(ID—IN to‘lS WI MSU LIBRARIES ” RETURNING MATERIALS: P1ace in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES w111 be charged if book is returned after the date stamped be10w. INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PARENTS' PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR.MARRIAGE AND THEIR.EXPERIENCES AS PARENTS By Stacy Jacobson A THESIS Smeitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirenents for the degree of MASTER.OF ARTS Department of Psychology 1986 ABSTRACT INTERRELATICXGHIPS BETWEEN PARENTS' PEKZEPTIQ‘IS OF THEIR MARRIAGE AND THEIR EXPERIENCES ASPARENI‘S By Stacy Jacobson Twenty three mothers and 16 fathers of small children completed an interview about their parenting experiences . Perceptions of the marital relationship were used to predict the parents' feelings of confidence and control and self- versus child-focused gratifications. thasures of marital intinacy and the quality of the parenting alliance successfully predicted parents' sense of confidence and control, respectively; but neither marital variable predicted self— versus child-focused gratifications. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABIES. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O IWUIwo O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 mm. C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Participants......... Measures Parentalueasures........... 'l‘heMarital Relationship. . . . . . . . Procedures................. RESLJIJTS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Relationships among the Parental Experience DMionS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O The Effects of Marital Intimacy and the Parmtmg A1 11mm 0 I O O O O O O O O O O O DI$USSIwO O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O APPMIX A. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 We 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 ii Page iii 13 13 16 20 27 LISI‘ OF TABLES Table Page 1 Mean Parental Experience Scores for Mothers (MO) and Fathers (FA) Broken Down by Marital Intimacy and Parmtilig Alli-aria. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 14 iii INTHDDUCTION Marital satisfaction and adjustment have been the focus of a large body of family research (Burr, 1970; Hicks & Platt, 1970; Rollins & Cannon, 1974; Spanier & Lewis, 1980) . Many studies in this area examine the association between the quality of the marital relationship and children's adjustment. For example, OlUnanns, Broderick, and O'Ieary (1977) in a study comparing clinic and control families report a strong negative correlation between marital adjustment and the severity of children's behavior problems. Similarly, other studies report findings linking the marital relationship to child problems (Emery, 1982; Ieighton, Stollak, & Ferguson, 1971; O'Leary & Emery, 1983; Satir, 1964; Wolff & Acton, 1968) . Several investigators suggest that the influences between marital quality and child adjustment are bidirectional, and some have focused in particular on the child's effect on the parents' marriage (Belsky, Spanier, & Ravine, 1983; Figley, 1973; Rollins & Galligan, 1978; Russell, 1974; Ryder, 1973). However, as Kaye (1982) suggests and as family therapists presume (see Minuchin, 1985) , it is likely that parents are the more influential agents in a family, especially when children are young. Clinical evidence in fact suggests that for optimal child adjustment parents' influence M be greater than that of their children (Minuchin, 1974; Ieibman, Honig, & Berger, 1976). Many family therapists assume, for example, that parents are the more powerful and influential men'bers of the family system and design their interventions accordingly (Haley, 1976; Minuchin & Fishnan, 1981). As Minuchin (1985) 1 2 explains, therapists treating families believe that parents' effective- ness is dependent upon their greater influence and that a child is responsive "because of his direct experience that father and mother support each other" (p. 296). Presumably the quality of the marriage makes it inpact on child development via its effect on parenting attitudes and behaviors. Adthough most studies have not included marital adjustment, parental attitudes and child behavior variables in a single design, a number of studies do link marital adjustment to parental attitudes and feelings. Grossman, Eichler, and Winickoff (1980) found that a good marital relationship positively influenced ccuples' later adaptation to pregnancy and childbirth. Also, Heath's (1976, 1977) longitudinal study of paternal competence showed that fathers and mothers who reported having happier marriages and better communication, including in the area of child-rearing, mutually agreed that they were more competent as parents. Adthough Goldberg and Easterbrooks' (1984) study of marital quality and toddler development was based on cross-sectional rather than longitudinal data, it provided further support for a relationship between the marital and parenting systems. Mothers in their study reporting higher levels of marital adjustment on the Spanier Dyadic Adjustment Scale expressed more warmth, encouraged independence in their toddlers more, and reported feeling less aggravation; fathers who reported higher levels of marital adjustments also reported less aggravation. Sudh findings add.weight to the suggestion that the “relative quality of marital functioning may be a critical factor in explaining variations" (Goldberg & Easterbrooks, 1984, p. 506) in parenting. 