CfiiLEG‘é S’FUDENT CGUNSELCR PREFERENCES
PG: HELP WITH kaHLEMS Q? SEX AME) ANGER

Thesis fiat #519 Deg?” cf Ph. D.
Mi-‘CFHGAN STATE i’éi‘JERSST‘f
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Michigan State
University

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THCDIL‘:

This is to certify that the
thesis entitled
COLLEGE STUDENT COUNSELOR PREFERENCES
FOR HELP WITH PROBLEMS OF
SEX AND ANGER

presented by

MARISA KEENEY

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph D degree injdngaugn

 

    

Major professor

Date _November 1 5 , 19 66

 

0-169

ABSTRACT

COLLEGE STUDENT COUNSELOR PREFERENCES
FOR HELP WITH PROBLEMS
OF SEX AND ANGER

by Marisa Keeney

The purpose of the study was to examine the ideal
image of the college counselor to help with personal prob-
lems held by university education students. A seventy-one
item questionnaire was developed to test hypotheses about
cross-sex differences in student (a) discomfort (b) hesi-
tation to seek help and (c) expectation of benefiting from
counselor help for problems of sex and anger which in turn
became the basis for determining what type of counselor
students might want for help with these problems. The
instrument was judged to be adequate for use on the basis
of item test-retest reliability determined by the chi
square test of significance for the statistic C at the .001
level for the categorical items and observation of the
‘weighted means for the rank—order items.

The questionnaire was administered to a sample of six

hundred sixty-eight education students enrolled for the

Marisa Keeney
basic course in educational psychology, Fall Term, 1965,
at Michigan State University. Items of the questionnaire
testing eight null and six research hypotheses were
analyzed by the chi square and W statistics. Kendall's
method of ordering the sum of ranks was also used to
determine rank order preferences for the seven charac-
teristics included in the study. The examined character-
istics were counselor sex, age, education, experience,
values, method and acquaintance.
Significant findings were as follows:
1. Female more than male education students
hesitate to seek help for problems of sex
(p (.001) and anger (p < .05) .
2. Female more than male education students
expect to benefit from counselor help for
sexual problems (p < .01).
3. Male education students prefer §§E§f§3x_
counselor more often than female students
as a counselor for problems of sex (p < .001).
4. Within-sex rank-order preferences for the

counselor characteristics for both problems

 

are the same (p < .01).

Significant cross-sex differences were found for the

Marisa Keeney
non—theorized null hypotheses as follows:
1. Preferences for type of non-professional
counselor to help with bgth problems.
2. Preferences for acquaintance with counselor
to help with the problem of sex.

Rank—order preferences for the characteristics under
study, based on the criterion of a significant W were
reported as follows. Females ranked counselor values
first when choosing a counselor to help with both problems,

and experience second. On the other hand, males ranked

 

counselor experience first, and values second. Counselor

method, education, and acquaintance were assigned middle

 

ranks in that order by both males and females for both
problems. Males, however, inverted counselor acquaintance
and education for help with the problem of sex. Counselor
ESE and_§gx were ranked in the two lowest positions by both
males and females for both problems. Age of the counselor
was the least important for both males and females for the
prdblem of sex, while sex of counselor was least important
for both male and female students for the prOblem of anger.
The qualitative description of the ideal college
counselor selected by males for help with both problems

was reported as a man, over thirty years of age with a

Marisa Keeney

Ph.D. in counseling psychOIOgy and five or more years of
experience, who holds the same values as the student. The
"reflecting" method was preferred for help with sexual
prOblems, but counselor method was not definite for coun-
selor to help with problems of anger.

Females described the ideal counselor similarly with
the exception that they had no preferences for sex of

counselor or counselor acquaintance for either problem.

COLLEGE STUDENT COUNSELOR PREFERENCES
FOR HELP WITH PROBLEMS
OF SEX AND ANGER

by
G (be. ‘

Marisa(Keeney

. pol

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Personnel Services
and Educational Psychology

1966

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Throughout the preparation of the dissertation, the
assistance and encouragement of the writer's major
advisor, Dr. William W. Farquhar, was most helpful. In
addition the members of the committee, Dr. Norman Stuart,
Dr. Ralph Kron, and Dr. Donald A. Grummon were always
available for help and consultation.

Without the cooperation and assistance of Dr. Donald E.
Hbmacheck and Dr. Merle Englander, Education 200 instructors
and students, this study would not have been possible.

A special word of appreciation is given to Dr. Walter
F. Johnson, Mrs. Marian Fortson sakalauskas, Miss Suzanne
Schumann, and Miss Irene Kievat who stood by during the

long months of preparation and writing with understanding.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
AMOWI'EDGMENTS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O i i

LIST OF TABLES o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o O 0 0 ‘ Viii

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X
Chapter

I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l

The Need and Importance of the Study . l

The Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . 4

Selection of the Specific Counselor

Characteristics . . . . . . . . . 4
Delimitations of the Study .A. . . . . 5
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . 6
Statement of the Broad Research

Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Organization of the Study . . . . . . . 9

II. THE THEORETICAL BASE . . . . . . . . . . . . ll
Selection of the Two Problem Areas . . ll
Expectations of Sex-Role Behavior . . . 14

The Effects of Transactional Per-
ception in Student Selection of

Counselor Characteristics . . . . 18
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
III. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . 22

Role of the Counselor and Type of

Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Role of the Counselor . . . . . . 23
Type of Problem . . . . . . . . . 25

iii

Chapter Page

Student Perceptions of Counselor
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . 27
Method Used by the Counselor . . . 27
Values Held by Counselor . . . . . 30
Sex of the Counselor . . . . . . . 3O
Stereotypes of the Sex Role of

Males and Females in our Culture 33

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

IV. TIE DESIGN 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O 39

The Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Availability of the Population . . 4O
Representativeness of the

Population . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Description of the Sample . . . . . 42
The Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . 52

Design of the Instrument . . . . . 53
Reliability of the Instrument . . . 59
Collection of the Data . . . . . . . . . 64
Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Statistical Treatment . . . . . . . . . 69
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

V . ANM’YS I S OF TIE DATA 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 7 6

Student Discomfort, Hesitation to Seek
Help,and Expectation of Benefiting
from Counselor Help for Problems
of Sex and Anger . . . . . . . . . 76
(Admission of Discomfort about
Personal Problems (Hypothesis 1) 77
Relationship with the Opposite
Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Anger . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Inspectional Comparison of the
Two Problems . . . . . . . . 80
Hesitation to Seek Help for
Personal Problems (Hypothesis 2) 80
Relationship with the Opposite
Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Anger . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Inspectional Comparison of the
Two Problems . . . . . . . . 84

iv

Chapter Page

Expectation to Benefit from Help
on Personal Problems (Hypo-

thesis 3) . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Relationship with the Opposite

Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Anger . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Inspectional Comparison of the

Two Problems . . . . . . . . 88

Comparative Rank-Order Prefer-
ences for Counselor Character—
istics for Problems of Sex and

Anger . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Cross-Sex Rank-Order Prefer-

ences (Hypothesis 4) . . . . 89
Within-Sex Rank-Order Prefer-

ences (Hypothesis 5) . . . . 91

Specific Within-Characteristic
Qualifications for Counselor

Comparing Both Problems . . . . 97
Counselor Sex (Hypothesis 6). . 97
Problem of Sex . . . . . . . 98
Problem of Anger . . . . . . 99

Inspectional Comparison of
the Two Problems . . . . 99

Counselor Age (Hypothesis 7). . 100
Problem of Sex . . . . . . . 101
Problem of Anger . . . . . . 101
Inspectional Comparison of

the Two Problems . . . . 102

Counselor Education (Hypo-
thesis 8) . . . . . . . . . 102
Problem of Sex . . . . . . . 103
Problem of Anger . . . . . . 103
Inspectional Comparison of

the Two Problems . . . . 104

Type of Professional Education
(Hypothesis 9) . . . . . . . 104
Problem of Sex . . . . . . . 105
Problem of Anger . . . . . . 106
Inspectional Comparison of

the Two Problems . . . . 106

V

Chapter Page

Type of Non-Professional
Counselor (Hypothesis 10). . 106
Problem of Sex . . . . . . . 107
Problem of Anger . . . . . . 108
Inspectional Comparison of
the Two Problems . . . . 108
Counselor Experience (Hypo-
thesis 11) . . . . . . . . . 109
Problem of Sex . . . . . . . 110
Problem of Anger . . . . . . 110
Inspectional Comparison of'
the Two Problems . . . 110
Counselor Values (Hypothesis 12) 111
Problem of Sex . . . . . . . 112
Problem of Anger . . . . . . 112
Inspectional Comparison of
the Two Problems . . . 112
Counselor Method (Hypothesis 13) 113
Problem of Sex . . . . . . . 114
Problem of Anger . . . . . . 114
Inspectional Comparison of
the Two Problems . . . . 114
Counselor Acquaintance (Hypo-
thesis 14) . . . . . . . . . 115
Problem of Sex . . . . . . . 116
Problem of Anger . . . . . . 116
Inspectional Comparison of
the Two Problems . . . . 117
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Theory and Instrumentation . . . . 121
The Design and Analysis . . . . . 122

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Research Hypotheses . . . . . . 124_
Non-Theory-Based Null Hypotheses . 125
Ancillary Findings . . . . . . . 127
Ideal Counselor Image of the
Male Student . . . . . . . 128
Ideal Counselor Image of the
Female Student . . . . . . . 129

vi

‘Chapter

DiscuSSion O O O O C C O O O O O O O

Discomfort about Problems of Sex

and Anger (Hypothesis 1) . .

Hesitation to Seek Help for

Problems of Sex and Anger
(Hypothesis 2) . . . . . . .

Benefit from Seeking Help for

Problems of Sex and Anger
(Hypothesis 3) . . . . . . .

Summary Findings for Hypotheses

1, 2 and 3 o o o o o o o o

Rank—Order Preferences for

Counselor Characteristics for
the Two Problems (Hypotheses
and 5) . . . . . . . . . . .
Rank 1: Values Held by th
Counselor (Hypothesis 13)
Rank 2: Experience of the
Counselor (Hypothesis 11)
Rank 3: Method Used by the
Counselor (Hypothesis 12)
Rank 4: Education of the
Counselor (Hypotheses 8,
9 and 10) . . . . . . . .

Rank 5: Acquaintance with the

Counselor (Hypothesis 14)
Rank 6: Age of the Counselor

(Hypothesis 7)) . . . . .
Rank 7: Sex of the Counselor

(Hypothesis 6) . . . . .

Professional Implications . . . . . .
Implications for Further Research . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL STATEMENT . . . . . . . . . .

vii

Page
129

130

131

133

135

136
138
139

140

142
145
147
148
150
155
159

186

Table

5.4

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Summary of Characteristics Of the Education
Student Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Contingency Coefficients with Corresponding
Chi Square Values for Questionnaire Items . 62
Test—Retest Reliability Check of Weighted
Means for Rank Orders of the Counselor
Characteristics . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . 63
Degree of Variance in Cross-Sex Rank Order
Preferences for the Seven Counselor
Characteristics for the Two Personal
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Degree of Variance in Within-Sex Rank Order
Preferences for the Seven Counselor
Characteristics for the Two Problems . . . . 92
Rank Order Preferences for the Counselor
Characteristics Made by Male and Female
Students for Help with Problems of Sex
and Anger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Summary of Hypotheses of Differences

Between Males and.Fema1es in Attitudes

Toward Counselor Image when Seeking Help

for Problems of Relationship with the

Opposite Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Summary of Hypotheses Of Differences

between Males and Females in Attitudes

Toward Counselor Image when Seeking

Help for Problems of Anger . . . . . . . . . 119

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
4.1 Summary of Questionnaire Content . . . . . . 54
5.1 Counselor Characteristic Items . . . . . . . 89

ix

Appendix

A

LIST OF APPENDICES
Page

Student Preferences for Certain Counselor
Characteristics .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Memo to Education 200 Instructors . . . . . 179

Table 1: Section II and V Response

Frequencies, Percentages and Chi Square

Values for Questionnaire Items Related

to Hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 for the Problem

Of Relationship with the Opposite Sex . . . 180

Table 2: Section II and V Response

Frequencies, Percentages and Chi Square

Values for Questionnaire Items Related

to Hypotheses l, 2 and 3 for the Problem

of Anger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Table 3: Section IV Response Frequencies,

Percentages and Chi Square Values for
Questionnaire Items Related to Student
Preferences for Counselor Characteristics

for the PrOblem of Sex . . . . . . . . . . 182

Table 4: Section VII Response Frequencies,

Percentages and Chi Square Values for
Questionnaire Items Related to Student
Preferences for Counselor Characteristics

for the Problem of Anger . . . . . . . . . 184

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
The Need and Importance of the Study

There is little clarity concerning the initial point
at which a client begins the process of counseling. Often
the counselor talks of having to train his client to be a
client. Ordinarily he knows very little, however, at
initial contact about the way he is perceived by the Client
either as an individual or as one filling a role. It may
be that his confusion about the student's perception of
him hinders quick development of a working relationship
with the student. The carry-over image which the student
brings with him of other significant figures in his life
may be incompatible with the counselor's View of himself.

Furthermore, the role of the high school and college
counselor is viewed by students to be different. Mixed
evidence indicates that some high school students View the
counselor as one who can help with educational-vocational
problems but not personal-social problems. Other high
school students view the counselor as one who only helps

1

2
with serious problems. The college student who is ambi-
valent about the nature of his problem might find it diffi-
cult to seek help from a counselor whose role is equally
confused in his mind. Even if a student did go to a college
counselor for help on a personal problem, he might not ex-
pect to benefit from the experience.

It is further known that the sex of the student is a
critical source of the varied expectations and perceptions
of counselor role. Previous studies suggest that in the
initial stages male and female preferences for counselor
sex vary. Additional sex—typed student preferences may
exist though little is known about the personal and inter-

\
personal factors Operating in student Choice of counselor.

Clinical evidence indicates that students bring pre-
conceived models of the type of person from whom they would
like to receive help, but the portraits of these models are
yet to be fully described. It may be that such factors as
similarity of values between counselor and Client are viewed
as important by students. It may also be that a counselor
who resides in a residence hall and presents a familiar face
may be perceived as more accessible and more helpful than a
stranger who must be seen across campus in a special student

services building.

3

The relative value which male and female students
place on a variety of potentially important Characteristics
in their respective ideal counselor models is essentially
unexplored. Counselor sex appears to be important to the
student initially, but how important is it in relation to
other characteristics? Perhaps the male student considers
the sex of the counselor more important than the female
student. The female student, on the other hand, may con-
sider Similarity of values between the counselor and her-
self more important than either the sex of the counselor or
personal acquaintance with the counselor when these factors
are evaluated for priority.

Another dimension of counselor role and student
expectation appears to be related to the type of problem
presented. There may be interaction effects between valued
counselor characteristics and the nature of the problem
which the student brings. The sex of the counselor may be
important to a female student with certain problems and
not be important for other problems. Likewise, for some
problems the experience of the counselor may be more im-
portant than counselor sex to the male student. The rela-
‘tionship between the type of problem presented, the

counselor characteristics viewed by the student as

4
particularly important, and the sex of the student all have
a high likelihood of relevance to student expectations of

counselor image and role.
The Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to examine the ideal
image of the college counselor held by university stu—
dents. An assessment of student (a) discomfort, (b) hesi—
tation in seeking help and (c) expectation of receiving
help from a counselor for two potentially basic personal
problems is to be made which will in turn become a basis
for determining what type of counselor students might
want for help with these personal problems.

Selection of the Specific Counselor
Characteristics

At the completion of her study, Fullerl felt that
preference for Characteristics other than sex should be
examined. She suggested age, education, and experience.
HOwever, this list would by no means exhaust the possible
list from which selections could be made. To help deter—

mine other characteristics which might be included in the

 

lFrances Fuller, "Preferences for Male and Female
Counselors," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLII,
No. 5 (January, 1964), 463-467.

5
study, an open-ended questionnaire was administered to a
pilot group of seventy educational psychology students.
They were asked to list the reasons why they would Choose
a male or female counselor if they were to go to one for
a personal problem.

From the pilot study three predominant Character-
istics emerged. Students were concerned about (a) the
method the counselor used to relate to them, (b) the values
the counselor held to be important and (c) how well ac-
quainted the student was with the counselor before the
initial contact. Therefore, the above three counselor
characteristics as well as sex, age, education, and ex—
perience of the counselor were selected for inclusion in

this study.
Delimitations of the Study

The students to be studied consist of those enrolled
for the beginning course in educational psychology Offered
in the College of Education at Michigan State University.
These students consist of those with majors in education
as well as students in the other colleges of the university

with the exception of the College of Engineering.

6

The study is further limited to the study of the
relationships between two potential problems of personal
concern for students and preferences for counselor charac-
teristics. It is recognized that two problems do not
comprise all possible problems, but they are selected as
being among the most basic.

Measures of anxiety, specific values, and rigidity
of the subjects are not being included in this study,
though it is recognized that such inclusion would be a
valuable extension in another study.

The relationship between socio-economic status, grade
point average, and student preferences for counselor
Characteristics is also viewed as an extension of this
study, but these interrelations are not examined in this

study.

Definition of Terms

Five definitions of terms used in this study follow
for the purpose of clarifying communication.

Counselor characteristics are defined as those par-
ticular attributes which describe the person students would
prefer for help with personal problems. Counselor charac-

teristics fractionize into two dimensions. The personal

7
characteristics of the counselor are age, sex, experience
and education. The interpersonal dimensions are values
held by the counselor, counseling method employed, and
acquaintance with the counselor.

Professional trainipq is defined as graduate or super—
vised training in the field of personal counseling. It is
recognized that some ministers (listed as non—professional
in the questionnaire) have professional training, but on
the whole it is expected that students will consider them
in the same category as teacher and confidante.

"Reflectinq" Methgd is defined as the technique used
by the counselor by which he would make the client com-
fortable, listen to him, and understand his feelings.

"Interpreting" Method is defined as the technique
used by the counselor by which he would challenge, ask
questions, and interpret the feelings of the client.

Perceptions are defined as those factors which on
the basis of past and present context, frame of reference,
learning, motivation, and values go into making an evalu-
ation of the saliency of the particular counselor charac-

teristics described in this study.

Statement of the Broad
Research Hypotheses

The broad research hypotheses for this study are set

forth as follows:

1.

Female students will admit to more discomfort
than male students about certain basic personal
problems.

Male students will admit to more hesitation in
seeking help than will female students for
certain basic personal problems.

Female students more Often than male students
will admit to expecting to benefit from seeking
help for feelings of discomfort related to certain
basic personal problems.

Male students will differ from female students
in the rank orders assigned to the counselor
characteristics preferred when Choosing a
counselor to help with certain basic personal
problems.

Students of each sex will assign similar within-

sex rank orders to the counselor characteristics

-preferred when choosing a counselor to help with

basic personal problems.

9
6. Male students will prefer the same sex counselor
more often than female students when selecting
a counselor to help with certain basic personal
problems.
7. Male and female students will differ on prefer-

ences for counselor age, education (professional

 

and non—professional), experience, method,
values, and acquaintance when seeking help for

certain basic personal problems.
Organization of the Study

The theoretical basis for the study is stated in
Chapter II. A resume of Freud's psychoanalytic theory
is included to provide a rationale for the selection of
the basic personal problems. Margaret Mead's observations
about the relation of cultural expectations and social
learning to sanctioned sex role behavior are reviewed
for relevance to this study. The transactional percep—
tionists provide the theoretical basis for student
selection of counselor Characteristics.

The pertinent literature is reviewed in Chapter III.
The interrelationship of student perceptions of counselor

role and type of problem is dilineated. Current knowledge

10
about the counselor characteristics under study is sum—
marized. Research related to student stereotypes of sex
roles existing in American society is presented.

In Chapter IV, the sample is described, the develOp-
ment of the instrument is presented, and the statistical
treatment is set forth.

The analysis of the data is presented in Chapter V.
Discussions of significant findings, conclusions and
recommendations are presented in Chapter VI.

The theoretical basis for the study follows.

CHAPTER II

THE THEORETICAL BASES

In this chapter the personality theory of Freud is
drawn upon to provide the rationale for the selection of
the two potential personal problems a client is most likely
to bring to a counselor. Furthermore, the anthropological
studies of Mead are used to Clarify the expected sex role
behavior of the students. Finally, transactional per-
ception theory is used to delineate the process students

might use to select the preferred counselor characteristics.

