MODELING DNA STRUCTURE AND PROCESSES THROUGH ANIMATION
AND KINESTHETIC VISUALIZATIONS.
By
Christine Hager

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Physical Science – Interdepartmental-Master of Science
2013

ABSTRACT
MODELING DNA STRUCTURE AND PROCESSES THROUGH ANIMATION
AND KINESTHETIC VISUALIZATIONS.
By
Christine Hager
There have been many studies regarding the effectiveness of visual aids that
go beyond that of static illustrations. Many of these have been concentrated on the
effectiveness of visual aids such as animations and models or even non-traditional
visual aid activities like role-playing activities.
This study focuses on the effectiveness of three different types of visual aids:
models, animation, and a role-playing activity. Students used a modeling kit made
of Styrofoam balls and toothpicks to construct nucleotides and then bond
nucleotides together to form DNA. Next, students created their own animation to
depict the processes of DNA replication, transcription, and translation. Finally,
students worked in teams to build proteins while acting out the process of
translation.
Students were given a pre- and post-test that measured their knowledge and
comprehension of the four topics mentioned above. Results show that there was a
significant gain in the post-test scores when compared to the pre-test scores. This
indicates that the incorporated visual aids were effective methods for teaching DNA
structure and processes.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My mom, Deb Hager. Her unending support and encouragement throughout
the last four summers has been priceless. Without her, I would not have been to
complete this enormous feat. Thanks mom. You now have in print that you were
right. I love you.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………..………………………….….v
LIST OF FIGURES…..…………………..…………………………..………….…vi
Introduction……….…………………………………………………………………..1
Importance and challenges in teaching DNA and molecular genetic………………1
Effectiveness of using visualizations during instruction over non-visualization
Instruction…..………..……………………………………………………………………..4
Why visual aids increase student comprehension……….…………………………....5
Which is a better tool for enhancing student learning: static graphics or
animation graphics?..................................................................................................8
Importance of Supplementary Visual Aids…...………………………………………11
Rationale for Study……………………………………………………………………….14
Implementation……………………………..………………………………………14
Demographics……………………………………………………………………………...14
Overview……………………………………………………………………………………16
Description of Key Activities…………………………………………………………….18
DNA Model Activity………………………………………………………………………18
Protein Modeling Project………………………...………………………………………21
Protein Synthesis Role Playing Activity...…………………………………...……….26
Results…………………………………………………..…………………………….31
Measurement………………………………………………………………………………31
Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………...………31
Student Surveys…………………………………………………………………………..33
Discussion…………………………………………………………….………...……35
APPENDICES………………………..……………………………………………...39
Appendix A: DNA Modeling Activity……………………..……………………………40
Appendix B: DNA Processes Animation Project……………………………………..46
Appendix C: Assessment, Survey, Consent Form……………………………………61
REFERENCES………………………………………………...……....……………70

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Teaching Sequence of DNA Unit ……………………………………....……….17
Table 2. Explanation of Roles in Role-Playing Activity…………………………………27
Table 3. Pre- and Post-test averages, including p-values of DNA Assessment.
Maximum score=5, n=69……………………………………………………….……..….….32
Table 4. Student Survey Responses, n=24……………………………………………..…33
Table 5: Required criteria for each process for animation project…………………....47
Table 6: Grading rubric for animation project………………………………..………….49
Table 7: Grading rubric for pre- and post-test assessment…………………………….64

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. DNA Modeling Activity, Part 1-In figure 1a, a student incorrectly began to
construct a deoxyribose sugar next to a phosphate group. In figure 1b, a student
accurately built a deoxyribose sugar next to a phosphate………..………………….19
Figure 2.DNA Modeling Activity, Part 2………………………………….…...………….20
Figure 3: Screenshots of DNA replication in a stop-forward animation video-Figure
3A depicts a DNA model. The dialogue states, “DNA replication takes place in the
nucleus.” Figure 3B depicts helicase splitting the two strands of DNA. The dialogue
states, “DNA helicase winds and unwinds the original DNA.” Figure 3C depicts
DNA polymerase attaching to the DNA molecule. The dialogue states, “RNA
primers signal polymerase to attach to DNA strands.” Figure 3D and 3E depict
DNA polymerase adding free-floating nucleotides. The dialogue states, “The DNA
polymerase adds free floating nucleotides.” Figure 3F depicts the final DNA
product. The dialogue states, “Now you are left with your original DNA and a new
one!”……………………………………………………………………………………………..24
Figure 4: Screenshots of Transcription using Drafting Software………………..……25
Figure 5: Protein Synthesis Role Playing Map……………………………….....……….28
Figure 6: Molecular diagram of an adenosine-thymine base pair………………….....43
Figure 7: Molecular diagram of an cytosine-guanine base pair………………….……44
Figure 8: Molecular diagrams of the four different types of nucleotides found in
DNA (Source:http://www.nvo.com/jin/homepage20/)………………...………………….45
Figure 9: This screenshots demonstrates how to start a new project. Open iMovie.
From the file menu, choose “New Project”………………………………………………..50
Figure 10: After starting the new project, the program will ask to choose a theme.
When prompted choose, “No Theme”. Then, name the project………………………..50
Figure 11: Once the project is initially set up, import pictures from iPhoto that will
be in the movie. To do this, choose the camera icon on the toolbar in the middle of
the screen. Then, click on “Events”. Drag the event to the window with the empty
frames…………………………………………………………………………………………..51
Figure 12: For editing to occur, all frames must be selected. From the Edit menu,
choose “Select All”…………………………………………………………………………….51

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Figure 13:To begin editing, click on the Inspector button. It is the “I” icon on the
middle toolbar……………………………...………………………………………………….52
!
Figure 14: To change the length of duration, type 0.2 in the “Duration” section.
Then, select “Apply to all Stills”. (This will allow your still pictures to be played at a
high speed). Press “Done”……………………………………………………………………52
Figure 15: To continue editing, make sure all pictures are still selected (If not,
repeat figure 12). To edit the actual picture, click on the crop button. It is located
right next to the inspector button………………………………………………………….53
!
Figure 16: To focus on the picture on the paper cut outs, choose “Fit” and then
choose “Done.” Preview movie by pushing play button…………………………………53
Figure 17: This screenshots demonstrates how to start a new project. Open iMovie.
From the file menu, choose “New Project”………………………………………………..54
Figure 18: After starting the new project, the program will ask to choose a theme.
When prompted choose, “No Theme”. Then, name the project………………………..54
Figure 19: To begin the movie, import video from iPhoto. From the File menu,
choose “Import…Movies”……………………………………………………………….……55
!
Figure 20:To upload the video, select “Movies” from the side tool bar. Then choose
“iPhoto”. Select the correct video. Create a new event to place movie in and name it
“DNA Replication”……………………………………………………………………………55
Figure 21: To begin editing, all of the video must be selected. To do this, highlight
one frame in the clip. From the Edit Menu, choose “Select Entire Clip”. Drag clip
below to empty frames……………………………..……………………………….………..56
Figure 22; To focus video frame on the paper cutouts, select the entire clip. Press
the “Crop” button located in the middle toolbar……………………………………........56
Figure 23: Once the crop button has been selected, choose “Fit” and then choose
“Done”. Preview video button by pressing play button…………………………………57
Figure 24: Before making a new video, adjust the settings. This allows the video to
have these settings when it is imported. To begin adjusting setting, choose
“Options”, from the “Tools” menu…………………………………………………………..58
Figure 25: To edit the settings of the picture frame duration, choose the “Advanced”
Tab. Then change “Picture Duration” to 0.500 seconds………………………………...58

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Figure 29: Once the settings have been adjusted, choose the correct view setting for
the program. The easiest setting to work with is the Timeline setting. To use this
setting, choose the “Show Timeline” button located in the middle of the screen…...59
!
Figure 30: Now that the settings have been adjusted and the view setting has been
chosen, the next step is to start making the movie. To do this, import pictures from
a flashdrive………….…………………………………………………………………………59
Figure 31: To add imported pictures into the movie, right click in the “Collection
Box” and select “Select All”. Then drag all of the highlighted pictures and drop in
the “Video” box located in the Timeline below…………………………………………...60
!
Figure 32: The basic video should now work. Preview the video on the bar to the
right. ……………………………………………………………………………………………60
Figure 33: Explain the flow of genetic information using the diagram…………..….63

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Introduction
Importance and challenges in teaching DNA and molecular genetics
The importance of understanding molecular genetics is essential for our
students. Some of our students will go on to become doctors, pharmacists,
biochemists, and drug developers with the potential to make significant gains in
developing new drugs, medical diagnostics, treatments, improvements in food
production, as well as improvements in forensic techniques. The fundamental
understanding of the structure of DNA and the processes associated with it such as
DNA replication and protein synthesis will be critical for students to understand in
order to tackle these tasks. As Tibell and Rundgren (2010) state, “The rapid
progress and potential application of molecular life science have profound
implications, not only on our scientific understanding, but also on our future health
and prosperity”. The majority of our students will not pursue this field, though their
understanding will be equally important. Genetics, more specifically genetics
research particularly related to biomedical issues, raises a host of important
political, economic, and ethical issues. Members of our society must receive a
functional understanding of these topics to fully appreciate the questions and
answers that these field raises (Marbach-Ad, 2001). It wouldn’t be a far jump to
assume that the future of human prosperity partially rests on our students’ ability
to understand how others manipulate DNA as well as the cellular functions that are
interdependent on DNA.

