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FACTORS BEHIND ASSOCIATION FORMATION AMONG ON-FARM
CATTLE FEEDERS IN TWO ZONES IN MALI

presented by

Cheick Kamate

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FACTORS BEHIND ASSOCIATION FORMATION AMONG ON-FARM
CATTLE FEEDERS IN TWO ZONES IN MALI

by

Cheick Kamate.

A Thesis
submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

MASTER OF ART

Department of Sociology

T984

ABSTRACT

FACTORS BEHIND ASSOCIATION FORMATION AMONG ON-FARM
CATTLE FEEDERS IN THO ZONES IN MALI

by
Cheick Kamate

The concern of this study is the process of association formation
among on-farm cattle feeders in two zones in Mali (West Africa). What
factors impede, or enhance the process of association formation among
Malian cattle feeders, and what can be done to promote the formation and
development of cooperative organizations among cattle feeders in the
area of the study?

It has been hypothesized that the likelihood for a cattle feeder to
embark on a cooperative organization was related to his age, family size,
level of education, cosmopolitanism, business isze, and past experience
with cooperation, and to the frequency of contacts with the change agent.
These hypotheses have been tested by using data from a sample survey
conducted in the cattle feeding zones of Banamba and Segou.

Age of respondent and cosmopolitanism were found to be related to
current membership in an association in general, but not to current
membership in a cattle feeding association in particular. The hypo-
thesis about education could not be tested because no respondents were
educated. Family size and past experience with cooperation were not

found to be significantly associated with either kind of membership.

Change agent contact by itself was not significantly related to member-
ship in a cattle feeding association. But business size, whether the
agent talked to the respondent about working together, and whether
another farmer talked to the respondent about working together. were
found to be positively correlated to membership in a cattle feeding

association.

To my mother
.Hawa Diallo
for a better "Mom"
makes a difference there,
on the bank of

The Niger-River

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

"Ni i nyinéna i jujon k3
I laban ko hi i kamana
8.0. II

(Bamanan proverb)

According to this common saying in Mali, "He who forgets where he
got his first start from, will have trouble getting to an end." Being

a Malian, I would not have any excuse to forgetting where I got my

first start from. Thus, I sincerely want to thank my parents, my
brothers and sisters, my family, and my relatives, for all they have
done and continue doing for me. I want to thank my friends, and Famory
Keita, in particular, for I would never have arrived at the decision to
leave my family back home, and come to the States to study, if I had
little doubt that I could depend on him. I am thankful to officials
from I.E.R., O.M.BE.VI, Mali Livestock II Project, and A.I.D./Bamako,
for.having given me the opportunity to come to M.S.U. to study.

I am grateful to Ousmane Fofana and his team of the Language
Training Center in Bamako, Mali, to my instructors from the Economics
Institute in Boulder, Colorado, for having given me the tool without
which I could not get in my academic program.

I want to thank the faculty members of the Department of Sociology
at M.S.U., and of the Institute for Social Research at University of
Michigan for their contribution to the widening of my views. In the

same vein, I would like to specially thank Professors J. Allan Beegle,

V

Christopher K. Vanderpool and Nan E. Johnson - who are, all three,
members of my Guidance Committee - for their help.

Back at Mali, I would like to thank the officials from Ecibev,
AID/Bamako, and "Embouche Paysanne", and their agents in the field in

Bouawere, Diouna, and Banamba, for their contribution in the

preparation and the conduct of the survey.

My thanks also to Maria Olivia Mejorado for the typing of my
thesis.

However, neither my trip to Mali to collect the data, nor the
writing of this thesis itself, would have been possible without the
actions of Dr. Craig R. Harris, my advisor, and the head of the my
Guidance Committee. Thus, I sincerely want to thank him not only for
the actions just referred to, but also for his important suggestions

and the diligence with which he actually guided my work.

C.T. Kamate

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2: Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

- Definition and Types of Cooperation in Rural Areas . . . . 7
Table 2-2: Three Classifications of Cooperation and

Their Interconnectedness . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . 12

- Factors Behind Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Figure 2-1: The Change Agent as a Link Between the Change
Agency and the Client System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Table 2-3: A Summary of Research Evidence Supporting and
Not Supporting Generalizations About Change Agent Success
and can t ac t O O O O O I O O O O O O O I O O O I O O O 0 O O 2 3

- Table 2-4: A Summary of Variables in Participatory
ResearCh O O O O O I O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 25

Chapter 3: Research Hypotheses and Methodology . . . . . . . . . 26
- Hypotheses and variables a e e s s e e e e e s e s e s e e 26
Figure 3-1: Theoretical Scheme of the Relationships
Among Variables in the Likelihood of a Farmer to
Cooperate Formally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

- ResearCh MBKhOdOIOBY s e s s e e s e e e e s e e s e e e e 33

Chapter 4: Presentation and Analysis of the Results of the
suwey O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 3 9

- The Zones of Banamba and Segou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 4-1: On-Farm Cattle Feeding Zones in Mali . . . . . 40

Table 4-1: Number of Villages, Cattle Feeders, and
Feeder Cattle by Subzone in 1984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Figure 4-2: The Different Subzones and Their Relative
Importance in Terms of Number of Participants in 1984 . . . 45

- Biographical Sketches of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Table 4-2: Age of Respondents by Subzone . . . . . . . . . 47

vii

Table 4-3: Number of Wives per Respondent, by Subzone . .

~ Table 4-4: Number of Children per Respondent, by
subzone O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Table 4-5: Number of Sons Seven Years Old and Older
per Respondent, by Subzone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-6: Respondent Perception of Sex Differentials
in Children‘s Contribution by Subzone . . . . . . . . . .

- Table 4-7: Stay Outside of Mali, by Subzone . . . . . . .
Table 4-8: How Long a Stay Outside of Mali, by Subzone. .
Aspects of Cropping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-9: Cultivated Crops and Percent of Respondents
Cultivating Each Crop by Subzone . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-10: Most Frequent Combinations of the Three

Most Important Crops in Terms of Proportion of Land
Devoted to Them, by Subzone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

- Table 4-11: Mean, Minimum, and Maximum Number of Hectares
for Each of the Three Most Important Craps . . . . . . . .

Table 4-12: Percent of Household Consumption Raised by
the Farmer, by Subzone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Figure 4-3: Amount of Money Raised from the Sale of Craps
Among Respondents in the Three Subzones . . . . . . . . .

The Cattle Feeding Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

' Table 4-13: Number of Cattle Being Fed in 1984 per
Respondent, by Subzone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-14: Activities Performed by Cattle Feeders
Themselves, by Subzone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-15: Problems Encountered by Cattle Feeders,
by sub zone 0 O O O O I O O O O I O O O O O I O O O I O O

- Table 4-16: Three Problems That are Reported More Often .

Table 4-17: Respondents' Propositions for a More
Successful Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-18: Three Most Frequent Frapositions Among

Respondents in Each Subzone, the Zone of Segou, and in
the Aggregate Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

viii

Page

. 48

. 51

. 52

. 6O

. 63

. 66

. 69

. 71

. 72

. 74

. 75

- Communication Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-19: Frequency of Contacts Between the Ecibev
Agent and the Cattle Feeders, by Subzone . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-20: Desired Increase in the Level of Frequency of
Contacts with the Change Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-21: Agent's Communication About "Working
Together", by Subzone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-22: Other Sources of Advice . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-23: Percent of Cattle Feeders the Respondents
Talk to in Their Villages, by Subzone . . . . . . . . . .

- The Issue Of cooperation e s e s s e e e e e e e e e e s 9

Table 4-24: Distribution of the Respondents by Kind of
Association, by Subzone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

- Table 4-25: How Current Members Happened to Join Their
Associations, by Subzone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-26: Membership in Different Associations and How
a Respondent Happened to be a Member . . . . . . . . . . .

- Statistical Tests of Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-27: Age of Respondents and Current Membership
in Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-28: Stay Outside of Mali and Being a Current
Member in an Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-29: Business Size and Membership in Cattle
Feeding Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-30: Number of Children and Current Membership in
Cattle Feeding Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-31: Whether the Agent Has Talked to the Respondent
About working Together and Current Membership in Cattle
Feeding Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 4-32: Whether Somebody Else Has Talked to the
Respondent About Werking Together and Current Membership
in Cattle Feeding Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

- The Traditional Farming Association and the New
Cooperative Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Traditional Farming Association . . . . . . . . . . .

ix

Page

. 76

O 77

. 80

. 88

. 93

. 95

. 96

. 97

. 99

The

The Association of Farmers and Cattle Breeders of Touba .

Chapter 5:
References

Appendix:

System of Representatives .

Conclusion/Recomendations . .

Questionnaire .

Page
100
102

106

. 111

113

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

While working as a geographer in the socio-economic team of
the New-Lands Activity of Mali-Livestock 11 Project1 from 1977 to
1981, I had the Opportunity to become familiar with a number of
problems experienced by rural Mali, mainly because my work consisted
essentially of extensive surveys of rural settings in different
parts of the country. Since that time, one of the problems I
strongly wanted to look into was the consistent decrease in peanut
production in some areas of the country and the quasi-failure of the
national peanut operation. Two reasons Stood for my interest. The
first reason was that in my knowledge, there did not exist a piece
of sociological work on peanut production in Mali, although this
crop was, after cotton, the second most important source of external
revenue2 among cash-crop products in the country. The second reason
was that such a study would have made it possible for me to get a
basis for some useful comparisons between peanut and cotton which I
had already worked on in 1977.3 But it was not possible to start
this project before leaving Mali for the United States. I decided

 

1 Mali-Livestock II Project was a U.S.A.I.D. financed
project that comprises different activities such as New
Lands Activity, Sahel Grazing Activity, Training and
Communication Activity, Language Training Activity, etc.

2 Mamadou Traore' in “Les Atlas Jeune Afrique“: Atlas du
Mali, 1980, pp. 34-37.

3 Cheick Kamate: ”L'essor du coton dans la region de Koutiala
et son impact sur la ville,“ 1977, Memoire de fin d'etudes,
Ecole Normale Superieure, Bamako.

1

later to deepen my thinking on the same topic and use it as a
master's thesis research topic. But the conduct Of this study
required that I return to Mali and undertake a survey Of Malian
peasants involved in the peanut Operation, things that could not be
dealt with without the agreement Of, and support from, U.S.
AID/Bamako. In response to Dr. Craig K. Harris, my advisor, request
that I be able to go to Mali for a field research, Mr. McCarthy, on
behalf Of AID/Bamako, suggested an alternative topic which he
thought “would be Of greater benefit to an ongoing U.S. AID/Mali

Project, namely the “On-Farm Cattle Feeding Program.“

In Mr. McCarthy's words, “a major area of concern at this time
is the ability of farmers participating under the program to
organize themselves in some manner in order to take advantage Of
group efforts regarding loan acquisition, purChase and sale Of
animals, acquisition Of feed supplies, etc. Over the last few years
farmers in one area have organized themselves into associations and
have clearly been more successful in the program than those
Operating on an individual basis. Very little is known at this time
as to how these associations are formed and structured and what
constraints exist in other areas concerning farmer group cooperation
and the potential Of similar association development...“4

As can be seen, the alternative tOpic proposes bOth a new area
(cattle feeding) and a new theme (COOperation among farmers engaged

in the cattle feeding Operation) Of research. At this point a

question that naturally comes is how important the new area and the

 

4 Third paragraph Of Mr. McCarthy's letter to Dr. Craig K. Harris.

2

new theme are. Besides the applied character Of the research this
tOpic calls for, is there room for some useful sociological
investigation?

TO answer the first set Of question, it is important to place
the cattle feeding program in its broader Malian context.

In the 1974-78 Five-Year Plan, the government Of the Republic
of Mali (G.R.M.) had explicitly specified its Objectives in the
livestock sector under four fundamental Options. They are: 1)
Satisfaction Of national needs; 2) Maximization of exports; 3)
Maximum valorization Of resources; and 4) Progressive realization
of the security Of the revenue Of stock breeders. Under the heading
”Maximum valorization Of resources", it is reported: “Export Of
intermediary goods (cotton seeds, cottOn seed cake, young and lean
animals) constitutes, without any doubt, a running away (from Mali)
Of the real value of the labor Of agricultural producers and Of
stock breeders. The promotion Of on-farm cattle feeding on a vast
scale, (and) the creation Of cattle feeding stations and ranches,
must be very strongly encouraged during the period Of the Plan by
apprOpriate measures (subsidies to the price Of feed supplements,
prohibition Of the export Of young animals)..."5 As can be inferred
from the above quotation, the on-farm cattle feeding program is an
element Of a more global strategy devised to induce changes in
livestock production practices so as to render this sector more

profitable economically both to the individual producer and to the

 

5 Plan Quinquennal 1974-78, Dossier Principal, p. 151.

3

country as a whole. In 1976, the program started as a

branch of ECIBEV,6 and was assigned specific goals. For example, it
was hoped that the on-farm cattle feeding program would act to
strengthen the integration Of the cropping system and the livestock
system at the level Of the individual farmer. By providing the
latter with an alternative occupation in periods Of the year where
he usually had almost nothing to do (because Of seasonal patterns in
agriculture and Of the consequent concentration Of farming
activities in a relatively short period Of time), the on-farm cattle
feeding program is also thought Of as a means Of diversifying
agricultural activities in the zones Of Rural Development
Operations,7 and Of increasing rural people's income. Ultimately,
by providing Malian peasants with practical advice about cattle
feeding, and by supplying them with feed supplements and with
adequate veterinary assistance, the program is expected to increase
the productivity Of livestock in Mali.

These very specific goals assigned to the “Embouche Paysanne"8
program and the place the livestock sector occupies in the Malian
economy as a whole attest that the research area is worth
investigating. In effect in 1971, the livestock sector accounted
for 20% Of the Malian G.N.P., and 50% Of total exports. In 1976,

 

5 ECIBEV (Etablissement de Credit et d'Investissement Betail-
Viande) is a more complex structure comprising three other
activities in addition to on-farm cattle feeding program.

7 The "Operations de DevelOppement Rural" in Mali are
structures Of integrated rural development, each Of which
focuses in general on one major crop.

8 French version for "On-Farm Cattle Feeding."

4

despite the consequences of consecutive years of drought, the
livestock sector accounted for 312 of the total value of exports.9

Elsewhere in the main document of the Plan (pp. 245-46), the
Malian government puts the emphasis on the cooperative movement
which is referred to as "the fundamental option in the domain of the
structuring of rural world...(and) the unique solution" to a number
of problems present in Malian agriculture. According to the Malian
government, the cooperative organizations will be reoriented so to
become the ideal frame for the implementation Of programs intended
to bring about social and economic changes among rural people.

This unambig ously shows the interest the Malian government
attaches to cooperation and to cooperative organizations as a means
for achieving participatory development programs in rural areas
in Mali. It also helps to understand why a program like the
"Sedentary Farmer Livestock Feeding Project"lo concerns itself with
getting a grounded understanding of the cooperation pattern among
its peasant-partners, and with finding a way of developing associa-
tion in its areas of intervention. In effect, the on-farm cattle
feeding associations are thought of as appropiate structures that
will provide the cattle feeder with a means to‘ organize themselves
and deal together with aspects of their business such as credit,
purchase of feeder cattle, marketing and sale, etc... It appears
therefore that the alternative topic is not only important at the
national level, but it constitutes an area of priority for research.

With regard to the second set Of questions, "the ability of

 

9 Christopher Granier in "Atlas Jeune Afrique: Atlas du
".81" 1980, pa 390

10 Larry Harms, 1978.

farmers to organize themselves in some manner in order to take
advantage of group efforts..." is a sociological topic of long
standing. In particular an investigation of factors that lie behind
one's decision to engage or not in cooperative action and/or

organization has always given birth to renewed attention among

researchers from varied areas of sociology. For example, the shift
of farmers' organizations from informal to highly institutionalized
structures may lead, on a sociological ground, to consider these
organizations whether as voluntary association or as social system,
each of which presents important characteristics to study. Thus,
the power structure of agricultural cOOperatives, the study of
competing value systems, of problem solving and social action, to
cite but a few, are of interest to sociologists.

Because of so many reasons, I decided to lay to rest my
research project on peanuts and to embark on this study of
association formation among on-farm cattle feeders in Mali. More
precisely, the study will cover two zones: the zone of Segou and
the zone of Banamba. In terms of research objectives, an attempt
will be made to get an understanding of factors that oppose to the
formation of associations among on-farm cattle feeders in the zone
of Segou, and to present and describe an example of "successful"
association in the zone of Banamba. The study will also try to
determine the potential that exists for the development of similar
association in other areas in the two zones. Finally, some recom-
mendations will be formulated as what can be done to enhance

association formation in the two zones.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

The concern Of this study is, as stated earlier, the process
of association formation among on-farm cattle feeders in two zones
in Mali. In other words, what factors impede the process of
association formation among on-farm cattle feeders in Mali? What
types of COOperative organization exist presently? How are they
formed? Hhat are their shortcomings, if any? What can be done to
promote the formation and development of cooperative associations
among cattle feeders in the zones of Segou and Banamba?

Before getting in the Malian case, it may be useful to dwell
a bit on some general considerations about cooperation in rural-
areas, and as they have been addressed in the literature. In effect
it seems important to elucidate certain notions so as to make it
clear what meanings are attached to the fundamental concept of
cooperation on one hand, and what critical variables are at stake in
analyzing one's decision to engage or to not engage in cooperative

action on the other hand.