Selection of the Two Problem Areas

Most of the major personality theorists hypothesize
that the two major foci of anxiety responses are related
to control of sexual impulses and anger. Psychoanalytic
theory emphasizes the major importance which these responses
have in human development, and provides the basis for other
theorizing.

According to Freud, psychological energies arising
from different sources, varying in quantity or intensity,

11

l2
joining in different combinations, elicit responses to some
objects and events through which the constantly accumulat-
ing psychic energy can be discharged. He proposed two
groups of responses through which this discharge of energy
would occur. One group was sexual and the other aggressive.

The assessment of danger for the individual depends
upon learning. When some event produces excessive tension
which the individual is helpless to relieve, automatic
severe anxiety occurs. This process is described by Freud
as follows:

Situational events (S) or innate responses (r)

-—9 excessive tension (r)-—9 helpless to termi-

nate (ineffective R's) ~9 intense anxiety, i.e.

-’ equals "leads to."

Through learning, responses such as thoughts and
memories, are also attached to anxiety responses. Thus
when other potentially dangerous situations are recognized
or remembered, mild anxiety is elicited. This signal
anxiety is described as follows:

Situational events (S)-—) memories, thoughts,

or expectations (r)-—) mild anxiety (signal
anxiety) (r)

 

1Sigmund Freud, "Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety"
Spandard Edition, ed. J. Strachey (London: Hogarth Press,
1959), XX, 14.

21bid., pp. 81, 166.

13

An approach—avoidance conflict in both sexual and ag-
gressive instincts is subsequently learned by the individual.
The avoidance side, in the case of sexual conflict, is
characterized as exaggerated sexual rejection, sexual pro-
hibitions, instinctual prohibitions, self-preservative
instincts, no sexual object available, and Opposing force.1

The approach side is Characterized as immense sexual
desire, infantile sexual wishes, sexual drive or instinct,
and incestuous sexual wishful fantasies.2

In the case of aggression, Freud postulated that ag—
gressive energy blocked from overt expression through learn—
ing manifests itself through the punitive and derogatory
self-evaluative thoughts (super-ego). Anxiety, in this in—
stance, is a consequence of potential aggression expressed
through self-evaluative thoughts. In his final formulation,
he spoke of a fundamental psychological energy which was
in opposition to the life-maintaining energies (libido).
The desire to destroy is Observed in aggressive and

destructive acts toward oneself.

 

1Donald H. Ford and Hugh B. Urban, Systems pf_Psycho-
therapy, A_Comparative Study (New YOrk: John Wiley & Sons,
1964), p. 158.

2Ibid.

3Sigmund Freud, Ag Outline p§_Psychoana1ysis (New
YOrk: Horton, 1933), p. 20.

14

To Freud, both sexual and aggressive instincts
and resulting conflicts are therefore basic within the
individual and are directly related to anxiety responses.
Because of the central place which these responses hold
in the assessment of maladaptive behavior of the in-
dividual, problems of relationship with the opposite sex
and anger have been selected for this study as the two
most likely areas of discomfort for students who might

feel the need for personal counseling.

Expectations of Sex—Role Behavior

Every society develops patternings of sex—role be-
havior which to a large degree determine ways in which
members of that society come to view life. The anthro-

1 . . .
has made exten51ve observations

pologist Margaret Mead
of sexual behavior in our society. Her work provides a
foundation for the hypothesized sex variations in this
study about student admission of discomfort about personal
problems of sex and anger, hesitation to seek help, and

expectation of receiving help from a male or female

counselor.

 

1Margaret Mead, Male and Female: A Study pf the
Sexes ip.g Changing WOrld (New YOrk: Morrow, 1949),

pp. 206-236.

15

The ways which male and female adolescents have of
defining their own role and the role of significant adults
is influenced by the Child-rearing practices to which they I
are exposed. Even though any given Child does not see
harmonious, repetitive sex-role behavior, myths related to
certain successful ways of controlling sexual and hostile
impulses Continue to exist and in large part define Charac-
teristic behavioral patterns of the sexes.

In developing sex-role identity, Mead says that the
young boy learns from his father that relationships with
men require putting forth all his strength and taking
defeats good-humoredly. His mother teaches him that being
manly means to stand up for himself. She further teaches
him strategies for not being seen as a coward. Situations
are created or arranged by the mothers of several males
so that all fighting between them will be self-defensive,
for fighting must be viewed as defensive rather than of-
fensive. Net to fight at all, however, is being a coward.

Mothers also set standards for fighting with girls.

In this instance, hoWever, more often than not, the boy is
put in a double bind. If a girl defeats a boy even though
she is twice his size, he is made to believe that this is

worse than being defeated by a boy. At the same time, he

16
is taught not to hit a girl because she is a girl. Boys
are watched anxiously by both parents to see if they Show
signs of not being able to defend themselves. Boys are
desexed by failure. Maleness in America has to be kept
and earned every day, and one essential definition is
beating women in every game that both sexes play.

On the other hand, Mead states that sex role for girls
is defined both by not being a coward and never acting the
way a boy acts. Girls usually are flattered and spoiled by
indulgent, non-disciplinary fathers, and they learn to
manage men, emerging very sure of themselves. Even though
mothers watch to see that their daughters are not spoiled
by their fathers, they also demand that girls be success-
ful. Somehow, the girl learns to manage her father in
spite of her mother and develops an attitude of demand
toward members of the Opposite sex rather than being con-
demned to a weak or inferior role.

It would therefore be expected that males would have
more hesitation in seeking help on personal problems than
females. Likewise, males would also be less likely to
expect to benefit from seeking help than females. It is
further expected that both sexes, when considering someone

to help them with feelings of discomfort related to ways

17
of dealing with the opposite sex and hostile impulses,
would prefer male counselors. The nagging voice of con—
science is feminine in both sexes—-the voice which says,
"YOu are not being the success you ought to be."1 Often
teacher and mother merge into one in the Child's mind
because each seems to highly value success. The child
often attributes to the teacher the aspects of the bad
mother that were once given to the step-mother in fairy-
tales of another age. Likewise transference of a similar
feeling to the female counselor is also likely to occur.
For both the male and female adolescent in our culture,
a male counselor would be expected to be seen as less
demanding and more accepting, less threatening, and
potentially more helpful as a counselor. From Mead's
point of view, counselor sex preference would likely be
avoidance Of the demanding female on the part of both
sexes and approach to the successful male, i.e., the
counselor, who also may be viewed by girls particularly

as another source of indulgence.

 

lIbid., p. 232.

18

The Effects of Transactional Perception
in Student Selection of Counselor
Characteristics

Because the students in this study are asked to pro-
ject an image of the counselor to whom they would turn for
help with.problems of relationship with the Opposite sex
and anger, it is relevant to draw on transactional per—
ception theory to explain the process involved in this task.

Ittleson and Cantril,1 in speaking of perception as
a transactional approach, have found perception to be a
process of interpretation of present stimulus cues on the
basis of expectations built as consequents of past experi—
ence. As these perceptions are confirmed and reinforced
through later experience, they become more and more stable
and harder to alter. Perception is viewed as an active
transaction between striving organism and environment.

All ideas of what things are, where they are, and what
they are good for, are based on these assumptions which have
proved to be good "bets“ for action. These assumptions are

probabilities only, but if they have proved highly reliable

 

1William H. Ittleson and Hadley Cantril, Perceptipn:
A Transactional Approach (Garden City, New YOrk: Doublday,

19
in past actions, one begins to think of them as certainties
and acts accordingly until other experiences Show that
these assumptions are wrong.
The perceptual process, according to Robins, is

...One of evaluating the world around us--visual
occasions, social situations,..., by using our
past experience and our purposes in making a
guess about how something (or somebody) will
behave.... we make these guesses based on our
own unique and individual experiences and pur-
poses; and to each the reality of the world is

a personal and individual reality.1

Cantril further states that

...each transaction of living involves numerous
capacities and aspects of man's nature which
operate together. Each occasion of life can
occur only through an environment imbued with
some purpose, requiring action of some kind and
the registration of the consequences of action.
Every action is based upon some awareness or
perception which in turn is determined by the
assumptions brought to the occasion. These
assumptions are in turn determined by past ex-
perience. All of these processes are inter-
dependent. No one process could function without
the others.

Perceptual process is a transaction which occurs

between the purposes and past experience of the perceiver

 

lSeymour Robins, "Transactional Design," Print, X,
No. 3 (1956), 31.

2Hadley Cantril, "Perception and Interpersonal Rela-
tionships," The Phenomenological Problem, ed. Arthur E.
Kuenzli (New Ybrk: Harper, 1959), 182-198.

20
and the perceiver's environment. Context, frame of refer-
ence, previous learning, motivation and value of the object
are all relative to perception.

It is expected that students making Choices of
counselor Characteristics most valuable to them in choosing
a helping person will bring with them their past experi—
ence, purposes, values and assumptions based on the American
cultural milieu and that these choices will correspondingly

be based on their individualized probability expectancies.

Summary

The theoretical basis for choosing the potential
problem areas of relationship with the Opposite sex and
anger came from the psychoanalytic school. The observa-
tions of the cultural anthropologist, Margaret Mead, pro-
vided the basis for the hypotheses that female students
are expected to be more willing to admit to feelings of
discomfort about personal problems than males and to be
more willing to seek help, expecting to receive it, than
male students. Her observations further suggest that male
counselors will be preferred by both male and female

students.

21
Transactional perception theory was the fulcrum for
the anticipated sex-typed but idiosyncratic Choices made
by students in value loadings given to the various
counselor Characteristic preferences under study.
The review of the literature pertinent to this study

is presented in Chapter III.

CHAPTER III
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Previous research related to the topic of the present
study falls in two major groups. The first group of re—
search is included to indicate the interrelationship of
perceptions of counselor role and type of problem. Current
knowledge about the characteristics under study is pre-
sented in the second group. Included in this group is a
report of research on student stereotypes of sex roles
existing in American society.

Role of Counselor and Type
of Problem

On the whole, research about perceptions and expecta-
tions of the Counselor on the part of students is sporadic
and unrelated. Cottle1 suggests that it is not clear that

Characteristics are consistently valued by all age groups.

 

lWilliam Cottle, "Personal Characteristics of Coun-
selors," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. XXXI, No. 7
(April, 1953), 445-449.

22

23
The image of the counselor in elementary schools, secondary
sChools and college counseling bureaus seem to be different.
To a large extent, attempts to describe characteristics
which are related to successful counselors are suggestive

and helpful, but inconclusive.

Role of the Counselor

1 on satisfaction

The research of Goodstein and Grigg
with the counseling process has generated hypotheses that
Client perceptions and expectations are influential in the
interaction of the counseling process, but little is known
about these perceptions and expectations. Mixed evidence
is available on how counselors are viewed before initial
contact. Grant's2 study of the senior class in nine schools
in New YOrk points up that high school students view the
counselor as being helpful in the area Of vocational and

educational planning, but not as an effective source of

help in the broad area of personal—emotional problems.

 

1Leonard David Goodstein and Austin E. Grigg, "Client
Satisfaction, Counselors, and the Counseling Process, Ihp
Personnel apg,§pidance Journal, XXXVIII, No. 1 (September,
1959), 19-24.

2Claude W. Grant, "HOW Do Students Perceive the
Counselor's Role?" The Personnel and Guidance Journal.
XXXII,,NO. 7 (March, 1954), 386-388.

24
W’armanl in a study at Ohio State, using a questionnaire
with both students and counselors, found that students saw
professional counselors as concerned with the problems of
vocational Choice first, then college routine problems,
and last the problem of adjustment to self and others.
Counselors, on the other hand, saw their role as having
to dO'With problems of adjustment to self and others as
first priority.

In a study by Heilfron,2 it was found that high school
students expect counselors to devote themselves to indi-
viduals who exhibit overtly that they have extreme forms
of mental and emotional abnormality.

Blocher3 suggests that the confusion of incompatible

roles of counselors may be the major reason for the failure

 

1Roy E. warman, "Differential Perception of the
Counseling Function," The Journal pp Counseling Psychology,
VII, No. 4 (Winter, 1960), 269-274.

2Marilyn Heilfron, "The Function of Counseling as
Perceived by High School Students," The Personnel apg
Guidance Journal, XXXIX, No. 2 (October, 1960), 133-136.

3Donald‘W. Blocher, W; wesley Tennyson, and Ralph H.
JOhnson, "Dilemma of Counselor Identity," The Journal 9:
Counseling Psychology, X, No. 4 (Winter, 1963), 344-349.

25

of students to see the counselor as a person able to help
with personal concerns. The carry-over of an image of the
high school counselor as "efficient" or "remediating" may
to some degree affect the perceptions and expectations of
a university undergraduate student's ambivalence about
seeking help from a person so stereotyped.

The literature does substantiate the View, however,
that the broad type of problem which the client has is
directly related to the particular expectations the student

has of counselor role and characteriStics.

Eyppyof Problem

1

In a study at Michigan State University, Grater found

that clients with personal-social problems consider af-
fective characteristics of counselors more important than

cognitive Characteristics at the .01 level of significance.

2

Bordin at the University of Michigan found that

clients approaching Counseling with the expectation of

‘

1HarryA. Grater, "Client Preferences for Affective
<or Cognitive Counselor Characteristics and First Interview
IBehavior," Journal 9;,Counseling Psychology, XI, No. 3
(Fall, 1964), 248-250.

2Edward Bordin, "Implications of Client Expectations
for Counseling Process," Journal 9; Counselinq Ps Cholo ,
II, No. 1 (Spring, 1955), 17-21.

26

receiving help in a particular decision, View the counselor
as a source of information. Clients with personal problems,
however, are more likely to see the personal characteris-
tics Of the counselor as an important part of the process.
The View of the counselor as "someone to lean on, as imper—
sonal and objective, and as understanding and forgiving" are
relevant expectations in terms of the counseling process
for those who view themselves as having personal problems.

Little research has been carried out relating type
of personal problem to client perceptions of helpful
counselor Characteristics. Schmidt and Pepinskyl in a
review of counseling research in 1963,discussed studies
about counselors' views of themselves, descriptions of
client attributes, the nature of the counseling process,
and beliefs and attitudes toward counseling services.
However, no mention was made of research describing the
relationship of type of personal problem to client per-
ceptions of the characteristics of the "helping" person.
This relationship is unexplored, on the whole.

For the Characteristics included in the present study,

 

lLyle D. Schmidt and Harold B. Pepinsky, "Counseling
Research in 1963," Journal pf Counseling Psychology, XII,
No. 4 (Winter, 1965), 418-427.

27
research findings are limited to the effect Of these
characteristics ip counseling, but not to the potential
impact of student attitudes prior to counseling or the
counseling process. However, because there is probably
some interrelationship in perceptions during and prior to
counseling, the available research findings on the place
of method, values, and sex of counselor are subsequently
described.
Student Perceptions of Counselor
Characteristics

Research findings about characteristics of counselors
viewed as helpful by students are limited. HOWever, the
existing research on preferences for counselor method,

values, and sex follows.

Methpd gagd bv the Counselor

Grigg and Goodsteinl

in a study of a high school
sample found significant preferences for an active, some-

what directive role for the counselor. Miller2 investigated

 

lAustin E. Grigg and Leonard David Goodstein, "The Use
of Clients as Judges of the Counselor's Performance," The
Journal g; Counseling Psychology, IV, No. 1 (Spring, 1957),
31-36.

 

2Theodore K. Miller, "Characteristics of Perceived

28
characteristics of perceived helpers who were both naive
and untrained. He found that resident hall section ad-
visers who were perceived by others as exemplifying helping
behavior exhibited a high degree of surgency Character-
istically expressed by enthusiasm, happy-go-lucky, Cheerful
and talkative behavior which is frank, expressive, and
quidk and alert in nature. These helping persons also had
Character or super-ego strength expressed as responsibility,
perseverance and conscientiousness. Strong inner emotional
expression also Characteristized this group. The research
related to both trained and untrained "helpers" appears to
be consistent in terms of student preferences for active
participation on the part of the helping person.

Dunlopl found that high school seniors expect
counselors to give lots of good advice. College prepara-
tory students rejected the idea that counselors should
allow students to say what they want in the counseling
interview without the fear of correction or pUnishment.

These students viewed the counselor's task as assisting in

 

Helpers," The Personnel apg Guidance Journal. XLIII, No. 7
(March, 1965), 687-691.

1Richard S. DunlOp, "Professional Educators, Parents
and Students Assess the Counselor's Role," The Personnel
ana Guidange gournal, XLIII, No. 10 (June, 1965), 1024-1028.

29
achieving academic success and saw counselors as capable
in testing and diagnosis.

Sonnel found that high school seniors expect to be
told, led, informed, and questioned, and that this ex-
pectation was transferred from perceptions of other pro-
fessional helpers. These researchers also found that
those students with more authoritarian attitudes have a
greater preference for the eclectic approach than those
lower on authoritarian attitudes. The suggestion is made
that preferences for the eclectic method may be an indi—
cation of a learned standard of counseling.

In McQuary's2 research involving relatively unsophisti-
cated graduate students enrolled in an introductory course
in counseling, seven most preferred characteristics these
students would prefer their own counselor to possess
emerged. Among these were "understanding," "confidential-
ity," "interested in me as a person," and "friendly."

From the evidence Cited, precise understanding of the

nature of the counseling methods valued by both students

 

1Thomas R. Sonne and Leo Goldman, "Preferences of
Authoritarian and Equalitarian Personalities for Client-
Centered and Eclectic Counseling," Journal 9; Counseling
Psychology, IV, No. 2 (Summer, 1957), 134.

2John P. McQuary, "Preferred Counselor Characteris—

tics," Counselor Education and Supervision, III (Spring,
1964), 145-148.

30

and researchers alike is lacking.

Values Held by Counselor

Limited research is available on student percep-
tions of the importance of counselor values in the
counseling process. HOwever, Hollingshead and Redlichl

and Meyers and Schafer2

have demonstrated that similarity
of values held by the counselor and client are important

in counseling effectiveness.

Sex of the Counselor

A considerable body of research related to sex prefer—
ence of counselor exists. Koile and Bird3 studied prefer-
ences of freshmen for persons from whom they would seek

help, and their findings were consistent with other studies

 

lAugust B. Ho11ingshead and Frederick C. Redlich,
"Social Stratification and Psychiatric Disorders,"
American Sociological Review, XVIII, No. 2 (April, 1953),
163-169.

2John K. Meyers and L. Schafer, "Social Stratifica—
tion and Psychiatric Practice: A Study of an Out-Patient
Clinic," American Sociological Review, XIX, No. 4
(October, 1954), 307-313.

3Earl L. Koile and Dorothy J. Bird, "Preferences
for Counselor Help on Freshmen Problems," The Journal
,9: Counseling Psychology, III, NO. 2 (Summer, 1956),
97-106.

31

. . l 2 3 . 4
Including Brown, Brown, Campbell, Harris and Tseng,
HaWkes, Burchinal and Gardner,5 Secord,6 and Tyler,7 sup-
porting the notion that males and females have distinct

sex preference patterns. Koile and Bird,8 found that

although male freshmen preferred a male counselor on far

 

1Daniel G. Brown, "Masculinity-Femininity Development
in Children," Journal g: Consulting Psychology, XXI (1957),
197-202.
2Daniel G. Brown, "Sex Role Preference in YOung
Children," Psychological Mono a hs, LXX, No. 14 (Whole
NO. 421), (1956).

3Elsie Hatt Campbell, "The Social-Sex Development of
Children," Genetig Psychology Mono a hs, XXI, No. 4
(November, 1939), 461-552.

4Dale B. Harris and Sing Chu Tseng, "Children's
Attitudes Toward Peers and Parents as Revealed by Sentence
Completions," Child Development, XXVIII, No. 4 (1957),
401-411.

5Glenn Rogers HaWkes, Lee G. Burchinal, and Bruce
Gardner, "Preadolescents' View of Some of Their Relations
with Their Parents," Child Qavelopment. XXVIII, No. 4
(December, 1957), 387-399.

6Paul F. Secord, "Facial Features and Inference
Processes in Interpersonal Perception," Person Perception
,aag Inteppersonal Behavior. ed., Renato Tagiuri and Lee
Petrullo (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press,
1958).

7Leona Elizabeth Tyler, The Psychology 9; Human
Differences,(New YOrk: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1947).

8Koile and Bird, loc. Cit.