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If someone were to interview teachers with years of experience teaching
biology, many (myself included) would cite molecular genetics as the most difficult
unit for students to truly understand. What makes molecular genetics instruction so
challenging?
One of the most common barriers cited in teaching this content is the use of
domain-specific language. There are many misconceptions that stem from the
misunderstanding of certain terms. For example, one study found that students
often used the term gene, genetic information, and chromosome interchangeably
with little use at all of the word allele (Lewis & Kattmann, 2004). How can students
understand the central dogma of biology if they can’t understand the terminology
used to explain it?
The challenge with domain-specific terminology is three fold. The first is that
many terms used in teaching molecular genetics are abstract. These terms lack the
ability to relate or form any type of metaphor or connection to words already known
by the students. The second challenge is the complexity of scientific jargon.
Scientific terms are often abbreviated into acronyms to help facilitate
communication among professionals. In the process though, this often confuses lay
people, losing them in translation. In molecular genetics, one could make an
argument that more acronyms are used for molecules instead of full names. We use
DNA to shorten deoxyribose nucleic acid, mRNA for messenger ribose nucleic acid,
tRNA to abbreviate transfer ribose nucleic acid, as well as twenty different three
letter abbreviations for twenty different amino acids! Finally, the third challenge

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lies in the rapidly changing nature of science. As molecular genetics related studies
continue to develop rapidly, the meaning of related terms change as new knowledge
is generated. The meaning of the word “gene” alone has changed drastically in the
last one hundred years with the discovery of introns, overlapping genes,
transposons, making a firm and enduring definition difficult to establish (Tibell &
Rundgren, 2010).
Another common barrier cited when teaching molecular genetics is the
complexity and abstract nature of DNA. Understanding basic biological processes
such as DNA replication and protein synthesis becomes very quickly complicated
because they occur in three-dimensional space with many events occurring
simultaneously (Guzman & Bartlett, 2012). Additionally, these processes are part
of complex systems that have several different levels of organization. Scientific
phenomena, more specifically biochemical processes are investigated within the
macroscopic, microscopic, and mostly in the submicroscopic levels of organization
(Schonborn & Anderson, 2006). For example, a process such as protein synthesis
starts at a macroscopic level by discussing the purpose of the process in an
organism. It then gets discussed at a microscopic level when students learn what
structures these processes take place in. When the actual mechanism is being
taught, students are learning at the molecular level. In order for students to
completely understand these processes, they have to be able to translate between
these three levels of organization.

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Effectiveness of using visualizations during instruction over nonvisualization instruction
Educators have long used visual aids as a tool in tackling the challenges
discussed in the previous section. The effectiveness of using visual aids in
comparison to teaching biological process through verbal or text instruction alone
has been a topic of research (e.g. Starbek, Mensch, Rubba, 2010) thoroughly
investigated by the scientific teaching community.
One study by P.Starbek, M. Erjavect, and C.Peklaj (2010) compared the
achievement gains in the understanding of transcription and translation using four
different groups: a traditional lecture group, a reading text group, a text that
supplemented with illustrations group, and a multimedia group that focused
instruction around two short computer animations. Using a pre/post test format,
they found that the group with text and illustrations, as well as the group with
computer animation illustrations, achieved larger gains in acquired knowledge as
well improved comprehension when compared to non-illustration groups. In
addition, groups that had illustrations had better retention of knowledge when
tested five weeks after the instruction was given.
Another study focused on the use of a large hands-on model as a possibly
effective visual aid. In a study by David L. Mensch and Pater A. Rubba (1991), both
a control group and experimental group received two traditional lecture periods, one
on the structure and function of DNA and RNA and another on protein synthesis.
The experimental group then received two additional periods, where they worked on

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modeling protein synthesis using PVC pipe, rope, Velcro, and other household
items. When asked to write an essay detailing the process of protein synthesis,
every student in the experimental group attempted the answer and most were able
to give accurate and detailed descriptions. In comparison, half of the students in the
control group chose not to answer. What students did answer focused more on
factual information in isolation rather than an understanding of the process as a
whole. This study not only showed better achievement gains with models as visual
aids but also demonstrated better attitudes towards biochemistry as a subject.
Visual aids can take shape in a variety of different forms whether it be in
static illustrations found in textbooks, animations on Youtube, or hands-on models
where student manipulate different pieces. Because of a number of numerous (e.g.
Erjavect (2010), Peklaj (2010), Mayer, 1992) studies in addition to the ones
mentioned above, it is pretty widely accepted that visual aids, no matter what type,
enhance the level of understanding when giving instruction.
Why visual aids increase student comprehension
Visual aids are collectively referred to as external representations by
cognitive psychologists because they portray phenomena in the external world,
contain spatial relationships, and can be distinguished from internal
representations, also termed mental models (Schonborn & Anderson, 2006).
Research has shown that well-designed visual tools help students digest large
amounts of information in a relatively short time as well as assist in constructing
their own internal models (McClean, et al., 2005). In the scientific world,

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visualizations are used to communicate knowledge and discovery generated from
research, showing what is unseen in the natural world (Rybarczyk, 2011). If
students can understand how to interpret scientific representations correctly (which
is a necessary skill for navigating media presentations of scientific ideas), it can be
used as a learning tool to deepen their understanding.
The importance and value of external representations seems to be associated
with Paivio’s dual coding theory in association with Sweller’s cognitive load theory
and Baddeley’s model of working memory (Starbek, Erjavect, & Peklaj, 2010).
Pavio’s dual coding theory explains that humans process information in two
different systems: a visual system that processes visual knowledge and a verbal
system for processing verbal knowledge. Although they are independent, they are
interconnected when the brain encodes, stores, organizes, and retrieves information.
The dual coding theory states that learning is enhanced when information is coded
both verbally and visually (Zhu & Grabowski, 2005). When students view and
interpret graphics pertaining to the content they are learning, it codes visually,
enhancing their verbal knowledge from the teacher’s lecture.
Sweller’s cognitive load theory and Baddeley’s model of working memory are
both centered on the idea that the brain has a finite amount of working memory.
According to Harskamp, Mayer, and Suhre (2007), “…there are three major sources
of cognitive load: extraneous processing, which is cognitive processing that is
unrelated to the instructional goal and depends on how the material is presented;
intrinsic (or essential) processing, which involves basic cognitive processing such as

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attending to relevant material and which depends on the difficulty of the to-belearned material; and germane (or generative) processing, which involves deeper
cognitive processing such as organizing and integrating”. The goal of using external
representations is to reduce cognitive load so that it can increase working memory.
Doing this effectively should result in improved learning efficiency and effectiveness
(Koroghlanian & Klein, 2004). By using visual representations, not only are
students remembering the material in a second way, but they are also increasing
their amount of working memory available for learning.
Much of the discussion on visual aids is focused around the assumption that
the visual aids being used are of high quality. So what constitutes a “high quality”
visual aid from a “low quality of visual aid”? McClean and associates state, “The
most effective visualizations reveal the complexity of object involved in the
processes, illustrate how and where the objects interact, provide a spatial
representation of the molecules during the process, and smoothly represent the
transitional states the objects undergo during the length of the process” (McClean,
et al., 2005). Additionally in an essay by Schonborn and Anderson (2006), the
authors highlight ten criteria for educators to consider when choosing external
representations as teaching tools. One of the most emphasized criteria is for the
instructor to ensure student knowledge of the visual language and conventions used
by the visual aid. This includes a discussion on what symbols or different marks
represent in the graphic. Another criterion that is important for instructors to
discuss is the limitations of an external representation. Every representation, even

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visual aids of the highest quality, lacks some aspect of the content. By discussing
these limitations, teachers help to squash misconceptions by the students that may
have been generated by the visual aid to begin with. Finally, instructors should use
multiple representations to address the same concept. Due to the complexity of
biochemical process, any single visual aid lacks the power to show all the aspects of
the process. By using multiple representations of the same phenomenon, students
start to merge mental models, painting a more detailed and accurate depiction of
the process (Schonborn & Anderson, 2006).
Which is a better tool for enhancing student learning: static graphics
or animation graphics?
As discussed earlier, it is fairly widely accepted that visualizations of any
kind enhance student comprehension. Many educators are now asking, though, if
animation is more effective as a visual aid than static graphics, or graphics used in
textbooks, worksheets, etc. Numerous studies (e.g McClean, Mayer, Anderson) have
been done on this topic and scientists and educators alike still have yet to agree
upon the same answer.
Many studies support the idea that animation is a more effective teaching
tool than static graphics. In one study by McClean and associates (2005), students
were divided into four experimental groups to learn DNA structure as well as DNA
replication and protein synthesis. Each experimental group received a traditional
lecture followed by an individual study that varied from group to group. The
individual study could last up to 25 minutes. In group A, the lecture was presented

