CULTURAL-ENSTITUTIONAL AND TEACHER INFLUENCE UPON $06!“ STUDEES CURRICULTJM AND TNSTRUCTTON: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY “was for the chno of DR. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Haward H. Kardatzke- 1968 LIBRARY THESIS Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled CULTURAL-INSTITUTIONAL AND TEACHER INFLUENCES UPON SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION"!- AN EXPLORATORY STUDY presented by Howard Holbrook Kardatzke has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PhoDo degree in Social Science ,— , .. 7 / / , x 1‘ , flérfl/rZC/D (07/5 '7"1é‘2’flum5Hm>6|ucowuo>Hw xmm ou hoaowcou .mHOSOOOH HHH HHH Ammlwqmv muonomOH mamcunm nmflcmmmlaoz AH OHOLOOOH mamcusm fimflamam AMfilwmmv GOHU Imuuaooaoo Hanna aowumuucooaoo :mflawmm.ummoa nuwB Hfimsm amflamam umownma maooMom dfi mHOQOOOH.AH EOHB maoofiom GH muozomOH Ao Imva ame£OHz AH whosomOH mmxoe mchHHH> "mouflflz .m.D Aomlma moouom .moamz .oalmmv mumfiomme mmeH .OOHQOH .mmou< .OQSOHU "GNOfiHOa< sauna .muO30m0H Gmwfl£OHz AH muonomoe Hoosom HMGOflOmaHm "mo mammsmao wouuomou .mpmfiomOH HH HH Amqlaqmv muozomoa mewsunm amflammmlaoz .uv muosomOH mamauom £mfiammm ANMIGMmV fiOHu . Imuucooaoo Hanna dowumuuaoocoo mecmmm ummOH JOHB HHQDQ smfiamam umowuma mHoosom CH whosomo9 .HV LOHB maooaom Ga mumsomOH Aqmlammv cmwwEOHz luv muofiomoa mmeH Aeauaa msfimaafi> "mamoflupa< cuppa .qlamv muosomOH mmeH moouom .moamz .mmsouu ”mouflzz .m.: .wuonome cmmHLOfiz .Uv muosomOH Hoosom HmOOflumafim ”mo mammsmao wouuomou .muOCONOH H H mmmO£uomkm mo muonanz paw .Oocouom moanmwum> ucowdmmmm IMHQ wmuoomxm mo Goauooufim .moaamflhm> OGOOGOQOOGH mOmO£uom%: noumomou mo humaanm .o.H OHQOH 25 .mOHanuw> ucmwcomou wchHmEOu Ono ou Doommmu LOHB OHanHm> unoccommwaH mm mm wow: mH OHanHm> mHnu .Awmlsmmv mOmOSu0Q>£ 03“ GH« A0mlwomv moo:OHom HmHoom GH hvnum Hoe mooamHom HMHoom CH hvouw luom umoa £OH3 muosomOH AH Hwauow OOOOH SOHB muosowoe Amolmomv moaOHuom INO whoa Ho mummk OOGOHHOaxO .mpOOh O>Hm o>Hm nuHB muonomOH_An cusp mmOH EOHB muocowoa Aqoumomv umsts Ho mmuwom mmmH Ho wmouwmm m.uoummz £OH3 mumzomOH An m.HOHO£omm suHB mHOnOmOH AHolmmmv mcHsomou HHmsu maHoaousaH waHsomou HHonu wdH mm mason» %am anon IOGOOHHGH mm wmsouw ouoa IOH uoa ow 0:3 mnosomoskh no Ono waHumOHvdH muozomoa Aomlqmmv muosomoa SmHumaon 30H AH mHOLOOOH amHumSwom anm >H ouswmooua wCHfiomOu UOmOHo umoE Ozu CH mammH OchmL ou Hosomou mow kocochH mummH OLD mwsoch ow wcHHHHBCD on ou Honommu How >ocmwaOH *mBmH> Hmaomumm CH SOHO IHmom oaouuxm oxmu ou umsomou How %OOOOGOH "nonmmH HmHmHo>ouuaoo HO waHaomOH >H mononuomkm Ho muonanz use .moconom IHHQ coOoomxm mo aOHuoouHm .mOHQMHum> ucowaomovaH OOHamHHm> unawammom monnHOGOOIIo.H OHan 26 research literature which pertains to the examination of teacher, school and community characteristics as they affect curriculum and instruction in the social studies. It was noted that most of the descriptive litera— ture in social studies education is limited to surveys of curricular Offerings or textbook studies which provide little information on current practices in the social studies. The present research, therefore, is primarily concerned with ascer- taining the effects of selected cultural-institutional and teacher characteristics upon social studies practices in grades 4—9. Such in- formation is held to be important for the implementation and evaluation of innovation in the social studies. A secondary but parallel interest of the study is the examination of the North American social studies programs of the binational schools in Mexico and Guatemala for evidence of Third Culture values. Finally, a total of 70 hypotheses have been advanced relative to teacher and setting effects on several aspects of social studies instruction. II RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Population and Sample The sample for this study consists of 143 teachers of social studies (either a part or all of their teaching assignment) in grades 4-9 (most typically) in selected schools Of Michigan, Texas, Mexico and Guatemala. These teachers are American citizens who teach in urban areas of 30,000 or more.1 The Michigan teachers were also selected from cities that ranked among the State's highest in concentration of Spanish population. Presumably, these cities would have some schools with a significant Spanish student population. This criterion would permit a broad base of comparison with the total research sample for assessing the impact of Spanish pupil concentration on the school. It is to be noted, then, that teachers in the Michigan sample are employed in cities ranking second and fifth (of Michigan cities of 30,000 or more) in total resi- dents with Latin American backgrounds.2 The Texas sample was selected because of the school system's proximity to the Mexican border. The schools of the Mexican and Guatemalan sample were chosen from those 1One teacher in the sample was a naturalized citizen. Three teachers did not indicate U.S. citizenship status. These teachers, however, enjoyed dual citizenship until their election to become Mexican nationals. 2However, in absolute terms, the Latin population in the two Michigan cities is very small—-on1y three percent and one percent of their respective city population. U.S. Bureau of the Census, United States Census of Pppulation: 1960, "General Social and Economic Characteristics, Michigan," pp. 277—282. 27 28 American schools in these countries which have been labeled as "bi- national, non-profit, non-sectarian, community type schools."3 This type of American school is distinguished from three other categories of American schools: church—related schools, family or individual enterprises, and company owned schools.4 The Latin American sample was also limited to those schools which had a substantial number of American teachers on the staff to make travel and time devoted to the school worth while. Consequently, the research included five bi- national schools in the Latin American sample. Instruments and Procedures Used in the Survey Teacher Inventory6 Items included in this questionnaire sought information on the teacher's personal, academic, and professional background. The Teacher Inventory also asked the respondent to provide information on charac- teristics of the teaching situation, e.g., ethnic composition of his classes, and on instructional practices employed in the classroom. D—Scale (Form E)7 This is a forty item scale which purports to measure "individual 3Paul G. Orr, "Binational Schools in Latin America," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1964), p. 2. 4Ibid., pp. 1-2. 5One school of the original six was forced to withdraw when the school converted to an entirely Spanish curriculum. 6Appendix A. 7Ibid. 29 differences in Openness or closedness of belief system."8 Milton Rokeach, the author of the scale, further asserts that the scale taps general authoritarianism and intolerance.9 The validity and reliability of the scale has been quite satisfactorily established.10 The D-Scale was attached to the Teacher Inventory. Teacher Checklistll The purpose of this bi-weekly questionnaire was to provide a fre— quent assessment of the instructional content during a substantial portion of the school year. Most teachers were asked to complete and 12 return eight Teacher Checklists. The Checklist recounted the lessons of the previous two weeks as to length and frequency of lessons and the emphasis given to certain ethnic groups, geographic regions and famous personalities. Controversial Issues and Latin American Topics Questionnaire (Hereafter referred to as the Final Questionnaire)I3 This questionnaire consists Of three parts. Part I includes 12 issues which were selected from a battery of 18 issues on the basis of 8MiltonRokeach, The Open and Closed Mind (New York: Basic Books, Inc.), p. 71. 91bid., p. 72. 10Rokeach reports reliabilities for Form E with eleven groups, the reliabilities ranging from .71 to .93. Rokeach, p. 90. 11Appendix B. 12Teachers who joined the Survey late in the school year were asked to complete as few as four Checklists. 13Appendix C. 3O pre-test distributions with two groups of non—sample teachers.14 The items chosen for Part I of the Final Questionnaire were those items on which the pre—test respondents came closest to a 50—50 split. One issue was added, however, because of its apparent relevance to the Texas portion of the sample.15 Four questions followed each of the 13 issues: 1. How do you personally feel about the issue? (five alterna- tives ranging from "Strongly Disagree" to "Strongly Agree") 2. Do you think that most of the students you teach are able to comprehend the relevant dimensions of the issue? (four alternatives from "Definitely yes" to "Definitely no") 3. If your answer was definitely or probably yes, would you teach anything about this issue? (five alternatives from "Yes, I would make certain it was included in the course" to "NO, it shouldn't be discussed in school") 4. In general, which Of the following methods would you use in teaching about this idea? (three alternatives ranging from "Present as a conclusion or belief with little or no dis- cussion" to "Have students do a systematic investigation of the issue so they may base conclusions on the evidence that has been accumulated--even though the conclusion may reject the above idea"). Part II of the Final Questionnaire examined the respondent's appraisal of U.S. activities in Latin America. The teacher responded to four general statements about U.S.—Latin American relations which were judged to possess face validity on the dimension indicated. Part III asked the teacher to indicate how frequently certain topics about U.S.- Latin American relations or Latin American history have been discussed in his classroom during the current year. 14One group (N=35) consisted of participants in an American History institute during the summer of 1965. The other group (N=l4) were social studies teachers in the Warren Woods, Michigan, school system. 15Issue M which states that "all naturalized immigrants should have the same civil rights as native citizens.” 31 Administrator's Qpestionnairel6 This questionnaire includes questions asked Of the school administra— tor at each sample school. Usually the administrator interviewed was the school's director (in the case Of the Binational Schools) or the principal (in the case of the Texas and Michigan schools). The question— naires included some items which pertained only to the Binational Schools since information available on these schools was quite limited. Teacher Questions A substantial portion of the researcher's time in the field was spent Observing classroom behaviors of the Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers. The primary purpose Of such classroom visits was to determine if a bi—cultural situation, i.e., Texas and Binational School classrooms, prompted the teacher, as hypothesized, to ask open-ended (divergent) and/or evaluative type questions. This categorization of the teacher's questions is based on Gallagher's Observational scheme.l7 Gallagher listed five categories Of mental operations which teacher questions supposedly elicit. They are: 1. Cognitive Memory Operations: These operations represent the simple reproduction of facts, formulae or other items of remembered content through use of such processes as recognition, rote memory and selective recall. Example: Teacher: What were some of the main points covered in our discussion about mercantilism? 16Appendix D. 17James J. Gallagher, "Expressive Thought by Gifted Children in the Classroom," Elementary English, XLII, No. 5 (May, 1965), pp. 559—568. 32 Student: One of the things we learned was that there was an attempt to keep a favorable balance of trade. Convergent Thinking Operations: This category represents the analysis and integration Of given or remembered data. It leads to one expected end result or answer because Of the tightly structured framework through which the individual must respond. Example: Teacher: Can you sum up in one sentence what you think was the main idea in Paton's novel, Cry the Beloved Country? Student: That the problem of the blacks and the whites in Africa can only be solved by brotherly love; there is no other way. Divergent Thinking Operations: This category applies to situations where the individual is free to generate independently his own data within a data poor situation or to take a new direction or perspective on a given tOpic. Example: Teacher: Suppose Spain had not been defeated when the Armada was destroyed in 1588, but that instead, Spain had conquered England. What would the world be like today if that had happened? Student: Well, we would all be speaking Spanish. Student: We might have fought a revolutionary war against Spain instead of England. Student: We might have a state religion in this country. Evaluative Thinking Operations: This category deals with matters of judgment, value and choice and is characterized by judgmental quality. Example: Teacher: Who was the stronger President, Jackson or Adams? Student: Adams. 33 5. Routine Operations: Example: Teacher: Did you finish the reading assignment for today? It is noted that questions of the divergent-evaluative type combine the third and fourth categories of Gallagher's scheme. The observational scheme was pre-tested in non—sample classrooms and appeared adequate for the purpose of the Observations. General Research Procedures The study was conducted during the 1966-67 school year. The research- er spent about six months (October through March) visiting the five bi- national schools Of the Mexican and Guatemalan samples as well as the 11 buildings of the Texas sample. Typically two visits were made to the Latin American and Texas schools, each visit ranging from 10 days to one month. Contact with the Michigan sample was made in September with follow—up visits in April and May. Usually the Teacher Inventory was distributed and collected during the first visit. Also teachers received their packet Of Teacher Checklists at that time (with stamped and addressed envelopes) which they were asked to complete and return to the project headquarters at Michigan State University every two weeks until the supply was exhausted. The Final Questionnaire was distribu— ted about mid—April for return by the extended deadline Of June 15, 1967. Respondents were assured that their anonymity would be protected in all phases of the Survey. Appendix E indicates the percent of the respondents returning each of the teacher questionnaires. 34 Definitions: Independent Variables Spanish Concentration in Student Body All schools were able to provide information on the approximate Spanish concentration in the student body. In some instances the fig- ures on Spanish concentration were reasoned estimates by a school administrator (usually the building principal) but more frequently the figures were based on school census data. Spanish versus Non-Spanish Surname Teachers Teachers were considered to have a Spanish surname if their married (in the case of females) or their family name was found in an updated version of the U.S. Immigration Service publication used in the special census report (1960), "Persons of Spanish Surnames."l8 The preface to the special census volume and the studies by Manuel and Saunders assert validity of this index over other types of enumeration Of Spanish pOpu- lations.19 The present researcher acknowledges that the validity of this index claimed for enumeration of the Spanish in the Southwest does not necessarily hold for the smaller, and perhaps, atypical group included in the Michigan, Texas and Binational School samples. However, since none of the questionnaire items sought information on the respondent's ethnic background, the researcher was required to rely on the enumeration of Spanish surnames in the sample groups. 18Immigration and Naturalization Service, Spanish Name Book (Washing- ton, D.C.: 'United States Department of Justice, INS, 1963). 19Herschel T. Manuel, Spanish-Speaking Children Of the Southwest: Their Education and the Public Welfare (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1965); Lyle Saunders, Cultural Difference and Medical Care: The Case of the Spanish Speaking People of the Southwest (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1954). 35 Dogmatism The score a teacher received on the D—Scale was the sum of scores Obtained(n1all items but adding an extra point for each fourth, fifth or sixth alternative marked by the teacher.20 Those teachers scoring above the mean for their group are labeled "high dogmatic subjects", those scoring below the mean, "low dogmatic subjects". Educational and Professional Background Information on formal educational background and teaching experience was Obtained from questions eight through sixteen of the Teacher Inven- tory. Teachers who have attained a Master's Degree Of higher will be compared to those who have a Bachelor's Degree or less. Also a ranking system is described for comparing groups having the most formal study in the social sciences and those having the least. In this research the social sciences included history, anthropology, political science or government, geography, economics, sociology, psychology and general social science. The ranking system for concentration in the social sciences is as follows: 20It was necessary to include bonus points in the tallies to make the scoring compatible with the procedure used by Rokeach. All disagree choices in Rokeach's version of the D—Scale were negative numbers. Rokeach thereby added a constant of four to all choices. (Rokeach, pp. 73, 88). 36 Response to Questions 10 and Estimated Number of Concentra— 11 Of Teacher Inventory Hours in Social Sciences21 tion Rank (Code: Bl = Bachelor's with major in Social Science B2 = Bachelor's with minor in Social Science M1 = Master's with major in Social Science M2 = Master's with minor in Social Science ) Bl + M1 = 90 quarter hours 1 Bl + M2 = 75 quarter hours 2 Bl 2£_B2 + M1 = 60 quarter hours 3 B2 + M2 = 45 quarter hours 4 B2 23 M1 = 30 quarter hours 5 M2 = 15 quarter hours 6 NO social science major or minor Less than 15 quarter 7 at either Bachelor's or Master's hours level, equals Ranks 1, 2, and 3 (greatest concentration) are compared with ranks 5, 6, and 7 (least concentration) on the controversial issues variables. Finally, respondents who have taught less than five years are compard with teachers who have taught five years or more. 21This figure was based on Michigan State University's requirements as indicated in its 1966-67 catalogue. The minimum hours for an under- graduate major in social science for those who expect to go into the public schools is 60 credits; an undergraduate minor is 30 credits. While no definite figure was available for graduate programs, it was esti- mated that the Master's of Arts for Teachers (MAT) includes about 30 credits in the social sciences (out of 45). It is recognized, of course, that some or all of the teachers may have taken all their Master's work in the social sciences. However, for this research, the minimum Of 30 credits was the basis for calculation Of the ranks. The minor in social science at the graduate level (most commonly in combination with an edu— cation major) was considered to be 15 credits. 37 Definitions: Dependent Variables Group Emphasis Information relating to group emphasis is derived from question five of the Teacher Checklists. The Bogardus Social Distance Scale provided 22 The final tallies most of the 21 groups listed in this Checklist item. excluded two hyphenated groups, i.e., Japanese—Americans and Mexican— Americans, because the respondents appeared to treat a hyphenated group as two separate groups. Also, the groups, "Mexicans" and "Other Latin Americans," were combined into one group, "Latin Americans," for scor- ing purposes. The analysis of the data of question five involved the following procedures: 1. Tabulation Of the number of times a teacher marked each group in all the Checklists returned. .2. Computation of an average score (in percent) for each teacher and for each ethnic group. Example: Teacher A marks the "U.S. White" group on three of the six Checklists she re- turns. Her score on the U.S. White item is, therefore, .50, or fifty percent. 3. Computation of means for each ethnic group and for each sample group (Michigan, Texas and Latin America) from the teacher averages. This scoring procedure was, basically, that which was employed in the analysis Of questions six and seven of the Checklist. Area Emphasis Area emphasis is derived from reSponses to question six Of the 22A brief description of the Bogardus Scale is found in Delbert C. Miller, Handbook of Research and Social Measurement (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1964), pp. 143-144. The Bogardus Scale includes ten groups that were not included in the listing on the Checklist. 38 Teacher Checklist. This item includes nine areas outside the United States. The Central American and South American categories were com— bined into one category, "Latin America", resulting in a total of eight geographical areas. Famous Names Teachers were asked in question seven of the Checklist to list as many as three names that were emphasized in the lessons over the past two weeks. The item included instructions for designation of the famous names as "heroes”, "villains", or ”neither" types. Question seven also asked for nationality, race and role(s) of the names listed. Occasionally race and nationality were omitted. In such cases the researcher com— pleted the item but only if the response appeared obvious, i.e., adding ”U.S." and "white" to the listing of President Johnson. The researcher also took the liberty to alter the nationality indicated on the Check- list in cases of colonial founders and revolutionary figures. Quite frequently the respondents identified colonial founders and revolutionary figures with the nationality Of the Mother Country, i.e., Sam Adams and John Smith--English; Simon Bolivar—-Spanish. Since these indivi- duals participated in the founding and settlement and/or the independence of the new lands rather than the mere discovery, exploration or exploi— tation of it, it seemed reasonable to change the nationality of such individuals to the country they helped to establish. Thus Sam Adams and John Smith were changed to U.S. and Simon Bolivar to South America. (NO specific country is needed in the latter case since the classifica- tion scheme described below does not identify individual countries of South America.) In contrast, the explorer's or conqueror's identity 39 remained with the Mother Country. Hence, the nationality labeling of such personages as Balboa or Cortez were left as "Spaniard". It should be noted that the procedure employed for question seven differed slightly from that described for questions five and six. In question seven the total number of names mentioned by the teacher—- rather than the number Of Checklists returned--was the basis for com- puting the average score on "U.S. White-—Names," "Non-U.S. White-—Names," and "Latin Americans--Names." Teachers who did not mention any names received, of course, a zero score but were also excluded from the sample group computations. Finally, the number of names the teacher listed for each of the three ethnic groups was the basis for computing the teacher's "Hero" and "Villain" scores. An example of the latter in- stance is illustrated in the teacher who lists five Latin American personalities, two of whom are designated as ”Hero" and one as a "Villain". Therefore, the teacher's score for "Latin Americans——Heroes" and "Latin Americans——Villains" are, respectively, .40 (40%) and .20 (20%). Latin American TOpics The frequency that a teacher discusses Latin American topics is obtained from Part III Of the Final Questionnaire. An individual's score for Part III is the average of the responses for questions 57—68, excluding question 58 (a typographical error which listed the Mexican War in 1946 instead of 1846 necessitated the omission Of question 58). A high score (one that most closely approximates 3.0) indicates, pre- sumably, a teacher who discusses Latin American topics most frequently. 40 Teaching of Controversial Issues Part I of the Final Questionnaire consists of 13 unresolved social issues which are believed to arise periodically in the social studies classroom. TO compare respondents in their tendency to take extreme position on the controversial issues, scoring of the responses was as follows: Score no points for marking the "Don't take any position" alternative; score one point for marking either the "Generally Agree" or "Generally Disagree” or "Strongly Disagree” choices. The higher the total score, the greater is the tendency for a respondent to take an extreme position on controversial issues. This study also uses a respondent's tendency to take an extreme position on a controversial issue as an independent variable in the analysis of his willingness to teach and his method of handling controversial issues. In such an instance, teachers who score above their sample mean on the extremity of position variable are placed in the "high" group, those who score below the mean, in the "low" group. Under each issue, the third and fourth questions are related to a respondent's willingness to introduce and freely discuss controversial issues. The five alternatives of the third question were coded for scoring as follows: two points for alternative one ("Yes, I would make certain it was included in the course”), one point for either alterna— tives two and three (”Yes, I usually do but it depends on other topics" and "Yes, but only if a student raised a question about it"), and no points for alternatives four and five (”NO, it is not appropriate for social studies" and "NO, it shouldn't be discussed in school"). A high score on the third question, therefore, considered to represent willing- ness to discuss controversial issues. The fourth question was not 41 recoded since it appeared to represent three methods of increasing Open— ness on handling of controversial issues. Scoring on the fourth question thus counted one point for the first alternative ("Present as a con- clusion or belief with little or no discussion"), two points for the second alternative ("Encourage discussion and the gathering of basic facts but makes sure the students understood the ideas as necessary for realizing a good society"), and three points for the third alterna— tive ("Have students do a systematic investigation of the issue so they may base conclusions on the evidence that has been accumulated-- even though the conclusions may reject the above idea"). III THE CULTURAL-INSTITUTIONAL MILIEU In recent years educators have increasingly turned to the anthro- pologist and the sociologist to Obtain added perSpectives on the teaching—learning process. One generalization resulting from these efforts to merge anthropological—sociological and educational theory is that the processes of the formal educational system are markedly affected by various forces originating in the social environment as well as from within the institutional setting itself. Therefore, this research begins by examining those characteristics Of the community and of the school which, ultimately, contribute to the understanding of patterns in the social studies. An Overview of the School Communities We noted that the teachers in the research sample were selected from schools within urban environments. These urban areas ranged from a population of 32,738 to a population of 2,832,133.1 All the cities of the Latin American sample were at or above the median for all cities of the sample. It can be further noted that cities are, typically, the center of government powers beyond those of the municipal government. The one city that has no governmental powers beyond those which are 1U.S. Bureau of the Census, United States Census of Population: 1960, "General Social and Economic Characteristics, Michigan," pp. 181- 182; "Texas," p. 312; United Nations, Demographic Yearbook: 1963, p. 234. 42 43 delegated for administration of the city is, in any case, the largest city of its county. Two Michigan Cities Further understanding about the communities in which the schools function is acquired through examining pertinent economic and social characteristics of each urban environment. The Michigan schools are located in cities where manufacturing is the chief occupational activity among the 26 occupational categories listed by the 1960 Census.2 The number of persons so employed in 1960 was 27% of the labor force in one city and 39% of the labor force in the other. The national average for urban places was, in 1960, about 28% Of the labor force in manu- facturing.3 The median family income for the two cities was (in 1960) $5921 and $6477, which is compared to a national median Of $5660.4 The racial mix Of the Michigan communities is particularly relevant to the present study. Although the communities included in the sample rank high among Michigan cities in their concentration of residents with Latin American backgrounds, the number Of such residents appears to be quite small when compared to the total population Of their respective city. The 1960 Census indicated less than one percent of the population in one city and about three percent of the other city's pOpulation were comprised of ”foreign stock" with origins in Mexico or other parts of 2U.S. Census: 1960, "Michigan,” pp. 253, 255. 