Definitions and types gf_c00peration lg rural areas:

 

 

 

According to Samiuddin,11 cooperation literally means working
together, “acting together to accomplish the common goal through
COOperative principles.“ Although such a definition has the merit
of being terse, it actually does not explain the keyword, and it is
still correct to ask the question as what is meant by “cooperative

principles.“ This example shows the danger that exists in

 

11 Samiuddin, 1972, p. 44.

attempting to define a complex concept by using a concise formula.
In addition to that, there is the fact that numerous definitions of
cooperation have been proposed in the literature, depending on the
countries, and more precisely on the specific Objectives the policy
makers in these countries are pursuing in implementing and
developing cooperative structures in their rural areas. For example
in Japan,12 the focus is put on the legal character of cooperative
society and on the necessity for the member to be of modest means.
British Columbia emphasizes the provision for securing to all

members "

a share in the profit of the association in proportion to
the value of the produce supplied by them." Other attributes
frequently stressed in the definition of cooperation are the absence
of predetermined limit to the number of members (case in Romania,
Swiss, Austria, Belgium, and etc.), the members' willingness to
carry on joint work, and the bettering of the economic prosperity of
the members. Quite often, rather than one single attribute, a
combination of more than two attributes is likely to be used. As an
example, in Germany, the emphasis is put on a) an open membership,
b) the furtherance of the commercial interests of members, c) by
means of a common business undertaking. Very interestingly, this
diversity far from constituting an obstacle toward reaching a
consensus about the key-characteristics of cooperation, has, to a
great extent, made possible the discovery of a number of attributes

that are referred to as principles Of cooperation. In this way, the

principles put to work in a given country serve to characterize

 

12 This example and the examples that follow are pulled from

Samiuddin, 1972, pp. 45-46.

cOOperation in this country. Samiuddin identifies eight such
principles, whereas Fred Abbotts finds six, and the Bangladesh
Academy for rural development concerns itself with only three
principles, as presented in Table Z-l. One first Observation from
this table is that all three sources share some fundamental
principles such as the principle of voluntary association or
participation, and the principle of democratic decision-making. In
effect the principle of equality mentioned by Fred Abbotts is meant
to include both voluntary association and Open door policy called
for by Samiuddin. In Fred Abbotts' terms, ”there can be no
COOperation unless it is between equals and the principle variously
described as open or voluntary membership is a declaration of this
equality.“ Similarly, the principle 'Of publicity in Samiuddin's
paradigm is nothing but the equivalent of what Abbotts refers to as
education. For both, this principle aims at securing "intelligent
participation“ of "informed" members in the working Of their
association.

(Table 2-l about here)

Aside from these definitional aspects is also the question Of
how some of these principles actually work in a real life situation.
For example, the principle of neutrality according to which "the
COOperative movement should remain above party politics" may not

have too much a significance in countries where there exists only

Table 2-1 0

Principles of cooperation according to three sources.'

 

 

 

 

Samiuddinl3 Bangladesh Academy Fred Abbottsla
for rural develop-
mentls
1. Voluntary associa- 1. Voluntary partici- 1. Equality
tion pation
2. Democratic manage- 2. Democratic decision 2. Cooperative
ment making democracy
3. Self-help/mutual 3. Self-reliance 3. Limited rate
help of interest,
if any
4. No profit motive 4. Dividend on
purchases
5. Open door policy 5. Education
6. Publicity 6. Cooperation
of coopera-
tives
7. Neutrality
8. Equity
‘3 Samiuddin, 1972, pp. 47-52.
14 A report on cooperative farming seminar held at Bard
from April 24-26, 1972, p. I6.
15

COOperative College Papers Number Thirteen, June, 1967,

ppe 7‘16e

lO

one political party, and where the leaders of that party are those
to decide which principles are worth adopting. In the same way, the
principle of "equality" is questionable insofar as in most cases -

if not all cases - members of an association may have different

levels of income. Thus juridical equality does not necessarily
imply economic equality. With regard to the "open door policy"
principle, it does by no means insure that anybody willing to join
the association can do so, simply because other criteria (mainly
economic criteria) may exist that prevent a willing candidate from
being a member of the association.

In terms of types of cooperation, different typologies have
been proposed, depending on whether the researcher concerns himself/
herself with the juridical aspects of cooperation, its economic
aims, or any specific goals an association stands for. However,
despite this methodological partition, there exists some degree of
interconnectedness among the components of different typologies as

exemplified in Table 2.2.
(Table 2.2 about here)

According to T. Lynn Smith,l6 non-contractual type of
cooperation refers to mutual-aid practices that take place between
neighbors without any contractual agreement about "the mode, method,

time, or amount of payment." This form of cooperation has become a

pattern of rural culture within social grouping where people know

each other, and engage in day-to-day interrelationships.

 

16
The Sociology g£_Rural Life, 1953, pp. 525-26.

11

 

Table 2.2. Three classifications of cooperation and cooperative

associations and their interconnectedness.

 

T. Lynn Smith's Typology E.W. Hassinger's Kolb and Brunner's

Classification Typology

 

1. Non-contractual

cooperation

2. Contractual I. Expressive asso- 1. Production

cooperation tions . cooperatives
2. Instrumental 2. Marketing and

associations purchasing

cooperatives
3. Financing

cooperatives

4. Public service

cooperatives

 

12

"When the neighbor becomes the one living near and nothing
more, cooperation to be successful must be of a contractual nature."
In contrast to non-contractual cooperation, contractual cooperation

is neither spontaneous, nor may it be necessarily limited to a small
group. It operates by means of specified rules and "upon a strict
give-and-take basis."

Besides the typology proposed by Smith is the classification by
Hassinger.l7 This classification distinguishes between "expressive
associations" oriented toward the personal and social satisfaction
of their members, and "instrumental associations" which engage in
exchange relationships with other groups or institutions for the
benefit of their members. As can be noted, both types of
associations emerge from contractual cooperation.

One third typology is the classification given by J.H. Kolb and
Edmund de 8. Brunner.18 This typology based on the kind of activity
performed by the cooperative organization makes the distinction
between cooperatives created for the purpose of production, those
dealing with the marketing and purchasing of products, the financing
cooperatives, and finally the public service cooperatives. Here
also, these four types of cooperatives enter in the earlier category
of instrumental associations.

In summary, cooperation is multiform. It manifests itself

strongly in the economic sphere. It sometimes appears as a culture

pattern, mainly under its non-contractual form. More often,

 

17The Rural Component_2£;American-Society, 1978, p. 221.

 

 

185 Study 93 Rural Society, 1946, pp. 167-68.

 

13

Factors Behind Participation. Although the definitional and

 

typological aspects of COOperation merit attention, it is factors
behind participation that are of crucial importance in an attempt to
understand people's decision to engage or not in cooperative
activity, and to become or not a member Of a COOperative
association.

In the current literature in the field of participatory
research, social scientists have identified a number Of variables
that ought to be critically related to participation. Also this
section is intended to review some of this existing literature in
order to provide the present study with a basis for both a
conceptual and theoretical framework.

In “Value Orientations and Behavioral Correlates of Members in
Purchasing Cooperatives," Emory' J. Brown and Robert C. Bealer
hypothesize that ”members value the cooperative organization
primarily as an economic institution and minimize the ideological
elements, and differential value orientations are correlated with
differential behavior, so that those members whose values are most
in agreement with the public goals Of the COOperative -- the
ideological and the economic -- will be more effective than those
members who value only the economic goals.“19

According to the authors, value orientation refers to the
meaning the member ascribes to the cooperative, on the basis Of that

member's system of beliefs and values which itself is determined

 

19 mmvm. 22, NO. 1, 1957, p. 51.

14

primarily by past experiences in the family, the peer group, and the
occupational group.

In measuring the reasons for joining the cooperative, and the
benefits derived from it, they make use Of eight variables (good
buy, location, variety, principles, treatment, part ownership,
friends, and services). In this way, six value orientation
groupings were found which differed significantly on satisfaction
with cooperative. They are: ideological grouping, treatment
non-social grouping, economic treatment grouping, economic
non-social grouping, friends grouping, and finally universal
grouping.

With regard to the findings, the members who had an image Of
their cooperative in terms of basic cooperative principles were
found to be more effective. In addition, farmers who believed in
the cooperative ideology were generally of high socio-economic
status. It can therefore be inferred that high socio-economic
status farmers were found to be more effective in purchasing
COOperative, the socioeconomic status being implicitly measured in
terms of level of education and of income.

0n the basis Of past studies, Brown has also hypothesized a
positive relationship between an individual's participation in
formal organizations and his participation in informal activities.
In other words, "active and inactive participants (in formal
organizations) exhibit corresponding behavior patterns with regard

to informal activities."20 He notes that Duncan and Artis

 

2° 5131mm. 19, 1954, p. 366.

15

reported that "individuals who participated to a high degree in one
type were found likely to do so also in the other type." This is
important in that it does not indicate a one-way relationship.
Rather it appears that informal participation may serve to predict
formal participation as well as the latter may be a predictor of the
first. The types of informal activities Brown used were visiting,
movies, dances, parties, sports activities, and etc. Respondents
were asked to indicate the number of times they engaged in eighteen
such activities in the twelve months preceding the interview. The
result was that "in all types of informal activities included in
this study, the high formal participants took part more extensively
and more intensively than the low formal Aparticipants." However,
this study by Brown presents some shortcomings. First, it is
difficult for an individual to remember the number Of times he or
she engaged in various kinds of activities in the twelve months
preceding the interview, and the more the number of times, the
greater the chances are to give a wrong statement in the absence of
record. Second, this difficulty is aggravated by the great number
of activities. Therefore, a lengthy interval and a great number of
activities may have caused the respondents to give answers that are
not always reliable. This observation, however, does not invalidate
the study. Rather it is likely that high formal participants
underscore the number of times they engaged in informal activities,
this suggesting a stronger relationship.
Another study dealing with farmers' participation in

cooperative activities is an article by Ruth Gasson21 "who applied a

 

21 Sociologia RuralisI Vol. 17, 112, 1977, pp. 107-122.

16

social psychological approach to the analysis of farmers'
participation." In the introductory section of her study, Gasson
reports that “participation“ is usually treated as the dependent
variable to be explained in terms of characteristics Of the members.
These characteristics are objective, background factors on one hand
(economic, social, and psychological characteristics, for example),
and subjective, attitudinal factors on the other hand (beliefs,
values, and perception of cooperation). She further reports that
use Of COOperative or patronage, office holding, attendance at
meetings, talking favourably about the COOperative, trying to
recruit new members, and frequency of "shopping around“ before
dealing through the cooperative, are usual measures of
participation. Ruth Gasson thinks, however, that a distinction
should be made between these measures, and suggests that
participation be treated not as a single variable, for participation
embeds membership, patronage, involvement in the running of the
COOperative, or support to the organization, all variables that are
not necessarily linked.

From Gasson's point of view, it is reasonable to expect parti-
cipation in a cooperative to be affected by certain background
characteristics of the farmer. She identifies “farm size“ as an
obvious variable linked to other status variables suchas level of
income, education, and work role. Then, dividing participation into
components like patronage, support, membership, and informal
cooperation, she conducts her own survey in two different

COOperatives. Her findings are as follows:

17

- Cognitive variables (beliefs, expectations,
attitudes and opinions about cooperation) are
found to be more powerful predictors than
background characteristics;

- Measures of farm size (and of business size
in general), related to socioeconomic status,
are found to be better predictors Of support
and membership than they are predictors of
patronage.

Another dimension Of the problem has been explored by
Olson,22 not in terms of participation at the level of an
individual, but in terms of group behavior, and as a contribution to
the theory of group and of collective action.

In his book, Olson rejects the view according to which “if the
members of some group have a common interest or objective, and if
they would all be better off if that objective were achieved, it
follows logically that the individuals in that group would, if they
were rational and self-interested, act to achieve that objective."
Olson goes on and adds that "unless the number Of individuals in a
group is quite small, or unless there is coercion or some other
special device to make individuals act in their common interests,
rational, self-interested individuals will not act to achieve their
common or group interests.“ To put it differently, group size and
incentive Offer are crucial variables in the prediction Of the
likelihood for individuals in a group to act to achieve a common

goal.

 

22 Olson, Mancur. The L0 ic gf_Collective Action
Public Goods and the eory gf_Groups, 1971.

 

 

18

In his paradigm, Olson compares the combination of individual
interests and common interests in an organization to the situation
in a competitive market where, "while all firms have a common
interest in a higher price, they have antagonistic interests where

output is concerned. Though all firms have a common interst in a

higher price for the industry's product, it is in the interest of
each firm that the other firms pay the cost -- in terms of the
necessary reduction in output - needed to obtain a higher price."23
And it would not be rational for a producer to restrict his output
in order to get a higher price for a product of his industry.
Analogously, "it would not be rational for him to sacrifice his time
and money to support a lobbying organization to obtain government
assistance for the industry."24 In the same line of reasoning, the
author makes the firm statement that any organization working in the
interest of large groups (be it a group of firms or of workers)
would get no assistance from the rational, self-interested
individuals in that industry. Moreover, in a large organization,
"the loss of one dues payer will not noticeably increase the burden
for any other dues payer, and so a rational person would not believe
that if he were to withdraw from an organization he would drive
others to do so." Olson also thinks that voluntary dues or
contributions are inadequate to support any organization
conveniently, "so that large organizations that are not able to make
membership compulsory must provide some non-collective goods in

order to give potential members an incentive to join."

 

23 Ib‘d, pa 9.

2“ Ibid, p. 11.

19

In contrast to large groups, small groups can, according to
Olson, provide themselves with collective goods without recourse to
coercion or some positive inducement, because in a small group it is
likely that at least one member will find that "his personal gain
from having the collective good exceeds the total cost Of providing
some amount of that collective good.“ However, this situation in
turn makes small groups with common interests exhibit accordingly a
“surprising tendency for the 'exploitation' of the great by the
small.“

Although Olson's model very interestingly points to aspects of
participation that need more attention and investigation, it
presents a number of shortcomings. On a purely theoretical ground
it would be justified to raise the question of conceptual
definitions. In effect it seems that the author takes for granted
the meaning of certain expressions that need elaborated definitions.
This is the case with Olson's notion of “rational individual“. Even
assuming that an agreement is reached on the meaning of "rational
individual“, the model not only suggests enormous difficulties to
bring individuals of a large group to act to achieve a common
objective, but it simply shows that this is impossible to accomplish
when everybody in a group is rational. For by virtue Of being
rational, and by behaving as such, everybody will decide to
withdraw, keeping in mind that "if he were to withdraw from the
organization,“ he would not drive others to do so.

With regard to the size of a group, although Olson reports

several examples where other researchers define what they refer to

20

as “small," "action-taking" groups,25 he himself does not
systematically address the problem of the dividing line between
large groups and small groups.

The model undoubtedly leaves unanswered questions. In spite
of that, it usefully draws the reader's attention on a new dimension
of participation, namely the relationship between group size and
group behavior. In relation to that, Olson successfully underlines
the free rider problem26 associated with the pursuit of common
interest Objectives.

In addition to all the factors already examined, there is
another element which has been sufficiently stressed in the
literature dealing with the process of diffusion Of innovations in
rural areas, that is the change agent and his/her roles. Change
agents, explains Rogers, are all those agents who “provide a
communication link between a resource system of some kind (commonly
called a change agency) and a client system.“27

As shown in Figure 2-1, the change agent conveys the flow of
innovations from the change agency to the client system, and passes
feedback from the latter on to the first. A number Of factors
thought of as crucial to the success of the change agent are

summarized in Table 2-3, as they have been presented by Rogers.

(Figure 2-1 and Table 2-3 about here)

 

25 Ibid, p. 54.
25 Ibid, p. 35.
27 Everett M. Rogers. Diffusion g: Innovations, 1983, p. 313.

21

The Change Agent as a Link Between the Change Agency
and the Client System. (Source: Everett M. Rogers,

1983, p. 314).

Figure 2-1:

CHANGE

AGI’NCY

 

/

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

(
l , lL.| \
i'imus' nerds and I \
feedback about , , , ‘ , .. ‘4‘ 5
ciuumc program : CHATS: [EOFN ' Innovations flow to A
flow to change 1 ' A E cityms l
agency $'
L . ' [I
\ l
I /

CLIENT

SYSTEM

22

m- .ma- " U“

yvs

set-muss" I’VIG'IICI' EUPPDrlIn‘ and

“OK

Supporting Generalizations about Change Agent Success

and Contact.
3"." 5 )s

PP-

(Source:

Everett M. Rogers. 1983,

 

Generalizations

Support (or absence of support)
for the Generalization

 

Research studies
not supporting

Research studies
supporting

Percentage
of research
studies sup-
porting the
generalisa-
tion

 

I.Chsnge agent suc-

cess is positive-
ly related to

the extent of
change agent
effort in con-
tacting clients.

2.Chsnge agent suc-

cess is positive-
ly related to a
client orientation
rather than to s
change-agency
orientation

3.Chsnge agent suc-

cess is positive-
ly related to the
degree to which
the diffusion pro-
gram is compatible
with clients'
needs.

4.Change agent suc-

cess is positive-
ly related to
empathy with
clients.

5.Chsnge agent con-

tact is positive-
relsted to higher
social status
among clients.

6.Chsngs agent con-

tact is positive-
ly related to

greater social
participation
among clients.

7.Chsnge agent con-

tact is positive-
ly related to

higher education
among clients.

B.Change agent con-

tact is positive-
1y related to
cosmopoliteness
among clients.

9.Chsnge agent suc-

cess is positive-
ly related to homo-
phily with clients.

lO.Chsnge agent suc-

cess is positive-
ly related to

credibility in the

client's eyes.

ll.Chsnge agent suc-

cess is positive-
ly related to the
extent that he or
she works through
Opinion leaders.

12.Changs agent suc-

cess is positive-
ly related to in-
creasing clients'
sbility to svs-

lusts innovations.

 

generalisation).

37 6
18 2
32 ll
5 0
2 0
l 0
3 0
A 0

 

 

 

 

842

1002

100!

(There are no findings available on this

39.1

902

741

1002

1001

1001

1001

 

 

23

Despite the shortcoming inherent to “the oversimplification of
two-concept generalizations" which the author himself gives some
explanation about,28 and despite the fact the number of research
studies in support of certain generalizations is very few (examples
are generalizations 9, 10, and even 11), the summary table by Rogers
remains a useful handrail in a search for variables that may be
relevant to a study of change agent contacts with clients.

In summary, a great number of variables are at play that may
Operate whether directly or indirectly, negatively or positively, to
make one decide to join a cOOperative organization. Some of these
variables, and precisely those which are repeatedly stressed in the
current literature have been reviewed in this section. A more
concise presentation of these variables is attempted in Table 2-4.
It is from this table that the case study which will be presented in
the remaining chapters, will select the basic ingredients for its

hypotheses.

(Table 2-4 about here)

 

28 Everett M. Rogers, 1983, pp. 130-31.

24

Table 2-4: A Summary of Variables in Participatory Research.

 

Socio-economic Status: Farm or business size, level of

income, education, work role, cosmOpoliteness.

Informal Participation: Movies, sports, dances, parties, etc.