32

more problems than they preferred a woman counselor, and
women freshmen preferred a woman counselor on more problems
than they preferred a man, the proportionate number Of
problems on which women were willing to consult a man was
greater than the proportionate number on which men were
willing to consult a man. In addition, the men expressed
a preference significantly more often than did the women.

Fuller1 investigated university Client and non-client
students' statements regarding sex choice of confidante or
counselor seen as a source of help for a vocational or
personal problem. She found that both males and females
prefer male counselors more than they prefer female
counselors, and that preferences for male counselors are
more stable than preferences for female counselors. Male
non-Clients preferred male counselors and confidantes more
frequently and female counselors and confidantes less
frequently than did females for both vocational and per-
sonal problems. Males expressed some preference more
often when Choosing a counselor for a personal problem
than when choosing a confidante.

Female clients with personal problems preferred male

1Fuller, loc. Cit.

 

33
counselors more frequently than female non—clients.
Clients who preferred female counselors before counsel-
ing were more likely to change preference after counseling
than were clients who had preferred male counselors.

It is appropriate to review studies which relate to
the stereotypes of the sexes in our culture because these
stereotypes may Shed light on the student preferences for
male and female counselors in this study.

Stereotypes of the Sex Role of Males
and Females in our Culture

There appear to exist in our culture certain stereo—
typic perceptions of the male and female in our culture
whichhave a bearing on sex Choice of counselor.

Sherriffs and Jarrettl at the University of California
conducted a study which gives considerable Clarity to sex
preferences in our culture. Responses from one hundred
introductory psychology women students given a forced
choice questionnaire utilizing Sarbin's Personality Word
Cards of two hundred adjectives, showed that three—fourths

of these adjectives were ascribed significantly more to

 

1Alex C. Sherriffs and R. F. Jarrett, "Sex Differ-
ences in Attitudes About Sex Differences," Journal 9:
£§Vchology, XXXV (1953), 161-168.

34
one sex than the other. There were seventeen unfavorable
adjectives which were saturated with unreasonable emotion-
ality both flighty and unpleasant assigned significantly
more often to women by both men and women in contrast to
eight unfavorable adjectives ascribed significantly more
Often to men by both men and women. Twelve additional
unfavorable adjectives which only women ascribed to women
were summed up as "neurotic."

In another study, Sherriffs and McKeel did a quali-
tative examination of the characteristics which men and
women ascribe to themselves. Items in the female stereo-
type showed larger sex differences than items in the male
stereotype, and the degree to which women Chose character-
istics of the stereotype of their own sex was significantly
greater (p.‘< .001) for both favorable and unfavorable
adjectives separately. A significantly greater number of
women were more favorable to males than to females. Women
were found to subscribe to social stereotypes more strongly
than men. When describing themselves as individuals, women

agreed with each other and with the stereotypes. Probably

 

1

Alex C. Sherriffs and John P. McKee, "Qualitative
Aspects of Beliefs About Men and WOmen," Journal 9;
Personality, XXV (1957), 451-464.

35
these are distillations of cultural beliefs described by
Mead.1

McKee and Sherriffs2 reported confirmation of these
findings in a later study, establishing beyond reasonable
doubt that sex stereotypes exist among college students.
Partiality for males, however, implies only a less favorable
Opinion Of females, and not an unfavorable one. These re-
searchers point out that when university subjects are given
a chance, they will deny partiality for either sex, which
may exemplify a veneer of equalitarianism overlying more
firmly established beliefs in middle class values. This
assumption, however, remains untested.

Beier and Ratzeburg3 found that there is a relation
between the idealization of the masculine role and rejec-
tion of mother among male and female college students as
well as low identification with mothers in the case of

women with masculine fathers.

 

1Margaret Mead, loc. Cit.

2John P. McKee and Alex C. Sherriffs, "The Differen-
tial Evaluation Of Males and Females," Journal g;
Personalit , XXV (1957), 356—371.

3Ernst Gunter Beier and Fred Ratzeburg, "The Parental
Identification of Male and Female College Students,"
Journal of Abnormal apg Social Psychology, XLVIII, No. 4
(1953), 569-720.

36
Brown1 found that both boys and girls assign greater
prestige value to the masculine than the feminine role,
and Harris and Tseng2 Hawkes, Burchinal and Gardner3
and Lynn4 indicate that girls express more negative at-
titudes toward their own sex with increasing age.
These studies are rather consistent in describing

the male in our culture as more desirable in terms of

valued personality characteristics than the female.
Summary

Two major groups of research were reviewed. The
first group showed the interrelationship of perceptions
of counselor role to type of problem. It was pointed out
that the role of the counselor, as viewed by students, is
ambiguous. Previous research about the role of the

counselor has been helpful, but on the whole, inconclusive.

 

Brown, 'Sex Role Preference in YOung Children,"

2Harris and Tseng, loc. cit.

3Hawkes, Burchinal, and Gardner, loc. cit.

4D. B. Lynn, "A Note on Sex Differences in the
Development of Masculine and Feminine Identity," Psych-
ological Review, LXVI (1959), 12-36.

37
NO clear-cut perceptions of students about counselors are
given. Client expectations and perceptions, however, are
considered to be influential in the interaction of the
counseling process. When type of problem is related to
student expectations of counselor, some research suggests
that clients with personal problems consider affective
characteristics of counselors more important than cogni-
tive characteristics. Research on the relation of valued
counselor Characteristics and specific personal problems
has not been done. Such research is needed.

The second group of research presented current knowl-
edge about the value of certain of the characteristics
under study in the counseling process. Research on
counselor method, values, and sex was included. On the
whole, an active, directive, expressive counselor appears
to be the expectation of students because this method is
the one to which most students have been exposed.

Similarity of values held by the counselor and client
has been shown to be important in counseling effective—
ness, but client expectations about particular counselor
values has not been investigated.

A considerable body of research does exist, however,

on sex preferences of clients for counselors. Both male

38
and female students generally prefer male counselors for
most problems. It was shown that in our culture, there
appears to exist a more positive male stereotype than
female stereotype in perceptions of college students.
Anticipated preferences for a male counselor by students

of both sexes was therefore explained.

CHAPTER IV

THE DESIGN

The study was designed to assess college students'
image of the ideal counselor. An examination of the effect
of the type of personal problem on view of the counselor
image was also included. The student was provided with an
orientation to ways he might be handling his anger and his
relationship with the opposite sex. An assessment of
student (a) discomfort, (b) hesitation to seek help, and
(c) expectation of benefiting from counselor help for the
two problems was made. This assessment in turn became a
basis for determining Characteristics of the counselor the
student preferred for help with the problems of sex and

anger.

The Sample

The sample consisted of 668 students (including 500
females and 168 males) enrolled for the basic undergraduate
course in educational psychology in the College of Education
at Michigan State University. In the selection of the

39

40
sample, two primary factors were considered: availability

of the pOpulation and representativeness of the pOpulation.

Availability of the population

 

Students enrolled for the basic course in educational
psychology, Fall, 1965, were available for the study. Be~
cause of course mechanics, it was necessary to sample the

entire population.

Representativeness of the population

Both quantitatively and qualitatively, the student
population studied provides a representative sample of
students at Michigan State University.

Quantitatively, the largest percentage (15%) of
students in the total university population at Michigan
State University is students of education.1 Furthermore,
students of education comprise twenty-five percent of the
total United States college pOpulation earning a first

four year bachelor's degree.

 

1Report from the Office g£_the Registrar (East Lan-
sing: Michigan State University, Fall, 1965).

 

 

2

Digest 2£_Education Statistics (Washington, D.C.:
United States Office of Education, U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare, 1965), Table 73, p. 94.

 

41

The representativeness of the sample is also gpalita-
paya, Getzels and Jackson1 report several studies comparing
various professional groups including teachers or persons
preparing to become teachers. They summarize the findings
of these studies by saying that there is little encourage—
ment to researchers seeking to discriminate between teachers
and non—teachers on personality variables as measured by
the MMPI and the EPPS and other tests because of lack of
effective criteria for any instrument. The findings re-
ported suggest that differences in personality traits
between education students and students in law, medicine,
mechanical engineering, and journalism are so small as to
be statistically insignificant. It is yet to be estab-
lished that education student personality variables differ
from students in general. Admittedly, some studies have
shown intellectual differences, but student intelligence is
not relevant to the purpose of this study.

It is recognized that generalizations made in this
study are limited to statements about students at Michigan

State University who are enrolled in thebeginning course

‘

1J. W. Getzels and P. W. Jackson, "The Teacher's

lPersonality and Characteristics," Handbook g: Educational
IResearCh, ed. N. L. Gage (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co.,
1963) , 534-547. '

 

42

in educational psychology.

Descriptioncf the Sample

A description of factual information about the sample

including information about sex, age, class standing,

marital status, religious affiliation, socio-economic

badkground, college major, grade point average, experi-

ence with former counseling, type of counseling, and sex

of former counselor is presented in Table 4.1.

Observing the data described in Table 4.1, it is

noteworthy that

(a)

(b)

(C)

a majority of the males (80%; N = 133) are
"20-24" years of aga. Females, on the other
hand, are somewhat younger. Only fifty-seven
percent are "20-249years of age (N = 280). An
additional forty percent are "15—19" years of
age (N - 199).

approximately half of both the males (50%;

N - 84) and females (52%; N = 259) indicate
their glaaa standing as "juniors."

the majority of the students of both sexes
are unmarried (M = 85%; N = 142 and F = 90%;

43

 

 

 

 

 

 

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49
a majority of the females report that they are
either "liberal Protestant" (50%; N : 243) or
"Roman Catholic" (24%; N = 120). The majority
of the males report similar religious affiliation
(Liberal Protestant, 37%; N = 62 and Roman
Catholic, 19%; N = 31). One—fifth (N = 33) of
the males, however, report having "no religious
affiliation."
students included in the sample report majors
in ten of the eleven colleges of the university.
HOWever, nearly two-fifths of the females (38%;
N : 184) are enrolled in the "College of Educa-
tion" contrasted with approximately one-fourth
of the males (24%; N : 40). The "College of Arts
and Letters" Claims the next largest percentage
of the females (27%; N = 133) and males (20%;
N = 33). Seventeen percent (N = 28) of the
males are enrolled in the "College of Natural
Science," and the same percentage in the "College
of Social Science." Eleven percent (N : 53) of

the females are enrolled in the "College of

HOme Economics."

50

(f) the majority of the students in the sample
report having a grade point average in the "2.01 -
2.49" category. This group includes forty-seven
percent (N - 79) of the males and thirty-eight
percent (N = 186) of the females. Over all,
however, females report having a higher G.P.A.
than males.

(g) the females report coming from more prosperous
homes than the males. Sixty percent (N = 285)
of the females come from homes where the paag
,_§ the household's income is $10,000 or more
contrasted with twenty-two percent (N = 34) of
the males coming from such homes.

(h) the largest percentage Of the sample including
forty-four percent of the males (N = 74) and
thirty-seven percent of the females (N a 182)
report "secondary school" as terminal education

f head 9: houaehold. Females, however, report

 

having parents with higher formal education than
males. Fifteen percent of the females (N = 73)
and one percent of the males (N - 2) report

having parents with "graduate" degrees.

51

(i) the self reporting on counseling indicates a
high previous contact with counselors. A card
sort reveals that only .05%((N = 8) of the
males and..02% (N a 9) of the females have had
no experience whatsoever with either individual,
group, personal-social or educational-vocational
counseling in high school, university, or private
settings.

(j) the majority of the male students who have had
any type of high school counseling have had
,mala counselors (59%; N = 98). For college
counseling, the majority of the males have like-
wise had "male" counselors (68%; N = 114). On
the other hand, the females have had high school
counselors of both sexes about equally (M : 43%;
N = 211). For a college counselor, females
have had more "male" counselors (49%; N = 242)
than "female" counselors (31%; N = 152).

There appears to be sufficient variability within

each category of demographic data to consider the sample
fairly heterogeneous and representative of the average

student of education at Michigan State University.

52
The Instrumentation

Ideas for the questionnaire used in this study came
from four major sources.

1. Jersild's "Personal Issues Inventory."1

2. An Open-ended questionnaire given to the pilot
group of students of educational psychology.

3. Educational psychology instructors and graduate
students in counseling psychology.

4. Pre-testing on forty-seven students (thirty-two
females and fifteen males) enrolled for one
section of the basic educational psychology
course during Spring Term, 1965.

The final instrument was a questionnaire consisting
of seventy-one forced-Choice items. The problem of
response set which is related to all paper and pencil
tests was recognized, but there is no reason to believe
that this instrument has special difficulties in this re-
gard. The purpose of the study was stated at the beginning

of the instrument. In addition, specific directions were

k.

1

Arthur T. Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves
(New YOrk: Bureau of Publications, Teachers' College,
Columbia University, 1955).

53
given at the beginning of each sub-section. A copy of the
final instrument appears in Appendix A. To facilitate
scoring and analysis of the data, IBM 1230 answer sheets

were used.

Design Of the Instrument

The questionnaire was designed with seven sections.
The seven sections and the content they were designed to
test are summarized in Figure 4.1. In Section I, demo-
graphic information about the students was gathered. In
Sections II, III, and IV counselor preferences for the
problem of relationship with the opposite sex was examined.
In Sections V, VI, and VII preferences for counselor for
the problem of anger was studied.

The factual information gathered in Section I of the
questionnaire included sex, age, class, college, marital
status, religious affiliation, parent's income, father's
last education and grade point average. Information about
previous high school, university, or private counseling,
type of counseling, and the sex of the former counselor
were also included because of their relevance to present

student perception Of counselor image.

54

FIGURE 4.1

SUMMARY OF QUESTIONNAIRE CONTENT

 

 

 

 

 

 

SECTION ITEMS CONTENT HYPOTHESES
I 1-15; 70-71 Factual Information
5‘3
'g II 16-22 Orientation to Problem 1
Q.x 23 Discomfort about Problem 1
22:3 24 Hesitation to Seek Help 2
g o 25 Expectation to Benefit 3
.2:3 26 Evaluation of Section II
3 6
H a III 27-33 Rank-Orders of Counselor
:4) 8 Characteristics 4 and 5
5 IV 34-42 Qualifications of Counselor
g Characteristics 6 - 14
E
m
V 43-49 Orientation to Problem 2
50 Discomfort about Problem 1
51 Hesitation to Seek Help 2
H 52 Expectation to Benefit 3
g 53 Evaluation of Section V
VI 54-60 Rank-Orders of Counselor
5 Characteristics 4 and 5
a VII 61-69 Qualifications of Counselor
g Characteristics 6 - l4

 

 

55

The purpose of Sections I and y was to examine in

relation to the problems of sex and anger the students'

(a) discomfort about the particular problem, (b) hesita-
tion in seeking help, (C) expectation of receiving help,

and (d) feelings about answering such personal questions.
From the pretesting, it was determined that the student
needed a "stimulus" or "frame of reference" about the prob-
lems. Therefore, seven questions (Items 16-22) about sex and
seven about anger (Items 43-49) were written to serve as
focusing stimuli for the study. Questions were developed
around several coping behaviors the students might be using
for sexual and hostile impulses. These questions were not
analyzed directly because they did not relate to the
hypotheses of the study but served only as an orientation
to the two personal problems. For each of the items, the
students were directed to substitute either Always, Usually,

Rarely, or Never where the asterisk appeared in the sentence.

The items for the problem Of sex read:

16. "I am * attracted to a member of the opposite
sex who is unattainable or not interested in
me."

17. "If I were to have impulses and fantasies about

the opposite sex, I would * feel guilty.

18. "I * blame myself for not having more social
experiences with members of the opposite sex."

19.

20.

21.

22.

56

"I * feel cheated because I have not had more
opportunities for social experiences with the
opposite sex."

"As far as my social relationships with the
opposite sex are concerned, I * feel inadequate.

"I * find myself easily attracted to members
of the Opposite sex."

"If I see a member of the opposite sex to whom
I am attracted, I * find it difficult to think
of anything else for a long while."

The items for the problem of anger read:

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

"I * lose my temper."

"If I were to be pushed around or imposed upon
by others, I would * feel resentful."

"If I were mistreated by another person, I
would * feel free to complain."

"If my relationships with others were unsatis-
factory, I would * feel angry with myself."

"I * remain angry after the occasion which has
made my angry has passed."

"After I have been angry, I * find myself
angry with innocent bystanders."

"When another person has hurt me, I * feel
depressed."

On the same four response scale, the students were

sUbsequently asked to indicate the degree of discomfort

they had about their sexual or hostile feelings (Items 23

and 50).

The amount of hesitation they would have in

(v1

57
talking over their feelings of discomfort with a counselor
was asked for in Items 24 and 51. Items 25 and 52 were
included to ascertain the degree to which the students felt
they Could benefit from seeking help for their sexual and
hostile feelings. To determine student feelings about
answering such personal questions, Items 26 and 53 were
included to assess the ease, interest, difficulty, or

distfirbance they felt.

 

Rank order preferences for seven characteristics of
a counselor to help with the two problems were asked for
in Section III and VI. These Characteristics are as
follows:
(1) Sex of the counselor
(2) Age of the counselor
(3) Education Of the counselor
(4) Experience of the counselor
(5) Values held by the counselor
(6) Method used by the counselor
(7) Prior acquaintance with the counselor
Sections IV and VII were designed to determine spe—
cific descriptive qualifications students would prefer for
each of the counselor characteristics for help with the

two problems. In addition to specific Options for each of

58
the Characteristics, a "no preference" Option was
included.

When stating descriptive qualifications for the gap of
the counselor, the respondees were asked to select the
alternatives of a "male" or "female" counselor.

To assess the student's preference for aga of
counselor, it was decided to include categories Of a
ten-year age span beginning with age "20," "30," "40,"
and "50."

The students were then asked whether they preferred
a_professional or a nongprofessional person. When a
professional person was preferred, the student was asked
if he would choose a person with a "M.A. in Counseling,"

a "Ph.D. in Counseling Psychology," a "Ph.D. in Clinical
Psychology," or a "M.D." to help him. When selecting a
non-professional counselor, the categories of "confidante,"
"teacher," and "minister" were selected as choices.

In order to ascertain the amount of experience the

 

student would want their selected counselor to have, the
categories of little experience: "two years" was pre-
sented as an option along with that of more experience:
"two to five years," and substantial experience: "more

than five years."

59
It was not undertaken to determine the type of values
'the student would prefer in a counselor to help with
personal problems. Rather the student was asked to state
preferences for a counselor with the "same” or "different"
values from his.

Because it would have been difficult to clearly define
and delineate all possible counselor techniques preferred
by students, the study was limited to two methods: ”re-
flecting" and "interpreting" to determine student prefer-
ences for the ways they would like the selected counselor
to relate to them. The methods were selected to provide
two clearly Opposite points of view representative of tech-
niques currently used by counselors.

The last characteristic studied was acquaintance with
the counselor. The students were asked to state whether
they preferred "to know" or "not to know" the counselor

Chosen to help them with personal prOblems.

Reliability of the Instrument
A measure of internal consistency for the opinion-
naire used as the instrument in this study was not possible

because of the nature of the items. However, it was

possible to ascertain the stability of the instrument by

60
a test-retest interpretation of reliability. The original
sample was not available for retesting; so the question-
naire was administered under the Same conditions to another
random sample of eighty students of the same educational
psychology course, Spring Term, 1966. The first adminis-
tration of the questionnaire was held on May 5, and the
second administration approximately one month later on May
31. There is no reason to believe that the nature of the
students comprising the test-retest sample Changed from
Fall to Spring term.

The nonparametric Coefficient of Contingency (C) was
used for the most part as the correlation statistic in the
analysis of the data. The statistic C is a uniquely useful
measure for determining the extent of association between
two sets of responses of categorical information. The
limitations of C, reviewed by Siegel,1 were recognized.

TO compute the value of C, it was necessary to use
the chi square statistic which itself provides a simple
and adequate indication of the significance of C. The
rejection of the null hypothesis of independence was set

at the .05 level. Where chi square was significant, it

 

1Stanley Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics (New York:
MCGraw'Hill, 1956), 195-202.

61
was concluded that the association between the two sets
of responses to questionnaire items differed significantly
from zero. Of the forty items in the questionnaire analyzed
by the statistic C, thirty-six were significant at the .001
level, three were significant at the .01 level, and one
at the .05 level.

In Table 4.2, the chi square values with appropriate
degrees of freedom, the Coefficient of Contingency, and the
level of significance for each item is presented.