3 This study examines how parents' perceptions of their relationship with their spouse affect their experiences as parents. Psychoanalytic writers argue that three aspects of parents' subjective experience are especially important in explaining differences in parenting behavior: These include feelings of confidence, sense of control, and investments in self-versus child-focused gratifications (Anthony & Benedek, 1970; Benedek, 1959; Coleman, Kris, & Provence, 1953; Cohen, Oohler, & Weissman, 1984; Machtlinger, 1981; Steele & Pollock, 1968) . It is likely that differences along these parenting dimensions are interrelated. For example, clinical observations suggest that insecure parents look to their children to gratify unfulfilled wishes for nurturance and self-esteem and find it difficult to enjoy their offspring as separate, unique individuals. Moreover, because they view their children's discomfort or misbehavior as a reflection on their own self-worth, they are more likely to lose control and to respond to minor difficulties with inappropriate anger or rage. Several have linked one or more of these parental experience dimen- sions to emotional rejection of children by normal parents (Main & Goldwyn, 1984) as well as to emotional cruelty, neglect, and abuse by parents from samples of clinic populations (Azar, Robinson, Hekimian, & Twentyman, 1984; Herrenkohl, Herrenkohl, & Egolf, 1983; Rosenberg & Repucci, 1983; Spinetta & Rigler, 1972). Hence, the investigation of the marital relationship and its link to these three dimensions of parental experiences can inform efforts to treat and prevent child and parent-child problems. The marital relationship and parenting experience dimensions. Belsky (1981; 1984) proposes that the marital relationship is the principal support system for parents. Likewise, Goldberg and 4 Easterbrooks (1984) conceptualize marriage as performing a supportive function. This conceptual framework provides a way of understanding how the quality of the parents' marriage might affect mothers' and fathers' feelings and attitudes about parenting. Confidence. For example, Cochran and Brassard (1979) hypothesize that social support increases self-esteem and therefore enhances patience and sensitivity. And in fact, studies done with parents have found an association between support from the spouse and general well-being and parental functioning (Coletta, 1979; Pascoe, Ioda, Jeffries, & Easp, 1981) . Gibaud-Wallston and Wandersman found that fathers who felt more supported by their wives reported a greater sense of competence as fathers. Importantly (in regard to the earlier discussion of direction of influence) , this relationship was independent of their infant's temperament. Unexpectedly, however, in a study of mothers (Mash & Johnston, 1984) , the mother's ratings of their om competence were related to the father's perception of the child. (Mothers whose spouse perceived the child as a problem reported feeling less skillful and knowledgeable and therefore, less competent as a parent.) Although these findings were unanticipated, they furnish clues about the importance of the mother's perceptions of the father's parental attitudes as a mediating factor in the mother-child relationship (Lamb, 1978; Lewis, Feiring, & Weinraub, 1982; Mash, 1984). Control. level of support and experiences of the marital rela- tionship can also influence mothers' and fathers' feelings of control and parents' capacity to discipline their children. Goldberg and Fasterbrooks (1984) found that fathers who were observed to have more difficulty resolving differences with their wives about common child-parent conflicts also reported feeling greater levels of 5 aggravation toward their toddlers. In addition, spouses who reported a high level of hostility in their marriages also more frequently used punishment rather than rational methods of discipline (Dielman, Barton, & Cattell, 1977) . In a similar vein, Bandura and Walters (1959) found that mothers who felt less affection and closeness towards their husbands tended to scold their sons more frequently. Self- versus child-focused gratifications. 