Participation: Membership, patronage or use of c00perative

 

services, informal cooperation, support to cooperative

organization.

Subjective Factors: Beliefs, expectations, perception of

cooperation, attitudes toward cooperation.

Change Agent: Frequency of contacts, empathy with clients,
social participation, homophily, credibility, use of Opinion

leaders, etc.

 

25

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH HYPOTHESES AND METHODOLOGY

Hypotheses and Variables: Previous studies have focused on
factors that lead an individual to participate in an existing
couperative. In the case of Malian farmers, it may be useful to ask
the question whether the factors that lead one to join an existing
association, also lead a farmer to form a new association. It seems
that, even though linkages do exist between the two situations, and
even though factors that help to predict one situation, may help in
the other, there may be a great deal of difference in the ordering
of variables with regard to their relative importance- in one
situation or the other. To make it clear, the formation of a new
c00perative association practically involves all the steps depicted
by Rogers in the innovation-decision process, namely a knowledge
stage, a persuasion stage, a decision stage, followed by
implementation and confirmation.29 Needless to say that in a
situation like that, all the variables related to “change agent
success“ will rank as of crucial importance.

This is not to say that cooperative organizations do not exist
in the “Embouche Paysanne" zones. But a c00perative structure
dealing with cattle feeding related problems is, in a sense, a
newborn enterprise in the zone of Banamba, and has only been tried
in the zone of Segou.

Moreover, instead of participation in general, this study will

emphasize initiation , or -- to be more precise -- the likelihood

 

29 Everett M. Rogers, 1983, pp. 165-209.

26

for a cattle feeder to embark on an association dealing with cattle
feeding business. It will be contended that the likelihood for a
cattle feeder to embark on cooperative association is related to 1)
the size of the cattle feeding business of the farmer, 2) the
network of communication between the change agent and the farmers on
one hand, and among farmers themselves on the other hand, 3)
whether or not the agent exposes his clients (the farmers) to ideas
of group efforts, 4) the individual farmer's past experience with
c00peration and the importance of cooperation in traditional
agriculture, 5) the farmer's value orientation toward cooperative
organization and cultural and personality factors, and 6) the
individual farmer's receptiveness.

With regard to the first set of relationship, the assumption is
that business size by itself works as a stimulus to motivate the
farmer to engage in initiatives that make the business more
profitable. Business size is also an indirect indicator of
socio-economic status, and higher socio-economic status farmers are
expected to become early members of cooperative organizations,
because if they don't, some lower status individuals will take on
leadership roles in the association.

The network of communication between the change agent and the
farmers is crucial for the beginning of every innovation. Because
of such contacts the agent is likely to find appropriate occasions
to talk about group action and its relevance to cattle feeding
business. The perception the farmers can have of the change agent
and of his/her role, is built on the basis of such communication.

The same could be said of farmer's perception of the cattle feeding

27

activity. It goes without saying that these two kinds of perception
in turn, correlate with the farmer's likelihood to Join a
cOOperative association whose very purpose is to help cattle
feeders.

In an area where cOOperation is deeply integrated in the
tradition, and has become a culture pattern, it may be quite easy to
make people join a cooperative organization, as compared to an
environment where such cultural pattern is missing.30

With regard to value orientation toward cooperative organiza-
tion, what is meant is the individual farmer's perception of
cooperation, as a result of this farmer's personal history, and of
his past experience with cooperation.

By receptiveness, I intend to mean the degree to which a given
farmer is permeable to new ideas. This attribute is assumed to be
directly related to both education and to cosmopoliteness.

Therefore, in an analysis of the phenomenon under
consideration, there is a complex inter-weaving of variables. It is
beyond the scape of this study to investigate meaningfully all the
variables that are otherwise important and their interrelationships.
Tentatively, however, a number of variables have been selected for
this study and present themselves as follow:

1) Dependent variable: likelihood to join a
c00perative.
2) Intermediate variables: socio-economic

status, perception of couperation,

 

30 An interesting description of cooperation as a culture pattern
initially reported by Hoffer, is revisited by T. Lynn Smith in
"The Sociology of Rural Life," Third Edition, 1953, pp. 336-37.

28

perception of change agent and of his
role, and receptiveness.

3) Independent variables: Family size,
respondent's age, education, cosmo-
politeness, business size, past expe-
rience with cooperation, and change
agent contacts.

The relationships among these different variables are schematized in

Figure 3-1.
(Figure 3-1 about here)

The writer is, however, aware of the faCt that the direction of
these relationships could be changed, depending on the interests of
the researcher, that the list of the variables used could be longer
(or may be shorter) and that a variable considered here as
independent could well be an intermediate variable in another model,
and vice versa.

Finally, in the light of all the assumptions called for in the
preceding paragraphs, and of the relationships presumed, the major

hypotheses of this study are as follows:

29

Theoretical Scheme of the Relationships Among Variables

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  
 

    
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Likeli-

 

hood to join

 

 

 

3C)

association

  
 

  

 

Figure ’l-l:
in the Likelihood for a Farmer to Cooperate Formally.
7 Family Slaa 8“ \
Recepti- I | \ Socio-
vuuuml [I | \ economic
I I \ status
AT T A... # 4s
I ...._._______J, \ l T T T
\ l
\ ‘\\ (
\\‘ Education ‘ l
- f \ ,— i"
I)
l'crcupt luu
/ I l
F "f Cosmopolite- Li
cooperation none I I
” l I
V\ / l \ _ , ,l
I \ Business Size K 1
I l L \ ;
‘\ ’ . ..
area on
Perception \ ) Past experience I] of cattle
of change \ with z \ feeding
agent \ cOOperation I business
\ \ ,
\’ \
\ /
\\ Change agent /
‘ contacts

 

 

  

 

 

Independent variable
Intermediate variable
Dependent variable

Relationships among
independent variables

Relationships between
independent variables
and intermediate
variables.

Relationships between
intermediate variables
and dependent variables.

1)

2)

3)

4)

The larger the family size of any individual
farmer, the higher his socio-economic status,
and the more likely that this individual
farmer will engage in a cooperative association
having to do with his business.

The older a cattle feeder, the higher his
socio-economic status, the broader his views,
and the more likely that this individual
cattle feeder will be a member of a coopera-
tive organization dealing with cattle feeding
related matters.

The more educated a farmer (in the sense of
formal education in “French School“, or educa-
tion received in a "Franco-Arabic School" also
referred to as “Madersa School“, or non-formal
education received from “Alphabetisation
Fonctionnelle“), the higher his socio-economic
status, the broader his views, the more
favourable his perception of c00peration and
of change agent, and the more likely that this
farmer will embark on a c00perative enterprise
whose aim is to help the farmers.

The more cosm0politan a farmer (in the sense of
having travelled a lot, and spent a relatively
long period of time abroad), the higher his
socio-economic status, the more favourable his

perception of c00peration, and of change

31

5)

6)

7)

agent, and the more likely that this farmer

will be a member of a cooperative organization
having to do with farm business.

The larger the business size of any individual
cattle feeder, the higher his socio-economic
status, the greater the likelihood that he will
have a favourable perception of the cattle
feeding activity, and the likely that this
individual cattle feeder will be a member of a
cooperative organization designed to meet certain
needs of the cattle feeding business.

The more a farmer has favourable impressions of
cooperation on the basis Of his past experience,
the more likely that he will continue perceiving
cooperation favourably, and the more likely that
this farmer will embark on farmers' association.
The higher the level of frequency of contacts
between the Ecibev agent operating in the field
and any individual farmer, the more likely that
the agent will find appropriate occasions to
give a good image of himself, to build credibi-
lity, and to influence in the positive direction
the perception this farmer has of the cattle
feeding activity, and the more likely that

this individual cattle feeder will be a member
of a cooperative association having to do with

on-farm cattle feeding business.

32

Operationally, however, the analysis will consist of a cross-
examination of the relationship between each independent variable
and the dependent variable. Thus, although family size, age,
education, cosmopoliteness. business size, past experience with
coOperation, and change agent contacts are viewed as working through
socio economic status, perception of cattle feeding business,
perception of change agent, perception of c00peration, and
receptiveness, they will be directly analyzed in their relationships
with the respondent's likelihood to Join the association.

These theoretical considerations aside, it is important to
explore some methodological issues and to answer some questions
relative to the details of the study.

Research Methodology: This study of association formation
among on-farm cattle feeders in Mali consists essentially of a
presentation and analysis of data obtained from a sample survey
conducted in the two zones of Segou and of Banamba during the month
of March and the beginning of April, 1984. It was the feeling of
the writer that, to obtain samples representative enough of, and
data generalizable to, each of these two zones, the survey method
was the most appropriate method of research. As pointed out by
Jackson, Tucker, and Bowman,31 "other commonly used research methods
such as participant observation, field studies, and laboratory
experiments, are limited to the study of rather small, select groups

of peOple." These other methods do not allow for generalizability,

 

31 James S. Jackson, M. Belinda Tucker, and Phillip J. Bowman.
Conceptual and Methodological Problems in Survey

Research QQTBTac mer cans, pp. IZ-I3.

 

 

33

and therefore they could not meet the objectives of this study.
However, the time constraint32 aside, participant observation could
have been very usefully combined with the sample survey to get a
deeper understanding of certain behavioral patterns.

In terms of sampling procedure, use has been made of stratified
simple random sampling. The need for stratification was dictated by
two concerns. On one hand, the two zones covered by the survey were
presumed to be fundamentally different in terms of cattle feeders
behaviour with regard to association formation. 0n the other hand,
the sponsor of the study had manifested a strong interest in a
design that would particularly put the focus on the zone of Segou.
Thus, in the zone of Segou, the two existing subzones of
Katiena/Bouawere and Diouna were included in the study, whereas in
the Banamba zone, only one subzone out of seven (the subzone of
Banamba) was investigated. For each subzone, a list of villages was
generated, and the percentage number of cattle feeders in each
village determined. 0n the basis of this relative importance, a
sample of villages was drawn for each subzone. In this way, seven
villages were surveyed in the subzone of Bouawere, six in the
subzone of Diouna, and five in the subzone of Banamba.33 Finally, in
each sampled village, from two to four respondents were selected
among eligible cattle feeders. For a respondent to be eligible, he

must satisfy the following criteria:

 

32 The survey had to be completed in less than two months.
33 The initial objective was to survey the same number of villages,

or at least of respondents in each zone. But insufficient time
played against this objective.

34

1) be an active operator34 in the cattle feeding
program at the moment of the survey;
2) have participated in the project for two years
or more;35 and
3) be a farmer with a number of feeder cattle
corresponding to the statistical mode prevailing
in a village.
In so doing, and by observing a sampling interval of 2 or 3 units
for each village, a total of fifty-eight farmers were brought in the
study, that is twenty-four cases in the subzones of Bouawere,
twenty-two in that of Diouna, and twelve in the subzone of Banamba,
representing respectively about 22%, 21%, and 8% of the population
of cattle feeders in the three subzones. This obviously shows an
underrepresentation of Banamba at the level of the aggregated data
on one hand, and furthermore, poses the problem of generalizability
at both the subzone and the zone levels on the other hand since
fewer villages (and only villages in the vicinity of Banamba) were
brought in the study. It may be that differentials in behaviour

exist, depending on geographical location, and on the effects of

 

f

34 The concept of ”active operator" was used in order to distinguish
cattle feeders regularly registered prior to the year of the
survey, and actually feeding cattle at the moment of the survey,
from other farmers also regularly registered as cattle feeders
prior to the year of the survey, but not feeding any cattle at
the moment of the survey either because they had for some time
withdrawn from the project, or because they could not find feeder
cattle.

35 This criterion was dictated by the fact that a respondent with
less than two years of participation would not have been in a
position to answer an important number of questions in the
interview.

35

such location on the flow of supplies and of communication. Finally
all the respondents were males since Ecibev does not deal with
females in the cattle feeding business.

Hith regard to data collection procedures, neither the
telephone interview, nor the mail-questionnaire, are apprOpriate in
the context of a country like Mali where the network of telephone
communication is centered on administrative offices, and where
ninety percent (it may be much more in rural areas) of the adult
population are illiterate.36 Therefore, the only alternative at
hand when conducting this survey was the face-to-face interview.

The first draft of the questionnaire was written before any
contacts with the concrete field situation could take place. By the
help of the exploratory survey in the two zones, of exchange of
viewpoints with officials from Dmbevi, Ecibev and AID/Bamako, and by
the means of free and rather informal talks with the agents in the
field, the questionnaire was revised and completed. In its
completed version, the questionnaire was intended to inquire about a
wide variety of items, among which are farm size, ownership of land,
cattle feeding business size, farmer's perception of the cattle
feeding business, the problems they encounter, the solutions they
pr0pose, the level of frequency of contacts between the change agent
and the farmer, whether or not the change agent talked to the farmer
about group action, farmer's perception of cooperation, his past
experience with cooperative organizations, his marital status, his
family size, his cosmopoliteness. and etc.

The exploratory survey in Banamba took place a week after the

 

35 Soumana Dounbia, in "Les Atlas Jeune Afrique,” Atlas 5131
Maliz 1980, p. 49.

36

one in Segou. Thus, it could be, and was, used to pretest the
questionnaire. In its final form, the questionnaire combined
open-ended, close-ended, and answer structured types of questions.
Every attempt was made to insure clarity, reality, unidimensional-

ity, and completeness. Special attention was paid to cultural

sensitivity and to measurement and conceptual equivalence. For
example, the "most beneficial crop" can refer conceptually to the
crop that either is of high nutritional value, or has a high market
price; but from the standpoint of Malian farmers affected by lengthy
years of continuous drought, the "most beneficial crop" is neither
the most nutritious, nor the most profitable crop, but the crop that
can cope with insufficient rains, and provide them with something to
feed themselves and the members of their households. No
interviewers were recruited. I decided to get in the field myself
and administer the questionnaire to all the respondents.

In addition to this formal interview, an informal, in-depth
interview was conducted in a different manner. No questionnaire was
prepared in advance for this interview. However, for every session
with an informal interviewee, a detailed agenda comprising specific
problems which the formal interview could not provide answers to,
was available. The informants in the informal interview were two
agents (one in each zone) and five on-farm cattle feeders (two in
the zone of Segou, and three in the zone of Banamba).

As unstandardized as this second type of interview may be,
precious pieces of information would have been lost, without the use
of the informal interview. This is, for example, the case for most

of the details obtained about the "successful association", as it is

37

the case about some explanations having to do with the threats
hanging heavily on the system of representatives in the zone of
Banamba.

With regard to the problem of entry, my getting access to the
respondents was facilitated by the collaboration of both upper and
lower level workers from Ecibev and from "Embouche Paysanne". In
general, the level of cooperation of respondents was satisfactory,
with a response rate of 951, and the survey - exploratory survey
and interview - lasted twenty-nine days.

In the following chapter, the results of the sample survey will

be presented, and the findings will be analyzed.

38

CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF

THE RESULTS OF THE SURVEY

The Zones 2; Banamba and Segou: The two zones under

investigation lie in central Mali, approximately between the 600 and

800 isohyets (rainfall lines) which the Banana zone overlaps
slightly to the north. (Figure 4-1). The two zones are separated
from one another by the valley of the Niger River so that the Segou
zone occupies the right side of this valley, and the Banamba zone,
its left side. The situation of the zone of Segou in an area of
fertile, alluvial plains, between the Niger River and its tributary,
the Bani River, makes this zone a nationwide privileged zone.
(Figure 4-1 about here)
From a geomorphological37 point of view, the zone of

Banamba is dominated by hard sandstone plateaus and dolerite
formations from the precambrian and paleozoic eras on the one hand,
and by plains and glacis moulded in soft sandstones on the other
hand. In contrast, the zone of Segou presents a system of plains in

the soft formations from the secondary and the tertiary eras.

 

37 Pierre Michel, in "Atlas Jeune Afrique": Atlas‘dglialiI

1980, ppm 8.9e

39

nouns i-l: On-farm Cattle Reading tones in Mali. (ism-ca:
Climatic map of Mali in “Atlas Jeune Afriqua":
Agflflm 1980, p. l5, and Larry Harms,
ins. p. '57).

 

1V98NBS

 

ALGERIA

 

MAURITANIA

 

 

 

 

- ' ‘ N I 6 '£ 2
‘9’, , ., ' 400
. e ' g , .
"1'5? a}: 600
a 57-335.:- ': .§ 9%" H
’ goo UPPER VOLTA
.a’b
' Scale: 1:10.ooo.ooo

.‘ r : . 1 mm
C U TN: A d Territoria s

f: ""32”: 400: Isohyet 400m

1400 "—’
'IVO'IY COAST Atlivers
. {Eff : m-farm cattle feeding zones

 

 

4O

In both zones, the climate is of tropical type, with, however,
two subtypes which differ from one another in their pluviometric and
thermic patterns. They are: the "sudanic" subtype predominant in
the zone of Segou, and the “sahelian” subtype prevalent in the zone
of Banamba. The main characteristic common to these two subtypes is
the neat division of the year in two seasons, and the implications
of such a division for human activities. Production activities in
general, and agricultural activities in particular, tend to be
concentrated in the rainy season. On the opposite, during the dry
season, there is a sharp decrease in both the number and intensity
of human activities. In terms of differences, the rainy season is
shorter in the Banamba zone than it is in the Segou zone, and the
thermic amplitude is wider in the first than in the latter.

