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This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

CATEGORIZING COLOR-MUSIC TEXTURES
IN MUSIC VIDEOS

presented by

Holly Jill Hamilton

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

 

M.A. (19mm, in Telecommunication

 

Major professor

Date March 12z 1987

0-7639 MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

 

 

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CATEGORIZ ING CDLOR-MUSIC TEXTURES IN MUSIC VIDEOS

BY

Holly Jill Hamilton

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Telecommunication

1987

ABSTRACT

CATEGORIZING COLOR-MUSIC TEXTURES IN MUSIC‘VIDEOS

BY
Holly Jill Hamilton

This study concerns a case study approach to five music
videos examining form in terms of color-music combinations:
or texture. Content analysis methods were also used to
obtain textural "content” found within each video. Videos
were taken from the MTV Top 20 Video Countdown from the week
of January 24-30, 1987, and were examined for their colors
and music. Coding broke down color and music schemes within
each video. Four patterns of foam emerged from the study,
including (a) darker colors with "heavier" beats, (b) comple-
mentary color and music elements, (c) bright and warm colors
associated with happy music. and (d) repetition of image or
symbol colors in ”visually dense" videos. From the study it
was clear that form is a good way to examine music videos,

but content is also needed to fully understand music videos.

ACKNCNLEII; MENTS

I would like to thank Robert Albers and Dr. Gretchen

Barbatsis for their time and effort on this project. I

would also like to thank my parents for their patience.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES O I O O O O O O O O O O O O I I

LIST OF FIGURES O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O 0

Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II. LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . .

Color, Form. and Texture

Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Color in Music Videos . . . . . .
Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Music in Music Videos . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

III. METHOD 0 O O O I O O O O O O O O O O 0

Sample: Purposive

COdi ng O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O
Judges . .... . . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IV 0 RESULTS 0 C O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

“You Gotta Fight For YOur Right (to
Party)'--Beastie Boys . .
CO]- or O O O O O O O O O 0
Music . . . . . . . . . .
Texture . . . . . . . . . . .

"You Know I Love Ybu (Don't Yo )'-—

Howard Jones . . . . . .
ml or O O O O 0
Music . . . . .

Texture . . .

iv

Page
vi

vii

“Big Time'--Peter Gabriel .
Color . . . . . . . . . .
Music . . . . . . . . . .
Texture . . . . . . . . .

“Open YOur Beart'--Madonna .
Color . . . . . . . . . .
Music . . . . . . . . . .
Texture . . . . . . . . .

”Land of Cbnfusion'- enesis
Color . . . . . . . . . .
Music . . . . . . . . . .
Texture . . . . . . . .

Patterns of Music Video Textu

Summary . . . . . . . . . .

re

V. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . .

Problems.........

Sample . . . . . . . . . . .
Coding Scheme . . . .
Reliability and Validity . .
Future Analysis . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . .

BBLIWRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

APPENDIX A: CODING INSTRUMENT . . . . .

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
2.1 Color Televisions in the United States . . . . . 21
4.1 Color and Music Elements and Meanings . . . . . . 43

4.2 Texture Meaning (Color/Music Combination) . . . . 44

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
2.1 "Content“ Message System . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Effect-to-Cause Message System . . . . . . . . 16

vii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Since the inception of Music Television in 1981,
Isociety has become aware of the impact of music videos.
Videos have influenced not only fashion, advertising. and
the music industry, but also how society views itself. Many
commentators, for example, have pointed out that the amount
of sex and violence contained in many music videos is detri-
mental to young viewers.1 Others. however. have celebrated
the long-awaited connection between music and video.2
The idea of sound associated with image has been
present for a long time. The viewing public has been accus-
tomed to the idea of sound and picture since the beginning
of the movie industry. Early silent movies were accompanied
by musicians and sometimes orchestras; some movies had their
own sound effects produced right in the theater. Eventu-
ally, talkies became the rage. The first talkie or soundie
was Warner Brothers' The_Jazz_Singer (1927); immediately the

public wanted more. 'As lines formed for anything that

spoke, dilatory theatre owners quickly ordered conversions,

and dialogue sequences were added to films already in pro-
duction."3
As talkies became reality in the 1920s and 19303, film

musicals became the staple for many movie companies. In the
19405, however, a new technology was proving to be a threat
to the movie industry--te1evision. Movie companies, realiz-
ing the threat of the television, used many different types
of movie technology such as Cinerama and advanced color
techniques to entice the viewing public to continue going to
the movie theater.4

Music programs have been a part of television program-

ming since its beginnings. In the 1950s, programs such as

.American_flandstand and.Xonr_Hit_Parade were popular with

teenagers and adults. This programming concept carried over

the 1960s when such programs as Hullabaloo and.Shindig were

5

deve10ped for television. In almost all of these programs,

performers would lip sync their music on stage. Sometimes,
though not often, sets were constructed that complemented

the songs visually. For example, on a Xgnr_flit_£arade
program in 1957, a concept video for the Rays' hit “Silhou-
ettes' was created on stage.

A man and a woman sat on a couch in what appeared to be
a suburban living room; on a table next to the couch
was a lamp. .Xonx_HiL_2azade_s string-laden version of
the song came up. and suddenly the face of the show' s
own Gisele MacKenzie, who sang the song, appeared
superimposed on the lampshade. In a delightfully
naturalistic comic touch, the man abruptly arose from
the couch in apparent disbelief at the proceedings,

before his companion gently tugged him back to the

couch; then the two seated figures became silhouettes,

as did MacKenzie's face on the lampshade. whilthhe
seated figures watched MacKenzie's performance.

In the late 1950s and early 19605, many events were
happening in Europe that would influence the history of
music videos. One of the developments in France was the
'Scopitone,‘ which was a rear screen projection system that
showed short 16-millimeter films of musical artists lip
synching songs.7 Among the artists showcased were Dionne
Warwick, Petula Clark, and Neil Sedaka. The format was a
proving ground for up-and-coming artists as well as direc-
tors.

Such future filmmakers as Claude Lelouch honed their

styles by churning out gaudy, action-packed Scopitone

'mini-movies"--in much the same way that today's rock-

video scene has proved a spawning grognd for a new

generation of feature-film directors.

In the early 19603, the rock music form began to change
in the United States. Many musical groups emerged from
England in what became known as “the British Invasion."
Groups that crossed over to the American charts included
Herman's Hermits, the Dave Clark Five. Gerry and the Pace-
makers, the Rolling Stones, and, most important, the
Beatles.9 The Beatles influenced not only the music of the
time, but also fashion and culture. In the later 19603, the
Beatles created "Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band."
the first concept album, which may have been the print/audio

predecessor of music videos--food for the eye and ear.10

Because of the nature of the psychedelic era, the idea of
joining the visual with the aural did not seem unusual to
the viewing and listening public.
The effect of “Sergeant Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club
Band“ upon the rock-and-roll album as an art form is
immeasurable. In involved the highest production
values, the most imaginative cover art and the most

cohesfye lyrical content of any Beatles album to
date.

Nontraditional film musicals such as Head by the

Monkees and.H£lp and.A_flaLd_Da¥L£_Night (1964) by the

Beatles also contributed to the development of the modern
music video. For example, W (1964),
directed by Richard Lester, used
. . . handheld cinema_1erite, vertiginous montage,
cheeky wit, wonderful performances by the Beatles and
everyone else (everyone appearing to be themselves, in

itself revolutionary), madcap mise- - , and
techniques borrowed from the avant-garde.

The techniques used to give A_Hard_Da¥L£_Night its
unique shape led the way to mainstreaming techniques for
future films and music videos.

By the late 19605 and early 19705, the visual and rock
music combination appeared to decline. However, the combi-
nation was kept alive to a certain degree with such films as
ja§y_fiider and.The_GLadnate because of their rock music
soundtracks and accompanying albums.13 In the late 19708,

music and video reappeared in the form of rock music

"promos."14 At the time, the music industry was slumping as
a result of the economic state of the United States.
The whole business had topped off in 1978, when 726
million records and tapes were shipped to a rock-sotted
world. The next year, the bottom fell out. Revenues
plunged 10.2%. Not only was music caught in the

general economic clinch; there was a feeling that
everything had peaked, maybe even played itself out.