'lhe third dimension talked about by analytic writers focuses on the degree to which parents' gratifications are self- versus child-focused. Analytic writers have observed that parents differ in their ability to enjoy their children as separate, unique individuals. Parents who derive self-focused gratifi- cation from parenting tend to view their children's successes, or alternatively, their discomfort or misbehavior, as a reflection on their own self-worth. On the other hand, child-focused parents are able to appreciate their children independently of themselves and enjoy seeing the world through the child's eyes. Hoffman (1976) suggests that mothers in conflict-laden marriages turn to their children to compensate for loss of emotional support or to increase their interpersonal power. Often this takes the form of an overly strong motherhchild alliance. Goldberg and Easterbrooks' (1954) study provides an ironic twist to Hoffman's hypothesis that children can be used for ”substitute gratification." They found that mothers were more sensitive to their toddlers when they reported lower levels of marital adjustment. As psychoanalytic writers suggest, increased sensitivity to children in the face of low marital satis- faction may be a symptom of narcissistic expectations and demands (Benedek, 1959; Chodorow, 1978; Schwartz, 1984). 6 Defining the marital relationships. In attempting to understand how the marital relationship affects parental feelings of confidence, control, and self- versus child-focused gratifications, it is necessary to look at how spouses' perceptions of the marital relationship have been defined. Most studies have focused on differences in levels of intimacy or satisfaction (Spanier & Lewis, 1980). Belsky (1979; 1981; 1984) , however, in describing his process model of parenting stresses the importance of looking at the influence the spousal and parenting relationships have on each other. Accordingly, Belsky's conceptuali- zation of the marriage includes a partnership component, thus acknch ledging that mothers' and fathers' capacity to work together is likely to directly affect the ability to parent effectively. To get a parents' perceptions of their marriage, Belsky et al. (1983) asked them to weight the saliency of various components of their marriage by dividing fifteen pennies among the categories Romance, Partnership, and Friendship in the last trimester of pregnancy, and at l, 3, and 9 months postpartum. Partnership scores showed a significant linear increase, especially from 3 to 9 months postpartum, and Romance scores showed a linear but nonsignificant decline. In a similar vein, Cohen and Weissman (1984) make a distinction between marital intimacy and the parenting alliance, with the latter presumably drawing more on the partnership component talked about by Belsky. Cohen and Weissman hypothesize that parents who mutually "acknowledge, respect, and value the parenting roles and tasks of the partner" (p. 35) can competently and creatively meet the demands of parenting even in the absence of intimacy. However, others point out that marital intimacy serves to enhance positive parenting experiences by meeting spouses' emotional reeds, and thereby ensuring parents' 7 availability to the child (Belsky, 1984; Pedersen et al., 1977). Conceivably, as Goldberg and Easterbrodks' (1984) findings suggest, both marital harmony and a good alliance between parents contribute to positive parental attitudes and sensitive parenting. The present study. In sum, both clinical observations and empirical findings suggest that a better marital relationship will be related to more adaptive parental attitudes and feelings. Moreover, several theorists have suggested that it is important to distinguish between marital intimacy and the parenting partnership or alliance in understanding the influence of the marital relationship on parenting. In the present study marital intimacy and the parenting alliance were used to explain differences in parents' feelings of confidence, sense of control, and self— versus child-focused gratifications. The study tested the hypothesis that parents' experiences of confidence and control and the types of gratification they derived from being a parent would be interrelated. In particular, parents reporting higher levels of confidence were expected to report greater control and more Child-focused gratifications; and parents reporting greater control were also expected to be more child-focused. A second and more important hypothesis was that parents who reported higher levels of intimacy and a better parenting alliance would also report more confidence and control and more child-focused gratifications. Participants The parent sample was part of a larger sample of young adults involved in an ongoing study of intergenerational relationships that had