A HISTORY OF THE EARLY CHURCH AND CHRISTIAN EDUCATION FROM THE BIRTH OF CHRIST TO THE COUNCIL OF NICEA: A. D. 1-325 HOMER HUGHES HAWES 3:11:13 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A History of the Early Church and Christian Education from the Birth of Christ to the Council of Nicea: A. D. 1--325 presented by Homer H. Haves has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M degree in M ML Major: professor Date December 1?, 195b 0-169 A HISTORY OF THE EARLY CHURCH AN) CHRISTIAN EDUCATION non m BIRTH OF CHRIST TO THE COUNCIL OF HIGH: ‘0’. 1".325 By Boner Hughe- level A THESIS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY School of Education 199. [*IZc‘o’Q «Q Homer Hughes Hawes . 2 AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS The purpose of this study is to trace the historical develop- ment of the church and Christian education through the first three hundred and twenty-five years of our era. From the beginning of the Christian movement to 324 A.D., when Constantine became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire, Christianity was a despised and persecuted religious sect. It possessed no legal rights and its adherents were subjected to every sort of abuse and cruelty. In the face of this opposition the church grew. Its influ- ence spread until under Constantine the church enjoyed the official sanction of the government and, for better or for worse, found itself in a position of power in the affairs of state. ‘As the church'was originally constituted learning took place in an atmosphere of freedom and mutual respect. Influences contrary to these principles arose within the church and grew phenomenally following the death of the last of the apostles. The forces which were contrary to freedom and equality in the early church grew in pro- portion to, and parallel'with, the increase in power of the sacerdotal caste, which maintained its position contrary to the early Christian concept of the universal priesthood of believers. .As rule by presbyterial councils gave'way to monarchial episco- pates in the early churches the teaching function shifted from.the membership and its chosen leaders to the bishops and their clergy. Although the freedom of the earlier Christian assembly was, no doubt, maintained in some places, authoritarianism in theory and practice Ebmer Hughes Hawes 3 became increasingly evident in the church at large throughout the period. The educational activities of the church were at first conducted solely by the congregations. Educational organizations, extra-congregational in form, developed as need arose. The cate- chumenal school, which in the second and third centuries became a highly developed educational system, arose out of the need to teach pagan converts the fundamentals of the Christian religion in prep- aration for baptism. The Christian elementary school, beginning in the second century, grew out of the conflict between Christianity and the pagan educational system. Schools'were established at Edessa in Gaul and elsewhere to provide instruction for Christian youth in the common branches of human learning. The institutions of higher learning in the early church were the catechetioal schools. These schools, located in the important centers of culture, represented the forces of early Christianity in coping with the intellectual powers of paganism. The curricula in.most of these schools included not only the study of the Scriptures but also a liberal representation of subjects from philosophy and the sciences. In both scope and quality the curricula of the catechetioal schools were comparable to those of the best of the pagan schools. The greater emphasis was placed upon the exegetioal study of the Boriptures, for which study all other subjects were considered as but a preparation and an intro- duction. The broad curriculum, including a variety of subjects both sacred and secular, was followed by the catechetioal schools of Alexandria, Antioch, and Caesarea. Carthage, however, found no place Homer Hughes Hawes 4 for pagan learning and followed strictly the position stated by Ter- tullianx "Let our seeking be in that which is our own, and from those who are our own, and concerning that which is our own." There were three distinct schools of thought in education represented in the catechetioal schools of the third century. The schools of Alexandria and Caesarea led by Origen represented the eclectic position in philosophy and the allegorical method of interpretation. Tertullian and the school of Carthage rejected all philosophic aids and held that the only true interpretation of Scripture was that which had been accepted and taught by the fathers of the church consistently through past ages back to the apostles. Lucian and his followers who were of the school at Antioch differed with both, and representing the critical point of view presented a historical interpretation of the Bible. The Council of Nicea, A.D. 325, is the terminal point in the study. The character of the church was greatly modified by the action of the Council. By deciding an issue by majority vote and by anathema- tizing dissenters a new principle of authority was established. After Nicea ever greater emphasis is placed upon the authority of oreeds and church tradition. The catechetioal schools gradually gave way to the cathedral and monastic schools. The hierarchies of Constantinople and Rome grew rapidly in power. All of these things introduce the student to another period in the history of education--that of the Middle Ages . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his gratitude to the members of his doctoral guidance committee: Professors Carl H. Gross, Cecil V. Millard, madison.Knhn, Guy H3 Hill, and Clyde M. Campbell for their helpful cooperation during the time of research and and actual'writing of the thesis. The author wishes also to acknowledge a debt of gratitude to Professor Albert J. Huggett who was an active member of the committee until the time of his death a short time before the present study was completed. The author is especially grateful to Professor Carl H. Cross, the chair- man cf the committee, for counsel and guidance throughout the entire prognmm of doctoral studies. TAIL-l Ol' COMB Chapter momma ................... WOICOIWS................... LISTOI'TABLIS .................... 11130106210]..................... 1. munmnnsornssscmss....... II. -APOSTOI-IOABI: A.D.30—a100 ........ III. MIAMI PmISTIG m: AJ. 100-400 . . . . . IT. mcmumnrncmmrmmmsror meniscus SCHOOL: AJ. 200-300 . . . . . T. mmormmslcvrlcnsmunomxcnorl m:A.D.300—325 ............ '1. 00110138101! ................... nmoomn..................... iii Pne- ii iii iv he 10h 168 231 aka 255 LIST Ol' TAM-ll Table ' Page I. The Iiret Century Jewish Canon of The Old Testament Compared with that of the Common Vereion . . . . . . . 77 II. The Books of the lee Testament: The Approximate Tine upmar'ritiuooooeeeeeeeeeeeeee 82 iv INTRODUCTI ON The purpose of this study is to trace the historical develoP- aunt of the church and Christian education from the beginnings of the Christian movement through the first three and a quarter centuries of our era. The importance of the Christian religion and the church in the history of education is generally recognized. Much has been written concerning the church and education during the Middle Ages. The foundations for the study of medieval Christian education, however, which are derived from the preceding period, have been largely neglected. One writer states that “to understand medieval education we must study the complex relations which developed between Christianity and the ancient learning.'1 Yet, on that particular phase of educational history he devotes three pages and two lines. Other standard histories of education are similarly brief in dealing with education in the early church. Literary works dealing particularly with education in the «1'1: church are few in number. Two such books are known to this "it”. One was written by Geraldine Hodgson who held the position 1 l. 0. Good, A Iisto of Western Education (New York: The lecnillan Company, lam-Till“? of Lecturer on the History of Education at university College, Bristol. lbr book, Primitive Christian Education, was published in 1906. Miss Hodgson states as her aim IIto indicate the role played by primitive Christians in lducation,‘2 but limits her work yet further, giving it more of a.pclemic slant, in her Introduction to the book. when she states her object to be in part ”to provide material whereby adverse criticism of Christian educational effort may be met."3 The two features expressed in this statement, i.e.. the polemic nature of the work and its organization as a source book comprising numerous quotations. are evident throughout. Miss Hodgscn's work covers the period of the first five hundred years of the history of the church, thus extending the scope of the book about two hundred years beyond that of the present study. A.great part of the book deals with those last two centuries. The second work on early Christian education was written by Lewis Joseph Sherrill, Dean of Religious Education at the Louisville Preshyterian Seminary. Mr. Sherrill has written a significant book called “The Rise of Christian,' Education.“ which was published in 1950. In this small book the author treats christian education not only of the primitive and early periods of church history but extends his discourse through the Middle 2Ceraldine Hodgscn. Primitive Christian Education (Edinburgh: T. d T. Clark, 1906). p. v. 3Ibid., p. 19. vi Ages. Sherrill presents his material not only as history but as 'a body of considerations which are relevant to any competent phil- osophy of Christian education in later times.“u It is in the philosophical aspects of his treatise that Sherrill demonstrates his greatest strength. The work. though valuable in furthering general knowledge concerning early Christian education, does not deal at any length with the deve10pment of formal education within the church. As has been mentioned, the work of Miss Hodgson concerns the first five hundred years of church history and that of Mr. Sherrill covers all of the ancient and medieval periods of Christian educa- tion. The present study is the only work known to the writer to deal exclusively with the anteéflicene period in the develoPment of rChristian education. The thesis is divided into six chapters. In Chapter I the background of Christianity and Christian education is presented. Here the political. social. economic, and religious aspects of the Graecoéloman period are dealt with. as well as the life and ministry of the Founder of the Christian religion. In Chapter II the work of the apostles. the establishment of the Christian church, and the Lewis Joseph Sherrill. The Rise 25 Christian Education 0 (New tors; The liacmillan Company 1‘95." 