8

first, augmented with animation, and followed by individual study of an animation.
In group B, the individual study with text material was completed first followed by
a lecture augmented with animation. In group C, the lecture was completed first,
which used overheads, followed by an individual study using an animation. In group
D, the individual study was completed first followed by a lecture with overheads.
The last group acted as the control group with no animation in either session. Using
a pre- and post-test format, it was found that Group A, which received animation in
both lecture and individual study, performed significantly better than all other
groups. Groups B and C, each of which received only one animation treatment, did
not perform better than the control group, D, which didn’t view any animations.
This study supported the idea that animation is effective in teaching protein
synthesis if used continuously throughout study. In a similar study done by Mayer
and Anderson (1992), comparable results were found. Their results showed that
animation containing verbal descriptions enabled students to better solve transfer
problems than the students who received static illustrations with the descriptions
in print .
Not all studies have found comparable results to the ones described above.
There are numerous studies (e.g. Marbach-Ad (2007), Lewalter (2003), Starbek,
2010) published that find no significant difference in the effect of static illustrations
when compared to dynamic processes. In a study done by Marbach-Ad et al. (2007)
in a college setting, one experimental group received instruction through
illustrations while the other received instruction through animation, both

9

pertaining to the topic of DNA replication and processes. Using the multiple-choice
pre and post-test, there was no significant difference found between the two
experimental groups. Starbeck and associates (2010) found similar results in a
comparable study. The design of their experiment consisted of four groups: two that
did not receive any type of visual instruction (either lecture or text) and two that did
receive visual instruction (either static illustrations or animation). The results
correlated with earlier discussed studies in which the groups that received visual
aids performed significantly higher than those that didn’t. However, when
comparing the static illustrations group to the animation group, there was no
significant difference. Another study by Lewalter (2003) measured the impact of
both types of visualizations in teaching astrophysical subject matter. His
conclusions were similar to previous findings that there was no difference between
static illustrations and dynamic animations. Researchers hypothesized as to the
explanation of these results. One leading explanation is that students lack the skill
to fully comprehend complex visualizations because of their lack of knowledge on
the content being presented. Students have very little previous knowledge of the
content of the animation. Because of this fact, they can’t fully decipher the finer
details that are being represented in the animation (Starbek, Erjavect, & Peklaj,
2010).
It is important to note that in two of these three studies discussed, the lack of
difference in results between static illustrations and animations were based on a
pre- and post-test multiple choice assessment. Two studies did find a significant

10

difference between these groups in other aspects being studied. Marbach-Ad and
associates (2007) found a significant difference between these two groups in the
open-ended questions, with the animation group outperforming the static
illustration group. The lead investigator noted, “Answers coming from the computer
animation group were more accurate and profound than those from the illustration
group” (Marbach-Ad, Rotbain, & Stavy, 2007). Starbek and associates found a
significant difference between the two groups in terms of both retention of acquired
knowledge and retention of improved comprehension. In this case, although there
was no significant difference immediately after the completion of instruction, there
was a significant difference when tested five weeks later (Starbek, Erjavect, &
Peklaj, 2010).
Importance of Supplementary Visual Aids
Static illustrations and animations play a central role in teaching molecular
genetics as discussed previously. They are by far the easiest to incorporate into
lesson plans, are more accessible to learners, and have a greater repertoire to
choose from, when compared to other visual aids such as modeling. It is important
to consider other visual aids that can have an equal impact on learning.
Models can play a significant role in teaching molecular genetics. It is
generally believed that allowing students to manipulate different cellular parts and
molecules used in processes such as DNA replication and protein synthesis helps
garner a deeper understanding of what is taking place by activating the kinesthetic
learning that many people rely on. Many high school teachers have focused efforts

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on developing accurate models to help students understand molecular processes
such as protein synthesis, rather than just memorizing a series of “steps”.
Ezra Roberg (2004) designed a high school level activity in which Legos ®
represent amino acids, with different colored Legos ® analogous to different amino
acids (although he typically only uses five different colors instead of twenty). He
gave his students the same set of ten Legos ® and asked them to attach them
randomly. This demonstrated to students the numerous possibilities of amino acid
combinations, (and that’s just with five!). He then had his students act out he
process of translation by translating a given code. After students have correctly
synthesized a protein, he gave them a mutated sequence and asked them to rebuild
the protein. This demonstrated the effect of different mutations on amino acid
sequence.
High school teachers have also transformed models from tangible objects
such as Legos ®to where students act as the model. There are an increasingly
number of articles published in which teachers have designed activities where
students represent the different molecules and structures used in molecular genetic
processes. In an activity designed by Meena M. Balgopal (2010), students acted as
DNA, mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes, and golgi apparatuses. They constructed a protein
from different amino acids, all of which are a different food item such as
marshmallows, cheerios, chocolate chips, etc. Students moved around the room,
which represented different areas of the cell, and worked together to construct a
protein.

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A similar activity designed by Bessie Ong (2010) used wooden hula-hoops and
colored balloons to simulate translation. The simulation started with students
taping letters on their shirts to represent a DNA sequence. Transcription occurred
as free-floating “nucleotide students” matched to the DNA sequence forming the
mRNA strand. Students connected hands to represent the bonds that hold
nucleotides together. The mRNA strand of students moved the series of hula-hoops
that represent different “sites” of the ribosomes while the balloons (each with a
name of an amino acid written on it) represent the amino acids. Students acted as
tRNA molecules and transported the balloons (amino acids) throughout the
different sites on the ribosome to synthesize a protein. Based on a free response preand post-test, Ong found that this simulation helped deepen her students’
understanding of the process beyond the memorization of the “facts” of protein
synthesis.
These role-playing activities are not only being used at the high school level.
College professors have begun to integrate them into their teaching methods,
including Diana Sturges at Georgia Southern University. Sturges et al (2009)
designed an activity to simulate protein synthesis to undergraduate human
anatomy and physiology students. Using different colored cards to represent
different molecules used in the process, students acted out the process of
transcription and translation, with the instructor implementing intentional breaks
to use as an opportunity for guided discussion.

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Rationale for Study
After teaching biology for several years and collaborating with peers at
various professional development opportunities, one common observation
continually appeared, which is that one unit in particular, the unit focused around
DNA structure and processes, was particularly challenging for students to deeply
understand and comprehend. Students do not understand these processes beyond
the basic memorization of facts and have little retention of this knowledge after the
class is over.
The goal of this study was to determine if using representations that went
beyond the use of static illustrations would enhance students’ abilities to deeply
understand the following four concepts of a DNA unit: DNA structure, DNA
replication, transcription, and translation. The hypothesis is that by integrating
animation and kinesthetic visual aids into the DNA unit, students would show a
significant gain in content knowledge and understanding, as measured by an
assessment designed for this study. In order to this test this hypothesis, a
combination of models, animation videos, and role-playing activities were developed
and incorporated into the unit.
Implementation
Demographics
This study was conducted at Lakeview High School in St. Clair Shores,
Michigan. St. Clair Shores is located in the southern part of Macomb County, about
sixteen miles northwest of the city of Detroit. According to the 2010 census data, the

14

city of St. Clair Shores housed approximately 60,000 people. The median household
income is $52,755, with 91% of residents age 25 or older earning high school degrees
and 23.5% of residents age 25 or older earning a Bachelor’s degree or higher.
Approximately 9% of the city does live below poverty level (United States Census
Bureau, 2013).
Lakeview Public Schools is one of three school districts servicing St. Clair
Shores, as well as Lakeshore Public Schools and South Lake Public Schools.
Lakeview Public School system is comprised of four elementary schools, one middle
school, and one high school. Lakeview High School also participates in the county
Career and Technical Education (CTE) program, in which many of our upper level
students travel to neighboring schools to receive career education. Lakeview High
School also hosts three CTE programs. Lakeview Public Schools is a unique district
in the sense that approximately 50% of our students are school of choice students
who reside in districts outside of Lakeview Public Schools. Because of this, the city
demographics do not align with the district demographics as much as comparable
districts throughout the state.
In the 2012-2013 school year, Lakeview High School consisted of
approximately 1,364 students. Of those students, 87.2% are white and of Caucasian
descent, 7.9% are black and of African-American descent, 1.5% are of Hispanic
descent, 1.1% are of Asian descent, and 0.5% of Native American descent. 1.7% of
our student population also reported being multiracial, of two or more ethnicities.