The fourteen items asking for preferences of coun-
selor Characteristics were excluded in the former analysis
because of the restrictions of rank ordering in the com-
putation of the chi square statistic. However, an
analysis using weighted means of the various rank orders
was done. Stability in rank-order assignment in test—
retest responses is Observed in five of the seven ranks
for items related to each of the two problems. This
analysis is presented in Table 4.3.

The seventeen items pertaining to the demographic
data were excluded in the reliability analysis.

For the most part, items of the instrument had
sufficiently high test—retest reliability to be judged

adequate for use.

62

 

 

 

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64

Collection of the Data

Each of the twelve instructors who assisted in the
administration of the instrument were given an orientation
to the nature of the questionnaire. In addition, a writ-
ten statement of instructions to read to the respondents
was provided (see Appendix B).

The questionnaire took approximately a half hour to
administer, and was given during the first part of the
recitation section in all cases. No attempt was made to

contact those who were absent.

Hypotheses

Fourteen hypotheses were tested in this study. Each
hypothesis contained a statement about both of the personal
problems selected for examination. The first six were
theory based and therefore had alternate directional state-
ments. The other eight were non-theory based null
hypotheses.

Null Hypothesis 1: No differences will be found in

admission of discomfort about (a) relationship
with the opposite sex and (b) anger between

male and female students of education.

65

Alternate Hypothesis 1: Female education students

Null

will admit to more discomfort about (a) relation—
ship with the opposite sex and (b) anger than
male education students.

Hypothesis 2: No differences will be found in
admission of hesitation in seeking help on prob-
lems of (a) relationship with the opposite sex
and (b) anger between male and female students

of education.

Alternate Hypothesis 2: Male education students will

Null

admit to more hesitation in seeking help for
problems of (a) relationship with the opposite
sex and (b) anger than female education students.
Hypothesis 3: No differences will be found in
admission of expectation to benefit from seeking
help for feelings of discomfort for problems of
(a) relationship with the Opposite sex and (b)
anger between male and female students of

education.

Alternate Hypothesis 3: Female education students

more often than male education students will
admit to expecting to benefit from seeking help

for feelings of discomfort about problems of

66
(a) relationship with the opposite sex and
(b) anger.

Null Hypothesis 4: Cross-sex rank order preferences
for characteristics gf_counselor chosen by male
and female students for help with problems of
(a) relationship with the Opposite sex and (b)
anger are unrelated.

Alternate Hypothesis 4: Cross-sex rank order prefer-
ences for characteristics of counselor chosen by
male and female students for help with problems
of (a) relationship with the opposite sex and
(b) anger are related.

Null Hypothesis 5: Within-sex rank order preferences
for characteristics of counselor chosen by male
and female students for help with problems of
(a) relationship with the opposite sex and (b)
anger are unrelated.

Alternate Hypothesis 5: Within-sex rank order prefer-
ences for characteristics g£_counselor chosen
by male and female students for help with.problems
of (a) relationship with the opposite sex and

(b) anger are related.

Null

67
Hypothesis 6: No differences will be found
between male and female education student
preferences for counselor §§§_to help with prob—
lems of (a) relationship with the opposite sex

and (b) anger.

Alternate Hypothesis 6: Male education students will

Null

Null

Null

prefer ggm§_§§x_counselor more often than female
education students for counselor to help with
problems of (a) relationship with the opposite
sex and (b) anger.

Hypothesis 7: No differences will be found
between male and female student preferences for
.age of counselor to help with problems of (a)
relationship with the opposite sex and (b) anger.
Hypothesis 8: No differences will be found
between male and female student preferences for
education of counselor to help with problems of
(a) relationship with the opposite sex and (b)
anger.

Hypothesis 9: No differences will be found
between male and female student preferences for
type _£ professional education of counselor chosen

to help with problems of (a) relationship with

Null

Null

Null

Null

Null

68
the opposite sex and (b) anger.
Hypothesis 10: No differences will be found
between male and female student preferences for
‘type of non—professional counselor to help with
problems of (a) relationship with the opposite
sex and (b) anger.
Hypothesis 11: No differences will be found
between male and female student preferences for
years of experience of counselor chosen to help
with problems of (a) relationship with the
opposite sex and (b) anger.
Hypothesis 12: No differences will be found
between male and female student preferences for
values of counselor to help with problems of
(a) relationship with the opposite sex and
(b) anger.
Hypothesis 13: No differences will be found
between male and female student preferences for
type of method used by counselor chosen to help
with problems of (a) relationship with the
opposite sex and (b) anger.
Hypothesis 14: No differences will be found

between male and female student preferences for

69
acquaintance with counselor to help with prob-
lems of (a) relationship with the opposite sex

and (b) anger.
Statistical Treatment

The responses of 500 females and 168 males to the
questionnaire were analyzed by the Control Data 3600
Computer. A simple item response analysis, which in—
cluded the frequency and percentage of responses for each
item, was computed for the demographic data. Data cards
were inadvertently not punched for six females and one
male in the sample for this analysis, but these respondees
were included in the analyses of other items used to test
the hypotheses.

The chi square statistic, using the approximate
2 x 3, 2 x 4, or 2 x 5 contingency tables, was calculated
for questionnaire Items 16-26 and 42—53 which were included
to test hypotheses about student (a) discomfort, (b) hesi-
tation to seek help and (c) expectation of benefiting
from help for the problems of sex and anger respectively.
Likewise the chi square statistic was calculated for
Items 34—42 (related to the problem of sex) and 60-69

(related to the problem of anger) testing hypotheses about

7O
differences in student preferences for the selected quali-
fications of the seven counselor characteristics. When
expected frequencies in any of the response categories were
less than five, the data in that cell were combined with
the adjacent cell before computations were made. Because
of the exploratory nature of the study, the rejection of
all hypotheses was set at the .05 level except for the ones
referring to the rank-order preferences for the counselor
characteristics.

To test the hypotheses about the degree of relation
existing between and among the sets of rankings of coun-
selor characteristics made by male and female students for
the two problems, Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance (W)
was computed. Siegell states that W, reported as a value
from 0 to +1 is an "index of divergence of actual agreement
shown in the data from the maximum possible (perfect) agree-
ment." W expresses the degree of association among the sets
of rankings and is considered particularly useful in deter-
mining the interjudge reliability.

For these analyses, responses to questionnaire Items

27-33 for the prOblem of sex and Items 54—60 for the

 

1Siegel, gp,ci ,, p. 230.

“I.

71
problem of anger were used. In order to properly interpret
W for the cross-sex analysis of preferences, it was neces-
sary to use approximately equal numbers of male and female
respondees. Therefore, from the total sample, a group of
100 females (20%) and 101 males (60%) were randomly
selected for this analysis.

In order to get an estimate of the actual within—sex
rank order preferences for the characteristics for each of
the two problems, it was necessary to order the sums of
the rankings used in the computation of the W statistic.l
Even though the study does not include hypotheses stating
the expected specific ordering of the seven characteristics,
it was of interest to compare student preferences for these
characteristics. The criterion of a significant W, required
in order to state a high likelihood that the judges are
applying essentially the same standard in the rankings, was
noted. Siegel2 states that a significant W does not neces—
sarily mean, however, that the order agreed upon is correct
or objective, but often the pooled ordering of ranks serves

as a "standard" especially when there is no relevant external

‘__

1M. G. Kendall, Rank Correlation Methods (London:
Griffin, 1948), p. 87.

2Siegel, loc. cit.

 

 

72
criterion. It was therefore decided that statements about
counselor characteristics valued both most and least by
students when choosing a counselor to help with their prob-
lems of sex and anger could be made if a significant W were
Observed.
1

Because Friedman states that statistical findings
using W when the number of judges'> nine, should be inter-
preted at the .01 level, this level was selected for the
rejection of the hypotheses about student rank-order prefer-
ences for counselor characteristics. To interpret the
significance of W, a special X2 formula suggested by Hays
was employed. Furthermore, the table presented in Friedman

for interpreting the significance of the obtained chi square

for the W statistic was used.

Summary

Six hundred sixty-eight students enrolled for the

laasic educational psychology course at Michigan State

g

1Milton Friedman, "A Comparison of Alternative Tests
<>f Significance for Problems of m Rankings," The Annals 2;
Mathematical Statistics, ed. S. S. Wilks (Baltimore:
Vflaverly Press, 1940), Table II, p. 89.

2William Hays, Statistics for Psychologists (New York:

Ik31t. Rinehart and Winston, 1962), p. 658.

 

3Friedman, 10c. cit.

73

University were selected as respondents in the present
study. The questionnaire was designed, pretested, and re-
vised over a period of one and a half years for use in the
study. The final questionnaire had a format which included
seven sections with seventy—one items. Section I was de-
signed to obtain factual information about the students.
Sections II and V were designed to (a) orient the respondents
to possible coping behaviors for sexual and hostile impulses,
(b) assess their discomfort about these behaviors, (c) as-
certain their hesitation to seek help and expectation of
receiving help, and (d) note their reactions to answering
such personal questions. Sections III and VI were identi-
cally structured to determine the rank order preferences
of the students for a group of seven counselor character-
istics they would choose in a counselor to help in the
above two problem areas. Sections IV and VII were likewise
ixientically structured to determine the specific qualifi-
cations for each of the characteristics the respondents
\WDUId prefer in a counselor.

Test-retest reliability Coefficients of Contingency
'werezpresented for each of the items related to the hypo-
theses in the study. For the most part, the instrument was

Ifinnad.to be reliable on the basis of chi square tests of

74
significance for the statistic C at the .001 level for the
categorical items and observation of the weighted means
for the rank-order items.

The data were collected by administration of the ques—
tionnaire to both morning and afternoon sections of the
course in educational psychology by the instructors during
Fall Term, 1965.

Six major theory-based null and alternate hypotheses
were stated for each of the two personal problems along
with eight non-theory based null hypotheses.

An item analysis of frequency and percentage of re-
sponse was made for the questionnaire. A chi square
analysis was made of items in Sections II and V testing
hypotheses about similarity or difference in responses
Inade by male and female students about (a) discomfort, (b)
hesitation to seek help, and (c) expectation of receiving
help from a counselor for the two problems. Likewise a
Chi square analysis was made on items in Sections IV and
VII of the questionnaire testing hypotheses about student
<itEferences in specific qualifications for the seven
(xnnnselor characteristics examined in the study. Rejection

Of these hypotheses was set at the .05 level.

75
Kendall's Coefficient of Concorance (W) was computed

to test the hypotheses analyzing differences in the cross-
sex and within-sex rank order preferences for the examined
counselor characteristics included in Sections III and VI.
Likewise, in order to make ancillary comparative statements
about the characteristics both most and least valued by the
students of each sex for each problem, Kendall's method of
ordering the sums of the ranks obtained in computing W

was used. Rejection Of these hypotheses was set at the

.01 level.

CHAPTER V

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

Analysis of the data is presented in three major sec-
tions corresponding to those of the questionnaire used in
the study. First, differences are analyzed between male
and female education student (a) admission of discomfort,
(b) hesitation to seek help, and (c) expectation of bene—
fiting from help for the two personal problems of relation-
ship with the Opposite sex and anger. Second, the rank-
order preferences of characteristics of counselors to help
with personal problems are described. The seven character-
istics, such as age, education, and sex are grossly
compared across preferences. In the third section, the
qualities within each characteristic, such as age, level,
amount of education, and which sex are analyzed and com-
};ared for the two problems by sex preferences.

Student Discomfort, Hesitation to Seek
Help, and Expectation of Benefiting From

Counselor Help for Problems of Sex and
Anger

For each of the two problems, hypotheses about student
76

77
statements of (a) discomfort about coping behaviors, (b)
hesitation to seek counselor help and (c) expectation to
benefit from counselor help were analyzed to ascertain
differences between male and female students. (Question-
naire items used to test the above mentioned hypotheses are
subsequently presented. For each item, the respondees were
directed to substitute either Never. Rarely, Usually, or
Always where the asterisk appeared in the item. A chi
square analysis of sex differences for each problem was
made for each of the items. When cell responses were less
than five, the responses in that cell were combined with
appropriate adjacent cells prior to making the contingency
tables. A statement of the three statistical hypotheses
and corresponding findings from questionnaire data about
basic problems follows. Furthermore, a comparison of the

two problems is made for each of the hypotheses.

,fldmission of Discomfort about Personal Problems

(Hypothesis I)

Student discomfort about (a) problems of relationship
vwith the Opposite sex and (b) anger were contrasted to
Eiscertain differences between male and female student
Inesponses to questionnaire Items 24 and 51 respectively.

The hypothesis designed to test student discomfort

78'
about the two potential problems was:

1. Null Hypothesis: No differences will be
found in admission of discomfort about
(a) relationship with the opposite sex
and (b) anger between male and female
students of education.

 

Seven questions (Items l6-22 for the problem of sex
and Items 43-49 for the problem Of anger) previously
described in Chapter IV, pp. 55-56, were presented to
provide the students with a frame of reference about their
ways of relating with the opposite sex and controlling
hostile impulses. Thereafter, the students were asked to
answer Items 23 and 50, for the two problems respectively,
testing Hypothesis One.

Questionnaire Items 23 and 50 are stated:

"I * feel discomfort because of one or
more Of the above statements."

* 1. Always

* 2. Usually

* 3. Rarely

* 4. Never

Relationship with the Opposite Sex. The analysis of
Item 23 is presented in Table l in Appendix C. The chi
Square value determined by using a 2 x 3 contingency table

VWith two degrees of freedom was .14. Since X2 : 5.99,

.05 (2)

true null hypothesis was accepted and the alternate rejected.

79

Inspection of the frequencies subsequent to the
analysis showed disproportionality in the column not the
theorized row responses and a quasi—normal distribution.
A.minority of both males and females (15%) indicated that
they always or usually feel discomfort about problems of
relationship with the Opposite sex. The majority of both
males (55%) and females (56%) indicated rarely feeling
discomfort, while thirty percent of the males and twenty-
nine percent of the females indicated ggygr feeling dis-
comfort.

Theoretical expectations were that female students
would be more willing to admit to feelings of discomfort
than males due to culturally sanctioned sex—role behavior,
but this expectation was not supported by the data.

[Agg§_. Findings from the analysis of Item 50 are
presented in Table 2, Appendix C, for the problem of anger.
In order to reject the null hypothesis that no differences
exist between male and female student statements Of dis—
comfort about anger at the .05 level, X2 = 7.82,for three
degrees of freedom was required. Analysis of the data,
however, using a 2 x 4 contingency table, revealed a chi
Square value of 6.10. The null hypothesis was accepted and

the alternate rejected at the .05 level.

80

subsequent to the computation of the chi square, the
frequencies in the data were observed and disproportionality
in the columns was noted. Row differences were observable
but not significant. For both males and females a quasi-
normal distribution tithe responses was observed. The
majority of both the males (71%) and females (77%) made
responses in the usually or rarely categories. When extreme
cells were observed, males (26%) more than females (18%)
made responses in the nggr cell. substantially fewer of
both the males (3%) and females (5%) reported always having
discomfort about problems of anger.

Inspectional Cbmparison of the Two Problems. More
than twice as many male and female students admitted to
always or usually having discomfort about handling impulses
of anger (F = 39% and M : 35%) than about ways of relating
to the opposite sex (F and M : 15%). Conversely, both
males and females (85%) admitted to rarely or ngygr having
discomfort about sex problems contrasted with problems of
anger (F - 6L% and M = 65%).
figggtation to Seek Help for Personal Problems
(Hypothesi§:;L

Admission of hesitation to seek help for (a) problems

of relationship with the Opposite sex and (b) anger was

81
contrasted to ascertain differences between male and female
student responses to questionnaire Items 24 and 51, re-
spectively.
The hypothesis designed to test student feelings of
hesitation in seeking counselor help was:

2. Null Hypothesis: NO differences will be
found in admission of hesitation in
seeking help on problems of (a) re—
lationship with the Opposite sex and
(b) anger between male and female
students of education.

QueStionnaire Items 24 and 51 for the problems of sex
and anger respectively, testing Hypothesis two are:

"If I had feelings of discomfort..., I

would * hesitate to talk with a counselor
about these feelings."

* 1. Always

* 2. Usually

* 3. Rarely
* 4. Never

Relationship with the Onposite_§gx. .Analysis of the
responses to Item 24 using a.2 x 4 contingency table with
‘thmee degrees of freedom indicated that there were sig-
Ilificant differences between male and female student re—
sponses to the Item 24 at the .05 level of significance or

lxayond for X2 05 (3) = 7.82. In Table 1, Appendix C,

tflie analysis is presented.

82

Because the observed chi square value was 20.08, null
hypothesis two was rejected at the .05 level of signifi-
cance or beyond. Subsequent to the calculation of the chi
square value, question was raiSed about the acceptance of
the alternate hypothesis that males more than females
would hesitate to seek help for the problem of sex. It
was noted that the two distributions were different. The
female distribution was quasi—normal and the male distri-
bution was rectalinear. Males more than females were both
more and less hesitant to seek help. Inspection of the
extreme cells revealed that more males (15%) than females
(8%) made responses placed in the Egye; cell. Likewise
more males (23%) than females (16%) made responses placed
in the always cell. Large differences were observed between
male and female responses in the usually category (M = 35%;
F = 55%). For the purposes of future research, a mid-
point Split was made on Item 24 and responses were com-
'bined. It was observed that more males (42%) than females

(29%) stated that they would rarely or never hesitate to

 

aseek help, and more females (71%) than males (59%) indicated

tihey would always or usually hesitate to seek help. The

Eilternate hypothesis was therefore also rejected.

83

Agg§_. Responses to Item 51 were analyzed using a
2 x 4 contingency table with three degrees of freedom test-
ing Hypothesis two for the problem of anger. Significant
differences between male and female hesitation to seek
help for this problem were found at the .05 level for three
degrees of freedom (X2 : 7.82). The analysis is presented
in Table 2, Appendix C. The null hypothesis two was re—
jected at the .05 level since the observed chi square
value was 10.65.

Again questions were raised about the acceptance of
the alternate hypothesis when the frequencies were observed.
Both the male and female distributions were quasi-normal,
but the female distribution was more peaked than the male
for responses in the rarely cell (F : 46%; M = 36%). In
addition responses in the ngyeg cell were greater for males
(25%) than females (16%). Responses of always placed in
the other extreme cell were similar (M = 8%; F = 6%).

Pfluen a mid—point split was made and response categories
<x>mbined, both males (61%) and females (62%) made more re-
exponses placed in the rarely and neye; cells than responses
in the always and usually cells (M : 39%; F : 38%). The
antithesis of the alternate hypothesis was found. Sig-

nificant differences between the sexes was accounted for be-

84
cause males more than females admitted to ngygr hesitating
to seek help while females more than males admitted to
rarely hesitating to seek help for problems of anger. Both
sexes admitted more often, however, to not being hesitant.
The alternate hypothesis was therefore rejeCted.

Iggpectional Comparison of the Two Problems, Comparing
responses in the extreme cells in the analysis of the two
items, it was observed that a 3:1 ratio existed favoring the
problem of sex (M = 23%; F = 16%) over the problem of anger
(M = 8%; F = 6%) for responses placed in the always cell.
COrrespondingly, both males and females were more definite
in choosing the responses of ggygg hesitating to seek help for
the problem of anger contrasted with the problem of sex.
Twice as many females admitted to neye; hesitating to seek
help for the problem of anger (16%) than for the problem of
sex (8%). More males (25%) also stated they would neye;
hesitate to seek help for the problem of anger than for
the problem of sex (15%).

When combining categories, almost twice as many females
stated they would always and usually hesitate to seek help
for problems Of sex (71%) compared with.problems of anger
(38%). .Males also indicated greater hesitancy in seeking

ihelp for the problem of relationship with the Opposite

85
sex (58%) than for anger (39%).

When response categories raggly and geyer'hesitating
to seek help were combined, more males (42%) than females
(29%) indicated little or no hesitation in seeking help
for the problem of sex contrasted with about equal numbers
of males (61%) and females (62%) expressing little or
no hesitation in seeking help for the problem of anger.
Student admission of seeking help for problems of anger
is apparently not as difficult for either sex as admis-
sion Of seeking help for problems of relating to the
Opposite sex.

