry Grades Low 26.7 28.9 28.4 The graphs of the cell means for these interactions, Figures 4.5 and 4.6, indicated that level of chemistry grades was most prominently related to achievement on the tests for the pro— grammed units. There was little variation in learning, as indicated by both the humanistic subscores and the total scores, for various levels of humanistic value orientation for those students at a high level of chemistry grades. For students at a low level of Chemistry grades whose with a medium level of humanistic value orientation obtained the highest scores on both the humanistic subscores and the total scores. III. SUMMARY Student value orientations were measured on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument and found related only to the sex of the student. Female students perceived the humanistic aspects as more important whereas male students viewed the technological 20 . 1 (I E ' High Level Chemistry Grade 3 / 2: ,. 15 e r-O 0 E5 3 . 3 Low Level Chemistry Grade ° / .3 . 53 o «'1 P e I) Ir! :g 10 . WWW/w Low ' Medium High Levels of Humanistic Value Orientation FIGURE 4.5 INTERACTION OF LEVELS OF HUMANISTIC VALUE ORIENTATION WITH LEVELS OF CHEMISTRY GRADE FOR HUMANISTIC SUBSCORES (Cell Means) Total Scores 53 40 a / High Level Chemistry Grade //—‘ r 1 F“ myunufi'" .v' . 30 I ‘iyLow Level Chemistry Grade 25 fl 0W Low Medium High Levels of HUmanistic Value Orientation FIGURE 4.6 INTERACTION OF LEVELS OF HUMANISTIC VALUE ORIENTATION WITH LEVELS OF CHEMISTRY GRADE FOR TOTAL SCORES 54 aspects of chemistry as more important and more interesting. Teachers with fewer university chemistry courses and a greater number of years teaching experience viewed the humanistic and technological aspects as more important whereas those with more university chemistry courses and less teaching experience perceived the theoretical aspects as more important. Teachers with a maximum of five university chemistry courses who were teaching biology at least quarter time perceived the theoretical aspects as less important and the technological aspects as more important than did a similarly prepared group of teachers who were not teaching biology. Teachers viewed the theoretical aspects as significantly more important than did students who viewed the humanistic and technological aspects as more important. Teachers Students Humanistic Value Orientation. 21.0 30.1 Theoretical Value Orientation 30.6 17.3 Technological Value Orientation 20.2 26.1 The difference in the means for teachers and students was significant at the .001 confidence level in each case. In the experiment to study learning as a function of value orientation the main effects for treatments and levels of value orientation were not significant. The interaction of treatments with levels of chemistry grades was significant for humanistic subscores only whereas the interaction of levels of chemistry grades with levels of humanistic value orientation was significant for both total scores and humanistic subscores. The significant interactions were graphed for further analysis. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS I. SUMMARY Value Orientations Recent high school science curricula have placed increasing emphasis on the abstract, rigorous, theoretical aspects of science. This has been attributed by some writers to the influence of research scientists in exercising their beliefs in the superiority of pure or theoretical science to the practical or applied science during the construction of new curricula. Many observers have recognized that these theoretically oriented curricula have been ineffective in stimulating secondary school science students, apparently because the curricula were divorced form the world of reality and thus lacked relevance for average students. It has been suggested that modern students would be more receptive to applications of science in their contemporary technological culture and to concerns such as environmental pollution which affect the individual human. However the relative importance placed by an individual on different aspects of an event or occurrence was a function of the individual's values. A major purpose of this study was to measure the value orientations of students to three aspects of chemistry, the theoretical, the humanistic and technological. The relationship of levels of orienta- tion to selected student and teacher characteristics was examined to SS 56 discover any patterns of orientation that may have occurred. The value orientations of teachers and students were compared since the value orientations inherent in classroom instruction were partially a function of teacher values. Procedure and Implementation. A Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument of 24 sets of alternative statements was developed containing statements stressing the humanistic, theoretical and technological aspects of particular chemical phenomena or facts. The content validity of the instrument was established using categor- ization by a panel of five educational and scientific experts. The construct validity was supported by the higher mean scores of the group of 19 Theology students on the humanistic aspects and the 19 Engineering Science students on the theoretical aspects of chemistry with both differences being significant at the .001 level. The instrument was administered to 120 grade 12 chemistry students in secondary school A in London, Ontario and to 39 chemistry teachers employed by the London Board of Education. The reliability coefficients for the humanistic, theoretical and technological were all significant at the .001 confidence level, for both students and teachers. The relationship of student and teacher characteristics to measured levels of chemistry value orientation was examined and the mean scores of students and teachers on value orientations com- pared using a t-test. Results The most significant finding from the examination of student characteristics and levels of value orientation was the orientation of male students to technological aspects of science and female students to the humanistic aspects of the subject. 57 Teachers with a minimum of university chemistry courses and more years teaching experience viewed the humanistic and technological aspects as more important whereas those with more university chemistry courses and less teaching experience perceived the theoretical aspects of chemistry as most important. Teachers with a maximum of five university chemistry courses but who were teaching biology at least quarter time perceived the theoretical aspects of chemistry as less important and the technological aspects as most important when compared to a similarly prepared group of teachers who were not teaching biology. The differences in the means of the scores obtained on the Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument between students and teachers were all significant at the .001 confidence level. Teachers Students Humanistic Value Orientation 21.0 30.1 Theoretical Value Orientation 30.6 17.3 Technological Value Orientation 20.2 26.1 Learning as a Function of Value Orientation Evidence on set induction training, advance organizers and the retention of controversial material supported the general concept that learning was related to the extent to which the learner perceived the material to be learned as meaningful. However this perception would depend on the relative values of the individual. Evidence that learning was a function of value orientation would contribute to achieving the aim of optimizing learning by matching instructional variables with individual learning characteristics. Procedure and Implementation A fixed effects factorial model was used with the subjects blocked into three levels on the 58 4 humanistic value orientation score and two levels on their chemistry grades. Three treatments, consisting of humanistic, technological and placebo introductions to each of five programmed units in organic chemistry, were administered during regularly scheduled class periods. The dependent variables were a humanistic subscore on 23 humanistic test items and a total score on all 59 test items. The reliability coefficients; both significant at the .001 confidence level, were .75 and .88 respectively for the test scores. The data was analysed by the procedure of three way analysis of variance and in addition significant interactions were graphed for analysis. Results There was no significant difference in student learning as a result of the experimental treatments or between the three levels of humanistic value orientation. The interaction of treatments with levels of chemistry grades was significant at the .05 confidence level for humanistic subscores only. The interactions of levels of chemistry grades with levels of humanistic value orientation was also significant at the .05 confidence level for both humanistic subscores and total scores. 11. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A forced-choice instrument to measure orientations towards the humanistic, theoretical and technological values in chemistry was developed. The instrument produced reliability coefficients signifi- cant at the .001 lgvel with both student and teacher samples. Cate- gorization of alternatives by a panel of experts was used to establish the content validity. Although some evidence supporting its construct validity was obtained using Theological and Engineering Science students, construct validity in the area of values remains in 59 question. The Chemistry Preference Evaluation Instrument was satisfactory for this study and would be recommended for fUrther studies of this type where the subjects possessed an elementary understanding of chemistry. There would be merit in obtaining normative data for the instrument for use in comparative studies. It is probable that the deve10pment of alternate forms of the instrument would be useful for future studies involving changes in value orientation. The lack of correlation of measured intelligence, academic average or chemistry grades with the measured value orientations indicated that value orientations could not be inferred from other student characteristics but would require direct measurement. The higher orientation of girls to the humanistic and boys to the technological aspects of chemistry conforms to one of the common stereotypes of sex differences. This raises some question as to whether this difference was an indication of fundamentally different values or merely a reflection of their perception of sexual expecta- tions. Several factors appeared to simultaneously related to the value orientations of teachers. Blocking the data on two levels of teaching experience and two levels of university chemistry prepara- tion indicated the following: A. A higher level of university chemistry preparation was associated with a higher theoretical orientation and lower humanistic and technological orientations. B. A lower level of university chemistry preparation was associated with a lower theoretical orientation and higher humanistic 60 and technological orientation. C. A higher level of teaching experience was associated with a lower theoretical orientation and higher humanistic and technological orientation. D. A lower level of teaching experience was assoicated with a higher theoretical orientation and lower humanistic and technological orientations. These trends must be accepted with reservation since in most cases the differences were statistically significant only when the two factors were combined. No cause and effect relation- ships could be inferred from the data. While it was probable that