Two different ethnic groups live in the two zones: the Bambara

(Bamanan) in the zone of Segou, and the Saracolle (or Soninke) in
the zone of Banamba. Bokar N'Diaye38 presents both groups as being
"great farmers“, pre-eminently oriented toward “agrarian types of
work“. Elsewhere in his book, the same author comes up with
stereotypes39 aimed at showing the distinctiveness of each ethnic
group. Thus, the Bambara is referred to as “of enthusiastic
nature", but also an “obstinate" character, and somebody that
injustice makes “rebellious". A “constant desire to work“ is
stressed about the Saracolle whose "tenacity“ and “concern for

wealth" are equally evoked. It was unfortunate that the writer

 

33 Bokar N'Diaye: Les groupes ethniques au Mali, Bamako,
1970, pp. 125 and 204.

39 Ibid, especially pp. 142-43, 210-11.

41

could not give any meaningful or acceptable explanation of any
reasons or factors that may have contributed to bringing about such
attributes. More constructively, however, he reports on differences
between the Bambara and the Saracolle with regard to cattle
raising.40 According to N'Diaye, the Bambara do not have a
tradition of stock breeders, although they have small herds which
they leave the management to nomadic Peuls. 0n the contrary, the
ethnic group Saracolle shows a long, deep-rooted habit of stock
breeding. They raise cows, sheep, goats, but exhibit a particular
predilection for horses. They also appreciate the donkey for it is
an ideal work animal and “a very precious auxiliary for the
door-to-door salesman, and...for the colanut importer". The author

also talks about the existence, in the Saracolle community, of a
spirit of solidarity and of mutual help" which he considers a
product of the Saracolle's agrarian occupation. Obviously this kind
of statement needs further elaboration. The same observation can be
made about N'Diaye's writing that "the Saracolle are particularly
gifted in the domain of trade“. However, Brasseur41 reports
basically the same characteristics about the Saracolle. But his
approach is more explanatory. In his words, "the Soninke have
probably never formed a politically organized ethnic group. The
notion of clan appears to be capital and justifies the grouping of

villages on a basis that one would...qualify to be sentimental, but

which brings a real solidarity.“ Farther, he adds: “trade has

 

40 Ibid, pp. 125-26, 205-7.

41 Brasseur, G. Les Etablissements Humains au Mali,
1968, p. 179. "" "'

 

42

always been in honor (among the Saracolle) and it has given way to
remarkable infiltrations (of Saracolle elements) in the sudanic
zone, ...“ Thus, there exists scattered elements of two (and maybe
three) fundamental differences between the Bamanan and the Soninke.
The latter have developed a tradition of cattle breeding; the first
have not. The Soninke are traditionally traders; the Bamanan are
not. And finally, the existence of a sense of solidarity is
stressed in the literature about the Saracolle; the same is neither
explicitly nor implicitly stated about the Bambara.

These are the zones where, and the people among which, Ecibev
undertook, beginning in 1976, to introduce and develOp the practice
of on-farm cattle feeding.

As of 1984, seven subzones make up the zone of Banamba. They
are Touba, Banamba, Boron, Massantola, Sirakorola, Niamina and
Madina-Sacko. The zone of Segou counts only two subzones:
Bouawere42 and Diouna. The relative importance of these different
subzones, in terms of number of villages, and of farmers engaged in
the cattle feeding business, and in terms of number of feeder cattle
being fed in 1984, is given in Table 4-l, and partially reported in
Figure 4-2.

(TABLE 4-1 and FIGURE 4-2 about here)

 

42 Previous studies talk of the subzone of Katiena instead of
Bouawere. However, although Katiena is the chief town in
the subzone, Bouawere is the residence of the Ecibev agent,
and therefore the center of dispatching of money, veterinary
care, and innovations.

43

Table 4-1: Number of villages, cattle feeders, and feeder

cattle by subzone in 1984. (Source: Ecibev's

 

 

 

data).
Subzones I of villages # of cattle # of feeder Ratio cattle/
feeders cattle farmer
Banamba
Touba I3 167 500 2.99
Banamba 10 I43 500 3.50
Boron 16 125 ' 400 3.20
Massantola 9 52 200 3.85
Sirakorola 13 65 200 3.08
Niamina 12 73 250 3.42
Madina-Sacko l 32 100 3.13
Segou
Bouawere 15 108 236 2.19
Diouna 10 103 280 2.72
TOTAL 99 868 2,666 3.07

 

44

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at: .. L 1 T

   

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S
4

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cosy-suoucs sass soaeuaauoe we. .ona. a. sausage

m an: sane .».= no cassava :- mo sauna or» go cause

 

an: neuusomv .ome. nu eucsmuuauuem no names: no smash

ea eureuuommu esaueueu :05. are nueonoem amounts as...

 

®

 

 

 

. ....q..o..u..u. ..w .... ..in.
oxunm-a:uon=
% .
cocoa N
O t»)
“ulw nuau—m

45

From this table, it can be seen that the ratio of feeder cattle to
farmer is 3.07 for all subzones taken together, 3.27 in the zone of
Banamba, and 2.44 in the zone of Segou. Among the different
subzones, Massantola has the highest ratio, followed by Banamba, and
then Niamina. The lowest ratios are found in the zone of Segou with
2.72 in Diouna, and 2.19 in Bouawere. There is, therefore, a
pattern of inequality in the allocation of feeder cattle across
zones. Also, one objective of this study is to investigate whether
or not this kind of disparity has an effect on farmers' behaviour in
relation to the cattle feeding business in general, and to
cOOperative organization regarding this business in particular.

The rest of this chapter consists essentially of a presentation
of frequency distribution tables, and" condescriptive statistics
about the variables under investigation on one hand, and cross-
comparisons of, and/or inferences about, patterns prevailing in the

different subzones, zones, or at the level of the aggregated data.

Biographical Sketches 2: Respondents: This section reports some

 

general information about the respondents, such as their age,
marital status, number of children, level of education, and whether
or not they spent part of their life outside of Mali.

The age structure of the respondents in the three Subzones is
presented in Table 4-2. As can be seen in this table, respondents
from the subzone of Bouawere are younger than those from Diouna, and
those from Diouna than respondents from Banamba. In the Bouawere
subsample, 45.8 percent of all respondents are in the age group 24

to 40, against 31.8 percent for Diouna, and only 16.7 percent for

46

Banamba. Inversely, for the oldest age group (61 to 80), Banamba
comes first with 25 percent of the respondents, followed by Diouna
(18.2 percent), and with Bouawere coming last (only 04.2 percent).
The widest age range is enregistered in Diouna (36 to 80), the
second widest in Bouawere (24 to 63). Banamba has the smallest

range (37 to 74).

(Table 4-2 about here)

Table 4-2: Age of respondents by subzone.

 

PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS

 

Age Groups

Bouawere (N-24) Diouna (N-22) Banamba (N-12)
41-50 29.2 18e2 l6e 7
51-60 20e8 3le8 41e6
61-80 04.2 18.2 25.0
TOTAL 1002 1001 1002

 

47

In general, in all subzones, respondents report a long period
of stay in the villages they were in at the moment of the survey.
Thus 100 percent of respondents from Banamba, 87 percent of those
from Bouawere, and 85.7 percent of respondents from Diouna have been
living in their villages for thirty years or more.

With regard to marital status, all the respondents but one are
married. Polygyny is practiced in all three subzones. But it seems
more popular in the subzone of Banamba than it is in Bouawere and

Diouna, as can be inferred from Table 4-3.

(Table 4-3 about here)

Table 4-3: Number of Wives Per Respondent by Subzone.

 

 

 

 

Number of PERCENT or arspoupnurs

wives Bouawere (N-23) Diouna (N-22) Banamba (N-12)
One wife 60.9 54.6 25.0

Two wives 30.4 40.9 16.7
Three wives 00.0 04.5 50.0
Four wives 08.7 00.0 08.3
TOTAL 1002 1001 1001

 

 

This table shows that the majority of respondents from Bouawere

(60.9 percent) and Diouna (54.5 percent) have one wife, when the

48

majority in Banamba (75 percent) have more than one wife, with 50
percent having three wives. No respondents have three wives in
Bouawere, and only one respondent has this number of wives in
Diouna. Since the number of wives is an indicator of socio-economic
status in societies where polygyny is a common practice, it may be
that respondents from Banamba are higher in status than those from
Bouawere and Diouna. It may also be that, as a result of a more
important out-migration of young males in the zone of Banamba,43 the
sex ratio is distorted, with fewer men as compared to the number of
women. Such a situation is likely to result in more polygynous
unions.
Another aspect is that wives constitute a labor force,

and in general, respondents report that their wife or wives help
them with their cattle feeding business. This is reported by 91.7
percent of respondents from Banamba, 82.6 percent of respondents
from Bouawere, and 72.7 percent of those from Diouna. However,
there are differences in views with regard to the amount of work
contributed by wives. For example, 58.8 percent of all reSpondents
in Banamba say their wives contribute an important part of their
time to the cattle feeding business, as compared to 50 percent in
Diouna, and only 39.1 percent in Bouawere.

' Hith the exception of the unmarried respondent, all the other
respondents have children. The number of children per respondent
varies from 1 to 13 in the subzone of Bouawere, 1 to 11 in Diouna,
and l to 21 in Banamba. There is also variability in the number of

children across subzones as appears in Table 4-4.

 

43 The ethnic group of Saracolle is well-known for its
contribution to migratory flows from Mali to Europe.

49

(Table 4-4 about here)

Table 4-4: Number of Children per Respondent by Subzone.

 

 

 

 

Number of PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS

children Bouawere (N-23) Diouna (N-22) Banamba (N-12)
1-2 21.8 09.1 08.3

3-6 47. s ‘72. 7 33. 3

7-10 21.7 13.7 41.7

>10 08.7 04.5 ' 16.7
TOTAL 1001 1001 1002

 

 

Here again, probably as one result of polygyny Banamba reports more
respondents (58.4 percent) with a family of more than six children,
than do Bouawere (30.4 percent) and Diouna (18.2 percent).

.In all three subzones the majority of respondents who have
children, have both sons and daughters. In terms of number of sons
seven years old and older, Table 4-5 shows a neat enough difference
between Banamba and the two other subzones.

Although some of these sons may leave their parents to seek
jobs abroad or in larger cities of the country, these figures
suggest that cattle (feeders in Banamba have a more important
potential labor force utilizable in cattle feeding than do cattle

feeders in Bouawere and Diouna, a fortiori when we consider that

50

(Table 4-5 about here)

Table 4-5: Number of Sons Seven Years Old or Older per

Respondent by Subzone.

 

 

 

 

Number of sons PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS

7 Years old Bouawere (N-24) Diouna (N-22) Banamba (N-12)
and older

0 33.3 09.1 08.3

1-2 33.3 54.5 33.3

3-5 12.5 31.8 41.7
6-10 20.8 04.5 16.7
TOTAL 1002 1002 1002

 

 

post-nuptial residence with husband's parents is a common practice
in rural Mali, and that such a practice is associated with longer
participation of both the son and his wife in the accomplishment of
household tasks.

With regard to daughters, Diouna comes first with 86.4 percent
of the respondents having daughters seven years old or older.
Banamba follows with 83.4 percent of the respondents, and Bouawere
occupies the third place with 66.6 percent of the respondents.

The data also point to the existence of a pattern of sex
differentials with regard to children's contribution to performing
cattle feeding related jobs, and from the standpoint of the

interviewees. (Table 4-6).

51

(Table 4-6 about here)

‘Igblgug:§; Respondent's Perception of Sex Differential in
Children's Contribution by Subzone. (Question:
Do you think your daughters contribute more,
about the same, or less than your sons in

helping you with your cattle feeding operation?)

 

 

 

 

PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS PER CATEGORY OF ANSWER
Answers Bouawere (N-13) Diouna (N-18) Banamba (N-ll)
More 00.0 05.6 1 00.0
About the
same 07.7 11.1 18.2
Less 92.3 83.3 81.8
TOTAL 1001 1002 1001

 

 

An overwhelming majority of the respondents in all three sub-
zones (92.3 percent for Bouawere, 83.3 percent for Diouna, and 81.3
percent for Banamba) report that daughters contribute less help than
sons in the cattle feeding business. Only one respondent out of
forty two supports the contrary. Even though five respondents

report that daughters contribute about the same as sons, there

52

exists an up-grading of the latter. The implication, on a
demographic ground, of this up-grading of sons as compared to
daughters, is likely to be more incentive for higher fertility
44

levels.

More than wives, children contribute an important part of

their time to the cattle feeding operation. According to the data,
81.7 percent of the respondents from Diouna, 75 percent of those
from Banamba, and 55 percent of the respondents from Bouawere say
their children contribute either an important part of their time or
all their time to the cattle feeding business.

With regard to education, none of the respondents have received
either a formal training from "French School" or "Madersa School",
or an informal training from "Baliku Ralan". However, fifteen
respondents out of fifty-eight have attended "Koranic school".
Among them, six are from the Banamba subsample, and nine from the
Segou subsample. One third have received from one to three years of
training, one fourth from four to six years, another third from
seven to ten years, and still one respondent with more than ten
years, of training. However, because this training is centered on
more religious achievement of the neophyte, but not on any general
education, it is not taken into consideration in later analyses.

In contrast to the situation found in the domain of education,
the data provide enlightening information about cosmopolitanism

among respondents. Two indicators have been used as a measure for

 

4‘ For a more detailed discussion of the relationships

between fertility behavior and sex preferences among
children, see Williamson, Nancy E. "Boys or Girls?
Parents' Preferences and Sex Control." Population
Bulletin‘32’(August), 1978, pp. 3-37.

53

cosmopolitanism. The first is whether the respondent spent part of
his life outside of Mali, and the second is the duration of the stay
abroad. As appears in Table 4-7, 75 percent of the respondents from
Banamba have spent part of their life outside of Mali, as compared
to 59.1 percent of the respondents from Diouna, and to 45.8 of the
respondents from Bouawere. In a like manner, respondents from
Banamba have stayed longer outside of Mali than other respondents.

(T‘ble ‘-8) m

(Tables 4-7 and 4-8 about here)

Table 4-7: Stay Outside of Mali by Subzone. (Question: Have

you spent part of your life outside of Mali?)

 

 

 

 

PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS
Answers Bouawere (N-24) Diouna (N-22) Banamba (N-12)
Yes 45s 8 59e 1 75s 0
NO 54s 2 ‘Oe 9 25a 0
TOTAL 1001 1001 1002

 

 

54

Table 4-8: How Long a Stay Outside of Mali by Subzone.

 

 

 

 

PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS*
Duration of
Stay Bouawere (N-ll) Diouna (N-13) Banamba (N-9)
One year 63.6 84.6 33.3
Two years 27.3 07.7 33.3
Three to
five years 09.1 07.7 . 33.3
TOTAL 1002 1001 1001

 

 

*Table includes only respondents who reported spending time outside

Mali.

. In general these out-migrants had as countries of destination
the Ivory Coast, Guinea, Upper-Volta, and to a less important
degree, Ghana and Senegal. In these countries, they were traders
(mainly respondents from Banamba), diggers (respondents from the
zone of Segou), wage labourers, or gold/diamond searchers.

In summary, the biographical sketches of respondents show that
respondents from Banamba tend to be older, to engage in polygynous
unions more often, to have more children, and more sons seven years

old or older, to be more cosmopolitan, than respondents from

55

Bouawere and Diouna. In contrast, respondents from the subzone of
Bouawere tend to be younger, to stay in monogynous unions more
often, to have fewer some seven years old or older, to be less
cosmopolitan, but to perceive sex differentials among siblings more
unanimously, than respondents from the subzones of Diouna and
Banamba.
With regard to the study hypotheses, these characteristics

suggest that respondents from Banamba may be more likely to embark
on cooperative organizations than those from Diouna, and respondents

from Diouna than those from Bouawere.

Aspects 2f Croppigg: A wide variety of crops are cultivated in the

area of the study. They are presented in Table 4~9. From this

(Table 4-9 about here)

table, the crops that are the most commonly grown in all three
subzones taken together are in that order: bean, "fonio,"AS peas,
millet, and sorghum. All the respondents grow beans. This is
understandable given the fact that a farmer, to qualify for an
on-farm cattle feeding loan, must be a bean grower.- All the
respondents but one, also grow fonio. This widespread renewed
attention of Malian farmers to fonio - which is, along with

cassava, traditionally referred to as a "bridge crop" -- indicate

 

45 Quick maturing variety of cereal with very small grains. In

tropical Africa, "fonio" is considered "a bridge-crop" helping
the peasant to pass the bad season.

56

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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mowmlouam umnnomlnnom unanxlonwnz :nnoomzlnnom uoHHHZIHHHz annwuoniwuom
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. nnamnmm
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manage
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uncommon

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mMZONmDm

 

.mmonaom he .nouo some wnwun>auano mumoooonmom mo ummunmm

"mus «name

57

mostly farmers' attempt to readapt to an ecosystem which is becoming
less and less reliable, due to significant changes in both the
climatic and pedological conditions. Peas, millet and sorghum are
traditional food crops. However, millet and sorghum are not grown
in the subzone of Banamba in a magnitude comparable to that of

Diouna or Bouawere. To a greater extent, the same pattern exists
with maize. In the subzone of Banamba, it is rather "souna" (a
variety of millet that better fits in conditions of insufficient
rains than "regular" millet) that is the most cultivated cereal.

The data also indicate that all the respondents but one grow
four or more different crops. The most frequent combinations of the
three most important crops in terms of the proportion of land

devoted to them are presented in Table 4-10.

(Table 4-10 about here)

As far as the zone of Segou is concerned, what jumps to the eye
is the important place that sorghum and millet occupy in the
cropping system, in both the subzones of Bouawere and Diouna.
"Souna" and peanut have an equivalent supremacy in the cropping
system of the respondents from Banamba. What might be unexpected,
however, is the fact that bean is not reported at all in any of the
combinations mentioned. This is so because usually bean is not
cultivated in a distinct plot. It is rather grown in association

with sorghum, millet, "sauna" and maize. Thus, the tendency among

58

the respondents is not to consider beans separately. However, the
cultivation of beans in a separate plot of its own is an enterprise

dictated by the development of the cattle feeding business, and

encouraged by Ecibev.

Table 4-10: Most Frequent Combinations of the Three Most
Important Crops in Terms of Proportion of Land

Devoted to Them by Subzone.

 

Subzones Combinations Z of respondents

per combination

 

1. Sorghum/fonio/millet ‘ 33.3
Bouawere 2. Sorghum/millet/peanuts 16.7
(N-24) 3. Sorghum/millet/maize 16.7
1. Sorghum/fonio/millet 27.3
Diouna 2. Sorghum/millet/peas 18.2
(N-22) 3. Sorghum/millet/peanuts 13.6
1. Souna/peanut/millet 25.0
Bonamba 2. Souna/peanut/fonio 25.0

(N-12)

 

The minimum, maximum, and average numbers of hectares for each
of the three most important crops, and for each subzone, the zone of

Segou, and the entire area of the study, are given in Table 4-11.

59

 

Table 4-11:

(Table 4-11 about here)

Each of the Three Mbst Important Craps.