Expectation to Benefit from Help on Personal Problems
(Hypothesis 3)

The hypothesis designed to test sex differences in
expectation to benefit from help for the personal problems
of (a) relationship with the opposite sex and (b) anger
was:

3. Null Hypothesis: No differences will
be found in admission of expectation
to benefit from seeking help for
feelings of discomfort about (a)
problems of relationship with the
opposite sex and (b) anger between
male and female students of education.

Questionnaire Items 25 and 52, for the problems of

sex and anger respectively, were designed to test this

86
hypothesis. These items were stated:

"If I had feelings of discomfort about...,
I feel I could * benefit from seeking
help for this discomfort."

* l. Definitely

* 2. Probably

* 3. Slightly

* 4. Never

Analysis of the data for each of the problems follows.

Relationship with the Opposite Sex. Statistical analy-
sis of the data from Item 25 using a 2 x 4 contingency table
with three degrees of freedom, presented in Table l, Ap-
pendix C, showed that there were significant differences
between male and female responses to this item at the .05
level of significance or beyond for X2005 (3) : 7.82. The
observed chi square was 15.14. Therefore, null hypothesis
three was rejected at the .05 level of significance and the
alternate hypothesis accepted that female students would
expect to benefit from seeking help for the problems Of
relatiOnship with the opposite sex more than male students.

Observation of the frequencies subsequent to the
analysis showed both row and column differences in male
and female responses. The female distribution was quasi-
normal, but skewed. The male distribution was quasi-

normal. Female (60%) more than male (49%) responses were

87
placed in the probably cell and male responses (33%) more
than female responses (23%) were placed in the slightly
cell. In the extreme cell of neyg; responses, there were
more males (7%) than females (2%). When a mid-point split
was made in the responses, females (75%) more than males
(60%) admitted to definitely or probably expecting to
receive benefit. On the other hand, males (40%) more
than females (25%) admitted to slightly or ngygg expecting
to receive benefit from counselor help for the problem
of sex.

‘AQgg_. In Table 2, Appendix C, the statistical
analysis of Item 52 using a 2 x 3 contingency table shows
a chi square value of 4.77. No significant differences
between male and female responses of expectation to bene-

fit from counselor help were observed for X2 : 5.99.

.05 (2)
The null hypothesis was accepted at the .05 level of sig-
nificance and the alternate hypothesis rejected. Theoret-
ical expectations were not supported in the data.
Subsequent to the analysis, inspection of the com-
bined frequencies showed quasi-normal distributions for
both males and females. Column but not the theorized row

disproportionality was noted. Eighty-three percent of the

female and seventy—eight percent of the male responses

88
were placed in the probably and definitely cells while
seventeen percent of the female and twenty-two percent

of the male responses were placed in the slightly and

 

ppygp cells.

Inspectional Comparison of the Two Problems. When
definitely and probably response categories were combined,
both females and males indicated expectation of benefiting
from counselor help more for problems of anger (F = 83%
and M a 78%) than for problems of sex (F = 75% and M =
60%). Expectation of receiving benefit was relatively
high among both sexes for both problems. HOwever, forty
percent of the males expected to slightly or pgygp'benefit
from help for problems of sex contrasted with twenty-two
percent for the problem of anger.

Comparative Rank-Order Preferences for
Counselor Characteristics for Problems
of Sex and Anger

Two hypotheses were designed to compare rank-order
preferences for counselor characteristcs made by students
for problems of (a) relationship with the opposite sex and
(b) anger. One hypothesis tested cross-sex differences

and the other within-sex differences.

89

Cross-Sex Rank Order Preferences (Hypothesis 4)

The hypothesis designed to test sex differences in
rank-order preferences for counselor characteristics for
the problems of sex and anger was:

4. Null Hypothesis: Cross-sex rank order
preferences for characteristics pf
counselors to help with problems of
(a) relationship with the Opposite
sex and (b) anger are unrelated.

Seven counselor characteristics were chosen for
examination. In Figure 5.1, the characteristics are

described along with corresponding questionnaire items

used to compare the two problems.

FIGURE 5.1

 

COUNSELOR CHARACTERISTIC ITEMS

 

CHARACTERISTIC PROBLEM OF SEX PROBLEM OF ANGER

Item No. Item No.
Sex 27 54
Age 28 55
Education 29 56
Experience 30 57
Values 31 58
Method 32 59
Acquaintance 33 60

 

The students were directed to determine their rank

order preferences for these characteristics in choosing

90
a counselor to help them for each of the problems.

For the analysis, a random sample of 100 females (20%)
and 101 males (60%) from the original sample was taken in
order to make a more meaningful interpretation of the index
of divergence of actual agreement between the sexes from the
maximum possible (perfect) agreement. Kendall'sl W statis—
tic, a measure of divergence from perfect agreement in rank
orders, was thereafter calculated. The significance of W

2 and inter—

was tested by the X2 formula suggested by Hays,
pretation of the obtained chi square value was made by
using the appropriate table presented in Friedman.3

Findings related to the degree of variance between
male and female student rankings of the seven character-
istics previously listed are presented in Table 5.1 for
each of the two problems.

For counselor to help with problems of relationship
with the Opposite sex, the cross-sex index of divergence
(W) in rank order preferences for the counselor character-

istics was .29, p < .01. For the problem of anger, W was

.31, p. < .01.

 

lKendall, loc. cit. Hays, loc. cit.

 

 

3Friedman, loc. cit.

91

Table 5.1

DEGREE OF VARIANCE IN CROSS-SEX RANK ORDER PREFERENCES
FOR THE SEVEN COUNSELOR CHARACTERISTICS FOR THE TWO
PERSONAL PROBLEMS

 

2

 

PROBLEM N w x p
Sex M = 101; F = 100 .29 349.74 **
Anger M 2 101; F a 100 .31 361.86 **

 

** = p .01.

 

Because the chi square values computed from Hay's
formula was 349.74 for the problem of sex and 361.86 for

the prOblem of anger, exceeding X2 = 16.81, the

.01 (6)
null hypothesis that the cross-sex rankings are unrelated
was rejected at the .01 level of significance for both
problems. The alternate hypothesis that the cross-sex
rankings are related was accepted. It was concluded that
there was more agreement between the male and female stu-

dents than would be expected by chance. This finding was

contrary to theoretical expectations.

Within-Sex Rank Order Preferences (Hypothesis 5)_

The hypothesis designed to test differences within-

 

1Hays, 10c. cit.

 

92
each sex in rank-order preferences for counselor character-
istics for the problems of sex and anger was:

5. Null Hypothesis: Within-sex rank order
preferences for characteristics 2:
counselors to help with problems of
(a) relationship with the opposite
sex and (b) anger are unrelated.

 

Data from questionnaire Items 27-33 for the problem
of sex and 54-60 for the problem of anger for the seven
counselor characteristics previously described in Figure
5.1 were used to test the hypothesis. The W statistic was
computed for the total original sample of both males and
females. Findings related to the degree of variance among
males and among females for each of the problems is pre—

sented in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2

DEGREE OF VARIANCE WITHIN-SEX RANK ORDER PREFERENCES
FOR THE SEVEN COUNSELOR CHARACTERISTICS FOR THE TWO
,PERSONAL PROBLEMS

 

 

 

PROBLEM STUDENT SEX f w x2 p
Sex Male 167 .16 160.32 **
Female 494 .20 592.80 **

Anger Male 167 .27 270.54 **
Female 494 .20 592.80 **

.**

= p < .01.

93

Because the Obtained chi square value for males for
the problem of sex was 160.32 and 270.54 for the problem of
anger, and the Obtained chi square value for females was
592.80 for both problems, the null hypothesis that the
within-sex rankings are unrelated was rejected at the .01
level of significance for both problems for X2.01 (6) = 16.81.
The alternate hypothesis that the within-sex rankings are
related was accepted as theoretically anticipated. Agree-
ment on the rank ordering of the seven counselor character-
istics was considerably higher than it would be by chance.

Because a significant W was observed for each within-
sex analysis, it was decided that there was considerable
likelihood that the students of each sex were applying
essentially the same standard in ranking the characteris-
tics, though the ordering may not necessarily be correct or
objective. The significant W was used as a "standard" in
lieu of a relevant external criterion.

An hypothesis was not made pertaining to the specific
ordering of the seven characteristics under study. However,
it was decided to report the actual within-sex rank-ordering
of the characteristics preferred by students of both sexes

and to contrast these preferences by problem.

 

Siegel, loc. cit.

 

94

In order to estimate the "true" rankings of the
characteristics, Kendall'sl method of ordering the various
sums of ranks used in computing W was chosen. The various
sums of the ranks were ordered from smallest to greatest
to obtain the best estimate of the "true" rankings of the
characteristics by both males and females for each of the
problems. In Table 5.3 these rank order preferences are
presented.

If the sums of the ranks of the various character-
istics had been very different, then perfect agreement in
the rank orders could be assumed. Because the reported
sums of ranks are not equal and are relatively different,
then some agreement exists in the rankings made by the
students of each sex, though the agreement is not perfect.
The agreement was considerably higher than it would have
been by chance. Therefore, a report of general directional
trends in the rank-orders was made with assurance.

Observation of the within-sex rank order preferences
for the characteristics showed that females ranked coun-
selor values highest when choosing a counselor to help
with both problems,and experience second. On the other

hand, males ranked counselor experience first, and values

 

lKendall, loc. cit.

95

 

 

 

 

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96
second for both problems. Counselor method, education,
and acquaintance were assigned middle ranks in that order
by both males and females for both problems. HOwever,
males inverted counselor acquaintance and education for
help with the problem of sex. Counselor ggg and §§§_were
ranked in the two lowest positions by both males and
females for both problems. Age of the counselor was least
important for both males and females for the problem of
sex, while sex of counselor was least important for both
male and female students for the problem of anger.

There is no more than a one place shift in the rank
order preferences made by either male or female students
for either problem.

Because a gross comparison of rank orders was not
considered sufficient for understanding student preferences
for the seven counselor characteristics, a chi square
analysis Of male and female differences for within-
characteristic qualifications for each of the character-
istics was included in the study. A presentation of the

findings of these analyses follows.

97

Specific Within-Characteristic Qualifications
for Counselor Comparing Both Problems

A group of nine null hypotheses about student prefer-
ences for qualifications of the counselor characteristics
was made for the two problems. Statements of these hypo-
theses, the items used to gather the data and the relevant
findings follow. In Tables 3 and 4, Appendix C, the sta-
tistical findings are presented for the problems of sex

and anger, respectively.

Counselor Sex (Hypothesis 6L

The hypothesis designed to test counselor sex prefer-
ences of students when seeking help for the two personal
problems was:

6. Null hypothesis: No differences will be
found between male and female student
preferences for same sex counselor to
help with problems of (a) relation-
ship with the opposite sex and (b)
anger.

Items 34 and 61 used to test this hypothesis for the
two problems were:

"When considering the §§x_of the counselor,
I would

1. prefer a male counselor.

2. prefer a female counselor.

3. have no preference."

98
A chi square analysis using a 2 x 3 contingency table
with two degrees Of freedom showed that there were sig-
nificant differences between male and female preferences
for counselor sex for both problems. The null hypothesis
was rejected at the .05 level of significance for

X2 : 5.99. The alternate hypothesis was accepted

.05 (2)
that male students will prefer a same sex counselor for both
problems more Often than female students. The observed chi
square value for the problem of sex was 19.57. For the
problem of anger, the chi square value was 11.72. A report
of the findings for each of the problems follows.

Problem of Sex. Observation of the frequencies subse-
quent to the analysis Shows a U—shaped male distribution
and a quasi-normal female distribution. Males preferred a
ppm; sex counselor more often than females. More males
(59%) preferred a "male" counselor than females (23%) pre-
ferred a "female" counselor. However, more males (41%)
preferred a “female" counselor than females (11%) preferred
a "male" counselor. In addition, more females (36%) had
"no preference" for counselor sex than males (30%), sug-

gesting that males consider the sex of the counselor more

important than females for help with the problem of sex.

99

Problem of Anger. For the problem of anger, as was
found in the above problem of sex, the distribution of
responses for males was U-Shaped and quasi-normal for
females. Once again, more males (49%) preferred a "male"
counselor than females (13%) preferred a "female" coun-
selor. In addition, more males (34%) preferred a "female"
counselor than females (7%) preferred a "male" counselor.
"No preference" choices were greater for females (53%)
than males (44%). The "no preference" choice was greater
for females than preferences for counselor of either sex
(47%). Males, on the other hand, were more definite in
preferences for a counselor of either sex (56%).

Inspectional Comparison of the Two Problems. Male
students preferred a "male" counselor for both problems
more often than female students preferred a "female"
counselor. Stronger preferences of 'both sexes, however,
were made for counselor to help with problems of relation—
ship with the opposite sex than anger. Ten percent more
of both the males and females preferred a same sex counselor
to help with problems of sex than anger. Similarly, the
"no preference" choice was substantially higher among both
Inales and females for the problem of anger (M = 53%; F =

144%) contrasted with the problem of sex (M = 36%; F = 30%).

10

Counselor Age (Hypothesis 7)

0

The hypothesis designed to test preferences for age

of counselor to help with the two personal problems was:

7.

Null hypothesis:

No differences will be
found between male and female student
preferences for age of counselor to
help with problems of (a) relation-
ship with the opposite sex and (b)
anger.

Questionnaire Items 35 and 62, which appear below,

were used to test hypothesis number seven.

"When considering the age of the counselor,

I would

1. prefer

2. prefer

3. prefer

4. prefer
Older.

5.

mmmm

counselor
counselor
counselor
counselor

20-29 years
30—39 years
40-49 years
50 years of

have no preference."

of age.
of age.
of age.
age or

Because responses in the fourth response category were

less than five, categories four and five were combined in

the analysis of the data.

A chi square analysis using a

2 x 4 contingency table with three degrees of freedom was

made for each of the two problems.

The results indicated

that there were no significant differences between prefer-

ences stated by either male or female students for either

problem.

The null hypothesis was accepted at the .05 level for

101
both problems for X2.05 (3) : 7.82. For the problem of sex,
the analysis showed a chi square value of 1.47, and for the
problem of anger, the chi square value was .91. Since
there was no directional alternate hypothesis, the data
were inspected for column differences for each problem.
Findings are presented in the following paragraphs.

Problem of Sex. Male and female distributions were
almost identical. The response category most popular for
both males (41%) and females (39%) was the "30-39" years
of age category. Twenty-three percent of both males and
females indicated "no preference” for counselor age. The
age category "20-29" was similarly popular for both males
(26%) and females (23%). A counselor "over 40" was pre-
ferred less by both.ma1es (12%) and females (13%).

Problem of Anger. Similarly for the problem of anger,
the two distributions were almost identical. The "30—39"
age category was most preferred by both males (33%) and
females (34%). However, nearly as many males (29%) as
females (32%) made a "no preference" response for counselor
age. The next most popular age category was "20-29” with
twenty—three percent of the males and eighteen percent of
the females choosing this category. A counselor "40 years

of age or Older" was less preferred by both.ma1es (15%) and

102
females (16%). Specified counselor age was apparently not
too important to students when selecting a counselor to
help with problems of anger.

Inspectional Comparison of the Two Problems. For
both male and female students, the "30-39" age category
was most popular when choosing a counselor to help with
both problems. waever, students of both sexes were less
concerned with specific age of the counselor for the prob-

lem of anger than for the problem of sex.

Counselor Education (Hypothesis 8)

Preferences for education of counselor to help with
the two personal problems testing the following hypothesis
were analyzed.

8. Null Hypothesis: No differences will be
found between male and female stu-
dent preferences for education of
counselor to help with problems of
(a) relationship with the opposite
sex and (b) anger.

Questionnaire Items 36 and 63 for the two problems
were designed to test this hypothesis. These items read:

"When considering the education of the
counselor, I would
1. prefer a professionally trained person.
2. prefer a person without professional
training.
3. have no preference."

103
The analysis of the data using a 2 x 3 contingency
table with two degrees of freedom showed no Significant

differences between males and females for either problem.for

2

X 05 (2) : 5.99. For the problem of sex, the observed

chi square was 4.27 and for the problem of anger, the chi
square was 5.98.

The null hypothesis was accepted at the .05 level for
both problems. However, a rounding error in the calcula—
tion of the chi square for the problem of anger may have
been present.

No alternate directional hypothesis was made. HOwever,
Observation of the frequencies revealed large column dif-
ferences. A description of these differences are presented
below for each of the two problems.

Problem of Sex. Both male and female students (80%)

preferred a "professionallY" trained counselor. A small
percentage of males (5%) and females (2%) preferred a "non-
professionally trained" counselor. The "no preference"
choice was made by eighteen percent of the females and
fifteen percent of the males for the problem of sex.

Problem of Anger. For the problem of anger, inspection
of the frequencies showed column differences approaching

significance at the .05 level. "Professional" education

104
was definitely preferred by both males (76%) and females
(78%). More females (17%) than males (14%) selected "no
preference" for counselor education, but twice as many
males (10%) as females (5%) preferred a "non—professional"
counselor for this problem.

Inspectional Comparison of the Two Problems. "Profes—
sional" education of counselor was slightly more preferred
by students for the problem of sex than anger. Moreover,

a "professionally" educated counselor was highly preferred

over a "non-professional" for both problems.

Type of Professional Education (Hypothesis 9)

The hypothesis designed to test type of professional
education desired in a counselor to help with sex problems
was:

9. Null Hypothesis: No differences will be
found between male and female stu—
dent preferences for type pf profes-
sional education of counselor to
help with problems of (a) relation~
ship with the opposite sex, and (b)
anger.

 

Questionnaire Items 37 and 64 were used to gather data
to test this hypothesis. These items read:

"When choosing a professionally trained
person, I would prefer a person with

l. a M.A. degree in counseling.

2. a Ph.D. degree in counseling psychology.

105

3. a Ph.D degree in clinical psychology.
4. an M.D. degree."

The chi square analysis of these items using a 2 x 4
contingency table with three degrees of freedom showed no
significant differences between male and female student
preferences at the .05 level (X2.05 (3) = 7.82). The chi
square value obtained for the problem of sex was .98 and
for the problem of anger, the value was .52.

The null hypothesis was accepted at the .05 level of
significance for both problems. Because no directional
alternate hypothesis was stated, a review of the trends
in the data for each problem follows.

Problem of Sex. Upon inspection of the frequencies
for the data collected for the problem of sex, column dif-
ferences between males and females were observed. Both
males (60%) and females (62%) strongly prefer a person
holding a "Ph.D. in counseling psychology" to help with
this problem. The second most preferred type of counselor
was for one holding the "M.A. degree in counseling."
Twenty-five percent of the males and twenty-two percent
of the females made this choice. Less than half as many

of both males and females (10%) prefer a counselor with a

"Ph.D. in clinical psychology," and even fewer males (5%)

106
and females (6%) preferred a counselor who is an "M.D."

Problem of Anger. For the problem of anger, choices
similar to those mentioned above were noted. A counselor
with a "Ph.D. in counseling psychology" was preferred by
the majority of both.ma1es (57%) and females (60%) for help
with this problem. Relatively few but equal numbers of
males and females (19%) preferred a counselor with a
"M.A. degree in counseling." A counselor with a "Ph.D. in
clinical psychology" was similarly preferred by nineteen
percent of the males and seventeen percent of the females.
Very few males (4%) and females (7%) preferred a counselor
with the "M.D." degree.

Inspectional Comparison of the Two Problems. The
counselor with a "Ph.D. in counseling psychology" was most
preferred by both males and females for both problems. A
"Ph.D. in clinical psychology" was preferred about 2:1 to
help with problems of anger compared with the problem of

SEX.

Type of Non-Professional Counselor (Hypothesis 10)
Preferences for type of non-professional counselor to
help with the two personal problems were examined by the

following hypothesis:

107
10. Null Hypothesis: NO differences will
be found between male and female
student preferences for type pf
non-professional counselor to help
with problems of (a) relationship
with the opposite sex and (b) anger.

To test this hypothesis, questionnaire Items 38 and 65
were designed to gather relevant data. These items were
stated:

"When choosing a non-professionally
trained counselor, I would prefer a
l. confidante
2. teacher
3. minister."

A chi square analysis using a 2 x 3 contingency table
with two degrees of freedom indicated significant differ-
ences between male and female student preferences at the

.05 level (X2 : 5.99). For the problem of sex, the

.05 (2)
Observed chi square value was 10.28. For the problem of
anger, the chi square value was 12.45.

