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THE EFFECT OF PERCEIVED BEAT-TEMPO ON THE
EXPRESSED MUSIC LISTENING PREFERENCES
OF FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADE STUDENTS

BY

Robert Jay Harris

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the degree of

MASTER OF MUSIC

Department of Music

1983

Copyright by
ROBERT JAY HARRIS
1983

ABSTRACT
THE EFFECT OF PERCEIVED BEAT-TEMPO

ON THE EXPRESSED MUSIC LISTENING PREFERENCES
OF FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADE STUDENTS

BY

Robert Jay Harris

This study measured the effect of perceived beat-
tempo, which is the rate of speed felt by a listener in
response to a music stimulus, on the music-listening prefer-
ences of 50 fifth-and sixth-graders, while both style and
performing medium were held constant.

During individual testing sessions, subjects listened
to 24 recorded excerpts of instrumental jazz and were asked
to perform three tasks in sequence for each excerpt: 1) match
the beat-tempo, 2) verbally estimate the speed of the music
given four response-options, and 3) rate their preference
for each excerpt's tempo in writing.

The findings of this study show that there were statis-
tically significant differences for each level of tempo and
for grade-level with regard to each of the above tasks.
Furthermore, when tested individually, subjects' preference
ratings were significantly higher than when tested as part

of a larger group.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The researcher would like to thank his academic
advisor, Dr. Albert LeBlanc, for his strong professional
guidance and his dedication to research in music.

Appreciation is also extended to the other members
of his thesis committee, Professors Russell Friedewald,

Mark Johnson, Theodore Johnson, and Melanie Stuart.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0
LIST OF FIGURES O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 0

Chapter
I I THE P ROBLEM O O O O O O O 0 O O O O 0

Background of the Study
Purpose of the Study .
Definitions . . . . .
Assumptions . . . . .
Limitations . . . . .
Need for the Study .

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . .
I I I O PROCEDURE 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Introduction
‘ Measures .
Sample . .
Method . .
Analysis .

IV 0 RESULTS 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Repeated Measures Analysis of
Variance for Preference Response .

Multivariate Analysis of Variance
for Quality of Beat-Tempo-Matching
and Amount of Beat-Tempo-Matching
Responses on Post-Test . . . . . .

Multivariate Analysis of Variance
for Student Verbal Response on
Post-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . .

V. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recommendations for Further Research

iv

I O O O O 0

vi

vii

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36

39
44

47
50

APPENDIX

APPENDIX

APPENDIX

APPENDIX

APPENDIX

APPENDIX

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LIST OF REFERENCES

52
53
57
58
59
61
63

LIST OF TABLES

Reliability Coefficients
Cronbach's Alpha. . . . . .

Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance for

Preference Response . . . .

Group Means for Preference Response Scores

(Tempo by Test Time Period)

Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Quality
of Beat-Tempo-Matching Response and Amount
of Beat-Tempo-Matching Response on Post-Test

Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Student

Verbal Response on Post-Test

vi

31

32

34

37

41

LIST OF FIGURES

Overall music listening preference .

Pre-test preference response scores by grade .

Post-test preference response scores by grade

Overall quality of beat-tempo~matching

by grade . . . . . . .

Overall amount of beat-tempo-matching

by grade . . . . . . .

Average total number of deviation points
from correct response criteria at each

level of tempo . . . .

Average number of correct identifications

of tempo at each level

vii

33
35

35

38

39

42

44

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Background of the Study

This study is part of a continuing series designed
to test a theory of music preference. In previous studies,
Albert LeBlanc (1981, 1982), Michigan State University
Department of Music, sought to measure the effects of style,
tempo, and performing medium on children's music listening
preferences. However, his results were obscured by statis—
tically significant three-way and two-way interactions among
and between style, tempo, and performing medium- Because
significant interactions were encountered by LeBlanc (1981,
1982) with respect to these independent variables, the cur—
rent study was designed to assess the effect of tempo, as
a singular independent variable, while both style and per-
forming were held constant. In addition, the current study
employed two tasks which.required the subjects to focus
attention on the beat-tempo of each music stimulus. Before
subjects gave their preference responses, they were asked to
demonstrate their abilities to gauge the rate of speed which
they perceived by tapping to the beat-tempo of each example,
and by verbally reporting that speed given four response

options.

Purpose of the§tudy

The purpose of this study is to assess the effect
of perceived beat-tempo on the expressed music listening
preferences of fiftjh- and sixth—grade students while style
and performing medium.were-held constant. The consideration
of this problem suggests the following subproblems:

1. Selection of an appropriate response mode for
measuring beat-tempo perception

2. Development of criteria for evaluating this
response mode

3. Development of an instrument for.measuring

listener preference responses

Definitions

 

For the purpose of this study the following defini-
tions were applied:

Beat-tempo. Based on the examples used in this study,

 

the beat is the basic unit of duration dividing duration
into equal segments. Tempo is the rate at which the beat
recurs. Therefore, beat-tempo is the rate of speed at which
a.music stimulus moves

Perceived beat-tempo. The rate of speed which is
felt by the listener in response to a music stimulus

Beat-tempo matching. A listener's ability to produce

 

a motor response which coincides with the rate of speed of

a music stimulus
Listener preference. A written response which expres-

 

ses the relative degree to which an individual may like or

dislike a specific music stimulus after having listened to
it. There are both.musical and extra-musical factors which
have been shown to be associated with music listening
preferences. This study will examine subjects' expressed

music listening preferences for tempo alone

Assumptions

 

For the purpose of this study the following two
assumptions were made:

1. A listener's ability to produce a motor response
which coincides with the beat-tempo of a music stimulus is
an appropriate response mode for measuring the perception
of that beat—tempo

2. The listener's frame of reference is the same as
that of the investigator's when interpreting four multiple-
choice beat-tempo response options (fast, medium fast, medium

slow, and slow) in a self-report format

Limitations

 

This study:

1. was limited to a subject population of 50 fifth-
and sixth-grade students attending the Lansing area Catholic
Diocesan Elementary Schools

2. did not investigate the nature of rhythmic

perception

Need for the Study

 

There is a need for music educators to understand
the process of musical preference development. Therefore,
it is important to isolate those variables which may have
an influence on preference development. Previous research
conducted in this area has demonstrated that both beat and
tempo are musical factors which affect listener preference
decisions. However, this investigator has not uncovered
related studies in which both beat and tempo were isolated
in the music stimulus examples while all other musical
factors were held constant, and which also controlled for
the perception of these two elements in their experimental

designs.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

For the purpose of this study it is necessary to

divide the related literature into five subject areas:
1) rhythmic foundations of music, 2) perception of rhythm,
3) experimental designs involving the measurement of rhyth-
mic discrimination, 4) studies investigating the effect of
tempo on music listening preference, and 5) measurement of
listener preference.

The first studies under discussion are those which
provide definitions of beat and tempo in music. Radocy and
Boyle (1979) refer to the term "beat" as the basic unit of
duration, dividing duration into equal segments. Brown (1979)
refers to beat as the unit of musical movement. Pankaskie
(1965) states that single beats consist of a point in time/
space, and a duration to the next point. Kuhn (1974) refers
to "beat" as a term which is used to define the perception of
a steadily recurring pulse in music. Mursell (1937) uses
the German word "takt" to describe the beat which is perceived
or felt by the listener in response to the music. Farnsworth
(1969) refers to this phenomenon as the "true beat."

When discussing beat with respect to meter, Radocy
and Boyle (1979) indicate that a problem may arise. They

state that meter signatures specify which unit of notation

5

6
receives a beat; in practice, however, the unit designated
by a meter signature as receiving the beat is not always
the same as the beat which is felt in response to the music.
Creston (1964) avoids this problem by creating a distinction
between the metrical pulse, the heat which is indicated by
the meter signature, and the beat itself, that which is felt
in response to the music. Radocy and Boyle (1979) refer to
the beat which is indicated by the meter signature as the
metrical beat, and to the heat which is felt in response to
the music as the true beat. They refer to the instances in
which the true beat coincides with the metrical beat as simply
the beat. Brown (1979) states that ambiguities may arise
between the basic elements of note value and beat because
the beat which is indicated by the meter signature may not
always be represented by the most common note value within
a given composition. Therefore it is possible for a compo-
sition with a fast prevalent note movement and a slow
indicated meter to appear to move more rapidly than a
composition with a slow prevalent note movement and a fast
indicated meter. Brown (1979) cites internal musical factors,
particularly tempo, as being inseparable from any consider-
ation of the beat.