15
According to some in the music industry, sales did not
only fall because of the economic crisis of the country.
According to David Marsh, a well-known rock music critic and
writer, sales also fell because of a lack of creativity and
a reliance on formulas.
. . . At the slightest hint of a decline the reins
[sig--record company management] were tightened and of
course this only exacerbated the problems of overpro-
duction, poor planning and hype. . . . It's no coinci-
dence that the years of the slump coincided with this
rollback of creative slack--or that ”recovery" was
based upon the work of performers who could not have
been predicfgd or created by the record labels
“formulas. "
Because of a decrease in sales, record companies began
a new marketing strategy using the visual with the aural.
“Promos,“ in the form of short film clips of musical groups,
began playing in record stores.17 The films were trans-
ferred to video tape and could be easily cataloged and
played over and over again. Television producers of weekly
countdown programs that recounted the week's record charts
began using these promos in their programs for more inter-
esting visual material. Not only did viewers at home hear

the t0p tunes of the week, they actually saw them. While

video promos entertained, they promoted a product at the
same time-~music, in the form of records and tapes.

In August 1981, several executives at.Warner Communica-
tions put together an all-music network for cable--MTV, or
the Music Television Channel.18 The idea behind the
network's programming was to show what were known earlier as
video "promos" and to incorporate them in a format similar
to a radio station playing hit records. Videos were
separated by music news (read by veejays, an equivalent of a
radio deejay), interviews, and, of course, advertising.

Early MTV programming came under fire because of the
lack of black artists featured. According to such
programming executives as Robert Pittman, Kent Burkhart, and
Les Garland, the programming concept was rock oriented--
perhaps even FM-radio formatted--and black artists did not
fit in MTV's programming.19 Eventually, MTV began to play
music of black artists regularly--a direct result of the
success of Michael Jackson and his “Thriller" album/video
package.20 Since that time, MTV has begun playing black
artists on a regular basis--perhaps its original programming
has changed with the time. VH-l, a branch of MTV, features
softer rock videos than are featured on MTV. Where MTV is
more likely to feature newer I'concept" artists and "heavy
metal" bands, VH-l is likely to play such artists as Barry

Manilow, Dionne Warwick, and the group Air Supply.21

MTV's enormous success has inspired the creation of
other video shows such as “Night Flight" and “Friday Night
Videos.“ MTV has changed in many ways since its inception,
as can be expected. Its audience, once a late-teen to mid-
twenties age group, has now shifted to a younger age group.
Programming has changed as well. Once a proving ground for
,new directors and artists, its focus has shifted from the
innovative to the somewhat conservative. For example,
where new artists were once the focus of MTV, those "new"
artists have become stagnant and have not produced any
greatly innovative material.

. . . Since most new music has reacted to the chance of

public success by becoming completely powderpuff in

both music and articulated sensibility, that's less of a

big deal than MTV or new music partisans claimzzz'new

product“ is probably a more proper dealgnatlon.

The quality of videos shown on MTV has increased
because of digital technology as well as a better under-
standing of the form. It is not uncommon to see, for
example, complex computer-generated graphics. The technol-
ogy of television has also gotten to the point of finer pic-
ture resolution and stereo sound, thus enhancing a video's
visual and aural quality. However, with innovation there
have been some negative consequences. As David Marsh
stated,

. . . It's also worth observing that as the technical

quality of the videos has risen, largely as the result
of working with directors whose experience is in

advertising, so has the amount of casual sexual
stereotyping and, worse, violence against women.

23
Because music videos have greatly influenced society in
the 1980s in the way of advertising, music, fashion, cul-
ture, and how society views itself, it is important to
understand them. However, when one studies them for their
social value, one must understand how they are organized
(i.e., do the visuals alone influence fashion, or must visu-
als be enhanced by music?). One such way of analyzing them
is through the examination of color/music combinations--how
music videos reach the viewer's senses of seeing and hear-
ing. The purpose of this study is to examine pop-rock
videos of 1987, five and one-half years into the influence

of MTV, from the perspective of their color/music construc-

tion or structure.

Summary

The idea of linking film with music has been present
for a long period of time. Although film became p0pu1ar
without sound, it soon became clear that sound linked with
film was the means by which to 'sell' movies to audiences.
Television, which became a viable medium in the 19403 and
19503, also brought music and visual form together. In the
19508 it became clear that the music/visual form was popular
with audiences, and many programs such as‘AmaLinan_BandaLand
and.Hnllabaloo‘were developed. In the 19603, films such as

A_HaLd_Da¥LS_Night and.flalp revitalized the music/visual

form. This form carried over to television again, and
television creators provided such shows as.Tha_Manaas. In
the 19703 the record industry saw a slump in the market for
albums and tapes and developed "promos,'l short film clips of
musical groups, to sell more records. Television program
creators began using "promos" as part of the material found
in many "countdown" shows. In August 1981, MTV, or Music
Television, was created and used "promos" or videos as its
primary programming material. Today it is clear that music
videos, popularized by MTV and its counterparts, have influ-
enced society's culture. Therefore, to better understand
music videos, this study examines videos from the perspec-

tive of their color/music construction or structure.

10

W

1Michael Shore, Web
(London: Rolling Stone Press, Straight Arrow Publishing,
1984). pp. 107-109.

21bid., pp. 13-16.

3David Shipmam WW:
.trated_flistgry, Vol. 1 (London: Hodder and Stoughton,
1984), p. 204.

4Louis Giannetti and Scott Eyman,.Elashbacki__A_Brief
' ' (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
1986). pp. 286-93.

5Shore, p. 30.

611:18., p. 26.

71bid., pp. 27-28.

81bid., p. 28.

9Nicholas Schaffner. Who
W (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1983), pp. 3- 12.

1°1bid., pp. 35-37.

11Charles P. Neises, ed., The_Beatle3_Beader (Ann Arbor:
The Pierian Press, 1984), p. 57.

12Shore, p. 44.
13Ibid., p. 45.

14Rex Moorfoot. WW
innatign (London: British Broadcasting Co., 1982), p. 55.

15Jay Cocks et al., 'Sing a Song of Seeing,“ Time,
December 26, 1983, p. 55.

16David Marsh. W
(New York: Random House, 1985), p. 76.

17Moorfoot, p. 55.

11

18Shore, p. 82.
191bid., p. 190.
2°lhid., pp. 195-96.

21T'ony Seideman, I'MTV Aging Via Second Net,“ Billboard,
September 1, 1986, p. 1.

22Marsh, p. 190.
23Ibid., p. 191.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

W

Television messages comprise two components: form and
content. Content is the information that is to be communi-
cated either in a visual or an aural fashion, while form is
how or in what manner the message is to be presented. In
order for a message to be understood clearly by the
receiver, it is essential for the television creator to use
both form and content in a coherent manner. The question
may be asked as to whether one can function without the
other. According to Tony Schwartz (1974), the answer is
”no" because each has a different though complementary func-
tion within the message.

If we seek to communicate a situation or event, our

problem is not to capture the reality of that

situation, but to record or create stimuli [content]

that will affect the home listener or viewer in a

manner similar to a listener's or viewer's experience

in the real situation. What counts is not reality, as

a scientist might measure it, but the ability to commu-

nicate the situation in a believable, human way [form].l

Content in a televised message can be presented in
several modes. For example, the content in a teleconfers

ence is very compact-~the teleconference's purpose is to

12

13

disseminate information in a short time. Form is merely
skeletal. On the other hand, if the same information were
presented in a dramatic program, the form would be decidedly
different. Form would contain dramatic structures and would
have a definite direction for each program.

As stated above, the content of a message is that
information that is to be provided to the listener or
'viewer. The television creator's job is to create and/or
present a message to the receiver. However, he or she must
keep in mind that messages can be interpreted differently.
Steve Barron, a music video producer/director, describes an
experience in creating the visual content of a music video:

. . . Believe it or not, a lot of time when you ask an
artist what the song is supposed to be about, they say,
"I don't know.“ Or the old tried-and-true explanation,
"The song means whatever people take it to mean." So
you mafig a deliberately ambiguous video in the same
sense.

Russell Mulcahy, another music video producer/director,
states his views regarding content in music videos:

You try to pack as much into a clip as possible with
editing and imagery, so that people can see the clip
over and over and still be noticing things they haven't
before. . . . I always prefer to stay away from a
literal approach to a song and take it to another
level, where people can take it wherever they want.
That's how most musicians feel about their music, too,
so in that sense, a rock video can be “visual music."
Ybu build the abstract, noncommittal quality there to
give it a more universal appeal, and because if peeple
can figure it out, then theyBget bored with it. You
want to keep them intrigued.