31bid. 4Ibid., pp. 262, 264; "United States Summary,” p. 225. 44 the Americas (excluding Canada).5 One may Observe that this method of enumeration probably underestimates those residents with Latin American backgrounds since "foreign stock" includes only first and second genera- tion immigrants. MOreover, one notes that until recently Michigan was a major user Of migratory farm laborers from Mexico, commonly known as "braceros."6 The termination of Public Law 78 in December, 1964, under which the braceros were admitted, required the sharp curtailment of all foreign labor in Michigan as well as throughout_the Nation. However, one conclusion to be drawn from the above Observations is that Michigan residents probably have had more exposure to the Latin American—— particularly the Mexican—-than what is inferred from the Census figures or from the State's geographic position vis-a—vis the countries Of Latin America. According to the 1960 Census, the Negro population in the Michigan cities is considerably larger than the Latin American population.7 The? Census indicated that the sample cities had Negro populations Of six and seventeen percent. While these percentages are not unusually high when compared to the national average for urban places,8 the Michigan cities contrast to other urban areas of the sample where the Negro popu- lation is negligible.9 51bid., pp. 278, 279. 6U.S., Congress, House, Subcommittee on Equipment, Supplies, and Manpower, Hearings, Mexican Farm Labor Program, 88th Cong., lst Sess., 1963, p. 30. 7U.S. Census: 1960, "General Population Characteristics, Michigan," pp. 81-82. 8Ibid., "United States Summary," p. 144. 9Ibid., "Texas," p. 121. It is difficult, if not impossible, to Obtain accurate data on the Negro population of Mexico or Guatemala. That 45 A Texas Border Town The Texas respondents taught in an urban school system located in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of southern Texas. A report by one of the schools to the Federal Government described the city as "an agricul- tural community which contains small industries, small businesses and professional offices." The Census gives credence to this statement in its listing of agriculture and retail trade as the most important occu- pational activities.10 Manufacturing provided livelihood for only nine 11 percent of the labor force in 1960. The median family income in 1960 for this community was $3790, which was substantially below both state and national levels.12 The "Magic Valley,” as its promoters would bill it, is a particu- larly rich area for cross—cultural research as it lies in the confluence of Latin American and Anglo-American cultures. The area has one of the largest concentrations of residents with Latin backgrounds in the South- west. The 1960 Census reported that about two-thirds of the community residents were persons of Spanish surnames, 22% of whom were born in Negroes are few in these countries is suggested by Reverend Roger Vekemans and J. L. Segundo, ”Essay of a Socio-Economic Typology of the Latin American Countries," in Egbert de Vries and Jose Medina Echavarria, Social Aspects of Economic Development in Latin America, I (Paris: United Nations, Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1963), pp. 77, 82, 90-91. 10U.S. Census: 1960, "General Social and Economic Characteris- tics, Texas," p. 411. llIbid. 12Ibid., pp. 425, 345. 46 Mexico.13. The Latin residents represent every degree of residential status from the descendents of the Spanish colonials to the recent Mexican emigre who has established a home in the community or is one of the many who cross daily to shop in the stores. William Madsen, the anthropologist who conducted a study in the Valley during the late 1950's, further observes that most of those Mexicans who have come to live in Texas were economically motivated except for the refugees from the Mexican Revolution.14 The major influx of "Anglos," as the English—speaking newcomers were called to distinguish them from the Spanish-speaking settlers, arrived in the Valley during the latter part of the Nineteenth Century. The Anglos, who came from the North and Middlewest to purchase the rich but inexpensive land of the Rio Grande Valley, were primarily businessmen, commercial farmers, professional men and retired people. The Latins, in contrast, were primarily manual laborers and thus came to be viewed by the Anglos ”as a part of the landscape that needed to be developed."15 In spite of the successful joining of Anglo and Latin talents to develOp the Valley into a leading citrus growing and canning area, the 13Ibid., "Persons of Spanish Sur Names," p. 182. The enumera- tion of persons of Spanish surnames did not include the State of Michigan. If, however, the Latin American pOpulation of the Michigan communities was increased as much as occurred in the Texas community by counting persons Of Spanish surnames rather than those of Latin American stock, the Michigan cities would still only have Spanish population of less than two percent and five percent. l4William Madsen, The Mexican-Americans of South Texas (New York: Rinehart and Winston, 1964), p. 24. 15Ibid., p. 6. 47 two peoples came to share little in other aspects of community life.16 Different cultural traditions, different economic and language back- grounds, and the memory of vexing points in U.S.—Latin American rela- tions combined to produce "a feeling of oneness with a different part "17 Madsen noted in the late 1950's that frequently of the community. the division between the Latin and Anglo elements of a Valley community was "both spatial and social."18 A comment related to the present researcher by a young school principal illustrated the extent of the separateness between Anglo and Latin elements in the community in past days. The administrator, who grew up in the Valley, recalled the days Of his boyhood when a white line on the school playground separated the Anglo and Latin students in their play at recess. Even today, the Latin and Anglo portions of the Valley community are not only separated by different cultural traditions but also by differences in education and economic attainments. The most recent U.S. Census reported that Latins in the sample city had a median of 4.4 years of formal schooling to the city's average Of 8.8 years.19 Moreover, the median Latin family earns over $1000 less than the median family income for the entire city.20 16A detailed analysis of Anglo-Latin relations in South Texas is provided in Ozzie Simmons, "Anglo-Americans and Mexican Americans in South Texas: A Study of Dominant-Subordinate Group Relations," (Unpub- lished Doctor's thesis, Harvard University, 1952). l7Manuel, p. 43. l8Madsen, p. 9. 19U.S. Census: 1960, "Persons of Spanish Sur Names," p. 182; Ibid., "General Social and Economic Characteristics, Texas,” p. 383. 29;p;g,, "Persons of Spanish Sur Names," p. 182. 48 There is, however, some evidence of an amelioration Of Latin—Anglo relations tithe Valley during recent years. A major contributing factor is the post—World War II expansion of the Latin middle class, in part made possible by the war decorations and army—acquired skills held by returning Latin soldiers. Today, according to Madsen, the middle class spearheads the acculturation or Americanization process by asserting the values of science, progress and'patriotism.21 The formal educational system has also been an agent in reducing the Latin—Anglo schism in the south Texas community. While the Latin typically has less formal schooling than the Anglo, the Latin remains in school longer than formerly. It was reported in 1960 that the per- cent Of Latins completing four years of high school was over twice that which was reported in 1950.22 The implications of increased formal schooling for the Latins is that they are "subjecting themselves and their children to a power- ful acculturative experience...The schools are the means whereby Anglo concepts, ways and values can be communicated to natively Spanish-speaking children, so that the child who finishes eight or twelve grades Of school has been long exposed to Anglo cultural elements. Parents too, are affected by the school experiences of their children. There is contact between parents and teachers and school administrators, and pressure is exerted on parents to participate in Anglo organizations as the Parent— Teacher Association."23 21Madsen, p. 3. 22U.S. Census: ‘1960, ”Persons of Spanish Sur Names,” p. 182.; U.S. Census: 1950, Ibid., p. 57. 23Saunders, p. 97. 49 Thus the southern Texas community included in the Survey presents a strange paradox, as is true of many communities in the Southwest. On the one hand, there continues to exist those forces which prompt separate identities between Latin and Anglo. Identification to "La Raza" (The Race) is pervasive of the Latin community, although the strength of this attachment may vary among its members. On the other hand, there are forces at work which are bringing about the cultural integration of the community. Madsen contends that "the overt relationship between Latin and Anglo shows signs of improvement. Latins are well aware of the fact that discrimination is becoming increasingly rare. All can remember the days of segregated schools, direct insult and unequal rights before the 1aw...Latins are listened to when they stand up to the Anglo now."24 These integrative forces are no less significant than the divisive forces which exist alongside them in the community. The Latin American Communities It is recalled that the social studies teachers included in the Latin American sample were from five binational schools located in four large, modern cities Of Mexico and Guatemala. While recent sta- tistics for each urban area are incomplete, it is helpful to note some of the major economic and social features of the Mexican and Guatemalan republics which are pertinent to the American citizen who chooses to teach in these countries. Mexico presents itself to the American visitor as a country which has made significant advances along a number of fronts during the post- 24Madsen, p. 13. 50 World War II period. Of such advances, the growth and diversification of its economy is of prime importance. The doubling of Mexico's gross national product between 1945 to 1957 was unmatched in Latin America.25 Today (1966) its total gross national product of over $20 billion is second only to that of Brazil's while its per capita gross national product of $470 ranks sixth among the 17 Latin American nations.26 Agriculture continues to be the main occupational activity of the nation, employing 53% Of its labor force, although the expansion Of manufacturing industries and trade has made those sectors of the economy the largest contributors to the gross national product.27 Guatemala has not fared quite as well economically as its northern neighbor during the post-war period. Guatemala's 1966 per capita gross national product of $314 represents a 125% increase over her 1950 GNP figure, which is compared to Mexico's increase of 154% and Latin America's 134% increase.28 The Guatemalan economy also con- trasts to that of Mexico in its greater reliance upon agriculture production, even though the manufacturing sector is one Of the 25Oscar Lewis, "Mexico Since Cardenas," in Richard N. Adams e£_ .§1., Social Change in Latin America Today (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1960), p. 299. 26Agency for International Development, Gross National Product: Growth Rates and Trend Data by Region and Country (Washington: AID, Office of Program Coordination, Statistics and Reports Division, March 31, 1967), pp. 8-9. 27Katherine E. Rice, "Basic Data on the Economy of Mexico," OVerseas Business Reports, 0BR 64-13 (February, 1964), p. 16; United Nations, Economic Survey of Latin America: 1965 (New York: UN, Economic Commission for Latin America, 1967), p. 226. 28Agency for International Development, p. 9. 51 fastest growing sectors of both economies. It is estimated that the agrarian sector continues to employ 68% of the labor force and is second only to wholesale and retail trade in its contribution to the gross national product.29 Moreover, until the successful cultivation and marketing of cotton during the past five years and the recent expan- sion of the manufacturing sector, the stability Of the Guatemalan economy rested heavily upon production and sale of coffee. Even today coffee comprises 40% of the total value of Guatemala's exports.30 Additional points of contrast between Guatemala and its northern neighbor can be noted. Urbanization in Guatemala has not proceeded as far as it has in Mexico. Today, only 34% of the former's popula- 31 tion live in urban areas, which compares to the latter's 50%. About one-fifth of Guatemala's population resides within the Department of Guatemala, where the Nation's capitol is located. Not only is the nation's population sharply divided between rural and urban, but also Guatemala is confronted with the almost equal division of the popula- tion between Indians, who live primarily in rural areas, and the_ "32 Spanish-American element, or ”Ladinos. The important distinction between the two groups is not racial but cultural differences Of dress, 33 customs, and frequently, but not exclusively, language. In Mexico 9Thomas K. Brewer, ”Basic Data on the Economy of Guatemala," Overseas Business Reports, OBR 66-31 (May, 1966), pp. 15, 5. 30United Nations, Economic Survey of Latin America: 1965, p. 185. 31Brewer, p. 2; Mexico Secretaria de Industria e Comercia, Direccion General de Estadistica, Octavo Censo General de Poblacion: 1960, Resumen General, p. l. 32Vekemans and Segundo, p. 91. 33Richard N. Adams, ”Social Change in Guatemala," 21,, p. 238. in Adams e5 52 the Indian population is substantially smaller, perhaps 20 to 30%, and is confined to a few states of the Mexican Republic.34 Although Mexico and Guatemala differ on several aspects of social and economic life, it is most pertinent to note that both countries share important economic and social ties with the United States. The United States, for one thing, is the major trade partner Of the two Latin_American republics. Although Mexico is moving toward greater self—sufficiency, particularly in costly manufactured items, in 1965 54% of that country's exports went to the United States, whereas 65% 35 of her imports came from her northern neighbor. The unfavorable trade balance that Mexico has with the United States is more than made up by the substantial expenditures Of U.S. tourists in Mexico. U.S. tourists, who comprise the largest group of visitOrs to Mexico annually,36 37 spent over $500 million in 1965. This figure is equal to about one-third of the total expenditures by the Mexican Federal Government.38 In the case of Guatemala, it was reported in 1965 that her imports from 34Vekemans and Segundo, p. 91.. The authors note the difficulties in arriving at an accurate figure on the Indian population. If language is the only measure, greater accuracy can, of course, be achieved. The Mexican Census of 1960 noted, for example, that three percent of the Republic's population spoke only an indigenous language and that 87% of these people were located in seven of the 35 Mexican states. Censo General de Mexico: 1960, pp. 263-266. 35International Monetary Fund, Direction of Trade. Annual: 1961-65 (Washington: IMF, Statistics Bureau, n.d.), p. 195. In the same period Latin American exports to the United States were 34% Of her total, while the region's imports from the United States were 43%. Ibid., p. 43. 36Banco Nacional de Comercio Exterior, S.A., Mexico (Mexico, D.F.: BNCE, 1960), p. 239. 37Etienne H. Miller, "Foreign Travel Payments Continue to Rise in 1965," Survey of Current Business, XLVI, NO. 6 (June, 1966), p. 16. 38United Nations, Economic Survey of Latin America: 1965, p. 228. 53 the United States were 42% Of the total imports, while exports to the United States-comprised 37% Of the total.39 The Guatemalan figures represent a decline over the past 15 years due to the growth of the Central American Common Market and the expansion of trade ties with Japan and West Germany. U.S. tourism, although an important social link with the U.S., is not as significant for Guatemala economically speaking as it is for Mexico since, of course, the former republic does not enjoy the latter's proximity to the United States.40 The United States is also a substantial external investor in the economies of Mexico and Guatemala. The most recent breakdown Of foreign 41 investments in Mexico (1957) indicated United States' share was 75%. Although there are no figures on the prOportion of Guatamala's total foreign investment which comes from the United States, the data show that U.S. investments Of $122 million in Guatemala for 1963 were only $26 million less than the republic's total domestic investments for that year.42 Moreover, Guatemala has allegedly received "more than its proportionate share" of U.S. technical and economic assistance programs to Latin America.43 The preponderance Of U.S. investments 39Brewer, pp. 19—20. 4OMiller's article does not break down U.S. tourist expenditures for Guatemala. However, U.S. tourist expenditures in Central America can be Obtained by subtracting the itemized listing of West Indies areas from the category, "West Indies and Central America," Miller, p. 16. 41Rice, p. 19. 42Brewer, p. 17. 43Adams, p. 235. Guatemala's cumulative assistance of $111 million for 1948 to 1965 was $35 million more than that received by Mexico. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1966, Eighty-Seventh edition (Washington: YU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1966), p. 855. 54 in Mexico and Guatemala is seen in the prevalence Of U.S. subsidiaries or affiliates in the country. Sears, Ford, B.F. Goodrich, and General Electric are a few of the major U.S. firms common to the large cities of the two republics.44 Thus, it is seen that Mexico and Guatemala share important social and economic ties with the United States. One Of the consequences of these ties is the "wave Of Americanisms" which, according to anthropolo- gist Oscar Lewis, has made its imprint on Mexican national life but which 45 Advertisements provide the also can be seen in Guatemalan society. most ample evidence of U.S. influence. Lewis notes that some television and radio commercials do not even trouble to modify American linguistic forms or pochismos, i.e., the "Bright and Clear" and "Touch and Glow" slogans of certain U.S. beauty products.46 These observations appear to have significant implications for the U.S. citizen who chooses to teach in one of the binational schools Of Mexico and Guatemala included in this study. Particularly since the schools are located in the large, avant-garde urban centers of the two countries, it seems reasonable to assert that the American teacher finds much in his new environment that is supportive of his prior life style and values. There remain, of course, important differences in language, cultural values and economic affluence between himself and the host Latin peoples. However, it is contended that the extent of economic and social exchanges between the U.S. and Mexico and Guatemala has reduced the possibility of sharp discontinuities 44Lists of American companies in Mexico and Guatemala are pub— lished by the U.S. Department Of Commerce, Bureau Of International Commerce. 45Lewis, p. 294. 46Ibid., p. 296. 55 in the personal lives of the U.S. citizens who elect a teaching assign- ment in one of the binational schools Of Mexico or Guatemala. The Legal Order and the Schools The schools are a part of the total social system and thus are subject to society's control. One way society exerts control upon the school is through the legal order. Although the teachers and administra- tors in the sample schools might contend that there exist few formal constraints upon their professional activities, each school Operates within the boundaries set by a legal order which thereby helps to structure the educational enterprise. Since the importance or extent Of the boundaries set by the legal order varies considerably among the schools, particularly in their impact on the school's curriculum, it is necessary to examine each school setting individually. The pattern of formal control of the schools in the United States is a decentralized one. Thus, in the Michigan and Texas systems in- cluded in the Survey as well as in school systems throughout the nation, the major responsibility for administering the schools is vested in local school boards and administrators. Educational planning is not limited to the school board and administrators, however. The classroom teacher is increasingly a participant in decisions of district-wide concern. In the participating systems, for example, teacher committees are largely responsible for the review of the social studies curricu- lum, for the writing of the curriculum guides and for the selection of textbooks that are used throughout the school district. While the local school board,administrators and teacher committees share the largest responsibility for school matters, the state Often 56 places limits upon the discretion exercised by local school groups. It is in this aspect of the formal control system of the schools that im- portant differences appear between the Michigan and Texas settings. The Michigan legislature appears to allow considerable discretion among its local school systems in curriculum matters. The Michigan school code requires that the following topics or subjects be included in the curriculum of the schools of Michigan:47 Constitution of the United States Constitution Of the State of Michigan History and present form of civil government of the United States History and present form of civil government Of the State of Michigan and its political subdivisions and municipalities Communicable diseases Physiology and hygiene Nature of alcohol and narcotics Humane treatment and protection Of animals and birds Health education Physical education One Observes that only the first four topics are most traditionally in— cluded in the social studies curriculum. However, the statutes are not specific on course placement except in its statement that courses in physiology and hygiene shall have "special reference to the nature of "48 The alcohol and narcotics and their effect upon the human system. Michigan school code is also vague on the length of instruction on each topic and the grade placement Of such instruction. The only exception to the latter is the stipulation that topics on U.S. and Michigan civil government begin no later than the opening Of eighth grade.49 47State-of Michigan, Public and Local Acts Of the Legislature of the State of Michigan (Lansing: Michigan Secretary of State, 1955), pp..528-529. 481bido , p0 5290 49Ibid., pp. 528-529. 57 Texas statutory requirements are contrasted to those of Michigan's in the former's greater specificity on curriculum content. Texas re- quires the following topics or subjects in the schools of the state:50 Orthography Reading English Penmanship Arithmetic English Grammar Modern Geography Composition Mental Arithmetic Texas History United States History Civil Government American Citizenship Elementary Agriculture (only for rural school districts) Cotton Grading Humane Treatment of Animals Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics Physiology and Hygiene Patriotism Physical Education Constitutions of the United States and Texas In addition to an extensive listing of subjects or tOpics, the Texas statutes include a number of stipulations regarding the placement and length of instruction of the social studies items. The law requires that a one semester (two hours a week) course in Texas history be in- cluded during the course of high school study. The Texas law further stipulates that Texas history "be taught...in and only in the history course of all public schools." Other portions of the Texas code specify instruction in the humane treatment of animals in the primary grades, a daily program of at least 10 minutes for the teaching of "intelligent patriotism,' a one year course in American citizenship at the high school 50State Of Texas, Public School Laws Relating to Courses Of In- struction (Austin: Texas Education Agency, n.d.); State Of Texas, Legal Provisions (Austin: Texas Education Agency, n.d.). 58 level, and, lastly, a one year (one hour a week) course of instruction in the Constitutions of the United States and Texas. The policies of the respective state departments of education appear to be consistent with the pattern established by the state legislature on state involvement in curriculum planning. The Michigan Department of Education Opts for a locally devised program with the minimum struc- turing Of the curriculum at the state level. Indeed, the only specifi— cation for a course is the Department's requirement Of a semester of Civics for high school graduation.51 Also, the Michigan Department does not publish a curriculum guide for the Michigan schools' social studies programs. Similarly, textbook selection is a local decision, qualified only with the stipulation that local textbook committees choose text— books whose publishers are registered with the Department of Education. The Texas Education Agency (TEA), as the state's central education body is labeled, appears to follow a more directive approach in its relationship to local school systems. Local textbook committees, for example, are encouraged to select from a list of state-adopted text- books provided by the Agency. Also, the TEA has published curriculum guides for the social studies which outline major tOpics for each grade as well as designating length of instruction for the particular social studies program of each grade.52 While the TEA maintains that the guides 51The Michigan Department Of Education requires all secondary schools to complete a form (Form NO. T4-l), which asks administrators to cite when the statutory requirements are taught. The form also speci- fies the required semester of civics. 52State Of Texas, Excerpts from Bulletin 617: Social Studies, Grades 1-6 (Austin: Texas Education Agency, May, 1966); State Of Texas, Excerpts from Bulletin 615: Social Studies, Grades 7-12 (Austin: Texas Education Agency, October, 1961). 59 are only recommendations for a school's social studies program, "except for those.required by statutory mandate or by State Board policy," the guides state that the enclosed descriptions are those Of "approved courses." Those courses which are specifically designated as required include Texas History and Geography (Grade Placement: 7), American History and Geograph (Grade Placement: 8), World History (Grade Place- ment: 9-12), American History (Grade Placement: 9-12), and Government (Grade Placement: 11 or 12). In summary, the Michigan and Texas setting appear to contrast quite markedly in the extent of impingements upon the curriculum originating in the state laws or from the policies Of the central education body. It was noted that such impingements seemed to be the least in the case of the Michigan example, thus making possible a greater flexibility among the Michigan school systems in designing the social studies cur- riculum. Mention was made earlier of the practice in the United States to delegate the largest responsibility in the functioning of the schools to local school boards, administrators and teacher committees. This Observation on the decentralized nature of the formal control system vis-a-vis the schools was not meant, however, to overlook the increasing involvement of the Federal Government in educational enterprises. While the Federal Government has not been directly involved in local curricu— lum development, it has, through the funding of curriculum study projects under various programs,helped to determine the direction the "new" social studies is to take.54 It is suggested, for example, that the 54The inception and early orientation of Project Social Studies is discussed by Gerald Smith in "Project Social Studies," Social 60 current emphasis in the new social studies curricula on disciplines other than history is encouraged by the United States Office Of Educa— tion's decision to favor those curriculum projects which include other disciplines rather than history alone. Thus, while the Federal Govern- ment's role today in the determination of the social studies is yet a limited (non-regulatory) and indirect one (the curriculum projects are typically administered by university teams), it should not be discounted in the identificatiOn of those influences which help shape the social studies curriculum. The periodic visits by state and national government inspectors to the binational schools in the Latin American sample are only suggest- ive of the differenttypes Of relationships that the schools have with the legal order. Orr contends that binational schools in Latin America must satisfy government requirements regarding: l. Authorization to Operate 2. Immigration and labor laws for United States and national personnel 3. Requirements and restrictions concerning content Of the educational program.55 The charter which authorizes the school to Operate is, according to Orr, not particularly difficult to Obtain.56 Nor-did it seem to the present researcher that the administrators of the schools were preoccupied Education, XXVII, NO. 7 (November, 1963), pp. 357-359, 404. 