Creston (1964) defines tempo in terms of the beat,
stating that tempo is the speed at which the beat recurs.
Lundin (1953) defines tempo as the rate of speed at which the
tones follow one another. Sachs (1953) suggests that tempo

applies to two different concepts: 1) the real physical

tempo, which varies within the range of feasible steps and

beats, and is limited by the speeds at which the human

anatomy is capable of operating, and 2) a psychological tempo,
a concept concerned more with mood than with the actual rate
of speed of a musical composition. In defining the overall
rate of speed of a musical composition, Kuhn (1974) uses

the term "beat-tempo." Kuhn states that the beat-tempo can
modulate within a given composition.

It is important that a distinction has been made
between the actual notated or metrical beat, and the beat
which is felt in response to the music or the true beat.
Although this difference may seem clear-cut, when we attempt
to define tempo with respect to the beat, another problem may
arise. Does one define tempo in terms of the "metrical beat"
or the "true beat?"

In this study, interest is focused upon the different
ways in which subjects may respond to the beat and tempo of
a musical composition based upon their individual interpret-
ations and perceptions of those elements. Therefore, for
the purpose of this study, the term "beat-tempo" will be
used, because it defines the overall rate of speed of a musical
composition in a general sense, and because it allows for indi-
vidual interpretations of both.beat and tempo without impos-
ing the notions of either metrical or true beat.

In order for the researcher to understand how individ-
uals may perceive the beat-tempo of a musical composition, he
must begin by defining the nature of rhythmic perception

itself. According to Lundin (1953), rhythm.must be

considered both.as a stimulus object and as a response of
the organism. He states that rhythm is both perceptual and
motor, therefore, making it often difficult for one to isolate
the discriminative (perceptual) from the motor aspects of the
response, since in any rhythmic response the entire organism
is usually involved. The perceptual side is emphasized when
we simply listen to a rhythmic pattern, and the motor aspect
is emphasized during the actual act of performing. Lundin
(1953) suggests that these perceptual and motor activities
are interdependent.. The mere listening to a composition
involves motor responses which.can be either quite overt

or implicit, and in the actual performance of a rhythm a
perception of the pattern must occur. According to Lundin
(1953), we perceive rhythms as such because we have a

bodily machinery that can be trained to reactu Therefore,we
are able to grasp and respond to complex rhythms, not on the
basis of instincts or some nebulous physiological mechanisms,
but because we have a neuro~muscular system which is complex
and capable of being trained to make these responses i.e.,
Motor Theory. Lundin (1953) states that the perception of
rhythm is possible because we respond to our own sequential
voluntary muscular activity. He supports his premise by
referring to the fact that we all make muscular responses

to music such as tapping our hands or feet in time to a
definitive rhythmic beat. He argues that even when larger
muscle groups are not observed as responding to rhythmic
stimuli, there are smaller muscle groups which may be oper-

ating in a more implicit way.

9

In order for the researcher to determine an appro-
priate response mode for demonstrating a subject‘s perception
of the beat-tempo of a musical composition, and for develop-
ing the criteria for evaluating that response-mode, he must
become familiar with those experimental designs which involve
the measurement of rhythmic discrimination.

Henderson (1931) studied the problem of training in
rhythmic performance. He set up a specific rhythm-pattern
on the Seashore Rhythm Meter (1926). This apparatus, devel-
oped by Robert Seashore, consists of a metal disc with
attachments on a turntable in which contacts could be made
at any point on its circumference. In this way a rhythm within
the period of revolution of the disc could be set up. The
performer is then asked to reproduce or follow the rhythm
by tapping on a telegraph key so as to make the click of the
key coincide with the stimulus produced by the rhythm meter.
Henderson's results demonstrate that although the subjects
started at different levels of achievement, since there were
individual differences in their abilities at the outset, as
a group they made distinct progress over five days of practice.
Seashore explains this marked improvement as aresult of the
development of the subject's ear-hand coordination.

Heinlein (1929) studied rhythmic responses of kinder-
garteners by observing them as they walked in time to music.
The children were asked to walk on a runway that had elec-
trical contacts designed to record their steps. At the same

time the beat of the music was recorded. In reviewing the

10

recorded electrical impulses produced by both the children

and the music, Heinlein noted that only one of his eight
subjects showed any degree of coordinaton between the walking
movements and the musical beat. Heinlein suggests that adults
are apt to project their own musical attitudes on the rhythmic
performance of children. When adults are visually observing
these behavors, they are likely to think that the children

are keeping time with the beat when this is not in fact
occurring.

The Drake Test of Musical Aptitude (1954) includes
a rhythm test in which a particular tempo is established by
the beating of a metronome. Along with the beat, an announ-
cer counts, "One, two, three, four . . ." A period of
silence follows in which the subject is instructed to count
silently at the same tempo until he or she hears the word
”stop.” The subject is then asked to write down the number
at which he or she has arrived. Drake claims that his test
is a bona fide measure of a subject's ability to keep time,
because he or she must internalize and maintain a predeter-
mined tempo. In the second form of this test, an alternate
beat is introduced as a distraction during the period of
silence.

More recently, Bagenstos and LeBlanc (1975) adminis-
tered a three-part performance test which was developed to
assess student abilities to initiate, internalize, main-
tain, and move their bodies to a steady beat. The first

activity was designed to have participants maintain a steady

11

beat aloud at a prescribed tempo for one minute. The second
task required that students silently move their bodies

to a predetermined tempo of MM=52, and to maintain that tempo
for forty-five seconds after its initial fifteen second
presentation. The third and final assessment-activity required
that students silently maintain a beat of MM=72 for fifteen
seconds after having listened to it for a total of fifteen
seconds. Students were then asked to reproduce the beat at

the previously established tempo by clapping it aloud for
thirty additional seconds.

The experimental design of this study is relevant,
because these three tasks were administered as a group
measure to classes ranging from 20 to 30 students in size.
Bagenstos and LeBlanc chose a live-scoring of student responses
rather than a subsequent video—taped scoring, because they
thought that this method would be a more sensitive and
flexible measure. However, it was found that this method
was rather imprecise because the only practical scoring
strategy was to count and record the number of incorrect—
and non-responders in each.group. Therefore, it was quite
possible that a student might only be observed during that
brief period of time when he or she was or was not responding.
To counteract this problem the procedure utilized independent
scoring by three evaluators who simultaneously moved around
the classroom. The researchers also cited a "follow-the-
leader" effect as another possible shortcoming of this

experimental procedure.

12

These results suggest that this measure may have been
a more sensitive one had these performance tasks been admin-
istered individually rather than to groups of subjects.
Studies have been done which isolate specific music
stimulus components, attempting to identify how they effect
listener-preference. Because the study of tempo and its
relationship to listener-preference is central to this invest-
igation, the researcher should have a further background in
understanding the effect of tempo on listener preference.
Prince (1972) conducted a study of the preference
responses of junior high school students for art music. He
concluded that the particular historical period or chrono-
logical age of a selection is not necessarily influential
with regard to whether or not students like or dislike that
music. Instead, he identified certain dimensions and com-
binations of musical elements which have a relation to music
preference. Tempo was one element which, according to Prince
(1972), affected listener-preference. Furthermore, he suggested
that a fast tempo coupled with.well-defined and clear-cut
rhythmic practices would generate strong favorable responses.
The generic-style music preferences of fifth-graders
were described by LeBlanc (1979). This study used 16 ran-
domly arranged musical examples of varying tempo, performing
medium, and style. LeBlanc's findings indicated six
musical styles which had received highest preference rankings.
However, of these six styles none was preferred significantly

more than any other member of that group. LeBlanc noted

13

that musically these styles all shared the characteristic
of having an easily perceptible beat. In comparison, the four
lowest ranking examples all shared a relatively slow tempo.

In a later investigation of the effects of style,
tempo, and performing medium upon the listening preferences
of fifthrgraders, LeBlanc (1981) found that subjects demon-
strated only a slight to moderate preference for faster tempi.