Mean, Minimum, and Maximum Number of Hectares for

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Areas First Crop Second Crop Third Crop
Mean n1. Maxi. Mean Mini. Maxi. Mean Mini. Maxi.
Bouawere 5.1 2.0 10.0 2.1 .5 10.0 1.3 .5 9.0
Diouna 8.1 3.0 20.0 1.9 .5 8.0 1.3 .5 3.0
Segou 6.6 2.0 20.0 2.0 .5 10.0 1.3 .5 9.0
Banamba 5.4 3.0 10.0 4.1 2.0 10.0 2.8 1.0 7.0
Aggregatei 6.2 2.0 20.0 2.4 .5 10.0 1.5 .5 9.0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6O

 

Under the reservation that the above figures are reliable,46
with the exception of the first cr0p, the average number of hectares
in Banamba for both the second and third crops is the double of
those recorded in Bouawere, and Diouna. This trend reappears in the
global figures about the average numbers of hectares to respondent
in each subzone. There, Banamba comes first with a mean of 18.1
hectares per respondent, when Diouna reports 13.1, and Bouawere 9.1
hectares per respondent.

Most respondents own the land they are exploiting, and the land
ownership rate is 79.2 percent among respondents from Bouawere, 81.8
percent among those from Diouna, whereas in Banamba this rate is 100
percent. Farmers who are tilling somebody else's land for their own
benefit say they are using the land under "no conditions“. In other
words, they neither share the cr0p, nor pay for a rent. However, it
is tacitly agreed that they will return the land back to the owner
whenever this one manifests such desire.

In terms of equipment, almost all the respondents in all three
subzones possess plough and oxen. They all have cart in the Banamba
subsample, against 72.7 percent in Diouna, and 58.3 percent in
Bouawere. The level of recourse to hired labor is very low in
Bouawere (12.5 percent) and Diouna (18.2 percent) as compared to the
situation in Banamba where 75 percent of the respondents make use of

hired labor.

 

45 Although many respondents seemed to be familiar with the notion
of hectare, others showed a degree of embarrassment, and
cases of misstatement (and of overstatement in particular) may
not be excluded.

61

Respondents from the zone of Segou are unanimous in saying that
their most beneficial crop is millet. The same agreement does not
exist among the respondents from Banamba: fifty percent of them
report "sauna“ as being the most beneficial crop, twenty percent
report millet, and still ten percent consider maize as being the
most beneficial crap. However, almost invariably, respondents from
both zones give the same sets of reasons for their choices. One
first reason is that the chosen crop is a basic food crop. Another
reason is that the crop adequately c0pes with conditions of
insufficient rains. One third argument is that the crop referred to
as most beneficial, is also more adapted to the pedological
characteristics of the area than other varieties.

The proportion of household consumption provided by the

cr0pping business of the farmer himself is given in Table 4-12.

(Table 4-12 about here)

This table shows that the subzones of Bouawere and Diouna are
much closer to attaining self-sufficiency in food production than
the subzone of Banamba. In effect in the subzone of Bouawere, 91.7
percent of the respondents raise from 75 to 100 percent of the food
consumed in their households. In Diouna 90.8 percent of the
respondents also raise that proportion. But in Banamba 58.3 percent

of the respondents raise only 50 percent or less of the food

62

Table 4-12: Percent of Household Consumption Raised by the Farmer

by Subzone.

 

 

 

Proportion Percent of Respondents Raising That Proportion
raised Bouawere (N-24) Diouna (N-22) Banamba (N-IZ)
1002 62.5 63.6 41.7
902 08.3 00.0 00.0
802 04.2 22.7 00.0
752 16.7 04.5 00.0
502 08.3 09.1 33.3
502 00.0 00.0 ‘ 25.0
TOTAL 1002 1002 _ 1002

 

 

consumed in their households. This situation in the subzone of
Banamba may be partly attributable to poorer bio-climatic
conditions, and partly due to greater emphasis on peanut as
cash-crop. In effect, although a somewhat equal proportion of
respondents in all three subzones report selling part of their
crops, there are important differences across subzones in terms of
the amount of money raised from the sale of crops, as substantiated
in Figure 4-3. This diagram reveals that from 56 to 58 percent of
all respondents in the zone of Segou are concentrated in the low
money making level (20 to 100 thousand Malian francs). Only 12.5
percent of the respondents from Banamba are in the same category

when 50 percent of them are raising from 350 to 450 thousands Malian

63

francs. In this higher level, we found only 8.3 percent of the
respondents from Diouna, and not one person from the subsample of
Bouawere. In short, the smaller the amount of money, the greater
the proportion of pe0ple from the zone of Segou, and the smaller the
proportion of pe0ple from Banamba. Symmetrically, the larger the
amount of money, the smaller the proportion of respondents from

Segou, and the greater the pr0portion of respondents from Banamba.

(Figure 4-3 about here)

64

Figure 4-3: Amount of Money Raised from the Sale of Crops

Among Respondents in the Three Subzones.

 

Thousands uf

Malian France

«T

450.

350‘ (350, 50)

(150, 83.4)

1

250‘ (250, 37.5)

(100. 9.4)

 

(80, 41.7)

1 .

a?"

’

100 12.5
150‘ ( ' '

100. v"?’

so.
sol

(50, 25)

 

  

20v

 

 
 
   
   
    

  
  

(450. 100)

' I
I
)4 (250. 91.7)

(150, 100)

(100, 81.3)

 

SJ

30 40 50

Dionne
“lee-ere

r

100 Percent
of respondents

In summary, farmers from the entire area grow a wide variety of
crops. They successfully demonstrate their understanding of their
environment. On the average, respondents from Banamba have larger
farm size, make more money from cr0pping than their counterparts
from Segou. But on the other side, they are more dependent on the
market for their households consumption than respondents from Segou.
Also, it may be that the relative self-sufficiency in food
production in this latter area has resulted in lesser motivation for

the cattle feeding business among the population.

The Cattlg_Feeding Business: As for the aggregate 32.8 percent of
the respondents have been working in the cattle feeding operation
for two to three years, 34.5 percent for four to seven years, and
32.7 percent for eight or nine years. In general, the respondents
do not feed more than two cattle their first year in the project.
The number of cattle being currently fed per respondent and per

subzone is presented in Table 4-13.

(Table 4-13 about here)

66

Table 4-13: Number of Cattle Being Fed in 1984 Per Respondent,

by Subzone.

 

 

 

PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS
Number of Bouawere (N-24) Diouna (N-22) Banamba (N-12)
Cattle
1-2 62.5 45.5 00.0
3-5 37.5 40.9 50.0
6 and more 00.0 13.6 50.0
TOTAL 1002 1002 1002

 

 

Most respondents from Bouawere (62.5 percent) are feeding one or
two cattle. No respondents from Banamba are in this category of one or
two cattle while 45.5 percent of the respondents from Diouna also have
one to two cattle being fed. Conversely, 50 percent of the respondents
from Banamba are feeding six or more cattle, and no respondents from
Bouawere are in this category. Some respondents from Diouna (13.6
percent) also are feeding six or more cattle.

In terms of amount of time devoted to the cattle feeding activity,
62.5 percent of the respondents from Bouawere, 63.6 percent of those
from Diouna, and 66.7 percent of the respondents from Banamba say they

1

devote "all their time" to the activity. The rest of the respondents

in each subzone say they devote either an important part of

 

1 This refers to the time of cattle feeders in the period from

February to April when cropping activities are stopped or at
their lowest levels.

67

or almost all their time to the cattle feeding business. These
answers, however, leave one with some skepticism mainly in the case of
Banamba when these figures are compared with the data about the
activities performed by the cattle feeders themselves. Clearly,
respondents from Banamba are found to do fewer tasks related to cattle
feeding, and therefore are expected to devote less time to cattle
feeding than other respondents. These data are presented in Table
4-14. In the light of this table, it appears that in four tasks out of
a list of seven cattle feeding related tasks, the direct involvement of
cattle feeders from Bouawere is greater than that of cattle feeders
from Diouna and Banamba. The lowest levels of direct involvement in
all tasks but three (purchase and sale of cattle, and meeting with
other farmers) are registered among cattle feeders from Banamba. It
may be that in Banamba, more wives per cattle feeder, and more
involvement of wives in cattle feeding related tasks, and also more
sons seven years old and older, have resulted in a lesser need for
direct involvement of cattle feeders themselves in most activities.
However, facts are stubborn. These facts are that cattle feeders from
Bouawere do more work (in terms of direct involvement), but get less

profit from the activity given their smaller number of cattle.
(Table 4-14 about here)

In all three subzones, the two tasks that are identified as the
most difficult tasks to perform are in order: I) bringing feed and
water to cattle, and 2) cleaning the cattle-shed. Also, the

majority of the respondents in all three subzones find the cattle

68

feeding business a very profitable activity.

2

This is reported by 90.9

percent of the respondents from Diouna, 82.6 percent of those from

Table 4-14:

Subzone.

Activities Performed by Cattle Feeders Themselves by

 

Activities Performed

Percent of Respondents Performing an Activity

 

Bouawere(N-24) Diouna(N-22) Banamba(N-12)

1. Looking for cattleV

to buy 87.5 63.6 91.7
2. Looking after

cattle 95.8 81.8 58.3
3. Bringing feed/

water to cattle 95.8 86.4 50.0
4. Cleaning cattle-

shed 87.5 63.6 33.3
5. Meeting with

other farmers 62.5 54.5 83.3
6. Looking for

buyers 100.0 86.4 100.0
7. Taking animals to

market 58.3 72.7 16.7

 

 

 

2 For more details about the profits of the cattle feeding
business, see Rapport BECIS:

Paysanne, Perception et Economie."

69

"Etude sur l'Embouche
Rapport final,
Fevrier-Mars 1982, Bamako, pp. 71-72.

Bouawere, and 66.7 percent of the respondents from Banamba. These
figures, however, (and principally the figures from Banamba) deviate
significantly from the writer's expectations in the sense that cattle
feeders from Banamba are feeding more cattle, and presumably are making
more profit than those from Bouawere. From this viewpoint one would
expect more respondents from Banamba reporting that the activity is
very profitable. Also, the present figures suggest that respondents
from Banamba and Segou may not have the same measurement scale with
regard to profitability. In other words, the level of profit that is
sufficient to make a respondent from Segou decide that a business is
profitable, may not be sufficient to make a respondent from Banamba
reach a similar conclusion. ,This is. understandable insofar as
respondents from Banamba are peanut producers and get more from peanut
than do respondents from Segou.
Interviewees were asked about the problems they were encountering

in the cattle feeding operation. Their answers are reported in Table

4’15e

(Table 4-15 about here)

The three problems that are reported more often in each subzone,

in the zone of Segou, and in the aggregate data, are summarized in

Table 4-16.

(Table 4-16 about here)

As can be seen from both tables 4—15 and 4-16, the subzones of

Bouawere and Banamba report marketing as their most serious problem. In

70

Table 4-15: Problems Encountered by Cattle Feeders, by Subzone.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PROBLEMS Percent of Farmers Reporting the Problem
ENCOUNTERED Bouawere Diouna Segou Banamba Aggregate
(N-24) (N-22) (N-46) (N812) (N-58)
Money Availability: 00.0 04.5 02.2 24.9 06.8
1. Too many applicants,
but not enough
money 00.0 00.0 00.0 08.3 01.7
2. Loan provided too
late 00.0 04.5 02.2 08.3 03.4
3. Rich people in—
vading project and
taking benefit
away from the poor 00.0 00.0 00.0 08.3 01.7
Other Input Avail—
ability: 45.8 36.2 41.9 25.0 38.1
1. Insufficient supply
of cottonseed and
salt 25.0 09.0 17.6 16.7 17.3
2. Cottonseed and salt
received late 08.3 04.5 06.6 00.0 05.2
3. Insufficient ‘
veterinary care 00.0 22.7 11.1 08.3 10.4
4. Insufficient water
supply 12.5 00.0 06.6 00.0 05.2
Input Cost: 25.1 22.5 24.0 83.4 36.4
1. Reimbursing too
much to Ecibev 04.2 04.5 04.4 25.0 08.6
2. Feeder cattle too
expensive 16.7 09.0 13.1 41.7 19.1
3. Burden of transpor-
tation of cottonseed
and salt 04.2 09.0 06.5 16.7 08.7
Other Problems: 45.8 16.7 35.3 41.7 36.3
1. Marketing 33.3 16.7 28.7 25.0 27.9
2. Farmers not free to
purchase cattle they
want 12.5 00.0 06.6 00.0 05.2
3. Loss of cattle 00.0 00.0 00.0 16.7 03.5

 

 

71

Table 4-16: Three Problems That Are Reported More 0ften.*

 

AREAS

PROBLEMS

 

Bouawere

Marketing
Insufficient supply of cottonseed and salt
Feeder cattle too expensive

 

Diouna

Insufficient veterinary care

Marketing

Insufficient supply of cottonseed and salt
feeder cattle too expensive

/ and

 

Segou

Marketing
Insufficient supply of cottonseed and salt
Feeder cattle too expensive

 

Banamba

Marketing
Reimbursing too much to Ecibev
Insufficient supply of cottonseed and salt

/ and

burden of transportation of cottonseed and salt /

and loss of cattle

 

Aggregate

 

Marketing
Feeder cattle too expensive
Insufficient supply of cottonseed and salt

 

*In each case the order of presentation of the problems is important.
The first problem on the list is reported more often than the
second, and the second than the third.

72

contrast to these two subzones, Diouna reports that insufficient
veterinary care is the most serious problem, and marketing comes in a
second position. In Bouawere the respondents say that insufficient
cottonseed and salt supply is their second most serious problem, when

the respondents from Banamba say they reimburse too much to Ecibev. As

their third most serious problem, the cattle feeders from Bouawere
point to the fact that feeder cattle are too expensive. Cattle feeders
from Diouna also report this problem, along with insufficient supply of
cottonseed and salt. In Banamba, three different problems are reported
equally as being all three the respondents' third most serious problem.
When asked what they think can be done to make the activity more
successful, the respondents come up with a wide range of proposals
reported in Table 4-17, when a summary of the three most reported

propositions is given in Table 4-18.
(Tables 4-17 and 4-18 about here)

These tables, and more specifically Table 4-18, allow for some
comparisons between the respondents' reported problems and the
solutions they suggest to these problems. From this point of view, in
general, the solutions proposed are consistent with the problems
reported, with the exception of the category of problem that ranks
first in the subzone of Diouna, namely the problem of insufficient
veterinary care to which the respondents from Diouna do not propose any
solutions. In addition, the order in which the problems are presented
does not always match with that of the solutions proposed.

In summary, the respondents in general find the cattle feeding

business profitable. Their most serious problems in regarding the

73

Table 4-17:

by Subzone.

Respondents' Propositions for a More Successful Project,

 

Percent of Farmers per Proposition

 

 

 

 

 

PROPOSITIONS
Bouawere Diouna Segou Banamba Aggregate
(N-24) (N-ZZ) (N-46) (N-12) (N-SB)
Money availability: 16.7 04.5 10.9 50.1 29.0
1. Provide more money
for more people 04.2 00.0 02.2 16.7 05.2
2. Increase amount of
money per head of
feeder cattle 04.2 00.0 02.2 16.7 15.2
3. Bring money sooner
so to get feeder
cattle at reason-
able price 08.3 04.5 06.5 16.7 08.6
Other input availability: 50.0 22.6 37.0 41.7 37.9
1. Increase quanity of
cottonseed and salt 33.3 04.5 19.6 16.7 19.0
2. Bring cottonseed and '
salt in time 08.3 09.1 08.7 00.0 06.9
3. Provide more drugs
and veterinary care 04.2 04.5 04.3 16.7 06.9
4. Help solve problem
of water 04.2 00.0 02.2 08.3 03.4
5. Make bean seed
available 00.0 04.5 02.2 00.0 01.7
Inpgt cost: 04.2 09.0 06.5 08.3 06.6
1. Lower Ecibav's
interest rate 00.0 04.5 02.2 08.3 03.4
2. Insure transporta-
tion of cottonseed
and salt to farmers 04.2 04.5 04.3 00.0 03.2
More freedom: 20.8 18.1 19.5 16.7 18.9
1. Guarantee freedom to
buy feeder cattle
without an inference
of the agent 12.5 13.6 13.0 00.0 10.3
2. Allow to feed more
cattle 00.0 00.0 00.0 16.7 03.4
3. Allow farmers to
sell cattle as soon
as they are fat 08.3 04.5 06.5 00.0 05.2
Other propositiongz 29.2 54.4 41.3 24.9 37.8
1. Find sure channel
to sell fed cattle 25.0 22.7 23.9 08.3 20.7
2. Lead farmers to
agree to designate
a representative 00.0 00.0 00.0 08.3 01.7
3. Reach more agreement
between Ecibev and
farmers 04.2 00.0 02.2 00.0 01.7
4. Keep non-farmers
away 00.0 09.1 04.3 08.3 05.2
5. Success depends
on the personnel
of Ecibev 00.0 09.1 04.3 00.0 03.4
6. Success is a
matter of luck 00.0 04.5 02.2 00.0 01.7
7. Let the project
continue like it is 00.0 04.5 02.2 00.0 01.7
8. Fight hunger first 00.0 04.5 02.2 00.0 01.7

 

74

Table 4-18:

Three Mbst Frequent Propositions Among Respondents in Each
Subzone, the Zone of Segou, and in the Aggregate Data.

 

 

 

 

 

 

AREAS PROPOSITIONS
1. Increase quantity of cottonseed and salt
2. Find sure channel to sell food cattle
Bouawere 3. Guarantee freedom to buy feeder cattle without an
inference of the agent
1. Find sure channel to sell food cattle
2. Guarantee freedom to buy feeder cattle without an
inference of the agent
Diouna 3. Keep away non-farmers / and bring cottonseed and
salt in time / and success depends on the personnel
of Ecibev
1. Find sure channel to sell fed cattle
2. Increase quantity of cottonseed and salt
Segou 3. Guarantee freedom to buy feeder cattle without an
inference of the agent
1. Provide more money for people / and increase
the amount of money per head of feeder cattle /
and increase quantity of cottonseed and salt / and
Banamba bring money sooner so to get feeder cattle at
reasonable price / and allow to feed more cattle /
and provide more drugs and veterinary care
1. Find sure channel to sell fed cattle
2. Increase quantity of cottonseed and salt
Aggregate 3. Guarantee freedom to buy feeder cattle without an
inference of the agent

 

 

75

aggregate data are marketing, high market price of feeder cattle, and
insufficient supply of cottonseed and salt. However, across zones as
well as among subzones, there are differences in priority with regard
to the problems encountered. Consequently, if the approach of the
cattle feeding agency consists of generating prototype solutions for
both the zones of Segou and of Banamba, the aggregate cells in tables
4-16 and 4-18 may be worth considering. But if on the contrary this
approach consists of breaking heterogeneity into homogenous subgroups
and developing strategies appropriate to each, then the subzones cells
are of greater interest.