exPosure to university chemistry courses deve10ped a theoretical orientation it was equally possible that selection of a large number of university chemistry courses was confounded with a high theoretical value orientation. Similarly it was intuitively appealing to conclude that theoretical value orientations decreased with teaching experience, but it is possible that teachers with more teaching experience had undergone a less theoretical university chemistry program than more recent graduates. Similarly, the teaching of biology was associated with lower theoretical and higher technological value orientations. It could not be inferred that this difference in orientations was a result of teaching biology nor even unique to a teaching assign- ment in biology since groups with teaching assignments in other subjects, such as physics or mathematics, were not available in the sample. Students were more highly oriented to the humanistic and 61 technological aspects of chemistry than teachers who were more highly oriented to the theoretical aspects. According to the descriptions of modern curricula as abstract and theoretical, the curricula appeared to coincide more closely with the value orienta- tions of teachers rather than students. The implications for curriculum revision were apparent since students had clearly demon- strated their selection of the humanistic and technological in preference to the theoretical. Caution must be exercised in inferring that a shift in emphasis to the humanistic and technological values in instruction would result in increased learning. The experiment with five programmed units in organic chemistry failed to show a significant difference in the learning of humanistic material between groups with varying levels of humanistic value orientation. Whether this was due to weakness in the implied relationship between values, interests, motivation and learning or due to multiple factors affecting motivation and learning to the degree that the measures were not sufficiently sensitive to value orientations was not determined. Observation of the students during administration of the programs gave the impression that individual reactions varied widely depending on personal motivation for success on the tests, and the interaction of learning styles with programmed instruction. The general approval or disapproval for the programmed units underwent reversal for some students during the five units. Some students who reached their normal level of success through exten- sive study rather than quick initial learning, expressed some 62 frustration at being unable to take the material home for study. All these factors should have been equalized for the various cells since humanistic value orientations were not correlated to in- telligence or academic average and subjects were randomly assigned to treatment groups, however with small cell sizes these factors may have contributed to a lack of precision. The previous arguments were also largely applicable to the failure to detect a significant difference in learning due to treatments. Introductions with more impact on the student would more likely produce a significant difference in learning but if the introductions were quite difficult to make effective they would fail to receive widespread application in any case. The significant interactions gave information which would be useful in personalizing instruction. For example, the inter- action between the levels of chemistry grades and treatments indicated ,that the humanistic or placebo introduction was superior when learning humanistic material for students at or below the median for teacher assigned chemistry grades. Before instruction was varied on the basis of this interaction or the interaction of chemistry grades with humanistic value orientation, replication experiments would be required to provide further evidence. The interaction of other factors, such as learning styles, would also require investigation to effectively prescribe instruction on the basis of value orientations and other characteristics. The results of this study have implications for the selection of appropriate curricular materials and the design of pro- grammed instruction in science. It may be feasible for future 63 studies to design curricular exPeriences in agreement with the measured value orientations of groups of students then measure the resulting effectiveness of these experiences in reaching instructional objectives, particularly those in the affective domain. Specific contributions of the study to construction of teacher preparation programs for chemistry teachers includes recognition of the variance in value orientations with differing levels of univer— sity chemistry preparation. The identification of significantly differ- ent student and teacher value orientations adds another dimension to the cognizance of student perspectives developed during teacher preparation. The confirmation of wide variance in value orientations within both pupil and teacher groups supports greater individualization of univer- sity course instruction and goals whether content or professionally oriented. A similar instrument might be developed and applied to meas- ure the orientations of pre-service teaching candidates to the humanis- tic, theoretical and technological aspects of teaching. The experiences in teacher preparation would be modified accordingly. The measurement of orientations before and after such activities as student teaching might also yield valuable insights. Perhaps the most direct application of the study to practic- ing teachers should be the increased awareness of the significant diff- erences that exist between student and teacher values which should be considered in planning and executing classroom chemistry instruction. BIBLIOGRAPHY «In BIBLIOGRAPHY Abraham, M. and P. Westmeyer, "Chemistry is in Trouble," Chem 13_ News, (November, 1970), 8. Albertson, Louise. "Comparative Analysis of CHEM Study and its Revisions,” Canadian Chemical Education, (April, 1971), 10-12. Allport, Gordon W., Philip E. Vernon and Gardner Lindzey. Study gf_ Values: A Scale for Measuring the Dominant Interests in Personalify. Third edition. BostonT’ Houghton Mifflifi— Company, 1965. Ausubel, David P. Educational Psychology} A Cognitive View. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Incorporated, 1968. ,"The Use of Advance Organizers in the Learning and Retention of Meaningful Verbal Material," Journal 2f Educational Psychology, 51 (1960), 267.272. , and D. Fitzgerald. "Organizer, General Background and Antecedent Learning Variables in Sequential Verbal Learning," Journal of_Educational Psychology, 53 (1962), 243—249. Bronowski, J. Science and Human Values. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1968. - Broudy, Harry S. "Science and Human Values," The Science Teacher, 36 (March , 1969) , 23-28 . Butts, David P. "Opening the World to the Student," Designs for Progress in_Science Education. Washington: National Science Teachers' Association, 1969, 29—33. Campbell, Donald T. and Julian C. Stanley. Experimental and Quasi- Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1966. Conant,James Bryant. Modern Science and Modern Man. New York: Columbia University Press, 1952. Cronbach, Lee J. "The Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology," The American Psychologist, 2 (November, 1957), 671-684. 64 65 Essentials gf_Psychological Testing. Second edition. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1960. Davenport, Derek A. "Elevate Them Guns a Little Lower," The Journal gf_Chemical Education, 45 (June, 1968), 419—420. Ebel, Robert L. Measuring Educational AChievement. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrenticevHall Incorporafed:51965. Edwards, A. L. and K. C. Kenney. "A Comparison of the Thurstone and Likert Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction," Journal 9: Applied Psychology, 30 (1946), 72.83. -11.. ifir~7i§73fi .l Emans, Robert. "Teacher Attitudes as a Function of Values," Journal 2f_Educational Research, 62 (July, 1969), 459.463. Gatewood, Claude. "The Science Curriculum Viewed Nationally,” The Science Teacher, 35 (November, 1968), 18.21. Gehrke, Henry, Jr. "Letters to the Editor," The Journal 2: Chemical Education, 45 (June, 1968), 441.442. Halton, G., F. G. Watson and F. J. Rutherford. "A Message from the Directors," Newsletter Z, Harvard Project Physics, (Spring, 1968), 3—6. ' 77' Henry, Wm. F. "The Issues in Campus Unrest," Phi Kappa Phi Journal, (Fall, 1969), 21-27. Hopkins, Stephen. "Science-Technology: An Introduction to Technology for High School Students," The Science Teacher, 35 (May, 1968), 39-40. Hutchinson, Eric. "Fashion in Science and in the Teaching of Science," The Journal gf_Chemical Education, 45 (September, 1968), 600-606. Jones, W. T. The Sciences and the Humanities. Berkley: The University of California Press, 1965. Kimball, Merritt E. "Understanding the Nature of Science: A Comparison of Scientists and Science Teachers," Journal gf_ Research i2_Science Teaching, 5 (1967-1968), 110-120. Levine, J. M. and G. Murphy. "The Learning and Forgetting of Controversial Material," Journal gf_Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38 (1943), 507-517. Libby, W. F. "Values in Chemistry," The Journal 9f_Chemical Educa- tion, 46 (April, 1969), 190-192. Maslow, Abraham H. The Psychology gf_Science. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1966. 66 Meehl, Paul E. "A Review of Study of Values: A Scale for Measuring the Dominant Interests in Personality," The Third Mental Measurements Yearbook. New Jersey: The Gryphon Press, 1931. Millman, Jason and Gene V. Glass. "Rules of Thumb for Writing the ANOVA Table,” The Journal 9f_Educational Measurement, 4 (1967), 41-51. - I Oppenheim, A. N. Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement. New York: Basic Books Incorporated, 1966. Pella, M. O. and H. J. Triezenburg. "Three Levels of Abstraction of the Concept of Equilibrium and its use as an Advance Organizer," Journal 2f Research i2_Science Teaching) 6 (1969), 11-21. ' V V ' WAAfi-DIQI join—fl Poincare, Henry. The Value 9f_Science. New York: Dover Publica- tions Incorporated, 1958. Prior, Moody E. Science and the Humanities. Evanston: North- western University Press, 1962. Rabi, I. 1. Science: The Center gf_Culture. Cleveland: The World Publishing Company, 1970. "From the address of I. I. Rabi at AAAS meeting of Educational Policies Commission, 27 December 1966, Washington, D.C.," The Physics Teacher, 5 (May, 1967), 197. Ramsay, G. A. and R. W. Howe. "An Analysis of Research on Instructional Procedures in Secondary School Science. Part I- Outcomes of Instruction," The Science Teacher, 36 GMarch, 1969), 62—70. Raths, James. "Values and Valueing," Educational Leadership, (May, 1964), 543-546. Ratney, Ronald S. "Two Views," The Journal 9f_Chemical Education, 45 (April, 1968), 246—247. ' Rokeach, Milton. "A Theory of Organization and Change Within Value— Attitude Systems," Journal gf_Social Issues, 24 (1968), 13-33. Shearer, James W. and G. K. Tallmadge. "Relationships Among Learning Styles, Instructional Methods and the Nature of Learning Ex- periences," Journal pf Educational Psychology, 60 (April, 1969), 222-230. Shorr, Joseph E. "The Development of a Test to Measure the Intensity of Values,” Journal 9f_Educational Psychology, 44 (May, 1953), 266—274. 67 Shuck, Robert F. "The Effects of Set Induction upon the Achieve- ment of NinthwGrade Pupils and their Perception of Teacher Effectiveness," The Journal of Educational Research, 62 (February, 1969), 279-285. "" Snow, C. P. The Two Cultures. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1959. United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Behavioral Science Teacher Education Program. 3 volumes, Project Number 89025, 1968. ‘ V ' Why-“‘5” A Tasi‘ . Feasability Study Behavioral Science Teacher Education Program. Project Number 320424jfi1969. Waly, P. and S. W. Cook. "Attitude as a Determinant of Learning and Memory: A Failure to Confirm: Journal 2f_Personality and Social Psychology, 4 (1966), 280a288. W“... n“ Weinberg, Alvin M. "The Two Faces of Science," The Journal gf Chemical Education, 45 (June, 1968), 74~77. Wilson, Evelyn H. "Why Not Science?", The Journal 9f_Chemical Education, 46 (August, 1969), 484-486. Winter, W. D. "Student Values and Grades in General Psychology," Journal gf_Educational Research, 55 (April, 1962), 331-333. Wood, Elizabeth A. "The Physical Science for Nonscience Students Project," The Journal gf_Chemical Education, 46 (February, 1969), 69~70. I7 General References Bradbury, G. H. et a1. Chemistry and You. Chicago: Lyons and Carnahan, 1957. ' Cram, Donald J. and George S. Hammond. Organic Chemistry. Second edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964. Deming, H. G. General Chemistry. Fifth edition. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Incorporated, 1944. Lessing, Lawrence P. Understanding_Chemistry. New York: Inter- science Publishers Incorporated, 1959. Noller, Carl R. Chemistry 9f_0rganic Compounds. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1951. APPENDICES APPENDIX A RESPONSE FORM AND CHEMISTRY PREFERENCE EVALUATION INSTRUMENT J: If i s I APPENDIX A RESPONSE FORM AND CHEMISTRY PREFERENCE EVALUATION INSTRUMENT INSTRUCTIONS This is NOT a test of your knowledge. You cannot give a "wrong" “ ”“77 answer. Most of the material will be new to you, but you should understand enough to make reasoned choices. Consider each alternative of equal correctness. Do not try to evaluate the relative correctness of the alternatives. There is no time limit. Please consider each choice quite *VfiV'vVfiv—fivvwvv' carefully. From each set of three alternatives, select your figst_and second .choices. These choices should be YOUR PERSONAL PREFERENCES as to the relative value, interest or importance of the alternatives. (Don't let your choice be influenced by what you think someone else would prefer.) example: Alternative set #26 first choice c second choice b NAME --- --- f - 7' - ANSWERS Alternative set # First Choice Second Choice I l 2 LWWVEWWM-.MM __. 68 69 CHEMISTRY PREFERENCE EVALUATION INSTRUMENT The alchemists' chief contribution was: a) the beginning of a system of classification of matter; b) the preparation of herbs and chemicals with medicinal prOperties; c) development of methods for purifying metals for practical pur- poses. The equivalence of mass and energy exPressed in Einstein's theory of relativity: a) is the basis for industrial power from nuclear energy; b) was an intellectual achievement which shook the foundations of classical physics; c) led to the first atomic bombs, causing great human suffering at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Nitrous oxide,.N20 a) is known as laughing gas, and was used by dentists as an anaesthetic many years ago; b) is covalently bonded into a linear molecule, but the covalent bonds can be broken by high temperatures; c) is now used as a propellant in commercial whipped cream bombs. Diamonds: a) have a romantic mystique which adds more to their value than the brilliant reflection of light accounted for by their chemical structure; b) are extremely hard due to the nature of the chemical bonding and crystalline structure; c) are important in industrial drilling and abrasion because they are harder than other materials. 5. 7O Chlorine a) b) e) a) b) C) has chemical characteristics typical of an element which needs only one electron to fill its energy level; is an essential chemical for industries such as the paper industry; makes swimmers in the family pool safer from bacteria. decomposition of silver halide by light: is the principal chemical reaction upon which the film and photographic industries are based; illustrates the principle of breaking a chemical bond by adding sufficient energy; is the principal chemical reaction which permits the originality and dramatic communication of modern photography. Oxygen-hydrogen fuel cells should be investigated more fully because: a) b) e) the relatively high energy to mass ratio is an important con. sideration, especially in space research; the use of such fuel cells would improve the air people breathe in the cities; a technological breakthrough in fuel cells would revolutionize the automobile industry. Fractional distillation a) b) C) may most clearly be understood by applying the model of molecules in motion to boiling and condensation; is used in the preparation of hundreds of consumer products which add to the comfort and health of mankind; is used for separation and purification in the petroleum industry. ‘.' PPS". l'.".‘ 9. 10. 11. 71 The white solid, barium sulphate, is practically insoluble in water. a) b) Some atoms of an element give off radiation. a) b) C) Patients swallow barium sulphate to clarify Xsrays of the digestive tract. The small extent of dissolving is due to the relatively high attraction of barium for sulphate and their low attraction for water. Barium sulphate is useful as a paint pigment because of this low solubility. was—- iE-fl \_~ .21. fl .‘ I. I 1. Exposure to this radiation may cause cancer or a change in the hereditary material of a person. This radiation may be used to detect flaws in metal castings or for automated quality control. This radiation is released when an extremely small amount of matter is converted into energy. Cellulose and starch both appear in plants, however,.humans can digest starch but very little cellulose. The possible human digestion of cellulose would: a) b) C) likely result from construction of a model of the cellulose molecule and deve10pment of theories of cellulose digestion; lead to the development of new technologies and new industries to produce cellulose-based foods; make possible the feeding of millions of starving people. 12. 13. 14. 72 Lavoisier was an early French chemist who found that mercury would take a substance out of the air to form a red solid. When the red solid was heated a gas was released. a) With a refinement of this experiment Lavoisier was able to refute the phlogiston theory which had retarded the development of better chemical theories. b) This experiment launched Lavoisier's career as a famous scientist. His execution on the guillotine illustrates the lack of apprecia. tion for science by the common people of his day. c) The removal of oxygen from a metal oxide is a fundamental process to the metal refining industry. The Haber Process makes ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen. a) The use of ammonia as a fertilizer raises food production closer to population requirements. b) Ammonia is a basic compound for the fertilizer and explosive industries. c) To maximize production of ammonia by this process, temperature, pressure and concentration must be regulated according to the principles of chemical equilibrium. The removal of dissolved materials from sea water: a) provides the main source of magnesium for light strong alloys which are important in aircraft construction: b) requires a large amount of energy to vaporize the water due to water's extremely strong molecular attractions; c) provides water for irrigation to increase food production to fight starvation and malnutrition. ‘-”“‘FW 15. 16. 17. 73 Rubber is vulcanized when hot sulphur and rubber are mixed. a) b) C) Charles Goodyear's discovery of vulcanization in 1839 was due more to his faith in himself, and his determination to succeed despite financial hardships, than to his chemical knowledge. The sulphur atoms jOin together the long rubber molecules with chemical bonds, thus changing the physical and chemical prOperties. Goodyear's method of vulcanizing rubber was basic to the rubber industry for over 100 years. More gas will dissolve in a liquid as the pressure increases. a) b) C) Carbon dioxide is dissolved in water under high pressure in the production of carbonated beverages. Men who work in a pressurized environment have dangerously increased amounts of nitrogen dissolved in the blood. The amount of a given gas dissolved in a liquid depends on the combined effect of changes for minimum energy and maximum randomness. The tight joining of several atoms of a molecule onto a charged metal atom is called chelation. a) 13) Chelation can increase the storage time for blood for life- saving transfusions by removing calcium atoms. Chelation is usually specific for each atom because particular angles, atomic sizes and electrical charges are required. Chelation can be used to improve the smoothness and adherence of electroplating. 18. 19. 20. 21. 74 Electrolysis of salt water: a) produces caustic soda, a basic chemical used in the manufac~ ture of synthetics such as rayon; b) may release nercury, a dangerous pollutant to man; c) releases the stronger electron attractor at the negative terminal. You are a chemist who has discovered a new chemical with unique properties. You would like to discover: a) a theory which would explain these unique prOperties; b) an industrial use for this chemical in new products; c) the medicinal effect of this chemical upon the human body. Combustion may be complete or incomplete depending on the ratio of fuel to air used. a) The exact ratio for complete combustion of the fuel may be determined theoretically from the balanced chemical equation. b) The ratio in a car engine is set for incomplete combustion to protect hot metal parts from oxidation. c) The substances produced by incomplete combustion of gasoline are hazardous to the health of people in large cities. A catalyst is a substance which speeds up a chemical reaction but is only temporarily changed itself. a) Catalysts play an important role in the chemical industry to increase production efficiency and lower costs. b) Catalysts speed up reactions by lowering the energy barrier of a reaction or by bringing the reacting particles into collision. 22. 23. 24. C) 75 Each cell in the human body has hundreds of different catalysts which are essential for life itself. Glass: a) b) C) does not have the atoms in an ordered crystalline pattern like other solids; has been made by men from the time of Christ to the present from the same materials in the same pr0portions; is produced by modern industry in many varieties at the rate of about eight million tons per year. Nylon is a synthetic material noted for properties such as strength, toughness and low moisture absorbency. a) b) C) The properties of nylon have made it possible to replace some parts of the human body with nylon substitutes. The properties of nylon may best be understood in terms of its structure as a long chain polymer containing the amide linkage. Due to these many desirable properties industry produces nylon for hundreds of products such as carpets, ropes, tires and clothing. Carbon tetrachloride is a volatile liquid which is a non-conductor of electricity and will not burn. a) Industry has used carbon tetrachloride as a fire extinguishing agent for electrical fires due to these properties. b) C) 76 Carbon tetrachloride must be used With great care because the vapours can cause damage to the liver when inhaled in concen- trations as low as 25 parts per million. The properties of volatility and non-conduction may be ex- plained by the symmetry of the carbon tetrachloride molecule. APPENDIX B PANEL MEMBERS, VALIDATION AND TEACHER SURVEY APPENDIX B PANEL MEMBERS, VALIDATION AND TEACHER SURVEY PANEL MEMBERS Miss Sharon McFarlane, Graduate Student in Education, Althouse College of Education, our. mam University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada. Mr. Walter Tiessen, Provincial Consultant in Science, Ontario Department of Education, London , Ontario , Canada . Mr. Gordon L. Walker, Head of the Science Department, Strathroy District Collegiate Institute, Strathroy, Ontario, Canada. Mr. Dene Webber. Associate Professor of Curriculum and Instruction, Althouse College of Education, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada. Dr. R. Graham Woolford, Professor of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. 