begun 12 months prior to the present investigation. The larger sample was randomly selected from the 1970—71 and 1973-74 graduation lists of a midwestern high school in a predominantly white, middle class suburb. Young adults whose families could be located were asked to participate if both natural parents were still living together and the young adult lived within two hours driving distance of the parental home. Of the 98 young adults in the larger sample, 42 were parents; 39 agreed to be interviewed about their parenting experiences . The 23 mothers and 16 fathers were between 25 and 31 years of age (_M = 27.8) . All were white and had an average educational level (Hollingshead, 1957) of 2.6 (S2 = 1.0). The fathers' average occu- pational status was 3.7 (_S_Q = 2.0); 16 mothers were not working, 1 worked part time, and 6 worked full time. The parents had from 1 to 4 children (M = 1.7; SQ = .1), and each had at least one preschooler. The average age of the youngest child was 2.3 years (Q = 2.2) and the average age of the oldest child was 3.4 years (_82 = 2.8) . One father and two mothers were divorced . The remaining parents had been married from 1 to 12 years (M = 5.3). 9 Measures Parental Experiences A 1 1/2 hour Parenting Interview (see Appendix A) was used to assess the three parental experience dimensions. Responses to questions about a) what the parents most enjoyed and found most difficult about parenting, b) their feelings about each of their children, and c) changes over time in their parenting experiences were used to code each dimension on a 5-point scale . The gratifications scale measures self— versus child-focused gratifications. Parents at the low end of the scale (scores of 1 or 2) saw their children as reflections of themselves (“when she is good, I am good, when she is bad, I am bad”) and used their children to fulfill narcissistic needs for power, love or self-esteem. The remaining parents were child- rather than self-focused. Wereas those at the middle of the scale were proud that they were benefiting their child and society by being a good provider or by proactively participating in their child's moral development (”putting another good human being in the world") , those at the high end appreciated their child's qualities more independently of their own involverent. Parents at the low end of the confidence scale doubted that they had sufficient resources to cope with the demands of parenting, whereas those at the high and viewed parenting as a process and felt they were coping effectively. Parents at the low end of the control scale were often unsuccessful in what they described as a struggle to maintain control over tremselves and their children: whereas a number described themselves as harsh disciplinarians who vigilantly protected their children from outside influences, a few confessed that they avoided a struggle by abtegating responsibility for their children's behavior. In 10 comparison, parents at the high end of the scale described a more comfortable balance between discipline and love and could acknowledge and accept that some situations were out of their control. The Marital Relationship The parenting alliance. Questions on the Parenting Interview about the spouse's contributions to parenting were used to measure the parenting alliance. Parents describing a.w§ak_alliance complained of a lack of support, felt criticized or were critical of their spouse's parenting skills, and indicated an inability or unwillingness to agree on important parenting decisions. Parents classified as having a.§t£9ng alliance described a mutually supportive relationship characterized by shared decisionrmaking and respect for each partner's parenting abilities. Orlofsky, Marcia and Lesser's (1973) Intimacy Status Interview was used to measure marital intimacy. Marriages classified as pseudo-intimate lacked depth and openness. In contrast, marriages classified as intimate were characterized by an appreciation of each partner's unique qualities, open communication, and a capacity to accept and resolve differences. In addition to Orlofsky et al. (1973), studies by Orlofsky (1976) and Fitch and Adams (1983) attest to the reliability and validity of the intimacy measure. Although the intimacy status construct.was originally intended to identify differences in late adolescents' interpersonal capacities, this distinction is used to classify relationships rather than persons. Adthough some parents may have been.capable of developing intimate friendships outside of the marriage, the concern here was with whether or not this capacity for intimacy was realized in their relationship 'with their spouse. 