5. p. v. vii earliest traces of the Christian educational system are examined. In Chapter III the activities of the early church Fathers are noted. and the beginnings of catechumenal and catechetioal instruction are recognised. In Chapter IV the conflict between the pagan educational system and Christianity may be seen to result in the establishment of Christian elementary schools to provide for the needs of Christian youth. In higher education. the deveIOpment of the catechetical schools to a position of equality in standards with institutions of pagan learning is noted. In Chapter V attention is given to the Arian dispute. the Council of Nices. and the state of Christian education at the close of the ante-Nicene period. In Chapter VI such conclusions as seem Justifiable in a work in historical research are dealt with. The BibliOgraphy follows Chapter VI and includes only the works cited in this study. viii I. II. III. IV. OWL!“ 0mm: LIB m TIBS Ol' JESUS CHRIST “The fullness of Time. A. 3. C. Readiness of the 'orld for the llessiah larly Christian View of listory lobrow. Creek. and Roman Influences State of lorals in the Greece-Roman Iorld Senses on [oral Conditions in his Times The Testimony of Tacitus lemon homo Life Gluttony and lxeess Unnatural Vices The Theater The drone-stile Games Contempt for the leeredness of Human Life Slavery Condition of Pagan Religion retythoism Public 'orship Pagan Religion and nerals lmperor Iorhhip Religion and Philosophy keptieism The lone hire in the Iirst Century A. I. C. Territorial Limits Political Organisation The lemon Peace Co-umication and Travel lithin the Roman hire A. 3e 0. Safety in Travel The Iystom of loads Universal Use of the Greek Language ix VI. VII. VIII. IX. State of the Jews at the )eginning of the Christian Ira A. Political Dependence Upon home 3. Conditions During the leiyi of Herod the Great C. Herod's Sons and the Division of the Kingdom ). lestoration of the Monarchy Under Herod Agrippa I I. Judoa a lemon Province 1'. The Taro Vith the Bonus 1. The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. 70 AJ. .2. The Bar-cocheb Insurrection. 132-431} AJ. Religious Conditions of the Jews A. Religious Organisation of the Jewish lation 1. Boots and Parties 0. The MC" The Iossiah A. The lossiah in the Old and low Testaments 3. The Jewish View of the Messiah C. The Christian Belief in the Iossiah The Life of Jesus Christ A. Sources 3. Birth and lsrly Tears C. Ministry 1. Opposition. Trials. and the Crucifixion I. Resurrection. the Great Commission. and Ascension Jesus. The Teacher A. Ceqared Iith the Scribes 3. Jesus as ‘Toachor' in the Gospels C. [is Teaching in the Synagogue. Temple. and Other places I. lie llanner With the Scholars I. Teaching the Common People 1‘. Instruction to the Apostles and a Look at the Tuture CHAPTER I THE LIFE AND TIMES OF JESUS CHRIST “The Fullness of Time“ The Christian church made its appearance in history at a time peculiarly adapted to the spread of its teaching and. influence. Videspread skepticism had produced the need for a religion that would present a basis for real faith. The moral decay within society made necessary a clear statement of basic values. and gave emphasis to the position of a religious group that not only preached. but prac- ticed purity of life. Improved conditions of travel. and the maintenance of order by the Romans, made it possible for missionaries of the new religion to go to all parts of the civilized world in safety. The Greek language. which had become a universal literary and spoken tongue. became the instrument for the proPagation of Christian doctrine. At no other period in history were circumstances so favorable to the introduction of a new faith. The time was ripe for the establishment of the Christian church. To the apostles and members of the early church these back- Sround conditions were not interpreted as circumstances of mere coincidence. Rather, these things were to them the outcome of the definite plan of God. The scheme of redemption which had been set s L I 5 in motion “before the foundation of the world," was stayed in its culmination. and the coming of the Messiah was delayed, until all things were in readiness. and then. I'when the fullness of time was come, God sent forth his Son.‘6 Jesus Opened His ministry by announ- cing that. "The time is fulfilled. and the kingdom of God is at hand: Repent yo. and believe the gospel."7 The world that was thus readied for the coming of the Messiah was a world that under the hand of God had been subjected to many influences. Successive civilizations and cultures had contributed their part in preparing the world to receive and prOpagate the Christian faith. The empire of Alexander had firmly established the Greek civilization, the Romans in their turn had brought about a united though restless world. and the Jews had received and preserved the prOphecies of the coming Messiah and provided the fleshly lineage by which he was to be born into the world. for "salvation is of the Jews."8 The presence of all of these influences was clearly indicated at the crucifixion of Christ by the writing of accusation that Pilate caused to be placed upon the cross: "Jesus of Nazareth the King of the 5lphesions 1m. 6Galatians ‘4: ‘4. 7hr}: 1315. “John i$322. Jews . . . It was written in Hebrew. and Greek and Latin.