15

In terms of socio-economic status, 68.4% of Lakeview High School students qualify
for free or reduced lunch, which is almost double the state average of 36%.
The study was conducted in two general biology sections and one accelerated
biology section. At Lakeview High School, biology is the last required science course
in the sequence and is primarily composed of juniors, with some advanced
sophomores blended in. Of the 93 enrolled students, 72 consented to be in the study.
Overview
Molecular genetics is an introductory course that can be divided into four
main topics: DNA structure, DNA replication, transcription, and translation.
Traditional instruction was given which included lecture, discussion, interactive
reading assignments, as well as static illustration coloring worksheets. Within this
traditional format, new external representations were introduced.
Lakeview High School runs a modified block schedule, in which some classes
are taught as blocks, which are ninety minutes, and some classes are taught as
“skinnys”, which are 43 minutes. For the three sections this study was implemented
into, all three sections were blocks. The activities listed for each block combined a
total 90 minutes of student engagement. Blocks can be further broken down to
accommodate the teaching sequence into a traditional 50-60 minute class format.
Table one depicts the sequence of teaching events as well as a time scale in
which the activities were completed. Activities in BOLD indicate activities of either
an animation and/or kinesthetic nature.

16

Table 1: Teaching Sequence of DNA Unit
Block 1

•
•
•

Pre-test Assessment
DNA Model: Part 1
Lecture: Nucleotide Structure

Block 2

•
•
•
•

DNA Model: Parts 2 and 3
Discussion: DNA Structure
Activity: DNA Structure Coloring Worksheet
Homework: DNA Replication Interactive Reader

Block 3

•
•
•

Activity: DNA Replication Brainstorm
Lecture: DNA Replication
Activity: DNA Replication Coloring Worksheet

Block 4

•
•
•
•
•
•

DNA Replication Model
Homework: Protein Synthesis Interactive Reader
Quiz: DNA Structure and Replication
Activity: DNA vs. RNA Coloring Worksheet
Lecture: Transcription
Activity: Transcription Coloring Worksheet

Block 6

•
•
•

Lecture: Translation
Activity: Translation Coloring Worksheet
Activity: Using a Codon Chart

Block 7
Block 8

•
•
•

Activity: SNORK Translation (practices codon chart)
Discussion: Protein Modeling Project
Protein Modeling Project

Block 9

•

Protein Modeling Project

Block 10
Block 11

•
•
•

Protein Modeling Project
Quiz: Protein Synthesis
Protein Modeling Project

Block 12

•

Protein Modeling Project

Block 13

•
•
•

Role Play: Protein Synthesis using LEGOS
Activity: Introduction to Mutations
Lecture: Mutations

Block 14

•
•
•
•

Activity: Mutations in Rock Pocket Mice
Activity: Test Review
DNA Unit Test
Post-test Assessment

Block 5

Block 15

17

Descriptions of Key Activities
DNA Model Activity
Before this unit started, students had some basic understanding of DNA.
From the previous biochemistry unit, students understood that DNA is a
macromolecule composed of smaller monomers called nucleotides. Students did not
know the structure of a nucleotide, the different types of nucleotides, or any other
more elaborate details. They also knew that DNA is linked to heredity and passed
down from parent to offspring.
The first activity that integrated kinesthetic learning techniques was a
modeling activity that focused on nucleotide structure and DNA structure. Students
worked in pairs and received a kit that included various colors of Styrofoam balls
and toothpicks. The different colored balls represented different atoms present in
the nucleotide. Toothpicks acted as bonds, holding the atoms together.
In part 1 of this activity, students were assigned a nucleotide to construct as
a model. The four different nucleotides were evenly distributed throughout the
class. They were given a molecular representation of the nucleotide that was
assigned to them. Beyond basic instruction on how to connect two atoms together,
students were given very little direction on how to build the nucleotide. The teacher,
and co-teacher if present, monitored progress and helped when needed. After
students completed their nucleotide, an instructor verified its accuracy. If it was not
accurate, students were told what was incorrect, asked to correct the mistakes, and
have it rechecked for accuracy. Once students had a correct nucleotide structure,

18

they answered analysis questions (see Appendix A), in which they looked for
similarities and differences between their nucleotides and those assigned to pairs
throughout the class. After students had finished with the analysis questions, the
instructor led a class discussion in which students shared with the class the
similarities and differences they observed. This was followed by a brief lecture on
nucleotide structure.
Figure 1 shows different points of progress students made while assembling
the nucleotides.

a. Student building a nucleotide.

b. Student building a nucleotide.

Figure 1: DNA Modeling Activity, Part 1
In figure 1a, a student incorrectly began to construct a deoxyribose sugar next to a
phosphate group. In figure 1b, a student accurately built a deoxyribose sugar next
to a phosphate group. For interpretation of the references to color in this and all
other figures, the reader is referred to the electronic version of this thesis.
In Part 2 of the DNA modeling activity, students were guided through
bonding two nucleotides through dehydration synthesis to simulate how the sugarphosphate backbones of DNA are formed. Two pairs of students combined from Part
1. Students used written instructions (Appendix A) to guide them through

19

dehydration synthesis. Once completed, instructors verified accuracy. If the bonding
was inaccurate, the instructor worked with each group individually to help correct
the errors. Students then completed a set of analysis questions focused on the
process of dehydration synthesis and moved on to part 3. Figure 2 depicts two
different groups who have bonded the two nucleotides together. In 2a, the
nucleotides have been bonded together correctly. The water molecule that is made
in the process can also be seen sitting of the side. In 2b, the two nucleotides are
bonded together incorrectly. They bonded together the oxygen on the phosphate
group of nucleotide to the wrong carbon atom in the sugar on the second nucleotide.

a. Correctly bonded nucleotides

b. Incorrectly bonded nucleotides
Figure 2: DNA Modeling Activity, Part 2
In part 3, students were guided on how hydrogen bonds form between two
different nucleotides forming base pairs. Students again worked in a group of four
with two models of nucleotides so that a cytosine pair worked with a guanine pair
and that an adenosine pair worked with a thymine pair. Similarly to parts 1 and 2,
20

very little verbal direction was given and students followed a set of written prompts
(Appendix A). When completed, the instructor verified accuracy. If the bonds were
incorrect, the instructor worked with the group to correct errors after which
students answered a set of analysis questions that highlighted the similarities and
differences between the two different sets of base pairs. Once part 3 was complete,
the instructor guided a class discussion that reviewed the answers to the analysis
questions. This was then followed by a short lecture on the overall shape and
structure of a DNA molecule. Upon the completion of all discussion, the class took
all of the nucleotides and attempted to bond them all together through dehydration
synthesis and hydrogen bonds formed through base pairing to form one giant DNA
molecule. Three to four base pairs could be put together before the structure became
unreliable and started to fall apart.
Protein Modeling Project
This next activity included both animation and kinesthetic learning
techniques. Students were asked to model the process of replication of a DNA
molecule, as well as the process of making a protein (transcription and translation)
through animation. Students were given an option of working alone or with one
other partner of their choosing. They were given a time span of three weeks to
complete this project. One of those three weeks included 5 dedicated blocks of work
time in the computer lab (The equivalent of 7.5 hours). At the start of the
assignment, students were given a list a molecules and cell structures that had to
be represented in each process (Appendix B). They were also given the rubric at the

21

start of the project that outlined the criteria used to grade their project. These
criteria were: Thoroughness (all molecules and cell structures were represented),
Accuracy (molecules and cell structures interacted in the correct sequence of
events), Understanding (project conveyed an overall view of how these processes
occurred), and Effort and Perseverance (students used all of their class time
appropriately).
Many students (38 out of 43 projects) chose stop-forward animation, a digital,
technological version of an old-fashioned flipbook. This process begins with finding
representations of the required molecules and cell structures. Most students used
paper cutouts of nucleotides provided by the instructor in combination with
construction paper. In stop-forward animation, students take a series of pictures in
which one molecule has been moved slightly from one picture to the next. By taking
many pictures, students can show how different molecules move and interact with
each other to form a new DNA molecule or a new protein. These pictures are then
uploaded into a program such as Windows Moviemaker or Mac’s iMovie. Each
picture is viewed for a very short period of time (approximately 0.25 seconds).
Playing the pictures at such a fast rate makes it look like the pieces are animated.
Some students chose to use other options for this project. Two projects were
completed using a paper-pusher technique, in which students record a video in real
time. They use their hands to manipulate paper models to show how different
molecules interact during DNA replication or protein synthesis (transcription and
translation). While they push, they also narrate, describing how the molecules are

22

interacting with each other. Templates for this project can be found at
http://explorebiology.com/apbiology/labs/.
A third option was unexpectedly chosen once this project was assigned and
integrated into the class curriculum. Three projects were completed by students
that were either currently enrolled in or had been enrolled in Drafting and Design
Technology. These projects were completed using a drafting program to animate the
process. (Figure 4)

23

A

B

C

D

E

F

Figure 3: Screenshots of DN A replication in a stop-forward anim ation video
Figure 3A depicts a DNA model. The dialogue states, “DNA replication takes place in the
nucleus.” Figure 3B depicts helicase splitting the two strands of DNA. The dialogue states,
“DNA helicase winds and unwinds the original DNA.” Figure 3C depicts DNA polymerase
attaching to the DNA molecule. The dialogue states, “RNA primers signal polymerase to
attach to DNA strands.” Figure 3D and 3E depict DNA polymerase adding free-floating
nucleotides. The dialogue states, “The DNA polymerase adds free floating nucleotides.”
Figure 3F depicts the final DNA product. The dialogue states, “Now you are left with your
original DNA and a new one!”