The null hypothesis was rejected at the .05 level of
significance for both problems. No alternate hypothesis
was stated, but column and row differences in the data
were observed in the analysis for the two problems. State-
ments about these differences follow.

Problem of Sex. The type of non-professiOnal counselor

most preferred to help with problems of sex was a

108

"confidante." However, more females (57%) than males
(49%) stated this preference. Likewise, differences
between males and females were noted for preferences for
a "teacher." Responses in this category were made by
thirty-one percent of the males contrasted with nineteen
percent of the females, accounting for much of the sig-
nificant difference. On the other hand, a "minister" was
slightly more preferred by females (24%) than males (20%).

Problem of Anger. For the problem of anger, again
the preferences for type of non-professional counselor
differed between males and females. Fifty percent of the
females contrasted with forty—three percent of the males
preferred a "confidante." A "teacher" was preferred by
more males (36%) than females (23%). More females (27%),
on the other hand, preferred a "minister" than males (20%).

Inspectional Comparison of the Two Problems. For both
problems more than half of the males and females alike pre-
ferred a "confidante" to the other examined types of non—
professional counselors. However, more than one-third of
the males preferred a "teacher" to help with both problems.
In contrast, about one-fourth of the females stated a
preference for a "minister" to help with both problems as

a non-professional counselor.

109

Counselor Experience (Hypothesis 11)
The null hypothesis designed to test preferences for
counselor experience for the two personal problems was:

11. Null Hypothesis: No differences will
be found between male and female
student preferences for years of
experience pf_counselor to help
with the problems of (a) relation—
ship with the opposite sex and
(b) anger.

Items 39 and 66 of the questionnaire were used to

gather data for testing this hypothesis. These items

read:

"When considering the experience of the

counselor, I would

1. prefer a person with less than two
years of experience.

2. prefer a person with two to five
years of experience.

3. prefer a person with more than
five years of experience.

4. have no preference."

Because responses in category one were less than
five, responses categories one and two were combined for
the analysis of the data for this item. The obtained chi
square value using a 2 x 3 contingency table for the prob-
lem of sex was .93 and .29 for the problem of anger. Since
2

X 05 (2) = 5.99, the null hypothesis was accepted for

both problems and the alternate rejected.

110

No alternate hypothesis was made, but the frequencies
were observed for column differences for each problem.
These differences for each problem are stated in the
following'paragraphs.

Problem of Sex. A counselor with experience of "five
or more years" was the most preferred by both males (60%)
and females (56%). Twenty-one percent of the females and
twenty percent of the males preferred a counselor with
experience of "five years or less." Similarly, twenty-
three percent of the females and twenty percent of the
males stated "no preference" for years of counselor
experience.

Problem of Anger. For the problem of anger, student
preferences were almost identical to preferences for the
problem of sex. Counselor experience of "five or more
. years" was preferred by both males (60%) and females (59%).
Nineteen percent of both male and female students preferred
a counselor with "five or less years" of experience. A
"no preference" response was made by twenty-one percent of
the males and twenty—two percent of the females.

lpppectigpal Comparison of the Two Problems. Student
preferences for years of experience of counselor to help

with both problems was almost identical. Counselor

lll
experience of "five or more years" was preferred by a
majority of both male and female students. For both prob-
lems, a "no preference" response was made by approximately

one-fifth of students of both sexes.

Counselor Values lHypothesis 12)
Student preferences for counselor values for the two
personal problems were examined by the following hypothesis:
12. Null Hypothesis: No differences will
be found between male and female
student preferences for values 9:
counselor to help with the problem
of (a) relationship with the 0p-
posite sex and (b) anger.
Questionnaire Items 40 and 67 were designed to test
this hypothesis for the two problems. These items are:
"When considering values held by the
counselor, I would
1. prefer a person with the same
values as mine.
2. prefer a person with different
values from mine.
3. have no preference."

Male and female student responses to these items were
analyzed using a 2 x 3 contingency table with two degrees
of freedom. The chi square value obtained for the problem
of sex was 2.63. It was 3.97 for the problem of anger.

No significant differences were found between the sexes in

preferences for counselor values. The null hypothesis was

112
accepted at the .05 level significance for X2.05 (2) : 5.99.
The frequencies were observed for trends since there was no
alternate hypothesis. A report is made of the findings for
each of the problems in the following paragraphs.

Problem of Sex. A majority of both males (77%) and
females (71%) preferred a counselor with the "same" values
as theirs. Seventeen percent of the females and nineteen
percent of the males had "no preference" concerning values
of counselor to help with the problem of sex. A small
percentage of males (10%) and females (6%) preferred a
counselor with "different" values from theirs.

Problem of Anger. For the problem of anger, again a
majority of both males (64%) and females (68%) preferred a
counselor with the "same" values as theirs. About one-
fourth of both males (24%) and females (25%) indicated "no
preference" for counselor values. A small percentage of
males (12%) and females (7%) preferred a counselor with
"different" values from theirs.

Inspectional Comparison of the Two Problems. For
both problems, both males and females strongly preferred
a counselor with the "same" values as theirs. However, a
larger number of students of both sexes preferred a coun-

selor with the "same" values to help with the problem of

113
sex contrasted with the problem of anger. Likewise, a
Slightly higher percentage of students preferred a coun-
selor with "different" values to help with the problem of
anger contrasted with the problem of sex. "NO preference"
responses were made by the students of both sexes more for

the problem of anger than for the problem of sex.

Counselor Method (Hypothesis 13)

The hypothesis designed to test preferences for
counselor method to help with the two personal problems
was:

13. Null Hypothesis: No differences will
be found between male and female
student preferences for type of
method used by counselor chosen to
Ahelp with problems of (a) relation-
ship with the Opposite sex and (b)_
anger.

Items 41 and 68 of the questionnaire were used to
analyze differences between males and females to test
hypothesis thirteen. These items read:

"When considering the method used by the
counselor, I would
1. prefer a person who would challenge me,
ask me questions, interpret my feelings.
2. prefer a person who would make me feel
comfortable, listen to me, and under-
stand my feelings.
3. have no preference."

Responses to these items were analyzed in a 2 x 3

114
contingency table with two degrees of freedom. The ob-
tained chi square value was 4.24 for the problem of sex
and .02 for the problem of anger. No significant dif-
ferences were found between males and females in prefer-
ences for counselor method for either of the problems.
The null hypothesis was accepted at the .05 level of

significance (X2 5.99). No alternate hypothesis

.05 (2) :
was made; therefore, the frequencies were inspected
for trends.

Problem of Sex. The "reflecting" method was pre-
ferred by students of both sexes over the "interpreting"
method (M = 58% vs. 32% and F = 62% vs. 33%). Ten percent
of the males and five percent of the females indicated
"no preference" for counselor method.

Problem of Anger. Again the "reflecting" method was
preferred by the students compared with the "interpreting"
method. Equal percentages of males and females (52%)
preferred the "reflecting" method to the "interpreting"
method (41%). LikeWise, relatively few but equal per-

centages of males and females (7%) indicated a no
preference" choice for counselor method.

Inspectional Comparison of the Two Problems. The

'reflecting" method Was strongly preferred over the

115
"interpreting" method by students of both sexes for both
problems. HOwever, more students of both sexes preferred
the "reflecting" method for the problem of sex than for the
problem of anger. More males than females indicated "no
preference" for counselor method for the problem of sex,
though the percentages of students making this choice

were small (M = 10%; F : 5%).

Counselor Acquaintance (Hypothesis 14)

Student preferences for acquaintance with counselor
to help with the two personal problems were examined by
the following hypothesis:

14. Null Hypothesis: No differences will
be found between male and female
student preferences for acquaintance
with counselor to help with problems
of (a) relationship with the opposite
sex and (b) anger.

The hypothesis was tested using the data collected
from responses to questionnaire Items 42 and 69. These
items were stated:

"When considering acquaintance with the
counselor, I would

1. prefer a counselor whom I already know.
2. prefer a counselor I do not know.

3. have no preference."

A chi square analysis of the data using a 2 x 3

contingency table with two degrees of freedom showed that

116
significant differences were found between males and
females for the problem of sex but not for the problem of
anger. The obtained chi square value for the problem of
sex was 7.33 and 3.12 for the problem of anger. The null
hypothesis was rejected for the problem of sex and accepted

for the problem of anger as X2 : 5.99. No alternate

.05 (2)
hypothesis was stated; so the frequencies were observed for
row and column differences in responses made by students of
both sexes. For each of the problems, the differences are

reported in the following paragraphs.

Problem of Sex. "Acquaintance" with the counselor was

 

most preferred by students of both sexes; however, more
males (55%) stated this preference than females (47%). On
the other hand, more females (30%) than males (20%) stated
they did "not want to know" the counselor to help with the
problem of sex. Responses in this cell accounted for a
large part of the significant difference. About one-fourth
of students of both sexes (M : 25%; F : 23%) made a "no
preference" choice.
Problem of Anger. Students of both sexes preferred

"acquaintance" with the counselor to help with the problem

of anger (M : 54%; F : 46%). More females (23%) than males

(17%) preferred "not to know" the counselor. Likewise

117
more females (31%) than males (29%) stated "no preference,"
but the differences did not reach significance at the
.05 level.

Inspectional Comparison of the Two Problems. A
majority of students of both sexes preferred to be "ac-
quainted" with the counselor to help with both problems.
Females preferred "not to know" the counselor to help with
the problem of sex more often than for the problem of anger.
Likewise, larger percentages of both males and females
indicated "no preference" with respect to counselor
acquaintance for the problem of anger than the problem of

sex.

Summary

A summary of the findings of this study follows in
Table 5.4 for the problem of relationship with the opposite
sex, and in Table 5.5 for the problem of anger.

In Chapter VI, summary conclusions and discussion
of the hypothesis of the problem studied are presented.

Implications for further research are delineated.

118

Table 5.4

SUMMARY OF HYPOTHESES OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALES AND
FEMALES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD COUNSELOR IMAGE WHEN
SEEKING HELP FOR PROBLEMS OF RELATIONSHIP WITH

THE OPPOSITE SEX

 

 

LEGEND: A a Accept R = Reject
NULL HYPOTHESES CHI SQUARE DECISION
HO Ha

 

No differences in:

l. Feelings of discomfort about

 

 

coping with sexual impulses. .14 A R
2. Hesitation to seek help for

discomfort. 20.08*** R R
3. Expectation to benefit from help. 15,14** R A

Differences in:

 

 

 

4. Cross-sex rank order preferences 349.74** R A
for counselor characteristics.

5. Within-sex rank order preferences 160.32** R A
for counselor characteristics. 592.80** R A

 

No differences in:

 

6. Preferences for counselor sex. 19.57*** R A
7. Preferences for counselor age. .91 A
8. Preferences for counselor education. 4.27 A

 

9. Preferences for type g£_profes-

 

 

 

 

sional education. .98 A
10. Preferences for type g£_§2g¢

professional counselor. 10.28** R
11. Preferences for counselor years

p£_e§perience. .93 A
12. Preferences for counselor values. 2.63 A
13. Preferences for counselor method. 4.24 A
14. Preferences for acquaintance with

counselor. 7.33* R

*=p<.05

** = p < .01
*** B p < .001

 

.119

Table 5.5

.SUMMARY OF HYPOTHESES OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALES AND
FEMALES IN ATTITUDES TOWARD COUNSELOR IMAGE WHEN
SEEKING HELP FOR PROBLEMS OF ANGER

 

 

 

LEGEND: ,A = Accept R = Reject
NULL HYPOTHESES CHI SQUARE DECISION
Ho Ha

 

No differences in:

l. Feelings of discomfort about

 

 

coping with anger. 6.10 A R
2. Hesitation to seek help for

discomfort. 10.65* R R
3. Expectation to benefit from help. 4.77 A R

Differences in:

 

4. Cross-sex rank order preferences

 

 

for counselor characteristics. 36l.86** R A
5. Within-sex rank order preferences 270.54** R A
for counselor characteristics. 592.80** R A

 

No differences in:

6. Preferences for counselor sex. ll.72** R A
7. Preferences for counselor age. 1.47 A
8. Preferences for counselor education. 5.98 A

 

9. Preferences for type of profes-

 

 

 

 

 

sional education. .52 A
10. Preferences for type g£_pgg¢

professional counselor. 12.45** R
11. Preferences for counselor years

of experience. .29 A
12. Preferences for counselor values. 3.97 A
13. Preferences for counselor method. .02 A
14. Preferences for gpquaintance

with counselor. 3.12 A

* = p < .05

** up < .01
*** 3p < .001

 

 

 

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In this chapter, the problem, instrumentation, design
and analysis are summarized. Conclusions of the study are
stated and discussed. Finally, implications for further

research are presented.

Summary

The summary is presented in three sections: the
problem, the theory and instrumentation, and the design

and analysis.

The Problem

The problem of this study was to examine the ideal
image of the college counselor held by university educa-
tion students. An assessment of student (a) discomfort,
(b) hesitation in seeking help, and (c) expectation of
benefiting from counselor help for the two potentially
basic personal problems was made which in turn became the

basis for determining what type of counselor students

120

121

might want for help with these problems.

Theorypand Instrumentation

The psychoanalytic school provided the foundation for
selection of control of sexual and hostile impulses as the
two basic problems of human development. The groundwork
for assumptions made about cross-sex differences in student
preferences in a counselor came from the observations of
the cultural anthropologist, Margaret Mead. Transactional
perception theory furnished the basis for expectations of
idiosyncratic choices made by the respondents. Suggestions
for the selected counselor characteristics came from the
literature and responses to an Open-ended questionnaire
administered to a pilot group of educational psychology
students at Michigan State University. The counselor
characteristics, both personal and interpersonal in nature,
included in this study were counselor sex, age, education,
experience, values, method, and acquaintance.

The instrument developed for the study was a seven
section, seventy-one item questionnaire. Section I was
designed to obtain factual information about the student.
Sections II and V were designed to (a) orient the re-

spondents to possible COping behaviors for sexual and

122

hostile impulses, (b) assess their discomfort about these
behaviors, (c) ascertain their hesitation to seek help
and expectation of benefiting from help, and (d) note
their reactions to answering such personal questions.
Sections III and VI were identically structured to deter-
mine the rank order preferences of the students for a
group of seven characteristics they would choose in a
counselor to help them with these personal problems.
Sections IV and VII were likewise identically structured
to determine the specific qualifications for each of the
characteristics the respondents would prefer in a counselor.

The instrument had sufficiently high test-retest reli-
ability On the basis of chi square tests of significance
for the statistic C and observation of the weighted means

of the rank orders to be judged adequate for use.

The Design and Analysis

The sample used in this study was six hundred sixty—
eight students Of education enrolled for the basic course
in educational psychology Fall Term, l965,at Michigan
State University.

The data were collected by administering the instrument
in a group setting to the students by their recitation

instructors.

123

Eight null and six directionalized hypotheses were
tested. For the statistical treatment, an item analysis
of frequency and percentage of responses was made for the
questionnaire. Furthermore, a chi square analysis was
made on items in Sections II and V testing hypotheses
about similarity or difference in responses made by male
and female students about (a) discomfort, (b) hesitation
to seek help, and (c) expectation of benefiting from
counselor help for the two personal problems. A chi square
analysis was also made on items in Section IV and VII of
the questionnaire testing hypotheses about student dif-
ferences in preferences for specific qualifications for
the seven characteristics examined in the study. Rejection
of these hypotheses was set at the .05 level.

Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance (W) was computed
to test the hypotheses analyzing differences in the cross-
sex and within-sex rank order preferences for the examined
counselor characteristics included in Sections III and VI.
Rejection of these hypotheses was set at the .01 level.

In order to make ancillary comparative statements about
the characteristics both most and least valued by the
students for each problem, Kendall's method of ordering

the sums Of the ranks obtained in computing W was used.

124

Conclusions

The conclusions of the study were based on the testing

of the null and directionalized hypotheses.

Research Hypotheses

Of the six theory—based research hypotheses tested,
four were accepted at the .05 level for the problem of
relationship with the Opposite sex and three for the prob-
lem of anger. Conclusions in support of these research
hypotheses are as follows:

Significant cross-sex differences and within-sex
similarities were found for

(a) Hypothesis 2. Female education students

 

admit to more hesitation in seeking help
for problems of relationship with the Op-
posite Egg and gpgg£_than male students.

(b) Hypothesis 3. Female education students
more often than male students admit to ex-
pecting to benefit from counselor help for
problems Of‘ggx.

(c) Hypothesis 5. Within-sex male and female

 

rank-order preferences for the counselor

125
characteristics for pgph problems are the
same.

(d) Hypothesis 6. Male education students prefer
same-sex counselor more often than female
students when selecting a counselor to help
with pgpp problems.

Significant cross—sex differences were ppp_found for

(a) Hypothesis 1. Admission of discomfort related
to feelings about relationship with the
opposite ppm and apggp.

(b) Hypothesis 3. Admission of expectation to
benefit from counselor help for problems of
REESE-

(c) Hypothesis 4. Rank-order preferences for
the seven counselor characteristics for pppp

problems.

Non-Theory—Based Null Hypotheses

Of the eight non-theory—based null hypotheses about
specific qualifications for the seven characteristics pre-
ferred by students in a counselor, two were rejected at the
.05 level for the problem of sex and one for the problem of

anger. COnclusions were as follows:

126

Significant cross-sex differences were found for

(a)

(b)

Hypothesis 10. Preferences for pypp pf ppm:
professional counselor to help with pgpp
problems.

Hypothesis l4. Preferences for acquaintance

with counselor for the problem of sex.

Significant cross-sex differences were not found for

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Hypothesis 7. Preferences for counselor
Iggg for pppp_problems.

Hypothesi§_§. Preferences for counselor
education for ppph problems.

Hypothesis 9. Preferences for pype,pf_
professional education of counselor to help
with_pppp;problems.

Hypothesis ll. Preferences for m pf
experience of counselor to help with pgph
problems.

Hypothesis 12. Preferences for values of
of counselor to help with pppp problems.
Hypothesis 13. Preferences for method used

by counselor to help with both problems.

127

(g) Hypothesis l4. Preferences for
acquaintance with counselor to help

with problems of anger.

Discussion of these findings follows.

Ancillary Findipgs

Because the research hypothesis testing the within—

sex differences in student rankings of the counselor

characteristics was accepted, it was possible to report

the general order in the ranks assigned to the character-

istics for both problems. The rankings were as follows:

(1)

(2)

Counselor values was ranked highest among the
characteristics by females for both problems

with counselor experience ranked second. On the
other hand, counselor experience was ranked highest
among the characteristics by males for both prob-
lems. Counselor values was ranked second by the
males for both problems.

Counselor method, education, and acquaintance
were ranked in that order in the middle ranks
from highest to lowest by both male and female
students for counselor to help with both problems.

An exception was found in that male students

(3)

128-
ranked acquaintance above education when select-
ing a counselor to help with problems of sex.
Counselor ggg was ranked lowest in the seven
selected characteristics by both male and female
students for counselor to help with problems of
relationship with the opposite sex, while coun-
selor ppm was ranked lowest to help with problems
of anger. Among the characteristics under study,
counselor sex appears to be of relatively little
importance to students when choosing a counselor.
This finding raises questions about the importance
of this variable in student selection of a coun—

selor perceived as most helpful.

In summary, both male and female education students

have essentially the same perceptions of the ideal

counselor.

Ideal Counselor Image of the Male Student. A descrip-

tion of the ideal counselor image and role for male students

based on the characteristics in this study for both problems

A man, over 30 years of age, with a Ph.D. in
counseling psychology and five or more years

of experience, who holds the same values as

129
the student, is personally acquainted with
the student, and uses the method of "reflect-
ing" when dealing with problems of relation-
ship with the opposite sex. For the problem
of anger, the preference for counselor method
is not definite.

Ideal Counselor Image of the Female Student. The
ideal counselor image and role for female students when
choosing a counselor to help with personal problems, on
the other hand, may be described as

A person of either sex, over 30 years of age,
with a Ph.D. in counseling psychology and five
or more years of experience,who holds the same
values as the student, and uses the method of
"reflecting" for the problem of relationship
with the Opposite sex. For the problem of
anger, counselor method preference is less
definite. Moreover, counselor acquaintance for

both problems appears irrelevant.

Discussion

The combination of both positive and negative findings

generated theory and future research implications.