55Paul G. Orr, "Binational Schools in Latin America" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1964), p. 12. 56Ibid., p. 13. 61 with serious doubts about the-continuation of the charters. It is sug— gested, however, that the threat to the legal status of the schools implied by the authorization permits is not totally absent from the minds of school officials. At least one instance may be cited when the full implication of this government requirement became clear to bina— tional school Officials.57 The instance was in Mexico during the Presidency of Plutarco Elias Calles (1926-1928). The Mexican Govern- ment required proof that schools in the United States could Operate in the Spanish language before granting permission to the binational schools to continue operating in the English language. The closing of the schools was averted when a school Official traveled to the United States and found proof of ten counties in Texas which could operate schools in Spanish. This incident suggests that while the authoriza— tion to operate requirement may impose no serious threat at present, the charter serves to remind school Officials of the school's special status and, it may be inferred, the need to cultivate favorable relation— ships with the community and its legal order. Orr asserts that "one stated Objective of the schools-—to improve binational relations and to foster mutual respect and understanding among the peOple Of the Americas—- requires that the binational schools establish working relations with national governments of the countries in which they Operate. On a purely prac— tical level, 'good' relations are needed simply as a matter of school survival, as the governments are under no obligation to tolerate the schools' existence."58 57Louise Honey, 2; e1., A History of the American School in Mexico, Bulletin NO. 60 (Mexico, D.F.: The American School Foundation, 1963), p. 27. 58Orr, pp. 10, 12. 62 The governmental requirements regarding immigration and labor laws for United States and national personnel, quite expectedly, favor nationals. These requirements include specifications Of the employment and residency status of U.S. personnel, procedures for releasing national employees, and the ratio of national staff to foreign staff. This cate- gory of governmental requirements, as with the previous category, has implications for the academic program Offered by the binational school. It is, however, the final category which relates most directly to the development of the curriculum and hence will receive the greatest empha- sis in this section. The legal constrains upon the academic program of the Binational Schools are several. First, it can be noted that most of the schools in the sample have all or portions of their academic programs incorporated with state or national governments. Incorporation is the legal process by which the school's instructional program is approved by state or national Officials as meeting the requirements of national or state programs. The pattern of incorporation among the binational schools is illustrated in Table 3.0. One observes that two schools have both state and national recognition, two other schools have either state or national sanction, and one school has neither state nor national recog- nition. It is noted further that the prepatoria or bachillerato (grades nine through twelve), if offered, are not typically incorporated with government bodies. The most common practice where these programs exist is to have them recognized by a national or state university. The decision to incorporate has several consequences for the bina- tional school. Initially, incorporation means that the binational curriculum will include those topics or subjects found in the curriculum 63 Table 3.0. Government and university incorporation of Spanish academic program in five binational schools of Mexico and Guatemala School Primaria Secundaria Prepatoria or Bachillerato Number (Grades 1-6) (Grades 7-9) (Grades 10+12) State State University State and University University National National State No Spanish Program National National National No Spanish NO Spanish No Spanish Program Program Program 64 of the national schools. Also incorporation typically means that the school will offer instruction in Spanish. Since the school endeavors to provide a U.S. type program as well as the national program, the effect Of incorporation is to create a dual and, in most cases, a bi- lingual curriculum. Usually the elementary child, whether he be national or foreign, is exposed to both programs. The schools provide special language instruction for the new arrivals at the school, although nationals are encouraged, if not required, to begin their child at the pre-kindergarten or kindergarten levels. The dual curriculum is com— monly maintained at the secondary level. However, at this point most students choose one or the other other programs. Only a few students try to meet the requirements Of both curriculums. While incorporation is a common practice among the Binational School sample, its existence or its effects were not univerally in evidence. One school, which had an incorporated primaria (Grades 1—6), Offered only a single, monolingual curriculum at the elementary level. Even at the secondary level, subjects that normally require Spanish instruc- tion were occasionally taught in English by U.S. personnel. The ad- ministrators of the school contended that the atypical flexibility in the curriculum was due to the liberality of the state inspectors. Another school, though fully recognized by the national government, is incorporated as a laboratory school. The special status Of the school allows for greater flexibility in such matters as staffing, curriculum development and testing regulations than what is permitted by national schools. Finally, we noted in Table 3.0 that one school has no portion of its academic program incorporated by gOvernment bodies. According to its director, the school has only a special permit from the national 65 government which allows it to provide interim schooling (Grades 1-9) for dependents of U.S. citizens whose tour of duty in the host country is Of a short term nature. Since nationals supposedly are not admitted to the school, instruction is exclusively in English and an effort is made to structure the curriculum as closely as possible to U.S. programs.59 The use of government textbooks and examinations in Mexico repre- sents another kind_of regulation that has possible implications for the instructional program of the Republic's binational schools. However, it was found that textbooks and testing restrictions are not strictly enforced. In the case of textbooks, which are provided free by the national government of Mexico, the school directors tended to View their use as Optional, rather than mandatory. The Mexican Federal Government also issues a national examination on which the Binational Schools are required to report scores. Again, the school directors indicated that reporting of the scores is a perfunctory task involving no modification of the instructional program to meet standards imposed by the examinations. The relationships between the legal order and the binational schools may be summarized as follows: 591f the school did, in fact, exclude nationals, serious questions could be raised about labeling the school as "binational" and, thus, legitimately including the school in the present study. Although the school is the most North American oriented of the sample schools, its Officials reported to the U.S. Federal Government that their student population included five percent nationals. Also, a majority of the staff is comprised of nationals, as required by law. Finally, it may be noted that the sample has an operationally defined consistency in that all five schools included in the present study are identified by the Southern Association Of Colleges and Schools as "American-sponsored, bi—national, non—profit" schools. See the SACS booklet (1962), Improving International Understanding Through Education, p. 15. 66 1. Four of the five schools are subject to legal prescription which require at least some accommodation to national (or state) educational patterns. 2. Moreover, all schools are beholden to the national govern— ment for their existence and are also affected by immigra— tion and labor laws regarding staffing decisions. The effect of these regulations is to encourage additional indigenous relationships not only with the legal authori- ties but with the community as well. 3. We noted, however, that the incidence and impact of legal prescriptions imposed upon the schools are not equally apparent among the schools. It has been asserted, for example, that "incorporation is more dependent on informal relationships established by binational school Officials with National educational authorities than it is on 60 meeting fully the legal requirements for incorporation." The Institutional Setting The school has been viewed as an integral part of society subject to its control and vulnerable to the accretions Of the cultural milieu. The analysis Of social studies patterns (Chapter Five) is expected to illustrate the impact of such forces upon the school's program. The sample schools, however, are not necessarily equally responsive to the social order in which they function. All schools are believed affected by variables of the school setting——the ethnic composition of the student population, for example. This section will therefore describe the major features of the sample, again giving special attention to those aspects of the institution which presumably have implications for social studies curriculum and instruction. Since the binational schools Operate outside the more frequently described United States educational system, it seems appropriate to elucidate, by way of an overview, the special nature of these educational 600rr, p. 117. 67 enterprises. It is recalled that the binational schools were designated earlier as a type Of an American school. Even today when nationals are most commonly in the majority of the student population and faculty, four of the five schools are designated as the "American School" ("Colegio Americano"). What seems, at least at first glance, a misnomer is par— tially explained by circumstances associated with the founding of the binational schools. The schools Of the Latin American sample typically were established in the Twentieth Century (one school traces its begin- ning to 1888) by U.S. citizens stationed in Mexico or Guatemala who were interested in establishing a school primarily for dependents Of U.S. citizens likewise assigned to these countries. As the years passed, pupil enrollments and faculties increased, grades and special curriculum programs were added, and new facilities were erected. The American schools of the sample eventually took on a binational character. The following explanation has been Offered for the emergence of the American school in Latin America to binational school status: "The bilingual [or binational] school is...a type of American school in Latin America which began to develop soon after World War I as the United States emerged as a world power in politics and commerce. Latin Americans began to recognize a future need of their children for an increased knowledge of North American customs and a better understanding of the English language, and sought this kind of education in American-sponsored schools...As_members of various United States foreign colonies in Latin America came to regard their residence more and more on a semi- permanent basis, they [too] became aware of their children's needs for an understanding of and appreci- ation for Latin Americans, their language and customs. Curricula of English-speaking schools were expanded to include Spanish instruction in national history, geography, civics and language until they...became bilingual. The demand for bilingual American schools increased as World War II emphasized the interde- pendence of the American Republics...The need for additional bilingual American schools began to be 68 met...by organizing a foundation, or OOOperative, to Operate the school. Capital was Obtained through the sale of shares Of stock to interested Latin Americans, North Americans, and business firms represented by them. The establishment Of schools of this kind was given added encouragement when funds derived from the United States Department of State were made available [for those who met binational criteria]61 for the employment Of additional teachers and administrators from the United States."62 Although this account included all binational schools in Latin America, it is generally representative of those events in the history of at least four schools included in the research sample. The review of the evolution of the binational schools provides some intimation of the raison d'etre of this type Of school. The review suggests that the schools were created to provide for an academically sound, bicultural, bilingual educational program for North American and national youth. George Young's study on the binational schools in Latin America further noted that bicultural and bilingual educational Objectives are heartily endorsed by the_schools, although seldom followed in practice.63 The present investigator Observed that classes in the U.S. social studies program, particularly at the secondary level, were taught by U.S. personnel, with U.S. materials and, at this level, the pupils were usually children Of U.S. dependents. Even in the elementary grades, the investigator found two schools where classes were segregated 61Ibid., pp. 7-8. 62Dean T. Fitzgerald, "American Schools in Latin America," The Phi Delta Kappan, XXXVI (June, 1955), pp. 340-341. 63George Patrick Young, Jr., "A Study of the Potential for Achieve- ment of Better Inter-American Relationships Through North American Schools in Latin America," (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, 1960). 69 according to language ability. Such a practice resulted in predominantly U.S. children in one class and largely national children in the other. These Observations suggest impediments to the realization of such an objective as "to help interpret one culture to the other--North American to Latin American and vice versa." That limitations to the achievement of bicultural educational Objectives were Observed to exist in the binational schools is consistent with the findings of Young, Patterson and Orr.64 The implications Of these findings for this study are only that caution must be taken in assuming that the mere presence of two nationalities and a dual curriculum necessarily constrains upon student and teachers to make substantial personal accommodations toward different cultural values represented in the school's setting, its pro— gram or its students and faculty. Aspects Of the administrative structure found in the Michigan and Texas schools—~the school board, the superintendent and the building principals--have their counterparts in the Binational Schools. Administra— tion of the Binational School is charged to its board of control, the superintendent (or director) and the assistant directors or principals. The boards of control, which have from 5 to 15 members, are most commonly composed of U.S. and national citizens. Two boards, however, have only U.S. members and in four Of the five boards, U.S. representa— tion predominates. Moreover, it is noted that four of the school direc- tors, five of the eight school principals or assistant directors, and 64Ibid., p. 100; Charles J. Patterson, ”A Comparison of Performance Of Mexican and American Children in a Bi—Cultural Setting on Measures of Ability, Achievement and Adjustment" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1960), pp. 95-96; Orr, pp. 195-200. 70 all three Of the curriculum coordinators are U.S. citizens. It is apparent from the above observations that the major administrative po- sitions in the Binational Schools are most Often filled by U.S. personnel. While some features of the sample schools' administrative structure are similar, in other aspects of the administrative organization, the Binational Schools differ markedly from the schools of Texas and Michigan. The Binational Schools, it is first noted, are not a part Of the multi- unit school system similar to that found in U.S. communities. That the Binational Schools are not a part of a large school system appears to have significant implications for the decision-making process of the school. We noted_that the most common practice in the Texas and Michigan systems with regard to curriculum development, textbook selection, etc., was to employ teacher committees to study, evaluate and coordinate such decisions for the entire system. Since the Binational Schools, in con- trast, are autonomous from other schools in the city, they appear to enjoy greater_flexibility in developing their instructional programs, of course,within the boundaries imposed by external sources. Thus, most curricular decisions of the Binational School typically involve only administrators and teachers based within the institution itself. The autonomy that the Binational School enjoys is not without its disadvantages, however. A perennial concern Of Binational School direc- tors, at least in recent years, is the problem of isolation from their sister schools in the same country or region as well as from U.S. institutions. A step toward reducing this isolation was made through the creation of national or regional associations of the American schools. The first association was established for the American schools Of Mexico. There followed similar associations for Central America 71 South American schools. The associations not only permit greater shar- ing of common problems among the American schools, but they appear to make U.S. university or foundation assistance more attractive since efforts expended in behalf of individual schools in the association potentially have.wider circulation among other schools of the associa— tion. Since the creation of the first association in the mid-1950's Michigan State University has entered into a contract with associations in Mexico and Central America to establish consultant and teacher training programs for the schools Of the associations. One director further noted that his school was negotiating with a leading U.S. edu- cational foundation to create a materials and demonstration center on the school's campus, which services and innovations would be available for other binational schools. Individual schools initiate additional ties with U.S. institutions and professional education bodies. Two schools are currently partici- pating in what is known as the "Sister School Program."65 In this pro- gram, the binational school enters into an agreement with a school system in the United States to exchange teachers and materials between them. In one Binational School it was noted, for example, that instruc- tional films were often Obtained from the U.S. system's ample film library. Also, several of the Binational Schools cooperate with a U.S. university in the latter's practice teacher program. Finally, all but one of the schools have accreditation with the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, the regional accrediting organization whose 65One of the Michigan school systems included in the present study also participates in the Sister School Program. However, their ”sister" school is located in Japan. 72 counterpart, the North Central Association, is the accrediting body for the Michigan schools. One Binational School is accredited by both the Texas Education Agency and the Southern Association. This dual accredi- tation exists in the Texas system as well. It is noted that the Binational Schools differ from their Michigan and Texas counterparts in the financial support of the schools. The Michigan and Texas schools are, Of course, supported chiefly by state and local taxes with some assistance from the Federal Government. The Binational Schools, however, since they are private institutions, receive most of their operating revenue from tuition and fees. The Binational School directors reported that this source accounts for 92% Of the schools' income. Tuition costs alone average $337 per year per child, but such charges usually vary between lower and higher grade levels and, quite Often, with the number of children a family has attending the school. Grants from the United States Government make up the largest portion of the budgetary balance after tuition and fees. The schools' dependence upon U.S. Government aid goes beyond that which is acknowledged for Operating costs, however. At least three schools have received sub- stantial grants or loans (ranging from $100 thousand to $700 thousand) for building construction. The U.S. Government has also provided, in some cases, instructional materials for use in the Binational Schools although, according to one director, the schools cannot usually qualify for such assistance. The final category of revenue is derived from a number of sources including the donations of individuals, business firms and organizations both in the United States and the host country. Table 3.1 compares the size and ethnic composition of the student pOpulations in all sample schools. An important observation to 73 MH q q ow mm m II II II mm em OH No m wOH mopmuw HH< ICoE< CHOmA II II II mm om oq II II I: oo om mH owe m m mmxoe II II II OOH mm NH II II II mm wH o Hm w m II II II om q Q on m.N o OOH m.mm OH woe o m meH ICOHZ II II 11 mm o 0 mm m o OOH om 0 Ho m m Hm CmeOz 0H Hm CCHOOZ 04 HS CmHvoz OH Hm CmeOz OH R W «on W «a W. No we we Cosuo meDOHwMOCm CCOHCOB< ouwwz CCOHCoaCCm CH mCOHumHCQOQ uCowCum HO COHuHmomEOO OHCCum OCC ONHm .H.m OHan 74 be made is the relatively small size of the Binational Schools. The small enrollment of the Binational Schools is particularly noticeable since the enrollment figures include the secondary school. In the Michigan and Texas systems, the secondary schools average as much as seven times the per grade enrollment of the elementary schools in their respective systems. Table 3.1 also indicates that the elementary schools of Texas have both the largest median concentration and the widest range of con- centration of student populations with Latin-American backgrounds. The "Other" category of Table 3.1, which is only applicable to Binational School populations, includes as many as 16 nationalities which the Overseas Schools Office (U.S. Department of State) refers to as "Third Country Nationals." There are other characteristics Of the student populations in the sample schools that should be mentioned. The responses to question eighteen of the Administrator's Questionnaire provided some indication Of the economic background Of the various student populations. The most striking feature Of the responses is the affluent economic back— ground of the Binational student populations. Most (three of the four) Binational School administrators who responded to question eighteen estimated that their North American students came from families earn- ing $12,000 or more a year. The Administrators further indicated that their Latin American students came from above average income levels for the Mexican or Guatemalan Republics.66 One Binational School pub- lication described its student population in terms that seem appropriate 66A study at the largest of the Binational Schools reported a median family income of over $10,000, The American School Foundation, A.C., Mexico, D.F., The American School Looks to the Future, Education in Latin America, Series NO. 1 (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1961), p. 17. 75 67 The for other Binational School populations of the research sample. report characterized the national population within the school as com- prising the "higher income families with the majority of fathers engaged ' American students in the professions, government, and private business.' were reported to come from families stationed in the city with U.S. affiliated companies, the U.S. Consulate, and engineers, specialized technicians, and consultants with national firms. The report further noted that "a majority of the parents have received a college or uni- versity education" and that "ninety—nine percent of the parents indi- cate they intend to have their sons attend a university and eighty percent expect their daughters to attend an institution of higher education." The aspirations of Binational School parents apparently find fulfillment as responses to question thirty—five of the Administra— tor's Questionnaire indicated at least 75% of the graduates go on to college, typically (for Anglo-American students) in the United States. Estimates in the Michigan and Texas schools ranged from 35 to 65% of the graduates who are expected to attend college. In summary, the student populations of the Binational School are from a higher socio- economic background and appear to be more college oriented than either Michigan or Texas student pOpulations. Table 3.2 provides information about the professional colleagues of the social studies teachers in the Michigan, Texas and Binational Schools. The table reveals that the Binational School staffs typically have a higher proportion of Latin Americans and possess less teaching experience and formal schooling than the Michigan and Texas staffs. Although no information was obtained on the marital status and age of U.S. classroom teachers in the Binational Schools, per se, it is 76 .Cmmum .m.: NHao peaaoafl mOCCwHw HOOCOm HCCOHOCCHH OCO .mOHumHCouomCmCo OHCCCO Com uaooxMH HOOCOm ma em 7 mm Hm ma SH am am I- u- I- am as 6N HoCOHOmCHm mH mm N mo Hm mo wH m II II II Hm em em mmeH am No N no mm N o o Hm m o OOH Hm NH apmasouz COCme NAHCo .<.m OCOz mumow Hm CoHvoz OH Hm CmHUOz OH Hm Cmeoz OH Csouo CO ..<.m CmCu Co o>Hm . v I COCOMOH .<.z mmOH mumow COCO CmOHCOa< CHumH OHwoz CCOHCOa< OHwC< O>Hm mmOH . "OC< 0C3 ammum mo mowmuCOOCom CH oowm uo>mm 0:3 "quCmH o>om mmmum mo uCoouom 0:3.Hmmum HO uCoouom HwCHHOOCom HCECOH vCC ooCOHComxo wCHCooou .COHOHmomaoo OHCCOO "wwwoOm HmCOHmmOHOCC mo OOHumHCouomCmCo .N.m OHnoH 77 suggested from personal Observation and interviews with administrators and teachers that one type Of individual who comes from the United States to teach in the Binational School is young and single and is attracted by the advantages that the school's foreign setting is believed to offer. Another type of U.S. classroom teacher is the married female who finds herself in the host country because her husband's business or professional pursuits require their residence in the country. One school, for example, was able to employ the wives Of North Americans who were attending a medical school in the city. It was also found that a number of the female teachers were married to nationals which, of course, contributes even further to the permanency of their residency in the host country. As Table 3.2 indicates, these individuals fre— quently have completed at least some college training which they wish to utilize in the Binational School where it is also possible to establish acquaintances and interact with members of the American colony. The Prescribed Social Studies Program Although surveys of grade level topics or course titles provide little information on actual instructional patterns in the classroom, such listings suggest the general content focus of the curriculum and of individual classes. Thus, the general design of the social studies cur- riculum in the Michigan, Texas and Binational Schools is part of the institutional context in which classroom instruction takes place. What follows, therefore, are the prescribed social studies Offerings for Grades 1-12 in these schools.68 The most common offering—-if it exists-- 68The information for this table was obtained from interviews with teachers and administrators and from curriculum guides supplied 78 is designated by capital letters and appears at the top of the list for each grade.69 The number in parentheses beside the most common.offering in the Binational School column is the percent of such schools that in— clude the topic or course in their social studies program. (Binational schools that do not offer the grade or do not have a formal social studies program at a particular grade level are not included in the computation.) All topics or courses are assumed to be required unless designated by an asterisk (*). A perusal of Table 3.3 reveals a number of similarities in the social studies offerings of the sample schools. It is noted, for example, that in most grades the three curriculums share one or more topics or course Offerings in common. One is also impressed by the similarity of the three curriculums to the "national" social studies curriculum described earlier.70 Thus, Michigan, Texas and Binational Schools generally follow the expanding environment curriculum organization in the elementary grades with an apparent emphasis throughout Grades 1-12 upon the disciplines of history and geography. There is also some evi- dence in the sample schools of the cyclical arrangement of course offer- ings which, according to Charles Keller, Director of the John Hay Fellows by the sample schools. The Offerings described in the Latin American schools are those_which comprise, or are available for, the English- speaking student. 