11 Parents completed the Intimacy Interview an average of 13 months before the Parenting Interview. To assess changes between Time 1 and Time 2, I derived a comparable measure of marital intimacy from parents' responses to questions in the Parenting Interview about the effects of having children on the relationship with their spouse. The Orlofsky et a1. categories were used to code these responses Procedures The parents were interviewed in their homes on three separate occasions. Parents completed the Intimacy Interview on the first or second occasion as part of the intergenerational study. Young adults with children were recontacted from 7 to 15 months later to be inter- viewed about their parenting experiences. Because of scheduling and other difficulties the time gap between the two sets of interviews ranged from 7 to 23 months (M = 13 months); 85% of the parents completed the Parenting Interview between 7 and 18 months after the Intimacy Interview. Seven trained interviewers (5 males and 2 females) administered the Intimacy Interview to Parents of tl'eir own sex. Another female interviewer who was unaware of the parents ' responses to the prior interviews did all of the Parenting Interviews. Responses to questions pertaining to each of the variables from the Parenting Interview were typed on separate sheets of paper and all identifying information was removed. The five variables considered in this study were coded by a total of six different raters. Raters used procedures developed by Orlofsky et al. (1973) to code marital inti- macy. The remaining variables were coded using manuals developed by Frank and Hole (1984) . For each variable, a second rater independently 12 coded a random selection of from 15 to 20 protocols to establish interrater reliability. RESUDTS Reliability coefficients for parental gratifications, confidence, and control were all .94. Pairs of raters agreed on at least 90% of the parenting alliance categories and the intimacy statuses at both Time 1 and Time 2. Demographic and other differences among the parents described in the section on participants had no effect on any of the dependent or independent variables . Relationships among the Parental Ebcperience Dimensions Confidence and control were significantly correlated (g (36) = .59; p < .001) . (Coefficients for fathers and mothers were .71 and .44, respectively.) Self- versus child-focused gratifications did not correlate with either of the two other parental experience variables (r's ranged from -.04 to .25). However, when the parental experience dimensions were dichotomized into low versus high, or self- versus child-focused categories (scores of 1 or 2 versus 3, 4, and 5) , there was a significant relationship between self-focused gratifications and low control (‘)C {1, g = 38} = 3.9; E < .05): 79% of the parents describing self-focused gratifications as compared to 46% describing child-focused gratifications reported serious difficulties with control . The Effects of Marital Intimacy and the Parenting Alliance Because only three parents were classified in different intimacy statusesatTimelandTime 2,weonlyusedtheTime1statusesin subsequent analyses. Table 1 shows the mean parental experience scores for mothers and fathers describing intimate and pseudo-intimate 13 14 Table 1 Mean Parental Experience Scores for Mothers (MO) and Fathers (FA) Broken Down by Marital Intimacy and Parenting Alliance Marital Intimacy Pseudo-intimate Intimate a :10. a £9 Confidence M 3.6 2.4 4.6 3.4 _S_g 1.1 1.4 .5 1.0 M 8 10 7 13 Control M 2.8 1.9 3.3 2.2 _S_D 1.5 .9 1.5 1.4 M 8 10 7 13 Gratifications M 3.6 3.1 3.6 2.2 _S_Ig 1.2 1.5 1.4 1.3 M 9 12 7 13 Parenting Alliance Weak Strogg £5 _ a e Confidence M 3.3 2.7 4.3 3.2 E 1.5 1.4 .8 1.1 M 3 12 12 11 Control M 2.0 1.7 3.3 2.5 _82 1.0 .7 1.5 1.4 M 3 12 12 11 Gratifications M 3.5 2.5 3.6 2.7 _S_Q 1.7 1.6 1.2 1.4 M 4 12 12 11 15 marriages and strong versus weak parenting alliances. M's vary slightly because of missing or insufficient data. Approximately half of both the mothers and fathers described intimate marriages; however, somewhat more of the fathers (75%) than the mothers (48%) reported a strong parenting alliance (l, {M = 39] = 2.8; p < .10) . While these two aspects of the marital relationship were interrelated (76 {1, g = 393 = 4.4; p < .05), a lack of intimacy did not preclude a strong alliance. Although 75% of the parents with intimate marriages reported a strong alliance, so did almost half (42%) of the parents with pseudo-intimate relationships . A series of 2 x 2 (Sex x Alliance, or Sex x Intimacy Status) ANOVA's were carried out to assess tl'e effects of the parenting alliance and marital intimacy on the three parenting experience dimensions. Main effects for sex were all non-significant. These analyses did show that mothers and fathers who reported a strong parenting alliance with their spouse felt more in control as parents (_F_‘, {1, 34} - 5.1; p < .05). In addition, parents with intimate marriages reported