With regard to business size and activities performed by cattle
feeders themselves, the respondents from Banamba feed more cattle, but
are less directly involved in getting the job done than the respondents

from Bouawere and Diouna.

Communication Patterns: Three types of communication have been
investigated: communication between farmers and change agent, intra-
familial type of communication, and communication among farmers
themselves.

Table 4-17 reports the stated level of frequency of contacts
between the change agent and the farmers. According to the table, the
level of frequency of contacts between the change agent and the farmers
is lower in Diouna than it is in Banamba, and in Banamba than in
Bouawere. Actually, Diouna and Banamba are very close. The
difference with Bouawere may be due to the fact that the agents in the

field are performing differently.

(Table 4-19 about here)

76

Table 4-19: Frequency of Contacts Between the Ecibev Agent and the

Cattle Feeders by Subzone.

 

 

Frequency of Visits PERCENT OF FARMERS
to Farmers Bouawere Diouna Banamba
(N-24) (N-22) (N-12)

 

1. Less than one visit every

two weeks 04.2 22.7 25.0

2. One visit every two weeks 12.5 22.7 16.7
3. One visit every week 54.2 45.5 41.7
4. Two visits every week 29.1 09.1 16.6
TOTAL 1002 1002 1002

 

 

A closer look at the table leads to the following observations:
83.3 percent of the respondents from Bouawere report that the agent
pays a visit to them once to twice a week, against 58.3 percent in
Banamba, and 54.6 percent in Diouna. In contrast, 16.7 percent of the
respondents from Bouawere, 41.7 percent of those from Banamba, and 45.4
percent of the respondents from Diouna, report that the agent pays a
visit to them once every two weeks or less.

The desired amount of increase in the level of frequency of

contacts, as stated by the interviewees, is presented in Table 4-20.

(Table 4-20 about here)

77

Table 4-20: Desired Increase in the Level of Frequency of Contacts

with the Change Agent by Subzone.

 

 

 

How much of an increase? PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS
Bouawere Diouna Banamba
(N-24) (u-ZZ) (N-IZ)
1. A lot 54.2 72.7 41.7
2. No more 45.8 27.3 58.3
TOTAL 1002 1001 1002

 

 

A larger proportion of respondents from Diouna (72.7 percent) than
from Bouawere (54.2 percent), than from Banamba (41.7 percent) say they
want the level of frequency of contacts with the Ecibev agent increased
a lot. The rest of the respondents want this level to stay the same.
To some extent, these expressed desires are consistent with the
statements given in Table 4-19. In the case of Diouna, the
respondents' expressed desire for a greater increase in the level of
frequency of contacts, is also consistent with their reporting that
insufficient veterinary care is their most serious problem. However,
72.7 percent is much higher than the 45.4 percent derived from Table
4-19, this suggesting that we may have in the latter case a situation
where "only some people state openly what most people think but avoid
saying." In effect, a cross-tabulation of the reported level of
frequency of contacts, and the desired increase in the level of
frequency, points to more consistency in Bouawere (with a chi-square

level of significance of .01) than in Banamba (.06 level of

78

significance), and in Banamba, than in Diouna where the chi-square
level of significance is .3. In the case of Banamba, an important
proportion of the respondents reporting they want no more increase in
the level of frequency of contacts, indicates that either the actual

level is satisfactory, or respondents feel they are able to conduct

their business without any agents. With regard to the agent's teaching
and suggestions, the respondents in general find them very important.
This is reported by 87.5 percent of the respondents from the subzone of
Bouawere, 77.3 percent of the respondents from Diouna, and 66.7 percent
of those from Banamba. It seems, however, that the agents, in the zone
of Segou, have not taken advantage of their contacts with their
clients, and their relative credibility, to strongly induce the ideas
of "working together and forming associations," as can be inferred from

Table 4-21.

(Table 4-21 about here)

Table 4-21: Agent's Communication about "Working Together" by
Subzone. (Question: Has your agent ever talked to
you about working together in the sense of organizing

yourselves to get more from cattle feeding?)

 

Has agent ever

talked about working PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS

together?

 

Bouawere(24) Diouna(22) Banamba(12)

 

Yes 29.2 31.8 75.0
NO 700 8 680 2 25. 0
TOTAL 1002 1002 1002

 

 

79

In the subsample of Banamba, 75 percent of the respondents say
their agent talked to them about working together, when 31.8 and 29.2
percent, respectively, of the respondents from Diouna and Bouawere
report the same thing.

However, the agents do take advantage of their contacts to provide
their clients with advice about cattle feeding, and to instruct them
about the rules and regulations of Ecibev in relation with on-farm
cattle feeding.

The agents aside, the respondents talk to other people when they

need advice with their cattle feeding business (Table 4-22).

(Table 4-22 about here)

Table 4-22: Other Sources of Advice by Subzone. (Question: The
agent aside, to whom do you usually talk when you need

advice with your cattle feeding activity?)

 

PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS

 

Sources of Advice Bouawere Diouna Segou Banamba Aggregate

(N-24) (N-22) (N-46) (N-12) (u-sa)

 

l. A member of the

family 66.7 77.3 71.7 83.3 74.1
2. A relative 29.2 59.1 43.5 83.3 51.7
3. A close friend 45.8 50.0 47.8 83.3 55.2
4. Another farmer 70.8 63.6 67.4 100.0 74.1

 

 

80

Apparently, a greater proportion of cattle feeders from Banamba
seek advice from, both a member of their family, a relative, a close
friend, and another farmer, than from Diouna and Bouawere. All the
respondents from Banamba talk to other farmers when seeking advice, but

not all talk to either a member of their family, a relative, or a close

friend, maybe because they are pragmatic, and aware of the fact that
other farmers doing the same job as they themselves do, may know how to
deal with specific problems related to this Job, than mere family
member, or relative, or even close friends. The same pattern is found
among respondents from Bouawere. In Diouna, most of the communication
takes place between the respondent and a member of his family, although
63.6 percent of the respondents also say they seek advice from another
farmer.

In any case the agent is the person who provides most advice. He
is followed by another farmer in both Banamba and Diouna, but by a
relative in Bouawere. The second place attributed to another farmer in
Diouna, and to a relative in Bouawere, is inconsistent with the
respondents' report about the sources of advice. This indicates that
there is a need for more investigation on this pattern.

The respondents also were asked about the number of cattle
feeders in their villages, and the number of cattle feeders they talk
to.

In Bouawere, the number of cattle feeders per village ranges from

81

two to nineteen, from five to twenty-five in Diouna, and from seven to
thirty-eight in Banamba.3 In Bouawere, 50 percent of the respondents
say there are from ten to fourteen cattle feeders in their villages.
In Diouna, 36.3 percent of the respondents report there are from
fifteen to twenty cattle feeders in their villages, and 66.7 percent of
the respondents from Banamba say there are from eight to twenty-five
cattle feeders in their villages. Thus, the concentration of cattle
feeders is greater in Banamba than in Diouna, in Diouna than in
Bouawere.
The percentage number of cattle feeders the respondents say they

talk to, is presented in Table 4-23.

(Table 4-23 about here)

This table indicates that 50 percent of the respondents from
Banamba talk to all other cattle feeders in their village, against 41.7
percent in Bouawere, and 18.2 percent in Diouna. On the other
extreme, 22.7 percent of the respondents from Diouna, and 8.3 percent
of the respondents from Bouawere, do not talk at all to any cattle
feeders. No such situation exists in Banamba where everybody talks to
somebody else. In Bouawere, as in Banamba, the respondents tend to
talk either to very few other cattle feeders, or to all of them.

A cross-tabulation of the number of cattle feeders in the villages
at the knowledge of the respondents, and the number of cattle feeders

the respondents talk to, shows that there is a relationship between

 

3 These figures are estimates by the cattle feeders themselves.
However, these estimates do not deviate too much from the
official figures.

82

Table 4-23: Percent of Cattle Feeders the Respondents Talk to

in Their Villages by Subzone.

 

 

 

Percent of Cattle PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS

Feeders the Bouawere(N-24) Diouna(N-ZZ) Banamba(N-12)

Respondents

Talk to

02 08.3 22.7 00.0

1-201 16.7 27.2 33.3

21-402 29.2 13.6 16.7

41-502 04.2 , 09.1 00.0

51-702 00.0 09.1 00.0

71-991 00.0 00.0 00.0

1002 41.7 18.2 50.0
TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0

 

 

these two numbers. To be sure, a cross-tabulation of these two sets of
figures, and the chi-square test of statistical significance point to
the fact that the relationship among the two sets is significant at the
level .0001, and the greater the number of cattle feeders in a village,
the greater the number of cattle feeders a respondent talks to.

In general, in the occasion of communication that take place among
cattle feeders, they exchange advice and viewpoints, and encourage one
another with their cattle feeding business. However, it also happens
that cattle feeders talk among themselves about working together.

Thus, 83.3 percent of the respondents from Banamba, 27.3 percent of

83

those from Diouna, and 12.5 percent of the respondents from Bouawere,
report that somebody else (the agent aside) talked to them about
working together, and in almost all cases, this person was another
cattle feeder.

In summary, this analysis of the communication patterns among
cattle feeders in the three subzones leads to the following
conclusions:

a) The agent in Bouawere more frequently pays a visit

to his clients than the agent in Banamba, and the
agent in Banamba than the one in Diouna.

b) There is a need for an increase in the level of
frequency of contacts with the Ecibev agent among
the respondents of all three subzones. But such a
need is expressed by a greater proportion of
respondents from Diouna.

c) The data indicate that, in the zone of Segou, the
agents have not addressed the problem of association
formation with as much breadth as in the subzone of
Banamba.

d) A greater intra-familial, and inter-farmers types of

communication take place among the respondents from
Banamba than among those from Segou.

e) One last observation pulled from the data is that
the greater the number of cattle feeders in a given
village, the greater the number of cattle feeders

a respondent from that village interacts with.

The Issue of Cooperation: The respondents were asked a certain

84

number of questions in an attempt to get more insight about aspects of
cooperation such as informal participation, cattle feeders' perception
of cooperation, whether or not they have been involved in cooperative
organizations in the past, whether or not they are currently members of

any kinds of associations, and what kinds of associations they are.

In terms of informal participation, the data show that almost all
the respondents from all three subzones find it somewhat to very
important to them that they are able to spend some of their time with
others. The data also show that most respondents (from 75 percent in
Banamba, to 79.2 percent in Bouawere, and to 90.9 percent in Diouna)
participate very often in activities performed in group. In each
subzone and for each case, from 81 to 100 percent of the respondents
report they like to take part in ceremonies of baptism and marriage,
and in informal meetings with others, that they like to pay visits to
friends and relatives, and to work with others. Therefore, in terms of
informal participation, the respondents do not exhibit any significant
difference across subzones. Similarly, almost all the respondents
report that they think that cooperation is good, helpful, and
profitable, and that it brings strength among cooperators.

According to the data, 66.7 percent of the respondents from
Bouawere, 90.9 percent of those from Diouna, and 91.7 percent of the
respondents from Banamba were members of one or more associations in
the past. Table 4-24 presents the distribution of the respondents by

kind of association and by subzones.

(Table 4—24 about here)

85

This table clearly shows that farming associations were by far
the most popular form of association among respondents in all three
subzones, but less popular in Bouawere than in Diouna and Banamba.

Other forms of associations that existed were marriage associations,

political organizations, and And

religious associations. the

respondents in general think these associations were somewhat to very

helpful. At the level of the subzones, the respondents from Bouawere
report neither religious nor marriage associations. Banamba also does

not report religious associations.

Table 4-24: Distribution of the Respondents by Kind of

Association.

 

Kinds of Association PERCENT OF RESPONDENTS*

 

 

 

 

 

Bouawere Diouna Banamba
(NI-16) (N-20) (N-l 1)
1. Religious association 00.0 05.0 00.0
2. Farming association 81.3 85.0 81.8
3. Political organization 25.0 10.0 18.2
4. Marriage association 00.0 15.0 09.1
Kinds of Association Bouawere Diouna Banamba
(N-24) (nu-22) (u-12)
1. Religious association 00.0 04.5 00.0
2. Farming association 54.2 77.3 75.0
3. Political organization 16.7 09.1 16.7
4. Harriage association 00.0 13.6 08.3

 

*The top part of the table takes into account only respondents who are
current members in associations whereas the bottom part concerns all

respondents.

86

As for the present time, 45.8 percent of the respondents from
Bouawere, 63.6 percent of those from Diouna, and 91.7 percent of the
respondents from Banamba say they currently are members of some sort of
association. In fact, the now existing forms of associations are the
same forms that existed in the past. There is, however, one additional
form composed of associations that deal with the cattle feeding
business. Among these newly established structures are the system of
representatives in the zone of Banamba, the association of farmers and
cattle breeders of Touba (a village in the zone of Banamba) , and the
non-permanent bean purchasing associations in the zone of Segou. These
new structures, as well as the traditional farming association will be
described in more detail later in this chapter. It is, however,
surprising that none of the respondents mention the "ton villageois"
which is meant to be the official structure for the development of
cooperation in the rural areas of the country and which is mandated in
every village (see above, page 5).

Relative to their status as current members of an association, the
respondents were asked how they happened to join the organization.

Their answers are reported in Table 4-25.

(Table 4-25 about here)

In Bouawere, 90 percent of the respondents report they have joined
their associations because they have to. In Diouna, the respondents
are evenly distributed among self-choice, initiators, and conformity,
with election coming first. In Banamba, self-choice associated with

the profit motive led a larger proportion of the respondents (45.5

87

Table 4-25: How Current Members Happened to Join Their Associations,

by Subzone.

 

 

 

 

How members join their Percent of Respondents
associations Bouawere(N-10) Diouna(N-l3) Banamba(N-1l)
1. Election 00.0 28.6 36.4
2. Conformity 90.0 21.4 00.0
3. Initiators 00.0 21.4 18.2
4. Self-choice (profit
motive) 10.0 21.4 45.5
5. Other 00.0 07.1 00.0
TOTAL 1002 1002 1001

 

percent) to join their associations, when 36.4 of them were elected.4

A cross-examination of current membership in various associations,
and how the respondent happens to join an association, is attempted in
Table 4-26.

(Table 4-26 about here)

 

4Conformity is used to describe a behavior which consists for a
respondent to join an association because his father, and his
grandfather were members in the same association in the past,
and because every young person is expected to become a member
in this association. In contrast, election refers to a
situation where a respondent is brought at the head of a
political organization by the vote of his peers. So, being
a leader, he automatically becomes a member.

88

Tabel 4-26: Membership in Different Associations and How a Respondent

Happened to be a Member.

(N-35)

 

How a Respondent Happened to be a Member

 

 

 

 

 

Associations
Election Conformity Initiator Self- Other Row
Choice Table
l. Farming l 7 0 1 0 9
1. Farming 02.9 20.0 00.0 02.9 00.0 25.7
0 3 3 1 0
2. Marriage 00.0 08.6 08.6 02.9 00.0
3 0 2 5 0 10
3. Cattle
feeding 08.6 00.0 05.7 14.3 00.0 28.6
3 0 0 0 1 4
4. Political 08.6 00.0 00.0 00.0 02.9 11.4
0 2 0 1 0 3
5. Farming and
Marriage 00.0 05.7 00.0 02.9 00.0 08.6
1 0 0 1 0 2
6. Religion 02.9 00.0 00.0 02.9 00.0 05.7
Column 8 12 5 9 l 35
Total 22.9 34.3 14.3 25.7 02.9 100.0
Chi-square - 39.47; D.F. - 20; S - .006
Cramer's V a .53
Kendall's Tau C - .78; .28

89

 

According to the cross-tabulation, the members in traditional
farming associations tend to join by conformity. Members in marriage
associations join either by conformity, or because they are initiators.
Members in political organizations are elected, when members in

cattle feeding associations join mainly on the basis of their own

choice, and because of a profit motive.

For those respondents who are not currently members in a cattle
feeding related association, they almost unanimously report that they
will be very enthusiastic to join such an association if it were
formed.

As a summary to this section on cooperation patterns, it should be
noted that the respondents in general .view themselves as active
informal participants. They think that cooperation is good, helpful,
and profitable. However, a larger proportion of respondents in Banamba
and in Diouna (the two subzones report almost the same percentage) than
in Bouawere, report they were members in some sort of association in
the past. As for the present time, a larger proportion of respondents
from Banamba than Diouna, and from Diouna than Bouawere, report being
current members in an association. These current members happen to
join their association either by conformity, because they are elected,
because they are among those who start the association, or simply by
self-choice founded on the expectation of a profit. Conformist members
are mainly recruited among respondents from Bouawere, when profit
motivated members are mainly found in the subzone of Banamba. Finally,
a cross-examination of data points to a close relationship between
membership in the different associations on one hand, and how a

respondent happens to be a member on the other hand.