It is important to note that beat perceptibility and
tempo are not identical. Musical compositions which have
an easily perceptible beat generally have strong, clear,
and repeated metric accents, whereas tempo refers only to the
speed at which the beat itself recurs. Ideally if tempo
is to be studied as a single independent variable, music-
listening examples should be selected in which their relative
beat perceptibility is held constant.

As part of a continuing series of investigations,
attempts were again made by LeBlanc and Cote (1982) to deter-
mine the effect of tempo and performing medium on the music
listening preferences of fifth- and sixth—grade students.
A stimulus tape was created employing 36 musical examples
from the traditional jazz period in the United States (1925-
1940). This period was intentionally chosen to present
examples which would be relatively unfamiliar to students,
while retaining a style which had been rated favorably by this
Cage group in previous studies.

The study was designed with three distinct levels

of tempo: 1) slow, 2) moderate, and 3) fast. The tempo

14

of each listening-example was obtained by the investigators
using an aural/visual metronome. In their independent list-
ening sessions, the investigators were free to replay each
example as often as necessary to arrive at a final tempo
indication. Because tempo changed during the course of a
performance, tempo was always measured from the phrase which
was actually used. In assessing tempi, there was a high

level of agreement between the investigators. The mean scores
for each of the three levels of tempo were as follows:

1) slow MM=78, 2) moderate MM=104, and 3) fast MM=211.

The examples were then placed on the stimulus tape in a random
order, and a response sheet was created consisting of 36
seven-step response—continua anchored by the words "like"

and “dislike."

A correlational analysis of the data obtained in this
experiment indicated that tempo was more influential than
performing medium as a determinant of mmsic preference, and
an examination of cellameans showed a consistent preference
for faster tempi and for performances in the instrumental
medium.

Subjects were also asked to respond freely to the
questions, "What were some of the things you liked most
about the music?", and, "What were some of the things you
disliked most about the music?" An analysis of this free-
response data showed that the greatest number of comments
were about the slow tempi of some examples. Thirty percent

of all comments were about a slow tempo, and 93% of those

15

who commented reported a dislike of slow tempo. Fast tempi
drew comments from.13% of the students, and 96% of this group
said that they liked the fast examples. The beat drew comments
from 14% of the students, and 88% of these respondents con-
firmed a preference for those examples having an obvious beat.
Therefore, the free-response data confirmed a student pre-
ference for fast tempi and an obvious beat, and a dislike

of slow tempi.

The overall results of this study demonstrated that
the subjects consistently preferred faster tempi over slower
ones, and the instrumental medium over the vocal medium.
Unfortunately, a statistically significant interaction between
tempo and performing medium was encountered which to some
degree obscured the test results. Therefore, it is appro-
priate to examine the effect of tempo as a single indepen-
dent variable.

Although their findings suggest a preference for
faster tempi amongst young people, LeBlanc and Cote (1982)
provided no evidence that their subjects were actually per-
ceiving varying degrees of tempi while making their prefer-
ence-decisions. This suggests that further research be done
in which tempo can be measured as the single independent
variable effecting music preference, and in which the experi-
mental design also controls for and measures perception of
tempo.

A summary of the literature related to music prefer-

ence can be found in Wapnick (1976), Kuhn (1981), and in

16

chapters by Abeles (1980), and McMullen (1980).

In order for the researcher to select an appro-
priate response-mode for evaluating listener preference for
musical stimuli, he must become familiarized with those
scales which have been designed to measure attitude. Measure-
ment of attitude falls into two general categories: tradi-
tional scales and behavioral preference. Traditional scales
are those which require a written or verbal response on the
part of the subject. These scales measure attitudinal dis-
positions toward behavior rather than the behavior itself.
One of the most common types of these scales is the equal
interval scale. This scale attempts to measure attitude
intensity by asking subjects to rank their responses along
the drmensions of the scale. In music research, the use of
this scale was suggested by Seashore and Hevner (1933).
Related to the equal interval scale is the spatial scale
used by Farnsworth (1950). This scale is essentially the
same as the equal interval scale, except that in using this
instrument the subject can respond anywhere along the line
and not just at its reference points. The semantic differ-
ential used by Osgood (1957) is another type of traditional
response scale used in attitudinal research. Subjects are
asked to describe attitudinal values along a continuum
bounded by adjectival opposites.

Behavioral preference, unlike traditional scales,
measures preference directly by focusing on situational

factors that are easily manipulated rather than on subject

17

variables. However, experimental research in music which
attempts to measure behavioral preference usually neces—
sitates the use of expensive recording apparati and complex
switching devices such as those used by Cotter and Toombs
(1966) and Greer et a1. (1973, 1974). For the purpose of

this study these devices are both unnecessary and impractical.

CHAPTER I II
PROCEDURE

Introduction
This study was designed to follow-up an investi-
gation which is currently in progress, being conducted by

LeBlanc and McCrary. In their study, The effect of tempo

 

on children's music listening preferences (1983), the
researchers assessed the effect of four levels of tempo on
the expressed listening preferences of fifth- and sixth-

grade students while both style and performing medium were
held constant. Although their study did control for four dif-
ferent levels of tempo, LeBlanc and McCrary did not focus
their subjects' perception on these levels of tempo during
their experimental procedure.

In this study, the researcher wished to determine
what effect focusing subjects' perception on tempo would have
on their preferences for specific levels of tempo.

The same stimulus tape which was created by LeBlanc
and McCrary for their study was employed in this investigation.
The tape included 24 musical examples from the traditional
jazz period in the United States (1925-1949) (see Appendix A).
This style was intentionally chosen to present examples which
would be relatively unfamiliar to students while retaining

a style which had been rated favorably in previous research.
18

19

Six examples were included at each of the four tempo levels
(fast, medium fast, medium slow, and slow). The tempo of
each example was measured using an aural/visual metronome.

In assessing tempi during independent listening ses-
sions there was a high level of agreement between the prin-
cipal investigator and LeBlanc and McCrary (1983). The
mean scores which were determined by this group for each of the
four levels of tempo are as follows: 1) fast=MM 218,

2) medium fast=MM 139, 3) medium slow=MM 101, and

4) slow=MM 73. The music examples which totalled 28:26
minutes in duration, were placed on the stimulus tape in a
random order. A preference-response sheet consisting of 24
seven-step response-continua anchored by the words "like"
and "dislike" was created by LeBlanc for his own research,
and was also used in this study (see Appendix B).

This preference scale was administered as a group
test to 163 fifth.and sixth-graders two weeks before this
researcher began his own investigation, which then proceeded
to test 50 randomly selected subjects as a subset of this
larger group on an individual basis. Upon the completion of
both of these studies, the data obtained by LeBlanc and McCrary
was made available to this researcher for the purpose of
statistical comparisons with the data generated by his own

investigation.

Measures
Two different measures were used in this study to

assess a subject's perception of beat-tempo: l)a beat—tempo

20

matching task, and 2) a verbal response which indicated the
comparative rate of speed of a music stimulus. Both of these
measures were developed by this researcher to serve a two-
fold purpose. Primarily, they were designed to measure sub-
jects' success at each task, but more importantly, they were
used to place the subjects "on-task," requiring them to

focus their attentions to the beat-tempo of each example.

In this way, each task served to direct and guide the subjects'
listening, because it was essential that they perceive the
beat-tempo of the music in order to respond.

The beat-tempo matching task was designed to control
for a subject's perception of beat-tempo at the motor level
of behavior. By producing a motor response which coincided
with the beat-tempo of each example, subjects were able to
demonstrate their ability to gauge the rate of speed through
both the tactile and visual modes of perception. In piloting
this study with a group of adult subjects, the researcher
made the following observations with regard to this task:

1) at the very fast tempi, most subjects were physically
incapable of producing and maintaining a tapping response
which coincided with all the beats in these very fast ,
examples, and 2) at the slower tempi, subjects had the ten-
dency to tap to twice the number of beats contained in each
example in order to help themselves maintain a steady pulse.
However, for the purpose of the current investigation, sub-
jects were simply instructed to tap along with the beat

of the music by using the hand of their choice. On the basis

21

of his observations during the pilot study, the researcher
then developed an instrument for evaluating a subject's
beat-tempo matching response by employing the following two
criteria: 1) quality of beat-tempo matching (QBTM), and
2) amount of beat tempo matching (ABTM) (see Appendix C).
The quality of beat—tempo matching was measured at three
different levels: 1) successful match (subject taps
evenly and regularly to: a) all beats, b) strong beats
only, c) weak beats only, and d) a double-time effect,)
2) moderately successful match (subject taps unevenly
and: a) varies between strong and weak beats, b) after the
beat, and/or c) before the beat), and 3) unsuccessful
match (subject taps: a) uncertainly, b) arhythmically,
c) randomly, and d) to the melodic rhythm only).