24

A

B

D
C

E

D

Figure 4: Screenshots of Transcription using Drafting Software
In figure 4A, helicase is preparing to break hydrogen bonds. In figure 4B, helicase is
in the process of splitting hydrogen bonds. In figure 4C and 4D, RNA polymerase is
adding free floating nucleotides. In figure 4E, the mRNA molecule is detaching from
the DNA template.

25

Protein Synthesis Role Playing Activity
The final activity was one in which students stepped into the roles of the
different molecules involved in protein synthesis, more specifically translation. The
main learning objective was for students to explain the function of each molecule or
cell organelle in the process of translation. The students’ goal for this activity was to
work as a team to assemble a protein (a block of Legos ®) from amino acids in the
cell.
For this activity, the class was divided into two teams (eventually the teams
raced to see who could build a protein the fastest). Each person was assigned to be a
specific molecule or cell organelle on his or her team. They wore a nametag that
hung around their neck to remind themselves and their classmates. Table 2 lists the
different roles students filled as well as their function in the process.
This activity was completed in an auxiliary room in the high school that is
much larger than a classroom. More space allowed for students to spread out and
run, which is much safer than completing the activity in a classroom with desks and
other obstacles. Before teams were allowed to work independently, the instructor
and class “walked through” an example first. This allowed students to understand
what their role as well as their teammates’ roles were in the protein synthesis
process. Figure 5 outlines how the students were positioned in the room.

26

Table 2: Explanation of Roles in Role-Playing Activity
Cell Part
Lysosome

mRNA

tRNA

Ribosome
ER
Golgi Body

DNA
Cell
Membrane

Tasks
"Breaks down" proteins that are not correct (either from the cell
membrane or a ribosome) and "recycles" organelles that have not
done their job correctly.
Get instructions for a protein from the DNA and tell a ribosome
how to make the protein. The tRNA molecules cannot hear or
talk to you.
Helps a ribosome by gathering the pieces it needs for a specific
protein. You will need to stay near the box containing amino
acids.
Gets instructions from the mRNA, tells the tRNA to get the
pieces needed, and assembles the protein. Calls for an ER to pick
up completed proteins.
Gets a protein from a ribosome and takes it to a golgi body.
Gets two proteins from two ribosomes and takes the set to the
cell membrane. You must have at least two proteins before you
can hand them off.
Shows protein information to the mRNA molecule when it enters
the nucleus. The ribosomes and other organelles should not be
allowed to see the information.
Check the proteins. If correct, pass through the membrane to the
teacher. If not, yell for a lysosome to get it for recycling.

27

TEAM 1

TEAM 2

Golgi

Golgi

ER

ER
RIBOSOMES

RIBOSOME
tRNA

tRNA

tRNA

tRNA

tRNA

tRNA

mRNA

mRNA

mRNA

mRNA

NUCLEUS

NUCLEUS
mRNA

mRNA

Figure 5: Protein Synthesis Role Playing Map

28

The activity began by the instructor telling the class their challenge. An
example would be to build four different proteins the fastest. After yelling “GO!”,
the process would begin with the DNA in the nucleus telling an mRNA molecule for
which protein it was carrying instructions. The DNA student had a worksheet with
eight different examples of completed Legos ® proteins to choose from. Once the
mRNA student looked at the completed protein, they would run and describe the
different “amino acids” needed to the ribosome student. The ribosome student would
tell the tRNA student, which would run to the middle of the room, where a box of
amino acids was waiting. The tRNA student would bring back the correct amino
acid and hand it to the ribosome student. This process would continue until the
ribosome student had attached all of the amino acids together correctly, based on
the mRNA student’s description. Once the protein was completed, the ribosome
student would signal the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) student to come pick it up.
The ER student would pass it off to the golgi apparatus student, which would pass
it to the cell membrane student where it would be exported out of the cell. Once the
protein was exported, the instructor would verify its accuracy. If it was correct, it
counted toward to the point total. If it was incorrect, the lysosome student was
signaled to disassemble the protein and recycle its amino acids back into the amino
acid box.
On one team, one student each represented DNA, ER, the golgi apparatus,
the cell membrane, and the lysosome. The mRNA, tRNA, and ribosome roles each
had three students representing these roles. Several different rounds were played to

29

determine which team was more efficient in making proteins. Upon completion,
students returned to the classroom and answered analysis questions.

30

Results
Measurement
A pre-test was given on the first day of instruction at the beginning of the
block. A post-test was given on the last day of the unit, after their unit exam. Both
the pre- and post-test were graded using the same rubric. Every question was
scored on a scale of 0 to 5. Both the assessment and the rubric can be found in
Appendix C. For both the pre- and post-test, students were given unlimited amount
of time. The tests were completed in class without the help of books, notes, or other
students.
Students were assessed using a nine constructed free response questions. The
free response questions focused on different content learned throughout the unit.
Two of the nine questions focused around the structure of DNA at both a submicro
(molecular) as well as a micro (cellular) level of study. Two questions concentrated
on explaining the mechanism by which DNA is used as a template to build a new
DNA molecule, RNA molecule or a protein. Three questions asked students to apply
their knowledge of DNA in a real world context that relates to their life personally.
The final two questions asked students to apply their knowledge to predict the
effect of a mutation on the protein and/or organism.
Data Analysis
In this study, seventy-two students returned the consent form (Appendix C).
Out of the seventy-two students, sixty-seven completed the pretest (n=67) and sixtynine (n=69) completed the post-test. A one-tailed, unpaired t-test was performed on

31

each constructed response question as well as the overall score of the assessment,
using a function in Excel®. The results of these tests can be seen in Table 3 below.
For each question, the maximum score was five.
Table 3: Pre- and Post-test averages, including p-values of DN A Assessm ent.
M axim um score for each question=5, n=69.
Pretest
Post-test
Question
P-Value
Average
Average
-21
1. What is DNA?
1.27
3.39

6.30x10

2. Draw a model of DNA, including
as many details as you can.
3. What kind of information does
DNA carry? Includes examples in
your answer.
4. What practical uses are there in
today’s world for the information
stored in DNA?
5. Why is it necessary for a cell in
your body to make a new set of
DNA molecules?
6. Explain the mechanism by
which a cell makes a new set of
DNA molecules.
7. Explain the flow of genetic
information using the following
diagram: (Seen in Appendix D)
8. Albinism, a condition in which a
person has little to no skin or eye
pigmentation, is frequently caused
by a defective enzyme (which is a
protein) called tyrosinase. What
can cause a protein to become
defective?
9. Is there such a thing as a
beneficial mutation? Explain your
answer.
Combined Assessment Score

-39

1.10

4.10

6.00x10

3.09

3.91

0.003
-6

1.00x10

0.65

1.70

0.38

2.73

1.80x10

0.03

2.70

6.22x10

0.74

3.17

4.32x10

0.04

1.93

5.48x10

0.69

2.74

2.00x10

7.30

26.36

1.09x10

32

-22

-18

-23

-14

-13
-29

As seen in Table 3, the p-values of all questions as well as the combined
assessment score are quite small. The largest p-value can be seen in question 3 at
0.003 and the lowest p-value can be seen on question 2 at 6.0x10-39. All p-values
were far below the threshold of significance, which is 0.01. This indicates that the
post-test averages were significantly higher than the pre-test averages for all
questions as well as the combined assessment score.
Student Surveys
At the end of the unit, students in one section were asked to complete a
survey (Appendix C), reflecting on the effectiveness and enjoyment of using
animation and kinesthetic activities as a tool for learning. Students were given six
different statements and asked to rank each statement on a scale from 1 to 5. A
score of one indicates the student strongly disagreed with the statement while a
score of 5 indicates that the student strongly agreed with the statement.
Table 4: Student Survey Responses, n=24
Statement

Average Score

1. Animating DNA processes helped me
better understand how the molecule
involved interacted.
2. I enjoyed the process of creating my
own video.
3. The software used to the make the
video was easy to learn and use.
4. I would like to use animation as a
learning tool in future units.