90

Statistical Egggg.g£.Hypotheses: In Chapter 3, a certain number of
hypotheses are formulated. In the operational model of the study,
these hypotheses consist essentially of propositions that claim the
existence of relationship between variables such as age of respondent,
education, cosmopoliteness, business size, family size, past experience
with cooperation, and change agent contacts on one hand, and the
likelihood for an individual to embark on cooperative organization on
the other hand. In the case of cosmopoliteness, the measures actually
used are 1) whether the respondent has spent part of his life outside
of Mali, and 2) how long the respondent stayed outside of Mali. The
change agent contact is measured in terms of frequency of contacts
between the change agent and the respondent, and whether the agent has
talked to the respondent about working together. As for past
experience with cooperation, the measures used are 1) whether the
respondent has been a member in an association in the past, and 2)
whether or not the respondent has found this association helpful. In
this way, with the data obtained from the sample survey, each of these
variables but education - since no respondents are educated - has
been cross-tabulated with the dependent variable. The chi-square test
of statistical significance is employed to establish whether or not a
relationship exists between an independent variable and the dependent
variable. In addition, Phi and Cramer's V are used to determine the
strength of the relationship, and Kendall's Tau B and Tau C are used to
determine whether a given relationship is positive or negative.
As appears in Table 4-27, age of respondent is found to be

significantly related to current membership in general, but the

relationship is curvilinear. This table shows that younger and older

91

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we. a > m.uoamuo

 

 

 

 

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02 mm» oz no» ucmcaommom
Haney fiance
30m aouumwoomm< wawvoom oHuumo :« panama. 30m aowumfioommd as aw Hosea: mo mw<

 

 

 

 

 

.aowumfioomm< ma gunmuonamz unouuso can unavoonmmm mo ow< unmle edema

Amuse anon. “was manage

.umasowuumn cw coaumfioommm wcfivomw «Huumo m cw

mwsmuonama was unaccommou mo owm monsoon venom mu sowumaouuoo £05m o: .uo>oaow .mcowumwoommo ovamumo

hmum ou mama cc cu do own scum mucomaoamou cons .mcoauoaoommm mo mumnama uaouuso on ou meow mucomcommou

92

With regard to cosmopoliteness, Table 4-28 indicates that
respondents who spent part of their life outside of Mali, are in
general members in some sort of association. This relationship is
significant at .01 level of chi-square. Here also an equivalent
relationship is not found between spending part of one's life out of

Mali and being currently a member of a cattle feeding association.

(Table 4-28 about here)

Table 4-28: Stay Outside of Mali and Being a Current Member

in an Association.

 

 

Stay Outside Current Member? Row Total
of Mali Yes No
26 7 33
Yes ‘54. 8 120 1 ' 560 9
10 15 25
No 17.2 25.9 43.1
Column 36 22 58
Total 62.1 37.9 100.0

 

 

Ch‘ square . 7052; Dope - l; S . 001; Ph‘ . 4

Kendall's Tau B - .4; S - .001

93

Similarly length of stay outside of Mali is found to be positively
correlated to being a current member of an existing association. The
chi-square level of significance is .05.

Business size - that is, the number of cattle being fed by the

respondent at the moment of the survey - is positively related to

being a member in a cattle feeding association, as shown in Table 4-29.
And the relationship is stronger than any of the correlations

precedently examined.

(Table 4-29 about here)

The two measures of past experience with cooperation - whether
the respondent has been a member in an association in the past, and
whether or not the respondent'has found this association helpful -- are
not found to be significantly correlated to either current membership
in general, or current membership in an association dealing with cattle
feeding.

The data do not show any statistically significant correlation
between family size and either kind of current membership. (Table

4‘30) 0

(Table 4-30 about here)

Similarly, frequency of contacts between the change agent and the
respondent does not by itself appreciably affect membership in a cattle
feeding association. However, the content of the communication,
whether or not the agent has talked to the respondent about working
together, is found to be significantly correlated to membership in

94

cattle feeding association (Table 4—31).
(Table 4—31 about here)

Table 4-29: Business size and membership in cattle feeding

 

 

 

association.
Number of Cattle Current Member Row Total
Yes No

0 25 25
1-2 00.0 43.1 43.1

5 19 24
3-5 08.6 32.8 41.4

5 4 9
> 5 08.6 06.9 15.5
Column 10 48 58
Total 17.2 g 82.8 100.0

 

 

Chi square - 14.68; D.F. . 2; S . .001; Cramer's V - .5

Kendall's Tau C - -.39; S - .0001

95

Table 4-30: Number of Children as 51 Current Membership in

Cattle Feeding Association.

 

 

 

 

 

Number of Children Current Member Row Total
Yes No
1 8 9
1-2 01.7 13.8 15.5
3 28 31
3-6 05.2 48.3 53.4
5 8 13
7-10 08.6 13.8 22.4
1 4 5
11-21 01.7 06.9 08.6
Column 10 48 58
Total 17.2 82.8 100.0
Chi square - 5.6; D.F. - 3; S - .13

96

Table 4-31: Whether the Agent has Talked to the Respondent
about Working Together and Current Membership

in Cattle Feeding Association.

 

 

 

Has the Agent Talked Current Member Row Total
about Working Together? Yes No

9 14 23
Yes 15.5 24.1 39.7

1 34 35
No 01.7 58.6 60.3
Column 10 48 58
Total 17.2 82.8 100.0

 

 

Chi square - 10.38; D.F. - 1; S - .001; Phi - .47

Kendall's Tau B - .47; S - .0002

97

In addition to these variables of the study hypotheses, an
investigation of the relationship between whether somebody else has
talked to the respondent about working together and the respondent's
current status with regard to membership in an association dealing with
cattle feeding, has pointed to a positive, statistically significant,

correlation, as presented in Table 4-32.

(Table 4~32 about here)

Table 4-32: Whether Somebody Else Talked to the Respondent
about Working Together and Current Membership

in Cattle Feeding Association.

 

 

 

 

 

Has Somebody Else Talked Current Member Row Total
About Working Together? Yes No

9 10 19
Yes 15.5 17.2 ' 32.8

1 38 39
No . 01.7 65.5 67.2
Column 10 48 . 58
Total 17.2 82.8 100.0
Chi square - 14.9; D.F. - 1; S - .0001 Phi - .56

Kendall's Tau B - .56; S - .0000

98

In summary, age of respondent, whether the respondent spent part
of his life out of Mali, how long the respondent stayed outside of
Mali, are found to be significantly correlated with current membership
in general, but not with current membership in a cattle feeding

association in particular. Family size, and past experience with

cOOperation, are not found to be significantly associated with either
kind of membership. Similarly, frequency of contacts 2££.22 does not
appear to appreciably affect membership. However, business size,
whether the agent talked to the respondent about working together, and
whether somebody else talked to the respondent about working together
are found to appreciably affect the coefficient associated with
membership in cattle feeding association.

In total, the data fail to support most hypotheses. However,
other aspects that may be important have been revealed by the in-depth
interviews.

_'1_‘h_e_ Traditional Farming Association and Lh_e_ fig
Cooperative Structures:5

a) ‘Thg Traditional Farming Association: As evidenced in the
preceding section, this form of association is popular enough among the
respondents of Diouna and Banamba, less popular in the subzone of
Bouawere. In a sense, it has become a culture pattern not only in the
area of the study, but in rural Mali in general. This may explain
partly why membership in this association is significantly correlated
with conformity. Generally formed by young boys and girls, the farming

association presents the characteristics of both an expressive and

 

This section is documented almost exclusively with information
provided by the in-depth, informal interviews.

99

instrumental association. Insofar as it aims at working for
remuneration on the plots of individual non-member-farmers, and at
helping individual members in their farming with collective work, the
traditional farming association is instrumental. Insofar as it pursues
the organization of joyful celebrations at the convenience of its
members, the farming association is of expressive type. Functionally,
the traditional jobs performed by the "Ciketon"6 consists of weeding,
tilling, harvesting, and threshing of millet or sorghum. It seems,
however, that more and more, the association is losing some elements of
its traditional functions. This is the case for tilling to a great
extent, due to the widespread adoption of pulled tillage, and the
replacement of human labour by work animals. It also could become the
case for threshing since cars and trucks are now taking on this job.
More generally, it is not exaggerated to think that the process of
progressive adoption of new technologies in the rural areas in Mali, is
likely to result for the traditional farming association, in the loss
of its usual functions. This situation could even be irreversible.
Thus, it may not be too soon to think of alternative functions for the
"Ciketon".

b) ‘Thg System gf‘Representatives: This system is the most
commonly used in the zone of Banamba. It consists of, appointing a
cattle feeder to a post of intermediary between the credit agency
(Ecibev) and the other cattle feeders of the subzone or village. In
fact, the first generation of representatives were appointed directly

by Ecibev. But recently, the cattle feeders themselves are involved in

 

Bamanan expressions for farming association.

100

the appointing of their representatives. Initially, the roles of these
representatives were limited to listing the loan-seekers in their
areas, bringing that list to the credit agency, receiving an amount of

money from the agency, and distributing it among cattle feeders.
However, the actual field situation renders the roles of

representatives more complex and wider, involving frequent contacts
with the change agent, centralization of peers' grievances, and, in
some cases, reception, storage, and distribution of cottonseed,
cottonseed cake, and salt. As a result of this reinforcement of the
roles of the representative, he finds himself provided - certainly not
legally, but de facto - with a relatively important power. Obviously,
this system presents a certain number of deficiencies. For example, it
explicitly addresses none of the problems the cattle feeders are
encountering (mainly in the domain of marketing, and purchase of feeder
cattle). More importantly, by leaving all the responsibilities with an
individual, it does not allow for collective participation, and for
democratic control. Thus, it is not surprising that the system of
representatives is facing enormous difficulties in the zone of Banamba,
the most common difficulty being lack of trust in the representatives
as exemplified by these two conversations with two different
interviewees from two different villages:
Example‘l;

Question: Who brings your money (the loan)

from the Ecibev agency?

Answer: "These last few years, it is X who

brings our money. Unfortunately, we never

get the amount of money we say we need.

Nobody in this village gets the amount of

101

money he applies for. We're always told
that Ecibev has not given enough money...
And because of this situation, we held a
meeting..., and we are in the process of
withdrawing from X's organization, and of
searching a representative of our own..."

Example __:

Question: What kind of organization do you
have here?

Answer: "Here, it is the system of "mandataire"
(representative). At the beginning, we
worked with Y. But finally we decided to
have our own representative because there
was a problem of trust. In effect, we
noticed that cattle feeders from (village
name) were not reimbursing their loan, and
still continued receiving new loans. And
we decided not to continue with them..."

These two examples show how important the moral dimension of
individuals is to the stability of an organization. As pointed out by
Comitas Lambros7 in his study of Jamaican fishermen, a misunderstand-
ing of the administration of group's affairs is likely to result in
harm to cooperation.

c) The Association of Farmers and Cattle Breeders of Touba:

 

At the time of the survey, this association was in its third year of

existence. In a sense, it emerged out of a conversation between two

 

Comitas, Lambros. Fishermen and Cooperation in
Rural JamaicaI 1962, p. 210.

102

persons: an official from Ecibev, and an opinion leader from the
village of Touba. The official of Ecibev made the suggestion of
forming an association to the opinion leader, explaining to him that
neither Ecibev, nor the government of Mali, could continue

indefinitely to appoint agents in rural areas, and that the ultimate

objective of the cattle feeding program was to lead the cattle feeders
to self-reliance. The opinion leader in turn talked to people from the
thirteen villages of the subzone, and one first meeting was decided and
held in Touba. This meeting gave birth to the association of farmers
and cattle breeders of Touba. As indicated in its name, the
association was formed on the basis of two economic activities:
cropping and livestock. In principle, the association was open to any
farmers, cattle breeders or cattle feeders living in the
"arrondissement" (district) of Touba, and willing to pay a yearly
subscription of one thousand Malian francs, and to conform to the rules
and regulations of the organization. For a cattle feeder willing to
join the association, the subscription was five hundred Malian francs
per feeder cattle being fed. For the functioning of the association, a
committee of seventeen members was formed. Fifteen of these members
were elected and the two others - the chief of district and a
representative of the political bureau of the district - were ex
officio members. In terms of objectives, the association aimed at
seeking loans from credit institutions, not in the name of individual
members, but in the name of the group as a whole. This loan could be
either money (for cattle feeders), or farm-inputs like ploughs and
fertilizers, which the association distributed to members expressing
the need for them. So, the members only had to seek loans from their

103

association. They need not deal with an external organization.
Provisions were made in the rules that enabled the association to
collect its dues from members who are in arrears. However, when it was
established that a given member was not materially in condition to meet
a deadline and reimburse a debt, the association was ready to pay for
this member, and to wait until he was in a better position. The
association also aimed at realizing social programs for its members.
For example, two years after it was formed, the association decided to
purchase and stock food grains with the amount of money obtained from
the subscriptions paid by the members. This stock of cereal was to be
sold to the members at a relatively low price in periods of shortages.
Another objective of the association was to promote communication among
people in the area, and to work to put an end to cases of disagreement
among villages in the subzone.

It seems, therefore, that the association of farmers and cattle
breeders of Touba is a structured, contractual type of instrumental
association dealing with various kinds of activities for the benefit of
its members. It apparently puts to work the open-door policy
principle, and the principles of voluntary association, democratic
management, and self and mutual-help. In the entire area of
intervention of the cattle feeding program, this association is
considered an example of success, a model that should inspire cattle
feeders from other parts of the zones of Banamba and Segou.

An attempt to investigate the factors that explain the ease with
which this association was formed, and the success with which it had
been working since then, pointed to the widespread credibility of the
opinion leader who initiated the association.

In summary, in the area of the study, there exists both

104

traditional, and more recently established structures of cooperation.
The traditional farming association is, however, losing part of its
vitality, due to the invasion of its traditional function-areas by
unintentional competitors. With regard to the new structures developed

among cattle feeders, the system of representatives that may have

served as a useful alternative in the past, does not seem to be an
adequate structure for the long run. In contrast, the association of
farmers and cattle breeders in Touba has a good reputation. But its
replication poses before all the problem of identification of opinion
leaders with some degree of credibility in other subzones of the cattle

feeding activity.

105

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS

This study of association formation among on-farm cattle feeders
in the zones of Segou and Banamba leads to the following conclusions,
and subsequent implications in terms of actions for the future:

1) With regard to the demographic characteristics of the
respondents, and to cosmopolitanism, the respondents from Banamba are
found to be older, to engage in polygynous unions more often, to have
more children, and to be more cosmopolitan than respondents from the
zone of Segou.

2) On the average, the respondents from Banamba have larger farm
size, and make more money from cropping than their counterparts from
the zone of Segou, this suggesting that the latter are needier in terms
of implementation of programmes intended to help the small farmer.

3) The respondents in general find the cattle feeding business
profitable. However, they are facing a certain number of problems. As
for the aggregate data, their most serious problems are marketing, high
market price of feeder cattle, and insufficient supply of cottonseed

8 that

and salt. Although it is the feeling of officials from Ecibev
the quantities of salt and cottonseed being provided to farmers are
sufficient, it may be important to consider the fact that the

individual cattle feeder does not make any difference between his

feeder cattle and his work animals in terms of responsibility to feed

them all. In addition, across zones, there is a considerable

 

8 Personal communication.

106

difference in the listing of both the major problems and the suggested
solutions. And it seems that an analysis of problems at the level of
subzones, when deciding about actions, will be of greater benefit to
cattle feeders.

4) The respondents in Banamba are feeding more cattle, but are
less directly involved in performing the cattle feeding related tasks
than those from Segou.

S) In terms of communication, the agent in Bouawere more
frequently pays a visit to his clients than the agent in Banamba, and
the agent in Banamba than the one in Diouna. But on the aggregate,
there is a need for an increase in the level of frequency of contacts
with the agent among the respondents of all three subzones. The data
also indicate that, in the zone of Segou, the agents have not addressed
the problem of association formation with as much breadth as in the
subzone of Banamba. There is, therefore, a need for sensitization, for
publicity among the farmers of the Segou zone on the topic of
association. As Belloncle9 argues, farmers' organizations need to be
brought about, and promoted by development agencies. It is unlikely
that they come into being by themselves, spontaneously. Another fact
evidenced by the data is that the greater the number of cattle feeders
in a given village, the greater the number of cattle feeders a
respondent talks to. The implication of this finding will be addressed
later.

6) With regard to informal participation, the respondents do not
exhibit any significant difference across zones. Similarly, they think

that cooperation is good, helpful, and profitable, this suggesting the

 

9 Guy Belloncle, 1982, pp. 58-61.

107

existence, at least in appearance, of a potential for the development
of cooperative structures among cattle feeders in both zones. The
forms of association existing in the two zones are the traditional
farming association, marriage and religious associations, political
organizations, and more recently, the system of representatives, the
bean purchasing associations, and the association of farmers and cattle
breeders of Touba, the first on the list being the most popular. It
seems that the traditional "Ciketon" is facing threats from
unintentional competitors, and that there is a need to think of
alternative functions for this structure. The system of
representatives is faced with the problem of trustworthiness, and it
does not seem to be an adequate structure for the future. In contrast,
the association of farmers and cattle breeders in Touba is enjoying a
good reputation. Apparently, its success is mainly related to an
opinion leader and the credibility this leader has among the cattle
feeders of the subzone. Thus, the replication of this form of
association - which seems a good alternative to consider - poses the
problem of identification of credible opinion leaders in the other
subzones of the cattle feeding activity.

7) With regard to the study hypotheses, the tests of statistical
significance support the assertion that business size, whether the
agent talked to the respondent about working together, whether somebody
else talked to the respondent about working together, positively affect
the respondent'qrdecision to embark on a cattle feeding association.
The implications of these findings are many. First, these findings
suggest an increase in the number of feeder cattle to cattle feeder,

particularly in the zone of Segou. However, this should be done with

108

great care. In effect, more cattle to farmer means more profit from
cattle feeding, but also more investment of labour and resources, maybe
at the expense of the traditional cropping activities. Thus, a
decision to augment the number of feeder cattle to farmer beyond a
certain limit is likely to result in a major shift among cattle
feeders, with the traditional farmer engaged in cattle feeding becoming
a modern cattle feeder doing some cropping. Another implication of the
finding is the necessity to lead the agents in the field to diffuse
with more breadth and depth the idea of association formation and its
relevance to the cattle feeding business. In other words, the agents
should work to "get themselves out of business". And this is unlikely
unless there is a guarantee for the agents that their good work will
not result for them in unemployment. One third implication is that it
may be useful to encourage communication among cattle feeders
themselves. And since a great number of cattle feeders in a given
village is associated with more communication among cattle feeders in
this village, it may be important to give the opportunity to more
farmers per village to become cattle feeders, with a particular
emphasis on the zone of Segou.

The data also indicate that age of respondent, whether the
respondent spent part of his life outside of Mali, and for how long,
are significantly correlated with current membership in general, but
not with current membership in a cattle feeding association, this
suggesting a need for more investigation about these variables and

their inter-relationships.