130

Discomfort about Problems of Sex and Anger

(Hypothesis 1)

Male and female differences in admission of discomfort
about ways of relating to the Opposite sex and ways of
COping with hostile impulses were not found to be statisti-
cally significant. Furthermore, male and female student
discomfort for both problems was reported as relatively
low. For problems of sex, only fifteen percent of both
the males and the females admitted to always pnd usually
having such discomfort. For the problem of anger, however,
admission of discomfort more than doubled for both males
(35%) and females (39%).

Because of culturally sanctioned sex-role behavior
described by Mead, female students were expected to be
freer than males to admit to feelings of discomfort about
both of the problems. This expectation was not supported
in the data. Personal discomfort is more problem-related
than sex—related for the population studied. Perhaps
cultural sanctions are relevant, but the effect of these
sanctions appears unrelated to the sex-role behavioral
differences in this study. Current cultural mores have
changed as man's definition of himself as a sexual being

have broadened. Freedom of expression of sexuality is

131
more acceptable today than previously. On the other hand,
extended freedom of expression of hostile impulses has not
been culturally granted. Indeed, the curtailment of warfare,
on the one side, has demanded more control and less expres-
sion of hostility among men. Alongside this, the develop-
ment of the bureaucratic society has caused the values of
conformity and Obedience to increase. William Whyte
describes this phenomenon in Thg Organizationflgm.l It
could, therefore, be that there is more anxiety centered
around control of hostile impulses than sexual impulses
among the students studied, regardless of masculine or
feminine role. The findings of this study support this
supposition in so far as these students have been molded

in bureaucratic educational institutions and probably will

continue to work in such institutions upon graduation.

Hesitation to Seek Help for Problems of Sex

and Anger (Hypothesis 2)

Differences between male and female education student

 

admission of hesitation in seeking help were found to be

significantly different (p < .05 or beyond) for both

 

1William H. Whyte, Jr., The Organization Man (Garden
City, New YOrk: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1957).

132
problems. It was theoretically anticipated that males
would be more hesitant to seek help for both problems than
females because males are permitted less open expression
of dependency in our culture,and "success" is more directly
tied to sex-role identity for males. Admission of need
was expected to be less evident among males than among
females. This expectation, however, was not supported.
On the contrary, females were found to be considerably
more hesitant to seek help for problems of sex (71%) than
males (58%) when a mid-point split was made in the four
response categories. For the problem of anger, however,
males (39%) and females (38%) alike were found to be con-
siderably less hesitant to seek help than they were for_
the problem of sex. Differences in male and female re-
sponses were found in the degree of willingness to ask for
help for the problem of anger. More females (46%) than
males (36%) reported being rarely hesitant to ask for help,
and more males (25%) than females (16%) reported being
.pgygp hesitant to seek counselor help. The majority of
both.ma1es (61%) and females (62%) admitted to rarely or

never hesitating to seek help for the problem of anger.

 

For both problems, however, the males were more definite

in extreme statements than females.

133

This finding supports Mead's observations that girls
in our culture learn to develOp subtle rather than outright
verbal responses. It is not clear how meaningful the dif-
ferences are between the always and usually and rarely and
.pgygp response categories,however, for the meanings at-
tached to these labels appear to vary with problem. There
appear to be meaningful differences between male and female
hesitation to seek help for the problem of sex,but not for
the problem of anger.

It may be, moreover, that student willingneSs to seek
help for sexual problems is curtailed because naivete in
the realm of sexuality is not expected in today's culture.
Less hesitation on the part of males than females to seek
help for sexual problems may be due to more anxiety about
sex-role identity among male education students than among
females. It is also possible that the greater discomfort
reported by students of both sexes about problems of anger
accounts for their willingness to seek help for that

discomfort.

Benefit from Seeking Help for Problems of
Sex and Anger (Hypothesis 3)

Differences between male and female education student

 

admission of expectation to benefit from help for problems

134
of sex were significant (p < .05) but were not for problems
Of anger. For the problem of sex, females (75%) had a
greater expectation of benefiting from help than males
(60%). For the problem of anger, both males (78%) and
females (83%) had greater expectation of receiving benefit
from help than for the problem of sex.

It was theoretically anticipated that females would
expect to benefit from help for both problems more than
males because Mead's description of patternings of sexual
identity shows that girls expect to be able to manipulate
Significant others for their own ends more than males.
Males are further expected to be more self-reliant and to
expect less help from others. The findings of this study
support this expectation for the problem of sex. In addi—
tion, the findings of this study Show that males consistently
seem to have more anxiety centered around Sex-role identity
than females,causing them to be less hesitant to seek help
for problems of sex and to have less expectation of bene-
fiting from counselor help than females.

The sex-role factor is not as powerful for the educa-
tion student seeking help for problems of anger. Students
of both sexes have more discomfort about anger, less

hesitation to seek help and higher expectation of benefiting

135
from help for problems of anger than problems of sex.
Anxiety appears to be greater for the problem of anger in
all instances. It may be, too, that counselors are viewed
by students as able to help with problems of anger more
than with problems of sex because of past experience with
high school counselors who may not have worked with stu—
dents On sexual problems. These interpretations are
speculative. Further research is needed to explain male
and female student differences more precisely.

.fipmmary Findingp for Hypotheggg 1. 2 and 3. Type of
problem appears to be relevant to student views of coun-
selor role when findings of Hypotheses l, 2 and 3 are
interrelated. For both sexes, there is more discomfort,
less hesitation to seek help, and more expectation of bene-
fiting from counselor help for problems of anger than
problems of sex. The findings of this study have been
interpreted on the basis of the cultural milieu which seems
to extenuate more anxiety about anger than sex. It may
be, however, that counselors are not viewed by students
as able to help with problems of relationship with the
Opposite sex as successfully as with problems of anger.
Furthermore, it may be thatproblems of anger are more

urgent for students of education than problems of sex.

136
More precise research is needed to clearly define the
reasons behind the findings of this study.
Rank-Order Preferences for Counselor Characteristics
for the Two Problems (Hypotheses 4 and 5)

Theoretical expectations were that the cross-sex rank-
order preferences for the seven counselor characteristics
for both problems would be significantly different at the
.01 level. The data did not support this assumption for
research hypothesis four. It was likewise anticipated that
the within—sex rank—order preferences for both problems
would be significantly alike at the .01 level. Support
was given for research hypothesis five. With considerable
assurance, the general directional trends in the rank—order
preference made by students within-sex were reported be-
cause of meeting the criterion of a significant chi square
in interpreting the statistic W for the rankings of the
counselor characteristics.

Students of both sexes tended to agree on the relative
importance of the same characteristics more than to dis-
agree. It was anticipated that the student perceptions
based on an active transaction between themselves and their
environment would affect their behavioral choices. HOwever,

it was not anticipated that their behavior based on

137

individualized probability expectancies would be as similar
as that observed. The current context of cultural ambiguity
about sex-role identity may be affecting the variables in-
volved in the perceptual process more than previously
recognized. The flux in consensually validated values Of
contemporary culture may be diminishing.the distinctly dif-
ferent sex-role patternings described by Mead at a more
rapid pace than heretofore recognized. The effect of child-
rearing myths may be less important than Mead's observations
suggest at least insofar as the relatively sophisticated
population of students in this study are concerned. This
particular sample of students of both sexes seemstx>be more
alike than different in attitudes affecting behavior. Fur-
ther research on comparative personal values determining
the perceptions of students of both sexes is suggested by
the findings of this study.

There was no hypothesis about the specific ordering
of the characteristics, but it was Observed that the order-
ings were relatively consistent between and.among the sexes
for the two problems. A fuller discussion of the specific
qualifications which students of each sex for each problem
preferred follows in the general order of the ranking of

the characteristics from first to last.

138

Rank 1: Values Held by the Counselor
_(Hypothesis 131

Significant differences between the sexes were not
found for preferences for counselor values for either
problem. A majority of both males and females preferred
a counselor with values similar to their own for both
problems. lggme counselor values appeared to be somewhat
more important to education students for the problem Of
sex (M.= 71%»and F : 77%) than for the problem of anger
(M = 64% and F = 68%). In additiOn, "no preference" choices
for counselor values were higher for the problem of anger
(M - 24% and F : 25%) than for the problem of sex (M = 19%
and F = 17%). Consistency in point-of—view held by the
students was seen in that female students ranked "values"
first in order of preference in gross comparison of the
characteristics and also had stronger preferences for
type of "values" when qualifications were made for this
characteristic. Males, on the other hand, ranked "values"
.second in importance when selecting preferred character-
istics. Both males and females considered "values" of
particular importance in selection of counselor to help

‘with personal problems.

139
The previous findings of Hollingshead and Redlich1

2 that counselor "values" are sig—

and Meyers and Schafer
nificant in the counseling process were extended to suggest
that counselor "values" are a highly important factor for
both male and female education students at Michigan State

University when a helpful person is described ideally prior

to the counseling process.

Rank 2: Experience of the Counselor

(Hypothesis 11)

Significant differences were not found between male
and female education students for counselor experience
preferences for the two problems. waever, a majority of
both.ma1es (60%) and females (56%) for the problem of sex
and anger (M : 60% and F = 59%) preferred a counselor with
“five or more years" of experience. About one-fifth of
both/males and females for both.prob1ems indicated "no
preference" for years of experience of the counselor.

This finding is somewhat difficult to interpret Since
males ranked "experience" first and females ranked this

characteristic second when grossly comparing characteristics

 

August B. Hbllingshead and Frederidk C. Redlich,
i .

O l-‘

loc.

N

J. K. Meyers and L. Schaeffer, loc. cit.

140

of perceived helping persons. It may be that as the stu—
dents ranked the characteristics, they were not thinking

in terms of numbers of years of experience but rather of

the pypg and ggality of counselor experience. Counselor
experience, nevertheless, was viewed as highly important by
students of both sexes seeking help from a college counselor
for both of the personal problems. More precise definitions
of the concept of "experience" as it relates to counselor

image and role, is required.

Bank 3: Method Used by the Counselor

(Hypothesis 12)

No significant differences between male and female
education students were found for type of counselor method
preferred in a helping person. For both prOblems, a
majority of both males and females preferred the "reflect-
ing" method to the "interpreting" method. This majority
included sixty-two percent of the females and fifty-eight
percent of the males favoring the "reflecting" method
for help with problems of sex, and fifty—two percent of the
males and females alike favoring this method for help with
problems of anger. Preferences for the "interpreting"
method were higher for the problem of anger (M and F = 41%)

than for the problem of sex (M = 32% and F = 33%). Male

141

and female preferences for counselor method for help with
the problem of anger were not as discriminating as prefer—
ences for counselor method for help with problems of sex.

It was anticipated that students would state prefer-
ences for the "interpreting" method because most of the
research findings on the subject suggest that students
expect to be told, led, informed, and questioned.1 Perhaps
this is an expectation but not a preference. The defi-
nitions of the two methods in this study may not have been
distinct enough to clearly dichotomize the alternative
methods. The "reflecting" method may have simply been
perceived as less threatening by this population. Further—
more, a built—in bias favoring the "reflecting" method
which included the descriptions of "listening," "under-
standing," and feelings of "comfort" may have been present.
It is recognized that the active, directive counselor may
also use these particular techniques. Nevertheless, the
finding of this study that students stated preferences for
the "reflecting" method, particularly for help with the

problem of sex, supports Bordin's2 research that college

 

Sonne and Goldman, loc. cit.

2Bordin, loc. cit.

142
clients with personal problems view the counselor as some-
one to lean on, as impersonal and objective, and as under-
standing and forgiving.

On the other hand, the data in the study lend minimal
support to the findings of Miller1 and Goodstein and Grigg2
that the active, directive method is preferred by clients
with personal problems. About eight percent more of both
the males and females preferred the "interpreting" method
for help with problems Of anger in contraSt to problems of
sex. It may be that preferences for method are problem
related. Students of both sexes in the population studied
for the problem of anger more than sex are apparently more
willing to have their behavior interpreted by the counselor.

Further research using more precise descriptions of
counselor methods may be necesSary before any generalized
statements can be made about general preferences for

counselor method.

Rank 4: Education of the Counselor

(Hypotheses 8, 9. apd 10)

Three hypotheses were made about counselor education.

 

The first had to do with education student preferences for

 

lMiller, loc. git.

2Goodstein and Grigg, loc. cit.

143

a counselor with professional versus non-professional
education. Significant differences were not found between
male and female student preferences for education of coun-
selor for the two problems. A majority of both males
(Anger = 75% and Sex = 80%) and females (Anger = 78% and
Sex : 80%) preferred a professionally educated counselor
for both hypothesized problems. Even though Miller1 in his
recent research reported that untrained individuals are
perceived by students as exemplifying helpful behavior,
the findings of this study suggest that students of both
sexes strongly prefer a professionally trained counselor
over a non-professional to help with basic personal problems.

The second hypothesis related to counselor education
tested differences in.pype of professional training students
prefer for help with personal problems. NO significant
differences between males and females were observed for
this preference. Hewever, about three-fifths of the stu-
dents of both sexes preferred a counselor with a "Ph.D in
counseling psychology" over other types of professional
training. The students in this sample were relatively

sophisticated because the content of the course in which

 

1Miller, loc. cit.

144
they were enrolled included an emphasis on psychological
problems in the classroom. It was not expected that they
would consider their problems serious enough to select a
clinical psychologist to help them. In addition, they may
have been reflecting a bias unfavorable to the training of
high school counselors they have known.

The third hypothesis in this group tested differences
in student preferences for pypg pf non-professional help
the students preferred for help with personal problems.
Significant differences between males and females appeared
for both problems (p < .05). A "confidante" was the most
preferred non-professional for approximately half of both
the males and females for both problems. Differences in
preferences occurred in the choice of a "minister" over a
teacher by females for both problems and the choice of a
"teacher" over a minister by the males. In part, female
preferences for a "minister" may be explained by the fact
that more females (91%) than males (80%) report religious
affiliation, and females, likewise, rank "values" higher
than males in the ordering of the counselor characteristics.

Some previous research has been done on student
preferences for professional versus non-professional coun—

selors, but it is yet to be conclusively decided that

145

counselor education is not an important factor to students
in selection of a counselor. The findings of this study
suggest that students of education prefer a professional
for help with personal problems.
Rank 5: Acgpaintance with the Counselor
(Hypothesis 14)

For the prOblem of sex, male and female education

student preferences for acgpaintance with the counselor

 

were significantly different (p < .05). For the problem
of anger, however, there were no significant differences
between males and females. For both problems, eight per—
cent more males than females preferred "to know" the
counselor, and the preference "to know" the counselor was
greater for both males (Sex = 55% and Anger = 54%) and
females (Sex = 47% and Anger = 46%) than "not to know" the
counselor. Ten percent more females (30%) than males
(20%) preferred "not to know" the counselor for help with
prOblems of sex. For the problem of anger, this percentage
was six percent (F = 23% and M = 17%). Moreover, for the
prOblem of anger, "no preference" choices for both males
and females substantially increased, but more for females
(Sex = 23% and Anger = 3l%) than males (Sex = 25% and

Anger = 29%).

146

Type of problem appears relevant when students con—
sider the value of acgpaintance with the counselor. It
may have been less threatening for females than males in
this population to deal with feelings of anger and sex
with strangers than persons known to the student. Further-
more, it may be that the females have learned to handle
strangers more comfortably than males, a supposition
supporting Mead's1 observations that girls learn more
subtle manipulative patterns in interpersonal relations
than males. The females considered it more desirable
"not to know" the counselor for help with sexual problems
more often than for problems of anger, moreover. Females
expect help from any counselor more than males, who are
more selective when choosing a person to help with sexual
problems. Repeatedly, males appear more concerned about
sex-role identity than females.

It may be that acquaintance with the counselor in-
volves more than accessibility, moreover. Perhaps males
want to be sure to have a particular male counselor they
feel could help them with sex problems.

Current thinking suggests that accessibility of

counselor has been too loosely defined in this study,

 

LMead,.lgg..git.

147
however, to make any conclusive statements about the

acquaintance variable.

Rank 6: Age of the counselor (Hypothesis 7)

Significant differences between male and female
education student preferences for counselor gge did not
exist for either problem. About two-fifths of both the
males and females for the problem of sex, however, pre-
ferred a counselor "30-39" years of age. About one—third
of the students of both sexes preferred this age for the
problem of anger. Male and female preferences for the two
contrasting problems were also distributed somewhat dif-
ferently for the other age preferences. More females than
males expressed "no preference“ for age of counselor for
the problem of anger than for sex. About one-third of the
females for the problem of anger had "no preference" for
counselor age contrasted with about one-fourth for the
problem of sex. About one-fourth of the males for both
problems preferred a counselor "20-29" years of age.

It may be that counselor age and experience are
viewed as integrated characteristics for the students in
this study. If this is true, males particularly appear to

perceive less relationship between age and experience than

148

females. It seems that both males and females have
idiosyncratic perceptions of the function of age which
are not fully assessed in this study. In general, coun-
selor age is not viewed as particularly important when
selecting characteristics of a counselor to help with
either problem. HOwever, a counselor who is thirty years
of age or older is moSt preferred.

Further exploration beyond the scope of this study

as to the meaning and relevance of counselor age is needed.

Rank 7: Sex of the Counselor (Hypothesis 6)

Significant differences between male and female
education student preferences for gem of counselor were
found both for the problem of sex (p < .001) and anger
(p <..01). Male students prefer a "male" counselor (59%)
more than female students prefer a "female" counselor (23%)
for the problem of sex. In addition, male students (49%)
prefer a "male" counselor more than female students (13%)
prefer a "female" counselor for the problem of anger.

For help with the problem of sex, more males (59%) than
females (41%) prefer a "male" counselor, and more females
(23%) than males (11%) prefer a "female" counselor. For
Ihelp with the problem of anger, more males (49%) than

females (34%) prefer a "male" counselor and more females

149
(13%) than males (7%) prefer a "female" counselor. More-
over, more females (36% for the problem of sex and 53% for
the problem of anger) than males (30% for the problem of
sex and 44% for the problem of anger) had "no preference"
for sex of counselor.

Conclusions of previous research findings State that
both males and females prefer a "male" counselor. This
conclusion is not supported by the data in this study.
Males consistently prefer "male" counselors, but female
preferences for counselor sex are not so clear. When
females state preferences, they prefer "female" counselors
more than "male" counselors for both problems. HOwever,
especially for the problem of anger, females have "no
preference" for counselor sex. The findings of this study
support those of Koile and Bird1 that males express pre-
ferences significantly more often than females for sex of
counselor. Support is also given to their findings that
for more problems, male students prefer a "male" counselor
than females prefer a "female" counselor. HOwever, their
findings that females prefer "male" counselors for pro-

portionately more problems than females prefer "female"

 

lKoile and Bird, loc. cit.

150
counselors was not supported. Fuller'sl findings were
supported that male non-clients prefer "male" counselors
more frequently and "female" counselors less frequently
than do female non-clients.

On the whole, however, among the several character-
istics studied, counselor §g§_was considered of little
importance to students when seeking help for personal
prOblems of sex and anger. Contrary to previous assump-
tions that counselor sex is an important variable in
student expectation of counselor help, it is noteworthy
that the students in this study do not rank counselor sex
highly. Other characteristics of the counselor are more
highly valued by students of education at Michigan State

University.
Professional Implications

Professional implications appear in six areas from
the findings in this study.
1. Education about counselor rolg, Even though the
college counselor may view himself as able to help

students with personal problems, this study

 

1Fuller, 10c. cit.

 

151
suggests that students need to know that coun-
selors are available for giving such help.
Further education of the university student pOp-
ulation about the function and role of the col-
lege counselor as one able to help with personal
prOblems is indicated. The study further provides
direction as to specific content in this endeavor.
Students should be made aware that counselors are
able to help them with problems of relationship
with the Opposite sex and anger, for both problems
appear relevant to the student pOpulation under
study.
Assignment Of counselees to counselor. It seems
apparent from this study that the "value" dimen-
sion is a significant one for education students
considering counselor help for problems of sex ‘
and anger. Another dimension is added to the cur-
rent dialog about the function of the interrela-
tionship of counselor and client values in the
counseling process. The "value" variable is not
only relevant during, but 2312; to the counseling

process and may be a factor in later evaluation

152
of counseling effectiveness and client satisfac-
tion. Furthermore, when decisions are made in
intake interviews about counselors to work with
particular clients, client preferences for coun—

selors who hold the same values as they do should

 

be taken into account in facilitating the counsel-
ing relationship. Counselors need to be aware

that it is important to potential education student
clients that they share the same values with their
counselor.