14

Form can easily alter the content of a televised
message. For example, a serious message such as drinking
and driving would have one meaning in a comedy program
because of its presentation and form (i.e., comedy sketch).
On the other hand, the message would have a different
meaning on a public affairs program because of its form--
serious, perhaps controversial, messages presented in an
all-knowing fashion. Very often, the television producer
forgets the role of form in a televised message and its
relationship to content. However, it is possible to delib-
erately manipulate production elements to suit or "fit" the
message. According to Herbert Zettl, very often “the
medium is considered a mere distribution device rather than
a production element that has a great influence on the con-
tent as well as its reception by the television audience."4

In reality, form is as important as content in shaping
what Zettl calls the ”process message," the result of the
interplay of message, medium, and viewer. This interplay
often produces a final message significantly altered by the
form of the medium. An example of this could be seen in the
television series.M£A:S£H1. On the surface (form) the
program appeared to be comedic in nature: however, the heart
(content) of the show was something else--a social comment

on war.

15

Many television creators feel that it is not the fault
of the medium or form if the message does not come across as
intended by the content producer. Zettl states that many
times 'content dictates the production procedures,"5 and
many times the television creator agrees with the content
expert "not necessarily because it makes for exciting
television, but because it gets the job done with a
minimum of effort and friction between the client and the
station."6 Although Zettl does not advocate the content
approach, he outlines the process with a diagram from
Severin and Tankard (see Figure 2.1). Zettl believes that a
more systematic approach to producing is using an "effect-
to-cause' system--emphasizing the viewer's experience (see
Figure 2.2).

In W, Zettl
further emphasizes the importance of the fimedium,” or form,
in the communication process:

The media, such as television and film, are not neutral

machines that represent merely a cheap, efficient, and

accessible distribution device for ready-made messages.

On the contrary, the media have a great influence on

the shaping of the message, the way the original event

is clarified and intensified. Television and film
speak their very own aesthetic language: they have
their very own integral part of the total communication
process, not just the channel by which the communica-
tion is sent.

Keeping all this in mind, it is essential to realize

the importance of content and form as separate entities, as

well as the ways in which the two work together. If the two

16

 

 

 

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9

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

content expert content expert medium expert tries recipient of
determines basic gives content to make content fit television-
idea and pro- to medium medium with as little mediated
gram content expert distortion to the con- content

tent as possible

Figure 2.l.--"Content" message system.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

content MEDIUM
! i elements —9
NEED I production meIm
fl #1

1 “555m elements CAUSE I ! CT ‘

l 3 peOple _. i 4
medium requirements definition of desired
for generating process viewer involvement during
message program (process message

1 predicted)

/'—\\

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percipient engaged in perceiving

\ EFFECT .
planned and unplanned feedback ‘ ' P109!“ stimuli
for continual assessment V
and effect evaluation actual process

message

communication effect

Figure 2.2.--Effect-to-cause message system.

17

do not work together in a cohesive manner, the message may
be lost. According to Robert Snow in Creating_fledia
.Cnltnre:

. . . The form of the communication must be immediately

apparent to an audience as there is not enough time to

explain intentions before their attention turns to
something else. Because of the need for predictable
audience response, mass media use forms that are
familiar to the audience and over time agd nuances that
become routine and unique to the medium.

The preceding statement implies that there is little
room for experimentation in the creation of forms. This is
not true, however. Music videos broke through this "bar-
rier' in the early 19803, when they became, in a sense, a
new form of television communication. Although the elements
of music videos had been around since the beginning of film
and television, it was the music industry itself that
brought all the pieces together.

While form and content work together in the message-
making process, one can be more important than the other.
.Miami_yice, for example, a television crime drama with
elements of music videos, emphasizes its textural elements
(form) while its plot or content is minimal. As writer
Elvis Mitchell, television critic for the Los_Angele3_Herald
.Examinar states:

"Miami Vice" was a success d'estime during its first
year because the program moved television out of the
Fifties. The electric combination of colors, milieu,
music and minimalistic plot elements gave the show a
feel wholly different from anything else on network
television. If the series didn't reinvent TV, then it

18

at leastggave the medium total reconstructive facial
surgery.

On another program, such as £amily_11e3 (NBC), the
dramatic structure is maintained for each program while its
content is primary for each show. Different form and con-
tent combinations are key in setting different television

shows apart from one another.

Iaxtnne

Texture in the message process is part of form and is
created with elements such as color, shapes, and sounds.
The television producer consciously or subconsciously uses
texture to share a feeling with the audience. Texture is
not tactile in the traditional sense, but rather it is a way
in which a producer can convey an idea to the audience using
shared sensory experiences. It is textural elements such
as color and music that make music videos come alive on the
screen and differentiate.Hiami_!ioe and.CLimo_SLor¥ from
traditional crime dramas. The viewer sees the different
elements work together, creating an "experience" different

from ordinary television.

Color
Colors can be defined in terms of their physical

properties, as well as examined in terms of associations or
emotions they evoke. When one thinks of a color associated

with passion, for example, one usually thinks of red. Color

19

can also be thought of in terms of light rays naked to the
human eye. Taking both physical and emotional elements into
consideration, it is not surprising that scientists believe
that humans react to colors because of their relationship
with nature. For example, according to Egbert Jacobson in
his book Baoio.£olor, "The blues and greens in water and in
Ithe depth of a forest are associated with the real experi-
ence of coolness."lo
Just as the content of television programs can be
interpreted differently, colors can also be looked at in
different ways from one person to the next. According to
Jacobson, the reason for this phenomenon is that everyone
has unique associations or memories with certain colors.
This is also true from one society to the next. In the
United States, for example, the color black is linked with
death, while in another country, such as Japan, white is
traditionally used in death-associated ceremonies.11
Color has been used in films since the 19303. Color
was at first used in "epic” type films such as.£one_Hlth_the
Hind or extravagant musicals such as The_fliza1d_of_flz. Many
directors liked the effects of black and‘white films--it
added to the 'realness' or 'grittiness' that the director
wanted to project. Color was thought to detract from a

film's message, and many directors opted not to use it.

However, color began to be used routinely in the 19603 in

20

order to capture an audience that had been lost to tele-
vision. Directors had no choice other than to use color to
the fullest extent in order to get funding for their pic-
tures. Many in the film industry still argue against the
use of color for many reasons. For example, George Klima,

in his book MW writes:

Although certain cinematic effects may be achieved by
selecting different colors and arranging them spatially
to create filmic statements in which the colors and
their interactions connote harmony, dissonance,
tension, garishness, social pretension, and other
physiological or sociological responses, an
overemphasis or concentration on merely the color
combinations within the filmic space may interrupt,
distract,13nd interfere with the forward movement of
the film.

Today, film directors still use black and white film on
occasion, but it is usually for effect (i.e., Woody Allen's
Zelig) or message manipulation.

Color and television have been linked since the 19503
even though the technology was developed in the late 19203
and early 19303. Because of the expense of the technology
and its controversy, it took much litigation to put color
into use. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
finally gave RCA the approval for their color system in
1953. In 1954 NBC (under the ownership of RCA) aired.Knklae
W with the Boston Pops as their first color
program. In 1954 CBS and ABC also began broadcasting in

color with a total of 68 hours of color programming. By the

21

mid-19603 all three networks became all-color networks13

(see Table 2.1).

Table 2.1.--Color televisions in the United States.

 

 

Number of Color % of TV Households
Year TV Households With Color TV
1964 1,610,000 3.1
1966 5,220,000 9.6
1968 13,700,000 24.2
1970 23,400,000 39.3
1971 27,600,000 45.2
1972 32,800,000 52.6
1973 39,400,000 60.1
1974 44,950,000 67.3
1975 48,500,000 70.8
1976 51,200,000 74.0
1977 54,900,000 77.0
1978 56,900,000 78.0

 

Source: Steinberg, Ty_£aots, p. 144.

Many critics argue that color technology has affected
how the medium is projected to the viewing audience. Jeff
Greenfield suggests, for example, that “with the advance of
color TV, the close-up human conflict dramas in which early
TV excelled gave way to the graphic 'big screen' movie
values of color, movement and action, thus changing the
face of TV drama in the late 1950's.“14 Erik Barnouw argues

that “the shift to color film in 1965-66 affected some TV

22

topics, including war: 'Mud and blood were indistinguish-
able in black and white; in color, blood was blood.”15

Once again this illustrates the inseparable relationship of
form and content in television programming--the form (color

television) affected its content.

C J . H . fl'i

The use of color in music videos is much like its use
in films. In an article tracing the development of music
videos' influence on advertising, Judith Topper states that
music videos were influenced by film directors:

Though the music video medium brings with it more

legitimacy and exposure to driving rhythms coupled‘with

color intense visuals, the actual debut of this style
came overseas with the fpropean directors on the first
splash of the New Wave.