77 78 518 Upper Queens Street, London 16, Ont., Canada, February 12, 1971. Dear As part of the validation of a research instrument I would request 57 your kind assistance to classify the statements on the enclosed prefer- ence test. Three categories are defined on the response sheet. If, in your judgement, a statement is dominated by one of the de- i fined values, then that statement would be categorized as humanistic, technological or theoretical. Since these three values are not entirely independent, it is a matter of your personal evaluation as to whether or not a statement is primarily concerned with, or dominated by, a certain value. If a statement is not dominated by one of these three values, then please categorize that statement as "none of these". For example, questions 26-28 might be categorized as follows: QUESTION HUMANISTIC TECHNOLOGICAL THEORETICAL NONE OF THESE 26 a b c 27 b a,b 28 c a c Your careful and prompt attention to this matter would be appre- ciated, as would any further comment you might wish to make regarding these statements . Thanking you, I remain, Yours sincerely, Peter H. Huston 79 RESPONSE SHEET Definition of terms Theoretical value...concerned with the order and systamatization of knowledge (i.e. the principles, models, systems and hypotheses of science.) Humanistic value...involves a concern for human nature and improvement of the human condition. Technological value...involves the production and utilization of material goods. QUESTION THEORETICAL HUMANISTIC TECHNOLOGICAL NONE OF THESE 22 23 24 Signature Title Address sa‘ min—inc . ‘. .1 r l l 80 518 Upper Queens Street, London 16, Ont., Canada, March 3, 1971. 1y _._.i .l ' I: J“ Dear I wrote to you some time ago requesting your assistance in class- ifying some statements on a preference test. Since I have not heard from you at this time, I am enclosing another copy of the preference test statements, instructions and response sheet. I would like to have the benefit of your opinion in the validation of this research instrument. Thanking you for your attention to this matter, I remain, Yours sincerely, Peter H. Huston 81 CONTENT VALIDATION FORM FOR UNITS Introductions: All the introductions to a particular unit contain some information regarding the unit. The "placebo" attempts to give about the same amount of relevant information as the others. The "humanistic" and "technological" both contain some general organ- izational information, such as the importance of functional groups. The latter two types differ in the aspect of the unit used for motivation. The "humanistic" appeals to a concern for human nature and improvement of the human condition, whereas the "technological" appeals to interest in the production and utilization of material goods, such as plastics, soap, foodstuffs, dyes and so on. The introductions should be classified according to these descriptions. Questions: The questions on each unit simply require classification as "humanistic" or "non-humanistic" on the basis that humanistic involves a concern for human nature and improvement of the human condition. In order to expedite your classification of the enclosed introductions and questions, a tentative classification has been indicated on the response sheet and you simply indicate whether you agree or disagree. .. v I _.: ,_ _u I. L. .‘l a .‘ . e.. l: _ . u . 4,, ; J :5 . ,‘. i l , .. .. b. .. ~- '1' -‘ Lu.) . \ I sin, 1 I -l s_'. ._ a ~. .r 9‘ .‘ .». a". v ¢ >1 |e '~ . Z . o. ' 0‘ . 1 a; V ‘4‘ ;. )‘RI' 1 . , ,- ' "I " >\..; l , ,_ 1 . .. . ‘1 ' -. l .. . ’. . . . .. A. 5 '. ~ - .e 184.. I. I' ‘ I. D \l s. I. I.‘\ , .. . F >' F a u .. . . ' j ‘I -. '3 n. ’, F s O . , ‘ u ‘ 1 . x. .. I . . A .. u '5'. e .3» ““‘l . . .. a' f I r'f " I . ~ . . ‘ ,. .1. .C'Q't .: ,‘r a 4‘ lo ‘ \ s a ’ . II .I(_ -l is -. _... ., v r I I . v \ I x I . . 1 ‘a . .') t ‘ '- 1 .l . . . .' . o,t'. ' y y .. 5 l .4..- . a. . .. . .,- v” n. a—“ n t x . .. D ‘. ‘ e. , ,. '.‘ -. .u' , a ‘ ref ’ Q . , . ~. .‘ .- 1‘ ‘ pon- ,-.'o - -.—v‘l .. .. . o "' n, -ov .I “I‘_’~‘:‘. \> J :‘s:. e .g ’. ' ’ A , ~n . -. l- . L« c‘ o. g I . ., .le ‘ 'VI,I1" V. 7 » \l .. . .. fi' . "I a “ IQ. g, . Iv’ b (a s. . .t ~.~ _. .n , . ‘.' -r~ \u44 '- -l i - ‘lv 0 ) s,. : 6 'C-‘I - i L. . .w r 4 L o s ‘r 4», z ‘. . o 1‘ - . . u '.. l i . s -, ' v s . - v ._ ‘ .v‘u 4i . .. I C. v 4 ' I u I o. . I . :7. I c 1 ' a ' I .~ ) ,. . . .- u . n : I ~ _A. .~-‘ ..4 .1 a ‘I ,‘ \o.) -.I , ., : a...' n ...v. ~v I .. ‘I‘ - a. . ” D I .‘s . ‘. 0': - . etal“ , . g. I .7 -o O . . .~ -.. .. I. .,. ‘ l . a. u . a ' I ' . 1 1' ~¢ .. b...“ 4.4.. o a . .41... w V". 14' -. 4 J -. . ,.,-_ . I ‘_ . .l.41. ' L .1 ' ' u!‘ r— ._ .. . ...s .. ,. . - .p.sI-.p‘:\ .p. A e .V. ~ II"&. a. ‘ <~ v-..-- . 4 -.OO , . i .. l ‘.\ .- .. r: I .. 5 o ..‘ 'v e ' e v \ .1 0|, . - ‘a I a. I dis)- ., r J a ,. ‘0 .1 . O 82 RESPONSE SHEET UNIT I SECTION TENTATIVE AGREE DISAGREE CLASSIFICATION Introduction humanistic Introduction technological Introduction placebo Questions 1 non-humanistic 2 humanistic 3 humanistic 4 non-humanistic 5 non-humanistic 6 non-humanistic 7 non-humanistic 8 non-humanistic 9 humanistic 10 humanistic ll humanistic 12 non-humanistic Signature 83 RESPONSE SHEET UNIT II SECTION TENTATIVE AGREE DISAGREE CLASSIFICATION Introduction humanistic Introduction technological Introduction placebo Questions 1 non-humanistic 2 inon-humanistic 3 non-humanistic 4 “ humanistic S non-humanistic 6 ' non-humanistic 7 humanistic 8 humanistic 9 non-humanistic 10 humanistic ll humanistic Signature ‘r-m' ‘ " 84 RESPONSE SHEET UNIT III SECTION TENTATIVE AGREE DISAGREE CLASSIFICATION Introduction humanistic Introduction technological Introduction placebo Questions 1 non-humanistic 2 humanistic 3 humanistic 4 non-humanistic 5 non-humanistic 6 non-humanistic 7 non-humanistic 8 humanistic 9 non-humanistic 10 non-humanistic ll non-humanistic 12 humanistic Signature fl' 85 RESPONSE SHEET UNIT IV SECTION TENTATIVE AGREE DISAGREE CLASSIFICATION Introduction humanistic Introduction technological Introduction placebo Questions 1 non-humanistic 2 non—humanistic 3 non-humanistic 4 non-humanistic 5 non-humanistic 6 humanistic 7 humanistic 8 non-humanistic 9 non-humanistic 10 humanistic ll non-humanistic 12 humanistic Signature ‘- .m- x . 86 RESPONSE SHEET UNIT V SECTION TENTATIVE AGREE DISAGREE CLASSIFICATION Introduction humanistic Introduction technological Introduction placebo E Questions i 1 non-humanistic 2 non-humanistic 3 non-humanistic 4 humanistic 5 humanistic 6 humanistic 7 non-humanistic 8 non-humanistic 9 non-humanistic 10 humanistic 11 non-humanistic 12 humanistic Signature 87 518 Upper Queens Street, London 16, Ontario, March 8, 1971. Dear Colleague, The enclosed set of statements has been developed as part of a research study to determine the preferences of grade 12 chemistry students for various aspects of chemistry. Several classes of students attending secondary school in London have responded to this set of statements. In order to find out the preferences of grade 12 chemistry teachers in London, I am asking that you please indicate your choices as indicated on the response sheet. If the set of statements is of interest to you, please keep it. In order to investigate teacher characteristics which may be related to these preferences, I would appreciate your help by answering the enclosed questionnaire. All personal information will be kept confidential. Thank you. Yours sincerely, Peter H. Huston 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 88 TEACHER CHARACTERISTICS Teacher number Sex Age ix]! Year of baccalaureate graduation Degree: (circle) Graduate in Chem.; Honours Chem.; Honours Science; Engineering; General Science; flfi dB‘ -0 '- - General Arts; other (specify) No. of years teaching to June 1971 No. of years industrial chemistry No. of years work experience, including 6 8 7 If you spend more than 25% of your teaching time in a subject other than Chemistry, please indicate the name of that subject. Do you presently teach grade 13 chemistry? No. of university courses, approximately of 3 credits each, in chemistry. (Circle one.) 1-3 4-6 7-9 10—12 13—15 over 15 APPENDIX C TREATMENTS, PROGRAMMED UNITS AND TESTS APPENDIX C TREATMENTS, PROGRAMMED UNITS AND TESTS INTRODUCTION: THE ALKANES NAME CLASS Organic chemistry is a fantastically complex, sophisticated area of human endeavor. Due to the unique bonding pr0perties of carbon there are over 500,000 known organic compounds! Since these compounds make up a great deal of our modern environment, this environment can be better appreciated and utilized for man's benefit by an understanding of organic chemistry. Only by being literate in organic chemistry can you properly fulfill the role of an informed, concerned citizen to ensure that chemistry is directed towards improving the conditions of all the people in our society. You may even wish to play a more direct role in shaping future advances and applications in organic chemistry. Notice as you work through this unit how organic chemistry affects people: their health, comfort and safety. Look for the patterns of chemical names and the patterns of structure which will help you to digest the details of organic chemistry. 89 90 INTRODUCTION: UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS NAME v —v CLASS A crucial aspect of organic chemistry is the fact that an "apparently" small change in the structure of a molecule can drastic- ally change its properties. The presence of more than one shared pair of electrons between two carbon atoms seems like a trivial change in structure. The presence of this extra pair of electrons may de- termine whether or not a food is potentially dangerous to your health and may dominate the economics of its preparation and thus determine its availability to you. Look for particular patterns of chemical reactions due to this structure. These reactions have produced a fantastic range of new materials which benefit your life every day. You may have eaten some of these materials for breakfast, had a safer ride to school and be clothed by some at the moment. Through more complete understanding of these patterns of structure and reactions, man's needs may be even better served in the future. 91 INTRODUCTION: ALCOHOLS AND ACIDS NAME CLASS "Alcohol" is a word associated with many human emotions: (joy and remorse, pride and guilt, friendliness and alienation. Many pe0ple do not realize that the work "alcohol” does not specify one compound, but applies to a whole family of compounds. Each member of this family of compounds has a pair of atoms in the same arrangement, called a functional group. This functional group gives the members of the alcohol family similar chemical properties. It is a curious aspect of human nature that consumption of this functional group, (only two little atoms), has become an emotional, moral and legal issue, especially for consumers under twenty-one years of age. By careful study of this unit you will learn the functional groups for alcohols and acids and some of their patterns of reaction. 