Finally, it is the feeling of the writer that this study and its
findings and suggestions, should not close the debate on the topic of

on-farm cattle feeding in Mali. Rather, it would be of greater benefit

109

to all if more investigation could follow in the future. For example,
it is obvious that an investigation aimed at identifying opinion
leaders in the two zones was beyond the reach of this study, because of
insufficient time, and also because such an investigation will be
better achieved by combining the sample survey used here, and the
participatnt observation method. Another area for research could be
about the cattle feeders' knowledge in cattle feeding, and why they do
not strictly follow all the advice or instructions they receive from
the agents. An example is found with the cleaning of the cattle-shed.
From the veterinarian's view of the agent, a cattle-shed should be
always clean to prevent certain diseases from occurring. From the
standpoint of the empirically-based-agronomist (the farmer), the hay
provided to cattle is viewed both as a feed, and as a fertilizer; and
the more cattle walk on the remaining hay left over their feed, the
more fertilizer results. Thus the tendency of some cattle feeders to
not clean the cattle-shed so often. Still another aspect one may find
useful to look into is whether the breed of feeder cattle in one zone
fatens up more easily than in the other zone, and the extent to which
such difference (in zootechnic performance) affects prices, levels of
profit, and hence the interest of a farmer for the cattle feeding

business.

110

REFERENCES

Abotts, Fred. "Cooperative Efficiency and the Principles," in
Cooperative College Papers Number Thirteen: Cooperative

Principles in the Modern World, Essays Contributed in
Memory of Arnold Bonner, published by the Education Depart-

ment, Cooperative Union Ltd., Standford Hall, Loughborough,
England, June 1967.

Ahmed, Badaruddin. "Leadership in Village Cooperatives,"
Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development, Rotbari, Comilla,
April 1972.

Backstrom, C. and HursheCesar, G. Survey Research (Second
Edition), New York: Wiley, 1981.

Beal, George M. "Additional Hypotheses in Participation
Research," Rural Sociology, Vol. 22, March 1957, pp. 249-
256.

BECIS (Bureau d'Etudes de Conseils et d"Intervention au Sahel).
"Etude sur l'Embouche Paysanne: Perception et Economie,
Rapport Final, Fevier-Mars 1982, Republique du Mali,
Ministere de l'Elevage et des Eaux et Forets, O.M.BE.Vi.,
ECIBEV, Bamako.

Belloncle, Guy. ‘Lg Question Paysanne 32 Afrigue Noire,
Editions Karthala, Paris, 1982.

Brasseur, Gerard. Les Etablissements Humains gg_Mali, Dakar,
IFAN, 1968.

Brown, Emory J., and Bealer, Robert C. "Value Orientations and
Behavioral Correlates of Members in Purchasing Cooperatives,"
Rural Sociology, Vol. 22, March 1957, pp. 50-58.

Brown, Emory J. "Informal Participation of Active and Inactive
Formal Participants," Rural Sociology, Vol. 19, 1954,
pp. 365-70.

Campbell, D. and Stanley, T. Experimental and Quasi-
Experimental Desiggs for Research, Chicago: Rand McNally,
1964.

Comitas, Lambros. Fishermen and Cooperation 13 Rural Jamaica,
Columbia University, Ph.D., 1962. Anthropology (Published on
demand by University Microfilm).

Cooperative Farming. A Report on Cooperative Farming Seminar held
at BARD from April 24-26, 1972. Bangladesh Academy for Rural
Development, Comilla, Bangladesh, November 1972, pp. 6-57.

Editions Jeune Afrique. Les Atlas Jeune Afrique: Atlas d2 Mali, Paris,
1980.

 

Fliegel, Frederick C., and Sekhon, Gurmeet S. "Balance Theory and the
Diffusion of Innovations, An Empirical Test," a paper prepared for
presentation at the 64th Annual Meeting of the American Sociological
Association, September, 1969.

Gasson, Ruth. "Farmer's Participation in Cooperative Activities,"
Sociologia Ruralis, Vol. 17, 112, 1972, pp. 107-123.

General Interviewing Techniques, I.S.R., Coursepack Number 2, University
of Michigan, 1983.

Hassinger, Edward.W. The Rural Component g£_American Society. The
Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc., Danville, Illinois, 1978,
pp. 221-239.

 

 

Harms, Larry. Ecibev Credit Activities, May 1975 through April 30,
1978, Mali Livestock I, Third Annual Report.

Jackson, James 8., Tucker, M. Belinda, and Bowman, Phillip J. Conceptual
and Methodological Problems £3 Survey Research 92 Black Americans.

 

 

 

Kolb, J.H., and Brunner, Edmund de 8. A Study 2; Rural Society. Edited
by William F. Ogburn, University of Chicago, 1946, pp. 161-175.

 

N'Diaye, Bokar. Les Groupes Ethniques §2_Mali, Editions Populaires,
Bamako, 1970.

 

Olson, Mancour. The Lagic’g§_Collective Action, Public Goods and the
Theory gf_Groups, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
London, England, 1965 and 1971.

 

Plan Quinquennal 1974-78, Dossier Principal. Programme Betail Viande
(Edition Provisoire), C.N.P.E.R. Secretariat, Juin 1974, Bamako, Mali.

Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion g£_lnnovations. Third Edition, Copyright
1962, 1971, 1983 by Free Press, New York, London, 1983, pp. 271-346.

 

Samiuddin. Cooperative Farming_and its Impacts 92_Rura1 India, Faculty
of Commerce, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh U.P. (India), 1972,
pp. 44-63.

 

 

 

Smith, T. Lynn. The Sociology g£_Rura1 Life, Third Edition, Harper and
Brothers Publishers, New York, Copyright 1940, 1947, 1953, pp. 552—
538.

 

 

Torgerson, Randall E. "Farmer Cooperatives," in The Annals 2: Egg
American Academy g§_Political and Social Science. Richard D.
Lambert, Editor, Alan W. Heston, Assistant Editor, Philidelphia,
January 1977, pp. 91-102.

 

 

wakeley, Ray E. "Sociological Research on Farmer's Organizations and
Agricultural Cooperatives," Rural Sociology, Vol. 22, March, 1977,

 

Warwick, Donald P., and Lininger, Charles A. The Sample Survey: Theory
and Practice, Copyright 1975 by McGrawbHill, Inc.

 

112

APPENDIX

AUEPEEUJIXZ

QUESTIONNAIRE
Zone " : . Date of interview:
Subezone : Interview number :
Village : Name of Interviewce:

INTI! I STATEMENT

of CONFIDENTIALITY : My name is Cheick Inmate. I am from this country.
For the last 30 months, I was in the 0.8 as a student. My training there
is almost completed. One last requirement was to come back home, and
conduct a survey of farmers who are currently engaged in on-farm cattle
feeding operation. Partidipants to this study have been selected in a
peculiar way. It is therefore very important that every selected farmer
participate fully. Your answers to all questions are, of course,
voluntary, and they will be kept completely confidential. Information
that might identify you will never be seen by anyone, and I am interested
rather in the aggregate data that will be obtained from all the respondents.

I thank you in advance for your cooperation.

Al caorrzsc srsrzn and FARM 3122:
A1. First, let me ask about the general situation of harvests in your

area. Would you say that harvests this year were excellent, good,

fairly good, or poor?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4 é-Excellent 3 - Good I [:i - Fairly ,,;§:i [_ 1 - Pooryuyl

 

A2. Which crops have been most successful, food crops or cash

crops? (Check one)

 

a) Food crops[ 1]

 

 

b) Cash cropsle 771

c) Hone [—— 4—4]

...l...

A3. What are the crOps you grow? Do you grow

A4.

a - Sorghum
b - Millet
c - Cotton
d - Maize

e - Peanut
f - Rice

g - Tabacco
h - Potatoe
i - Beans

j - Cassava
k - "fonio"

l - other (specify)

No

 

 

 

 

Check point - Refer to question A3.

 

 

1R. grows 4 or more craps l

 

 

R. grows less than 4 crops '7‘

Go to question A6

A5. Of all the crops you say you grow, what are three most important

A6.

in terms of the proportion of Land devoted to them?

a)

 

 

b)

c}

About how'many hectares each of these crops occupies?

 

a) [1. [fir ha

h) [:f 4]
c).r [

 

ha

 

4— ”an“

.../...

- 3 -
A7. Of all the crops you say you grow, which one do you consider

as most beneficial to you?

 

A8. Why is that?

 

 

 

A9. Do you raise all the food consumed in your household?

Y... 1

Go to All

 

A10. What proportion of your household

food do you raise?

 

A11. In total, about how'many hectares of Land do you hold?

 

Number of hectares ]

 

 

 

A12. Is this Land your property or you hold it from somebody else?

 

 

l R.'s propertyfi‘ [Somebody else land I

 

 

Go to A14 l
A13. What are the conditions for

holding this Land? Do you

 

 

a) pay money for it? 1;; -!
b) share the crops with the*

Land owner? 'r J

 

c) hold it for nothing? 11 I

d) hold it under other conditions?

 

 

(specify) ‘1' :1

.../...

A14. In your farming do you use

 

 

 

Yes No I
a- Plough ?F---r--
b- Oxen
c- Cart
d- hired Labor

A15. Do you own these tools or do you borrow them?

I norm:

A16. Do you sell some of the crops you raise?

 

j Yes No Go to B

 

A17. About how“much money on the average do you get from cropping
every year?

Amount of money

 

A18. Do you grow legume hay every year?

 

A19. Do you use all the A20. Why don't you grow legume hay

Legume hay you produce for every year?

 

your cattle, or sell part

4

of'it?

 

Use all Sell part 21. How then do you arrange to

 

 

 

provide your feeder cattle with

legume hay?

 

 

 

 

 

..../...

B/ CATTLE FEEDING ACTIVITY: As I told you at the beginning of the

interview, we will be talking mainly about on-farm cattle feeding.

81* How long have you been working with the cattle feeding project?

 

 

 

Number of years [if I

 

BZ- Checkpoint. Refer to question B1

 

 

E has been feeding cattle for at] I R. has been feefing cattle for less
least 2 years than 2 years

Go to question B7

B3- How many cattle have you fed your first year of activity?

 

Number of cattle [_. I ‘_1

B4- Homeany cattle have you sold your first year of activity?

 

 

Number of cattle I 1

BS- How many cattle have you fed last year?

A

 

Number of cattle [:7 1

86- How many cattle have you sold last year?

 

Number of cattle? [*7 [

B7- How many cattle are you currently feeding?-

 

Number of cattle [_ l 7]
B8- During the period from January to April, hbw’much of your

time do cattle feeding activities take?

[4": Allmyour time ][3 - Almost all your time It - An important part of your]

 

 

[- Only a small part of your time]

 

89- To what kinds of tasks of the cattle feeding operation do you devote

that portion of your time? (check all that apply)

.../.,.

B10-

811-

1.

Of

“0..

Looking for feeder cattle to buy

Looking after your cattle

Bringing feed to your cattle

Providing them with veterinary care
Cleaning the cattle~shed

Meeting with other farmers or the project
agent to discuss problems related to cattle
feeding activity

Looking for potential buyers to whom to sell
your fed animal(s)

Taking your fed animal(s) to the market-place

Other (Specify)

these tasks you say you devote your time to, indicate the

two of them that take most of your time.‘

a)

 

b)

 

Now, how profitable is to you the on-farm cattle feeding business?

 

[4:Very profitable I F3 - Somewhat profitable I I 2 - A little profitable

 

312-

813-

In your view, what are the most important problems uou encounter

in

[1 - Hot at all profitableI

the cattle feeding operation?

 

 

 

What do you think can be done to make the project more successful?

 

 

 

.../...

Yes

No

 

 

 

 

‘—

j

C/ INTERACTING WITH OTHERS:

 

Now, I want to ask some questions about your relations with the ECIBEV
agent working in your area on one hand, and with the other farmers

involved in the cattle feeding activity on the other hand.

C1. In general, how frequently does the ECIBEV agent pay a visit to
you, twice a week, once a week, once every two weeks, or less than

once every two weeks?

 

 

I4 - Twice a week I I 3 - Once a week _I I2 - Once‘every two weeksI

 

 

 

 

 

1 - Less than once every two weeksI
C2. What do you think about the present level of frequency of contacts
with the agent? Would you say you want the level of frequency of

COIltBCtB

___ ‘— -.. _—A—

1- A. lot. increased 2- Llittle more increased] b- About the same I

 

 

 

 

 

 

[En A little decreased VI

 

C3. How important are to you the suggestions of the agent with

regard to on-farm cattle feeding?

 

 

[4 - Very important'I [3 - Somewhat important] 2 - A little importantI

 

 

 

 

 

1 - Not important ;I

 

 

C4. Has your agent ever talked to you about working together, in the

sense of organizing yourselves to get more from cattle feeding?

13:14

Go to C7

 

 

CS. What did he say?

 

 

 

CG.

C7.

C9.

C11.

C12.

.. 3 ..

What do you think of that?

 

 

 

What else does the agent usually talk to you about?

 

 

 

The agent aside, to whom do you usually talk when you need

advice with your cattle feeding activity?

a- A member of your family

b- A relative

c- A close friend

d" Another farmer involved in the project

e- Somebody else (specify)

..__X££q

__NL...

 

 

 

From which top two persons do you think you get most of your

advice?

1.

 

2.

 

How many farmers in the village are involved in the on-farm

cattle feeding project at your knowledge?

 

 

Number of farmers I 'I

To how many of them do you usually talk about questions having

to do with on-farm cattle feeding?

 

 

 

Number vu]

 

In general, what do you talk about, you and those farmers you

usually talk to?

 

 

 

C13. The agent aside, has anybody else ever talked to you about

group action in the sense of cOOperation?

 

Yes I No
Go to C17

C14. Is this person a member of the project?

1 Cue:

C15. What did this person say to you about group action?

 

 

 

 

 

C16. What do you think of that?

 

 

 

C17. How important is it to you that you are able to spend some

of your time with others.

 

 

 

F- Very important j3 E-S Somewhat important] r- A little important

“A ‘

I
E-Notw important at allAIm '

 

i

C18. How often do you actually participate in activities that are

performed in group?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

L4- Very A 3- Somewhat 2- A' little I [1- Not at all I

 

 

C19. Do you like to take part in the following activities:

FLT”?

a. Ceremony of baptism

b. Ceremony of marriage

c. Informal meetings under the .tree
of the village 1

d. Working with others I

e. Visit to a friend or a relative

f. Working alone. 2

 

 

 

-10..

C20. What do you think about cooperation among farmers?

 

 

 

D/ EXPERIENCE wrm COOPERATION:
D1. Are you currently a member of an association (or group)

that involves doing things together?

Go to D7

D2. What is this association for?

 

 

D3. How did you happen to be a member of the association?

 

 

D4. Which of the following activities are you performing as a member

of the association?

Yes No

 

a Using the association for buying and/or selling?

0‘
' .

Attending meetings?
c- Asking pcOple to join the association?

d~ Playing a leadership's role?

 

 

 

e- Other (specify)? I
D5. How do you feel about your association? Do you feel very lucky of

having it, somewhat lucky, a little lucky, or unlucky?‘

I4- very LuckyW [3- Somewhat 1"“:ij [—2- A little Lucky J I: Unlucky _J

 

 

.../...

D6. In you view, what can be done to make the association more

effective?

 

 

D7. Have you been a member of an association in the past?

Go to D11

08. What was this association for?

 

 

D9. How long have you been a member of this association?

 

D10. How helpful to you was this association? would you say it was very
helpful, somewhat helpful., a little helpful, or not at all

helpful?

 

 

Ia- Very helpful 1 [3- Somewhat helpfvufillw] l 2-A little helpful J

 

 

 

 

b-lflot at all helpful I

 

D11. Checkpoint. Refer to questions D1 and D2.

 

A...

A R. is currently a member of an I R is not a current member of an
association dealing with cattle feeding association or R's current associa-
tters 7 tion has not to do with cattle
feeding operation-

 

__v—

 

 

Go ot E

 

‘-

D12. If an association is formed
in your area to help farmers
engaged in on-farm cattle feeding
operation, how enthusiastic will
you be to become a member of this

-—— association?

,1- Very enthusiastic ] [- Somewhat enthusiasti; [2: A little enthusiasticj

 

a

 

‘

I 1“ Not enthusiastic]

-12..

El BACKGROUND INFORMATION: Now I an going to ask some question about yourself.

E1. How old are you?
Age 1 ,

E2. How long have you been living in this village?

 

 

 

 

 

E3. Are you married?

Go to E13

Eb. How many wives do you have?

__:

nun 1

ES. Do(es) your wife/wives help you with your cattle feeding tasks?

Go to E7

 

 

E6. Homeuch of the time of your wife/wives does on-farm cattle

feeding activity take?

 

l:- All her [their time] [:0- Almost all her/their timel -3- An important part of
, her their time

 

 

 

- Only a small part of her/their timeLl [1- None of her/their time—l

 

E7. Do you have children? ’

n
C
. .

Go to 813

E3. How many children do you have?
Number I__ I 1

E9. Age and sex of each child.

Order Ag_e__1 Sex
1.

2.

 

 

 

 

 

O‘U‘bw
O

E10. Checkpoint. - Refer to question E9

__1'

‘ R. has both sons and daughters I [§. has only sons or only daughters \

 

 

 

 

Go to E12
E11. Do you think that your daughters contribute more, about the
same, or less than your sons in helping you with your cattle

feeding operation?

F— More J 2- About the samej [ 3- Less—I

E12. How much of the time of your children does on-farm cattle

 

 

 

 

 

feeding activity take?

g

r 5- All their time jE— Almost all their time! [3-t1me An important part of their,

 

 

 

 

 

2- Only a small part of their time] 1- None of their time ‘

 

 

E13. Now, let talk about education - Have you been to "French School"?

‘EZI

Go to E15

 

E14. How many years have you spent to French school?
Number of years
E15. ~Have youa been to "Madersa school"?
Go to E17
E16. How many years have you spent there?

Number of years [:_ I _J

E17. Have you received some'"Baliku Kalan"?

Go to E20

 

E18. How many years of training have you had from "Baliku School"?

 

 

Number of years ! eel

E19. Do you read the Newspapern "Kibaru"?

220.

E21.

E22.

E23.

E24.

- 14 -

Have you spent part of your life out of Mali?

'End of interview

Which country/countries is that?

 

How long have you stayed in this/these countries?

1

 

2
3

What kind of occupation did you have there?

 

Why did you decide to come back home?

 

 

These are all the questions I have. ‘Thank you for your help.