The amount of tapping responses was determined at
five different levels, and was based upon the percentage
of beats in each musical example. The following numeric
values were then assigned: a) 4=subject taps from 75%
to 100% of the total number of beats in each example,
b) 3=subject taps from 50% to 74%, c) 2=subject taps from
25% to 49%, d) l=subject taps from 1% to 24%, and
3) 0=no response. In evaluating a subject's success at
the beat-tempo matching task, the researcher allowed approx-
imately two full measures of each musical example to elapse
before an actual scoring of each subject's performance on
each musical example was initiated. This gave the subjects

an adequate amount of time to interpret each music stimulus

22

example before actually responding.

After completing the beat-tempo matching task for
each example, subjects were asked to verbally.report on the
comparative rate of speed of each music stimulus. Subjects
were given four multiple-choice response options: 1) fast,
2) medium fast, 3) medium slow, and 4) slow. These choices
were printed on a large white sheet of construction paper.

The verbal response was designed to focus a subject's per-
ception on the beat-tempo at the cognitive level of behavior.
For the purposes of this procedure, it was assumed that
subjects would base their verbal responses on both their
aural perceptions of the music, and on the motor patterns
which they had generated immediately before responding.

Both subject—scores on the beat-tempo matching task
and subject's verbal responses were recorded by the researcher
on an instrument developed for this purpose, and because all
stimuli were pre-recorded, the researcher had the flexibility
to accurately score each student's responses (see Appendix D).
Subjects were provided with a response booklet for recording
their own preference responses. The same response booklet
which was used by LeBlanc and McCrary to obtain preference
responses was also employed in this study. Since subjects
were already familiar with the format of this booklet, this

helped to facilitate the individual testing procedure.

Sample
Fifty, fifth-and sixth-grade students from three

of the Lansing Area Catholic Diocesan Elementary Schools

23

participated in this study. All of the subjects were between
the ages of 10 and 13, and of the 50 students, 29 were male
and 21 were female. Permission to carry out this study was
first obtained from the Michigan State University Committee
on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS). After having
been granted approval by UCRIHS, the researcher approached
the central school administration for permission to conduct
this study in their school system. Finally, building prin-
cipals and classroom teachers were approached for permission
to meet with students to inform them of the study and to dis-
tribute permission slips for them to take home to their
parents (see Appendix E). There was a high percentage of
return on the permission slips, therefore, making it unneces-
sary to follow-up on this procedure.

As a necessary prerequisite for participating in this
study, students had to have already participated in the
study conducted by LeBlanc and McCrary, and had to have returned
their signed permission slips indicating parental consent.
From this group the researcher drew a random sample population.
Since student identification numbers had previously been
assigned, the researcher used these numbers to select subjects
using a table of random numbers. Subjects were all selected

on the morning of the day they were to be tested.

Method
On the day of testing, the researcher arrived before
school was in session to meet with the school principal and

to secure a room which was suitable for individual testing.

24~

Once this was accomplished,the researcher set up the neces—
sary audio equipment. One stereo cassette recorder was used
for playing the stimulus tape, and was positioned so both the
researcher and the subjects could listen to it at a com—
fortable volume. The second stereo cassette recorder was
used to record the students' beat-tempo matching responses.
Two microphones were connected to this machine, one being
positioned directly in front of the student to record the
tapping responses, and the other placed near the playback
recorder to simultaneously record the music stimulus examples.
Both cassette units were positioned within arm's reach of the
researcher for the purpose of easy manipulation.

After setting up the testing area, the researcher
drew a sample of those students who had agreed to participate.
The classroom teachers were then given the identification
cards for these students, and were instructed to send each
student to the testing area after the previous student had
returned. The entire procedure for each student lasted
approximately 30 minutes.

.Upon entering the testing area, each student was
greeted by the researcher. The student was then seated across
the table from the researcher and was given a preference
response booklet. The student was then instructed on how
to complete the necessary information on the cover of this
.booklet, and the researcher then reviewed the following

directions:

25

Use this answer booklet to tell us how much you
like or dislike the speed of the music you are about to
hear. You can do this by writing an 'X' in one of the seven
spaces between the words 'I like' and 'I dislike.‘ If you
like the speed of the music very much, put an 'X' in the
space closest to 'I like.‘ If you dislike the speed of the
music very much, put an 'X' in the space closest to 'I
dislike.' If you can't decide, put your 'X' in the middle
space. Use the spaces in between to show us when your
feeling about the speed of the music is somewhere in between
like and dislike. Be sure to mark one 'X' for each example,
and don't leave any examples blank. There aren't any right
or wrong answers, just tell us what you think about the speed
of the music.

After completing these directions, the researcher
informed the student about the other experimental proce-
dures which were involved in the study. The researcher then
read the following directions:

You will be listening to a variety of pre—recorded
musical examples. When I start the tape recorder and the
musical example begins, listen carefully, and tap either
your left of right hand on the table top along with the beat
of the music. After each example is completed, I will stop
the tape and ask you to tell me how fast or slow you thought
that example was by using one of these choices (researcher
points to the sheet of construction paper with the four

multiple-choice response options printed on it). Then by

26

using your answer sheet, I will ask you to tell me how much
you liked or disliked the speed of that music by writing an
'X' in one of the spaces."

The student was then asked to try a practice example
using all of the experimental procedures. This acquainted
the student with all of the techniques, while at the same time,
providing the researcher with an indication as to whether
the student fully comprehended his directions. After the
student completed the practice example, the experimental pro-
cedure was reviewed by the researcher and the student was
asked if he or she had any questions before they began.

During the experiment it was necessary for the
researcher to watch every student very carefully while (s)he
was beat-tempo-matching. In spite of this, there were no
students who expressed an objection to being observed. Some
students were asked to tap more loudly so they could be
heard more easily by the researcher and to produce a stronger
signal into the microphone. At certain points it was neces-
sary for the researcher himself to produce a beat-matching
response by moving one finger silently. This matching was
performed out of the student's line-of-sight, and was
imperceptible. Students did not seem to be bothered by the
fact that their responses were being tape recorded. However,
the beat-tempo-matching task did prove to be tiresome for
some of them. For this reason, students were permitted to
switch hands during the course of the procedure if they

wished.

27

Finally, each student was thanked for his or her
participation, and was asked to send for the next participant

upon returning to the classroom.

Analysis

The research data was prepared for computer analysis.
A total of 103 variables were coded for this analysis (see
Appendix F). These included demographic information such as
a subject's identification number, card number (since there
was more than one record per case), school identification
number, grade, age, class identification number, and sex.
Listener preference responses, quality of beat-tempo-match-
ing responses, amount of beat-tempo-matching responses, and
student verbal responses were each coded as 24 separate
variables.,

Listener preference responses were coded using the
assigned values of 1-7. A value of seven indicated the strong-
est possible liking response, and a value of one indicated
the strongest possible disliking response. Quality of beat-
tempo matching responses were assigned the following numeric
values: a) 3 (successful match), b) 2 (moderately success-
ful match), and c) 1(unsuccessful match). Amount of beat-
tempoematching responses were coded at five different levels
(0-4), which were based upon the total number of beats in
each of the musical examples. A value of four represented
the greatest possible amount of matching, while a value of
zero represented no response. Lastly, student verbal responses

were assigned the following numeric values: a) 4 (fast),

28

b) 3 (medium fast), c) 2 (medium slow), and d) 1 (slow).

In analyzing the data, the researcher utilized the
following subprograms of the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, & Bent, 1975).

The FREQUENCIES subprogram was used to produce descriptive
statistics on the demographic data. The RELIABILITY subpro-
gram.was used to create four subscales based upon the four
levels of tempo included on the post-test for each of the
following items: a) listener preference response scores,

b) quality of beat-tempo—matching responses, c) amount of
beat-tempo-matching responses, and d) student verbal response.
This subprogram was also employed to create four comparable
subscales for listener preference response scores on the pre-
test data gathered by LeBlanc and McCrary (1983). Group means,
standard deviations, and Cronbach's alpha (a measure of inter-
nal test consistency and reliability) were obtained for each
measurement scale.

A repeated measures multiple analysis of variance
(MANOVA) was performed to test for significant differences
between pre-test and post-test preference response scores
at each of the four levels of tempo and by grade and sex.

In addition, MANOVA was used to test for significant differ-
ences at each of the four levels of tempo for the quality

of beat-tempo-matching response, the amount of beat-tempo-
matching response, and two measures of the student verbal
response: 1) the number of correct identifications of tempo

at each level of tempo, and 2) the students' deviation from

29
the correct responses which were established by this inves-
tigator and a panel of experts after they had determined a

mean tempo for each level.

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

A total of 50 students from three participating ele-
mentary schools were involved in the individual interview
portion (post-test) of this investigation. Of the 50 sub-
jects, 29 (58%) were male and 21 (42%) were female. The
ages of the subjects ranged from 10 to 13 years old, with a
mean age of 10.92. With respect to grade level, 32 (64%)
subjects were fifth graders and 18 (36%) subjects were sixth
graders. The mean grade-level was 5.36. In calculating mean
scores for each grade-level, the researcher used a statis—
tical proportion to account for this difference in the groups'
sizes.

Overall, the reliability coefficients, which measure
internal test consistency, were above .76 for the measures
used in this study except for those which assessed the stu-
dents' verbal report of tempo-level. The reliability coeffi-
cient for the students' verbal responses at the slow tempi
was .30. Reliability coefficients were greater than .56
for the three other tempo-levels with regard to this same
measure (see Table l for the reliability coefficients for

each,subscale).

30

31

TABLE 1

RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS
CHRONBACH'S ALPHA

 

 

 

Tempo
Slow Medium Slow Medium Fast Fast

Preference
Response

Pre-Test 0.77 0.81 0.88 0.85

Post-Test 0.82 0.84 0.87 0.88
Quality of 0.85 0.87 0.83 0.87
Beat-Tempo-
Matching
Response
Amount of 0.81 0.88 0.91 0.86
Beat-Tempo-
Matching
Response
Verbal 0.30 0.60 0.66 0.57
Response

 

Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance
for Preference Response

The test for tempo and test time period did not
yield clear results because a statistically significant
interaction occurred between the pre-test (group test) and
the post-test (individual interview) test time periods and
the mean preference response scores in two of the three
planned comparisons for tempo by test at the .02 and .01

levels, (see Table 2).

32

TABLE 2

REPEATED MEASURES ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
PREFERENCE RESPONSE

 

 

 

Source of Variation F Signif.
of F
Tempo 35.99 0.00

Planned Comparisons
Fast vs. Med. Fast, Med. Slow,

 

& Slow 38.43 0.00

Med. Fast vs. Med. Slow & Slow 59.89 0.00

Med. Slow vs. Slow 105.61 0.00

Test Time Period (Group vs. Individual) 22.36 0.00
Sex 0.00 0.97
Grade 3.71 0.06

Two-way Interactions

 

Tempo by Test Time Period
Planned Comparisons
Fast vs. Med. Fast, Med. Slow,
& Slow by Test
Med. Fast vs. Med. Slow & Slow
by Test
Med. Slow vs. Slow by Test
Tempo by Sex
Tempo by Grade
Test Time Period by Grade
Sex by Grade
Text Time Period by Sex

 

Three-Way Interactions

 

Tempo by Test Time Period by Sex
Tempo by Test Time Period by Grade
Tempo by Sex by Grade

Test Time Period by Sex by Grade

Four-Way Interaction

Tempo by Test Time Period
by Sex by Grade

3.60

6.28

7.41
2.19
0.72
0.84
2.00
0.14
0.53

0.43
0.09
0.91
0.53

1.57

0.02

0.02

0.01
0.15
0.54
0.48
0.16
0.71
0.47

0.73
0.97
0.42
0.47

0.21

 

* Refer to Figures 2 and 3.

However, one could argue that this significant inter-

action was not very meaningful. Based on the assumptions

of probability theory and sampling, it would be highly

33

unlikely that the slopes of any two regression lines
generated from pre-test and post-test scores in a repeated
measures analysis of variance would come out to be completely
parallel at all points. For this reason, the researcher be-
lieves the results of this analysis reflect the true-to—life

outcomes of such a test (see Figure l).

 

Preference Response Score

 

 

 

26
Post-Test
Pre-Test
13
fi I
slow medium medium fast
slow fast
Tempo

Figure 1. Overall music listening preference.

Although this statistically significant interaction
was encountered in two of the three planned comparisons for
tempo by test-time period, the following observations can
still be drawn. First, for each test time period (prewtest
and post-test) fast tempo was preferred more than all other
tempi, medium fast tempo was preferred more than medium slow
and slow tempi, and medium slow tempo was preferred over

slow tempo. Overall, subjects responded with higher preference

34

scores as the tempo increased in speed (see Table 3 and
Figure 1). In addition, for each of the four levels of tempo
the post—test (individual interview) preference score means
were higher than the pre—test (group test) preference score

means (see Table 3).

TABLE 3

GROUP MEANS FOR PREFERENCE RESPONSE SCORES *
(TEMPO BY TEST TIME PERIOD)

 

 

medium medium

 

slow slow fast fast
Pre-test 2.27 2.53 2.96 3.44
Post-test 2.63 3.16 3.87 4.42

 

*Preference response scores were scaled from
1 to 7

Secondly, there was no statistically significant
difference by sex with regard to mean-preference scores.
However, there was a strong main effect at the .06 level
between the fifth-and sixth-grades on both the pre-test and
the post-test, with the sixth grades having expressed higher
mean preference scores at all four levels of tempo (see Fig-
ures 2 and 3).

Finally, there were no statistically significant
three-way, or four-way interactions. Neither grade nor
sex significantly interacted with each other, or tempo,

or test trme period.

Preference Response

Preference Response Score

35

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

22
o
L.)
o
8

Gr.

Gr.
13 I I
slow medium medium fast

slow fast
Tempo
Figure 2. Pre-Test preference response scores
by grade.

29

Gr.

Gr.
14 : 4ft .
slow medium medium fast

slow fast
Tempo
Figure 3. Post-Test preference response scores

by grade.

36

Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Quality
of Beat-Tempo-Matching and Amount of Beat-
Tempo-Matching Responses on Post:Test

 

 

 

There was a statistically significant difference be—
tween the fast tempo and all other levels of tempo with regard
to both the quality and the amount of beat-tempo-matching
responses as indicated by .03 and .02 levels of significance
respectively (see Table 4). Both the quality of and the
amount of matching were significantly lower at the fasttempo-
level than at all other levels of tempo. There was also a
significant difference between the medium fast tempo and the
medium slow and slow tempi with regard to the quality of
matching responses. Here, the quality was significantly
higher than those as the slower tempi. On the contrary, a
statistically significant difference was not encountered for
the amount of beat-tempo-matching response when the resear-
cher compared the medium fast tempo with the slower tempi.
Finally, a statistically significant difference was found
when the researcher compared the medium slow and slow tempi
with regard to both the quality and the amount of beat-tempo-
matching. The amount of matching was significantly higher
at the slow tempo, while the quality was significantly lower.

Therefore, it can be stated that the quality of beat-
tempoematching responses was best at the moderate tempi,
medium fast and medium slow, while it was poorest at the
extreme tempi, fast and slow. Furthermore, the amount of
beat-tempo matching responses were greatest at the slow

tempo and least at the fast tempo, with no statistically

37

TABLE 4

MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR QUALITY
OF BEAT-TEMPO-MATCHING AND AMOUNT OF BEAT-
TEMPO-MATCHING RESPONSES ON POST-TEST

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source of Variation F Signif.
of F
Tempo 12.81 0.00
Planned Comparisons
Fast vs. Med. Fast, Med. Slow,
& Slow 7.50 0.00
Average Quality of Beat-Tempo-
Matching 9.61 0.03
Average Amount of Beat-Tempo-
Matching 6.76 0.02
Med. Fast vs. Med. Slow & Slow 5.71 0.01
Average Quality of Beat-Tempo-
Matching 9.47 0.00
Average Amount of Beat-Tempo-
Matching 1.38 0.25
Med. Slow vs. Slow 15.34 0.00
Average Quality of Beat-Tempo-
Matching 23.61 0.00
Average Amount of BeattTempo- 12.21
Matching 0.00
Grade 3.67 0.03
Average Quality of Beat-Tempo-
Matching 4.08 0.05
Average Amount of Beat-Tempo-
Matching 3.28 0.08
Sex 0.50 0.61
Two-Way Interactions
Tempo by Grade 0.49 0.81
Tempo by Sex 0.38 0.89
Grade by Sex 0.01 0.99
Three-Way Interaction
Tempo by Grade by Sex 0.51 0.80

 

significant difference between the moderate tempi, medium
fast and medium slow, but with a significant difference

between the moderate tempi and the extreme ones (see Figures

4 and 5).

38

16075 ‘—

 

 

Number of Successful Matches

 

 

13.0

I
slow medium medium fast
slow fast

 

Tempo
Figure 4. Overall quality of beat-tempo matching
by grade

There was a statistically significant difference
across all four levels of tempi between the fifth and sixth
grades with respect to both the quality and the amount of
beat-tempo-matching responses. Overall, the fifth-graders
produced a greater number of tapping responses in their
attempts to beat-tempo-match to the music examples than did
the sixth-graders. However, the sixth-graders were signifi-
cantly more accurate in the quality of their beat-tempo-
matching responses than were the fifth graders (see

Figures 4 and 5).

39

 

23.00

 

Percentage of Total Number of
Beats Tapped

 

 

20.33 1 I

slow medium medium fast
slow fast

 

Tempo
Figure 5. Overall amount of beat—tempo—matching
by grade
Lastly, there was no significant difference by sex
with respect to both measures of the beat-tempo—matching
response, and no two-way or three-way interactions among
tempo, grade, and sex were encountered.

Multivariate Analysis of Variance for
Student Verbal Response on Post-Test

 

 

The students' verbal response scores were used to
generate two separate measures of student accuracy in
identifying the rate of speed of the music stimulus examples.

The first measure of accuracy counted the number of times

40

subjects correctly identified the speed of the music out of
a total of six possible attempts for each level of tempo.
The second measure of accuracy was used to indicate how far
off the students were in identifying the tempo level when
compared to the correct response. Thus, a departure score
was generated which was the arithmetic difference between
the students' verbal responses and the predetermined correct
responses.

There was a statistically significant difference
between the fast tempo and the average of all other levels
of tempi, and between the medium fast tempo and the average
of the medium slow and slow tempi with regard to both the
number of correct identifications at each tempo level and
the departure from the correct response. However, between
the medium slow and slow tempi a statistically significant
difference was found only with respect to the deviation score
and not for the number of correct identifications (see
Table 5).

In general, as the speed of the tempo increased,
so did the subjects' departure from the predetermined cor-
rect responses (see Figure 6). In addition, subjects cor-
rectly identified the tempo level a greater number of times
at the extreme tempi, fast and slow, than they did at the
moderate ones, medium fast and medium slow (see Figure 7).

Finally, there were no significant main effects for
grade or sex with regard to both measures of the verbal

response and there were no statistically significant two-way

41

or three-way interactions between or among tempo, grade,

 

 

 

 

 

 

.and sex.
TABLE 5
MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
STUDENT VERBAL RESPONSE
POST-TEST
Source of Variation F Signif.
of F
Tempo 22.07 0.00
Planned Comparisons
Fast vs. Med. Fast) Med. Slow,
& Slow 17.32 0.00
Number of Correct
Identifications 18.92 0.00
Deviation from
Criterion Score 11.18 0.00
Med. Fast vs. Med. Slow & Slow 11.33 0.00
Number of Correct
Identifications 19.90 0.00
Deviation from
Criterion Score 23.15 0.00
Med. Slow vs. Slow
Number of Correct
Identifications 0.16 0.70
Deviation from
Criterion Score 12.11 0.00
Grade 1.68 0.20
Sex 1.74 0.19
Two Way-Interactions
Tempo by Grade 1.19 0.37
Tempo by Sex 0.50 0.81
Grade by Sex 1.76 0.18
Three-Way Interaction
Tempo by Grade by Sex 1.64 0.16

 

42

4.15

 

Deviation Points from
Correct Responses

 

 

 

VW'IIIw I

slow medium , medium fast
slow fast

Tempo
Figure 6. Average total number of deviation points

from correct response at each level of
tempo.

h
I-'
N

43

 

Average Number of
Correct Verbal Identifications

 

 

 

2.45: , I)
W F
slow medium 4 medium fast
slow fast
Tempo
Figure 7. Average number of correct verbal identi—

fications of tempo at each tempo level.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study are consistent with pre—
vious research findings which have suggested that fifth and
sixth-graders express more favorable preference responses
for faster tempi than for slower ones. With both style and
performing medium being held constant, and with additional
experimental controls being placed upon the subjects'
perception of beat-tempo in the form of a beat-tempo-matching
task and a verbal report of tempo, this study has indicated
that beat-tempo (the rate of speed at which a musical com-
position moves) is one musical factor which has a strong
effect on the preference responses of fifth and sixth-graders.

The repeated measures multiple analysis of vari-
ance indicated that there was a statistically significant
main effect at the .001 level for tempo with regard to stu-
dents' preference response scores. In each of the three
planned comparisons for tempo (fast tempo vs. all other tempi,
medium fast vs. medium slow and slow, and medium slow vs.
slow) a statistically significant difference at the .001
level was obtained. In examining the mean scores for pre-
ference response on both the pre-test and post-test at each
of the four levels of tempo, the researcher observed that

subjects responded with higher preference response scores
44

45

as the tempo increased. On the basis of these results,

the researcher concluded that both fifth— and sixth-graders
prefer fast tempi more than all other levels of tempi, and
that they will express more favorable preference responses
as tempo increases.

Again, with respect to students' preference responses,
a significant main effect was found for test-time period
(pre-test vs. post-test) at the .001 level. At each of the
four levels of tempo, the mean scores for preference response
were higher on the post-test than for the pre-test. These
findings suggest that when subjects are tested individually,
and focusing techniques such as the beat-tempo—matching task
and a verbal report of tempo are administered, subjects will
express higher preference scores than when these focusing
techniques are not employed, and subjects are tested as
part of a larger group.

Finally, there was a statistically significant main
effect between grades at the .06 level with regard to listener
preference responses. The sixth-graders on the average
responded with higher preference scores across all levels
of tempo than did the fifth-grade. In contrast, there was
no statistically significant difference found between sexes
with regard to preference. These findings suggest that for
fifth- and sixth-graders, a student's grade-level will be
a stronger factor in determining his or her music listening
preferences than gender.

With respect to the beat-tempo-matching task, the

quality of beat-tempo~matching for both.grades was

46

significantly lower at the fast tempi than for all other levels
of tempi, and in addition, there was a statistically signi—
ficant difference in the percentage of beats tapped by sub-
jects at the fast tempi when compared to all others. At

the fast tempi, subjects tapped to a significantly lower
percentage of beats.

These results suggest that it is more difficult for
fifth--and sixth-graders to generate and maintain a motor
response which coincides with a more rapidly moving stim—
ulus in comparison with.more moderate ones. Furthermore,
there was a statistically significant difference between
the medium.slow and slow tempi with regard to the quality
of beat-matching. At the slow tempi, the quality of match-
ing was significantly lower than at the medium slow tempi.
However, at the slow tempi, subjects tapped to a greater
percentage of the beats. These findings suggest that it is
easier for both grades to produce more successful beat-tempo-
matching responses at the moderate tempi (medium fast and
medium slow) than at the extreme tempi (fast and slow).

Sixth—graders were significantly more accurate in
the quality of their beat-tempOematching responses while
producing a significantly lower percentage of tapping
responses than did the fifth-graders. Again, there was no
statistically significant difference between sexes. These
findings suggest that for fifth- and sixth-graders ability
to beat-tempo—match may be closely associated with the matura-

tion of their ear-to—hand coordination skills, and possibly

47

their experiences and training in performing such a task.
Students' verbal responses were more accurate at
the extreme tempi (fast and slow) as compared with the
moderate tempi (medium fast and medium slow). This leads
the researcher to conclude that the extremes are more easily
recognizable, whereas, a "grey-area" or ambiguousness is
present between the levels of medium fast and medium slow.
In addition, students' increased departure from the correct
responses as tempo increased is a result of an artifact
in the actual differences between each of the four levels
of tempo in their metronomically determined speeds. These
four levels of tempo each represented six different tempi,
and the correct responses were based upon the mean tempo
of each group. As tempo increased, so did the difference
between the metronomically determined mean tempo for each
level or group. Also, in identifying the fast tempi, sub-
jects could not deviate in excess of the correct score, and
similarly with the slow tempi, subjects could not deviate
below the correct score. In contrast, at the moderate
tempi, subjects had the opportunity to deviate in either

direction.

Discussion

 

One reason why post-test preference response scores
were significantly higher than pre-test preference response
scores at each level of tempo may be due to the fact that
the pre-test was administered as a group measure, whereas

the post-test was administered to a subset of the same

48

subjects on an individual basis. In observing the pre-
test, the researcher observed what seemed to be a peer-
group effect. Students would overtly share their responses
and reactions to the music with their fellow classmates by
making gestures such as "thumbs—down" for certain music
examples, or by scowling and frowning when other music
examples were being heard. On the contrary, during the
post-test subjects displayed only a minimal amount of overt
reactions in response to the music stimulus examples. Also,
when administering the individual tests, the researcher was
seated directly across from each subject, and as a result
of this proximity between the researcher and subject, sub-
jects may have been more hesitant to rate the music examples
unfavorably.

Another possible explanation for this statistically
significant difference between pre-test and post-test pre-
ference scores may be due to the effect of the beat-tempo-
matching task and the students' verbal responses. It is
likely that when fifthr and sixth—graders are actively
participating in a musical activity, that they will tend
to express more favorable preference responses than when they
are just sitting as passive listeners. In addition, both
tasks required that the subjects focus their attention to
a specific element within the music stimuli (beat-tempo),
in an experimental setting (individual interview) which was
designed to minimize the amount of extraneous stimuli to

be processed by the subjects. Furthermore, during the

49

post-test, subjects were listening to the same music stimuli
for a second time. Although two weeks had elapsed following
the group testing procedure, subjects may have recognized
some of the music examples from the pre-test, and therefore,
because they were familiar with them tended to express more
favorable preference responses.

A possible explanation for the statistically sig-
nificant difference between grades with.regard to their
preference response scores, may be found in the fact that
sixth-graders on the average tend to have more self-confi—
dence than do fifth-graders. This may be a function of the
fact that in the elementary schools in which this study
took place the sixthrgrade was the uppermost gradeelevel,
and therefore, sixth-graders were less hesitant to voice
their opinions.

I During the beat-tempo—matching procedure, the
researcher observed that it was difficult for Subjects to
match at the very fast tempi. Subjects would eventually
reach a threshold at which they could no longer tap to all
the beats in the very fast examples, and therefore, would
resort to tapping to half of the beats. This may help
account for the fact that subjects differed significantly
in the percentage of beats to which they tapped at the
fast tempi as compared to all other levels of tempi (note
that tapping only half of the beats will produce only 50%
of the total number of beats for each music stimulus

example). Similarly, subjects found it difficult to

50

beat-tempo-match at the very slow tempi. This may be due

to the fact that at slower tempi a longer time interval
exists between each successive beat, therefore, increasing
the possibility on the part of the subject to deviate from
the actual beat, either before or after it. In addition,

at the slower tempi, subjects tended to tap a double-time
effect (twice as many beats per measure) to help themselves
maintain a steady pulse. This may explain why the percent-
age of the total number of beats to which the students tapped

increased as tempo decreased.

Recommendations for Further Research

Further investigation is needed to determine the
relationship between group-preference testing and individual-
preference testing measures and procedures. A more detailed
analysis should be undertaken in which the peer-group
influence on individuals' preference response scores during
group-preference testing is studied. In this regard, it
would be interesting to modify the present study to exclude
both the beat-tempo-matching task and the verbal report of
tempo. This design may more closely reflect the differences
between group and individualized-preference testing measures
and procedures. In addition, a study could also be designed
in which two groups of subjects listen to the same music
stimulus examples and are tested individually in an interview
setting. Subjects in a control group would listen to each
example and then make a preference response. Subjects in

a treatment group would listen, perform the beat-tempo-matching

51
task, verbally report the tempo, and then.make a preference
response. This design would be a more sensitive measure
of the effect of perceived beat-tempo.

Replicating this study using different musical
styles instead of traditional American jazz is essential to
further detail the extent and quality of tempi preferences.
Other styles may be selected on the basis of their relative
beat perceptability.

Finally, it is more important for researchers to
identify and understand the musical factors which have a
relationship to music preference. In order to determine in
what combinations and proportions these factors must be pre—
sent to evoke either favorable or unfavorable preference
responses from their subjects, researchers may wish to
devise other tasks similar to those used in this study. In
this way, researchers can focus their subjects' perceptions
on the factors which are being investigated as the subjects

are listening and formulating their preference responses.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

 

APPENDIX

A

Music Stimulus Examples

 

 

 

 

 

Title Performer MM Tempo i
Blues! A Jam Session at Victor Waller 82 S 3
St. James Infirmary Teagarden 70 S 6
Society Blues Bechet 64 S 12
Relaxin' at the Touro Spanier 85 S 14
Just a Closer Walk with Thee Armstrong 57 S 15
Vibraphone Blues Goodman 82 S 22
Sweet Lorraine Bechet 93 MS 4
Black and Blue Spanier 109 MS 8
Jack Hits the Road Teagarden 102 MS 9
It's WOnderful Armstrong 99 MS 13
Moon Glow - Goodman 105 MS 18
Ain't Misbehavin' Waller 97 I MS 21
Bluein' the BlueS' Spanier 153 MF 7
S'posin' Waller 139 MF 10
I Cried for You Armstrong 147 MF 11
Why Don't You Do Right Goodman 126 MF 1?
Coal Cart Blues Bechet 135 MP 20
After a While Teagarden 132 MP 23
Sheik of Araby Armstrong 250 F l
Blackstick Bechet 178 F 2
Shim Goodman 191 F 5
I Hope Gabriel Teagarden 183 F 16
Eccentric Spanier 222 F 19
Oh Susannah Waller 284 F 24
Key
MM = Metronome Marking

# = example's order of appearance on stimulus tape

S = Slow
MS = Medium Slow
MF = Medium Fast

F = Fast

Group Means

Slow Medium Slow Medium Fast Fast

73 mm 101 mm 139 mm 218 mm

52

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PR FOURTEW P0
; srumo:
(Cole. 1-3)
SCHOOLID: I
1602.. 41 Rim of your schoET J
I
(001. 5)
AGE: - '
CLASSID: ;
13. .--.- Nel- of your teacher
SEX:
E1011; Female-8
(Col. 10)

 

Prectice Emu
(We else's answer)

IIIkeI I I I'xl' I I Ixamm
? 6 5 6 3 3 1

(now put your answer)

Ier l I I I I I I I Idislike
7 6 5 4 3 2 1

53

Example 1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I like I I I I I I I I I dislike
(Col. 11) 7 6 5 '4 3 3 1

Example 2
11m I I I I I I I I I dislike
(Col. 12) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Example 3
I like I I I I I I I I I dislike
(Col. 13) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Example 4
I like I I I I I I I I I dislike
(Col. 14} 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Example 5
I like I I I l, I I I I I I dislike
(Cbl. 15) 7 6 a 4 3 2 1

Example 6
I like I I I I I I I I I dislike
(Col. 16) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Example 7
I like I I I I I I I I dislike
(an.1n 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Example 8
I like I I I I I I I I I dislike
(Cal. 18) 7 6 5 4 2 1

Example 9
I like I I I I I I I I I dislike
(cat. 19) 7 a 5 4 3 2 1

514

Example 10

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I like I I I dislike
(Col. 20) 7 4 3 2 1

Exalple 11
I like I I I I dislike
(Col. 21) 7 4 3 2 1

Exanple 12
I like I I I I dislike
(Col. 22) 7 4 3 z 1

Example 13
I like I I I I dislike
(Cal. 23) 7 4 3 2 1

Example 14
I like I I I I dislike
(Col. 24) 7 4 3 2 1

Example 15
I like I I | I dislike
(Col. 25) 7 4 3 a 1

Example 16
I like I I I I dislike
(Col. 26) 7 4 3 2 1

Example 17
I like I I I I dislike
(Col. 27) 7 4 3 2 1

Example 18
I like I I I I dislike
(Cat. 28) 7 4 3 2 1

 

555

 

Example 19

I like I I I I I I I I I dislike
(aoz. 29) 7 a 5 4 3 2 1

 

I like I I I | I I I I I dislike
(Col. 30) 7 a 5 4 3 2 1

 

Example 21

I like I I I I I I I I I dislike
(601.31) 7 a s 4 '3-2 1

 

Example 22

1 like I I I I I I I I I dislike
(Col. 32) 7 o‘ 5 4 3 2 I

 

Ilike I l I . I J I . I I Idislike
(1:01.33) 7 a 5 4 3 2 1

 

I like I I I I I I I I I dislike
(Cal. 34) 7

Co
Ch
41:.
be
M
N

56

 

APPENDIX C

APPENDIX C

INSTRUMENT FOR EVALUATING STUDENT

BEAT-TEMPO-MATCHING RESPONSE
(KEY)

Quality of beat-tempo-matching response (QBTM)

3

successful match (student taps regularly and evenly
to: 1) all beats, 2) strong beats only, 3) weak
beats only, 4) double-time feel.)

moderately successful match (student taps unevenly and:
l) varies between strong and weak beats, 2) after the
beat, 3) before the beat.)

unsuccessful match (student taps: 1) uncertainly,
2) arhythmically, 3) randomly, 4) to the melodic
rhythm only.)

Amount of beat-tempo-matching (ABTM)

4

student taps to 75% to 100% of the total beats in
each example

student taps to 50% to 75% of the total beats in each
example

student taps to 25% to 50% of the total beats in each
example

student taps to 1% to 25% of the total beats in each
example

student taps to 0% of the total beats in each example.
(No response)

Student's verbal response (SVR)

 

4
3
2
1

fast tempo
medium fast tempo
medium slow tempo

slow

Blank/no response or undediced

57

APPENDIX D

 

STUDID:

APPENDIX

INSTRUMENT FOR EVALUATING STUDENT

BEAT-TEMPO-MATCHING RESPONSE

 

EXAMPLE #

QBTM

D

ABTM

SVR

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

\OGQGUIIbWNH

 

P
O

 

H
g...-

 

H
N

 

I-‘
w

 

H
.5

 

l-‘
U'l

 

|-‘
0‘

 

H
\l

 

I"
oo

 

H
0

 

N
O

 

N
H

 

N
N

 

N
(a)

 

N
b

 

 

 

 

58

APPENDIX E

APPENDIX E

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

cosmonaut WWQM'MW'W

Dear Parent:

I am writing to ask your permission for your child to participate in

my research study. The purpose of this study is to "follow-up" on

the previous study conducted in your child's school by Dr. Albert

LeBlanc. As my academic advisor, Dr. LeBlanc has carefully supervised fl
my work, and has assisted me in the design of this project as a master's
thesis. The objective of this study is to gather more information
about how some specific characteristics of music influence music pre-
ference decisions. To accomplish this I will play recorded musical
examples for students and ask them to tap along with the beat of the
music. In addition, the students will be asked to verbally report

how fast or slow each example is, and to give a written response using
an answer sheet indicating how much they like or dislike each example
they listen to. This entire procedure will take approximately 15
minutes of your child's time, and will be initiated approximately one

week after Dr. LeBlanc's investigation has been completed. This study

has already been explained to your school principal and to your child's

classroom teacher, and has been approved by both. Whether or not

your child participates in this study will have no influence on their

grade. I hope that you will approve of your child's participation,

and you can indicate this by signing and returning the consent form

below.

 

Sincerely,

Robert J. Harris
Music Department
Michigan State University

CONSENT FORM

I have read the explanation above and hereby consent to my child's
participation in your study of music preference. I understand that

my child is free to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.
I understand that my child will remain anonymous, that his or her con-
sent will be obtained as a condition of participating in the study,

and that his or her responses will remain confidential. Within these
restrictions, I understand that when the study is completed the over-
all results of it will be made available to me upon my written request.

Signed _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ;
(Legal Parent or Guardian)

usua-mm/wwm

59

APPENDIX F

APPENDIX F

mum CODEBOOX

 

 

SPSS
variable
Coluln(s) nsse variable description and codes
1-3 STUDID student's identification pusher
h CARDID card identification nuaber
1 first card
2 second card
5 SCHOOLID school identification nuaber
. 1 Illaculate Heart of Wary (IHM)
2 Resurrection
3 St. Gerard
6 GRADE ‘ - student's grade level
(literally reproducing)
7-8 AGE student's age
(literally reproducing)
9-10 CLASSID class.identification number
1 Brzezinski {BRZNSK§)
2 McNeil MCNEIL
3 Laps: LOPEZ)
Repichowski REPCWSKI)
5 flyers (MYERS)
6 Schoenfeld (SI'INFLD)
. . 7 Sr. Yvonne (SRYVNE)
ll SEXID student's gender
1 sale
2 female
12 LPR listener preference response nuaber 1.
7 listener preference response options
(7.6.5.4,3.2.l) for each ausical exaa 1e
using a scale anchored by "I like' (7 ,
and 'I dislike" Il)'
MISSING VALUES ( l
13 LPR
lb LPR
15 LPR
16 LPR
17 LPR
18 LPR
19 LPR
20 LPR
21 LPR
22 LP)!
23 LPR
24 LPR
25 LPR
26 LPR
27 LPR
28 LPR
29 LPR

6()

BEATENP CODEBOOK (continued)

 

 

SPSS
variable
Colusn(s) nane variable description.and codes
30 LPR
3l LPR
32 LPR
3 LPR
3 L28
35 LPR
36 03TH; Quality of best tespo catching response
3 successful
2 soderately successful
1 unsuccessful
3 GET!
3 026!
9 GET!
0 031'!
41 GET!
:2 036!
036!
4.3 can
45 03!!
#6 08!!
'57 our
48 08!!
49 GET!
50 Q!!!
51 Q!!!
52 026!
53 03!!
0B6!
55 GET!
56 RBI!
5 086!
5 GET!
9 02!!
0 ABTM Amount of best teapo catching response
4 taps to 755 to 1005 of beats
I I 5 I I O
2 I n 25‘ a 5“ I e
1 n a 1‘ o 25‘ a n
o ' ' 0% of beats (no response)
61 ABTM
62 A!!!
23 are:
A36!
65 ABE!
66 A56!
6 A86!
6 ABTM
69 A36!
70 am
71 an

61

BEAIEIP CODEBOOK (continued)

 

SPSS

 

variable

Colt-nu) neae variable description and codes

72 A33!

73 A!!!

74 m

72 ABII

7 ABTI

77 A!!!

ard

£3 ' mm

4 CARDID

5 SCI-1001.113

6 GRADE

7-8 AGE

9-10 CLASSID

11 SEXID

12 A!!!

l A!!!

1 ms

15 Am

16 ms

17 A!!!

18 SVR student's verbal response
4 fast teapo
3 sediua fast teapo
2 nediua slow teapo
1 slow teapo
IISSIIIG VALUE (BLANK) no response or
undecided

19 SW!

20 SVR

21 SVR

22 SVR

2 SVR

2 SVR

2 SVR

2 SVR

27 SW!

28 SVR

29 SVR

30 SVR

31 SVR

32 SVR

32 SVR

35 "5+:

36 SVR

37 SVR

8 SVR

39 m

0 SVR

41 SVR

62

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