92 INTRODUCTION: ESTERS NAME ‘v'vvv The scene: A chemistry classroom. Teacher: "Class, what are esters?" Archie (a football player): "A group of girls with the same name." FT .r-u' Teacher: Mutters a loud groan. Sydney (an intellectual): "A family of compounds with the same func- tional group, of course." 7 Teacher: "Very good, Sydney." Archie: "I bet only chemists ever meet an ester from one year to the next.” Teacher: "Wrong again Archie. You likely eat esters every day. And you do like to eat." Archie: "Well is that all esters are good for?" Teacher: "No. Once you learn how to put a couple of functional groups together to get an ester, you will see that esters may help your girl-friend to look and smell attractive." Archie: "Functional groups again! I'd like to take apart the next functional group I meet." Teacher: "If it is an ester group it's easy to take apart. There is one ester you can take apart and get a common product which does more to maintain our everday health than anything else." Archie: "O.K., O.K. bring on the esters." 93 INTRODUCTION: ALDEHYDES AND AMINO ACIDS Name Class Although all members of the alcohol family are poisonous, the aldehydes are more variable. Some are very toxic and some are part of our daily diet. Close attention to the functional group and its pattern of reactions is still the most efficient way to learn the preparations I and reactions of particular aldehydes. Amino acids and their reactions with one another are at the centre of the exciting new field of molecular biology. Scientists are finding out what happens to actual molecules, some fantastically complex, in the human body. This information may well prove to be the "touchstone" in solving the riddle of cancer and in treating or even preventing hereditary defects. The key to learning the structures and reactions of proteins in the body is the structure and linking of the amino acids. Perhaps this will be the beginning of a career for you in an area which has such great potential for helping mankind. 94 INTRODUCTION: THE ALKANES NAME CLASS Organic chemistry is a fantastically complex, sophisticated area of learning and application. Due to the unique bonding prOperties of carbon there are over 500,000 known organic compounds! Since these compounds make up a great deal of the environment of a modern industrial society, this environment can be better under— stood and more fully exploited with a knowledge of organic chemistry. There are many industries directly involved in the production of millions of tons of organic compounds each year. Petroleum refining alone has huge plants with delicately controlled reactions producing hundreds of materials. To function effectively in such a technological society an understanding of organic chemistry is an asset. You may even wish to play a more direct role in shaping future advances and applications in organic chemistry. Notice as you work through this unit how many substances are already familiar to you as consumer products. Look for the patterns of chemical names and the patterns of structure which will help you to digest the details of organic chemistry. 95 INTRODUCTION: UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS NAME? CLASS A crucial aspect of organic chemistry is the fact that an "apparently" small change in the structure of a molecule can drastic- ally change its prOperties. The presence of more than one shared pair of electrons between two carbon atoms seems like a trivial change in structure. The presence of this extra pair of electrons may de- termine whether or not an industrial process is feasible. Million— dollar industries are able to make hundreds of different consumer materials only due to the reactions of this extra shared pair of electrons. Look for particular patterns of chemical reactions due to this structure. Through more complete understanding of these patterns of structure and reactions, chemical technology may produce even more amazing products in the future. 96 INTRODUCTION: ALCOHOLS AND ACIDS NAME CLASS ”Alcohol" is essential for many industrial processes. Many people do not realize that the word "alcohol" does not Specify one compound, but applies to a whole family of compounds. Each member of this family of compounds has a pair of atoms in the same arrangement, called a functional group. This functional group gives the members of the alcohol family similar chemical properties. Our technologically 50phisticated chemical industry requires alcohols produced on a vast scale, both synthetically and by fermenta- tion. The alcohols are either utilized directly themselves or used to prepare other substances such as acids. By careful study of this unit you will learn the functional groups for alcohols and acids and some of their patterns of reaction. 97 INTRODUCTION: ESTERS NAME CLASS Esters are a family of compounds with similar methods of preparation and the same functional group. Many esters occur in nature and may be isolated from their natural sources or synthesized from simpler compounds containing the necessary functional groups. Alone or in skilfull blends, esters are used to produce perfumes and arti- ficial flavorings. These flavorings are necessary for commercial pro- duction of such things as candles and beverages. The breaking apart of esters is fundamental to the manufacturing of soap. The preparation and reaction of esters 15 best learned and organized by concentrating on the functional groups which combine to form an ester and the structure of the ester group itself. JMW‘P‘. 1W 98 INTRODUCTION: ALDEHYDES AND AMINO ACIDS NAME CLASS The aldehydes vary widely in their commercial methods of preparation and in their uses. Close attention to the functional group and its pattern of reactions is still the most efficient way to learn the preparations and reactions of particular aldehydes. Amino acids are essential for animal growth and thus are important in the "food industries”. Small amounts of a particular amino acid fed to chickens increases their growth rate. Thus poultry production is made more efficient. A salt of the amino acid, glutamic acid, is produced in large quantities for use as a food additive. Proteins, composed of many amino acid molecules, are usually the most eXpensive foodstuff to produce. The key to learnu ing the structures and reactions of proteins is the structure and linking of the amino acids. 99 INTRODUCTION: THE ALKANES NAME CLASS Organic chemistry is a fantastically complex, sophisticated area of study. Due to the unique bonding properties of carbon there are over 500,000 known organic compounds. Crude Oil and natural gas serve as the major sources for the hydrocarbons. The crude oil is separated into various components, or fractions, then these fractions are purified. Some fractions must be broken down and then reformed to give marketable substances. Among the simpler components is the group known as the alkanes. Many of the alkanes have several names, a common or historical name, an early chemical name, and a very systematic name as developed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. Principally the systematic names are used in these units. Industry frequently uses the common or historical name. 100 INTRODUCTION: UNSATURATED HYDROCARPUNS NAME CLASS Some hydrocarbons contain less than the maximum ratio of hydrogen atoms to carbon atoms due to the presence of more than one shared pair of electrons between two carbon atoms. The presence of these extra electrons between the carbon atoms changes the properties of these hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons, called unsaturated hydrocarbons, are produced by the cracking of large molecules obtained from crude oil. The cracking may be effected by heat alone or may require a catalyst as well. These unsaturated hydrocarbon molecules of the proper size increase the octane number of gasoline. The greater the octane number of a gasoline, the less tendency the gasoline has to "knock" or "ping" when the engine is under a heavy load. ‘9‘“? iflké 1“ l .m 101 INTRODUCTION: ALCOHOLS AND ACIDS NAME CLASS "Alcohol" is a word which does not specify one compound but refers to a whole family of compounds with similar structure and prOper- ties. The word alcohol has been used to describe the active part of F3 “(‘3‘ I intoxicating beverages ever since the sixteenth century. The word may have come from the Arabic word "al—kuhl" for finely powdered antimony sulphide used to darken eyelids. It is interesting to note, however, r' that the Arabian alchemists who had been familiar with wine for centuries, never used the word "al-kuhl" in connection with wine. The word alcohol may be derived from the Latin "spiritus alcalisatus" used for alcohol purified by drying with potassium carbon- ate. The word acid comes from the Latin word "acidus" meaning sour, since acidic substances such as lemons taste sour. 102 INTRODUCTION: ESTERS NAME CLASS Esters are a family of compounds with Similar methods of preparation and the same functional group. Many esters are found in nature in fruits, vegetable 0115, animal fats and waxes such as beeswax. All fats and oils are at least slightly unsaturated. The extent of saturation gradually decreases from hard and soft fats such as lard and butter and olive oil to semi-drying oils such as cottonseed oil to drying oils like linseed oil and fish oils. The fish oils are composed from long chain acids with four to six double bonds. The odours of fish oils may be due to this unsaturation. The drying oils form a tough film as they absorb oxygen at the double bonds. It 103 INTRODUCTION: ALDEHYDES AND AMINO ACIDS NAME CLASS The aldehydes vary Widely in their methods of preparation and their properties. The familiar catalytic heater produces an aldehyde by the reaction. Amino acids combine together to form proteins. All living tissue contains proteins, but some tissues, such as flesh or seeds, contain larger amounts. Plants ultimately are the source of all pro- teins, since only plants can make amino acids from inorganic nitrogen compounds. The plants in turn are helped by nitrite bacteria which change the ammonia of some soil micro-organisms into nitrites. Another type of bacteria change the nitrites into nitrates which the plant can change into amino acids and thus into proteins. The legume plants, with the help of bacteria on their roots, are able to change nitrogen of the air into amino acids. j"' n vitalistic electrons 104 UNIT I Well into the nineteenth century compounds which were derived from living organisms were believed to contain a "vitalistic force" due to their plant or animal origins and thus to be uniquely different from compounds originating from nonvliving sources. These compounds coming from living organisms were said to be "organic" whereas those from nonaliving sources were called "inorganic". In 1828 Wohler synthesized urea, usually isolated from urine, from ammonium cyanate. This did not have much influence in combating the vitalistic theory, but in 1845 a student of Wohler's named Kolbe synthesized trichloracetic acid proving that an organic compound could be made from its elements without this force. Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds, according to modern usage. A carbon atom (igC) has 6 protons, 6 neutrons and ___ electrons, two in the first energy level and ____in the second energy level. The outermost four - can be shared with other atoms as long as this carbon atom gains the sharing of 4 other electrons in return. Thus the carbon atom will have 8 shared electrons in its outermost energy level. Each pair of shared electrons is shared pair 4 hydrogen carbon carbon shared covalent covalent 105 called a covalent bond. A covalent bond is made of a of electrons. The formation of the compound methane, CH4, would be represented, showing electrons in the outermost energy level only, as follows: There are pairs of shared electrons which hold the 4 fi' atoms to the atom. Each hydrogen atom is said to be bonded to the atom by a pair of electrons or a bond. The ”covalence" of an atom in a compound is the number of shared pairs of electrons or number of 7 bonds fi vv vv which the atom has in that compound. Thus in methane, carbon has a covalence of and hydrogen a covalence of . Each covalent bond can be H represented by a short line. Thus methane would H I be H-CaH. This type of formula, which shows some. .2 thing of the way the atoms are arranged, is called a structural formula. The covalence of carbon is usually 4, but the bond angles cannot be accurately shown on a two dimensional drawing. Methane is a light, flammable gas produced by bacterial decomposition of plant and animal matter. methane structural 4 covalence butane H H H III H-C-C—C-H I I H H H 106 Methane bubbles up from the decaying marsh bottom and the ignition of this gas by lightning probably accounts for superstitious tales of the "willeovthevwisp." A more modern problem is the explosion of methane produced in a sewer or the explosion of methane released from a coal seam in a mine. Thus has also been r—v—‘v—v'vv vfi V r called ”marsh gas”, "sewer gas” and "fire damp". Carbon has the unique characteristic of being able to bond almost indefinitely one carbon atom to another. This accounts for the fact that about 90% of all the known compounds are organic. Two carbon atoms are bonded together to form the flammable gas ethane, C2H6. Thus a”: HvaC—H is the - - fiva - formula for ethane. HI Each carbon atom has a covalence of and each hydrogen atom has a of one. ‘- v v ——v Similar compounds of hydrogen and carbon, called hydrocarbons, are propane C3H8’ and butane, C4H109 In propane there are carbon atoms connected in a chain and there are 4 carbon atoms in a chain in . The structural formula w—fifi of propane is: H- q- :IZ-O-ZI: :E-P—L'E :‘E-Sfi-L‘E 33-9-3: :1: covalence covalence 2n+2 CnH2n+2 alkanes 3,8 4 C4H10 C5H12 C6H14 C7H16 107 The structural formula of butane is: In both these hydrocarbons, carbon has a of 4 and hydrogen a .tc- of 1. Looking at the structural formulas for ethane, pr0pane, and butane, the carbon atom on each end of the chain is bonded to ____hydrogen atoms, whereas a carbon atom from the inner part of the chain is bonded to hydrogen atoms. Therefore a general struc- tural formula for this family or series of com- pounds is H H Notice that each H.c.(CH2)n.c.H , H H carbon atom has ____hydrogen atoms plus an extra hydrogen atom at each end. Thus if there is n carbon atoms there will be 2n hydrogen atoms plus 2 hydrogen atoms for the end carbon atoms. The general formula for this series of hydro- carbons is CnH . This family of compounds with the general formula, , and similar names, (all end in ”ane") is called the alkanes. PrOpane is a member of the where n= ___ and 2n+2= ___3 Similarly for butane n=____ with the formula and for pentane n=5 with the formula . The six carbon alkane is hexane with formula and heptane is the seven carbon alkane with formula . The alkanes can best be re- membered by learning the number of carbon atoms CH4 2 H ’ C2 6 PROPANE, c3118 4,10, C4H10 5,12, c H 5 12 HEXANE HEPTANE 108 for each name and deriVing the number of hydrogen atoms from the formula CnH2n+2 . Study these 7 alkanes. Complete the following table: NAME # C # H FORMULA METHANE 1 4 ETHANE 6 3 8 BUTANE PENTANE 6 l4 C6H14 7 l6 C7H16 The alkanes are generally unreactive although controlled oxidation has been used with some success to make alcohols and acids. One of the major requirements of modern man is fuel for heat and for power. Hydrocarbons, from crude oil, are the principal fuel source. The crude oil is separated, broken down and re— formed to give the compounds or mixtures of com— pounds with the particular characteristics necessary for each use. Propane is sold as a compressed gas for cooking and heating. Natural gas, usually found with crude oil, is made of about 90% methane and 5% ethane. The alkanes with 5 to 10 carbon atoms are liquids at room temperature gas liquid solid CHCl3 H\O 109 whereas the larger molecules form progressively thicker liquids until at about i8 carbon atoms they are solids. An alkane of 3 carbon atoms would be a , one of 9 carbon atoms a , and one of 30 carbons a A wide range of different compounds can be produced by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms of an alkane with atoms such as chlorine or fluorine. If the four hydrogen atoms of methane are replaced by four chlorine atoms, an entirely different compound, carbon tetrachloride, is obtained. Carbon tetrachloride contains carbon atom and ____chlorine atoms. Methane is an excellent fuel, but carbon tetrachloride is used as a fire extinguishing agent, If only 3 of the hydrogen atoms of methane are replaced by chlorine atoms, chloroform, formula , is obtained. The structural formula of chloroform is Chloroform was used extensively in the last century as an anaesthetic to relieve pain during surgery. It is largely replaced with safer drugs at present. If 2 chlorine atoms and 2 fluorine atoms are used to replace the 4 hydrogen atoms of methane, the compound dichlorodifluoromethane, formula '4' ‘ fl _’ 110 , is produced. The structural a v vv—v formula for dichlorodifluoromethane is It is noncorrosive, non— fov‘r v Vfi toxic and noninflammable and is used as a refrigerant in the cooling coils of refrigerators and air conditioners under the name of Freon«12. Thus by changing the atoms bonded to even one carbon atom, dramatic changes in properties and uses occur. It is the possibility for hundreds of thousands of compounds, each with its own structure and properties, that gives organic chemistry almost unlimited potential. ..i§' butene hexene Cs”1o 111 UNIT II Two carbon atoms can share 1, 2 or 3 pairs of electrons thus forming a single, double or triple covalent bond between the atoms while maintaining a covalence of 4. If a double bond is present, C=C , the hydrocarbon is called an alkene, and is named . . _ by changing the name of the alkane (e.g. ethane) to end in ENE (e.g. ethENE). The molecular formula for ethene is C2H4 and the structural formula is . Ethene is ' v v ' also known by the name ethylene. The 3 carbon alkene with a name derived from prOpane is called with molecular formula 7 (Note that the alkene always has 2 fewer atoms than the corresponding ' v v v—vfi‘ vv—vr alkane due to the double bond.) The structural formula for propene is The alkene with molecular formula C4H8 is named w - v - va and that with formula C6H12 is named The formula for pentene is Draw the structural formula for a compound such as butene as follows: 1) put down the correct number of carbon atoms isomers e) b) 1-pentene 112 in a chain and join with single covalent bonds. fivvw—vfi ' v 2) put in a double bond - 3) complete with hydrogen atoms until each carbon atom has a covalence of 4 In showing the double bond you may be puzzled as to which 2 carbon atoms it should go between. At first glance there appears to be 3 possibilities: a) C=C—C—C b) C-CaC-C and c) C«C-C=C. Closer examination shows that a) and c) are identical. Different structures with the same formula are called structural isomers. These two , both with formula C4H8 but the double bond in different locations, must have names that will distinguish them. This is done by numbering the carbon chain and indicating the position of the double bond. The numbering is started form the end giving the location of the double bond the lowest number possible. Thus lubutene is the name for structures a) and ______above, whereas 2-butene is the name for structure . Number the carbon atoms and name the following: H H H I I I H-C-C-C-CaC-H and I I I I I TTV'TVTV H H H H H r._ 2-pentene double double addition dibromoethane'. propane l-butene 2-butene The alkenes show much more chemical activity than the alkanes due to the exra pair of electrons at the bond. The most characteristic reaction of alkenes is addition, usually of 2 runs-*9 atoms, at the double bond. Ethene, for example, reacts with chlorine forming the compound 1,2- dichloroethane. H H\ H III I C=C“ + C12 7 HaC-—-C—H / \ I I H H C1 C1 Since the chlorine has joined or added on at the bond, the ethene is said to have v v v V‘- undergone . Similarly, the addition of bromine to ethene forms 1,2. . These two compounds, 1,2udichloroethane and 1,2rcibromoethane, are used with tetraethyl lead to improve the per- formance of gasoline in high compression engines. Hydrogen can be added to alkenes in the presence of a suitable catalyst such as nickel or platinum. The addition of hydrogen, or the "hydrogenation", of pr0pene produces . Butane would be formed by hydrogenation of both the isomers and . Hydrocarbons which can undergo addition are addition unsaturated double polymerization polymer 114 said to be unsaturated. The unsaturated hydro- carbons can be made more saturated by Vegetable and animal oils which are unsaturated are often hydrogenated to form solid or semi-solid fats such as shortening or margarine. If hydro— genation is not complete there will be some double bonds remaining and the fat will still be c0ulg ‘ZWH-m . . -. If there are many double bonds remaining the L substance may be described as polyunsaturated. Research has indicated that cholesterol and heart disease may be associated with the consumption of saturated fats. This danger may be reduced by substitution of unsaturated fats in the diet. An interesting and important type of reaction of unsaturated compounds is combination with other identical molecules. One shared electron pair of the bond may be used to join atoms v v' v of the other molecule in an addition reaction. Ethene, for example, can join with other ethene molecules to form a long chain. This long molecule formed from many single units is called a polymer and the process of joining them together is called polymerization. The joining or of many ethene molecules produces a well known as polyethylene or polythene and used extensively for wrapping food. Thousand of syn- thetic materials such as nylon, rubber, saran and polymerization polypropene triple propyne butyne 115 styrofoam which add to the safety, comfort and convenience of our society are made by polymeri. zation. Similarly, the joining or of many propene molecules froms the polymer poly Unsaturated compounds may have 3 shared electron pairs between 2 carbon atoms, forming a triple bond. The simplest member of this family, the alkynes, is H-CSC-H and is called ethyne or acetylene. The names of members of the alkynes, which contain a bond, are formed by changing the alkane ending of "ane" to "yne". Thus C3H4 is the foImula for rv v 1 vv—fi and C4H6 the formula for . Acetylene has a low ignition point and may explode if too highly compressed. It is used in large quantities for welding metals. -OH -2: H-C-O—H I— H- :—O -21: *3 .