69All topics or titles in the Texas social studies curriculum are reported in capitals since only one school system is represented. Capi- tals in the Michigan sample mean that both systems Offer the topic or course. In the Binational School curriculum outline, capitals represent those topics which enjoy, at the least, a plurality of the schools offering the topic. 70pp. 2-5. 79 Table 3.3. Grade level placement of topics or subjects of the social studies curriculum in the sample schools Grade Michigan Texas Binational Schools One Home and School HOME AND SCHOOL FAMILY (or Family and Three Four Five Six Living Neighborhood Life City and Farm Living COMMUNITY LIVING (or Workers) Expanding Community Life Early Indians Early Pioneers Early History of City WORLD GEOGRAPHY MICHIGAN The U.S.. U.S.-Possessions North America Canada Latin America Europe. Africa Asia NEIGHBORHOOD AND COMMUNITY THE COMMUNITY WORLD GEOGRAPHY THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE EASTERN HEMISPHERE School) (67) Fun With Our Friends IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD (75) Families at Work COMMUNITY WORKERS (50) Neighbors at Work U.S. Geography WORLD GEOGRAPHY (50) Comparative Communi— ties U.S. Geography U.S. History Cities at Work Latin American His- tory U.S. HISTORY (60) World Geography Geography of U.S. and Canada In the Americas Latin American His- tory LATIN'AMERICANVHIS- TORY AND GEOGRAPHY (40) Beyond the Americas U.S. Geography Ancient History Africa Australia The Americas Table 3.3--continued 80 Grade Michigan Texas Binational Schools Seven World Geography TEXAS HISTORY AND WORLD GEOGRAPHY (60) Cultural Geography GEOGRAPHY Latin American His- of Eurasia, tory Africa, and Geography of Eurasia Australia U.S. History Ancient History Eight U.S. HISTORY U.S. HISTORY U.S. HISTORY (50) Geography Latin American His- tory Ninea Vocational and Per- TEXAS HISTORY* WORLD HISTORY (60) sonal Guidance Mexican Folklore Civics American Folklore Ancient and Medieval History World Geography Latin American His- tory Ten WORLD GEOGRAPHY* WORLD HISTORY World History WORLD HISTORY* U.S. History Modern European* Sociology* History Mexican History* Economics* Psychology* Modern European His- tory Eleven U.S. HISTORY U.S. HISTORY U.S. HISTORY (75) Sociology* Civics* Anthropology* Twelve AMERICAN GOVERNMENT CIVICSC AMERICAN GOVERNMENT ECONOMICSb ECONOMICS* . (50) Comparative Govern- DEVELOPMENT OF Current World Problems ment WESTERN THOUGHT* Spanish-American Problems of Democracy* Psychology* Civilization* Social Science Seminar Economics aElectives Offered in grades 9—12 are not necessarily limited to students at one grade level, although it may be more common for students of one grade to elect a given social studies course. bEconomics is Offered as an elective in one school system and as a required course in the other. CAlthough the student may enroll in Civics for two semesters, only one semester is required. 81 O O O 71 Program, 18 a common practice among the nation's secondary schools. Keller, in describing the cyclical pattern of the social studies, states that "frequently the first cycle includes geography, local history, and some world history in grade seven; American history in grade eight; and civics or something called vaguely 'social studies' in grade nine; followed by another cycle consisting of world history, American history, and problems of democracy or a second year of American history in grades ten, eleven, and twelve."72 There appear to be several influences which help explain the uni- formity among the sample curriculum and, in turn, their resemblance to national curriculum patterns. Keller attributes the cyclical idea to the recommendation included in the 1916 Report of the Committee on Social Studies.73 Tradition, therefore, appears to weigh heavily upon the social studies curriculum of the Michigan, Texas, and Latin American schools as well as throughout the nation. It is further recalled that the sample schools-—again, as is true of other U.S. schools-—are typically confronted with the task of providing an academic program that is acceptable to U.S. regional accreditation bodies and to institutions of higher learning. Although accreditation bodies and colleges may only ask that an academic program be a "reasonable" one--with little speci- fication of course titles or content--it is suggested that these 71Charles R. Keller, "Needed: Revolution in the Social Studies," in Byron G. Massialas and Andreas M. Kasamias, editors, Crucial Issues in the Teaching of Social Studies: A Book of Readinge (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964), p. 40. 721616., pp. 40—41. 731bid., p. 41. 82 influences, nevertheless, encourage a school's curriculum to reflect common patterns. Then, too, the schools are faced with the dilemma of planning a curriculum that will meet the needs of those students arriv— ing from or departing to different parts of the country to continue their formal education-—a concern that seems particularly important to the binational school curriculum designers. Again, it can be seen that the social studies curriculum which is most consistent with national offerings will have the minimum Of programing conflicts arising from an increasingly mobile student population. Finally, Barnes has intimated that textbook publishers who enjoy nation-wide distribution of their school texts further help to assure some uniformity among the social 74 Barnes' Observation is also studies curriculums of the country. applicable to the Binational Schools of Mexico and Guatemala where the researcher found exclusive use of U.S. textbooks in the English social studies curriculum. Moreover, responses to the Teacher Inventory item which deals with all instructional materials (Question 30)75 indi- cates that 47% of the Binational School respondents (N=l8) use only_ U.S. published materials and that another 45% (N=l7) use both non—U.S. and U.S. materials. While Michigan, Texas and Binational Schools tend to converge with each other and with schools throughout the U.S. on their prescribed Y 74Donald L. Barnes, "What Are We Teaching in Social Studies?" in John R. Lee and Jonathon C. McLendon, editors, Readings in Elemen— tary Social Studies: Prologue to Change (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1965), pp. 32-33. It-might be added that those sample teachers who responded to the textbook item in the Teacher Inventory (Question 22) overwhelmingly (89—100% in the three samples) indicated that the textbook was used frequently in their classrooms. 75 See Appendix A. 83 social studies programs, one may note some important points of dif- ference among the schools in their respective curricular offerings. The Texas curriculum, for example, offers state history and geography as part of the required program for the seventh grade and and elective course-in advanced Texas history in the high school program. Although Anderson e£;§l. found 49% of their sample teaching state histOry as a separatepcourse,76 it is doubtful that many school systems offer as many as two separate courses in the secondary program which focus entirely upon the state. Moreover, the Texas social studies program contrasts to that of the Michigan example in the former's more common reflection of state legislative or department of education directives or influences on local curriculum decisions. With a single exception, the courses or topics of the local system's program are identical to those included in the Texas Education Agency curriculum guides].7 The one exception, a high school course entitled "Development of Western Thoughfl'and which combines the areas of social studies and literature, was developed by the local system. However, representatives of the local system felt it necessary to obtain the approval of the TEA before the course could be legitimately included in the high school program.78 Quite a different pattern from that just described prevails in the Michigan case. Here both legislative and department of education re- quirements or suggestions for the social studies curriculum are few. 76Scarvia B. Anderson ep 31., Social Studies in Secondary Schools: A Survey of Courses and Practices (Princeton, N.J.: Cooperative Test Division, Educational Testing Services, 1963), p. 12. 77See grade topics or subjects listed by the TEA in Appendix F. 78This statement was made by a high school administrator in an interview with the researcher. 84 The resulting social studies program reflects, therefore, more directly an obeisance to traditional forces than it is to state mandates or guides. The social studies curriculum of the Binational School also mani- fests features that are unique among the research sample. First, it is noted that the English curriculum is not directly subject to state requirements. However, it is recalled that the Binational SchOols are typically obliged to offer, in addition to the English program, a Spanish academic program as well. The Spanish program, as noted earlier, is under some type of Federal or state supervision. The dual curricu- lum which results has implicatiOns for the total social studies program offered by the Binational School. At the secondary level, the dual curriculum commonly means that more social studies subjects will be included than if the school provided only an English program. Some evidence of this is indicated in the curriculum outline of Table 3.3. There are, of course, some subjects which serve both curriculums—- world history being the most frequent example.79 The extensive Offer- ings in the social studies curriculum also add some flexibility to the entire secondary programs as the Binational Schools typically do not have the staffs or facilities to offer a wide range of electives, par— ticularly in areas such as music and industrial arts. 79There is considerable variance among the three schools which Offer a dual program at the secondary level as to the extent which courses serve both curriculums. In one school a number of the social studies subjects and related courses, i.e., humanities, philosophy, were available to both national and U.S. students. In another school, the American high school program and national program are separate, although recently (1966) a fused curriculum was added. 85 The dual curriculum also has implications for the social studies program of the English—speaking, elementary child. The American child, unless he is deficient in Spanish and thus requires special tutoring, typically splits his school day between the English and Spanish programs. This frequently means that the child is given a "double dose" of social studies—~once under a national teacher conducting the class in Spanish and once under a U.S. teacher where instruction is in English.80 There appears, however, to be little duplication since the two social studies programs follow a different sequence or emphasize dissimilar geographic areas. There are additional factors in the Binational School setting which contribute to the wider range of offerings in the social studies pro— gram. Mention was made earlier of a more simplified bureaucratic structure in the Binational Schools than what prevails in the multi— unit city school systems of the United States. Curricular decisions in the binational schools, particularly those relating to the English curriculum, usually require coordination only within the individual school itself. Typically, the schools are not large enough to even have a department chairman. Several examples were found where the 80Where the dual curriculum was offered in the elementary grades, teachers often expressed to the researcher the difficulty in getting the subjects into the_half day allotted them. Particularly in such a situation, the researcher found that social studies lessons were limited to two or three days a week (in the English program). A 1962 survey of the binational schools that belonged to the Mexican Association dis- closed that where the social studies was part of the English primary curriculum, it received an average of 3.6 hours per week of instruction. Association of American Schools in the Republic of Mexico, Capabili— ties, Accomplishments, Possibilities of American Schools in Mexico, Michigan State University Education in Latin America Series, No. 2 (East Lansing: College of Education, MSU, 1962), p. 35. 86 truncated bureaucracy appeared to contribute toward a more flexible and expanded social studies program. In one instance, a classroom teacher collaborated with the school's administrators to provide a social studies Offering for the English-speaking ninth graders. It was decided that two companion courses, "Mexican Folklore" and "American Folklore", offered for one semester each, would be included in the ninth grade program. In another school, a course in anthropology was among the electives available to the secondary student. Finally, another school has developed a culminating course in the social sciences in which the disciplines of economics, sociology and anthropology are examined. While the specific title or content of the courses illustrated in the examples may largely reflect the background or whims of the collaborat— ing principals and teachers, the point is that there appears to be few organizational constraints impeding the introduction of such atypical courses. A contrasting example was already given in the Texas sample where the introduction of a new course required the collaboration-- or, at least, the tacit approval-~of classroom teachers, building principals, the city superintendent, and ultimately, the officials of the Texas Education Agency. New courses do, of course, get introduced into U.S. classrooms, perhaps with fewer obstacles raised in their path than was noted in the single Texas sample. Nor is it denied that the complexity of the decision-making process is only one factor among many in delimiting curriculum change in the social studies. What is suggested is that an abbreviated decision-making process--as illustrated in the Binational Schools-—may facilitate curriculum change and, there- fore, must be considered in any explanation of curriculum patterns in the social studies. 87 The curriculum outline also provides at least one example of the Binational Schools' recent links with U.S. educational institutions. In one school Science Research Associates' recently published economic materials have been incorporated into the elementary social studies program.81 The materials were incorporated into the elementary program after the visit of a consultant from a midwest univerSity who urged their adoption. Finally, the Binational School curriculum is unique among the three samples in its apparent emphasis given to Latin American history, culture and/or geography. One school, which includes only nine grades, begins at the fifth grade and continues through the ninth with part of each grade's social studies program devoted to Latin American history. There appears to be little repetition insofar as the individual pupil is concerned since most of the children who attend the school are short term residents of the country and will soon be returning to the public schools of the United States. In another school, one year of Mexican history with English instruction is offered as an elective for high school students. In a third school, the entire social studies program of the sixth grade is devoted to Latin American history and geography—— a practice also found at the seventh grade level in a fourth school. Perhaps the most interesting effort to take advantage of the Latin American setting is a senior level elective course at a fifth binational school. The course, which is entitled "Spanish American Civilization," is described as 8lLawerence Senesh, Our Working World (Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1964). 88 "an area study type course emphasizing the litera- ture and the social studies of the Western Hemisphere, excluding the United States and Canada. This course begins with a study of contemporary Spanish America. Ambassadors and other representatives from the various countries speak to the class to try to give a general view of the status Of language, literature, arts, politics, economics and science in the respective countries. Following this general review of present- day Spanish America, a systematic study of the cul- tural development of the Western Hemisphere is begun with emphasis on pre—colonial civilizations, tracing the development through colonial times into the present.”8 Although the course is offered as a part of the American high school curriculum, part of the reading materials and class discussions are in Spanish. The class is team taught by a North American and a national. This chapter provides part of the theoretical foundation for sub? sequent discussion about those factors which have an impact on a school's program. A brief summary of the chapter includes these important points of similarities and differences in the Michigan, Texas and Binational School cultural—institutional settings in which the respond- ents live and teach: 1. All schools which employ the respondents are located in urban areas. Moreover, the schools are located in popula- tion, educational, industrial and/or governmental centers. 2. All the school sites are situated in a Latin American culture or possess a history of significant interaction with Latin Americans. It is to be noted that while the Michigan set— tings appear to have had more contact with Latin Americans than most urban areas in the northern states, such contacts are, of course, infrequent when compared with the Texas and Latin American communities represented in the project sample. 82American School of Guatemala, Bi—Annual Report (Guatemala City: American School of Guatemala, 1961), quoted in Herbert G. Vaughan, "Background Information for Social Studies Workshop," (East Lansing: College of Education, Michigan State University, 1966), pp. 2—3. (mimeographed) 89 Although all sites vary in their geographical proximity to U.S. borders, the school sites are a part of or evi— dence substantial interaction with Anglo-American culture. The schools are subject to a legal order which, in vary— ing degrees, influences the development of a school's program. Finally, the chapter identified major differences among the schools in organization, types of financial support, characteristics of student bodies and staffs, and the offerings of the social studies program. The chapter gave primary emphasis to revealing the special nature of the binational schools since these institutions lie out- side the U.S. public school system and, consequently, less is known about them. IV CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHER This Survey focuses primarily upon teacher behavior and attitudes rather than instructional materials in the analysis of current prac- tices in the social studies. Although the preceding chapter suggests that the social studies is confronted and, at least, partially influenced by various forces originating in the cultural-institutional milieu, the teacher also brings to the school setting the force of his own personality,'training and professional experiences which likewise con- tribute to what prevails in the social studies. Gross and Badger contend that "the teacher is the key element in a successful learning situation and more research concerning his attitudes, attributes, training, approaches, and effectiveness in the classroom is needed."1 While the present study is not concerned with teacher effectiveness, it is apparent that information about the modal social studies teacher in the Michigan, Texas and Binational School samples is essential to the conclusion and interpretations of the research findings. The task Of the present chapter is, therefore, the description of the personal, attitudinal, academic and professional characteristics of the sample teachers. lRichard Gross and William Badger, "Social Studies," in Chester W. Harris, editor, Efiéyclopedia of Educational Research (New York: Macmillan and Company, 1960), p. 1312. 90 91 Personal Characteristics of the Sample Teachers It is recalled that one criterion for participation in the Survey was U.S. citizenship. That three teachers now claim Mexican citizenship is not interpreted as an inconsistent application of the citizenship criterion since all three teachers had dual citizenship until they were required to choose national citizenship. Similarity in citizenship status does not, of course, necessarily mean a similarity in ethnic backgrounds of the sample teachers. Although none of the teachers is Negro, a number of the participants appear to be from Latin American backgrounds or are married to Latin Americans. The first column of Table 4.0 ("Percent Of participants with Spanish sur- names") is a crude index of those teachers who have Latin American back— grounds or are married to Latin Americans.2 The Survey examined additional ties between participants and persons of Latin American backgrounds. One item of the Teacher Inventory (Ques— tion 32) asked respondents in the Texas and Latin American samples to characterize their interaction with persons of Latin American backgrounds.3 The question was derived from John and Ruth Useem's research on the social relationships of Americans in India.4 Three types of relation- ships with the host nationals were posited: those limited to categorical 2The statistical differences reported in the tables or text of this chapter are equal to or greater than .05 level of confidence as determined by chi squares (frequency data) or t tests (data reported as means). 3See Appendix A. 4John and Ruth Hill Useem, "The Interfaces of a Third Culture: A Study of the American Community in India," Journal of Social Issues, XXVIII, No. 1 (January, 1967), pp. 136-137. 92 .OHOCOOOC HOOCom HOCOHCOCHm HO mOxOH mo OOCOCHOOC CO HO>OHC CwHOCOm OCu CH OOCCCOO uOC OCO mOuOum OOuHCD HOuCOCHuCoo OCu OO HHOB Om OOHHOE< OHOOHE .CO>Hm OOCOCU OHM OCu mo CuHOC OOHCOBC Cuuoz mo HHO OOOCHOCH OOCOQHOHOCOQ COwHCOHZ Cow OOCO wCHCOOOHm .AoomH .mCmCOU.OCu mo COOCCm .OOCOEEOU,HO uCOEuCOaOQ u.o.Q .CouwCHCmOBV COHOHOO COCO>OmlhquHm .oomH "mOuOum OOOHCD OCu mo uOOCuOC< HOOHumHuOum .OCOCOU OCu mo :OOCCm .m.D EOCH_COCOC OCOB OCOHOOOHHHOOOHO HOCOHwOC OCH .COCHC mo Oumum OOOO Ou OOCHHOO OCOB OCOHwOC COHN .AmomH .OOH>COm COHOONHHOCCOOZ OCO COHOOCwHEEH .OOHOOCH mo CCOEOCOCOQ OOuOum OOOHCD u.o.n .CouwCHCmmzv Coom OEOz COHCOOW OOHuHu OH COHCOOHHCCC OCH :.OOEOCC:m COHCOCm mo mCOOCOm: .AoomHv CHOCOC msmCOo HOHOOCO OCO CH COO: COHOOO IHHCCC OOH>COm COHuOCwHEEH .m.D OCO HO COHOHO> COCOOCC CO umCHOwO COCOOCO OCOs OOBOC .muCOmHOHuCOmH .Hooaom Hmaoaumanm nuns Ame. muxuv OOaOCOCOHe Damoennamnme .mmee 53 Go. W. VOL 888:3 CRUSHES... mm Aamuuamo Euuozv mm H.wm mm Hm Hooaom Hmaonupanm oa Causom pass ASH m.~a ma Hm waxes .eom Aamuuamo aunozv sow w.Hm Ham SRO amwaaonz MOOH<_wCHCOOOH NCOHmOm OCOCOOOH mo OHOEOm OC< HOOEOCHCm CCOCO COCOOOH mo OOHmuCo OOOHOOM Coaaou umoz Ow< COOS 0C3 OCOCOOOH CmHCOCm O>Om Co OOHO>OCH_O>OC 0C3 CH Cuom OHOCOOOH mo uCOOCOm 0C3 OCOCOOOH OCOCOOOH mo uCOOCOm HO uCOOCOm mo uCOouOm OCOCOOOO OOHOCCO HOHOOO HOOCom HOCOHOOCHH OCO mOxOH .COwHCOHz HO OOHOOHCOOOOCOCO HOCOOCOm .o.q OHCOH 93 non-personalized contacts, those relationships that were interpersonal but limited to work-role related friendships, and those relationships which included regular interaction in one or several social circles. The Useems found in their sample that three out of five Americans in India regularly interact in one or several social circles with members of Indian society.-5 In.the present study, the proportion of the respondents indicating this type of relationship with Latin Americans was even greater. Seventy-eight percent of the respondents in the Binational School sample and 66% of the respondents in the Texas sample circled the alternative, "I have some close friends who are Latin Americans. That is, I regularly interact with these people in one or several social circles." All or nearly all of the remaining Texas and Binational School respondents indicated that their relationships with Latin Americans were limited to work-related friendships.6 It is observed that the three relationships are additive rather than mutually exclusive. In other words, all respondents in the Texas and Binational School samples are assumed to have nonpersonalized contacts with Latin Americans, even though some respondents circled other alternatives. Moreover, those respondents who asserted that they regularly interact with some Latin American friends in one or more social circles may also have some work—role—related friendships. In general, it appears that the social studies teacher in the Texas and 5Ibid- 6Nine teachers (or 21%) of the Texas sample and six teachers (or 16%) in the Latin American sample who responded to other items of the Teacher Inventory did not respond to Question 32. 94 Binational Schools have frequent and, in some cases, in—depth relation- ships with Latin Americans. As noted earlier, some teachers are either themselves, or are married to, persons of Latin American backgrounds. There exist, however, important qualifications which need to be stated about the interactional patterns of the Binational School teacher. First, it is quite obvious that an American living abroad can, at best, interact in depth with only a few representatives of the host society. Ruth Useem maintains that the Indian nationals whom Americans choose to interact with regularly are typically, "upper class and upper middle class, English-speaking, Westernized in style of life...and educated."7 It is conjectured that Americans in Latin America tend to make similar choices. Even within the Binational School limitations to the U.S. teachers' interaction with Latin Americans exist. It is recalled that most of the national pupils are from the higher socio-economic stratas of society. The researcher also commonly found that neither the Anglo- American teacher or his Latin American colleague is required to be bilingual to teach at the Binational School. Orr suggests that "a large majority of the U.S. teachers in the binational schools speak no more Spanish than that required for basic services.”8 Thus, Ofttimes, language and the fact that the dual curriculums common to the binational schools require little coordination between national and U.S. personnel 7Ruth Useem, "Interpersonal Relationships Between Indians and Americans in India," Excerpt from Symposium NO. 7, Application of Psy— chiatric Insights to Cross-Cultural Communication, Group for the Ad- vancement Of Psychiatry (mimeographed article, East Lansing: Michigan State University, Department of Sociology, n.d.), pp. 6-7. 8Paul G. Orr, "Binational Schools in Latin America," (unpub- lished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1964), pp. 106, 108. 95 tends to limit an Anglo—American teacher's interaction with his national colleagues. It is further noted that the Teacher Inventory question about the respondents' interaction with Latin Americans provides no information about the extent or intensity of relationships which continue to pre- vail between the respondent and other Anglo-Americans. One cannot assume that teaching in a foreign land where the Anglo-American colony is quite small necessarily curtails one's interaction with his fellow countrymen. In fact, several Observers have noted the opposite to be true. John Useem has commented that "most Americans soon find themselves caught up in a series of informal relations with their fellow countrymen. For some, such contacts provide a feeling of identity with their natiVe culture at a time when everything else is strange; for the old hand, they assure a continuity in their pri- vate lives as they move over the world; for all, and especially dependents, they Offer patterns of mutual aid in getting settled in a strange environ— ment. Newcomers find American groupings an important learning resource...They also serve as secure media for catharsis...Whatever the specific factors which make for American groups, we cannot discount the importance they have in the year-round lives of the American resident." The preceding discussion about the Texas and binational school teachers' social relationships seems to justify the following summary statements: 1. The social studies teacher, by virtue of his residency in the Texas or Latin American community, is involved in frequent and, in some cases, highly personalized inter- actions with individuals of Latin American backgrounds. 9John Useem, "The Community of Man: A Study in the Third Culture," The Centennial Review,-VII, No. 4 (Fall, 1963), p. 490—491. See also Harlan Cleveland, e£_el,, The Overseas Americans (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1960), p. 58. 