‘9 These three civilizations. the Hebrew. the Greek. and the Roman. converge at this precise point in history to provide the setting for the most important and sigiificant event in the history of the western world- the establishment of the Christian church. The State of Morals in the Graeco—Roman World The period of history in which the Christian religion was instituted was a time in which moral degradation had reached a level never before equalled in the history of man. The proofs are ”stamped upon its coinage. cut on its gems. painted upon its chamber walls.“ and “sown broadcast over the pages of its poets. satirists. and historiansfll. These evidences make it abundantly clear that at the time of Christ's birth Rome was living in what Salmon calls “a moral mom. '11 Seneca. the Stoic philos0pher and moralist. is an excellent witness to the moral conditions existing in his time. Seneca was born 3.0. b and died AJ. 65. He says, Ivory place is full of crime and vice; too many 9John 19:19. as. “Frederic w. Terror. The; Early Days 2; Christianity (New York: 1. L. Burt. Publisher. 1882). p. 2. 1:lldward T. Salmon. A History 23: the Roman World From 2 £._C_. oriaes are unified to be cured by any possible restraint. lea struggle in a aighty rivalry of wickedness. Ivory day the desire for wrong doing is greater. the dread of it less: all regard for what is better and more Just is banished. lust hurls itself wherever it likes. and crimes are no longer covert. They stalk before our very eyes. and wickedness has come to such a public state. has gained such power over the hearts of all. that innocence is not rare- it is non-existent. Tor is it only the casual nan or the few who break the law? On every hand. as if. at a given signal. asn rise to level all the barriers of right and mu e e e The very reocpition of these conditions by the stoic philosopher night be considered an argument that at least some sense of right and wrong then existed in the pagan world. had not Seneca's own life (guite in contrast to his preaching) been such an exanple of. aoral looseness. The thought and language of Seneca is usually on such a high moral plane. and so strikingly siailar in places to the writings of Paul. that nny have thought that there had been correspondence between the two. and some have suggested that Seneca was a disciple of. the great apostle to the Gentiles. Lightfeot. along with nest writers of recent tines. doubts that the two were personally acquainted.13 Paul and Seneca could have net. however. as they were strictly contenporariesfim The great moral seraonc of “some. 93 £6.93. 11. uu. 2.3. 13a. s. Lightfoot. Dissertations 2 393 metelic 5: (London: Iaoaillan and Goapany. 18W I'm-e Po 25?. Seneca. however. turn out to be but empty words. The same philosopher who avowed disdain for all things earthly amassed during a period of only four years a fortune of three hundred million sesterces (over $215,000.00”. and while writing a treatise on poverty. had at the very time in his house a large number of citrus tables. made of veined wood brought from Mount Atlas. each costing as mch as $25.00. and even $75,000.15 It was Seneca who wrote an Issay on Mercy. addressing himself therein to the Emperor Nero. and yet it was the same author who composed the letter to the Senate by 16 which Nero Justified the murder of his own mother. In another writing Seneca discusses with his complete approbation the then coamon practice of killing children who were born weak or abnormal.” The same Seneca who advocated in his writings purity of morals encouraged his pupil. Hero. to take a mistress. and was himself banished on the charge of adultery involving a member of the royal family.18 It is interesting to note that it was yet the same Seneca who wrote an epistle to Lucilius "On Practicing What You Preach.l9 ——_ 150'.er Ihlhorn. The Conflict 9i Christianity With leathenism. trans. Egbert C. Smith and C. J. H. Ropes (fie-w York: es Scribner's Son. 1912). p. 94. “um. 1'YSeneca 93 fl 1. xv. 2.3. l "Seneca.' Anthon's Classical lictionary. 19lpietles n. 6 Thus does Seneca give his testimony. by word and by his own example. concerning the depravity of Roman life in his day. Tacitus. the first century Roman historian. draws a sharp con- trast between Roman life as he knew it and the high state of morals which existed among the barbaric Germans. Unlike the Romans. he says that among the Germans no one laughs at vice. “nor do they call it the fashion to corrupt and to be corrupted."2. Unlike Roman home life in the first century. in the early days of the Bonn republic homes were strong and pure and a high standard of morality was respected. The sanctity of marriage was the cardinal principle of morality in early times.21 Among the laws that had been set up to secure home life and the sanctity of marriage no provision was made for divorce}2 The possibility of breaking the bonds of honorable marriage simply had not occurred to their imaginations. The first legislation concerning divorce was occasioned by a mis- fortune rather than any act of immorality. The wife of Spurius Carvilius was barren and the fortunes of his aristocratic house depended upon the birth of children. A legislative act was necessary 2.Taoi tus Gory 19. admin Herivale. Gene____r__al li__§_____tory of Home from the Foundation of theC _t__o _th_e_ Fall of A tulus. s.c."1§E-'a'_gfif(mgmang ":37 00190111537577 Po 221m. to make it possible for him to repudiate his wife.23 The law was an evil example. It was more and more resorted to. and nothing sapped the morale of the home more than the laxity in marriage thus introduced into Roman life?