(E-O—H H ethyl alcohol ethanol propane -on Prepyl 116 UNIT III A functional group is a group of atoms which occurs in many compounds and gives certain pr0perties to these compounds. The group —OH, for example, is a functional group present in all the compounds known as alcohols. The simplest alcohol has one carbon atom, like methane, but contains the functional group The formula for this alcohol is CHSOH with struc- tural formula . Alcohols are named ' v. f V fiv by two methods: 1) the "e” is dropped from the name of the corresponding alkane and the ending "01" added. (e.g. methanol) 2) the first part of the alcohol is named by changing the ”ane" alkane ending to "yl" and is followed by the word alcohol. (e.g. methyl alcohol) The alcohol derived from ethane is C H OH with 2 S structural formula and the names vvw' v V f h alcohol and 01.' Similarly v—vvvfivwv—vv v C3H7OH is derived from the alkane and has the functional group and is named alcohol or propanol. Although alcohol formulas resemble the hydroxides, alcohols do not produce the hydroxide ion, OH-. Methyl alcohol was made on a large scale by ‘Y- 117 destructive distillation of wood, a process where dry wood is heated without air so the wood cannot burn and the gaseous products condensed and sepa- rated. Thus the common name for methyl alcohol is "wood alcohol”. Although all alcohols are poisonous, methyl alcohol is particularly toxic, attacking the Optic nerve and causing blindness or even death. At the time of Prohibition the name methanol was more widely used to discourage people from consuming v7 - - alcohol through misunder~ f‘v methyl standing of the word ”alcohol". Large quantities of methanol are used as a solvent and to produce other organic compounds. A compound which is used to produce yet another compound is called a "chemical intermediate". Methyl alcohol is an important chemical . fivv'vfi'Vfiv v intermediate Ethyl alcohol, formula , has been CZHSOH produced since ancient times by the fermentation of various food products to produce intoxicating beverages. It was not until the last century that Louis Pasteur showed that a type of catalyst, called an enzyme, produced by yeast cells was re— sponsible for the conversion of sugar into carbon dioxide and ethanol. The flavor of the beverage depends upon small traces of other compounds which come from the foodstuffs such as molasses, corn or potatoes. ethene addition double bleached alcohols carboxylic 118 Non-beverage ethanol is usually prepared by the following reaction. H‘ /H + H2504 H 3: ('3 O-H FR ———————> T." H H H H In this preparation the alkene undergoes of water at the bond producing ethyl alcohol. Ethanol is widely used as a solvent and a chemical intermediate. An alcohol can be oxidized to the corresponding acid by an oxidizing agent such as chromic oxide. The oxidation of ethyl alcohol is used to determine the alcohol level in the bloodstream. A standard sized sample of deep—lung air is collected and allowed to react with a standard chromate solution which is a pale yellow. As the chromate oxidizes any alcohol present the solution is bleached. The greater the amount of alcohol present in the blood, the greater the amount of alcohol in the deep-lung sample and the greater the yellow color of the chromate is - . The amount of bleaching v—v Vivi is measured phot0«electrically. The acids produced by oxidation of are called carboxylic acids and contain the carboxyl group, -C=O , which is often written «COOH. The —H systematic name for these acids is formed by dropping the letter "e" from the methyl methanoic HCOOH formic ethanoic carboxyl 5‘ //° H-C-C H \O-H acetic 119 corresponding alkane, and adding the ending "oic". Thus the carboxylic acid containing one carbon atom derived from oxidation of alcohol is acid. Methanoic acid has the structural formula H-CfO and molecular formula OnH . Because methanoic acid was at one time derived from red ants, it is frequently named formic acid from the latin word "formica" meaning ant. Methanoic or acid is present on the spines of stinging nettles and insect stingers and causes a painful blister on contact with the skin. Ethanol is oxidized to form acid, molecular formula CH3COOH, which contains the group and has the structural formula . Ethanoic acid is generally known as acetic acid from the latin word "acetum", meaning vinegar. Household vinegar is a 4 — 5% solution of acid obtained by air oxidation of apple cider. Industrially acetic acid is the cheapest organic acid being produced at the rate of several hundred million pounds per year. Its chief use is in preparation of acetate salts and such products as cellulose acetate which is the plastic base for most photOgraphic film. propanoic CH CHZCOOH 3 CHSCHZCHZCOOH oxidation butyl HCOO' acid Hcoo" formate HCOONa acetate CH3COOK propanate propanoic hydrogen 120 If the alcohol CHSCHZCHZOH were oxidized, acid with formula would be produced. Butanoic acid, formula vvv ' v- v would be produced by of VV’vav‘wv vav alcohol. fiv Vvvvvvvv Carboxylic acids are generally weak acids, producing a relatively small concentration of hydrogen ions. The only hydrogen atom that can form a hydrogen ion is in the carboxyl group. HCOOH Han) + ...v - (aq) The radical formed when HCOOH, formic , ——————A (MD <—— loses a hydrogen ion is the formate ion, formula . The sodium salt of this acid rVVV‘VVVV v—vv would be sodium with formula r—v—vvwvvvvvv wv 'j‘vvvfiVVVfV Similarly the potassium salt of acetic acid would be potassium 4' with formula . CH3CH2COO“ is the formula for vv v v—vwvv—vvvvfi the radical formed when acid loses one ion. W propyl propanol propanoic We H—fi-C-C’ A ‘o.H alcohol: acid hydroxide methyl formic alcohol propanoic 121 UNIT IV We have seen that an alcohol, such as CHSCHZCHZOH, called a. - alcohol or , can be oxidized to produce v VfV acid with structural formula v v v v— vvv The functional group of the is —OH and the functional 'fi‘v vv—vvvr“ group of the is ~COOH. Although the carboxylic acids produce the hydrogen ion, alcohols do not produce the ion. fiv—vv—vv Nevertheless alcohols and acids do react, producing an ester and water, in a reaction called esterification (e.g. ester-production). ALCOHOL + ORGANIC ACID—--~-—-—-9 ESTER + WATER Let us illustrate the esterification of formic acid and methyl alcohol. 0 H // l H-C + HeOaCnH --—-? H.c C \O-H A 0/ O \n: \ I \ H + H O :I:’I The ester formed by this reaction is methyl formate, the "methyl” coming from alcohol and the "formate” from r acid (the "ic" of the acid is changed to "ate"). Thus ethyl propanate would be formed by the reaction of ethyl fig with v'v‘vrvf vv acid. Reaction of prepyl alcohol v v v propyl acetate -OH -COOH acid «COOC- 122 with acetic acid would produce the ester vv v VV" vwvvwrvififi Alcohols have the functional group and acids the functional group . When esterification occurs the site of the reaction is the functional groups of acid and alcohol coming together. 0 .. . 0 nCl/ ..o.. HE‘OQICII ' 'W') PC? | + H O X.)'H ... o I \OFCF 2 acid"’ alcohol ester‘ Thus all esters contain the functional group 0 -Co ‘ , sometimes written as -COOC—, which joins \ O-Cn I together the hydrocarbon chains of the alcohol I and . This group, .COOC-, is known as I the ester linkage. All esters contain the linkage . Of the following structural formulas, the only ester is ,0 / 1) CH CHZaC 3 \ I CHz—CI3 0? III 2) CHSCH2.C.0.C.CH2CH3 0 II 3) CHSCHZ—C—O—CHZCH3 O n 4) CHSCHZ—C-O—H 3) acid hydrogen CCH3 or OCCH3 CH3 acetic methyl methyl acetate 3 prepanoic methyl 123 number _____J Notice that each of these molecules contains a carbon atom with a doubly bonded oxygen atom, -C30 , a group called the carbonyl group. Molecule 2) most closely resembles an ester, but the —C::, is bonded to a carbonyl group, unlike the ester linkage. Given an ester formula such as CH300CCH3, how do you identify the part of the ester that came from the acid and the part that came from the alcohol? Notice that the carbonyl group of the ester linkage comes from the The carbon atom of the carbonyl group always has 3 covalent bonds to the oxygen atoms and the fourth covalent bond to another carbon atom. This carbon atom has ng_hydrogen atoms bonded to it. Thus the portion of the ester coming from the acid has a carbon atom with no atoms. Therefore the ester CHSOOCCH3 has the portion coming from the acid and the portion from the alcohol. The acid with 2 carbon atoms is acid and the alcohol with 1 carbon atom is alcohol. Thus the ester is The ester CHSCHZCOOCH3 comes from a carbon acid, acid and alcohol, thus the ester is named I l methyl propanate butanoic alcohol propyl butanate ate acid ester two alcohol two 124 Similarly, the ester with formula CHSCHZCHZCOOHZCHZCHS is formed from acid and propyl - , with the name of the ester being Esters occur in nature as an attractive smelling component of ripening fruit. The ester CHSCHZCHZCHZCHZOOCCHS, pentyl acetate, resembles the odour of bananas and butyl butan the odour of apples. Esters are used “w "it” I to some extent in synthetic flavors and perfumes but the largest amounts are used as industrial solvents, particularly in the making of lacquers. If acids containing more than one -COOH group react with alcohols containing more than one -OH group, then each molecule whether alcohol or has at least 2 sites where an ester linkage can be formed. Thus alcohol and acid molecules can be strung alternately in a long chain joined by linkages. The long molecules produced are a class of polymer called a polyester. Dacron is a tough amazing polyester produced by the reaction of an acid with at least functional groups and an with at least functional groups. Esters will react with sodium or potassium methyl acetate ethyl formate ester glycerol stearate 125 hydroxide splitting the ester into the corre- sponding alcohol and the sodium or potassium salt. Methyl acetate, for example, when heated with sodium hydroxide splits into alcohol and sodium . Similarly ethyl formate when heated with potassium hydroxide splits into alcohol and potassium . The reaction between sodium or potassium hydroxide and an is called "saponification” because it is used to make soap. The ester, used to make soap, comes from a very long chain acid such as stearic acid C H COOH and an 17 35 alcohol called glycerol with the structural formula H H H I H—C-C—C»H u c O 0 O | I I H H H Since glycerol has alcohol functional groups, the ester will require three molecules of stearic acid giving an ester with ester linkages. The saponification of glyceryl stearate with sodium hydroxide produces the alcohol and the soap sodium . Soap has been made by this reaction since ancient times. The pioneers in this country used to leach the hydroxide from wood ashes then heat it with beef fat in a large kettle to make soap. 126 The glycerol produced by saponification is valuable for making the explosive nitro— glycerine used to make dynamite. Nobel amassed a fortune with his manufacture of dynamite and set up the fund for the Nobel prizes. 