Many music video creators state that not only do their
influences come from famous filmmakers but also from other
sources found in the popular arts. Annabelle Jankel, co-
director of such videos as Donald Fagen's “New Frontier“ and
Tom Tom Club's “Genius of Love,“ states that her influences
come from “early experimental films like Metropolis and 1m
Chien_Anda1ou but that “we get most of our ideas [with her
co-director] from graphic design, advertising, illustra-
tions, that sort of thing.“17

Many music video directors choose to use colors to

project an image or theme within their videos. For example,

Julian Temple's use of color in his two Stray Cats videos,

23

“Stray Cat Strut“ and “Rock This Town, " “were crucial in
solidifying the band's carton-rockabilly image.“18 Another
director, Mark Rezyka, states: “I like to go for darker
scenarios, because rock music usually isn't about all
sweetness and light; there's usually at least some sort of
underlying aggression or something there.“19
Music video directors often choose film (if the budget
allows it) for creating their works of “art“ because film
has a richer feel than video. As director Steve Barron
states:
Both film and video have their respective merits. For
me personally, I like film better because it has a
richer look, a nicer.textnre. Video looks too real and
at the same time too plastic; there's something very
flat and harsh about it. It also tends to look cheaper
than filmzounless you're doing something very effects-
oriented.
It is interesting that many music videos are not
created with video but rather with film. Perhaps it is the
property of film and film's history that has led music video

directors to use the principles of film making in creating

music videos as we know them.

.Hnfiio

Music is another textural element found in the popular
arts. Like color, music also brings forth emotions or
associations. Music has also had the tradition of different

interpretations, and this too is linked with varied life

24

experiences. James Glennon, author of Understanding_uusic,
writes:

We might also define music as “expression in sound,“ or

“the expression of thought and feeling in an aesthetic

form,“ and still not arrive at an understanding of its

true purpose. We do know, however, even if we are not
fully conscious of it, that music is a part of living
that has the power to awaken in us sensations and
emotions of a spiritual kind.

Another expert, Wayne Barlow, reiterates this perspective:

A composer “expresses himself“ through music as

projected in relationships of sound in the same way

that an artist “expresses himself“ through painting as
he works with line and color. Into the work of each is
infused something personal of the composer or the
artist, whetherzthe medium is a symphony or a still
life on canvas.

Music can also be defined in terms of its physical
pr0perties. Music consists of vibrations found in the air.
Regular vibrations are defined as sound, while irregular
vibrations are deemed noise. Many argue that noise is
unpleasant while sound is considered more pleasing to the
ear, although there are those who claim the musicality of
noise. Keeping all this in mind, Webster's Dictionary
defines music as “the science or art of incorporating
intelligible combinations of tones into a composition having
structure and continuity“ and “vocal or instrumental sounds
having rhythm, melody, or harmony.“23

Music has been present in the film industry since its
early beginnings. Early problems occurred because the

technology of linking sound and picture (synchronous sound)

25

was not available. Many forms of the technology were
developed and abandoned. Such systems included sound-on-
disc as well as the approved sound-on-film.24
Surprisingly, many movie companies rejected sound film due
to their successes in the silent movie industry. However,
Warner Brothers' success with The_Jazz_Singer (1972) proved
that sound was more than just a passing fad. Other film
'companies realized that in order to keep up with the
competition, sound and/or music needed to be integrated into
their films.

Since sound was first linked with film, the movie
musical has been a staple of the film industry. However,
the musical has had its low and high points in popularity.
Whereas the film musical was quite popular in the 19303 and
19403, its popularity has now decreased due to a lack of
interest from the viewing public and because of the expense
of production.25

Rock music has been associated with film since its
beginnings in the 19503. For example, Bill Haley and the
Comets' “Rock Around the Clock“ was used as theme music in
the 1955 film w.“ Elvis Presley, a rock
idol from the 19503 and 19603, made many films centered on
his rock music which were very popular with the younger gen-

27

oration. In the early to mid-19603 something changed in

the rock music industry: the Beatles. Because of their

26

popularity, the Beatles made several movies that used their
music as the theme. Such movies were Richard Lester's A
Wilt (1964) and help (1965).” These films then
influenced a new crop of rock films including the Monkees'
need (1968) and W (1970).29 Many of these films
would later work into the development of music videos in the
late 19703 and early 19803.

Because television had the technology of sound when it
was first broadcast, it did not incur the problems that the
film industry had experienced. Music and variety programs
have been a big part of television programming since its
beginnings. Such early shows included the Q;iginal_Amateur
Hour, Dinahjhore. AW, fling
W, and the WW.30 Rock music
has been present in television programming since the 19503.
Such shows included Shindig and American_Bandstand.31 Just
like music in the film industry, musical and variety
programs on television have had high and low points in pOpu-
larity. On network prime-time television today (with the
exception of PBS), there are virtually no continuing musical
or variety programs because they attract such low audi-
ences.32 However, with cable television technology, those
types of programs can be viewed on cable networks such as
the Arts and Entertainment Network, the Nashville Network,

or on HBO or Showtime specials.

27

Music Television (or MTV) and VH-l are cable networks
whose programming is devoted solely to music videos. As
stated earlier, music videos are a product of the music
industry with influences from both film and television. The
music that can be found on MTV and VH-l is much like the
music heard on popular radio stations. In fact, the
programming concept behind MTV was that it was to be kind
of a visual radio—-visual images to influence the buying of
popular music. As Robert Pittman, the man behind the
concept of MTV, states:

MTV is the first thing to come along that will draw

these people [12 to 34 year old age group] back to

watching their TVs--because MTV is a visual radio
station playing their favorite music, on video and in
stereo. MTV is meant to be viewed in an “ambient“
situation, the same way we listen to radio: you don't
turn on the radio and sit listening intently to it, you
turn it on and leave it on in the background, and from
time to time it draws your active attention. Same
thing with MTV: it's radio with pictures. You're not
suppgsed to watch it the same way you watch regular

Music videos have several formats, and MTV uses all of
them in their video rotation. The format that gets the most
airplay is the W. Basically, it is a camera
capturing the performance of an artist. One such video is
Bruce Springsteen's “Dancing in the Dark.“ The viewer at

home sees Bruce performing the song on stage “live“ on tape

with no visual effects.

28

Another video format is the concept_gideo. In this
format there is an attempt to portray visually, though not
always literally, messages in a song with overlapping
images. Many concept videos are visually dense, meaning
that images and/or symbols overlap to such a great extent
that the message if often confusing. One concept video is
the award-winning Peter Gabriel video “Sledgehammer.“
Literal and nonliteral images overlap, and the viewer does
not see the artist actually perform the song in the
traditional manner. Nontraditional film techniques (i.e.,
computer graphics and Claymation) are also used to achieve
chaos.

The third video format is actually a oomhination_or
hybrid of both concept and performance concepts. In this
format, videos can be further distinguished into two cate-
gories. .2erformancefioonoept_types are performance videos
with conceptualized plots such as Eddie Money's “I Wanna Go
Back.“ In this video Eddie performs the song against the
backdrop of his old neighborhood. .Porfoxmanoo_lidooa_nith
aoaooiatlxa_imagerx are performance videos with associative

imagery, and an example is the KBC Band's “America“ video.
In this video the KBC Band is seen performing the song with
“pictures“ of America as a backdrop.

As history has shown, it is likely that it is an

artist's intention to create texture with color and music in

29

order to convey an “experience“ to his or her audience. It
is the properties of texture in color and music, both
physical and intangible, that are capable of doing this for
the television creator. Because color and music separately
can evoke feelings, emotions, and associations, it is
logical to believe that when the two are combined they will
produce a higher incidence of association. These high-
powered color-music combinations are the tools of the music
video creator that allow him/her to communicate messages

through texture.

Summary

Television messages comprise two elements: form and
content. Content is that part which contains the actual
information of the message. Form is the element that shapes
how the message is to be provided to the receiver. Two
elements that contribute to form are color and music. Color
and music together create “texture“ within a message. The
television creator is able to convey feelings or associa-
tions through texture. The color red with up-tempo music,
for example, might be described as creating a feeling of
passion or frenzy. The creator is able to do this because
of certain unwritten rules about color and music. Music
video creators use the tools of color and music to communi-

cate messages through texture.

30

.Endnotes::£haoter.ll

1Robert P. Snow quoting Tony Schwartz in

.Creating_Media
.Cultnze (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1983),
p. 17.

2Michael Shore quoting Steven Barron in The_Rolling
W (New York: Rolling Stone Press,
Straight Arrow Publishing, 1984), p. 157.

3Ibid., p. 110.

4Herbert Zettl,.Tele1ision_Prodnotion_Handbook
(Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing, 1984), p. 471.

51bid., p. 470.