more confidence (fl {1, 34} = 7.3; p < .01). The parenting alliance was only weakly related to confidence (p < .10) , and marital intimacy had no effect on control; moreover, neither variable predicted self- versus child-focused gratifications . DI $USSION These findings have both tleoretical and applied implications . As several theorists have argued, difficulties experienced by abusive and non-abusive parents may differ more in degree than in kind (Belsky, 1984; Main & Goldwyn, 1984) . In point of fact, evidence that parents who had problems with control were less confident and more self- (rather than child-) focused accords with findings reported in the child abuse literature (Azar et al., 1984; Rosenberg & Repucci, 1983; Steele & Pollock, 1968) . Alternatively, failure to find a significant relation- ship between gratifications and confidence was inconsistent with clinical observations of both abusive and non-abusive parents (Anthony & Benedek, 1970) . However, this relationship might have been stronger had I used a projective measure to assess the parents' self-doubts. For example, self-focused parents who (as some described) derived a sense of power from having ”total control over another human being” might have been unable or unwilling to acknowledge insecurities motivating these attitudes. In any case, given that poor control appears to be related to low confidence as well as to self-focused gratifications, a better understanding of the relationship of all three dimensions to aspects of the parent's relationship may have important implications for preventing and treating cases of child maltreatment. The data supported the predicted relationship between the marital relationship and parenting for sense of confidence and control . Parents reporting more intimate relationships with their spouse had more 16 l7 confident attitudes toward parenting, and parents reporting a good alliance felt a greater sense of control. These findings argue for the concept of the marriage as a support system (see Belsky, 1984; Goldberg & Easterbrooks,, 1984; Minuchin, 1974) and furthermore, elaborate on this notion by beginning to articulate the unique effects of different aspects of the marital relationship on specific parental feelings and attitudes. The importance of distinguishing between the parenting alliance and marital intimacy was corroborated by the present study. There was only a moderate (although statistically significant) degree of associ- ation between these two variables. As many as 42% of the parents reporting pseudo-intimate marriages also described strong parenting alliances. This finding supports the contention that the parenting alliance and marital intimacy are not synonomous constructs. One prediction not supported by the data was that parents with more intimate marriages or with stronger parenting alliances would have more child-focused gratifications. The failure to find an association for gratifications and the marital relationship may reflect.what Gilbert et al. (1984) call a process of displaced maternal tension. In their study of family alliance patterns in distressed and non-distressed families, these researchers found that mothers in distressed families were not especially likely to seek gratification in the mother-child relationship to compensate for a poor marital alliance; rather, these mothers showed greater tension and negative behavior toward the Child they designated as the most disturbed child. likewise, in the present study there was a significant and positive association between sense of control and a good parenting alliance. 18 Additional research examining behavioral differences in mother-child interactions would be useful in clarifying the dimension of self- versus child-focused gratifications. conceivably, certain marital or family contexts may be associated with substitute gratifications described by HOffman (1976), whereas others may be linked to displaced maternal tensions described by Gilbert et al. (1984). In addition, aspects of the marital relationship mediating the relationship to gratifications may not be captured by differences in marital intimacy or the quality of the parenting alliance as these were defined here. From an applied perspective, further explication of the role of the marital relationship and parenting may contribute to the treatment and prevention of child behavior problems. Emery'(1982) reports that parental conflict is associated with child behavior problems in families with intact marriages, families before divorce, and in divorced families. Others have found an inverse relationship between poor marital relationships and level of children's antisocial and aggressive behavior (Block, 1981; Hetherington, Stouwie, & Ridberg, 1971; Kimmel & van Der veen, 1974). These and the findings presented here suggest that