96 2. However, merely teaching in a Texas, Mexican or Guatemalan setting is no assurance that the greatest number or the: most personalized of the teacher's social encounters will be with Latin Americans. It seems reasonable to suggest that the-pattern of interaction frequently follows the teacher's own ethnic and linguistic background. In the case of the Binational Schools, these factors are added to the school's curriculum organization as limitations to the teacher’s interactional modes associated with his work related role. 3. Since most of the respondents in each Of the three samples appear_to be from Anglo—American backgrounds, it follows that the respondent's choices for his most personalized social interactions are with members of the Anglo- American community. Additional comments about the personal background of the Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers further delineates the modal teacher type of each sample. Table 4.0 indicates that the overwhelming majority of Michigan and Texas teachers were born in that region of the United States where they are currently employed. The Binational School teachers, in contrast, represent more diverse origins—-only about one— third of them were born in the largest single region of the United States. Moreover, the table suggests that the Binational teacher has, the most typically among the three sample groups, traveled outside his current teaching area. Academic Characteristics of the Sample Teachers Further differences among the Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers can be noted in their academic backgrounds. Table 4.1 indi- cates that the degree status among sample teachers is quite similar to that which was reported earlier for the entire staffs of the sample 10 schools. The Binational School social studies teacher is more commonly 10Table 3.2 (p. 76) notes that, in the case of the Binational Schools, only the U.S. staffs were considered in describing the academic and professional backgrounds of the teachers. 97 without the Bachelor's Degree than the social studies teacher in Texas and Michigan.11 Table 4.1 suggests also that the Binational teacher has less frequently earned a teacher certificate and that his formal study in the social sciences has not been as intensive as Michigan and Texas respondents.12 The finding that 76% or more of the teachers in all three samples had taken at least three courses in history is hardly surprising in view of what is written elsewhere about the commonness of history courses in the preparation of social studies teachers.13 The samples did not differ on the average number Of disciplines repre- sented in their college program--that is, the number of disciplines in which the respondents allegedly had three or more courses. Finally, it should be mentioned that the typical Binational School teacher, as is assumed also true of other respondents, has received most or all of his college training from U.S. institutions.l4 11A recent National Education Association Survey reported that 93% of U.S. teachers have at least a Bachelor's Degree and 24% have a Master's or higher. "New NEA Teacher Status Study," Phi Delta Kappan, XLVIII, No. 8 (April, 1967), p. 414. 12Information about the teachers' backgrounds in the social sciences is based on their own recollections of their college program rather than college transcripts of courses taken and is, therefore, vulnerable to error. 13See, for example, Willis D. Moreland, "The Academic Preparation of Social Studies Teachers," Social Education, XXVI (February, 1958), pp. 384-386; Byron G. Massialas and C. Benjamin Cox, Inquiry in Social Studies (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966), pp. 280-288. 14This observation is based on the researcher's perusal of U.S. Government reports completed by the Binational Schools which listed degree granting institutions of the Binational School respondents. While a complete tabulation was not undertaken, only two of the sample teachers are known to have listed non—U.S. institutions. Table 4.1. 98 Academic background of Michigan, Texas and Binational School social studies teachers Concen- Percent of Participants Percent tration Who Have: of Par- of Social Average . ticipants Science Number of Less Mas- Who Have in Course Social Sci- Than Bache— ter's Earned a Work: ence Dis- Bache- .lor's Degree Teacher's Average ciplines in Teacher lor's Degree or Certifi— Rank 1 Academic Group .Degree Only .Higher cate. Score Programs Michigan 2 74# 24 98# 3.9# 3.4 Texas 0 83# 17 90# 4.2# 3.2 Binational School 18 55 27 68 4.6 2.6 *Significant difference (org .05) with Texas. #Significant difference (6X3; .05) with Latin America. 1The scores are based on rankings described in Chapter 2 (p. 36). The lowest score represents the greatest concentration of social science course work in the academic background of sample teachers. 2Respondents were asked to mark those disciplines in which they have had at least three courses in undergraduate or graduate programs. 99 The Professional Background of.the Sample Teachers Table 4.2 discusses the professional background of the sample teachers. Statistical differences occur between the Texas and Binational School samples on total teaching experience and in percent of teachers listing teaching position outside the United States. It is important to note that only 47% of the Binational teachers listed a U.S. position among the two most recent assignments before coming to the Binational Ekhool. Since only eight percent of the Binational teachers listed foreign assignments for both positions, the total percent of the Bina- tional teachers who could have had any U.S. experience is slightly over 50%. Of course, all the Michigan and Texas teachers have U.S. experience-—even if such experience is limited to that acquired from the current school year. Attitudinal Characteristics of the Social Studies Teacher The teachers' response to the dogmatism scale is hypothesized as a significant variable in the teachers' reported handling of controver- sial issues in the classroom. Mean scores and their standard deviations on the D—Scale are reported for the three samples in Table 4.3. The reliability over the total sample of .91 exceeds the reliabilities of all but one of Rokeach's samples.15 Table 4.3 indicates that the Binational School figures differ sig— nificantly from the scores of both Michigan and Texas teachers. Moreover, 15Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1960), p. 90. The technique for determination of relia— bility in the present study is identical to that used by Milton Rokeach, that is, comparing odd and even items and applying the Spearman-Brown correction formula. 100 Table 4.2. Professional background of Michigan, Texas and Binational School social studies teachers Previous Teaching Experience: Percent of Participants Percent of Participants Who Have: Who Have Taught:. Listed One or Listed One or ‘Less More More Previous MOre Previous Than Than Positions in Positions in Teacher Five Five 1 the United Countries Outside Group Years Years Unknown States the United States Michigan 38 56 6 54 6 Texas 22 58 20 61 5# Binational School 47 42 11 60 18 *Significant difference (O( _<__ .05) with Texas. #Significant difference ( Cr 53 .05) with Latin America. 1This table was based on questions in the Teacher Inventory (Appendix A), which asked about teaching experience in present school (Question 15) and previous teaching positions (Question 16). Information on total teaching experience, therefore, could not be determined for all participants. 101 Table 4.3. Mean dogmatism scores of Michigan, Texas and Binational School social studies teachers Mean D-Scale Standard Teacher Group N Scorea Deviation Michigan 49 135.3# 23 Texas 38 141.1# 29 Binational School 37 112.1 32 * q S .05 with Texas. # or f. .05 with Binational School. aThe highest score indicates the greatest closedness of belief systems. Table 4.4 Evaluation of U.S. activities in Latin America by Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers Mean Standard Teacher Group N Scorea Deviation Michigan 50 3.6 .49 Texas 31 3.8# .54 Binational School 28 3.4 .67 * (X S .05 with Texas. # O( E .05 with Binational School. 8The highest score indicates the most positive evaluation of U.S. activities in Latin America. 102 the Binational scores seem unusually low in comparison to means reported by other investigators employing the dogmatism variable in research on teacher groups. Glen Brown's recent study involving administrative externs reported pre- and post—test D-Scale means Of_l36 and 139, re- 16 Leslie Y. Rabin noted a mean of 132.2 for his teacher spectively. sample.l7 Both Brown and Rabin means differ significantly from that of the Latin American sample. Finally, the Binational scores differ sig- nificantly from that of the lowest mean score (141.3) reported by Rokeach.l8 In contrast, the Michigan and Texas scores are nearly identical to the Brown, Rabin and Rokeach means. Assuming the-dogma- tism scores are valid, one is prompted to conclude that the Binational School reSpondents evidence an atypical openness in their belief systems. One might_expect a teacher's attitude toward U.S. stature vis-a- vis Latin America to affect his handling of sensitive topics on U.S.- Latin American relations. One portion of the Final Questionnaire (Part II) assessed the respondents on this attitudinal dimension. This section of the Questionnaire included four general statements pertain- ing to the appraisal of U.S. economic, political and social dealings with Latin America. It is acknowledged, of course, that the Michigan, Texas or Binational School teacher's attitude toward U.S.—Latin American relations is a complex phenomenon. Therefore, the scores reported in l6Glen Brown, "A Social and Psychological Description of Externs in Educational Administration," (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1967), p. 55. 17Leslie Y. Rabin, "The Dogmatism of Teachers?", Journal of Teacher Education, XVII, No. 1 (Spring, 1966), p. 48. l8Rokeach, p. 90. 103 Table 4.4 can be considered, at best, a crude index of the respondents' evaluation of U.S. stature vis-a—vis Latin America. Nevertheless, the scores seem to suggest that the Texas teachers have the most positive outlook toward U.S. dealings in Latin America of the project teachers. Significant differences, however, occur only between the Texas and Binational School responses. SummaryI This chapter has examined characteristics of the teachers pf Michigan, Texas, and Binational School samples. These findings permit, in summary, the construction of a modal social studies teacher-for each of the sample groups. First, we saw that the Michigan teacher was only slightly more likely to be female than male, was in her late thirties, and had been born in one of the North Central states. Data on the Michigan respondent also revealed that she typically had only a Bachelor's Degree but was more likely to have earned a teacher's cer- tificate and had an extensive background in the social sciences than either her Texas or Binational School counterparts. Finally, we noted that the typical Michigan social studies teacher-has taught for at least five years, is characterized by a not uncommon (for teacher groups) Openness of belief system, and generally views U.S. activities in Latin America as having positive effects for U.S.—Latin American relations. Data on the modal Texas respondent outlines a social studies teacher who is markedly similar to that described in the Michigan sample. Perhaps the only noteworthy difference between the two profiles is that the Texas teacher (as well as the Binational School respondent) is, in some instances, "Latin" in ethnic background or is married to such a 104 person. There was no evidence, on the other hand, that any of the Michigan teachers possessed either family or marital ties to Latin Americans. We Observed that it is the Binational School teacher who is the most readily distinguishable from the juxtaposition of the teacher pro- files. The Binational teacher differs on several important points from his Michigan and Texas counterparts. First, we noted that the Binational teacher is almost always a female who is more likely than the Michigan or Texas teachers to be lacking in aspects of formal training, i.e., a college degree, completion of a certified professional program, back- ground of formal study in the social sciences. Paradoxically, the binational teacher is also the most likely to have a Master's Degree or higher. We further Observed that the Binational teacher compares quite favorably to the other sample teachers in length of teaching experience, although about two—fifths of the Binational School respond- ents indicated that they came to their present assignment without any experience in U.S. (stateside) schools. Finally, it was noted that the Binational School teacher was most likely to list foreign assignments or travel (that is, prior to the present assignment). This charac- teristic may partly explain——or, perhaps, be a result of—-the Binational teacher's extraordinary Openness of his belief system as indicated by the D-Scale responses. The extensive travel experiences of the Binational teacher,particularly those including Latin American countries, may also be related to his viewing the "Colossus of the North" in the least positive terms of the three teacher groups. One should interject, how- ever, that Binational meansfor Part II of the Final Questionnaire still indicate a slightly positive tendency (3.4 on a five—point scale) in evaluation of U.S. stature vis-a-vis Latin America. V CULTURAL-INSTITUTIONAL AND TEACHER INFLUENCES UPON THE SOCIAL STUDIES PROGRAM: PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS This chapter reports the research findings pertaining to the hypotheses stated in Chapter One. The hypotheses, it is recalled, were concerned primarily with patterns in the social studies instructional practices of the Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers. The findings are largely based on responses to the bi—weekly Teacher Checklistsl and the Final Questionnaire.2 Content Patterns in Social Studies Instruction Group Emphasis Hypotheses one, six, eleven, sixteen, twenty—one and twenty—six proposed that a school's geographical proximity to a Latin American environment is a factor in the teacher's reported emphasis of U.S. white and Latin American groups in his social studies lessons. The Binational School teachers, for example, were expected to emphasize Latin Americans as a group more than either the Texas or Michigan teachers but, on the other hand, the former were expected to emphasize U.S. whites less than either their Texas or Michigan counterparts. Data for this item were obtained from Question 5 of the Teacher 1Appendix B. 2Appendix C. 105 106 Checklist. This item listed 18 ethnic groups largely selected from those 3 It is groups included in Emory S. Bogardus' Social Distance Scale. recalled that the analysis of Question 5 involved the computation of a percentage score for individual teachers on each ethnic group. This figure was obtained by dividing the number of times an ethnic group was mentioned in the series of Checklists by the total number of Checklists returned by the teacher. Scores for the Michigan, Texas and Binational School samples on the 18 ethnic groups are simply means of the indi- vidual teacher scores which comprise the particular samples. Table 5.0 reports findings which pertain to the research hypotheses on group emphasis.4 Although the data suggest an increased emphasis upon Latin American groups as one proceeds from the Michigan to the Texas and, finally, to the Binational School samples, differences are not significant except between the Michigan and Binational School teach— ers. It can also be noted that the research findings do not indicate any significant differences or, for that matter, a linear pattern with respect to the teachers' emphasis of U.S. whites. Moreover, rank-order correlations on the entire list of 18 ethnic groups (see Appendix G) are positive and significant for each of the three sample pairs, i.e., Michigan and Texas, Michigan and Binational School, Texas and Binational School.5 3See the Bogardus Scale in Delbert C. Miller, Handbook of Research and Social Measurement (New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1964), pp. 143-144. 4T tests (rather than analysis of variance) were employed in this portion of the study because the investigator was interested in differences between sample pairs rather than over-all differences on a content variable. 5Michigan and Texas: r=.76; Michigan and Binational School: r=.73; Texas and Binational School: r=.83. Garrett indicates that with 34 degrees Of freedom an r of .325 is required for significance at or greater than the .OCo COuCOCu 107 «N mm. «m om. CH COOOQOCQ mHmOCuonhC HOCOHCOOCHU OuOHHQOCCCO CCHB OoCOOCOooO CH Hm «mw.H mm co.H N.om m.mm ©.~H Hm mm. mm mN.H N.mm m.m¢ w.mm mo. uv XU.« mCOOHHOE< CHOOH OOCHCZ .m.D BOOOOCm O HO OOOqum Hooaom .HOCOHCOCHH .m>.mOxOH EOOOOHm O EOCOOCM u OCOCOOOH HooCom OCOCOOOH OCOCOOOH HO HO HOCOHuOCHm mOxOH .COwHCOHz mOOHwOm mOOCwOQ "%C.OOOCQH HOOCom . mONOH IOm Csouw OHCCum Ou CO>Hw HOCOHOOCHH .m> COwHCOHE AOCOOCOQ CHV.OHOOCCEm COOS .m> COwHCOHz .COwHCOHS_mO mCOmmOH OOHOCCO HOHOOO CH ,OCOOHHOCSOU CCOCO OHCCum OCOCOOOO HOOCom HOCOHOOCHm OCO mONOH OCCOCw OOHCB .m.: OCO COOHCOE< CHOOH mo OHOOCCSO OOOCOQOM .o.m OHCOH 108 While these findings on the Group Emphasis item provide little evidence that the contrasting school settings are of consequence for the teachers' emphasis on certain ethnic groups, it is to be noted that the dependent variable has 18 components where exceptions to the general finding can be cited. One may illustrate some of these exceptions by citing the order which the Michigan, Texas and Binational SChool samples ranked their first five groups. These listings are: Michigan: 1. English; 2. French; 3. U.S. White; 4. American Indian; 5. Negroes Texas: 1. U.S. White; 2. English; 3. French; 4. Latin Americans; 5. Germans Binatational School: 1. English; 2. U.S. White; 3. Latin Americans; 4. Russians; 5. French We Observed that five of the above ethnic groups, i.e., American Indians, Negroes, Latin Americans, Germans, and Russians, are omitted in one or more of the listings by Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers. These exceptions to general patterns, as well as those which could be noted at other points in this study, suggest the complexity of the prob- lem under investigation and, again, the exploratory character of the present research. Area Emphasis and Mention of Latin American Topics Chapter One similarly prOposed that diversity in school setting would be illustrated in the reported emphasis given to Latin American areas and tOpics in the social studies lessons of the Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers. Again, the Binational School group is expected to be .05 level of confidence. Henry E. Garrett, Statistics in Psychology_and Education (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1966), p. 201. 109 the most prone of the three teacher groups to mention Latin American areas and tOpics. Responses to Question 6 of the Teacher Checklist and Questions 57 and 59 through 68 of the Final Questionnaire provide the data for these two aspects of content emphasis. Analysis of the Latin_American Area item followed the procedures described for the Groups Emphasis responses. The Latin American Topic figures represent mean scores over the 11 items of the Final Questionnaire (Part III). The findings are reported in Table 5.1. The data, once more, do not provide a basis for inferring the effect Of different socio—cultural settings upon the content emphasis patterns Of the Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers. The table indi- cates no significant differences in the emphasis on Latin American areas or topics. Indeed, the only tendency that seems worth mention- ing is that the scores on the Latin American Area item followed a pattern exactly_opposite to that which was hypothesized, namely, that as one proceeds from the Michigan sample to the Binational School sample, reported emphasis of Latin Areas diminishes rather than increases. It can be noted further that the rank orderings of the nine geographical areas according to emphasis afforded them by Michigan, Texas and Bina- tional School teachers (see Appendix H) yield, as in the previous section, positive and significant correlations in any pairing of the three teacher groups.6 6Michigan and Texas: 4=.93; Michigan and Binational School: r=.61; Texas and Binational School: r=.70. For correlations to be sig— nificant at or greater than .05 level of confidence (with 14 degrees of freedom), r must be at least .497. 110 oHoos one .Ao.m Ou o.HV OOCOOO SOC EOCH OOOCCBOO OCOB EOCH OHCOO COOHCOE< CHOOH .uCOOHOm CH OH EOOH OOHO COOHCOE< QSU HON mun—@6233» .OCo COHCOCU CH OOOOCOCC OHOOCuoth HOCOHOOOCHO OOOHCCOCCCO CuH3 OoCOOCOOOO CH mo. mu YO « mm 0H. as am. on Hm. Hm ON.H on He. mm mm. ivlrL OOHCOHIIOOHCOE< CHOOH OOOCHIIOOHCOBH CHOOH EOOOOCm u .wo OOOHwOQ ESE HOCOHuOCHm .m> OONOH BOOOOCm. O. HO OOOCmOQ HOOCom HOCOHuOCHm .m>.COwHCOHz EOOOOCm O HO OOOHwOQ o.N o.m @.H m.wH H.HN 0.0N OHOCOOOH HOOCom OCOCOOOH OCOCOOOH HOCOHuOCHm OONOH COwHCOHz OONOH .m> COwHCOHz OCOOHCOmEOU «enhC OOCCQm IOM OOHCOH OCO OOOC<.COOHCOB< .CHOOH Ou CO>Hw OHOOCCEm COOS OHCOHCO> OCOOCOQ .ooweaonz Co OCOCOOOO HOOCom HOCOHOOCHm OCO mOxOH mCOmmOH OOHOCOO HOHOOO CH OOHCOO OCO mOOCO COOHHOEC CHuOH mo mHmOCmEO OOOCOCOM .H.m OHCOH 111 An additional Observation needs to be made about the Latin American topics item. Although those items of the Final Questionnaire relating to U.S.-Latin American relations (numbers 57, 59-66) did not ask teachers how they felt personally about the specific tOpics mentioned in the questions or how they would present the tOpics in class, an earlier set of questions (numbers 53—56 in the~same questionnaire) endeavored to obtain the respondents' general evaluation of U.S. stature vis—a-vis Latin America. The results of these questions, which are reported in Table 4.3, indicate no significant differences between the Michigan and Texas means and the means of Michigan and Binational School respondents. However, the mean responses for the Texas teachers and that of the Latin American teacher did differ significantly on this measure. Such findings suggest that the Latin American teacher does not feel predis— posed any more than the Michigan teacher to adopt a position on the specific issues relating to U.S.—Latin American relations that is clearly unfavorable to the United States. A similar statement, it seems, could be made about the Michigan and Texas samples. However, such a state— ment'does not apply in the case of the Texas and Latin American samples since the former does appear to make a more favorable evaluation of U.S. stature vis-a-vis Latin America and might thus be expected to up- hold U.S. policy on a controversial point in U.S.-Latin American rela- tions, i.e., U.S. recent intervention in the Dominican Republic. Such an expectation assumes, first, that a teacher's feelings about Specific tOpics on U.S.—Latin American relations corresponds to his general evaluation about U.S. stature vis—a—vis Latin America, and, second, that the teacher's class presentation is consistent with his attitudinal predisposition on U.S. policy in Latin America. 112 Famous Names Another aspect of social studies content patterns included in the current study is the personalities of history and contemporary life that the teachers choose to emphasize in their class discussions. The hypotheses pertaining to this aspect of instructions were based on the assumptions'about the socio-cultural settings described in the fore- going sections of this chapter. In more specific terms, the hypotheses ~referring to the treatment of personalities in the social studies lessons proposed that as one moves from the Michigan setting to the , . . other two settings one could expect to find increasingly less emphasis upon U.S. white names and a tendency to View such names in less favorable terms, i.e., decrease of hero labels and/or in the increase of villain labels. Such a decline in emphasis and positive evaluations of U.S. whites was expected to be accompanied by a parallel increase in reference to Latin American names and the instances of favorable evalua- tions of such names by the teachers in their lessons. It was antici- pated, therefore, that the Michigan responses would reveal the moSt frequent and the highest evaluation of U.S. white personalities while also providing the fewest refereces and the lowest evaluation of Latin American names among the three teacher groups. The reverse pattern was expected to prevail in the Binational School findings. We noted that the computation of scores for Latin American or U.S. White names involved a different divisor than was employed in ascertain- ing emphasis of hero or villains for the U.S. White or Latin American categories. In the first instance the number of Latin American or U.S. White names mentioned by the teacher was divided by the total number of names (U.S. White plus non—U.S. White) listed by the teacher. In 113 the latter case, the number of Latin American (or U.S. White) heroes or villains was divided by the number of Latin American (or U.S. White) names which the teacher included in her Checklists. We Observe in Table 5.2 that the data do not support the expected pattern in the emphasis and evaluative labeling of U.S. and Latin American personalities. First, it is noted that all three teacher groups mentioned U.S. Whites almost equally as often as they mentioned any other racial or national figures. Also, Michigan, Texas and Bina- tional School teachers did not differ significantly in their mention of Latin American names or their labeling of U.S. Whites. Moreover, it is noted that the hero-villain typing of Latin American personali— ties was almost exactly Opposite of the pattern'delineated in the re- search hypotheses, to wit, Michigan teachers more frequently present Latin American names in favorable terms than do his Texan or Binational School counterparts. It is acknowledged, of course, that the last observation is based on a small number of cases--all three teacher groups rarely mentioned Latin American names. However, closer scrutiny of the data appears to bolster the validity of the observation. It is first recalled that in the Michigan, Texas and Binational School samples, U.S. White names tended to receive favorable labels, a majority of such names (68.5 to 69.5%) being classified as heroes. In the case of non—U.S. Whites, the favorable evaluation was not as pronounced, but remained in the majority. The data of Table 5.2 which refer to the labeling of Latin American names reveal, however, quite a different pattern in the cases of the Texas and Binational School groups. In these two instances, Latin American villains were in the majority (65.0 and 57.1%, respectively) 114 , .huowOuOo mHCu CH OCOOE OCO wCHCOCEOO Com OOSOHCEO mOs umOu OOHHOulosu O .wOaOC OOHCS .m.DICOC Cow COCOHHO OCO3 OOOOCOOCSC OC OoCHm .OCo COOCOCQ CH OOOOC noun OHOOCCOCSC HOCOHOOOHHO OuOHCmOCmmO OCu CuH3 OoCOwHOOOO CH OOOu OOHHOOIOCO O Com mo. a om ma.a mo Hm.H mu «om.m ¢.wH o.m~ N.oa ooHoHHH> IImOuHCz .m.DICOz om NH.H mo mH.H mm «Hq.m o.me m.mm m.qm OOOCOS IIOOOHCB .m.DICOz so mm. Om mo. as oo. w.mq H.mm m.om mOaOz IIOOuHCz .m.DICOz mq oq.H om mm.H no mH. m. N.q w.m mCHOHHH>IImOOHC3 .m.: me No. 00 mo. no mH. m.mo m.m© m.wo OOOHOSIIOOOHCB .m.: mo mm. «m mo. as No. N.om m.eq m.mq OOEOZIIOOOHCB .m.D mH mm. NH ow.H mH wm.~ H.sm o.m© H.0H OCHOHHH> IIOCOOHCOEH CHOOH mH wo.H NH ew.m mH mo.H H.