6Ibid.

7Herbert Zettl,.Sioht_Sound_Motioni__Aoolied_Media
Aesthetics (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing, 1973),
p. 10.

8Snow, p. 17.

9E1vis Mitchell, “'Miami Vice' Losing Its Virtue,“
.Bolling_Stono, March 27, 1986, p. 45.

10Egbert Jacobson, Basi_c__Col_Q_r (Chicago: Paul Theobald,
1948), p. 128.

11Japanese National Commission for UNESCO,.Japani__Its
(Tokyo: Ministry of Education,
1964), pp. 713-14.

12George Klima, - '
(Elenora: Meridian Press, 1974), p. 83.

13Cobbett S. Steinberg, W5 (New York: Facts on
File, 1980), p. 144.

1‘Ihid., p. 145.
151bid., p. 145.

31

16Judith Topper, “Music Video Colors Advertising:
Mainstream Moves Out of Ordinary,“ Backstage, May 18, 1984,
p. 56.

17Shore, p. 130.

18Ibid., p. 121.

19rhid., p. 136.

ZOIbide ' P. 1530

21James Glennon, Understanding_flnsig (London: Robert
Hale and Co., 1973), p..l

22Wayne Barlow. FoundationLoLMusic (New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953), p. 11.

23Webster's Dictionary, 7th ed., 1963.

2‘1John Fell, W (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1973), pp. 204-207.

25Jerome Delamater, “Performing Arts: The Musical,“ in
.Amerioan_£ilm_fienres, ed. Stuart M. Kaminsky (Pflaum
Publishing, 1974), p. 121.

26Shore, p. 41.

27Ephraim Katz, The_£ilm_£ncygiopedia (New York:
Thomas Y. Crowell Publishers, 1979), pp. 929-30.

281bid., p. 715.

2gshore, pp. 34-46.

30Steinberg, pp. 10-49.

31Shore, p. 29.

32Timothy Scheurer, “The Variety Show,“ in TV_Genres,
§g5_§§ian G. Rose (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1985), pp.

33Shore, p. 184.

CHAPTER III

METHOD

Many artists use texture to capture an audience and to
relate an experience or emotion. This is true in many music
videos. There is surprisingly little research, however, in
the area of “texture“ in music videos. Research is found in
related fields such as art and music, but there is virtually
none in the area of music videos. Perhaps this is true
because music videos are a relatively new phenomenon. But
how are color/music combinations used in music videos? Does
the music complement the color or vice versa? What effects
do color music combinations in music videos have upon its
audience? The purpose of this study is to begin to address
these questions: most specifically to categorize color/
music combinations in order to better understand the form of
music videos. With this contribution, further research can
begin to include this source of information in the examina-
tion of the effects of music video as cultural message sub-
ject matter. A combination of two research methods--case

study and content analysis--was used as the most appropriate

32

33

way to gather data for the questions addressed in this
study.

At this preliminary stage in the examination of form
variables, the most appropriate approach is case study
analysis. With this exploratory study, it is logical to use
a purposive sample rather than a random one because the
music video form is new and little research has been
conducted concerning form. The primary type of research
that has been conducted is contextual in nature, namely
research concerning sex and violence within music videos.
With the case study approach, form patterns and variables
can be identified and can then be pulled apart and expanded
with further research.

In this exploratory study, it is also appropriate to
use content analysis because the interest is in what
textural “content“ is found within each video. There are,
however, arguments in various fields of research concerning
the definition of content analysis. Where many argue that
quantitative data are required for a true content analysis,
the method used here also recorded qualitative data. The
interest is in uhat colors are found in the various videos
as well as how many times a color was viewed. The
researcher here recorded data not only as manifest or
surface content, but also as latent content. For example,

if a video contained bright colors, colors were not only

34

recorded according to hue, brightness, and saturation, but
also according to research known about color meaning (i.e.,
blue is a cold color) and how the music video creator used

that particular color.

Samples—Purposue

Videos were collected on 1/2“ Beta videotape from MTV,
or Music Television. The sample taken was from the MTV Top
20 Video Countdown for the week of January 24-30, 1987. The
cases chosen for analysis were five “concept“ videos taken
from these 20. Considering the three video format cate-
gories, it was believed that creators of concept videos were
most likely to deliberately manipulate color/music combina-
tions.

Five concept videos, as defined by the researcher, were
found within the 20. In the sample, three different
conceptual styles were exemplified: (a) film style--videos
that use traditional film techniques and structures (i.e.,
narrative structure) to communicate a message; (b) animated
style--videos using animation or stop-frame techniques to
communicate a message; and (c) nontraditional--videos that
used nontraditional film techniques such as computer/digital
effects, Claymation, or puppets to communicate a message.
Videos obtained for this study were the Beastie Boys' “Ybu
Gotta Fight For Ybur Right to Party“ (film style), Madonna's

“Open Your Heart“ (film style), Howard Jones's “You Know I

35

Love You“ (animated), Peter Gabriel's “Bit Time“ (nontradi-

tional), and Genesis's “Land of Confusion“ (nontraditional).

Collins

A coding system was developed from Zettl's.Sioht_Sonnd
.Motion to record textural data (see Appendix A). Categories
were developed according to principles outlined by Guido
Stempel in W These
principles include criteria that: “(1) Categories must be
pertinent to the objectives of your study. (2) Categories
should be functional. (3) The system of categories must be
manageable.“1 These principles were followed to achieve
reliable and usable data. Colors, for example, were looked
at in terms of their hue, brightness, and saturation.
Colors were divided into dominant and secondary colors--
dominant colors appearing to be most important in the video
while secondary colors were colors of objects that were not
essential to the video. Music was analyzed in terms of
tempo, timbre, loudness, and duration. The following is a
definition of each category:
1. .Qoloxs:
Hue--Actual color of object (i.e., red or green)
Brightness--Value of color (i.e., light or dark)

Saturation--Strength or richness of color (i.e., high or
low)

36

2. .unsic:

Pitch--Lowness or highness of sound/tone (i.e., low or high)
Timbre--tone color or quality (i.e., thin or rich)
Loudness/intensity--Strength of tone (i.e., loud or soft)
Duration-~Length of sound/tone (i.e., long or short)

Attack/decay--Speed at which tone reaches loudness or at 2
which it can no longer be heard (i.e., fast or slow)

A second set of categories was developed to guide
analysis. Analysis statements allowed for the coder, or the
researcher, to subjectively look at what meanings texture
(color/music combinations) might be conveying within each
video. For example, questions are asked as to whether the
color/music combinations complement or contrast one another
or what feeling (i.e., happy, sad) the dominant color scheme
encodes (See Appendix A, pp. 3-4). Standard color associa-
tive definitions as well as music meanings were used in the
subjective analysis (i.e., bright colors being hot colors
and blues and greens defined as cool or colder colors). The
following are color and music meanings developed from

Zettl's,Sioht_Sonnd_HoLion and Faber Birren's.Colo£_£§¥£hol:
W:

37

.Color Meaning

White Enlightenment, purity, faith, glory, youthful

Black Death, evil, mourning, ominous, depressing

Red Love, passion, fire, blood, exciting,
extreme emotions

Blue Loyalty, compassion, truth, subduing,
melancholy, contemplative

Green Hope, eternal life, quieting, refreshing

'Yellow Cheerful, inspiring, vital, celestial

Orange Jovial, lively, energetic, forceful

Purple Dignified, pompous, mournful, mystic

Brown Melancholy

Gray Old age

.Note: Colors associated with tragedy: gray, blue, purple
Colors associated with comedy: red, yellow, orange

MusloJarm Meaning
Pitch High Exciting, light
Low Sol emn, heavy
Timbre Thin Simple, clean, uncomplicated
Rich Complex, vital, strong
Brassy Cold, shrill, forceful, big
Loudness Loud Forceful, energetic, important
Soft Weak, delicate, soothing
Duration Long Peaceful, calm, stable
Short Exciting, restless, nervous
Attack Fast Exciting, sharp
Slow Gentle, velvety, soft
Decay Fast Intimate, confined, definite

Slow Spacious, open, alive, smooth

38

After the data were collected from the videos, the next
task was to categorize texture types. Texture types were
identified according to the five basic human senses. For
example, from previous color studies, blues have been
identified as being cool to the touch while slower-tempo
music has been identified as being soothing to the ear.
Keeping these two considerations in mind, it is logical that
a video with muted colors of blues and greens associated
with a slow-tempo song could be identified as having a
“cool“ texture. In this case, color and music also
complement one another, meaning that cooler colors better
accompany slower music and warmer colors, more up-tempo
songs. Colors and music contrast if, for example, hot
colors, such as reds and oranges, are placed with slower
tempos. This logic follows familiar color and music
meanings. The following is a color temperature chart that
was used to help guide texture types as well as complements

and contrasts.