This study also suggests that consideration
should be given to client assignment on the basis
Of the "value" and "experience" factors more than
on the counselor "sex" factor. The students under
study consider the sex of the counselor as the
least important among the several counselor char-
acteristics. Female students of education, par-
ticularly, not only place the sex of the counsel-
or low in the ranking of characteristics viewed
as helpful, but furthermore do not have strong

preferences for either a male or a female coun-

selor for help with personal prOblems.

153
Relevance Of type of problem to counselor method.
Type of problem has been shown to be related to
the kind of person from which potential clients
expect to receive help. For example, male stu-
dents expect to benefit from counseling less for
the problem of sex than anger. Awareness of this
information could be useful in counselor choice
of response elicitation techniques. Furthermore,
it might prove valuable for counselors who are
more comfortable with elicitation Of anger res-
ponses to work with male education student clients
when they appear for counseling.

Regardless of label attached to method used
by the counselor, it has been demonstrated, more-
over, that education students value being under—
stood and listened to more than being asked ques-
tions and having their behavior interpreted by
the counselor, especially for problems related
to sex. This student perception might be consid-
ered in decisions about counseling strategy when
working with this problem.

Counselor training. Even though it is recognized

that some students View non-professional persons

154
as helpful to them in dealing with personal
prOblems, the students in this study value the
professional more than the non-professional.
It would follow from this that support is given
to those in the profession who feel that extend-
ed graduate education should be stressed within
the profession. The students in this study
strongly preferred counselors with advanced
graduate training.

Hiringkof counselors. This study has shown

 

that counselor "age" does not appear to be a
significant consideration in student views of

a helpful person. Counselor experience, regard-
less of age, however, does appear to be important.
This information could be helpful in standard
setting for hiring practices and policies.

Locale for Counseling. Acquaintance with the

 

cunselor appears to be valued particularly by
male education students seeking help for prob-
lems of sex. This finding would suggest that
administrative personnel concerned with providing
total student services for the education student

consider the possibility of adding counselors to

155
the faculty and placing them in situations
where they might get to know the student on

a personal basis prior to counseling contact.
Implications for Further Research

This study as enlarged the body of knowledge about
counselor image and role held by university students of
education who are non—clients and has provided a basis
for further exploration of student perceptions of coun-
selor characteristics viewed as helpful to students for
two basic personal problems of effective human function-
ing. However, further research extending the findings
Of this study is needed.

1. For replication Of the study, the following

suggestions are made:

(a) Extension of the pOpulation studied to
include samples of university education
students from other large universities
and small liberal arts colleges in Order to
compare conclusions about counselor image
held by education students in general.

Environmental press may be a contributing

factor.

(b)

156
Examination of the same counselor character-
istics used in this study. However, more
precise descriptions of these characteristics
should be provided as a basis for conclusions.
For example, descriptions of the counselor
methods which would make the "interpreting"
and "reflecting methods more dissimilar is

suggested. Likewise, counselor experience

 

should explicitly refer to years and/Or

type of experience. Furthermore, clarifica-
tion of the relationship between ggg_and
experience is indicated. The concept

acgpaintance with the counselor should be

 

refined to mean "personal" or "by reputation."
In addition, the relationship of acquain-

tance to accessibility should be made clear.

2. Extension of this study should be made by:

(a)

A study of a pre and post client population
as well as a non—client population to compare
differences in counselor image and role
which may exist prior to initial contact

with the counselor.

(b)

(C)

(d)

157
Additional exploration of the relationship
of type of personal prOblem to student per-
ception Of counselor image is indicated.
This study suggests that students view coun-
selors as able to help with problems of anger
more than problems of sex. Would this conclu-
sion be drawn when other problems are compar-
ed with the present ones? Furthermore, are
the findings of this study more related to
student values, prior experience, or anxiety?
Clarification of the function of the various
idiosyncratic and normative factors influencing
attitudes about types of problems would be
meaningful.
Assessment of the value systems which students
hold and apparently desire Counselors to hold

with them is pr0posed. Because counselor

values were ranked high in student preferences

among the examined counselor characteristics,
this area Of research would be enlightening.

Measurement of student manifest anxiety would

be apprOpriate so that correlation of these

(e)

(f)

158
anxiety measures with aduussions of "discom-
fort" about control of sexual and hostile
impulses reported by students in this study
could be made. The effect of the anxiety
factor on stated individual student percep-
tions should likewise be studied.
Development of more precise methods of dif-
ferentiating among the factors involved in
the sex-role behavioral responses is advisable.
Study of additional charaCteristics of coun—
selors viewed by students as integral to

counselor image and role should be examined.

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Fiedler, F.E. "The Concept of an Ideal Therapeutic Rela-
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APPENDIX

APPENDIX A

STUDENT

PREFERENCES

FOR

CERTAIN

COUNSELOR

CHARACTERISTICS

A

SURVEY

NO.

IDirections:

PURPOSE:

167

This questionnaire is designed to assess those personal character-
istics which students would value most highly in their selection

of a person to help them with their feelings of discomfort centered
around relationships with the opposite sex and anger.

Section I asks for general information.

SectionII is a task designed to orient you to some feelings you may
have about the opposite sex; Section III asks you to rank your pref-
erences for a certain group of counselor characteristics you‘would
choose when selecting a person to help you with these feelings; and
Section IV asks you for particular preferences in relation to each
of the described characteristics.

Section V is designed to orient you to some feelings you may have
related to anger; Section VI asks for a second ranking of the same
counselor characteristics you might choose in selecting a person to
help you with feelings of anger, and Section VII asks once again for
your particular preferences in relation to each of the characteris-
tics previously described.

The information asked for will remain anonymous and confidential.

Your answers on this questionnaire will in no way effect the evalua-
tion of your work for this course. Thank you for your cooPeration.

SECTION I

On the accompanying answer sheet, please mark the space which corres-

ponds to the requested information about yourself for Items 1-15.
Mark no more than one response for each item. Be sure to mark your
answers with heavy black marks.

YOUR SEX:

YOUR AGE:

YOUR CLASS:

YOUR COLLEGE:

1. Male

2. Female
1. 15-19
2. 20‘24
3. 25-29

4. 29 or over

1. Freshman
2. Sophomore
3. Junior
4. Senior

5. Graduate

Agriculture

Arts and Letters

Business

Communication Arts

Education

Home Economics

Natural Science

Social Science

Veterinaryy Medicine Continue on Page 2
No Preference

Q O O Q ~ Q ' 0

OOWMO‘U'L‘WNH

p—n

' 2' 168

5. YOUR FATHER'S INCOME: 1. Below $5,000
2. $5,000 - $9,999
3, $10,000 - $14,999
4, Over $15,000

6. YOUR FATHER'S LAST EDUCATION: 1. Elementary school
2. Secondary school
3. College (No degree)
4. College (Bachelor's degree)
5. Graduate school (Master's degree)
6. Graduate school (Doctoral degree)

7. YOUR GRADE POINT AVERAGE: 1. 2.00
2. 2.01 - 2.49
3. 2.50 - 2.99
4. 3.00 - 3.49
5. 3.50 or over

YOUR FORMER EXPERIENCE WITH COUNSELING: (Leave blank those items which are not
applicable to you. If both responses are applicable, mark them both.)

8. HIGH SCHOOL, PERSONAL: 1. Individual
2. Group

9. HIGH SCHOOL, EDUCATIONAL-VOCATIONAL: 1. Individual
2. Group

10. M.S.U., PERSONAL-SOCIAL: 1. Individual
2. Group

11. M S.U., EDUCATIONAL-VOCATIONAL: 1, Individual
2. Group

12. PRIVATE PROFESSIONAL, PERSONAL-SOCIAL: 1. Individual
2. Group

SEX OF YOUR FORMER COUNSELOR:

13. HIGH SCHOOL COUNSELOR: 1. Male
2. Female

14. M.S.U. COUNSELOR: 1. Male
2. Female

15. PRIVATE PROFESSIONAL COUNSELOR: 1. Male
2. Female

Continue on Page 3.

-3- 169

SECTICON II

Directions: As you read the statements for Items 16-25, insert the responses

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

where the asterisk (*) appears for each one. Then mark the space on
the answer sheet corresponding to the completed statement which most
accurately describes your usual behavior in each instance.

I am * attracted to a member Of the Opposite sex who is unattainable or not
interested in me.

1. Always
2. Usually
3. Rarely
4. Never

If I were to have impulses and fantasies about the Opposite sex, I would *
feel guilty.

1. Always
2. Usually
3. Rarely
4. Never

I * blame myself for not having more social eXperiences with members of the
Opposite sex.

1. Always
2. Usually
3. Rarely

4. Never

1 * feel cheated because I have not had more opportunities for social exper-
iences with the Opposite sex.

1. Always
2. Usually
3. Rarely

4. Never

As far as my social relationships with the opposite sex are concerned, I *
feel inadequate.

1. Always

2. Usually
3. Rarely

4. Never

I * find myself easily attracted to members of the Opposite sex.

1. Always

2. Usually
3- Rarely

4. Never

Continue on Page 4.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

'4' 170

If I see a member of the Opposite sex to whom I am attracted, I * find it
difficult to think of anything else for a long while.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Always
Usually
Rarely
Never

I * feel discomfort because of one or more of the above statements.

0

bUNL-J

Always
Usually
Rarely
Never

If I had feelings of discomfort due to my relationships with the Opposite sex,
I would * hesitate to talk with a counselor about those feelings.

2.
3.
4.

Always
Usually
Rarely
Never

If I had feelings of discomfort about my relationships with the Opposite sex,
I feel I could * benefit from seeking help for this discomfort.

l.
2.
3.
4.

Definitely
Probably
Slightly
Never

1 found answering the items in this section

1.
2.
3.
4.

easy.
interesting.
difficult.
disturbing.

Eontinue on Page 5.

Directions:

-5- 171

SECTION III

For this section, you are asked to rank the following seven charac-
teristics which describe the counselor you would choose to help
you with your feelings about your relationships with the opposite
sex.

In answering this section, find the characteristic which would be
most helpful to you in choosing this counselor. Place a (1) in
the blank to the left of that characteristic pg this sheet. Do not
use the answer sheet yet. Place a (2) to the left of the character-
istic which is next most important to you, and continue to number
the characteristics in the order of their importance to you. The
characteristic you see as being least important should have a (7)
beside it. Each item ( 27-33) must have a different rank.

27. Sex of the counselor.

28. Age of the counselor.

29. Education of the counselor.

30. Experience of the counselor.

31. Values held by the counselor.

32. Method used by the counselor.

33. Prior acquaintance with the counselor.

After you have completed this ranking (1-7) for the seven character-
istics, mark each item (27-33) on the answer sheet with the number
corresponding to the rank you have given that characteristic.

Continue on Page 6.

-6- 172

SECTION IV

Diggptiong: For this section, place a mark in the space corresponding to the

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

4CL

description of the particular qualification you would prefer for each
of the characteristics you have just ranked. Keep in mind that you
are choosing a counselor to help you with feelings about your relation-
ship with the opposite sex. Be sure to answer each question with

only pg; mark.

When considering the sex of the counselor, I would
1. prefer a male counselor.
2. prefer a female counselor.

3. have no preference.

When considering the age of the counselor, I would

1. prefer a counselor 20~29 years of age.

2. prefer a counselor 30-39 years of age.

3. prefer a counselor 40-49 years of age.

4. prefer a counselor 50 years of age or older.
5. have no preference.

When considering the education of the counselor, I would

1. prefer a professionally trained person.
2. prefer a person without professional training.
3. have no preference.

When choosing a professionally trained person, I would prefer a person with

1. a M.A. degree in counseling.

2. a Ph.D. degree in counseling psychology.
3. a Ph.D. degree in clinical psychology.
4. an M.D. degree.

When choosing a non-professionally trained counselor, I would prefer a
l. confidante.

2. teacher.

3. minister.

When considering the experience of the counselor, I would

 

. prefer a person with less than two years of exPerience.
. prefer a person with two to five years Of experience.

. prefer a person with more than five years of eXperience.
. have no preference.

1‘me

When considering values held by the counselor, I would
I. prefer a person with the same values as mine.
2. prefer a person with different values from mine.

3. have no preference.

Continue on Page 7.

’7' 173

41. When considering the method used by the counselor, I would

I. prefer a person who would challenge me, ask me questions, interpret my

feelings.
2. prefer a person who would make me feel comfortable, listen to me, and

understand my feelings.
3. have no preference.

42. When considering agguaintanceship with the counselor, I would

I. prefer a counselor whom I already know.
2, prefer a counselor I HO not know.
3. have no preference.

Continue on Page 8.

Directions:

 

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

4th

’8’ 174

SECTION V

As you read the statements in this section, once again insert the

responses where the asterisk (*) appears for each one. Then mark
the space on the answer sheet corresponding to the completed state-
ment which most accurately describes your usual behavior in each

instance.

I * lose my temper.

waH
0

Always
Usually
Rarely
Never

If I were to be pushed around or imposed upon by others, I would * feel

resentful.

Always
Usually
Rarely
Never

If I were mistreated by another person, I would * feel free to complain.

bump—-
C

If my relationships with
with myself.

waH
so

Always
Usually
Rarely
Never

others were unsatisfactory, I would * feel angry

Always
Usually
Rarely
Never

I * remain angry after the occasion which has made me angry has passed.

bump-4
Coo

After I have been angry,

hunter—4
.0

Always
Usually
Rarely
Never

I * find myself angry with innocent bystanders.

Always
Usually
Rarely
Never

Continue on Page 9.

49.

SO.

51.

52.

53.

'9‘ 175

When another person has hurt me, I * feel depressed.

1.
2.

3
4.

Always
Usually
Rarely
Never

I * feel discomfort because Of one or more of the above statements.

Always
Usually
Rarely
Never

If I had feelings Of discomfort about my anger, I would * hesitate to talk
with a counselor about these feelings.

O

bump-4

Always
Usually
Rarely
Never

If I had feelings Of discomfort about my anger, I feel I could * benefit

from seeking help for

bump-4
.0.

I found answering items in

this discomfort.

Definitely
Probably
Slightly
Never

this section
easy.
interesting.

difficult.
disturbing.

Continue on Page 10.

Directions:

'10“ 176

SECTION VI

For this section, you are asked once again to rank the same seven
characteristics you saw in Section III. In this instance, however,
consider your preferences in relation to describing the counselor
you would choose to help you with your feelings of discomfort about
anger.

Find the characteristic which would be most helpful to you in choos-
ing this counselor. Place a (1) in the blank to the left of that
characteristic pp this sheet. Do not use the answer sheet yet.
Place a (2) to the left of the characteristic which is next most
important to you, and continue to number the characteristics in
the order of their importance to you. The characteristic you see
as being least important to you should have a (J) beside it. Each
item (54-60) must have a different rank.

54. Sex Of the counselor.

55. Age of the counselor.

56. Education of the counselor.

57. Experience of the counselor.

58. Values held by the counselor.

59. Method used by the counselor.

60. Prior acguaintgnce with the counselor.

After you have completed this ranking (1-7) for the seven character-
istics, mark each item (54-60) on the answer sheet with the number
corresponding to the rank you have given that characteristic.

Continue on Page 11.

-11-
177

SECTION VII

Directions: Once again, place a mark in the space corresponding to the description

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

of the particular qualification you would prefer for each of the
characteristics you have just ranked. Keep in mind this time thatyou
are choosing a counselor to help yo: with discomfort related to your
feelings of anger. Be sure to answer each question with only one mark.

When considering the sex of the counselor, I would

1. prefer a male counselor.
2. prefer a female counselor.
3. have no preference.

When considering the age of the counselor, I would

prefer a counselor 20-29 years of age.
prefer a counselor 30-39 years of age.
prefer a counselor 40-49 years of age.
prefer a counselor 50 years of age or okier.
. have no preference.

I

9

£119me
I

When considering the education of the counselor, I would

1. prefer a professionally trained person.
2. prefer a person without professional training.
3. have no preference.

When choosing a professionally trained person, I would prefer a person with
l. a M.A. degree in counseling.

2. a Ph.D. degree.in counseling psychology.

3. a Ph.D. degree in clinical psychology.

4. an M.D. degree.

When choosing a non-professionally trained counselor, I would prefer a

1. confidante.

2. teacher.

3. minister.

When considering the experience of the counselor, I would

 

. prefer a person with less than two years of experience.
prefer a person with two to five years of experience.

. prefer a person with more than five years of experience.
. have no preference.

wat—I

When considering values held by the counselor, I would

1. prefer a person with the same values as mine.
2" prefer a person with different values from mine.

3“ have no preference.
Continue on Page 12.

on.

09.

70.

ii.

178

.11-

such considering the method used by the counselor, i would

i. prefer a person who would challenge me, ask me questions, interpret

my feelings.

J. prefer a person who would make me feel comfortable, listen to me, and

understand my feelings.

3. have no preference.

when considering acquaintanceship with the counselor, i would

i. prefer a counselor whom I already know.

:. prefer a counselor I do not know.

3. have no preference.

iAhITAL STATUS: a. Single

SECTION I (Continued;

b. Married
c. Divorced
d. Lidowed

b.
C.
d.
e.
f.

Roman Catholic

Protestant: fundamentalist
Protestant: liberal
Jewish

Other

None

*aufii:

Jefore turning this questionnaire in, please go back and
check to see that you have marked all questions on the
answer sheet. Spaces 1 - 71 whould be used, with the
exception of Items 8-15, which should be marked only if
appropriate to you.

L..—

 

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'IN I"

APPENDIX B
179

Dec. 1, 1965

MEMO TO EDUCATION 200 INSTRUCTORS

I will be using a questionnaire entitled: "Student
Preferences for Certain Counselor Characteristics" which
is to be given on December 1, Tuesday, at both sections
following the scheduled film. The time required will de-
pend on individual speed of each student, but it should
average about 20 minutes. ;

On December 6, you will be provided with enough
questionnaires, answer sheets and pencils for both of your
sections. This will be done in order that any questions
you may have can be answered in advance. Please keep a
tight security check on these questionnaires. This is
essential. The questionnaires should not be given at an- ,_
other time because possible conversation about the ques-
tions among the students will interfere with the results.

 

The instructions which need to be given are minimal.
Tell the students not to fill in any information on the
answer sheets and to ignore the number blank on the question-
naire itself. There is to be no identification whatsoever
on these questionnaires or answer sheets. Hewever, because
of this, it is essential that you make certain that they hand
in both the answer sheet and the questionnaire. Please
watch them for this cheek.

After each class period, will you please return both
used and unused questionnaires along with the answer sheets
to me. Return the pencils at the end of the second class
period. A check will be made as to the number of ques-
tionnaires taken and returned.

YOur cooperation is appreciated.

MARISA KEENEY

180

APPENDIX C

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nooscfluaoov O OOOOH

AUTOB I OGRAP HI CAL STATEMENT

Name: Miss Marisa Keeney
Birth: December 11, 1927, Amarillo, Texas

Education: Amarillo High School, Amarillo, Texas, June,
1945; Amarillo College, Amarillo, Texas, June, 1947;
Trinity University, San Antonio, Texas, June 1949, A.B.;
Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton, New Jersey,
June, 1952, M.R.E. (Prin.); Michigan State University,
East Lansing, Michigan, December, 1966, Ph.D. in
Counseling Psychology.

{I I . .mmu—m’. ..s. -
. .

Positions: Director of Educational Services, Mt. Lebanon
Presbyterian Church, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
August, 1952 - August, 1956; Director of Educational
Services, First Presbyterian Church, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, August, l956-August, 1963; Assistant
Instructor, Counseling Center, Michigan State
University, East Lansing, Michigan, September, 1963 -
June, 1964; June, 1965 - September, 1965; June, 1966 -
September, 1966; Assistant Instructor and Instructor,
College of Education, Department of Counseling,
Personnel and Educational Psychology, September, 1964 -
September, 1966; Counselor, Counseling and Testing
Bureau, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan,
September, 1966 -.

Memberships: The American Personnel and Guidance Associ-
ation; The National Association of WOmen Deans and
Counselors; The National VOcational Guidance
Association; Michigan Personnel and Guidance Associ-
ation; Delta Kappa Gamma.

Travel: England, France, Germany, Switzerland, Austria,
Italy, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Canada,
the United States.

Publications: "Conviction and Climate," Discovery.
Westminster Press, January, 1964.

186

(.