“ o.mm m.mm OOOCOC IIOCOOHCOSC CHOOH no 0H. en «H. mm mm. H.m w.m H.m OOEOZIIOCOOHCOEC CHOOH SOOOOCm u BOOOOCm O SOOOOCm u OCOCOOOH HOOCom OCOCOOOH OCOCoOOH OOHCOHCO> OCOOCOU HO HO HO HOCOHCOCHm OOXOH COwHCOHS OOOHwOQ mOOCwOm. OOOHwOQ “SC OOCCOCOM HOOCom HOOCom . . OOxOH OOHCOHCO> uCOuCOo Ou CO>HU HOCOHOOCHm HOCOHuOCHm. .m> COwHCOHS ACCOOCOQ CHV OHOOCQBM COOS .m>.OOxOH .m> COwHCOHS . OCOOHHOCHOU OHOCOOOO HOOCOm HOCOHOOCHm CCO OONOH .COwHCOHS HO OCOOOOH OOHOCOO HOHOOO OCO CH COOCCO COHC3 OOHO IHHOCOOCOC COOHCOEC CHuOH OCO OOHCB .m.DICoz .OOHCB .m.D HO COHOOCHO>O OCO OHOOCQEO OOOCOCOS .N.m OHCOH 115 and Latin American heroes were infrequently mentioned (35.0 and 7.1%, respectively). On the other hand, Michigan teachers--although mentioning fewer Latin American heroes and more Latin American villains--retained the pattern noted for U.S. White and non-U.S. White names (hero classi- fications in the majority and relatively infrequent mention of villains).7 In summary, the findings do not support any of the research hypothe- ses pertaining to the emphasis and treatment of U.S. White and Latin American names that appear in the social studies lessons of the Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers. One may note, however, that earlier conclusions about the negligible effect of different school settings upon the-social studies does not seem to apply in the treatment of Latin American names. Indeed, the evidence suggests that Michigan teachers contrast quite markedly with the Texas and Binational School respondents in the former's unexpectedly more favorable identification of Latin American personalities. Teacher Surnames as a Variable in Content Emphasis Does the teacher who was raised in a Latin American home or who has chosen a Latin American mate tend to emphasize Latin American groups, areas, tOpics and personalities and to treat such personalities more frequently in a favorable light, i.e., hero, than is the practice among 7A statistical analysis of this observation established that the shift to a less positive evaluation of Latin American names was signifi- cant (O< S .05) in the Texas and Binational School samples. The pro- cedures for this analysis included the computation of proportions Obtained from dividing the total names of each category (U.S. Whites and Latin Americans) into the_difference of heroes minus villains for the category. The resulting proportions for each teacher were then averaged for each of the Michigan, Texas and Binational School teacher groups. Finally, t tests were employed to make the comparison within a teacher group of the U.S. White mean and the Latin American mean. 116 the "Anglo" teachers? Can we also find evidence that the former teacher does not give as much attention to U.S. White groups or names and chooses to identify such personalities with less favorable labels than the Anglo teacher? The teacher's surname was employed as an index of the teacher's cultural background. Since no Michigan teachers had Spanish surnames, the sample for this analysis included only the Texas and Binational School teachers who, in turn, were placed in two samples based on the presence or absence of a Spanish surname. We noted in Table 4.0 that slightly more than one-fourth of the teachers in the Texas and Binational School samples had Spanish surnames. Table 5.3 indicates that the Spanish and non-Spanish surname teachers did not differ significantly on any of the 13 content items. One may conclude, therefore, that the teacher's presence or absence of Latin American family or marriage ties is of no consequence for those aspects of social studies instruction measured in this study. There exists also the possibility that the teacher's surname is too crude an index for identifying the cultural backgrounds of Texas and Binational School teachers. Spanish Pupil Concentration as a Variable in Content Emphasis The hypotheses of Chapter One prOposed that teachers in schools with the most sizeable Spanish pupil populations would reveal bias in content emphasis in the same manner that was expected of teachers with Spanish surnames. The analysis (see Table 5.4) indicated identical effects of Spanish surnames and concentrated Spanish student population on social studies instruction—-no significant t values are reported in either instance. One may, however, point to a slight tendency in the 117 Table 5.3., Spanish versus non-Spanish surnames of Texas and Binational School teachers as a variable in reported content emphasis in social studies instruction Mean Emphasis (in percent) Given to Content Variables Reported by Texas and Binational School Teachers Who Have: Degrees Spanish Non-Spanish of Content Variables Surnames‘ Surnames t Freedom U.S. Whites--Group 35.6 . 42.6 .70 74 Latin Americans-- Group 24.2 31.1 .88 74 Latin America--Area 19.5 21.2 .19 74 Latin America-- Topics** 2.0 1.9 .59 57 Latin Americans—-Names 2.7 3.0 .20 67 Latin Americans-— Heroes 12.5 26.9 .83 15 LatinlAmericans—— Villains 62.5 61.5 .04 15 U.S. Whites--Names 51.4 45.8 .57 67 U.S. Whites-—Heroes 76.2 67.1 1.03 49 U.S. Whites--Villains 1.8 1.8 .00 49 Non-U.S. Whites-- Names 48.6 54.2 ..51 67 Non-U.S. Whites-- Heroes 47.7 37.1 .92 56 Non—U.S. Whites-- Villains 33.7 21.9 .76 56 *CX' ES .05, for a one-tailed test, in accordance with the appro- priate directional hypothesis prOposed in Chapter One. Since no hypothe- ses were Offered for non-U.S. White names, a twoetailed test was employed for comparing the means in this category. **Means for this item are computed from raw scores (1.0 to 3.0) rather than percentage scores. 118 0N 0m.H 0.0 w.H NN 0N.H H.0 N.H mm mm.H 0.0 0.0 mCHOHHH>I|mOOHC3 .m.D 0N m0.H q.mm 0.00 NN mm. m.NN 0.mo wm H0.H m.mN 0.No mOOCOCIImOuHCz .m.D 0m mm.H H.Ne o.m0 mm m0.H m.0q w.Nm Nq 0m. H.0q 0.0m mOEOzllmOuHCz .m.: m mm. 0.mn 0.0m m mw.H 0.0q 0.00 m mH.H H.0N 0.0 OCHOHHH>IIOCOOHCOE< CHOOH m 00.H 0.0 0.0H w 0w.H 0.0 0.0H m He. H.Hm p.00 mOOCOmllmCOOHCOE< CHOOH 0m mo. q.N m.q mm MN. N.N m.m NH 00. N.N H.m mOEOZIIOCOOHCOEC CHOOH 0N Hm. m.H 0.N 0N 0N. 0.N m.H mq 0H. m.H m.H RROOHCOHIIOOHCOE< CHuOH Nm Ho.H m.NH N.Nm mm He. H.NN H.0H ow mm. N.NN w.qN OOCCIIOOHCOEH CHuOH Nm m0. 0.wN m.mm 0m Sq. m.mN m.qN oq mH. N.NH 0.NH aCOCOIIOCOOHCOEC CHuOH Nm 0O. m.qm m.Hq mm mm. w.mq 0.0m 0¢ 00. 0.0m m.0m aCOCUIIOOOHCz .m.D EOOOOCH O OH Hm EOOOOCH O OH Hm EOOOOCH u OH Hm OOHCOHCO> uCOuCoo Ho HO HO mOOCwOQ mOOCwOQ mOOHmOQ HOOCOm HOCOHCOCHH mOxOH COoHCOHS COHuOCuCOoCou HH Cm COHCOmm 30H CO Cme CCHB OHOOCom CH OCOCOOOH HOOCom HOCOHOOCHH CCO mOxOH .COmHCOHS SC OOOCOCOM OOHCOHCO> uCOuCoo Ou CO>H0 AOCOOCOC CHV mHmOCCEm COOS mComeH mOHcsum HOHOOO CHOCu CH OHOOCCEO uCOuCoo OOOCOQOH HO OOOOCOO CODOOHOO CO COHuOCuCOoCOO HHQCO CmHCOCm 30H COHB OHOOCOO CH OCOCOOOO HOOCom HOCOHCOCHm wCO mOxOH .COmHCOHS mCmHO> COHu IOHuCOoCoo HHCDC CmHCOam CmHC CuHs OHOOCom CH OCOCOOOC HOOCOm HOCOHuOCHm OCO OONOH .COwHCOHS .q.m OHCOH 119 .OOCOOO OwOuCOOHOC COCO COCOOC A0.m OD 0.Hv OOCOOO SOC EOCH 0OOCCEOO OCO EOOH OHCu COH OCOOSer OOB umOu OOHHOulosu O .OOSOC OHHCz .m.DICOC COH COCOHHO OCOs OOOOCOOCSC oC OoCHm .huowOuOo.mHCu CH mCOOE OCO wCHCOCBOO COH OO%OHCEO .OC0 COOCOCU CH OOOOC Iona OHOOCOOCSC HOCOHOOOHHO OuOHHmOCmmO OCu CCHB OoCOCCOOOO CH .OOOO OOHHOOIOCO O COH .m0.mn XOR. NN Hm. m.¢H 0.0N NN mm.H m.Nm 0.Nm 0m m¢.H 0.5m H.0m 0o.H 0.NH oaHoHHH>uuoOOHEz .m.muooz OOOCOSIIOOOHCz .m.DICOz OOSOZIIOOOHCB .m.DICOz aoeooum o o4 Hm HO OOOCmOQ HOOCom,HOCOHuOCHm EOOOOHM u 0.0q mm NH. 0.0 «.OH m.mm mm 0m. 0.mm n.0m 0.Nq Nq 0m. m.Hm N.me Hm aoeooum D on HO HO OOOHwOm meHCOHS COHOOCCCOOC00.HHC3m COHCOCmsoH CO Cme COHB OHOOCom CH OHOCOOOH_HOOCom HOCOHuOCHm UCO OOxOH .COwHCOHS SC COOCOCOM OOHCOHCO> uCOuCoo Ou CO>H0 ADCOOCOC CH0 OHOOCmBm COOS OOHCOHHO> uCOuCoo oosonoooouus.m oHooe 120 Binational School column to follow the research hypotheses, save in the more frequent mention Of U.S. Whites as a group or in the mention of U.S. White names by.the teachers in schools with the greatest concen- tration of Spanish pupils. Thus, the "high" column in the Binational School listings shows a tendency to emphasize Latin American groups, areas, topics, names and heroes and U.S. villains more than that indicated in the "low" column. Also, one observes that the high column is consistent with the hypotheses in its lower percentage scores on~ Latin American villains and U.S. White heroes. The importance of these tendencies in the Binational School column is, of course, lessened by the fact that this pattern to follow the research hypotheses does not exist in the Michigan and Texas columns nor, again, is the pattern in the Binational School column based on statistically significant differences. TeachertQuestions It is recalled that the research design included an Observational scheme which recorded the frequency of divergent-evaluative type ques- tions. The research hypotheses relating to this aspect of the study assumed that the asking of such questions would be a technique of accommodation employed by the teacher in a bi-cultural situation as he sought a wide range of vieWpOints and solicited the evaluation of them. Hence, the hypotheses stated that both Texas and Binational School teachers would ask more divergent-evaluative type questions than the teachers in the Michigan sample. However, Texas and Binational School teachers were not expected to differ significantly on this in— structional technique since both groups were viewed at the beginning of the study to be emersed in a bi-cultural teaching situation. '121 Table 5.5 reports the results of the classroom observations. The table indicates that the hypotheses expected a difference where none is reported (Michigan vs. Binational School), predicted no difference where a significant difference did, in fact, occur (Texas vs. Binational School), and erroneously anticipated the direction Of‘a difference (Michigan.vs. Texas). In summary, the particular type of bi-cultural strain believed to characterize the Texas and Binational School set- tings, but not the Michigan setting, does not appear to be a sufficient condition for the teachers' tendency to ask divergent—evaluative type questions. The Teaching of Controversial Issues The teacher of social studies cannot avoid controversial issues in his class discussions as the content of this field includes social issues confronting the community. While complete exclusion of controversial topics is impossible, it was suggested in Chapter One that teachers may vary in their general posture toward and handling of perplexing, socially valued questions according to certain attitudinal, educational and professional characteristics which describe the individual teacher. The study, however, also examined Michigan, Texas and Binational School responses on the teaching of controversial issues, even though Chapter One did not present any hypotheses about the anticipated differences among the three teacher groups on this aspect of instruction. The re— searcher simply had no basis, prior to conducting the study, to expect differences among the Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers on the handling of topics of social controversy in the classroom. How, then, may we characterize the teacher groups on this category of instruc- tional practices? 122 Table 5.5. Frequency of divergent—evaluative questions asked by Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers Comparisons Mean Percent of Teacher Questions Michigan Texas vs. That Are Divergent—Evaluative as Michigan vs. Bina- Binational Recorded in the Classrooms of: .vs. Texas tional School School ' ’ ' Degrees. 'Degrees Degrees- Michigan Texas Binational of of of Teachers Teachers School Teachers t Freedom t Freedom t_ Freedom 10.5 2.1 13.1 2.40 46 .67 60 3.67 50 * 0‘ E. .05 in accordance with appropriate directional hypothesis proposed in Chapter One. 123 The responses to Question 26—28 of the Teacher Inventory provide some information about the teachers' general stance on the teaching of sensitive issues in the social studies classroom.8 Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers were first asked to list topics they felt should not be included in discussions at their grade level, in the school's social studies program, or in the school at all. Their answers suggest a generally permissive stance with respect to "closed areas" in the social studies lessons. Only two Michigan teachers, three Texas teachers and eight respondents in the Binational School sample (chi-squares are significant between Michigan and Binational School groups) mentioned one or more topics they felt should not be discussed at any of the three levels. The topics listed related to politics (most frequently), religion, sex, birth control, marital and family problems, drugs, brutality and social prejudice (between Mexicans and North Americans). The study also sought(in Question 28 of the Inventory) information on groups or individuals teachers perceived to be important in de- termining their stand on issues. Five groups or individuals were men— tioned in the question, three within the school ("Other Teachers," "Department Head," and "Principal") and two outside the school ("Parents" and "Other Community Groups"). The responses to the question, which are reported in Table 5.6, indicate that 41 to 53% of the teachers in the three samples (chi—squares are 22p significant) did not circle any of the position or group categories as influencing their handling of issues in the classroom. However, where one or more alternatives were 8See Appendix A. 124 .OOHuomOuOO HOOCOO OOHOOCO OCO CHCOHB COOC CH OO>HOOCCOOHO OOHOCHO OCOCOOOO OEOO OoCHm N00H CO>O OC COO OCECHOO 03u OCu HO ECO OCHH .AouooomuHaov Hooaom HpooHomon goes mo. M“ Says .Aouosoouflaov moxoe EOHS mo. mu YO « 0.0m 0.mm 0N «.mq mm HOOCom HOCOHCOCHm 0.Nm 0.wq mN m.0q Ne OOxOH m.~o tm.sm SN m.~m Hm oowHaon :Omsouu sHOmHOCHHm: CO\OCO AOO>HOOCCOO O>HuOCHOuH< %C< iNOHQaOm Csouw COCOOOH .SOHCCEEOU COCOO: :.OOOS OCOSOCOCOQ: THO OCOa OHOCHU uoz OHQ OOCH asz HOOOHV HO\OCO :.OOCOCOH: :.OCOCOOOH COCO0: CO OCO OHmaOm HOHOH HO OCOOCOm Hz . , . ,. -. OOHOCHO HCOOHOCHU 0C3 Nz HO OCOOCOm OCBNO.mV z OODOOH HO OCOHuOuCOOOCC.OmOHO.CHOCu OOCOCHHCH OCB manouw HO OHOCOH>HOCH CO COHumOsv SHOCCO>CH Ou OCOCOOOC HOOCom HOCOHOOCHm OCO mOxOH .COwHCOHS HO mOmCOCOOm .0.m OHCOH 125 marked, the teachers, except for the Texas sample, considered groups within the school as more frequently influencing their presentation in class than the influence exerted by outside groups (predominantly parents). The responses to the Final Questionnaire provide the basis for additional Observations about how the Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers deal with controversial subjects in their reSpective classrooms. It may be interjected here that the three teacher groups viewed the set of 13 issues as similarly controversial-~that is, the consensus—dissensus patterns over the 13 issues did not differ signifi- cantly among the three sample groups.9 Also, the teachers did not dif— fer significantly in their assessment of their pupils' ability to comprehend the issues.10 Finally, Table 5.7 reports significant differences among the sample groups on two of the three dependent variables which relate to teaching of controversial issues.11 Binational School teachers are not as willing to discuss controversial issues, dif- fering significantly on their responses from both Michigan and Texas teachers. Once the issue was introduced, however, Binational School 9Thesample mean on consensus—dissensus was computed from the percentage difference between those who agree and those who disagree over the 13 items. Those who reponded to the "Don't Know or Don't Take Any Position" alternative were counted as half agree, half disagree. Thus, a mean of zero would indicate that the sample group has perfect dissensus (50-50 split) on each issue. A mean score of 100 would, on the other hand, indicate perfect consensus--all agreed or disagreed--on each issue. The means in_percent for the research samples are: Michigan: 69.3; Texas: 70.6; Binational School: 69.4. 10Sum of squares=.30; degrees of freedom=2; mean square=.15; F=2.19. llScheffe post—hoc comparison was employed for this analysis. The Scheffe method is described in William Hays, Statistics for Psycholo- gists (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963), p. 484. 126 .OHCEOO HOOCom HOCOHOOCHm OCO HO uOCO OCO COOS OOuOCmHOOO OCO COOSOOC OoCOuOHHHO OCOOHHHCwHO O muCOOOCCOC .H .HOCESO OCH .mooum mOxOH OCO Ho COOS OCO OCO COOE OOOOCmHOOO OCO COOBuOC Amo. mw YUV OoCOHOHHHO uCOOHHHC IwHO O OOHOO>OH umOu OOClumoa OCO COCO OOOOOHOCH ARV COHCOOOO OCH .OHOSHOCO HHOICO>O OCO EOCH OOOCOOOC OOB OCHO> m uCOOHHHCMHm O OCOCs OOOCOCOCH OOOCu CH OOSOHCEO OOB Aqwq .a .thCv umOu OOClumoa O.OHHOCOm .OOCDOOOE OOHCOHCO> OCOOCOQOOCH CO>OO OCO Ho OCO mOs mCHqum COHCs CH OHOSHOCO OEOm OCO HO OCOO OCO w.m OCO m.m OOHCOH "Ouoz HS.N wo.a OH.H Hooaom HoaoHomaHm mm.o SN.H N NS.N aoa.a NN.S om. N oo. ANN.H ma.N an. N NN. NN.H ooxos «ON.N som.a mN.H somnaonz m OCOCUm EOOOOCH OOCOOvm QMOS m OCOCvm EOOOOHH mOCOCOm mCOOS m OCOCOm EOOOOCm.mOCOCvm OCOOS AOHCOHCO> COOS HO HO COOS Ho HO COOS HO Ho CCOUCOCOO mOOCmOQ Bum OOOCwOQ 85m mOOCwOQ 85m ICHV madouo . AmMHmmmmmflm ficcwu=HCCH Ho muCHOu OOCMOOHC SHmmmMMW COCOOOH COCon0.m “COHOOCOOHO OC no [COO .OOwu0.N mozu0.00 OOCOOH CO OOCwC meCOHumn0.N MCOHu OHuuHHn0.Hv OOCOOS wCHCOOOH COOOH Ou meCwCHHHHz m.COCOOOH wCHCoOOu OCO HO muOOamO OOCCO CO OCOCOOOO HooCom HOCOHuOCHm OCO IHOOC SCO OCOO D.Coauo.ov OBOH> HOCOmuOm CH COHuHmom OEOCuxm CC OCOH ou SOCOOCOH m.COCOOOH mOOmmH HOHmCO>OCuCOO HO waOH .COmHCOHS HO COmHCOmaOo < .N.m OHCOH 127 teachers were the most likely to deal with the issue in an open manner. The Texas teachers, on the other hand, although more willing than the Binational School teachers to introduce topics into the classroom, took a significantly more closed position in their handling of issues than either the Michigan or Binational School teachers. The findings, in summary, provide a few additional points on which to distinguish Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers on social studies class- room practices. Data pertaining to the formal hypotheses on the teaching of con— troversial issues are reported in Table 5.8. These hypotheses proposed effects of attitudinal, academic and professional teacher characteris— tics on the handling of issues, irrespective of the respondent's assignment to one of the Michigan, Texas or Binational School groups. Thus, teachers with the highest D-Scale scores, those who are sensitive to individual and group pressures upon classroom presentations, or the teachers who have the least formal training or professional experi— ence were expected to contrast with their project colleagues in a greater tendency to: 1. Take extreme positions in their personal views on contro— versial issues. 2. Discourage the introduction of such issues into class discussions. 3. (Once issue is interjected into classroom discussions) adopt procedures which limit inquiry or discussion of the issue. liypotheses 54 and 55 also advanced the proposition that the teacher who is firmly committed to his personal views on an issue will be more likely to permit discussion of the issue but would be less likely to tolerate file unrestrained inquiry into the issue. 3.2323 .mOuCOHum HOHuOm Ozu CH COHuOCuCOOCOO umOuOOCM OCu OuOquCH m OCO N .H mxcmxaa .OC0 COunmno CH vOmOCOCC mHmOzuoazs HOCOHquCHu OuOHuaonaaO LuHa OuCOquOOO CH mo. W Yua «nm.m 0N.N om.H H mo.N 0:. H HN.N q~.N w~.m Ho. H 0N.N 0N.H mH.H mm.m mH. H mH.H NN.H mH.H *Hm.o HQ. H NH.H mm.H mN.H ANzO 30; .m> Haze LwH: ”mOammH .CCOU CO m3OH> HOCOOCOC CH COHuHmom Ho SOHEOCuxm ANSV 30H .m> Haze szm "amflumamoo ANSV OCOE CO mCOOA O>HH .m> AHSV mCOOA o>HH COCO mmOA "OOCOHCOme wCHCOOOH Amzv “mew“; Ho m.COumOS .m> HHZV meH CO O.COHOnuOm ”mauOum OOqun Asz H.o.m mxame .m> xfizv m.~.C mxcmm 1*.OOCOHom HOHO nom CH COHuOuuCOuCOU SNZV wCHnuOOH wCHuCODHHCH mO Amvasouo COHu ICOS uoz on .m> AHSV wCHCOOOH wCHOCOaHHCH mO AmVOCOCu COHuCOS m Oumnrm EOCOOCm mwumaum NS HS COOS HO HO mOOumOn saw u Oumsz EOOOOCH mmumavm NS HS COOS HO HO mOOCwOQ 53m w Oanvm EOOOOCH mOCOCOm NS HS COOS Ho Ho mOOquQ Eam » a an COnono.m w an OC no OHuuHHno.Hv OOCuOS mCHCOOO rCva:_.Lc._. HO zuCHOuCOo .mOwuo.N Mozuo.ov mOammH COOOH ou meCwCHHHHz m.nO;uOOH OOCMOOHQ no OOuw< AHMCOCuwuo.N ”COHunoa ACO OxOu u.Coono.ov mOzmmH HOHOCO>OCuCOU CO OBOH> HOComuom CH COHuHmom OEOCu Ixm CO OxOH Ou auCOOCOH O_COLOOOH mOHnOHuO> uCOvCOCOvCH mwzmmH HOHOHO>ouuCOO H3 wCHCOOOu OSu OCO OOHAOHCO> OoCOHCOCXO HOCOHOOOHOMQ OCO HOCOHuOusuO .HOCHvauHuu< .m.m OHQOH 129 Briefly, the analysis shows that three of the six variables are significantly related to one or more of the teachers' views and pro— cedures vis-a—vis controversial issues. It should be noted that one variable, teaching experience, resulted in a significant difference on the extremity of position item, opposite to that which was hypothe— sized. Those teachers with the least experience, in other words, tended to adopt a less extreme position in their personal views on the 13 issues than the more seasoned teachers (those teachers who have taught five years or more). The table also confirms the hypotheses that high dogmatism teachers will take a more extreme position in their personal views (H54) and will tend to adopt a more closed procedure for handling the issues (H56) than the low dogmatism teachers. The data further show that teachers who take an extreme position on controversial issues are, as hypothesized (H57), more willing to introduce the issues than those teachers who do not feel as strong about the controversial statements. An additional observation should be made about the variables that did not prove to be significant on the three dimensions of controversial issues instruction. Limitations accruing from the relatively small sample were most keenly felt in this aspect of the study. Sample limi— tations prevented, for example, the comparison of the extreme groups, those respondents with less than a Bachelor's Degree and those respondents who earned a Master's or higher, on the controversial issues variables. It is observed that such a dichotomization of the educational variable would have increased the possibility of the variable demonstrating sig— nificant differences on controversial issues. 130 The examination of factors relating to the teaching of controversial issues also included the possibility of interaction between setting and each of the other independent variables on the three issue dimensions. It was reasoned that degree status, for example, while not proving to be a significant variable when viewed irrespective of the respondent's setting, might be significant if consideration is given to the respondent's setting. Conversely, high and log dogmatism groups might not be dis- tinguishable on teaching method when comparisons are made within each research setting. The analysis which tested for interaction between setting and each of the other independent variables, however, does not give any basis for expecting significant differences where they were not found in the previous analysis and vice versa.12 In summary, it may be noted that the statistical analyses reported in this chapter supported only four of the 70 research hypotheses. Those hypotheses finding statistical support are: H6: Binational School teachers will report more frequently mention of Latin Americans as a group than will Michigan teachers. H54,56' Teachers who score high on the D—Scale will tend, in contrast to those who score low, to take an extreme position on controversial issues (H ) and be inclined to curtail free inquiry and discu531on of such issues H56) I H57: Teachers who take an extreme position on controversial issues will tend, in contrast to their opposites, to be more willing to introduce controversial issues in class discussions. 12According to Hays (Ibid., p. 483), the analysis must first es— tablish that there is some effect over all before one has the license to evaluate any particular set of comparisons. Since there was no inter— action from the over-all test, finer analysis, e.g., comparison of high and low dogmatism groups within the Michigan sample on their tendency to take an extreme position on controversial issues, was not undertaken. 131 Interpretations of the Findings The conclusion that seems most apparent after a review of the research findings is that social studies practices in the three settings are essen- tially alike. More specifically, the research disclosed few differences among the Michigan, Texas and Binational School samples in the general organization of the social studies curriculum or in the content emphasis and instructional procedures of the respective staffs.l3 That more differences were not discovered is, at first glance, an unexpected finding. It was anticipated, for example, that the differences noted among the teacher profiles, particularly between the-Binational School teachers, on the one hand, and those of the Texas and Michigan teachers, on the other, would result in more frequent variations in the instructional patterns of the sample groups. In view of the finding of a fundamentally similar social studies program in the sample schools, one is prompted to conclude that other aspects of the teacher profiles or factors of the cultural-institutional setting are more pervasive of curriculum and instructional practices than the differences noted in Chapters Three and Four. For one thing, as was intimated in Chapter Three, the primary con— cern of those charged with the social studies program in the sample schools is to provide a program that is consistent with national (U.S.) trends. In the Binational Schools such a concern likely reflects the wishes of U.S. patrons to obtain schooling for their children that will provide easy entry into stateside schools upon the family's return to the United States. Cleveland has further suggested that 13It is recalled that the term, ”differences" primarily refers in this study to those differences that are statistically significant (CX:§ .05 level of confidence). 132 "overseas wives feel the same way about schools as they do about health: If it is not American, it is not good enough. Most of them feel that the United States should maintain around the world an 'educational PX' from kindergarten through the twelfth grade...Even in American schools abroad, parents worry lest their children may be 'missing something.'" Parental concern about the U.S. program in the Binational School would seem accentuated by the fact that the Binational School, if it has stateside accreditation, is the only school in the area with such a recognition. It is not surprising, therefore, to find the Binational School, most typically, educating the majority--or, at least the plurality—-of U.S. school—age children residing in the Latin American community.15 There are additional factors which help to explain the similarity to the social studies programs in the Michigan, Texas and Binational Schools. It seems, for example, that the significance of the Binational School's location within the Latin American setting is, at least par- tially, negated by the predominantly North American founding, control and administration of the schools. The increasing ties between the Binational Schools and U.S. governmental and educational institutions further contribute to the schools' social studies programs being aligned with U.S. patterns. Then, too, the Binational Schools are located within large urban centers where North American influence and compatible 14Harlan Cleveland, E£.él~» The Overseas Americans (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, 1960), p. 52. 15This statement is based on the responses to Question 37 of the Administrator's Questionnaire. It was possible, in the Mexican schools, to make a crude check on the administrators' estimates by comparing the schools' U.S. student population to the listings in the Anglo—American Directory. The discrepancy between the administrators' estimates and the investigator's check was not typically large. 133 life styles are most in evidence. Finally, the teachers themselves share a number of characteristics in common that are considered of importance to instructional patterns. The sample teachers, with the few exceptions noted earlier, are native-born U.S. citizens, were largely trained in the U.S. and, even though some of them may have been raised in Spanish homes, the predominant share of the teachers are North American or "Anglo" in their cultural orientation. Placing such a teacher in a Latin American setting does not, of course, mean that his knowledge of the new culture or its history must, perforce, increase. Moreover, it does not seem reasonable to expect that the teacher is necessarily motivated to change content emphasis because of his new teaching assignment. Even the Binational School teacher of Latin America, as was suggested in Chapter Four, receives reinforcement of his value system through his on—going relationships with the resident American colony or through social contacts with the Westernized, English-speaking strata of Latin society. In sum, there appears to be a number of factors, some of which have been enumerated here, which explain the fundamental likeness of the social studies programs represented in the research sample. There is even some evidence to suggest that the presence of a competing cultural system in the Texas and Latin American school en— vironments prompted the social studies teacher, in certain instances, to "overcompensate" in the direction of North American values. This seems to be the most reasonable interpretation of the contrasting treat- ment Of U.S. White and Latin American names (Table 5.1). However, the evidence appears most ample in the case of the Texas group where the demands upon the Americanization process are, perhaps, the most keenly felt among the three teacher groups. Not only did the Texas teachers 134 View Latin American names in predominantly negative terms but, it is recalled, the other "outside" name category, "Non-U.S. Whites," was more frequently viewed as villains and less frequently labeled as heroes than was the-case in the Michigan sample. It is further observed that even though the Texas community is proximate with Latin America, geo— graphically and culturally, the curriculum does not include the sug- gested Texas Education Agency elective course (secondary level) in Latin American history. Units on Latin America are, however, included in some courses of study and, it is further noted, a district administra— tor contended that a course on Latin America might be included in the curriculum in the near future. Finally, it is suggested that the Texas community's history of cultural dissonance underlies the teachers' predisposition to deal with controversial issues in the most closed manner among the sample groups and, perhaps, his tendency to rely on questions for which "right" answers were sought (that is, non-divergent- evaluative type questions). The earlier statement about the similarity in social studies prac- tices among the three sample groups seems to have the most important implications for the Binational Schools. Briefly, the findings suggest that these institutions——at least in their North American social studies program--do not foster the development Of cultural "bridges" between North American and Latin American cultures to the extent that has been alleged in some of the publications on the schools. This observation, although consistent with the findings of other researchers on the Latin 135 American binational schools,16 is tempered by several limitations present in the current research. It is quite possible, for one thing, that the research instruments and procedures omitted important aspects of instructional behavior that might have resulted in a substantially different conclusion about the nature of instruction in the social studies program of the Binational Schools. The investigator recalls instances during the classroom obser- vations, for example, when the teacher, quite naturally, alluded to personalities, events, or places of the host community to illustrate a point in the lesson. It is doubtful, however, that these references would be reflected in the teacher's responses to the Checklists or the Latin American topics items even though the references, considered to- gether, might constitute a substantial accommodation to the Latin American setting of the Binational School. Other qualifications to the research findings must be noted. There is the possibility that the questionnaire items and/or the procedures for analyzing the responses did not accurately measure the variables of the study. Then, too, the conclusion about the predominantly similar social studies patterns must be modified in those instances where im— portant differences are noted on the Binational School findings. The outline of the social studies curriculum, for example, revealed more 16Paul G. Orr, "Binational Schools in Latin America" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1964); Charles J. Patterson, "A Comparison of Mexican and American Children in a Bi-Cultural Setting on Measures of Ability, Achievement and Adjustment" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1960); George Patrick Young, Jr., "A Study of the Potential for Achievement of Better Inter—American Re- lationships Through North American Schools in Latin America” (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, 1960). 136 Latin American type courses in the Binational School group than existed in either Texas or Michigan schools. It is further recalled that the Binational School teachers differed significantly with Michigan teachers in the former's more frequent reference to Latin American groups in his social studies lessons. One might also suggest that the Binational School responses on the controversial issues items constitute an important departure from the basically uniform pattern in the practices Of the sample teachers. We noted that the Binational School teachers appear significantly less eager to introduce controversial issues into the classroom (Table 5.7). This finding parallels an earlier observation which indicated signifi- cantly more Binational School teachers listing tOpics to be excluded from the classroom or the school than occurred in the Michigan sample. The researcher recollects an exchange among several Binational School teachers about the manner of handling sensitive topics in the classroom. One teacher remarked that when she came to the Mexican War in her American History lessons she "hopped, skipped and jumped" over the tOpic. The teacher, it should be noted, is one of several North Americans on the Binational School staffs who are married to Latin Americans and, consequently, may feel particularly sensitive to conflicting viewpoints on the War sometimes advanced by North Americans and Latin Americans. The remark, plus the aforementioned questionnaire data, nonetheless, appears to illustrate a basic reticence to deal with controversial issues. After all, the North American in the Binational School is an alien to the community in which he teaches and, it seems reasonable to suggest, he might well feel constrained to avoid touchy social questions, if possible. However, once the issue is interjected into the classroom, how do we 137 account for the relatively open manner in which the Binational School teacher handles the issue? This apparent inconsistency seems best re- solved by the suggestion that once the Binational School teacher is con— fronted with sensitive social issues, attributes of the situation, i.e., a bi—cultural student population and the teacher's own attitudinal flexibility, i.e., exceptionally low dogmatism scores, prompt him to entertain the widest discussion of the issue although, again, he would have really preferred not to deal with the issue in the first place. It is reiterated that the above observations on the Binational School group do not seem to discredit the basic findings that its respondents reveal a predominant, even, in some instances, an accentu- ated, orientation to North American practices and values. However, there appears to be some evidence, particularly in the teachers' stance vis-a—vis controversial issues, that the teachers are themselves in the midst of two dominant cultural strains for which they must make some accommodation. VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS Summary and Conclusions The present study, which was conducted during the 1966-67 school year, examined the relation of variables derived from the cultural— institutional milieu and the teacher's attitudinal, professional, and academic background to the existing practices in the social studies. A total of 143 U.S. teachers in selected school systems of Michigan, Texas, Mexico and Guatemala participated in the survey by completing one or more of the three types of questionnaires employed in the research project. The Teacher Inventory, the initial questionnaire, asked teachers about their personal background, formal schooling and professional ex- periences. Milton Rokeach's forty item Dogmatism Scale was appended to the Teacher Inventory. Most of the participating teachers also com- pleted one or more of the eight bi-weekly Teacher Checklists in which the teacher was asked to recall emphasis given in his classroom discus- sion to indicated ethnic groups and geographical areas. The Checklists further asked teachers to list and identify (with respect to several attributes) up to three names of history or contemporary times which figured prominantly in the two weeks' discussions. The third instrument, termed the Final Questionnaire, included predominantly questions relat- ing to the teacher's feeling about and handling of controversial issues. The frequency that the teacher discussed certain Latin American topics and four items pertaining to the teacher's evaluation of U.S. stature 138 139 vis—a—vis Latin America were, however, also a part of the Final Question- naire. The questionnaire data was supplemented by information obtained from interviews with school administrators and classroom observations of the project teachers. An analysis was then undertaken to determine relationship, if any, between selected cultural-institutional and teacher attributes to prevailing social studies patterns in the research sample. The major conclusion of the study is that differences among samples in cultural-institutional and teacher characteristics were relatively unimportant to most aspects of the social studies program measured in the present research. The analysis revealed that the general organiza- tion of the social studies curriculum in the sample schools and the instructional practices of the sample teachers are fundamentally alike. The research findings reported no significant differences among Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers in mention of ethnic groups (over all), geographical areas (over all), U.S. Whites as a group, U.S. White names, heroes and villains, and Latin American areas, topics and names. The three teacher groups also did not differ in their personal views toward the 13 controversial issue statements with respect to consensus— dissensus and extremity of response patterns. Although significant differences among the three sample groups on the dependent variables Of social studies practices appeared infrequently, the findings that did prove significant seemed, at times, to follow a pattern. It was suggested, for example, that several of the significant findings, e.g., contrasting treatment of U.S. White names and Latin American names, represented efforts--perhaps, inadvertent-—by the social studies teachers in the Texas and Binational Schools to convey a super- ordinate position of the North American group or culture. Significant 140 differences also resulted from the analysis of teacher characteristics and the teaching of controversial issues, irrespective of the teacher's location in the Michigan, Texas or Binational School groups. The respondent who had been teaching less than five years or who scored below the mean on the Dogmatism Scale demonstrated a tendency to take a more moderate position in his personal views on controversial issues than the teacher with five years or more experience or the respondent who scored above the mean on the Dogmatism Scale. Low and high dogma- tism groups were also differentiated on teaching method vis-a-vis contro- versial issues, the latter group indicating significantly more closed procedures than that Of the former dogmatism group. Finally, teachers who took an extreme position in their views (strongly agree or strongly disagree) on controversial issues tended to indicate a greater willing- ness to introduce such issues into class discussions. Recommendations The present study has several important implications for research and practices in the field of social science education. First, it is asserted that the central focus of the study--that is, the factors which influence the shape of the social studies curriculum--is pertinent to the strategy of curriculum change. Reformers of the social studies cur- riculum are obliged to understand those combinations of factors that mitigate against broad-scale change of current practices. In this re- spect, the present study is only suggestive of other much needed research on the variables affecting the design of the social studies program. One such research area, for example, that might be investigated more fully is the effects of a prescriptive legal order upon the general 141 organization of the social studies curriculum. The present study con- cluded that the rather substantial differences in the legal order ob- served between the Texas and Michigan samples did not result in a markedly different social studies curriculum. A quite different conclusion might be the result of a research endeavor that included a representative sample of school systems in most or all of the states in the United States. Such a research project, as the current study intimated, must also include the development of a scheme of categorization that allows for state department of education directives as well as those prescrip- tions codified into law. Another factor in the shaping of the social studies curriculum deserving more attention than it was given in the current research is the complexity of a school system's decision—making process on matters affecting the social studies program. The present study, in its brief references to the contrasting bureaucratic situations found in the Binational Schools and the schools of Texas sample, only hinted that certain types of bureaucratic structures and processes might facilitate or impede reform in the social studies. The current study has additional implications for the tasks of teacher training and teacher selection in the social studies. One research finding suggested a link between a teacher's predisposition to Open or closed mindedness and how he allegedly handles controversial issues in the classroom. If one assumes that the social studies teacher is obligated to present and conduct an open inquiry into controversial issues then it follows that those charged with teacher selection at the training institution are, in turn, obliged to discourage those teacher candidates manifesting authoritarian tendencies or to provide those training experiences which foster the development of more Open attitudinal syndromes. 142 Subsequent research may also conclude that the personality syndrome investigated in this study is associated with other aspects of the in- structional process pertinent to the social studies classroom. Further— more, it is possible that other attitudinal variables might be identi- fied in an effort to increase our understanding about the effect of the social studies teacher's personality upon what and how he teaches. Finally, it is hOped that the inclusion of academic and professional variables in the current study prompts further empirical research into the meaning of different types of training programs and professional experiences of the social studies teacher with respect to modal patterns of social studies instruction. It is apparent that research which attempts to identify the effects of teacher and setting variables upon social studies curriculum and instruction must often include three, or even k—dimensional, research designs. In the present study, the testing of interaction occurred only between setting and the variables employed in the controversial issues portion of the analysis. There are, of course, a number of other interactions that might have yielded important information, e.g., dogma— tism and educational background on the teaching of controversial issues, and should be investigated in other research efforts. A final recommendation for additional research is prompted by the Binational School findings. Prior to the initiation of the study, it was anticipated that the schools' locations in a Latin American country with a substantial national population in attendance would prompt the American social studies teacher to measurably alter the value and content patterns of his classroom discussions in accommodation to the host cul- ture. The research findings, however, provided little evidence that this 143 accommodation does, in fact, take place. Such a conclusion suggests the need for a parallel study which compares the social studies programs of the national schools with the Spanish program in the binational schools. It might be asked, for example, does the Mexican teacher of the binational school emphasize U.S. Whites and label them as heroes or villains in the manner of his counterpart teaching in the public school systems of the Republic? The answer to this question and simi— lar ones would provide a more adequate picture of the nature of instruc- tion in the binational schools of Latin America. One further notes that the "Third Culture” construct has implica— tions beyond the binational school context. There is, for example, the case of the inner-city schools in large urban centers of the United States. Often these schools are the meeting place of quite different ethnic groups or socio-economic classes. It is apparent that the social studies program in such schools has a major responsibility for developing those third culture bridges which enhance the viability of inner-city school program. An important, though difficult, task facing social studies educators and researchers is, then, the deve10pment of programs and the training and selection of teachers for the special concerns of the inner-city school. BIBLIOGRAPHY Public Documents Agency for International Development. 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Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1960. 149 Scott, Dorthy M. "A Survey of Social Studies Programs in Texas High Schools, Grades 9—12." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, North Texas State University, 1965. Simmons, Ozzie. "Anglo-Americans and Mexican-Americans in South Texas." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1952. Useem, Ruth. "Interpersonal Relationships Between Indians and Americans in India," Excerpt from Symposium No. 7,_Applications of Psychi- atric Insights to Cross-Cultural Communication, Group fOr the Advancement of Psychiatry, East Lansing: Department of Sociology, Michigan State University, n.d. (mimeographed). Vaughan, Herbert G. "Background Information for Social Studies WorkshOp.” East Lansing: College of Education, Michigan State University, 1966 (mimeographed). Young, George Patrick, Jr. "A Study of the Potential for Achievement of Better Inter—American Relationship Through North American Schools in Latin America." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, 1960. APPENDIX A Teacher Inventory 150 151 TEACHER INVENTORY This Inventory asks you some questions about your background and teaching situation that will be pertinent to the present research. In order to obtain the most favorable results we ask you that you please follow the following set of instructions: 1. Answer each question as completely and as frankly as possible: we would prefer you give us too much information rather than too little. It is very important that you do not engage in discussion with others who are responding to the items as this would tend to distort our findings and question the validity of any conclusions. The IBM answer sheet is for the final part of the Inventory. Instructions regarding the marking of the IBM answer sheet are provided at that point. When you complete the Inventory place it and the IBM answer sheet in the brown envelope provided making sure your teacher code number is on the Inventory, the answer sheet, and the envelope. At the time you receive this Inventory you will be notified of arrangements for picking up the Inventory. If for some reason you have not been informed of collection arrangements, please leave your sealed enveIOpe at your building principal's office. Again, thank you for your c00peration. Howard Kardatzke Project Researcher MUCIA Teacher Survey Institute for International Studies in Education 513 Erickson Hall Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 48823 10. 11. 12. 152 What is your teacher code number? What is your sex? (circle the correct number) Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 What is your marital status? Single . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Married. . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Widowed or Divorced. . . . . . . 3 What is your U. S. citizenship status? I am a natural—born U.S. citizen 1 I am a naturalized U.S. citizen. 2 I am not a U.S.‘citizen. . . . . 3 Place Of birth: (city and state) Year Of birth: If you had to designate One state (Of the U.S.) as your "home" state what would that state be? What is the highest education level you have attained? (circle one Of the following numbers): Two years Of college or less . . 1 More than two years Of college but did not graduate. . . . 2 Bachelor's degree. . . . 3 Master's degree. . . . . . . 4 Doctor's degree. . . . . . . . 5 Did your work either as an undergraduate or a graduate qualify you for a teacher certificate? Yes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 What was your major area Of study as: An undergraduate: A graduate: What was your minor area(s) Of study as: An undergraduate: A graduate: Approximately what percent Of your undergraduate work has been in the social sciences? (history, anthrOpology, psychology, political science, geography, economics, sociology, and general social science): Circle correct number. Please continue on to the next page 153 Less than 10%. . . . . . . . . . 1 10-24% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 25-49% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 50-74% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 75% or more. . . . . . . . . . . 5 13. Approximately what percent Of your graduate work has been in the social sciences? Less than 10%. . . . . . . . . . 1 10-24% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 25‘49% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 50—74% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5 75% or more. . . . . . . . . . . 14. Would you please circle the number Of all those social science disci- plines in which you have had THREE or more courses, either as an undergraduate or graduate: Political Science or Government. 1 Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . 2 History. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Geography. . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Sociology. . . . . . . . . . . 7 General Social Science . . . . 8 Now I would like to ask you some questions about your teaching experiences. 15. How long have you taught in this school? (circle the correct number): This is my first year. . . . . . 1 1-4 years. . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5-9 years. . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.0—14 years 0 o o o o o o o o o o 4 15 years or more . . 5 16. Please list the dates, location, and grades taught of your two most recent teaching positions (before coming to your present position): Dates Location (city and state) Grades Taught l. 2. 17. (For U. S. sample only) Have you ever traveled or resided outside the continental U. 3.? Yes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Please continue on to the next page 18. 154 Please indicate the approximate length of tour or residence in which you have been outside the continental U. S. for each Of the following areas Of the world: 9. Length Of Tour or Residence North America (outside the continental U.S.) Mexico, Central America and/or the Caribbean South America Western Europe Eastern EurOpe and/or Russia Melanesia and/or the Pacific Islands Austrdlia Asia (including Japan) Africa and/or the Middle East Area (Approximate number Of weeks) weeks weeks weeks weeks weeks weeks weeks weeks weeks Now I would like to ask you some questions about the class or classes you teach. 19. 20. 21. 22. Please circle the appropriate grade level(s) your present assignment includes: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 DO you have a self—contained classroom —— that is, do you have the same students all day? (circle the correct alternative) Yes 0 O O O O O O O O C O NO 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 If your answer is no, how many different classes of social studies do you teach a day? Only one . . . . . . . 2-4 classes. . . . . . . 5 or more classes. . . . Would you please estimate how Often you use the following resources or instructional aids: (check apprOpriate column for each item) Please continue on to the next page 155 Occasionally Frequently Rarely or (At least once (At least Never every 2 months) once a month) Textbook(s) Paperbacks or other supplementary materials MOvies, slides or filmstrips Opaque projector Teaching machines Wall maps, charts, globes, etc. Tape recorders or_phonographs Classroom TV Guest Speakers Field trips Other community resources 23. 24. Are you aware of any written statement on social studies Objectives for your school or the courses you teach? Yes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 No . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 It might be that consensus among teachers on Objectives for the social studies is difficult -— if not impossible -- to attain. Thus the following list is, Of course, only gng_compilation of Objectives for the social studies -— you may accept all, part or none of the items on the list. However, if you had to decide on one Objective for the social studies from this list, which Objective would you most likely choose? Place an "M" by that objective. Which Objective would you be least likely to choose? Place an "L" by that item. 1. TO respect the rights and Opinions Of others . . . . . . . . . . 2. To be skillful in securing, sifting, evaluating, organizing and presenting information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. TO assume social and civic responsibility. . . . . . . . . . 4. TO act in accord with democratic principles and values . . . . . 5. To be a judicious consumer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. To understand principal economic, social and political problems. 7. To learn about vocational activities and Opportunities . . . 8. TO understand the interdependence Of peoples and groups. . . . . 9. TO become a happy member of a home . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. TO make an intelligent adjustment to change. . . . . . . . . . . 11. To get along with individuals and groups 12. To use basic social studies skills . 13. TO exercise critical judgment. . 14. To understand and promote social progress. Please continue on to the next page I-' .11 12 .13 H lbl 25. 26. 27. 28. 156 Could you estimate, please, the percentage Of classroom time in social studies lessons that is spent during the school year in lecture, dis- cussion, group processes, i.e., student reports, student committees, etc., supervised study, and supplementary activities, i.e., field trips, films, etc. 1. Lecture. ess than 10% 10-25%8 26—50% 51-75% More than 75% 2. Discussion 3. Group Processes 4. Supervised Study 5. Supplemen— tary Activities DO you think there are any social, economic, or political issues that are related to the child's social education that should not be dis- cussed a£_all? (If you please issues (If you please issues (If you please issues (circle and specify all categories that apply) At the grade level(s) I teach. . 1 circled this category indicate what those are): In the school's social studies program. . . . . . . . . 2 circled this category indicate what those are): In school (at any_grade level. . 3 circled this category indicate what those are): If you circled any of the above choices in question 26, would you please indicate briefly why you think such issues should not be discussed. When taking a position on a given issue, do you feel that your presen— tation in class is influenced by any of the following individuals or groups? Please circle the number Of all categories that apply. Other teachers . . . . . . . . . 1 Department head. . . . . . . . . 2 Principal. . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Parents. . . . . . . . . . . 4 Other community groups . . . . ; 5 Please continue on to the next page 157 29. If you use a textbook(s) approximately how frequently are you able to Obtain for your classroom new or revised editions? Every year . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Every 2-3 years. . . . . . . . . 2 Every 4-5 years. . . . . . . . . 3 Over 5 years . . . . . . . . . . 4 30. Are your instructional materials (textbooks, films, supplementary materials) published by: U.S. firms only. . . . . . . . . 1 Both non-U.S. and U.S. firms . . 2 Non-U.S. firms only. . . . 3 Don't know . . . . . . . . . . . 4 31. Approximately how many pupils do you have in all Of your classes? 32. (For Texan, Mexican and Guatemalan teachers only) Below are described three types of relationships you might have with the Latin Americans both in and out of school. Please circle the number Of the alterna- tive that most closely describes your type Of relationship. Type I: My social encounters with the Latin Americans are confined to categorical, non-personalized contacts. That is, although I am constantly in touch with individual Latin Americans, I do not regu- larly associate in depth with any. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Type II: I have some close friends who are Latin Americans. That is, I regularly interact with these people in one or several social CirCleS. O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O 2 Type III: My relationships with the Latin Americans are congenial but my social encounters with these people are limited to work— related friendships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ***** This final part Of the Inventory is a study Of what teachers think and feel about a number Of important social and personal questions. The best answer to each statement is your personal ppinion. We have tried to cover many different and Opposing points Of view; you may find yourself agreeing strongly with some of the statements, disagreeing just as strongly with Others, and perhaps uncertain about others; whether you agree or disagree with any statement, you can be sure that many people feel the same as you do. Please continue on to the next page 158 Mark each statement with a #2 pencil on the enclosed IBM answer sheet accord- ing to how much you agree or disagree with it. Please mark every one. Mark the answer choice indicated below depending how you feel in each case. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Answer choice #1: I DISAGREE VERY MUCH #2: I DISAGREE ON THE WHOLE #3: I DISAGREE A LITTLE #4: I AGREE_A LITTLE #5: I AQREE_ON THE WHOLE #6: I AGREE VERY MUCH The United States and Russia have just about nothing in common. The highest form Of government is a democracy and the highest form Of democracy is a government run by those who are most intelligent. Even though freedom Of speech for all groups is a worthwhile goal, it is unfortunately necessary to restrict the freedom Of certain political groups. It is only natural that a person would have a much better acquaintance with ideas he believes in than with ideas he Opposes. Man on his own is a helpless and miserable creature. Fundamentally, the world we live in is a pretty lonesome place. Most people just don't give a ”damn" for others. I'd like it if I could find someone who would tell me how to solve my personal problems. It is only natural for a person to be rather fearful Of the future. There is so much to be done and so little time to do it in. Once I get wound up in a heated discussion I just can't stOp. In a discussion I often find it necessary to repeat myself several times to make sure I am being understood. In a heated discussion I generally become so absorbed in what I am going to say that I forget to listen to what the Others are saying. It is better to be a dead hero than a live coward. While I don't like to admit this even to myself, my secret ambition is to become a great man, like Einstein, or Beethoven, or Shakespeare. Please continue on to the next page 16. l7. l8. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 159 The main thing in life is for a person to want to do something important. If given a chance I would do something Of great benefit to the world. In the history Of mankind there have probably been just a handful of really great thinkers. There are a number Of peOple I have come to hate because Of the things they stand for. A man who does not believe in some great cause has not really lived. It is only when a person devotes himself to an ideal or cause that life becomes meaningful. Of all the different philosophies which exist in this world there is probably only one which is correct. A person who gets enthusiastic about too many causes is likely to be a pretty ”wishy-washy" sort of person. To compromise with our political Opponents is dangerous because it usually leads tO the betrayal of our own side. When it comes to differences Of Opinion in religion we must be care- ful not to compromise with those who believe differently from the way we do. In times like these, a person must be pretty selfish if he considers primarily his own happiness. The worst crime a person could commit is to attack publicly the people who believe in the same thing he does. In times like these it is Often necessary to be mOre on guard against ideas put out by peOple or groups in one's own camp than by those in the Opposing camp. A group which tolerates too much differences Of Opinion among its own members cannot exist for long. There are two kinds Of peOple in this world: those who are for the truth and those who are against the truth. My blood boils whenever a person stubbornly refuses to admit he's wrong. A person who thinks primarily Of his own happiness is beneath contempt. Most Of the ideas which get printed nowadays aren't worth the paper they are printed on. Please continue on to the next page 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 160 In this complicated world Of ours the only way we can know what's going on is to rely on leaders or experts who can be trusted. It is often desirable to reserve judgment about what's going on until one has had a chance to hear the Opinions of those one respects. In the long run the best way to live is to pick friends and associates whose tastes and beliefs are the same as one's own. The present is all tOO Often full Of unhappiness. It is only the future that counts. If a man is to accomplish his mission in life it is sometimes neces- sary to gamble "all or nothing at all". Unfortunately, a good many peOple with whom I have discussed important social and moral problems don't really understand what's going on. Most people just don't know what's good for them. THIS COMPLETES THE TEACHER INVENTORY. PLEASE PLACE THE INVENTORY AND THE IBM ANSWER SHEET IN THE BROWN ENVELOPE MAKING SURE YOUR CODE NUMBER IS ON THE INVENTORY, THE ANSWER SHEET AND THE ENVELOPE. THANK YOU. APPENDIX B Teacher Checklist 161 162 INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETING TEACHER CHECKLISTS This packet includes 8 teacher checklists and 8 stamped and addressed envelOpes. One checklist is to be completed at the end of every two— week period until the supply is exhausted. Please return each checklist in the envelOpe provided immediately after completion. Also, please check to see if your code number is on both the check— list and the envelope. Most Of the items Of the checklist need no further explanation. However, further instructions appear to be necessary on the last item (”Famous Names"). The directions for this item are as follows: At times during a social studies lesson individuals are mentioned because of their importance to the period, event, or problem under discussion. Some of these individuals are commonly viewed in the classroom discussions in extremely favorable terms because most peOple feel that their respective contributions to society were not only very significant but very beneficial as well. We shall, quite arbitrarily, label these individuals as Heroes. Other individuals are viewed with disfavor since the classroom discussions generally concluded that these individuals, though important to history, acted in such a way as to bring serious harm to society. We shall term these individuals as Villains. There are still other persons who might be discussed in a social studies lesson but it is difficult to put them in either hero or villain category. With these indi— viduals there is widespread disagreement as to the importance or merit Of their deeds. Under the "Famous Names" item first list (in Column 1) up to three Of the most emphasized names during the last two weeks' lessons. The names you list may be from the past or present and may be selected from any country. In Columns 2—4 please indicate the appropriate Hero-Villain—Neither category depending upon how they were generally discussed during the past two weeks. The next two columns (5 and 6) are for the designation of the nationality and racial background Of each individual named. Finally, in Column 7, using the following code, identify the type Of role (political, military, etc.) in which the name was most associated with in the past two weeks' lessons. In the cases where more than one role were equally dominant, i.e., Adolf Hitler (political and military), list the apprOpriate code numbers. 163 Political -- 1 Arts and Letters -- 5 Military -- 2 Social Reform -- 6 Scientific —- 3 Other (please specify) -- 7 Education -- 4 A brief example follows: l 2 3 4 5 6 7 STATE p.539 VILLAIN NEITHER NATIONALITY My; my; 1. W. Shakespeare X English W 5 2. A. Hitler X German W 1,2 3. G. W. Carver X U.S. N 3 164 Teacher Code NO. Checklist NO.(1—8) MUCIA Teacher Survey Teacher Checklist 1. This checklist covers the period beginning -and ending 2. There has been a social studies lesson in this classroom on (number Of days) Of the two-week period. 3. Each lesson averaged about: (circle one) Less than 10 minutes . . . . . . 1 10-19 minutes. 0 o o o o o o o o 2 20-29 miDUtES. o o o o o O o o o 3 30 minutes or more . . . . . . . 4 4. Would you please list the major tOpics of your social studies lessons during the last two weeks? (Examples Of topics are: causes Of the Civil War; the study of a community in India; The Middle Ages; Commu- nism and Democracy; production, distribution and consumption of goods and services): 5. Did anyOf the following groups appear in your social studies lessons during the past two weeks? Please circle the number of all groups specifically mentioned or discussed. U.S. White--l Poles-—9 Russians-—15 Canadians—-2 Greeks--10 Chinese—-l6 English—-3 Jews--11 Japanese——l7 French--4 Japanese-- Negroes--l8 Irish-—5 Americans—-12a Mexicans--l9b Swedish--6 American- Other Latin Germans—-7 Indian--l3 Americans--20 Italians-—8 Mexican- Indians (from Americans-—l4a India)--21 8These groups were deleted from the analysis since the respondents appeared to treat them as separate groups rather than hyphenated groups. bThese two groups were combined into one category, "Latin Americans" for scoring purposes. 165 During the past two weeks did any Of the following areas Of the world (or parts thereof) receive any particular emphasis? Please circle the number Of the area emphasized. Africa and the Near East-—l Eastern Europe and Russia-—6 North America (exluding Asia (including Japan)--7 the U.S.)--2 Australia, Melanesia, and Mexico, Central America the Pacific Islands--8 and the Caribbean-—3a The polar regions--9 South America——4a Western EurOpe--5 Famous Names. (See cover page for complete instructions for this item): 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 NAME HERO VILLAIN NEITHER NATIONALITY RACEb ROLEC 1. 2. 3. a . . . . These two areas were combined into one category, ”Latin Amer1ca", for scoring purposes. bPlease use this code: "W” for white; "N" for non—white CPlease use this code: Political—1, Military—2, Scientific—3, Educ.-4, Arts and Letters—S, Social Reform—6, Other-7 (please specify). APPENDIX C Final Questionnaire 166 167 Dear This questionnaire is part of the final phase of the social studies research project in which you have been participating. Frequently studies of the social studies curriculum have focused on curriculum guides, textbooks or other instructional materials revealing little about the content of class- room instruction. In contrast, this study has focused on the classroom teacher to expand knowledge that is so important to the upgrading of teacher training programs and improving the social studies curriculum in our schools. Therefore, your investment of time is a unique contribution to social science education research. The final report, I trust, will further justify your investment in the project. It will be available for your review hOpefully within the next 9—10 months. This questionnaire is the final task you will be asked to do in the MUCIA Teacher Survey. As with the previous questionnaires, the anonymity of individual respondents will be protected. It is most important that the questionnaire be completed and postmarked by May 21. The questionnaire consists of three parts. The first part asks for your personal feelings on a number of controversial issues that might arise in the social studies classroom. Also there are some questions concerning how you would deal with such issues. The second part seeks your opinion on several issues relating to U.S.-Latin American relations. Finally, in Part III, you are requested to indicate how frequently you discuss certain topics relating to Latin American history and U.S.-Latin American relations. Please observe the following instructions: 1. Do not discuss the questionnaire with Others who may be also responding to the items. 2. Mark all answers on the enclosed IBM answer sheet using a #2 or machine-scoring pencil. Only the IBM answer sheet needs to be returned. Please make sure that your code number is on the answer sheet. 3. I will pick up the IBM answer sheet from the Michigan teachers on or shortly after May 21. Teachers in Texas, Mexico and Guatemala are asked to return the IBM answer sheet in the stamped and addressed envelOpe provided with the questionnaire. Again, my sincere thanks for your cooperation in the Survey. Howard Kardatzke MUCIA Project Researcher PART I: (Note: 168 CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES This is an abridged form of Part I. In the questionnaire completed by the teachers, each issue was listed separately and followed by the four questions appearing after the entire set of issues in this edition. Thus Part I in the original form constituted the first 52 items of the Final Questionnaire, i.e., the four questions repeated 13 times equals 52 items.) 1- 4 5- 8 ‘9-12 13-16 17-20 21-24 25-28 29-32 33-36 37-40 41—44 45-48 49-52 Issue A: Issue Issue Issue Issue Issue Issue Issue Issue Issue Issue Issue Issue It is wrong for peOple to practice any type of marital arrangement other than monogamy. Every human life is sacred under all circumstances. Students have an Obligation to remain loyal to their friends rather than to report instances of dishonesty. The government should not give aid to families that fail economically. The American way of life should be extended to other countries. The government should not have the right to halt a strike. United States citizens who are communists should be deported or jailed. A child should not be required to salute the American flag if it is against his religion. There should be stricter supervision of purchasable reading matter and movies in order to safeguard our children. Bureaucracy is a very serious threat to individual liberty. The right to vote should be given to all adults regardless of their knowledge and understanding of our government. We should faithfully support our country right or wrong. A11 naturalized immigrants should have the same civil rights as native citizens. 169 Question I: How do you personally feel about this issue? (Blacken the appropriate choice on the IBM answer sheet) Strongly Disagree. . . . . . . . . 1 Generally Disagree . . . . . . . . . . 2 Don't take any position. . . . . . . 3 Generally Agree. . . . . . . . . . . 4 Strongly Agree . . . . 5 Question II: DO you think that most of the students you teach are able to comprehend the relevant dimensions of the issue? Definitely yes . . . . . . . . . . . . Probably yes but I am not certain. . . Probably no but I am not certain . . . Definitely no. . . . . . . . . . . . p~u>n>hi Question 111: If your answer was definitely or probably yes, would you teach anything about this issue? (Please blacken one Of the alternatives on the IBM answer sheet) Yes, I would make certain it was included in the course. . . . . . . 1 Yes, I usually do but it depends on other tOpics . . . . . . . . . . 2 Yes, but only if_a student raised a question about it~. . . . . . . . 3 No, it is not appropriate for Social studies. . . . . .-. . . .1. 4 No, it shouldn't be discussed in school . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Question IV: In general, which of the following methods would you use in teaching about this idea? (Please blacken one of the al- ternatives on the IBM sheet) Present as a conclusion or belief with little or no discussion. . . . 1 Encourage discussion and the gather— ing of basic facts but make sure the students understood the idea as necessary for realizing a good society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Have students do a systematic in- vestigation of the issue so they may base conclusions on the evi- dence that has been accumulated—- even though the conclusions may reject the above idea . . . . . . . 3 170 PART II: U.S.-LATIN AMERICAN ISSUES On questions 53-56 would you please indicate your personal feeling about each of the following statements concerning U.S.-Latin American relations. You are to mark on the IBM answer sheet in the manner indicated for items 1—18. The choices are repeated for your convenience: Answer Choice: #1 -- Strongly Disagree #2 -- Generally Disagree #3 -— Don't take any position #4 -- Generally Agree #5 -- Strongly Agree 53. Generally it can be said that most of the United States' dealings with Latin America in this century have contributed to the well being and progress of the Latin American countries. 54. The general welfare —- economic, political, social -— of most Latin American countries would be in far worse shape today if American businessmen or companies had not made investments in Latin American enterprises. 55. The Good Neighbor Policy initiated during the 1930's was an important step in the development of friendly and COOperative relations between the U.S. and the countries of Latin America. 56. The increasing number of economic, political and social ties between the United States and Latin America will benefit the Latin Americans by bringing them even closer to the U.S. way of life. PART III: LATIN AMERICAN TOPICS 0n questions 57-68 please indicate how frequently you have mentioned or discussed the following tOpics in your social studies classes during the past school year by marking the IBM answer sheet in the following manner: Rarely, if ever. . . . . . . . . 1 Occasionally (three or four times during the year) . . . . . 2 Frequently (more than three or four times during the year) . 3 57. All topics during the school year that pertain to Latin American cul- ture, history or U.S.-Latin American relations. 58.* The topic of the Mexican War of 1846. 59. The topic of the Organization of the American States or the Pan—American Union. *This item was deleted from the analysis because of the typographical error which listed the year of the Mexican War in 1946 rather than 1846. 60. The 61. The 62. The 63. The 64. The 65. The topic tOpic tOpic tOpic topic topic 171 of U.S. recent military intervention in the Dominican Republic. Of the migration of Mexican itinerant labor in the U.S. of U. 8. control of the Canal Zone. of Alliance for Progress. of U.S. relations with Castro Cuba. of the Good Neighbor Policy. 66. The topic of investment by U.S. businessmen and companies in Latin American enterprises. 67. The topic of the great Indian civilizations of Latin America, i.e., The Aztecs, Maya, Incas. 68. The tOpic of Spanish exploration and rule of Latin America. THIS IS THE END OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE. PLEASE MAKE SURE YOUR CODE NUMBER IS ON THE IBM ANSWER SHEET. THANK YOU. APPENDIX D Administrator's Questionnaire 172 Note: 173 ADMINISTRATOR'S QUESTIONNAIRE, Questions one through thirty-five were asked of administrators in all three sample groups. 10. ll. 12. 13. Date of completion of questionnaire. Position of person completing questionnaire. Name of school. Grade levels Total number of students in all grades. Total number of faculty who are U.S. citizens. What percent of your student body is Negro? What percent of your students were themselves or their parents were (or are) nationals of a country located outside of North or Latin America? What percent of your students are from Spanish-speaking families? What percent of your faculty is Negro? What percent of your faculty are (or were) themselves, or their parents are (or were) nationals of a country located outside North or Latin America? What percent of your faculty come from Spanish-speaking families? Would you please estimate the percent of your faculty who have attained each of the following educational levels: (in the bi- national schools, this question applies to the U.S. faculty only) Less than Bachelor's degree. . . . . . . . . . . . Z Bachelor's degree only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z Master's degree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . % Doctor's degree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . % 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 174 What are the formal requirements (Bachelor's degree, teacher certifi— cate, etc.) for teaching at your school? Is there at present a social studies curriculum committee in your school? If yes, please indicate how many teachers are members of such a committee and how often the committee has met during the past year. What is the occupational background of the parents of your students? What would you estimate to be the mean annual salary of U.S. students (Anglo) parents? Of Latin American students' parents? Of Negro students' parents? (Circle one choice for each category) U.S. L.A. Negro Below 2000 dollars (U.S. cy.). . . . . . l . . . . 1 . . . . 1 2000-3999 " . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . 2 . . . . 2 4000-5999 " . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . 3 . . . . 3 6000-7999 " . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . 4 . . . . 4 8000-9999 " . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . . . . 5 . . . . 5 10,000-11,999 " . . ... . . . . . . . . 6 . . . . 6 . . . . 6 12,000—13,999 " . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 . . . . 7 . . . . 7 14,000- " . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 . . . . 8 . . . . 8 What would you estimate to be the precent of your student pOpulation who will not be here next year for other reasons than graduation? Less than 20%. . . . . . . 20-39% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-59% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-79% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-1-0%. . May I please have an estimate of the mean annual salary of your (U.S. teachers? (circle one of the categories) Below $2000(U.S. cy.). . . . . 2000-2999. . . . . . . . . . . . 3000-3999. . . . . . . . . . . 4000-4999. . . . . . 5000-5999. . . . 6000-6999. 7000— U‘I-DUJNH v \JC‘U‘IDWNH 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 175 Would you please indicate the percent of your (U.S.) faculty whose total teaching experience (in any school) is: This is their first year . 1-4 years. . . . . . . . . 5—9 years. . . . . . . 10-14 years. . . . . . . . 15 years or more . N'N 'N'N'N Would you please indicate the approximate percent of annual faculty (U.S.) turnover for your school? Below 10%. . . . . 10-24% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-49% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-74% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-100%. . . . . . . . . . . . UI-L‘UONH Which of the following instructional aids are available for teacher use in your school? MOvie projector. . . . . . . . Slide or filmstrip projector . . Wall maps, charts, globes, etc. Classroom TV . . . . . . . Phonograph . Opaque projector . Tape recorder. . . . . . . . . . \IO\U1-l-\LAJNl-‘ Would you please briefly describe the structure of the social studies curriculum by grade levels for this school? By whom and what is the process in which decisions affecting the social studies program for this school are made? (choosing textbooks, sub— jects to include in the curriculum, etc.) Is there any written statement on the objectives of the social studies for this school? Would you please indicate the percent of the school's support that comes from each of the following categories? State and local taxes. Tuition. . . . . . . . . . U.S. Government grants . . National government grants Inter-Am. School Service of the Am. Council on Ed. American Society . Other. N 'N'N'N'N LU Total 100 % 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. Note: 176 Would you please describe the administrative structure of this school? (Nature and kinds of bodies and positions responsible for policy decisions) What government or educational bodies are involved in the accredita- tion of your school? (circle all that apply) Local or state . . . . . . . . . National government. . . . . . . Texas Education Agency . Southern Assoc. of Schools and Colleges . . . . . . . . . . 4 North Central Assoc. o WNH Schools and Colleges . . . .-. 5 Other (please specify) . . . . 6 Does your school participate in the sister school program? If yes, where is your sister school located? Approximately how often do the patrons of the school meet at the school for a school-sponsored activity? (DO not include night school): Twice a week or more . 1 Once a week. . 2 Twice a month. . . . . . 3 Once a month . . . . . . . . . 4 Less than once a month . . . . 5 In your (U.S.) academic program, how many semesters (1 year = 2 semes- ters) in social studies are required of students from grades 1—12? Also, how many semesters of social studies are available for electives (grades 7-12)? What percent of your students do you expect will go on to college or a university (anywhere) upon graduation? Questions thirty-six through fifty-three were asked of administrators in the binational schools only. 36. Would you please give some information about the founding of this school (year of founding, by whom, evolution to present status, etc.). 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 177 What percent of the American community who have school age children send their children to this school? Below 50%. . . . . . . . . . . . 1 50-70% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 70—90% . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Above 90%. . . . . . 4' What other schools might an American child attend in this city or the immediate environs? Would you please venture an opinion why those American children who do not attend this school attend another school? Also, would you please offer an opinion as to why your Latin American students attend here rather than their national schools? Generally speaking, what are the typical academic or occupational pur- suits of your Latin American students immediately after they leave your school? What is the total number of persons on the Board of Control? What is the national composition of the Board of Control? What are the major duties and responsibilities of the Board of Control? What is the relationship of the Mexican or Guatemalan government to your school in such matters as textbooks, licensing requirements, curriculum, personnel, etc.? What is the relationship of the American colony to your school in regard to the influence exerted by the colony on what is included or excluded in the school curriculum or instruction? What is the relationship of the Latin American community to your school in regard to the influence exerted by the host community on what is included or excluded in the school curriculum or instruction? Which of the above groups would be most likely to express its opinion on school matters? 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 178 What are the qualifications needed for a U.S. student to attend this school? For a Latin American student? What is the process by which teachers are recruited for this school? What would be your opinion as to the most common reason why you have peOple from the U.S. teaching in your school? What percent of your college-bound students will attend a Latin American college or university? What percent of your students will attend a college or university in the United States? APPENDIX E Questionnaire Response 179 Questionnaire response 180 aggeuuorgsanb q_ q_ “I (n IBM 9111 Penman 8 ... s .6 .6 3 .3 9mm qu sguedrorggea ‘fl‘ 0'? (I? 'F C?" f T 'F go gunning pus IaqmnN N Z N Z N z N sgsrtxoqu lenses; 6: C) 0‘ ‘0 910w .10 11103 paugngau N i: m u; 00 c,; m r; ‘91er Ohm squadrorgxad ‘1? LI") 3? 'F 7'4 TI 0'? LI? go guaniag pu'e IaqmnN Z °° Z N z N 2 .\° gsrtxoaqg Iaqoeal h, F, v) P‘ auo 18991 3V paugngag 00 A; H 0,; Ln u; R"? «5 3.1er oqm sguadrorggeg ff ‘3'? 7"? ‘ff 7') 0|? T 0|? go guaogag pus JaqmnN Z N Z °° Z N Z N peningag sgsrtxoaqg F, U, F4 19 \‘f N \‘f N qoeel go IaqmnN 1930; a, H: ‘0 AgoguaAul q_ q_ ‘0 0‘ Iaqoeag, an: pausmgau H \O N U; Go a; g; <5 aAeH oqm sguedrorgi'ea LI") ‘3'? 7'" 9" T" If T if go guaruaa pus IaqumN z N Z N Z N z N 31911131291, Aieguamatg 0. C3 \Q <{ 31V qu sguedrorgzed :3 :l' :3 a g} Q [if E I go gueOIaa pus .IaqumN '2' g % O", 2' 6g 1;, 6% algauuorgsanb auo 13931 3"? paugng 4311 aAeH oqm 313140991, 3 :1 g 3 go Iaqmnn) sguedrorg *1 —Ieg go IaqmnN Iago; H4 O O .C dn013 Iaqoeal a H O C C O O on ~H m -H m u ,_1 4: <6 <0 <2 O x C H -H O -H o S H m H APPENDIX F Social Studies Grade Level Topics or Subjects Listed by Texas Education Agency Curriculum Guides 181 182 Social Studies Grade Level Topics or Subjects Listed by Texas Education Agency Curriculum Guides Sources: State of Texas, Excerpts from Bulletin 617: Social Studies, Grades 1-6 (Austin: Texas Education Agency, May, 1966); State of Texas, Excerpts from Bulletin 615: Social Studies, Grades 7-12 (Austin: Texas Education Agency, October, 1961). Grade One: Home and School Grade Two: The Neighborhood and the Community Grade Three: The Community Grade Four: PeOples of the World and Their Community Grade Five: American Lands and Peoples Grade Six: Lands and Peoples Beyond the Americas Grade Seven: Texas History and Geography* Grade Eight: United States History and Geography* Grade Nine through Grade Twelve: World Geography World History* American History* *Indicates a required course 183 Grades Eleven and Twelve: Government* Advanced Government Advanced Social Science Problems Economics English History Latin American History Advanced Texas History Sociology *Indicates a required course APPENDIX C Reported Emphasis in Percent and Rank Given to Eighteen Ethnic Groups in the Social Studies Lessons of Michigan, Texas and Binational School Teachers 184 185 Reported emphasis in percent and rank given to eighteen ethnic groups in the social studies lessons of Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers Michigan Texas ' Binational School Ethnic Group % Rank % Rank % Rank U.S. White 34 3.0 44 1.0 37 2.0 Canadians 16 7.0 9 14.5 6 15.5 English 51 1.0 38 2.0 41 1.0 French 42 2.0 34 3.0 25 5.0 Irish 8 12.0 10 12.5 6 15.5 Swedish 5 15.5 10 12.5 4 17.5 Germans 10 9.5 23 5.0 22 7.0 Italians 6 13.5 17 8.0 18 9.0 Poles 6 13.5 6 16.5 4 17.5 Greeks 4 17.5 13 10.0 15 11.5 Jews 9 11.0 3 18.0 16 10.0 American Indian 33 4.0 18 7.0 21 8.0 Russians 13 8.0 15 9.0 26 4.0 Chinese 10 9.5 12 11.0 11 13.0 Japanese 4 17.5 9 14.5 10 14.0 Negroes 32 5.0 20 6.0 23 6.0 Latin Americans 18 6.0 28 4.0 30 3.0 Indians (from India) 5 15.5 6 16.5 15 11.5 APPENDIX H Reported Emphasis in Percent and Rank Given to Eight Geographical Areas in the Social Studies Lessons of Michigan, Texas and Binational School Teachers 186 187 Reported emphasis in percent and rank given to eight geographical areas in the social studies lessons of Michigan, Texas and Binational School teachers Michigan Texas Binational School Geographical Area % Rank % Rank % Rank Africa and the Near East 15 5.0 18 3.5 18 4.0 North America (ex- cluding the United States) 19 4.0 16 5.0 7 6.0 Latin America 27 2.0 21 2.0 19 3.0 Western EurOpe 41 1.0 37 1.0 21 1.5 Eastern EurOpe and Russia 12 6.0 15 6.0 21 1.5 Asia (including Japan) 22 3.0 18 3.5 15 5.0 Australia, Melanesia, and the Pacific Islands 5 8.0 7 7.0 6 7.0 The Polar Regions 8 7.0 6 8.0 4 8.0 ““ll’iifixlfillfllfllnfififlflffiifl‘iu‘ljgiglmfit”