.Color Temperature
Red Warm/hot
Orange Warm
Yellow Warm

Blue Cold
Green Cool
Purple Cool

Using and understanding Rudolf Arnheim's perception of

color temperature in this particular study, “it is not the

39

main color that determines the warm-cold effect, but the
color of the slight deviation from the main hue. Thus, a

reddish blue looks warm and a bluish red, cold.“3

Judges
In terms of reliability and validity, there is the

question of objectivity. Since there was only one coder,
there were no questions of disagreement among coders.
However, it seemed appropriate to have another person spot
check work in areas in order for a more objective approach
to the data. Music categories, for example, were clarified
by a second coder to obtain maximum reliability and under-
standing. Visual material was also re-examined after data

were obtained.

Analxeie

When texture types were identified from the video
sample, they were analyzed according to patterns that were
found. Patterns were identified as color or music schemes
that occurred more than once in a video or were deemed
pertinent to the video's structure. When patterns were
identified, they were analyzed in the context of how they
related to form. It must be remembered, however, that the
analysis here concerns textures within each video and how

patterns relate to a whole form structure.

40

Summary

In this exploratory study of form structures in music
videos, a purposive sample was an appropriate method to dis-
cover variables and patterns. Videos were collected from
the MTV Top 20 Video Countdown and were looked at from a
case study/content analysis approach. Categories were
created in the areas of color and music to examine those
parts of form. Categories for color included hue, bright-
ness, and saturation while the categories of music included
timbre, duration, loudness/intensity, and duration. Relia-
bility and validity depended heavily on the researcher's
subjectivity. After data collection, texture types were
identified in accordance with the five human senses and

recognized patterns.

41

Endnotes--Chapter III

1Guido Stempel, ResearchJethodanJassJommnnioation
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981), p. 91.

2Herbert Zettl, ' ' -

S ]| S i H | E J' 1 M 1'
.Aesthetics (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co.,
1973), p. 343.

3Rudolf Arnheim, WW (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1965), pp. 327-28.

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

When analyzing the data, each case was viewed in terms
of its separate color and music characteristics, as well as
its texture, or its color-music combinations. Table 4.1
provides a summary of the color and music elements identi-
fied for each case. Using what is known about color tem-
perature combined with music meanings, Table 4.2 provides
texture meaning or “temperature“ meaning developed from the
five cases. A description of the findings for each case
follows.

"ll Ell E'llE ll E'll

This video focuses on a narrative structure. It is the
story of a couple of “nerdy“ young men who decide to have a
party when their parents are away for the evening. When
discussing party plans, they hope that “no bad people come.“
Instead of holding a relatively mild party, the Beastie Boys
show up and wreak havoc. Pies are thrown, things are

broken, and generally, “all hell breaks loose.“

42

43

 

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45

.Qolor

The video's color scheme begins as bland--generally
monochrome, with drab colors. The nerdy young men wear dark
suits with black bow ties, and the walls and floor of the
set are white. Other set pieces, such as rugs, a piano, and
the couch, are also dark colors such as browns, blacks, and
dark blues. The set remains stark throughout the video,
although walls are lit with red and blue gels when the
Beastie Boys arrive. The one set piece that does not fit
the stark set is a bright orange and green painting that
hangs on the wall. The three singers, the Beastie Boys, as
well as the other “bad people,“ are dressed more colorfully
than their nerdy counterparts. One of the singers wears a
bright red T-shirt, for example, and several of the other
“bad peOple“ wear blue jeans.

When analyzing the color of “You Gotta Fight For Your
Right (to Party)“, one can easily see the two contrasting
schemes--the dark, drab colors of the nerds and the brighter
colors of the “bad pe0ple.“ The feeling that is evoked‘with
the two contrasting schemes is one of excitement. This is
the case because the darker scheme is overpowered by the
more colorful scheme. At the end of the video when the
parents walk in, the bright gels remain on the set where

they (the bright colors) were not present at the beginning.

46

Color temperature throughout the video could be classified

as hot.

.Mnaio

The music for “You Gotta Fight For Your Right (to
Party)“ is classified as a type of “rap“ music, meaning that
the singers talk the words rather than sing them. The
singers' voices in this video could be described as irritat-
ing and off-key. Words are shouted, and the pitch has a ten-
dency to be high. The actual instrumental portion of the
music is very bassy and percussive, and the texture leads
one to a happy or lively feeling. This is also emphasized
in its brassy, bold timbre. Attack is quick throughout the
song while decay is slow. The reason for this can be deter-

mined in its aforementioned percussive nature.

Thrinre

The color/music combination for “You Gotta Fight For
Your Right“ is hot. The reasoning for this can be found in
its primary color scheme, bright colors, and its upbeat
percussive music. It is interesting that the color and
music textures are complementary not only on the level of
their “upbeatness“ but also in terms of their garishness.
The colors, for example, could be viewed as nonreal in the
sense that set pieces are stark and surreal. At one point

the viewer sees an actor bump into a flat of the set,

47

providing additional evidence that the location is nonreal.
The music can also be identified as nonreal. The singers
are not actually singing for the most part, and the music
itself is not musical in the classical sense of harmonies

and melodies.

W
This video is animated for the most part, though at
one point the director uses film. It is conceptual in the
sense that images overlap, but it is also visually literal
at points. For example, the singer, Howard Jones, at one
point in the song says that “I need you like a flower needs
a bee,“ and the viewer actually sees the flower and the bee.
At other points, however, the animation concerns the singer
as well as visual symbols of love and music, such as rain-
bows and hearts. These images do not necessarily match the

literal content of the lyrics.

Color

The color scheme of the video is the contrast between
black and white and bright colors. The singer, for the most
part, is animated in black and white, while the colors that
surround him are bright. For example, at the beginning of
the song, the singer is black and white, while the keys on
the synthesizer he is playing are the colors of the rainbow.

The video shows “things“ such as hearts, and musical notes

48

surrounding the singer. All of these “things“ are bright
colors, usually the primary colors of red, blue, and yellow.
All the colors that are portrayed are highly saturated and
bright. The singer is intentionally made to stick out in
his black and whiteness, though at times something on him
might have color. This was seen at one point when the
handkerchief that sticks out of his jacket suddenly color-
izes to yellow. Toward the latter part of the video, the
singer's body is completely surrounded by slashes of bright
colors, primarily reds and oranges (reds traditionally por-
traying excitement and extreme emotions, oranges meaning

energy).

.Mneio

The musical scheme of “You Know I Love You“ is
up—tempo. The singer's voice, along with the musical
accompaniment, is soothing. However, the song at the same
time is techno-pop. The instrument that is most prominent
in the song is the singer's synthesizer, and the viewer sees
it at various times throughout the song. It is both slow in
its attack and its decay. Timbre is a combination of rich
and brassy sounds created with a range of instruments or
sounds that are created on the synthesizer. One hears

trumpets in the song as well as percussive instruments.

49

Pitch is high throughout the song, signifying its lightness

or excitement.

Texture

The color/music combination texture is hot because of
the video's bright colors as well as the song's upbeat
tempo. The textures, therefore, are complementary. By
.comparison to the other videos in the sample, this is the
only one in which color and music are one, meaning that color
and music complement one another to the highest degree. The
feeling of happiness and joy that is created is not matched

by any of the other videos in the sample.

'8' 1' "--2| 5| .1

This video was created using Claymation, a nontradi-
tional film technique, as well as traditional film tech-
niques. The film does not have a narrative structure. It
uses instead overlapping images that are, for the most part,
literal to the lyrics of the song. These include cars,
buildings, growing things, and the singer himself. The
video is dense. It took several viewings to distinguish
what images were important. Once dominant images were

established, they were coded for their colors.

.Color

The color scheme for “Big Time“ was difficult to

analyze in that images constantly overlap one another. For

50

the most part, the video is very colorful because there are
so many images; however, colors become more complex in the
various image categories. Fbr example, there are several
building types in the video, ranging from a simple house to
city buildings to a church. Each building is a different
color or a combination of colors, and each has a different
range of brightness and saturation. The small house, for
example, is bright orange and blue and is highly saturated,
while on the other hand city buildings are mostly dark and
light grays and not as highly saturated. The “church“ in
“Big Time“ is slot machines and money and is really a col-
lection of darker colors with low saturation. Backgrounds
for various images, such as a blue one behind a money pyra-
mid, are bright colors and highly saturated. It appeared
as if the director intentionally used bright colors to bring
out the image in front of the background. Overall, there
were no true secondary objects that could be analyzed in
terms of their colors. The most important images appeared
more than once throughout the video, emphasizing their

importance.
Music
The music scheme for “Big Time“ can be described as

“techno-pap“ because of the instruments that are used as

well as the singer's “talk“ style of singing. The

51

instrumental portion of the song primarily comprises
synthesizer, bass, guitar, and a drum machine. Emphasis is
on the synthesizer and a low guitar sound. Pitch for the
song has highs and lows and timbre is rich. The song
crescendos or builds slightly, though not dramatically. The
attack scheme is different for each instrument, including
the singer's voice. Guitar attack and decay, for example,
is fast while organ attack and decay is slow, thus indicat-
ing different meanings for each (i.e., fast attack and decay

meaning excitement and/or sharpness).

TBMLMIE

The color/music combination texture for “Big Time“ is
classified as warm for several reasons. The music has quick
rhythm and tempo with a heavy beat. The colors have a range
of brightness, saturation, as well as hue. The color/music
relationship could be classified as being contrasting,
though not to a great extent, because the music is regular
throughout (though it does crescendo slightly) and the range
of colors remains static throughout the video. It is
contrasting because the colors are bright as well as dark,
but the music is bright and up~tempo throughout. When one
merely examines form it is difficult to ascertain the reason
for this phenomenon. Including an examination of the
lyrical content within the song, however, might provide a

better explanation.

52

anen 19]]: Bea It I--uadgnna

In this video, structure is centered on its narrative
form. It is the story of a “stripper“ in a seedy peepshow
and her “relationship“ with a boy who waits for her outside

of the building.

.Color

Through the use of contrasting colors, the viewer gets
a general understanding of the relationship of the boy and
Madonna. The boy sees Madonna as an angel of sorts, and
this is portrayed in the warm colors that are seen outside
of the peepshow where he waits. At one point when Madonna
is towering over the boy, a low-angle shot reveals Madonna
with a ring of lights around her head. Inside the peepshow,
on the other hand, the colors that are viewed are shades of
blues and b1ack3--colors associated with coolness and death.
At the beginning of the sequence within the peepshow house,
Madonna wears a black wig which she immediately sheds to
reveal her blonde hair. Madonna shimmers in the dark
peepshow atmosphere with her translucent skin and bleached-
blonde hair. The several peepshow attendees are generally
dressed in darker colors with the exception of the two
sailors in their dress-white uniforms.

Several feelings are conveyed with the color structure

of the video. When Madonna is in the peepshow house

53

performing her act, the feeling is one of sadness or despair
because of the dark colors. Outside the peepshow where the
boy awaits there is a warm, happy feeling. The overall
feeling is one of warmth because the cheerful feeling
created with the warm colors outweighs the one of despair

created with the blues and blacks within the peepshow house.

Music

The music scheme for “Open Your Heart“ is melodic in a
techno-pop context. The music itself is artificial or
mechanical sounding. The instruments used include a drum
machine, a synthesizer, electric guitar, and electric bass.
Madonna's voice, on the other hand, is melodic and soothing.
Her voice is thin: tones have a tendency to be pure. The
instrumental portion, on the other hand, is brassy or
metallic. Pitch is high. The music does not crescendo or
decrescendo dramatically. Attack and decay times are
different for different instruments as well as voice. The
synthesizer has slow attack and slow decay, for example,
while percussive instruments have fast attack and fast decay.
Overall, the feeling that is conveyed with the music is one
of mystery. The music has an ironic feel because there is
an underlying feeling of despair (traditionally associated

with slow music) but the music is up—tempo.

54

Toxtnre

The color/music combination texture within this video
is warm because the music is upbeat and the color visuals
are warm and cold. Without examining the actual words to the
song it is difficult to determine the actual meaning of the
music, whether it is happy or sad. The relationship of the
color and music is complementary. The music is upbeat
though not frenzied. The color structure relies on two sets
of colors without leaning toward hot colors, such as reds
and bright oranges, or too many colder colors such as blues

or blacks.

“land of Confusion“--Genesis

This music video uses many dark overlapping images to
create a heavy-feeling video. Without examining the actual
words to the music it is difficult to understand all of the
political messages intended with this particular song. The
focus of the video is a Ronald Reagan character. Images or
symbols that surround him include Nancy Reagan and worldwide
political statespeOple in puppet form. Genesis, the group
singing the song, is also included in the video in puppet
form. It is difficult to understand all the images in this
video because it is image-packed and conceptual. For
example, at one moment the viewer sees “Ronald Reagan“ in
bed tossing and turning and the next moment dressed in

prehistoric clothing in the middle of the jungle.

55

Color

The color scheme remains primarily dark throughout the
video. There are moments of bright colors, but they are
brief or indiscriminate. The political characters created
in the video are darkly lit, while other characters, with
Genesis being the exception, are more bright or colorful.

It should be noted, however, that when Genesis is singing in
.their black turtlenecks, they are “standing“ in front of a
fairly bright blue background with stars. Other locations,
with the exception of the Reagan bedroom, are dark and are
created with colors such as greens, browns, blacks, and
b1ues--all cool or colder colors. The dominant color scheme
for the video projects heaviness or sadness because of its
darkness. This is also true with the secondary color
scheme. Feelings of dread or foreboding, as if an Anmaged-
don were approaching, are created.with the dark colors found
in both primary and secondary color schemes. In fact, the
last image of the video is a bright orange and red nuclear
explosion, but one cannot use that image (because it is a
part of content) in order to understand the actual form of
the video. In this circumstance, the textural message is
ambiguous because the contextual portion of the video is

needed for the communication message.

56

.Mneio

The music scheme for “Land of Confusion“ is based on a
heavy percussive sound created with drums and a drum machine
as well as other instruments. The primary singer for the
song, Phil Collins, has a gravelly deep voice though it has
melodic overtones. His pitch is somewhere between high and
low, with a tendency toward the high end of the range.
Timbre for “Land of Confusion“ is rich. There are many
overtones or overlapping sounds. The music builds gradually
in the song, though not too dramatically. Duration is long,
and attack and decay times differ for each instrument. The
percussive instruments, for example, have fast attack and
slow decay, while the synthesizer has slow attack and slow
decay. Guitar, as well as bass, sounds metallic and
synthetic rather than melodic. Overall, the music is very
percussive and heavy sounding, and this is because of its

varying pitch range and rich timbre.

.Texture

The color/music combination texture is classified as
cold because of the heavy music sound and the predominantly
dark colors seen throughout the video. Heavy sound is
created primarily with percussive instruments, and the
colors that are seen are, for the most part, browns, greens,
and other darker shades of colors. The relationship between

the two, color and music, is complementary. Although the

57

music is upbeat, its general sound is heavy or one of doom.
The colors vary throughout the video, but the ones that have

a primary function are darker colors.

PatternsJLMneiojlioeLTexture

When examining all five videos as a group, one is able
to see certain patterns emerging in color, music, as well as
color/music combinations. Such patterns include:

1. Darker colors with “heavier“ beats of music

2. complementary color and music elements

3. Bright and warm colors associated with “happy“

music
4. Repetition of image or symbol colors in visually
dense videos

The first pattern that one can recognize from the five
videos is that darker colors are associated with “heavier“
music. This pattern occurs clearly in “Land of Confusion“
and “Big Time“ and, to an extent, in “You Gotta Fight For
Your Right (to Party).“ In “Land of Confusion“ a “heavy“
sound is created with a percussive beat as well as the
singer's voice. Color is primarily darker shades of browns,
greens, and grays. Lighting, though not one of the primary
considerations in the coding scheme, is also dark
throughout the video. There is heavy shadowing both on

faces and in locations. Peter Gabriel's “Big Time“ has

58

brighter colors, but again lighting has a dark effect on
them. The video also has darker colors such as grays and
black. The music for the video has a heavy synthesizer
sound, almost bass-like at times, and thus emphasizes the
darkness of the video. In “YOu Gotta Fight. . .“ the colors
are surreal and dark again, created both by the colors
themselves and the lighting techniques. Although the song
is up-tempo, the primary sound that emerges from the music
is heavy bass.

Another pattern that is seen from this video sample is
that color and music complement one another in conceptual
videos. In all five of the videos, color and music are
complementary though not always in a pure sense. For
example, in Madonna's “Open Your Heart“ the music is
up—tempo, but color and music do not clearly match because
there are two different color schemes. In “Land of
Confusion,“ on the other hand, color and music clearly
complement one another--both are dark and heavy. However,
the video that most clearly demonstrates the relationship
between color and.music is Howard Jones's “You Know I Love
You.“ The music is very upbeat and happy, while the colors
that shine are bright primary and secondary colors such as
shades of yellow, red, and blue.

Another pattern that emerges from the five videos is

that bright and warm colors are associated with happier

59

music. This is clearly seen in “You Know I Love Ybu“ by
Howard Jones. The phenomenon is also evident in Madonna's
“Open Ybur Heart.“ In “Open Your Heart“ the color scheme is
complex in that there are two color schemes--one that is
cold and frightening and one that is warm. Inside the
peepshow, colors are cold and foreboding; this is created
with varying shades of blue and black. On the other hand,
outside where the small boy awaits his “Madonna,“ colors are
shades of yellow and brown--very warm. The music for the
video is somewhat mysterious because one does not know if
the singer is singing with hope or despair.

The final pattern that is identified from the video
sample is that if a certain video is visually dense (images
overlap, causing confusion in meaning) colors associated
with particular images will remain in some degree throughout
the video. For example, in “Big Time“ growing things are
prominent. Colors associated with “growing things“ are
brighter shades of reds, yellows, and greens, and this is
viewed throughout the video. On the other hand, money,
another significant image, is seen as lighter shades of
colors such as green and yellow throughout. In “Land of
Confusion,“ Genesis is seen throughout wearing shades of
gray and black. Political figures, too, are seen in darker

shades of color such as black and brown.

60

Summary

In the five cases that were viewed for the study, four
patterns of form emerged. These included:

1. Darker colors with “heavier“ beats of music

2. complementary color and music elements

3. Bright and warm colors associated with happy music

4. Repetition of image or symbol colors in “visually

dense“ videos

In each of the five videos, one pattern was primary to
its form meaning. However, it was seen that several pat-
terns of form can be present in a video to achieve textural
meaning. It was also understood that textural meaning can
be ambiguous or confusing at times without consulting con-

tent (i.e., lyrics or images).

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

When one examines all of the evidence, it is clear that
'form is a viable way to gain insight into the meaning of a
music video. It is not complete meaning, however, because
content is needed along with form. It is impossible to gain
clear insight into an art form (unless it is abstract art
where form is content) through a mere examination of form
alone or its content. They are difficult to separate as one
can clearly see in this analysis. In the “Land of Confu-
sion“ video, for example, meaning was lost by examining form
alone--political knowledge and an examination of the lyrics
were needed in order to better understand its content mean-
ing with form. When form and content work together, how-
ever, it is a significant method of gaining an understanding
of a particular art form such as music videos.

Because of the powerful effect that music videos have
had on culture in the past decade, it is important to under-
stand them. Music videos, for example, have altered fashion
for the young and have played an important role in the

development of advertising. Because of these achievements,

61

62

it is useful to understand the meanings that are conveyed by
structure within music videos. Form, as a part of struc-
ture, is an important focus of analysis. However, as stated
before, analysis of form alone is not enough to gain com-

plete insight into the meaning of a music video message.

Problems
Sample

One of the primary concerns of this study arose from
the sample of videos that was chosen. Under the strictest
definitions, not all of the videos fell into the purely
conceptual category. Several videos borderlined the
performance category. To truly understand form, more
conceptual videos should be used. As stated earlier,
directors of such videos are more likely to manipulate form

elements than are directors of performance-type videos.

Micheline

The coding scheme for analysis was not complete in that
color was looked at more broadly than music. Music, for
example, could have been examined for its harmonies and
melodies in order to obtain better meanings. Many music
categories were too narrow, and analysis did not use those
specific categories. This was true in the case of duration,
length of music, attack and decay to an extent, and loudness.

The items that were key in identifying music textures were

63

the actual instruments that were used, as well as the
rhythms that were employed. Informal subjective data
analysis was helpful in the music analysis, however, because
it extracted feelings or associations from the coder.

Color categories for the study were useful; however, it
was difficult at times to separate dominant and secondary
colors. This could have been prevented with less-vague
coding instructions. Difficulties prevailed with image-
dense videos because there were so many objects or color
images. Code sheets did not provide provisions for image-
dense videos; therefore, difficulties arose. The category
that did prove helpful in coding “Big Time“ and “Land of
Confusion,“ both image-dense videos, was the brightness
variable. Although images were separated, colors were
categorized primarily as being either dark or bright and
were then compared with music structure. In other videos
such as “You Know I Love You“ and “Open Your Heart,“ the
actual hues themselves were more helpful for analysis,
although colors were still analyzed on the brightness

spectrum.

8 1' l'Jil i H liill
Because there was only one coder for this study,

feelings or associations with colors and music were limited.

As seen from the literature (i.e., Wayne Barlow's.£onnda:

tionLiLMusigl), life experiences are pertinent in the

64

emotional understanding of both color and music. Therefore,
in this case, a full range of associations or feelings was
not gathered or maintained for the study. The question of
reliability and validity is important here also because the
study relied heavily on the researcher's objectivity. It is
not to say that the researcher did not practice objectiv-
ity, but there is always the question of discrete misunder-

standing in categorizing or analysis.

W

In future research, several things could be done to
gain more significant information about form. For example,
different form variables could be used. Viable variables
such as shape, angle, and lighting techniques are excellent
tools for examining form. In this study, lighting appeared
to be very important in seeing colors. Colors were some-
times muddled or exemplified because of lighting, and
because of this, lighting appears to be the next step in
better understanding form. From the music perspective,
harmony and melody are good variables to better understand
music form.

From this exploratory study, it is evident that more
research is needed in the structure area of music videos.
Much has been conducted in the content area such as studies

concerning violence and sex, but music video form has not

65

been recognized as important in the understanding of music
video format. Because music video structure is based on
production principles of both video and film, many believe
that the rules concerning structure or form are the same for
music videos. This is true to an extent, but music videos
should not be classified as either just video or film
because they are a synthesis of both. They are probably

best approached as an entirely new format.

.Summarx

In this study, it was clear that form is a good way to
examine music videos, but it does not go far enough to
entirely understand a video. Content is needed along with
form to fully understand a music video's concept. Music
videos have been an important part of society's culture in
the 19803, and it is important to understand them. Form, as
a part of music videos' structure, is an important focus of
analysis. Problems evolved as the study progressed. These
problems included form variables for both color and music
and defining concept videos. Reliability and validity
depended heavily on the coder or researcher but did not
prove to be a problem in the analysis. Future research
should focus on other form variables such as harmony and
melody for music and lighting, angle, and shapes for the
visual aspect. Overall, it is clear that more research is

needed in the area of the music video format.

66

Endnoreszzohantenll

lWayne Barlow, inundationsJLMusio (New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953), p. 11.

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APPENDIX A

CODING INSTRUMENT

 

 

7 0
(DDII‘G IIGTRJMENT

CBJECI‘IVE (ODIN; SiEEI'
Ihte
Name of Vicbo:
mte cf Releae:
Producer/Director :

Record Canpary :

Oolor Sdlene of most important objects relative to vicho:

Daninant Colors

Obj ect (s) Hue Brigltness Saturation
(i.e. red, blue) (i.e. liglt, dark) (i.e. highly, less)

 

71

Seoonchry Oolors
Obj ect (s) Hue Brightness Saturation

(i.e. red, blue) (i.e. liglt, dark) (i.e. highly, less)

72

Music Sdlene:
Identified instrunents (i.e. rhythm guitar, bass, percussion)
Describe singer (s)'s voice (i.e. soothing, irritating, melodic)

Describe musical accompaniment (i.e. percussive, melodic, pop, briglt)

Pitch : High Low
Timbre: Thin Rid) Brassy, Bold
Loudness/ Intensity : Loud Soft

Did music crescencb or decresoemb dranatically or gradually?
Duration of music/phrasing: Long Short
Acttal time of music:

 

Attack/Ibeay of individual instrunents: Fast Slow

ANALYSIS or DATA (Subjective):

What feeling does dcmirant color enooch?

 

happy/light sad/heavy nystery other (describe)

What feeling does secondary color scheme enooch?
ham/light sad/heavy nystery other (describe)

 

What is the overall color “texture“? Explain (i.e. bright colors
convey feeling of happiness and joy):

 

 

73

MJSIC

What feeling does overall music schene enmch?

 

happy/1i91t md/heavy nystery other (cbscribe)

What is the overall music “texture“? Explain (i.e. upbeat music
conveys feeling of happiness and joy)

What is the color/music combination texture? Why?

What is the relationship of the color and music textures? Are they
maplenentary or contrasting? Why?

   

”‘il’l‘lu‘jlliiiliilliililliiiiil“