4.42
3.21
3.92
3.33

33

Scale
Translation by
Researcher
Agreed
Neither Agreed or
Disagreed
Agreed
Neither Agreed or
Disagreed

Table 4 (cont’d)
5. Acting out DNA processes helped me
better understand how the molecules
involved interacted.
6. I would like to use acting as a learning
tool in future units.

4.46
3.75

Agreed
Agreed

As seen in Table 4, the statements that received the highest agreement were the
two statements about the effectiveness of these activities in helping the student
learn and understand the processes. In terms of looking at individual data, only one
student scored one of the statements below a three (Question #1), while in the
second question (Question #5), no student ranked the statement lower than a three.
In the free response section of these questions, students wrote comments like:
•

“The animation DNA process did help me understand transcription and
translation better because it show the process in a continuous fashion, and
allowed me to watch the process in a simplistic way.”

•

“This helped to understand the DNA processes better because I am better
hands on learner so this helped learn it better.”

•

“While I was creating my video, I found a lot more information about protein
synthesis that I didn’t know before. It helped me learn the processes better. “

•

“It was hands on and actually made you think instead of just listening in a
classroom.”

•

“Even though I knew what I was doing this made it visually clear. By acting
it out, you get a better understanding of how each piece works.”
The two questions with the least amount of agreement pertained to the
34

project in which students created their own animation. The questions referred to
the enjoyment that students had creating their own video (Question #2) as well as
using animation as a future learning tool (Question #4). In question #2, half of
responses, ranked the statement as a 3, neither agreed nor disagreed. This
demonstrates that half the class had no particular liking or dislike of the animation
project. In question #4, the most frequent response was a 4, agreed, indicating that
many students in the class would use animation as a teaching tool again. Although
this appears to be positive, this question also received the largest amount of
negative feedback. Six students (25%) rated this statement under a 3, indicating a
dislike of animation as a teaching tool. The students who did respond negatively to
this statement wrote the following comments: “We would be better off watching
animations by people who know what they are doing and have time to be more
detailed” as well as “I just feel like I learn a lot better though taking notes, listening
to lectures, and reviewing”.
Discussion
The initial hypothesis of this study was that students would show a
significant gain in content knowledge and understanding pre to post instruction
after integrating animation and kinesthetic activities into the DNA unit. Based on
the results shown in Table 3, the data do indeed support the hypothesis.
By looking at the overall assessment scores, the results show that the posttest combined scores are statistically greater than the pre-test combined scores. The
p-value was 1.09x10

-29

, indicating there is less than 0.01% chance that the pre and

35

post-test results are the same. The results of this experiment support the findings of
McClean et al. (2005), who found that the most effective visualizations “…reveal the
complexity of the objects involved in the process, illustrate how and where the
objects interact, provide a spatial representation of the molecules in the process,
and smoothly represent the transitional states the object undergo during the length
of the process.” The DNA processes video animation activity includes all of the
McClean’s required criteria and offer one explanation as to student’s success in
understanding DNA replication and protein synthesis.
Looking further in depth, the data reveal that two questions with the most
significant gains asked students to explain mechanisms by which new DNA is
produced (DNA replication) and a new protein is produced (transcription and
translation). The average score on a scale of 1 to 5, went from 0.74 to 3.17 on the
question about protein synthesis (question #7 on the assessment). The p-value was
-23

4.32x10

, the second smallest out of all the assessment questions. The result is

consistent with the work of Schonborn and Anderson (2006), who studied visual
literacy in the field of biochemistry. Their findings support the use of multiple
representations as a teaching tool. They state, “…students should be required to
interpret multiple ERs (external representations) of the same phenomenon and to
merge their mental models of each ER into one unifying model of reality”. In this
unit, protein synthesis was taught using a wide array of visualizations from static
illustrations, to animations (both student generated and non-student generated), to
kinesthetic role playing processes. Students saw the same scientific process

36

presented many different ways and appeared to have successfully merged these
different representations into one accurate model.
One of the most telling statistics though is the incredibly low p-value
(6.00x10

-39

) of question #2, which asked students to draw a model of DNA. The

majority of students scored a 1 (average=1.10) for this question on the pre-test with
most of the answers showing a picture of double helix. This is not surprising due to
their prior knowledge from 7th grade life science. The post-test average was a 4.10,
with only 9% of students earning a score lower than 3. The majority of students
(both high and low achieving) were able to draw a nucleotide structure with many
being able to connect their nucleotide structure and sequence to a double helix
drawing. This was a very happy surprise for the instructor. Historically, this has
been one of the hardest concepts for my students to grasp in this unit. In the past,
questions pertaining to nucleotide structure are some of the most commonly missed
on the unit test. Not only did they perform well on the multiple choice questions
pertaining to this topic on the test, but they were able to give sufficient freeresponse answers as well. This improvement can be attributed to the work in the
nucleotide activity. The use of a 3-D model to represent nucleotides made a
significant impact in student comprehension. This correlates with the findings of
Beltramini et al. (2006) In a similar study, they concluded, “…the visualization of
three-dimensional structures of organic molecules, which in itself are attractive and
artistic, creates a significant impact on the comprehension of the structure-function
paradigm in biology.”

37

It is important to also recognize how these activities impact student
engagement, which in turn impact the assessment results. Based on the results of
the student survey, it can be concluded that the majority of students liked the
animation and kinesthetic activities. As an instructor, I am sure that using these
activities increased student engagement compared to the past, in which lecture and
static illustrations were used.
The impact of student engagement on student gains in comprehension and
knowledge cannot be dismissed as a factor in these results. The positive gains that
that student engagement has on achievement results can be linked to the
constructivist theory which states that more meaningful learning occurs when
students actively select relevant information, organize it into a representation, and
integrate it with other knowledge (Starbek, Erjavect, & Peklaj, 2010). In this unit,
students were asked to do all of the tasks that comprise the constructivist theory.
They selected relevant information to animate the DNA processes and organized it
into an animation while connecting to other knowledge they had learned.
In conclusion, integrating animation and kinesthetic visual aids as learning
activities to teach DNA structure as well as DNA replication, transcription, and
translation, had a positive and significant gain on student knowledge and
comprehension. Using these types of visual aids allows students to have multiple
models that connect to different learning styles while keeping students engaged in
meaningful activity.

38

APPENDICES

39

APPENDIX A
DNA Modeling Activity

40

Name_____________________________________________________________Hour______
Biology-Building DNA
Challenge: To build a nucleotide to be used in a large-scale classroom
model.
Procedure:
1. Using the key below, collect the correct number and types of atoms, based on
your assigned nucleotide.
Oxygen=Red
Carbon=Green
Nitrogen=Yellow
Phosphorous=Blue
Hydrogen=Orange
2. Build each part of the nucleotide (Phosphate group, sugar, and nitrogenous
base) separately using a toothpick to represent a covalent bond. Remember
that a double bond must be represented by two toothpicks. Be sure to build it
on the same scale as your nucleotide handout.
3. When each part is completed, attach the three parts of the nucleotide. When
your nucleotide is completed, verify its accuracy with your teacher.
4. Answer the questions below.
Analysis:
1. What element makes up the majority of a nucleotide? _____________________
2. What kind of bond holds together the atoms that make up a nucleotide?

3. How is your nucleotide similar to the other nucleotide at your table?

4. How is your nucleotide different to the other nucleotide at your table?

41

5. Why is a nucleotide considered a monomer?

6. Predict how your nucleotide will bond to the other nucleotide at the table.
(Which part of your nucleotide will bond? Which part of your partner’s
nucleotide will bond?)

Challenge: Bond two nucleotides together by dehydration synthesis.
Procedure:
1. Find the hydroxyl group (hydrogen and oxygen together) on the sugar of table
#1’s nucleotide. Remove the hydroxyl group. This frees electrons in the
carbon of the sugar to bond to something else.
2. Find the hydrogen atom located on an oxygen atom that is bonded to the
phosphate group on table #2’s nucleotide. Remove the hydrogen. This frees
electrons on the oxygen atom to bond to something else
3. Bond the carbon with free electrons (on table #1’s) to the oxygen with free
electrons (on table #2’s) with a single covalent bond.
4. Bond the removed hydroxyl group to the removed hydrogen atom. It should
form a “V” shape with the oxygen atom being the bottom of the “V” and the
two hydrogen atoms being the tops of the “V”.
5. Verify accuracy with a teacher. Once approved, answer the questions below.
6. After questions are completed, “unbond” nucleotides. (Undo everything you
did in steps #1-4)
Analysis:
!"

What kind of bond was formed between the carbon and oxygen atom? _____

#" What molecule was formed by bonding a hydroxyl group (OH) to a hydrogen
atom (H)?_

42

$" If “de” means to remove and “hydrate” means water, why is dehydration a
good name for this chemical reaction?