127 UNIT V Just as an alcohol is named by dropping the letter "e" of the corresponding alkane and adding the ending ____3 so the family of compounds "01" called the aldehydes is named by adding the ending "al". The functional group of the aldehydes is ,O -c/ which makes the structure of the aldehyde \ H ’0 derived from methane H-C/ called \H w methanal Methanal, like other aldehydes, can be formed either by oxidation of the corresponding alcohol or reduction of the corresponding acid. Thus methanal can be made by oxidation of methyl alcohol or reduction of acid. formic or Because methanal comes from formic acid it is methanoic also called formaldehyde. Notice the relation of the alcohol, aldehyde and acid. H I - - O ' ° 0 H-C-O-H ox1datiog H—C” :x1dation> H—C” ‘ieduction A‘H reduction ‘O-H methanol methanal methanoic or methyl or or formic alcohol formaldehyde acid Formaldehyde has a pungent odour familiar to all students who have dissected biological specimens preserved in a solution of formaldehyde Formaldehyde is also used as a fungicide, to treat seeds before planting to increase food ethanal acetic or ethanoic CHsCHO acet- 60 -C aldehyde carbon 128 production. Ethanol can be oxidized to the aldehyde or the aldehyde can be formed by reduction of acid. The re- lationship of ethanal, formula , to acetic acid can be shown by the name aldehyde. Acetaldehyde boils at 20°C but forms useful solid polymers. Three acet- aldehyde molecules polymerize to form "paraldehyde" which has been used medicinally as a sleep producer since late in the last century. Four acetaldehyde molecules polymerize to form "metaldehyde" which is used as a solid fuel for camp stoves. The aldehyde functional group, , which also occurs in sugars, is a reducing agent. It will reduce the cupric ion of Fehling's solution to cuprous oxide with a visible colour change. This reduction of Fehling's solution is used as a test for the presence of the group. The functional groups encountered so far have been limited to the elements hydrogen, H oxygen and . The amino group, -N:H- is an important functional group found in groups of compounds called amines and amino acids. The simplest type of amines, the primary amines CH3NH2 methylamine CH CH NH 3 2 2 ethylamine CHSCHZCHZCHZNHZ amino carboxyl or carbonyl H-CH(NH2)COOH R-CH(NH2)COOH CH CH(NH )COOH 3 2 129 , have the formula R-NH2 where Rzmethyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, etc. Therefore when R=CH3 the amine with formula named results. Similarly when R=ethyl the amine formula called results. Butylamine has the formula V 7f v 7v As the name implies, amino ac1ds contain both the carboxyl group and the group. The simpler amino acids have the structural formula H R C—CQO where R=H, methyl or ' ‘o-H H’N‘H other alkyl group. Notice that the amino group is bonded to the first carbon atom beside the group. The formula of the amino acid can more con— veniently be written as R-CH(NH2)COOH. For "glycine", the simplest amino acid, R=H and the formula is For the amino acid " alanine" R=CH3 so the general amino acid formula becomes Amino acids are essential, both for plants and animals, for many life processes, including synthesis of proteins. A protein is formed when a very great number of amino aC1d molecules join together or polymerize. If a smaller amino polymerize carboxyl amino 130 number of acid molecules join together or ___~7 giving a molecular weight of less than 10,000, the polymer formed is called a "peptide". The reaction which links amino acid molecules is between the carboxyl group of one molecule and the amino group of the other. This can be shown as: ? ’0 I1 ~\\pfptide bond R-C-C’to'0 ' $0 + H 0 f, fo-H- —-—» R-e-C. ,H 2 I \ , : H /N\ N H H "1}: I H H I ‘N H-O-C-C-R . l/ I H—O-C—C-R O H I, a O H Notice that the essential part of the linking is the splitting of an oxygen atom and a hydrogen atom from the group with a hydrogen atom from the group to form a molecule of water. The carbon of the carboxyl group is bonded to the nitrogen of the amino group in this junction called an amide linkage or peptide bond. The structure of the amide linkage or bond contains 4 atoms and can be drawn as If you looked carefully at the equation showing the formation of the peptide bond you may have wondered why the other amino group and carboxyl group did not react. If so your alkaloids 131 chemical reasoning is correct, two peptide bonds can be formed producing a ring-shaped compound. Ring compounds, containing nitrogen, found in plants are called alkaloids. Many alkaloids have striking effects on the human body. A few of the more familiar are: nicotine, —fi from the tobacco plant; quinine, from the bark of the cinchona tree used in treating malaria; morphine, which is one of the alkaloids found in pOppy seeHs. Many primitive peoples have used brews of various plants for treating pain or disease, apparently for the effects caused by the alkaloids present. 132 UNIT I TEST NAME Complete the following statements with the most suitable word, words or formula. 1. 10. The number of shared electron pairs which an atom has in a compound is called the of the atom in that rvv *7 compound. It is the nature of man to attribute phenomena such as the strange flickering lights over.marshes to a superstitious creature such as the "will-o-the-wisp", rather than search for a less romantic explanation, such as the burning of from bacterial decomposition. Many coal miners have been injured and killed when ignition of the hydrocarbon , known to miners as "fire-damp", occurred in a mine. The structural formula of prOpane is C6H14 is the formula for The structural formula of butane is Alkanes have the general formula An alkane with 6 carbon atoms per molecule would be in the state at room temperature. When the hydrogen atoms of methane are replaced by chlorine atoms, a compound is obtained which is used to save lives and reduce property damage as a agent. Pain was eased for patients undergoing surgery by use of a compound containing one carbon atom, one hydrogen atom and three atoms per molecule. 133 11. A refrigerant used in many air conditioners, to increase human comfort and efficiency during the hot summer months, the nontoxic compound Freon 12, with the chemical name methane. 12. The structural formula for dibromomethane is 134 UNIT II TEST NAME Complete the following statements with the most suitable word, words or formula. 1. Compounds with the same formula but different structures are called structural 2. The most characteristic reaction of alkenes is 3. Hexane could be prepared by the hydrogenation of 4. Housewives save money by buying fats, such as margarine, made by the process of vegetable oils, rather than buying more expensive animal fats. S. The structural formula of prOpene is 6. Addition of chlorine to 2-butene gives 2,3- 7. People may reduce the risk of high cholesterol levels and associated heart disease, by replacing animal fat components of the diet with fats made from vegetable oils. 8. Many foods are much freer from bacterial contamination, re- ducing the risk to consumers of bacterial infection, due to the packaging of foods in polythene, which is made from the alkene 9. C3H4 is the formula for a, 10. In order to avoid serious injury, it is important that welders remember the low ignition point and explosiveness of acetylene, which has structural formula 11. 135 Safer automobile tires, which reduce highway deaths and injuries, are made from synthetic materials such as nylon, made by a process called from smaller molecules. 136 UNIT III TEST NAME Complete the following statements with the most suitable word, words or formula. 10. 11. 12. The structural formula of propanol is Consumption as a beverage of wood alcohol, formula , has caused pe0ple to go blind or die. In order to reduce the internal consumption of wood alcohol, "U y r'. [iii—3— ' Mr.“ I 1 I .' A _ with its resultant harmful effects on people, the name encouraged for this alcohol was Propyl alcohol can be produced by chemical addition of water, aided by sulphuric acid, at the double bond of The structural formula for methanoic acid is Methanoic acid can be prepared by oxidation of CH3CH2CH2COOH is the formula for . People develop a response of fear, or at least avoidance, of v v stinging insects due to the painful blister produced by the on the insect's stinger. Acetic acid is used to prepare f acetate used as a plastic base for photographic film. One molecule of ionized malonic acid, CH2(COOH)2, would produce hydrogen ion(s). To prepare CHSCOOH you would oxidize the alcohol with formula In an effort to reduce the injuries and deaths caused by in- toxicated automobile drivers, the breathalyzer measures the suspect's alcohol level by the bleaching of solution as it oxidizes the alcohol. 137 UNIT IV TEST NAME Complete the following statements with the most suitable word, words or formula. 1. The ester methyl pIOpanate is formed by the reaction of acid and methyl alcohol. 2. The reaction of formic acid and pr0panol produces the ester 3. The structure of the ester linkage is 4. The compound with formula CH3CH2CHZOOCCH3 is formed from propyl alcohol and 5. Which of the following is an ester? H H a) C 3C 2COOCOCHZCH3 b) CHSCHZCOCHZCH3 c) CHSCHZCOOCHZCH3 6. It is an interesting facet of the psychological conditioning or physiology of man that certain odours, such as the odour of ripening apples due to the ester are con- sidered pleasant, whereas other odours are considered unpleasant. 7. The average housewife has been relieved of much of the drudgery of ironing by the use of "wash and wear" polyester synthetics made from an acid with at least functional groups. 8. Complete the structural formula for methyl acetate. H H I I/ I H-C-C- -C-H I I H H 10. 11. 12. 138 Ethyl alcohol and sodium formate are produced by the reaction between sodium hydroxide and fir v v Whether his discovery was of overall benefit or harm to man— kind was of great concern to Nobel, who discovered dynamite, made form nitroglycerine which was derived from the alcohol . I Saponification of glyceryl stearate with potassium hydroxide produces the soap with the chemical name of Man's ability to use and benefit from that which is not understood is illustrated by the preparation of the hydroxide for saponification from , by the pioneers. 139 UNIT V TEST NAME Complete the following statements with the most suitable word, words, or formula. 10. 11. Methanal may be formed by the oxidation of ,, o ‘H H a The structural formula of is H-g—C Acetaldehyde may be produced by the reduction of The yield of crops necessary for human nutrition can be increased by treating the seed with to kill the fungous diseases. In the last century patients requiring medication to induce sleep were given paraldehyde, a polymer of Cases of incipient diabetes have frequently been detected early enough to avoid serious consequences by testing the urine for sugar using reduction of the cupric ion by the group in the sugar. Both amines and amino acids contain the functional group with formula The formula for ethylamine is The general formula for the amino acids is The possibility of reducing hereditary defects in man arises as more is learned about the molecules of hereditary material which are formed by amino acids joined together by bonds. Glycine and alanine react to eliminate a water molecule and join together to form the structure which is to be completed 12. 140 below. 0 H O I I I // H-C- - «C-C ' I \ A“. ,C\ O-H H H H A H Quinine is a cyclic compound which comes from the bark of the cinchona tree and is used to treat malaria. classed as one of the AIS-IA “ma-FAA. APPENDIX D APPENDIX D DATA MATRICES AND INTERACTION GRAPH APPENDIX D DATA MATRICES AND INTERACTION GRAPH TABLE A.1 DATA MATRIX FOR HUMANISTIC SUBSCORES Levels of Levels of Humanistic Chemistry Value Orientation Grades ‘ HIGH MEDIUM LOW Treatment I High 98 80 92 Low 59 78 62 Treatment II High 82 89 78 Low 76 82 74 Treatment III High 96 100 82 Low 74 57 72 141 142 TABLE A.2 DATA MATRIX FOR TOTAL SCORES Levels of I Levels of Humanistic Chemistry Value Orientation Grades HIGH MEDIUM LOW Treatment I High 226 198 I 248 Low 135 176 I 159 Treatment II High 203 227 i 203 Low 180 194 171 Treatment III High 237 237 197 Low 165 150 183 Total Scores (Cell Means) 143 40 n .1 4 \\\\\\\\\\\\//////,////r 35 a High Level Chemistry Grade 30 J Low Level Chemistry Grade 1 i 25 . Treatments FIGURE A.1 INTERACTION OF TREATMENTS WITH LEVELS OF CHEMISTRY GRADE FOR TOTAL SCORES M'ITIIIIIIJIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIEs