THE EFFECT OF AUDHORY AND VISUAL MOTION PICTURE DESCR‘PTNE MOOALmES 1N TEACHING PERCEPTUAL- MOTOR SK‘LLS USED IN THE GRADING OF CEREAL GRAINS Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MlCHmAN STATE UNNERSHY JAMES WILUAM HANNEMANN 1968 LIBRARY TH ESIS M lCil \ .‘ sate University This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE EFFECT OF AUDITORY AND VISUAL MOTION PICTURE 1 MODALITIES IN TEACHING PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR SKILLS USED ‘ IN THE GRADING OF CEREAL GRAINS presented by JAMES WILLIAM HANNEMANN has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PH 0 D 0 degree in EDUCATION 95V 56%. r /l flajor professor Date May 17, 1968 0-169 Abstract THE EFFECT OF AUDITORI AND VISUAL MOTION PICTURE DESCRIPTIVE MODALITIES IN TEACHING PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR SKILLS USED IN THE GRADING OF CEREAL GRAINS James William Hannemann Problem: This study was designed to answer the following problem: "When using motion pictures to demonstrate perceptual- motor skills, do students learn to imitate the skills demonstrated more accurately when the supportive descriptive terminology is presented auditorily or when the supportive descriptive terminology is presented visually?" Procedure: Two operational hypotheses were developed to serve as the bases for the empirical testing of the problem statement. _Qperational Hypothesis Number One The group of students viewing the visual motion picture supportive descriptive modality will have a significantly higher mean score, at the .05 level, than the group viewing the auditory motion picture supportive descriptive modality as judged by verbal reSponses to questions of apparatus identification posed by the examiner following Part I of the measuring instrument. Operational Hypothesis Number Two The group of students viewing the visual motion picture supportive descriptive modality will have a significantly higher mean score, at the .05 level, than the group viewing the auditory supportive descriptive modality as determined by immediate imitation of the tasks described and shown by the motion picture and judged by the examiner following Part II of the measuring instrument. Population and Sample Using a population of 87 males enrolled in the 1967 First Term of the Agricultural Production Program, Institute of.Agricultural Technology, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Michigan State University, 60 students were selected by simple, non-replacement random sampling. From these 60 students, 30 students were randomly assigned to the control (auditory) group and 30 students randomly assigned to the eXperimental (visual) group. Selection of the Perceptual-Motor Skill After viewing the students' backgrounds and the courses they were taking while enrolled in the Agricultural Program in the Fall of 1967’ to determine the type of perceptual-motor skill which would be most beneficial to them and to post-high education in agriculture, a set of perceptual-motor skills was selected. The set consisted of those per- ceptual-motor skills necessary to determine the test weight per bushel of cereal grains. Consequently, a six minute, color 16mm motion picture, "Determining the Test Weight Per Bushel of Yellow Corn", was produced by the Michigan State University Film Production Unit. One mode of the motion picture had the supportive descriptive terminology in visual (captions) form.and the other mode of the motion picture had the suppor- tive descriptive terminology in auditory (Spoken) form. Measuring Instrument A measuring instrument consisting of (l) verbal identification of the parts of the apparatus used in determining the test weight per bushel and (2) imitation of the motor tasks demonstrated in the film was con- structed. It was pre-tested and found to have content validity and the power to discriminate among students. Data Collection Each student viewed the film in the presence of the examiner and the dependent variable data were collected immediately after the pro- jection of the motion picture. These data were collected during a nine day period in November, 1967. All the students took the College Placement Test and the Differential Aptitude Test during fall term registration and these data were used as the independent variable data in determining relationship between student characteristics and their performance as judged by the measuring instrument. Analysis One way analysis of variance was used to determine if the difference between the mean scores of the control group and the eXperimental group, as determined by the measuring instrument, was significant at the .05 level. Product-moment correlation was used to determine the relationship between the students' scores on the College Qualifying Test...Michigan State University Norms and National Freshman Norms...and the Differential Aptitude Test...Numerical and Mechanical Sections...and their scores on Part I and II of the measuring instrument. Findings: 1. Operational Hypothesis #1 was accepted and it was concluded that the visual descriptive supporting modality was more effective than the auditory descriptive supporting modality for identification of the parts of the apparatus. 2. Operational Hypothesis #2 was not accepted and it was concluded that the visual and auditory descriptive supporting modalities were equally effective in teaching students to imitate perceptual-motor skills demonstrated by motion pictures. 3. The only positive relationship, .5 and larger, was between the level of the students' scores on the College Placement Test...NF norms, and the numerical section of the Differential Aptitude Test and the students' performance as measured by the Part II of the measuring instru- ment. THE EFFECT OF AUDITOR! AND VISUAL MOTION PICTURE DESCRIPTIVE MODALITIES IN TEACHING PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR SKILLS USED IN THE GRADING OF CEREAL GRAINS By James William Hannemann A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1968 ii Biographical Sketch JAMES WILLIAM HANNEMANN was born at Freeman, South Dakota, on March 12, 1937, and received his elementary education in the rural schools of Hutchinson and McCook Counties, South Dakota. He graduated from the Bridgewater High School, Bridgewater, South Dakota, in May, 1955, and entered South Dakota State University in September, 1955. In June, 1959, he received a Bachelor of Science Degree in Agricultural Education from South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota. Starting in July, 1959, he taught vocational agriculture at Creigh- ton, Nebraska, until June, 1962. He entered Cornell University in Septem- ber, 1962, as a candidate for a Master of Science Degree. Completing residence requirements in June, 1963, he became teacher of agriculture at Ipswich, South Dakota, in July, 1963. He received his Master of Science Degree in February, 1965, and completed two years as teacher of agricul- ture at Ipswich on June 30, 1965. In the fall of 1965, he enrolled in the Graduate School at Michigan State University and received a Doctor of PhilOSOphy Degree in June, 1968, with a major in Vocational-Technical Education and minors in General Education and Instructional Media and Materials. He and Kay Armstrong were marfled on June 14, 1959, and they have two daughters. Pamela Jane was born on April 15, 1960, and Heather Ann was born on May 3, 1963. iii Acknowledgments Appreciation is expressed to the following individuals for their assistance in the deve10pment and implementation of this study: Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. 0. Donald Meaders, Chairman of Doctoral Committee Harold M. Byram, Member of Doctoral Committee and Thesis Advisor Troy L. Stearns, Member of Doctoral Committee James L. Page, Member of Doctoral Committee Guy E. Timmons, who replaced Dr. 0. Donald Meaders as Doctoral Committee Chairman Raymond M. Clark and Dr. Raymond Garner for their assistance and encouragement Edward McCoy, Head, Film Production Unit, MSU Gunter Pfaff, Film Production Supervisor, MSU Harold J. Ecker, Director, Institute of Agricultural Technology, MSU Ronald McDaniel, Editor, Interstate Printers and Publishers, Danville, Illinois Don Schrickel, Manager-Grain Development, Quaker Oats, Inc. William E. Hall, Executive Secretary, Michigan Crop Improvement Association waiter McCarley, Assistant Instructor, MSU Floyd McKinney, Assistant Instructor, MSU Narindar Gill, Assistant Instructor, MSU Rex Yocum, President, Seedburc Equipment Company, Chicago, Ill. W. T. Wisbeck, Charles V. Brant, and P. R. Peterson of the USDA Grain.Division Special appreciation is expressed to the members of my immediate family} Kay, Pam, Heather, Father, Mother, and Brother who gave much of themselves towards the attainment of this personal goal of which this thesis is only a small part. iv Table of Contents Chapter I II Prdblem, Literature Review, and Hypothesis Introduction to the Prdblem......................... Problem Statement...................o............... Definition of Terms................................. Literature Review................................... HypotheseS.......................................... Assumptions......................................... LiMitationsooooooooooooo000000000000000000000000000. Methodology-Data Collection Population.......................................... Rationale for Pepulation Selection.................. Sample.............................................. Experimental Design................................. Selection of Motion Picture Content................. Development of Measuring Instrument................. Determination of the validity of the Measuring IDStrumento0.000000000000000so...00900000000000... Determination of the Reliability of the Measuring InStrumBntooeoooooeooooosocoo-00000000000000.0000. Deve10pment of the Motion Picture Modalities........ Data COlleCtion Procedures.acocooooooooooooooooooooo Analysis............................................ Page <) a) F’ iv 10 12 1t» 11: 16 17 18 19 21 22 2h 25 III Findings and Conclusions Operational Hypothesis Number One.................... Operational Hypothesis Number Two.................... Relationship Between Student Characteristics and Student Performance................................ IV Implications and Recommendations Implications for Information Transmission Theory..... Implications for Instructional Materials DeveloPment. Implications for Instructional Media and Materials Utilization.ooooooooooooooeooooooocoo-000.000.0000. Recommendations...000000000000000.0000000000000000... Bibliography............................................... Appendix A Measuring InStrumentoooooooooooeoooeoooooeooooooooooo B Letter Sent to the Students Requesting Their Participation in the StUdYocooeooooooooeooococoa... C Data. COlleCtion Room Arrangement...................... 27 29 30 32 33 35 37 39 1+3 List of Tables and Figures Table I Comparison of 1965, 1966, and 1967, First Term Institute of Agricultural Technology AgriCUItural PrOdUCtion Students 9 Q Q Q o g o o o 0 o o Q Q o o o 0 II Population, Control Group, and EXperimental Group Percentile Means.00000000000000000000.000000000000 III Mean, Median, Standard Deviation, and Range of Scores on Part I of the Measuring Instrument...... IV tAnalysis of the Means on Part I of the Measuring IDStrumentooooooeoooooooooooooooo0.000000000000000 V’ Mean, Median, Standard Deviation, and Range of Scores on Part II of the Measuring Instrument..... VI Analysis of the Means on Part II of the Measuring Instrument.............................. VII Control and Experimental Group Coefficients......... Figure I Paradigm of the Post-Test Only Control Group Design. Page 13 15 27 28 29 3O 31 16 Chapter I Problem, Literature Review, and Hypothesis This study is a quest for valid information which can'be used by instructional Specialists designing instructional media and materials for vocational education. It focuses on a problem growing out of the investigator's experiences as a teacher of agriculture and as an instruc- tional media and materials company representative. While attending vocational education conferences in 1965 and 1966, the writer became aware of how secondary vocational teachers perceive the utilization of motion pictures in the teaching of perceptual-motor skills. His end-ofbthe summer report of 1966 stated: "Teachers of agriculture are very interested in 8mm film loops as a possible means of teaching concepts and skills. They are eSpecially interested in using the short films to teach mechanical skills such as adjusting the combine cylinder, identification of tools and machine parts, and similar skills. Their biggest reservation toward the use of available and potential film loOpS is the lack of sound to accompany the film. Apparently the teachers have preconceived notions regarding the teaching effectiveness of silent film as compared to sound film. They prefer sound film." (5) After returning to Michigan State University in the fall of 1966, the writer attempted to determine if the teachers' perceptions about the effectiveness of the silent film as compared to the sound film was based on sound psychological theory. A problem statement was develOped which gave direction to the search and which presented possibilities of empir- ical testing if such procedures were needed to answer the question. Problem Statement The problem which this study attempted to answer was: "When using motion pictures to demonstrate perceptual-motor skills, do students learn to imitate the skills demonstrated more accurately when the supportive descriptive terminology is presented auditory or when the supportive descriptive terminology is presented visually?” In attempting to find an answer to the prOblem, a review of liter- ature was conducted to determine what research had been conducted that could provide an answer to the problem or give direction for additional research designed to solve the prdblem. Definition of Terms For the purposes of this study, the following definitions are per- tinent and relevant: PerceptualéMotor Skill: A performance involving sensory-motor processes and their coordination in executing an action or series of action. Auditory Mbdality: The use of the Spoken word for providing the necessary descriptive and/or eXplanatory data needed to support the motion picture's visual images. Visual Medality: The use of written captions for providing the necessary descriptive and/or explanatory data needed to support the motion picture's visual images. Control Group: The group of students shown the auditory modality. Experimental Group: The group of students shown the visual modality. Ho: Null Hypothesis H1: Alternative Hypothesis X- l“ e Assumptions Certain conditions in the implementation and interpretation of an OXperimental study must be assumed and the following three assumptions are considered applicable to this study: 10 1. The designation of the control and experimental groups as experimental groups when discussing the study with the students who took part in the study will minimize the Hawe thorne Effect. 2. It is assumed that if a difference between the two modal- ities does exist at the .05 level, it is statistically and educationally significant. 3. The addition of articles such as the, a, and, etc.. to the auditory supportive descriptive terminology will not cause the auditory modality to be more or less effective than the visual modality. Limitations The conclusions and resulting implications of this study are subject to certain limitations. First, restricting the scope of the study to those perceptual-motor skills used to determine the test weight per bushel of yellow corn restricts the conclusions and implications to perceptual-motor skills that have the same characteristics of those used in this study. Also, the measuring instrument used to determine the effectiveness of the two modalities had certain limitations. It was not possible to fully establish its reliability or its validity. Consequently, the findings and applications to teaching procedures must be restricted by the reliability and validity of the measuring instrument. The instructional design of the motion picture followed a specific learning pattern and thereby, imposes a limitation upon this study. For if the information had been presented in a "part to whole" pattern rather than a ”whole to part” pattern, the results may not of been the same. Therefore, the conclusions, implications, and recommendations are limited to the use of motion picture perceptual-motor skill demonstrations follow» ing the "whole to part” learning pattern. 11 In addition to the limitations of the type of skill, the type of measuring instrument, and the learning pattern, the implications are limited to those pOpulations that are similar to the one used in this study . 12 Chapter II Methodology-Data Collection The purpose Of this chapter is to describe the methodology-data collection procedures in sufficient detail to enable another investigator to duplicate this study. Therefore, this chapter describes the popula- tion and the reasons for its selection, the sample and its character- istics, the experimental design, the develOpment of the motion picture, the data collection procedures, and the statistical treatment of the data. Methodology Population The population consisted Of 87 males enrolled in the 1967 Agricul- tural Production Program, First Term, Institute of Agricultural Tech» nology, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. These 87 males were enrolled in the Program on November 5, 1967, and had taken the College Qualifying Test and the Differential Aptitude Test on the assigned date. In order to determine if the pOpulation identified in this study was similar to a larger pOpulation, and thereby increasing the validity of this study, it was compared to the 1965 and 1966 First Term Agricul- tural Technology students. The mean percentile for each year's group On the College Qualifying Test and Differential Aptitude Test is shown on Table I. 13 Table I Comparison Of 1965, 1966, 1967, First Term Institute of Agricultural Technology Agricultural Production Students STUDENT MEAN PERCENTILE RANKING ON STUDENT MEAN PERCENTILE RANKING ON COLLEGE QUALIFYING TEST DIFFERENTIAL APTITUDE TEST-12th GRADE NORMS National Michigan State Freshman University Year Norms Norms Mechanical Numerical 1967 21.6 7.9 57.0 50.0 1966 19.1 6.0 48.1 38.3 1965 (data not available) 54.8 47.1 Table I.indicates that the 1967 population is very similar to the 1965 and 1966 population according to the College Qualifying Test percen- tiles. In terms of the Differential.Aptitude Test percentiles, there is less than three points difference between the 1967 and 1965 students while the 1966 students have a lower mean percentile. Even so, it is concluded that the 1967 students are a valid representation of the students who had enrolled in the Agricultural Technology Program during the past two years. Consequently, the population used in this study is representa- tive Of a much larger pOpulation than from which the study's sample was drawn. l4 Pppulation Selection Rationale The population was selected because it constituted a homogeneous group of students having common goals and living in the same dormitory complex. Because the students were living in the same dormitory complex, the collection Of data was facilitated within a short period of time. And this minimized the internal sources of invalidity such as maturation, mortality, and history.( :178) £219.12 The sample consisted of 30 pOpulation students assigned to the audio (control) group and 30 population students assigned to the visual (experimental) group. They were selected by simple, nonreplacement, random sampling of the population. Six additional students, three assigned to each group, were selected by the sampling procedure mentioned above. These students served as a replacement group for the control and eXperimental groups. As stated above, the students comprising the control and experi- mental groups were drawn from the pOpulation by unrestricted, non- replacement random sampling procedures. The principle of randomization states "since...every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected, members with certain distinguishing characteristics (will) be counterbalanced in the resulting samples”. There is, however, always the possibility, although remote, of drawing a sample that is not repre- sentative of the population. 15 In order to determine if the sample was representative of the population, the control group and the experimental group were compared with each other and with the population. Table II shows the mean percent- iles of the population, the control group, and the experimental group on the College Qualifying Test and Differential Aptitude Test. Table II Population, Control Group, and Experimental Group Percentile Means TEST POPULATION CONTROL EXPERIMENTAL College Qualifying MSU Normseeeeeeeaeaeeee 801 6.5 60“ National Norms......... 21.8 19.7 21.0 Differential Aptitude MeChanicaleoeoeeeeeooee 56.8 5501 5705 Numerical.............. “90“ “803 “8.7 The percentile means of the population, the control group, and the experimental group for each category are not identical and the difference, although less than 2.5 difference at the extreme, may be significant. To determine if the difference between the appropriate percentile means was significant at the .05 level, a onedway analysis Of variance was calcu- lated for each apprOpriate Table II comparison. The difference between any of the comparisons was not significant at the .05 level. Therefore, it was concluded that the groups are true representatives of the pOpula- tion. 16 Experimental Design Educational experimentation, for the purposes of this study, means a scientific investigation where the investigator manipulates and con- ‘trols one or more independent variables. He then Observes the influence of the independent upon the dependent variable. There are many models of experimental design and Campbell (3:195) and Kerlinger (8:303) classify experiments in education into pre-experimental, true-experimental, quasi- experimental and ex—post-facto experimental design. In order to facilitate the selection of the experimental model, the following characteristics of this study were identified as follows: 1. A homogeneous population 2. Two independent variables 3. An unusual measuring instrument 4. subject content not included in the population's program of study 5. Limited exposure and testing time. With these characteristics in mind, the true-experimental design, Post-Test Only Control Group, was selected. The basic elements of this design are: (1) randomization, (2) treatment, and (3) post-test. A para- digm of this design is presented in Figure I. Figure I Paradigm of the Post-Test Only Control Group Design Type of Rand m1 ti Group Mbdality Post-Test °ofza °“ Control Audio Immediate Population 39““ Experimental Visual Immediate Recall 1? Selection of the Motion Picture Content Because the primary purpose of this experiment was to test the effect Of two sensory modalities - visual and auditory - upon the develOpment Of perceptual-motor skills using motion pictures as the teaching method: the exact nature Of the content matter was of little importance, nevertheless, a content area had to be identified. In selecting the subject matter content of the motion picture dem- onstration, the following items were considered: 1. In what courses would the population be enrolled during the term the eXperiment would be conducted? 2. The availability of subject matter consultant assistance. 3. The contribution of the motion picture to the improvement of post-secondary instruction. 4. The investigator's familiarity with possible subject matter areas a After due consideration of various alternatives, the topic "Deter- mining the Test weight Per Bushel Of Yellow Corn” was selected for the following reasons: 1. Nearly all the students had an agricultural background and therefore, were assumed to be familiar with the purpose of grain grading. 2. All the students, during the experimental period, were enrolled in CrOp Science 2, Cereal Crops, in which the importance of grain grading was discussed and some phases demonstrated to the students. But the students did not become physically involved in any phase of grain grading. 3. The use Of the United States Department of.Agriculture Official ‘Weight Per Bushel Tester was not demonstrated to the students nor were they exposed to the tester before the experiment in their Institute of Agricultural Technology course of study. ~ . mafirmw l8 4. Consultant assistance for the develOpment of the content and grading sequence was available from the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture: the College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Michigan State University: the Michigan CrOp Improve- ment Association: and from commercial grain handling companies. 5. In 1965, the United States Office of Education commissioned the develOpment of a TwoéYear, Post-High School Curriculum for Grain, Feed, Seed and Farm Supply Technology but did not pro- vide funds for the development of supportive instructional materials. .A number Of agencies are developing appropriate instructional materials to supplement the curriculum and this study will contribute to the availability of such materials. 6. The investigator's familiarity with the content and the pro- cedures has been developed through many years of teaching voca- tional education courses and in cooperative activities with country elevators and major grain marketing companies. Development of Measuring Instrument After the selection Of the demonstration tOpic, a measuring instru- ment was developed. Using the consultative services of the United States Department Of.Agriculture, Consumer and Marketing Service, Grain Division, Chicago and Toledo Offices: Manager - Grain DevelOpment, Quaker Oats Company: and the Executive Secretary of the Michigan CrOp Improvement Association: a list of behavioral Objectives to be followed in determining the test weight per bushel were identified. These behavioral objectives are listed on page 20. The behavioral objectives were divided into two groups, (1) identification of the parts of the apparatus, and (2) the immediate imitation of the motor skills necessary to arrive at the test weight per bushel. The measuring instrument, found in Appendix A, con- sisted of (1) six identification questions on the parts of the apparatus which related to Hypothesis Number One and (2) eight measures of task per- formance which related to Hypothesis Number Two. 19 At the time of the study, it was not feasible to determine if one part of the apparatus was more difficult to learn than another part of the apparatus. Similarly, it was not possible to identify the degree of difficulty of imitating the performance tasks demonstrated in the motion picture and to assign discriminatory values to each task. Each identi- fication question and performance task, therefore, was assigned a numerical ‘weight of ten points for correct identification or task performance. Five points were given for partial correctness and zero points for complete incorrectness. If a subject correctly identified all the parts and comp pleted all the tasks, he would receive a perfect score of 140 points. The criteria for each identification and performance task level are shown in Appendix A. Determination Of the validity of the MeasuringgInstrument For the purpose of this study, the determination of the measuring instrument's validity was limited to content validity with the realization that construct, predictive, and concurrent validity would normally be de- termined if sufficient time, financial resources, and personnel were available. In order to determine the content validity, an outline of the be- havioral Objectives of the motion picture and the measuring instrument's performance standards were compared. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES .After viewing the film, the student should be able to ver- bally identify the following apparatus' parts using the terminology listed: 1 e Firm Table 2. Stand 3. Filling Hopper a. weighing Beam 5. Overflow Pan 6. Stroker After viewing the film, the student should be able to per- form the tasks deseribed and shown in the film which include: 1. Balance the Stand 2. Close the valve 3. Center the Hopper 4. Open the valve 5. Stroke off Excess Corn 6. Place Test Kettle on Hook 7. Balance Beam 8. Determine Test weight Per Bushel 20 MEASURING INSTRUMENT'S PERFORMANCE STANDARDS The student will be asked to ver- bally identify the following parts of the apparatus: Firm Table Stand Filling Hopper Weighing Beam Overflow Pan Stroker The student will be asked to per- form the tasks shown and described in the film. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. Since the content of the measuring These tasks include: Balance the Stand Close the Valve Center the HOpper Open the valve Stroke off Excess Corn Place Test Kettle on Hook Balance Beam Determine Test Weight Per Bushel instrument matches the content of the behavioral objectives, the measuring instrument was considered to have content validity. 21 Determination of the Reliability of the Measurinngnstrument Reliability can be approached in three ways: 1. If the same students are measured with the same measuring instrument or a comparable instrument, will the same results occur? 2. Are the measures obtained the "true" measures of the property being measured? 3. How much error of measurement is there in the measuring instrument? Each of these approaches shall be expanded as follows: The first approach implies stability, dependability, and predicta- bility of the measuring instrument. It is assumed that if the same stu- dents were measured again, or even a similar group of students, the measuring instrument would give the same results given allowances for instrumentation. The second approach asks if the scores attained by the students are the true measures of the property being measured? It is assumed that the performance tasks prescribed in the measuring instrument are concurrent with the expected behavioral objectives. But this particular measuring instrument also depends upon the human judgment of the scorer who Observes the student's performance and assigns a numerical score to that perfor- mance. In order to assure the examiner's judgment was accurate and relia- ble, the following procedures were followed: A. The examiner Spent several hours practicing the tasks required by the measuring instrument. He also participated in the pro- duction of the film in order to become intimately acquainted with the exact procedures necessary to correctly perform the tasks set forth by the measuring instrument and to identify deviations from the correct procedure. . g-" , o ’ I 22 B. After this phase and prior to the collection of the data, the examiner and two individuals familiar with the study and the measuring instrument, observed three students view the film and perform the tasks listed on the measuring instrument. The three individuals viewed the student at the same time and scored the student's performance. An analysis of the three scores showed consistent agreement. Therefore, it was con- cluded that the examiner's judgment was accurate and reliable. Any measuring instrument has a certain degree of measurement error. Systematic error is more serious than random error in that it tends to provide scores that are all high, all low or all average. Within the limitations prescribed by the available financial and human resources, it was not possible to identify the degree of systematic variance and, therefore, assumed to be of little, if any, influence on the scores of the student. Random error is selfbcompensating and since the students from the control and experimental group were not treated any differently during the experiment, it is assumed the random error was of little, if any, consequence in this study. Development of the Motion Picture Modalities Using the measuring instrument, the Cooperative Reading Test, and College Placement Test scores of the previous years Institute of Agri- cultural Technology students, a script and scene outline were developed for the demonstration. The Editor of Interstate Printers and Publishers assisted with the development of the script to insure that the words and sentence length of the descriptive modalities were at the level of the students' ability as shown by reading and placement test scores. 23 A 2-inch by 2-inch color slide presentation was developed with the assistance of the Interstate Editor and Welter McCarley, Assistant In- structor, Agricultural Education Service, Michigan State University. This 35 slide presentation was shown to 27 teachers of agriculture at the Texas and Indiana Conference of Vocational Education and three beginp ning Michigan teachers of agriculture. Using the appropriate suggestions from these agricultural teachers and additional suggestions from Dr. Raymond M. Clark, Michigan State University Instructional Materials Specialist in.Agricultural Education, Mr. walter McCarley, and Mr. Narindar S. Gill, Graduate Student in Agri- cultural Extension and Administration, a preliminary filming sequence was developed. This filming sequence, along with the purpose and procedures of the experiment, was presented to the Film Production Unit, Instructional Media Center, Michigan State University. The Film Production Unit devel- Oped the shot sequence, filmed the procedures as demonstrated by the investigator, edited the film, and prepared the final prints with close consultation and approval of the study's investigator. The resulting products were two 16mm motion pictures, each approx- imately 250 feet long. The two films were identical except in the auditory modality, the descriptive terminology was audio and in the visual modality, the descriptive terminology was in caption form. The auditory and visual descriptive terminology occurred during the same film frame. 24 Data Collection Procedure The participating students' daily class schedules were obtained from the Institute of.Agricultural Technology and each student's free periods were identified. The students were scheduled to participate during one of their free periods without consideration of their being a member of the control group or of the experimental group. Prior to the mailing of the letters requesting their cooperation, the design, the purpose, and the potential contribution of the study to instructional practices were explained to the pOpulation. Starting four days after this meeting, letters were sent to the scheduled students three days before their participation date. Appendix B contains a facsimile of the letter. The students participated in the experiment during the hours of 10:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m.: between 2:00 p.m. and 6:00 p.m. and during the evening hours of 6:00 to 10:00 during a nine-day period in November, 1967. All the students viewed the motion picture modalities in a dormitory office arranged to simulate a small classroom. This office was located in the dormitory complex where the students lived while attending classes. A 16mm motion picture projector, normally used in classroom instruction, was used for projecting a 30 inch by 3% inch picture on a neutral-light colored wall. The exact position of the student, projector, investigator, and the weight per bushel tester is shown in Appendix C. 25 The procedure followed in the examination room is described below: 1. 2. 3. 7. 8. The examiner engaged the student in one minute of "small talk" while the student removed his coat and sat down in the desig- nated chair. The purpose of the study and how it related to the possible improvement of teaching at the post-high school level was explained to the student. The film's basic content was outlined and the student was told that after viewing the film he would be asked to identify the parts of the apparatus shown in the film, select a sample of corn, and determine the test weight per bushel using the steps described and shown in the film. The pre-threaded projector was turned on at the ”focus" frame and no discussion was held during the projection of the film. . After running all the film through the projector, the student was taken to the weight per bushel tester and given #5 seconds to become familiar with the equipment and mentally think through the procedural steps. After~h5 seconds, the student was asked to verbally identify the equipment parts identified in the film. The examiner placed his hand or finger on each part, following the sequence as shown in the film, and asked, "What is the name of this part?” Then the examiner asked the student to select a container of corn from the four containers, labeled one quart, one and 1/8 quart, one and 1/4 quart, and one and 1/2 quart and following the steps described and shown in the film, to determine the test weight per bushel. When the student had determined the test weight, he was asked to pour the corn'back into the container, thanked for his co- operation, escorted to the door, and then his scores were recorded. Analysis As previously stated, an experimental study determines if a statis- tical relationship exists between the independent variables and the dependent variable. And a commonly used statistical procedure for this purpose is the analysis of variance. The formula used for the analysis 26 of this study's data is described in Fred N. Kerlinger's Foundations of Behavioral Research section on ”Computation of One-way.Analysis of Vari- ance". (8:196) Chapter III Findings and Conclusions This study sought to determine if there was a statistically significant difference at the .05 level between the visual and auditory motion picture descriptive modalities. This chapter answers that ques- tion. ‘Qperational Hypothesis Number One Operational Hypothesis Number One stated: The group of students viewing the visual motion picture descriptive modality will have a significantly higher mean score, at the .05 level, than the group viewing the auditory motion picture descriptive modality as judged by verbal reSponses to questions of apparatus identification posed by the examiner following Part I of the measuring instru- ment. The control and eXperimental group mean, median, standard devia- tion, and range of scores on Part I of the measuring instrument, which coincide with Operational Hypothesis Number One are shown in Table III. Table III Mean, Median, Standard Deviation, and Range of Scores on Part I of the Measuring Instrument Standard Group Mean Median Deviation Range Control 32.2 35.0 13.27 0-55 Experimental 38.3 39.7 8.77 15-55 27 28 Table III indicates a difference of 6.1 points between the two means and in order to determine if this difference was significant at the .05 level, the data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance. Table IV shows the results of that analysis. Table IV Analysis of the Means on Part I of the Measuring Instrument Sum of Mean Sum F Value Source df Squares of Squares (1,58) Between Groups k-l l 570 570 h.2* ‘Within Groups N-k 58 7801 134.5 Total N-l 59 8371 n.0“ An F value of 4.2 is significant at the .05 level and therefore, the null hypothesis, Ho: F’ c 2 P“ e is rejected. The alternative hypo- thesis H1: rL c <1}1.e is accepted as is the operational hypothesis. Consequently, it is concluded that when using motion pictures to teach the names of the parts of the apparatus used in the perceptual-motor skill, the visual modality is more effective than the auditory modality. 29 Operational Hypothesis Number Two Operational Hypothesis Number Two stated: The group of students viewing the visual motion picture descriptive modality will have a significantly higher mean score, at the .05 level, than the group viewing the auditory motion picture descriptive modality as determined by immediate imitation of the tasks described and shown by the motion picture and judged by the examiner following Part II of the measuring instrument. The control and experimental group mean, median, standard devia- tion, and range of scores on Part II of the measuring instrument, which coincide with Operational Hypothesis Number Two, is shown in Table V. Table V Mean, Median, Standard Deviation, and Range of Scores on Part II of the Measuring Instrument Standard Group Mean Median Deviation Range Control 83.5 85.1 8.77 50-90 Experimental 84.? 85.1 5.62 65-90 Table V indicates that there is a very small difference between the means of the two groups. To determine if this difference was significant at the .05 level, the same analysis as followed for Part I of the measur- ing instrument was used. Table VI shows the results of the analysis. 30 Table VI Analysis of the Means on Part II of the Measuring Instrument Sum of Mean Sum F Value Source df Squares of Squares (1,58) Between Groups k — 1 1 21 21 .38 Within Groups N - k 58 3,25“ 56 Total N - 1 59 3,275 4.0" E An F value of .38 does not indicate a statistical difference at the .05 level and therefore, the null hypothesis, is not Ho: '1. c2 He rejected. The alternative H1: P' c (H e is rejected as is the opera- tional hypothesis. It is concluded that when using motion pictures to teach perceptual-motor skills resembling those used in determining the test weight of cereal grains, the descriptive supporting modality that supplements the demonstration of the skills may be in either visual or auditory form. Relationship Between Student Characteristics and Performance Scores In order to determine if the student's scores on the College Place- ment test and the Differential Aptitude test could be used to predict their perceptual-motor skill performance, the Pearson Product-moment correlation coefficient was calculated for each appropriate relationship. The control and experimental group coefficients are shown in Table VII. 31 Table VII Control and EXperimental Group Coefficients Independent Part I of the variable Measuring Instrument Control Experimental College Placement Test Scores...NSU Norms .05 .22 College Placement Test Scores...NF Norms .27 .32 Differentia1.Aptitude Test Scores...Numerical .25 .22 Differential Aptitude Test Scores...Mechanical .10 -—.13 Part II of the Measuringflnstrument Control Experimental .02 -.22 .78 -.09 .83 .17 -.07 .35 Assuming that a correlation coefficient of .5 and larger indicates a positive correlation between two variables and that a coefficient of .Q9 and smaller indicates there is not a correlation, the following conclu- sions are presented. There is no relationship between the control and eXperimental group College Placement and Differential Aptitude test scores and the perfor- mance as measured by the measuring instrument with the following exception. There is a positive correlation between level of students' scores on the College Placement Test...NF Norms...and the numerical section of the Differential Aptitude test and their performance as measured by Part II of the measuring instrument. It was not within the scape of this study to determine why or why not there was a correlation but only to determine if a correlation existed. Therefore, the writer concludes that one cannot predict a student's score on perceptual-motor tasks by his performance on the College Placement.- Chapter IV Implications and Recommendations Implications The implications of this study shall be divided into implications for (1) information transmission theory, (2) instructional materials : develOpment, and (3) instructional media and materials utilization. Z Information Transmission Theory i One cannot categorically state that the eye is more efficient than the ear for assimilating information because the type of information be- ing transmitted often requires a Specific modality. The problem, however, becomes meaningful when the information to be transmitted can be coded in two ways, auditory or visually. As stated in the review of literature, there is disagreement as to the comparative effectiveness of either modal- ity when transmitting verbal material. And since there were not any studies known to the investigator that have investigated the comparative effectiveness of the two modalities in teaching perceptual-motor skills, the question until now has remained largely unanswered. ”One robin does not make a Spring”, nor does one study established facts upon which to accept or reject theoretical models of information transmission. But this study does provide a "bench-mark" to which the findings of other studies can be compared. 32 33 ‘Implications for Instructional Material Development The findings of this study imply that when using filmic methods for teaching the type of perceptual-motor skills used in this study, the visual modality is more effective than the auditory modality in teaching object identification. ‘When teaching specific motor tasks, the type of descriptive modality does not appear to make any difference in the sub- sequent performance of the task. Therefore, in developing films that include Object identification and demonstration of motor tasks, the visual descriptive modality may be used for the entire demonstration without reducing the effectiveness of the film. The preceding findings and conclusions have far reaching implications for the design of instructional motion pictures for use in teaching per- ceptual-motor skill develOpment. For if we assume that (l) the cost of producing visual modalities is less than producing audio modalities be- cause of equipment and labor costs, and (2) less technical ability is required to produce visual modalities, teachers and their students can produce their own perceptual-motor skill demonstration films. This can encourage student-teacher planning, production, and evaluation which contributes to the growth of the student and the growth of the teacher. If the vocational instructor is unable to produce perceptual-motor demonstration films, the commercial cost of visual film modalities and the projection equipment is usually less than for audio modalities. Therefore, the vocational instructor is able to purchase more instructional units for each tax dollar. 3h Also, if the content of the film does not require sound as a part of that which is being taught by the film, why go to the eXpense and effort of producing a sound motion picture? The same rationale is true for the design and develOpment of filmstrips and 2 inch square slide modalities. Implications for Instructional Media and Materials Utilization The use of visual descriptive films, as suggested by this study, has the following implications: 1. 2. 3. Visual modality films can be used at individual study positions in a classroom or laboratory without raising the existing or- ganized noise level. When students in a given study location are using different demonstration films without access to ear phones, each study can use such films without being confused by sounds of other films. Thus, each student sees only what is relevant to his unit instead of hearing information that may have been covered or information that is to be covered. When using 8mm film and 8mm film projection equipment, silent projectors are more economical than sound projectors thus enabling more projection units to be purchased with a Specified sum of money. When using filmstrips, there is no need for records, audio- tapes, and similar equipment to serve as the auditory carrier. This reduces equipment cost, eliminates some storage and main- tenance prdblems, and eliminates the need to teach the learner 35 how to Operate the audio equipment. Recommendations Although research is designed to answer the questions being asked, it also raises questions for additional investigation. The following recommendations for additional investigation are divided into two parts: general recommendations and Specific research hypotheses. General Recommendations 1. 2. This study should be replicated using a population similar to the one used in this study and also with a pOpulation that is not similar. The use of a similar population would contribute to the validity of this study and the use of a dissimilar pop- ulation would determine if the subject of the demonstration film was or was not a contributing factor to the students' scores. The basic hypothesis, audio versus visual modalities, should be investigated using different perceptual-motor tasks. Research HypotheSes l. 2. What is the comparative effectiveness of teaching perceptual- motor skills using (a) audio descriptive modalities, (b) visual descriptive modalities, and (c) audio-visual descriptive modal- ities? What influence do the following independent variables have on 3. 5. 36 the effectiveness of visual, audio, or audio-visual modalities? a. Grade Point Average b. Reading Ability c. Intelligence Quotient There is no difference in the effectiveness of each of the modalities when measured by immediate imitation and delayed imitation. Meaningful, familiar information is more effectively presented through auditory modalities than through visual modalities. Meaningless, unfamiliar information is more effectively presented through visual modalities than through auditory modalities. l. 2. 3. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Bibliography Carey, W. F. "Problems of Misunderstanding-Mechanica1 Aids in Technical Presentations," The Yearbook of Education, 1960. World Book Company, Tarrytown-On-Hudson, New York, 1960. LB 101 .G8 Y4 1960. Dale, Edgar, James D. Finn, Charles F. Hoban, Jr. "Research on Audio-Visual Materials," The FortyeEight Yearbook of the National Society fOr the Study_9f Education, 1949. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. LB 5 .N25 v.48. Gage, Nathan L. Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1953. E1028 .63. Goodman, David J. "The Comparative Effectiveness of Pictorial Teach- ing Materials,” The Educational Screen, 21:9, November, 1942. LB 1043 .Al E27. Hannemann, James W. "1966 Summer Conference Report." 1966. Personal letter. Hill, Joseph A. and August Kerber. Models, Method§,pand Analytical Procedures in Educational Research. Detroit: wayne State University Press,fil967. HA 29 H6518. "Instructional Film Research 1918-1950 (Rapid Mass Learning)," Project Designation NR-781-005, Contract N60nr-269, T.O. V11, SDC Human E_gineeringP£pject 20-E 44:3Pennsy1vania State College, Instructional Film Research Program, December, 1950. LB 1043 9P“ N0. 19. Kerlinger, Fred N. Foundations of Behavioral Research. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc. 1964. BE 76. 5 .K4. Krawiec, T. C. "Comparison of Learning and Retention of Materials Presented Visually and Auditorially," The Journal of General Psychology, 1946. 34:179-95. BE 1 .J64. McBeath, Ronald J. A Comparative Study on the Effectiveness of the Filmstripy_Sound Filmstrip, and the Filmograph for Teaching Facts and Concepts, Department of Audio-Visual Education, University of South California, Los Angeles. United States Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Grant No. 7-04-102.00, 1961, pp. 26. LB 1043 .L65. Munsterbery, H. and J. Bigham. "Memory,” Psychology Review, 1894, 1331+-38. BF]. 0”. Sumstine, D.R. "Comparative Study of Visual Instruction in the High School," School and Society, 7:235—238. L11 .S36. 37 38 13. Travers, RObert M. W. Research and Theory Related to Audiovisual Information Transmission. Interm Report, July 1, 1964, United States Office of Education Contract Number 3-20-003, University of Utah, Bureau of Educational Research. LB 1043 .T7. Appendix.A Measuring Instrument Introduction After the student has viewed the motion picture, the examiner will administer the criterion examination. The equipment used for the examin- ation will include a (1) Weight Per Bushel Tester, (2) four containers, filled with yellow corn, with labels on the outside of the container indicating either (a) 1 quart, (b) 1 1/8 quarts, (c) 1 1/4 quarts, or (d) 1 1/2 quarts. The examination will consist of two parts: (1) identifica- tion of apparatus' parts as shown and described in the motion picture and (2) actual student demonstration of the tasks described and demonstrated in the motion picture. Part One Instructions: After the student has become familiar with the apparatus, the examiner states that he will ask the student to identify the parts of the apparatus in the same order as shown in the motion picture. The examiner will further state that the subject will be expected to verbally reply, using the terminology mentioned in the motion picture, when the examiner pdaces his hand on or points to a specific part and says, "What is the name of this?” The examiner will start with "firm.tab1e” and ask the student to identify the parts following the order shown in the film. The examiner will score the student based on the following standards. 39 40 Standard: Regponse Partially Correct Item Correct 10 Points 5 Points Incorrect 0 Points Firm.Table Firm table Strong table, Anything different Level table, than the first two Table. response categories Stand Weight per bushel, Anything different Tester. than the first two response categories Filling Hopper Filling hopper Hopper, Funnel. Anything different than the first two resonse categories weighing Beam 'Weighing beam Weighing balance, Anything different Weighing bar. than the first two reSponse categories Overflow Pan Overflow pan Pan. Anything different than the first two reSponse categories Stroker 'Wooden stroker, Anything different Stick. than the first two response categories Part Two Instructions: After the student has completed Part One, the examiner will ask the subject to determine the test weight per bushel of one of the four corn samples. The student will be asked to select the correct quantity, as stated in the motion picture, to determine and state a numerical figure which indicates the test weight per bushel of that sample. The examiner 41 will score the student's performance, based on the performance standards listed below. Standards: ReSponse Partially Correct Task Correct 10 Points 5 Points Incorrect 0 Points Stroking Student uses three Student has one No strokes are equal Place kettle on the hook Balance Beam Determine Test‘Weight equal strokes to stroke the corn off the test kettle. Student holds the kettle in one hand, raises the handle with.the other hand and places the test kettle on the hook without Spill- ing a kernel of corn. Beam floats be- tween ”0" and one mark on each side Of no». Adds the total on the two beams and places the weight shown on the beams on the supplied form. equal stroke but the other two strokes are unequal. Student raises the handle of the test kettle while raising the test kettle to the hook. Does not Spill any corn. Beam floats be- tween two marks on each side of "0" . The number placed on the form ex- ceeds the correct total by not more than one-tenth, plus or minus. to 1/3 the diameter of the kettle. MOves the kettle around before raising the handle, Spills some corn and jars the entire stand when attemp- ting to hook the test kettle to the beam. Beam floats between three or more marks on each side of «on . The number placed on the form differs from the correct total by more than two-tenths, plus or minus. Standard: 42 Task Correct 10 Points Resppnse Partially Correct 5 Points Incorrect 0 Points Leveling of Stand Filling the Hopper Centering Hopper Opening Valve Holding Stroker Bubble does not touch inner black ring. Student closes hopper valve be- fore pouring corn into hopper and does not Spill any corn. Student pulls happer to stop position and checks to see if centered before opening valve. Student opens valve quickly and completely and valve does not obstruct flow of grain into test kettle. Student holds stroker'with,both hands, places it on side of kettle without moving test kettle, checks to see if side of stroker is vertical and keeps stroker vertical during entire stroking operation. Bubble touches but does not exceed inner black ring. Student starts to pour corn into open hopper, stops, closes valve, and finishes pouring corn into hopper. Student pulls hopper to stOp position and does not check if it is centered before opening valve. Student Opens valve at slow, or medium Speed and valve Obstructs flow of grain until student Opens valve completely. Student holds stroker with both hands, moves kettle when pla- cing stroker on test kettle, checks to see if vertical but does not keep it ver— tical during the stroking opera- tion. Bubble exceeds inner black ring. Pours all corn into open hopper and attempts to close valve after all corn is in the hopper. Hopper is not centered over test kettle when valve is opened. Student fails to Open valve com- pletely and valve restricts flow of grain into test kettle. Anything that does not coincide with the first two responses. Appendix B Letter Sent to Students Requesting Their Participation in the Study November 10, 1967 Dear John: You have been selected as one of the 60 Agricultural Production students to determine the value of motion pictures in developing agricultural skills. Because of’your background and interest in agriculture, you are an ideal individual to help improve the quality of agricultural instruction. Your cOOperation is vital and the experiment will take about 12 minutes of your time. It will consist of viewing a 5% minute motion picture and indicating your reaction to the film. The eXperiment will take place in Room 201, Bryan Hall. Please come to R003) 20]. on see. Sincerely, Jim Hannemann JH/cv 43 Appendix C Data Collection Room Arrangement E A D C A B G Scale l4 inch = 1 foot Legend: A = Student D = weight Per Bushel Tester B = 16mm Projector E = Screen C = Examiner MIIWIWINNIWIWiilelmlslhrllllmmWITIEs 3 1293 03014 8547