4. If you wanted to bond 400 nucleotides together, how many times would the
molecule have to undergo dehydration synthesis?

Challenge: Bond two complementary nitrogenous bases together with
hydrogen bonds.
Procedure:
For A-T Tables:
!" Place your nucleotides side by side with the nitrogenous bases in the middle.
Then, flip the adenine nucleotide upside down. Use the diagram below to
guide you.
#" Using the wire, form two hydrogen bonds.
3. Verify accuracy with a teacher. Once approved, answer the questions below.

Figure 6: Molecular diagram of an adenosine-thymine base pair

43

For C-G Tables:
!" Place your nucleotides side by side with the nitrogenous bases in the middle.
Then, flip the guanine nucleotide upside down. Use the diagram below to
guide you.
#" Using the wire, form three hydrogen bonds.

Figure 7:Molecular diagram of a cytosine-guanine base pair
$" Verify accuracy with a teacher. Once approved, answer the questions below
Analysis
1. What two elements can hydrogen form hydrogen bonds to?
____________________________________________
2. What is the hydrogen bonding between adenine and thymine different than
the hydrogen bonding between cytosine and guanine?

3. How does hydrogen bonding between nitrogenous bases contribute to the 3-D
helix shape that DNA has?

44

Figure 8: Molecular diagrams of the four different types of nucleotides
found in DNA (Source:http://www.nvo.com/jin/homepage20/)

45

APPENDIX B
DNA Processes Animation Project

46

DNA Animation Project
Challenge: To create an animation that represents the flow of
information from DNA to protein.
1. Choose the method of animation. You may choose from the following ideas:
!" Stop Forward Video
• Description: Take a series of pictures in which objects move slightly
from picture to picture. Then, create a video in which the pictures are
played at a high speed simulating animation.
• Required Equipment: Camera, Software (Movie Maker for
Windows, iMovie for Mac)
#" Paper Pusher Video
• Description: Film one video that uses the manipulation of paper cut
outs (pictures and words) to animate
• Required Equipment: Camera or video recorder, Software (Movie
Make for Windows, iMovie for Mac)
$" Other
• Description: Pitch a new idea to instructor. It must be approved
before proceeding.
• Required Equipment: TBD
2. You will receive five in class days to work on your project. During these class
days, you can create props, take pictures, record, draw, etc. You must bring your
needed materials to class that day!
3. The following criteria are required to be present in your animation.
Table 5: Required criteria for each process for animation project
Process
DNA Replication
Transcription
Translation

Molecules
DNA, DNA Helicase,
DNA Polymerase, Free
floating Nucleotides,
DNA Helicase, RNA
polymerase, Free floating
Nucleotides, mRNA,
mRNA, tRNA, Amino
Acid, Protein, Codon,
Anticodon

47

Location
Nucleus
Nucleus
Ribosome/Cytoplasm

Helpful Tips from Ms. Hager to You:
• Complete each process as we learn about it in class. Don’t wait until
the night before to complete the whole video.
• You will have to put time in outside of class to complete this project with
high quality.
• Although bells and whistles are fun to look at, accurate and complete
content is the most important part of the project
• Complete your project early so Ms. Hager can look over it.

48

Table 6: Grading rubric for animation project
Developing
(5-9)
Some
molecules and
locations are
accurately
Thoroughness
represented in
form and
function with
significant
errors.
Viewer
Viewer
receives a
receives a
partially
partially
accurate
accurate
description of description of
Accuracy
one process
two processes
with little
with some
detail and
details and
significant
significant
error.
error.
Viewer
Viewer
receives no
receives little
understanding understanding
on how
on how
Understanding information is information is
transferred
transferred
from DNA to
from DNA to
protein.
protein.
Criterion

Effort &
Perseverance

Beginning
(0-4)
Few molecules
and locations
are accurately
represented
with major
errors in form
and function.

The students
did not finish
the project
and used little
class time
effectively.

The students
finished the
project, but it
could have
been improved
with more
effort;
Students used
some class
time
effectively.

49

Accomplished
(10-14)
Most molecules
and locations
are accurately
represented in
form and
function with
few, minor
errors.

Exemplary
(15)
All molecules
and locations
are accurately
represented,
in form and
function with
no errors.

Viewer receives
an accurate
description of
all three
processes with
some detail and
minor errors.

Viewer
receives an
accurate
description of
all three
processes with
significant
detail and no
errors.

Viewer receives
a broad
understanding
on how
information is
transferred
from DNA to
protein.

Viewer
receives a
specific
understanding
on how
information is
transferred
from DNA to
protein.
Project was
continued
until it was
complete as
the students
could make it,
gave effort
beyond that
was required,
and used all
class time
effectively.

The students
worked hard
and completed
the project,
gave the
required effort,
and used all
class time
effectively.

Stop Forward Animation for iMovie

Figure 9: This screenshot demonstrates how to start a new project.
Open iMovie. From the file menu, choose “New Project”.

Figure 10: After starting the new project, the program will ask to
choose a theme. When prompted, choose, “No Theme”. Then, name the
project.

50

Figure 11: Once the project is initially set up, import pictures from
iPhoto that will be in the movie. To do this, choose the camera icon on
the toolbar in the middle of the screen. Then, click on “Events”. Drag
the event to the window with the empty frames.

Figure 12: For editing to occur, all frames must be selected. From the
Edit menu, choose “Select All”.
51

%

%

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
Figure 13:To begin editing, click on the Inspector button. It is the “I”
icon on the middle toolbar.
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
Figure 14: To change the length of duration, type 0.2 in the “Duration”
section. Then, select “Apply to all Stills”. (This will allow your still
pictures to be played at a high speed). Press “Done”.

52

Figure 15: To continue editing, make sure all pictures are still
selected (If not, repeat figure 12). To edit the actual picture, click
on the crop button. It is located right next to the inspector
button.
%
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%
%%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
Figure 16: To focus on the picture on the paper cut outs, choose “Fit”
and then choose “Done.” Preview movie by pushing play button.

53

Paper Pusher Animation for iMovie

Figure 17: This screenshot demonstrates how to start a new project.
Open iMovie. From the file menu, choose “New Project”.

Figure 18: After starting the new project, the program will ask to
choose a theme. When prompted, choose, “No Theme”. Then, name the
project.

54

Figure 19: To begin the movie, import video from iPhoto. From the File
menu, choose “Import…Movies”.

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

%

Figure 20:To upload the video, select “Movies” from the side tool bar.
Then choose “iPhoto”. Select the correct video. Create a new event to
place movie in and name it “DNA Replication”.

55

%
%

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
Figure 21: To begin editing, all of the video must be selected. To do
this, highlight one frame in the clip. From the Edit Menu, choose
“Select Entire Clip”. Drag clip below to empty frames.

%
%
%

Figure 22; To focus video frame on the paper cutouts, select the entire
clip. Press the “Crop” button located in the middle toolbar.

56

%
%

Figure 23: Once the crop button has been selected, choose “Fit” and
then choose “Done”. Preview video button by pressing play button.

57

Stop Forward Animation for Movie Maker

Figure 24: Before making a new video, adjust the settings. This allows
the video to have these settings when it is imported. To begin adjusting
setting, choose “Options”, from the “Tools” menu.

%
%
%
%
%

Figure 25: To edit the settings of the picture frame duration, choose
the “Advanced” Tab. Then change “Picture Duration” to 0.500 seconds.

58

%
%
%
%
%
%

%
%

%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
Figure 29: Once the settings have been adjusted, choose the correct
view setting for the program. The easiest setting to work with is the
Timeline setting. To use this setting, choose the “Show Timeline”
button located in the middle of the screen.
%

%
Figure 30: Now that the settings have been adjusted and the view
setting has been chosen, the next step is to start making the movie. To
do this, import pictures from a flashdrive.
%
59

%
%

Figure 31: To add imported pictures into the movie, right click in the
“Collection Box” and select “Select All”. Then drag all of the
highlighted pictures and drop in the “Video” box located in the
Timeline below.
%

Figure 32: The basic video should now work. Preview the video on the
bar to the right.

60

APPENDIX C
Assessment, Survey, Consent Form

61

Name_____________________________________________Hour________________
Biology-DNA Assessment
1. What is DNA?

2. Draw a model of DNA, including as many details as you can.

3. What kind of information does DNA carry? Includes examples in your
answer.

4. What practical uses are there in today’s world for the information stored in
DNA?

5. Why is it necessary for a cell in your body to make a new set of DNA
molecules?

62

6. Explain the mechanism by which a cell makes a new set of DNA molecules?

7.

DNA

RNA

Protein

Figure 33: Explain the flow of genetic information using the diagram.

8. Albinism, a condition in which a person has little to no skin or eye pigmentation,
is frequently caused by a defective enzyme (which is a protein) called tyrosinase.
What can cause a protein to become defective?