the marriage may be the appropriate level of treatment in many cases (Margolin & Christensen, in Emery, 1982). These and other data also suggest that the marriage may be an important link in explaining the association.between parenting, child behavior, and abuse (see Mash, 1984). Fbr example, a study by Burgess and Conger (1983) found that the majority of child abuse incidents occur when parents are attempting to control their children's behavior. In this study the parents' perception of a good parenting partnership with their spouse was a good predictor of their belief that they were able to 19 exercise this control. Presumably, the expectation of control is associated with the ability to control. Generally, the findings presented in this study add to the growing evidence that the husband-wife relationship is an important key to understanding child development and also child abuse. While the results need to be replicated in larger and more heterogeneous samples of parents, one of the strengths of this study was that the parents were “average middle class Americans" rather tran the highly educated, elite groups typically studied in this field (e.g., Weinberg & Richardson, 1981) . Additionally, this study's scope like that of Goldberg and Easterbrooks (1984) deviated from the norm by establishing an association between marriage and parenting beyond infancy and the initial months of parenthood in (Goldberg & Easterbrooks, 1984) . In the future it will be important to determine the strength of the relationship between the quality of marriage and parenting as children get older and develOpmental needs change. Also, while parents' perceptions and psychological realities were the focus of this paper, future research should examine the extent to which parents ' reports of their experience correspond with behavioral assessments of parenting quality and child outcomes. APPENDICES 20 APPENDIX A YOUNG ADULT PARENTIM; INTERVIEW Interviewer Date Code No . l. 3. How many children do you have now? How old are your children? Remembering back to when you first became a parent, what changes did that make in your life? Did you plan to have a child at that time-when you first became a parent? What were your reasons for wanting (or not wanting) a child right then? How do you feel about this now? 21 Young Adult Parenting Interview: 2 Code No. 6. How did your first child affect the way you think about yourself—the type of person you are? 6a. How did this affect your relationship with your (spouse)? 6b. How did it affect your relationship with your parents? IF NOT SPECIFIED—Specifically, how did it affect your relationship with your mother? With your father? 22 Young Adult Parenting Interview: 3 Code No. 7. In your role as a mother (father): (For mothers) What similiarities do you see in the way you mother your child, and the way your mother mothered you? (For fathers) What similarities do you see in the way you father your child, and the way your father fathered you? 7a. How do you account for these similarities? (If none: How do you account for that?) 7b. (If yes): How do you feel about the similarities? 8. What differences do you see? 8a. How do you account for those differences? (If none: How do you account for that?) 8b. (If yes): How do you feel about these differences? 23 Young Adult Parenting Interview: 4 Code No . 9. IF APPLICABLE (IF PURE THAN ONE CHILD) What were your reasons for having more children? 10. What new changes has a larger family made on your life? 10a. How has it affected your relationship with your (husband/wife)? 10b. How has it affected your relationship with your parents? 24 Ybung Adult Parenting Interview: 5 Code No. 11. Most parents have different feelings towards each of their children...How do your feelings differ toward each of your children? ASK ALL: 12. What percentage of your day is spent directly interacting with your children? 12a. What percentage of your day involves indirect interaction with your children? 13. Who helps you with.parenting? 13a. What does your spouse do? 25 Young Adult Parenting Interview: 6 Code No . 14. What do you like most about parenting? 14a. What makes this enjoyable? 15. What do you find most difficult about parenting? (IF R. REFERS TO PAST, ASK ABOUT THE PRESENT.) 15a. What makes this difficult? 15c. What do you do about this? 26 Young Adult Parenting Interview: 7 Code No. 16. At what point was being a parent most difficult for you? 16a. How is it different now? 16b. How do you account for the changes? 17. How has your feelings about parenting changed for you since you had your first child? Anthony, E.J. & Benedek, T. (Eds.). (1970). Parenthood: Its m and psychopathology. Boston: Little, Brown, & Company. Azar, S.T., Robinson, D.R., Heldmian, E., & Twentyman, C.T. (1984). 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