9. Is there such a thing as a beneficial mutation? Explain your answer.

63

Table 7: Grading rubric for pre- and post-test assessment
Question

Developing
(1-2)
Student can
identify DNA
as a source of
genetic
information,
adding one
correct detail
to elaborate
answer.

Accomplished
(3-4)
Student can
describe DNA as
a source of
genetic
information,
adding two
correct details to
elaborate
answer.

#2

Student
cannot model
DNA
structure or
shape.

Student can
model part of
the structure
by identifying
nucleotides or
a double helix
shape.

Student can
model structure,
by identifying
nucleotides and
a double helix
shape.

#3

Student uses
Student
little details to
cannot
describe
describe
genetic
genetic
information in
information in
DNA without
DNA.
examples.

Student uses
some details to
describe genetic
information in
DNA, including
1 example.

#4

Student
cannot
describe any
uses for DNA.

#5

Student can
Student can
identify DNA
identify or
replication as
describe DNA
a necessary
replication as
part of the cell
part of the cell
cycle with
cycle.
little detail.

#1

Beginning
(0)

Student
cannot
describe DNA
accurately.

Student can
describe one
use for DNA.

64

Student can
describe two
uses for DNA.

Exemplary
(5)
Student can
describe DNA
as the source
of genetic
information,
adding three
correct details
to elaborate
answer.
Student can
model
structure in
detail,
describing
nucleotide
structure and
double helix
shape.
Student uses
many details
to describe
genetic
information in
DNA,
including 2
examples.
Student can
describe three
uses for DNA.

Student can
Student can
describe why
identify DNA
DNA
replication as a
replication is
necessary part of
a necessary
the cell cycle
part of the cell
with some detail.
cycle with
detail.

Table 7 (cont’d)

#6

#7

#8

#9

Student
cannot
accurately
describe DNA
replication.

Student does
not use
diagram to
describe
transcription
and
translation.

Student
cannot identify
or describe a
change in
amino acid
sequence.

Student
incorrectly
identifies it as
impossible.

Student can
describe parts
of DNA
replication but
with
significant
error.
Student uses
diagram to
describe
transcription
and
translation
with few
details and
significant
error.
Student
identifies an
abnormal
amino acid
sequence but
cannot connect
it to DNA
sequence.
Student
accurately
identifies it as
possible but
cannot justify
their
explanation.

65

Student can
accurately
describe DNA
replication
with minor
errors.
Student uses
diagram to
accurately
describe
transcription
and
translation
with some
details and
minor errors.
Student
identifies an
abnormal
amino acid
sequence and
can identify its
origin in DNA
sequence.
Student
accurately
identifies it as
possible and
can justify
their
explanation
with some
detail.

Student can
accurately
describe DNA
replication
including
semiconservative
replication
without error.
Student uses
diagram to
accurately
describe
transcription
and
translation
with many
details and no
errors.
Student
identifies an
abnormal
amino acid
sequence and
can describe
its origin in
DNA sequence.
Student
accurately
identifies it as
possible and
can justify
explanation
with detail and
including an
example.

Rate the following statements on a scale of 1 to 5. Please provide a
brief explanation for each choice.
1=Strongly Disagree
2=Disagree
3=Neither Agree or Disagree
4=Agree
5=Strongly Agree
1. Animating DNA processes helped me better understand how the molecules
involved interacted. _______

2. I enjoyed the process of creating my own video. ________

3. The software used to make the video (Moviemaker or iMovie) was easy to learn
and use. _________

4. I would like to use animation as a learning tool in future units.__________

5. Acting out DNA processes helped me better understand how the molecules
involved interacted. ________

6. I would like to use acting as a learning tool in future units.__________

66

PARENTAL CONSENT AND STUDENT ASSENT FORM
Dear Students and Parents/Guardians:
I would like to take this opportunity to welcome you back to school and invite you to
participate in a research project, Modeling DNA Structure and Processes through
Animation and Kinesthetic Visualizations, which I will conduct as part of biology
this semester. My name is Ms. Christine Hager. I am your biology teacher this
semester and I am also a master’s degree student at Michigan State University.
Researchers are required to provide a consent form like this to inform you about the
study, to convey that participation is voluntary, to explain risks and benefits of
participation, and to empower you to make an informed decision. You should feel
free to ask the researchers any questions you may have.
What is the purpose of this research? I have been working on effective ways
to teach DNA structure and processes, and I plan to study the results of this
teaching approach on student comprehension and retention of the material. The
results of this research will contribute to teachers’ understandings about the best
way to teach about science topics. Completion of this research project will also help
me to earn my master’s degree in Michigan State University’s Division of Math and
Science Education (DSME).
What will students do? You will participate in the instructional unit about DNA
structure and processes. You will complete the usual assignments, activities, class
demonstrations, and pretests/posttests just as you do for any other unit of
instruction. There are no unique research activities – participation in this study will
not increase or decrease the amount of work that students do. I will simply make
copies of students’ work for my research purposes. This project will continue from
October to November. I am asking for permission from both students and
parents/guardians (one parent/guardian is sufficient) to use copies of student work
for my research purposes.
What are the potential benefits? My reason for doing this research is to learn
more about improving the quality of science instruction. I won’t know about the
effectiveness of my teaching methods until I analyze my research results. If the
results are positive, I can apply the same teaching methods to other science topics
taught in this course, and you will benefit by better learning and remembering of
course content. I will report the results in my master’s thesis so that other teachers
and their students can benefit from my research.
What are the potential risks? There are no foreseeable risks associated with
completing course assignments, activities, class demonstrations, and
pretests/posttests. In fact, completing course work should be very beneficial to
students. Another person will store the consent forms (where you say “yes” or “no”)
in a locked file cabinet that will not be opened until after I have assigned the grades
for this unit of instruction. That way I will not know who agrees to participate in
67

the research until after grades are issued. In the meantime, I will save all of your
written work. Later I will analyze the written work only for students who have
agreed to participate in the study and whose parents/guardians have consented.
How will privacy and confidentiality be protected? Information about you
will be protected to the maximum extent allowable by law. Students’ names will not
be reported in my master’s thesis or in any other dissemination of the results of this
research. Instead, the data will consist of class averages and samples of student
work that do not include names. After I analyze the data to determine class
averages and choose samples of student work for presentation in the thesis, I will
destroy the copies of student’s original assignments, tests, etc. The only people who
will have access to the data are me, my thesis committee at MSU, and the
Institutional Review Board at MSU. The data will be stored on password-protected
computers (during the study) and in a locked file cabinet in Dr. Heidemann’s locked
office at MSU (after the study) for at least three years after the completion of the
study.
What are your rights to participate, say no, or withdraw? Participation in
this research is completely voluntary. You have the right to say “no”. You may
change your mind at any time and withdraw. If either the student or
parent/guardian requests to withdraw, the student’s information will not be used in
this study. There are no penalties for saying “no” or choosing to withdraw.
Who can you contact with questions and concerns? If you have concerns or
questions about this study, such as scientific issues, how to do any part of it, or to
report an injury, please contact the researcher Christine Hager:
chager@scslakeview-k12.com; 586-445-4045 and /or Dr. Merle Heidemann: 354
Farm Lane #118 East Lansing, MI 48824; heidema2@msu.edu; 517-884-3468].
If you have questions or concerns about your role and rights as a research
participant, would like to obtain information or offer input, or would like to register
a complaint about this study, you may contact, anonymously if you wish, the
Michigan State University’s Human Research Protection Program at 517-355-2180,
Fax 517-432-4503, or e-mail irb@msu.edu or regular mail at 207 Olds Hall, MSU,
East Lansing, MI 48824.
How should I submit this consent form? If you agree to participate in this
study, please complete the attached form. Both the student and parent/guardian
must sign the form. Return the form to Ms. Givinsky in room 209 by September
14th.

68

Name of science course: Biology
Teacher: Ms. Hager
School: Lakeview High School
Parents/guardians should complete this following consent information:
I voluntarily agree to have_______________________________________ participate in
this study.
(print student name)
Please check all that apply:
Data:
___________ I give Ms. Hager’s permission to use data generated from my child’s
work in this class for her thesis project. All data from my child shall remain
confidential.
___________ I do not wish to have my child’s work used in this thesis project. I
acknowledge that my child’s work will be graded in the same manner regardless of
their participation in this research.
Photography, audiotaping, or videotaping:
___________ I give Ms. Hager’s permission to use photos, audiotapes, or videotapes
of my child in the class room doing work related to this thesis project. I understand
that my child will not be identified.
___________ I do not wish to have my child’s images used at any time during this
thesis project.
Signatures:
________________________________________________
(Parent/Guardian Signature)

_______________
(Date)

I voluntarily agree to participate in this thesis project.
________________________________________________
(Student Signature)
***Important***
Return this form to Ms. Givinsky in room 209.

69

_______________
(Date)

REFERENCES

70

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