“ The corruption in Roman social life is traceable to the in- fluence of the Greeks. The divorce of Spurius Cavilius was the first in 52s years of Roman history.25 Under the influence of the Greeks the purity of Roman home-life was thoroughly corrupted. The Romans began a fatal degeneracy from the first day of their close associa— tion with Greece.2‘ Greece had learned from Rome a cold-blooded cruelty. and home received from Greece the corruption of her morals.2‘7 The Greeks in their early days were not lacking in modesty and chastity but as early as the 'Golden Age“ of Greece the quality of purity was lost.” All of their boasting of beauty and goodness was negated by the corruptness of their lives. Nearly all their great men. even Themistocles and Pericles. were impure}9 Without em- barrasenent Demosthenes says. “We have hetaerae for our pleasure. wives to bear us children and to care for our households."3. These 239.19.- 23.22”: ' 25.!arrar. o . gig. I). 5. 26-12-15. 2711914. no 22s SEE-e Pt 97- 291bid.. p. go. “this. 8 female slave paramours had an almost unbelievable influence in public affairs. They attended the lectures of the philosophers. wrote books. and were the associates of prominent statesmen.31 One of these slaves served as a model for Praziteles' statue of the Cnidian Aphrodite-othue the Greeks lifted their hands in prayer to the likeness of a public prostitute when they attended to their religious duties in the temple of the Aphrodite image.32 When the Romans became the meters of the world and took the Greeks into their homes to be their slaves. all of this became the prototype of Roman manners and morals. By the time of the Empire the transition from purity of morals to total depravity was complete. All sentiment concerning the sanctity of marriage soon passed away under the influence of Hellenism. Divorce became more and more common until it was an everyday occurrence.” Seduction and adultery spread until Roman society he- came a cesspool of moral polution. Affairs became so common in the leading families of Rome that "only a scandal altogether exceptional could make them the subject of special talk; a Judicial interference 31+ seemed now almost rediculous. h..— One condition of this demoralized 31mm. 321bid. ”George P. Fisher. The Beginnings__ of Christianit w__1__th a Vi___e__w 33 t__he State of the Roman wBI-l’a _a_t Lhe m__r__t"i' _"'_"'ef c_'_j___hr“1e't"(ni_ ew reri'c'z Charles Serf—blur“ $0118.13”). Do a. 3"lbid" quoting Mommasn iii. 502. society was that men refused to marry preferring illicit relation- ships to the respensibilities of families .35 The legal enactments put forward by Augustus to promote narriages by offering bounties to these who would take wives had little effect.36 Licentieusness permeated every level of Roman society. The behavior of Messalina the wife of Claudius I as described by Tacitus , involving in her adultery these of high and low estate , is an indication of this very fact.” The multitude of slaves of Roman society provided an ever- present temptation to sensual indulgence .38 The moral depravity that has been discussed was not alone descriptive of conditions in the capital but was equally true in the provinces.39 while the mass of the people lived in poverty and subsisted en alms. those who possessed wealth revelled in glutteny and every other conceivable type of excess. Seneca, in discussing the rela- tionship between slave and master . gives us a picture of the gluttezv BSUhlhern. =2. _c__i_t., p. 102. 36Fisher, 3. 33.3.. p. 202. 37Tacitus Anmls :1. 25-38. 38Fisher. :2. go, Po 202e ”Ibis. l. in a Roman feast. The common practice of taking an emetic in order that they might further indulge in food is mentioned here and in many other places in pagan literature. He says. "The master eats more than he can hold. and with monstrous greed loads his belly until it is stretched and at length ceases to do the work of a belly,“ and then, Seneca says, I'he is at greater pains to discharge all the food than he was to stuff it down.'m In another place he says. “When we recline at a banquet, one slave mops up the disgorged food. another crouches beneath the table and gathers up the left-overs of the tipsy guestsflm' Feasting continued far into the night. Female slaves waited tables dressed in such a fashion as to excite the passions of the guests whom they served.”2 After the feast had con- tinued for a time, and the guests were inflamed with wine, dancing girls were broufixt in. and a scene of lewd revelry ensued.” Other vices of an unnatural sort are so revolting that they can be only mentioned briefly at this point. Paul speaks of these sins of 'uneleanness' in writing to the church at home. In speaking h.Seneca histles xlvii. 2. “1113.. 6. hellish”, 92. _¢_3_i_t_.. p. 2014. l"311:1. d. ll of ungodly and unrighteous men of that generation Paul says that they. . . . through the lusts of their own hearts . . . dishonor their own bodies between themselves . . . even their women did change the natural use into that which is against nature: and likewise also the men, leaving the natural use of the woman. burned in their lust one toward another° men with men working that which is unseemly . . .m‘ Seneca speaks of this same vice when he refers to the slave who, thougIamn, . . . cannot get away from his boyhood; he is dragged back to it: . . . he is kept beardless by having his hair smoothed away or plucked out by the roots. and he must rennin awake throughout the night, dividing his ting,5 between his master's drunkenness and his lust . . . This particular vice has perhaps existed to some degree in every age but in the Greece-Roman world it was so universally accepted that it seemingly was not considered a crime at all. There is scarcely a writer of the period who directly condemns 1t.‘+6 Seneca in the above quotation. and in its context, is not discussing the matter as a vice but as simply a mistreatment of slaves. along with other examples of hardship. It is no wonder that Paul says that "God gave them up,’ {'to uncleanness.' 'unto vile affections." and “to a reprobate mind.“u7 h whom. 132‘}. 26. 27. ”Seneca Epistles xlvii. 7, 8. Wisher, 32. 91.3.. pp. 205. 206. ”Romans 132“. 26s 28o -—- q—h‘ .. 12 The theater was an important corrupting influence in Greek and Roman life. The great deeds of the heroes of the past were no longer held up for imitation, being replaced by the adventures of illicit lovers and deceived husbands.“ Virtue was mocked. the gods scoffed at. and 'everything sacred and worthy of veneration was dragged in the mire."n9 Obscenity knew no bounds. Dancers cast aside their clothes and performed half naked. or even wholly naked, on the stage.“ Art was not considered. and all things were de- signed for sensual gatification.5l The Greek comedy, and similar Roman plays. were the most popular.52 The plots were drawn largely from the licentious stories of Greek 11vtholog.53 The pantomime. the art of expression through gesture and movement. was carried to perfection. and gradually replaced nearly all other types of theatrical performance.5h These performances were of the most un- chaste and obscene character and had the most corrupting effect upon “Whom, 22o 21-300 Po 12's uglbid. “Ibis. 52usher, 32. 233.. p. 212. 53mm. 55.12.13- 13 the morale of women and of the youth.55 The actors who received the greatest popular acceptance were the pantomimists. whose popularity and prosperity was generally in direct prOportion to the infanw of their characters)—6 Perhaps the most brutalizing institution of the Greece-Roman period was the gladiatorial combat in which men. often in large numbers. were set against each other in deadly earnest. These shows were put on for spectators of both sexes. and every age and rank.57 is the passion for the contests increased. rulers vied with each other in their efforts to promote them. Julius Caesar on one occasion in 65 3.0. had no less than 320 pairs to fight.58 Augustus instituted during his reign games in which 10.”. men Joined in the combat. and a like number were engaged in the gladiatorial shows conducted by Trajan.59 These games of TraJan, which were held in 106 A.l.. continued for a period of four months.“ 55%. Serum. 32. 931.. P. 6. 57mm». pp. git... p. 213. 3335. 59-12-13. 6.11116» 1h On another occasion the Emperor Titus continued the games for over three months.61 Gladiatorial combats were common in all parts of the Roman lmpire.6‘2 The program of slauther in the arena was one of variety. and new ways were constantly sought whereby bloodshed might be rude more spectacular. There were combats between men: 63 combats between beasts; men were burned alive; others were tied to stakes to be devoured by beasts; and mass-slaughter was accomplished by full-scale battles in which thousands were slain.6h These bloody games seem to have had universal approval. Throughout Roman litera- ture hardly a whisper is to be found of disgust or disapproval of 65 Seneca objected to combats between untrained prisoners 66 the games. during noon recesses as unnecessary slaughter. Contempt for the sacredness of human life was complete. A widely prevalent practice was the exposure of unwanted babies. Pagan parents seeminglyhad no particular emotional feeling at 6JUhlhorn, pp. pi_._’p_., p. 121. 63fishers 22o 2:.” Po 217s 631ml. Uhlhorn, pp. p31,, p. 128. 65Merivale. pp. 21.1.. p. 126. 66 Seneca gistles vii. he 5. 15 leaving their babies where they would be eaten by wild beasts. The practice was universal among both Greeks and Bomans.67 Abortion also, which had been sanctioned by the Greeks. became very common among the Romans, with the only purpose being to rid themselves of the responsibility of rearing children.68 The causes for the moral corruptness of paganism is to be found in the very foundation of pagan society itself--basic in which was the institution of slavery. The demoralizing effect of this institution is clearly evident in the conditions described in the preceding pages. Slaves were numerous nearly everywhere in the Roman empire. It has been estimated that in the city of Home at the beginning of the Christian era there were two slaves to every one free man.69 The immoral lives of the slaves, due in part to the total lack of social responsibility for their behavior. had an understandably deteriorating effe¢t upon the morals of the meters. who had unlimited power over the slaves. and upon the 6Tl'isher. pp. pit... p. 20']. Ibid., p. 208. 69 Ibid.. p. 211. ‘\ 16 children through. their familiarity with slaves from the earliest period of their lives. It was into the morally decadent Graeco-Roman world that Christianity was introduced. It made unheard-of. and previously impossible. moral demands, and yet gave power to those who accepted it to meet those demands. Herein. in part. is to be found the explanation of Christianity's victory over paganism—4t met the moral needs of the people. Gibbon gives "The pure and austere morals of the Christians“ as one of the causes for the rapid growth of the early Christian church.7. The Condition of Pagan Religion If the number of a peOple's gods can be accepted as an accurate indication of the degree of its devotion to religion, the people of the Greece-Roman period were very religious. Petronius makes a woman of Campania say. "Our country is so peopled with gods, that it is easier to find a god there than a mend-{1 At Athens the Apostle Paul ”saw the city wholly given to idolatry.“ and found among its multitudinous shrines an alter bearing the inscription: O 7 Edward Gibbon. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Eflire (2 vols.; New York: Therzdern Library. 11.647: T7383. nPetronius Sat. 17, quoted by Uhlhorn. pp. 333.. p. 30. 1? "To the Unknown God. '72 Evidently the Athenians had erected alters to all of the deities known to them, and then. lest they should offend one that had been overlooked. dedicated an alter to the "Unknown" god. Every phase of life; every detail of the home, the house and its furnishings; every business transaction. and every part of the day's activity was considered to be the domain of a particular god. The birth of a child was watched over by Lucina; candles were lighted on such an occasion in honor of Candelifera: Hundina was invoked on the ninth day when the name was given; Rumina attended at its nursing; Patina and Educa accustomed it to its food and drink: Abeona taught it to walk; Locutinus taught it to talk; Cunina protected it while in the cradle, and the day it first 73 stepped upon the ground was made holy to Statina. There was Forculue. the god of the door; Limentinus. the god of the threshhold, and Cardea. the goddess of the hinges.7u The stable was protected by lpona. the goddess of horses; ships had their images of Neptune, 2 7. Acts 17:16. 23s Uhlhorn. pp. pip... p. 31. n ma. 18 and Mercury was invoked by merchants for successful bargains.75 Even the prisons and the brothels had their patron gods.76 Public religious worship in most places was confined to the particular temple of the god. and to certain times and days. In the temples were placed the images of the gods. and the worship consisted of numerous ceremonies. sacrifices. offerings and prayers. The religious ceremonies were by nature debasing, obscene, and cruel.77 There was no necessary connection between morals and religion in the pagan world. Especially among the Greeks. who be- came the teachers of the Romans. was this true. The gods to the Greeks were like human beings. but with greater powers, virtues, and vices.78 Thus, to strive to be like the gods would as well mean to emulate their vices as to imitate their virtues. Since the gods would be unable to raise the worshiper above the level of their own morality, religion contributed nothing to public morals. 75Ibid., p. 32. 761bid.. pp. 31, 32. 77John Lawrence Mosheim, Institutes of Ecclesiastical History, trans. James Murdock. ed. James Seaton Reid-Tthh ed.; London: ward. IJOCk. am coupe”. node). Po 9. 781.311 P. Qualben. é History 93 the Christian Church (Revised 95w: Ncw'York: Thomas Nelson and Sons. 19525. p. 15. 19 Conscience was to the Greek identical to sense of the beautiful; hence. beauty, rather than holiness. was the ideal of the Greek.79 Since morals and ethics were left to the philosophers. philosOphy was made by them a substitute for religion in its moral aspects. With emperor worship, especially, the negative influences of pagan religion become apparent. The emperors were not examples of piety—to the contrary, their lives are, nearly without exception. examples of brutality, excesses. and moral degradation. Augustus, who was deified after his death. had an only daughter. Julia, who was famous for her wantonness. and Augustus himself was not too good an example of moral uprightness.“ Gains. who was the first Roman emperor to claim divinity for himself. is said to have com- mitted incest with his sisters.31 To the Romans religion had a more practical purpose than it had for the Greeks. and for its effects was more closely interwoven with politics than was true with most other ancient peOples.3‘2 -— 7911316.. 8.Albert Grenier. The Roman §pirit in Religious Thought and Ari. trans. M. R. lobie (London: Kegan. Paul. Trench, Trubner. and Company, 1926). p. 281+. 81Salmon, gp.‘_c_i_._t_.. p. 1h9. 82Augustus Neander. General History of the Christian Religion and Church, trans. Joseph Torrey (9th Ameri-c—a'n ed.: 5 vols.: Eton: Erocker and Brewster, 1859). I, 6. 20 Emperor worship is illustrative of the effort to identify religion with patriotism. and thus to center all things in the state. .Among the Romans the whole civil and domestic life was made to revolve around religious rites}3 Gibbon gives a concise account of first century religious attitudes among the Romans when he says concerning the various forms of religion that they “were all considered by the people as equally true; by the philosOpher. as equally false; and by the magistrate. as equally useful.“8u Among the more educated classes philosophy had, as among the Greeks. become a substitute for religion. but the old pagan rites continued to be used, though ineffective. as a means of social control. Strabo, in the time of Augustus, expressed the belief that it was impossible to lead the common.people to piety by the means of the doctrine of the philoso- phers. For this, he believed. superstition (using myths and tales of wonders) was necessary.35 Myths and tales of wonders. he says, Statesmen'use as “bugrhears to awe childish peeple.”86 In Rome 8 3Ibid. 8M‘Gibbon. pp. 233.. I, 25. 26. 85Neander. 22. 931., I. 7. 86 Ibid., quoting Strabo Geoggaoh. l. i. 2. 21 teaples were erected to 'Ooncord.' to '00nstancy.‘ and to 'Modesty."87 This practical use of pagan religions did not. however. to any great extent. produce the desired results. for. as we have seen. the gods were for the nest part patterns of wickedness rather than models of virtue. The appeal to philosophy as a substitute for religious beliefs. and the use of religion for practical and political purposes in controlling the lessee. combined to further weaken pagan religion and to increase skepticism. Philosophy had taught the Romans that their gods were little more than figures of speech}8 and the pagan religions had lost the little. if any. control they had exercised over public morale. Thus we find that at the beginning of the Christian era pagan religion was at its lowest ebb as a social force. Skepticism and moral perversity had reached such extremes that the world was ready for a religious revolution in which paganism would give place to a religious belief emphasising Divine Revelation and social morality. ”hour: [art Iii-an, The listo of Ohristiani Frost Birth of Christ to the ibeliTn‘g of P en in 753 Rowan TF3 (low : YT-Iarper antler-others .572). P. “halter 'eodbura has. P emml Lo ”Christian 31 in the Roman ire (Philadelphia: hiverei y o esst ’0 . 22 Such a revolution came with the institution of the Christian religion and its spread in the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire At the time of the birth of Jesus Christ a great part of the world was subject to the Romans. The Roman Empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Euphrates River, and from the Danube River on the north to the cataracts of the Nile River and the African desert.89 The pepulation of the entire area has been estimated as somewhere between eighty and one hundred twenty millions.” All of the nations within this vast area had surrendered their independence and were all associated together, under Rome. in one great political system. There were two maJor parts of the Roman world—the East and the West. and the whole territory was divided politically into provinces; the proconsular, technically under the rule of the senate. and the imperial, which were ruled by governors @pointed by the Emperor.91 In the Senatorial provinces the authority Of the Emperor, when he was present, superseded that of the pro- consuls.¢ Some of the provinces were permitted to retain their own kings and laws. subject to the sovereign control of 120113.93 Although still in form a republic. the Roman government was in fact centered ___ 89.ln‘ishor, 32. 233.. p. 142. 9’;§i§.. p. h}. 91129.. pp. 1+3. 1+5. 921$" p. I45. 93Mosheim. 22. 33-3.. p. 7. 23 in one man-«Augustus, who held the titles of Emperor. Pontifex “animus. Censor, Tribune of the People, Pro-consul; in short every title and office which carried general power and pro-eminence.91+ Beginning with the reig of Augustus the nations under Roman rule were to a great extent free from were and disturbances. After the battle of Actium Augustus became the sole master of the Roman world.9‘5 It should be remembered. however. that the Roman peace was an armed peace. It was a peace by the Romans and for the Romans. The Roman legions enforced the will of Caesar. Resistance to Rome, such as the Jewish rebellion (AJ. 66-70),96 was ruthlessly put down. Large standing armies were always present in the provinces as a protection against insurrection.” The Roman peace was simply the subjection of a conquered peeple to military rule. Communication and Travel Within the Roman Empire Still, this universal Roman domination was attended by many 91‘Ibid. 95mm“ Mason West, The Ancient World From the 1Earliest _T_____imes LO L» A.__)_. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 19135: P. 1160. 96Paul Goodman, A Eisto 93 the Jews (Tower Books ed.; Oleveland: World Publishing 0 mpany.T‘l+9 '3T."pp. 314-141. or. Josephus were 93. the Jews Bks. III-V. -97Mosheim, pp. 93.3.. p. 7. 21+ advantages pertaining to travel and communication which providentially furthered the spread of the Christian religion. The Roman legions constituted a world police force and safety of travel was assured. A first century inscription in honor of Augustus says, "New land and sea are safe. and cities flourish in concord and peace."98 Epictetus. the stoic philosOpher of the period is quoted as saying, “There are neither wars, nor battles, nor great robberies, nor piracies; but we may travel at all hours, and sail from East to West."99 The Roman peace was characterized by greatly increased com- merce. extended sea routes. and the construction of many roads. A net-work of fine roads covered the vast territory of the Roman Empire. l‘ive main lines went out from Rome and connected the extremities of the Enpire.1” Those main roads and their branches made connections at «sports for maritime travel, making possible a Journey of more 1 1 than 70» miles over well established routes. . There were mile- “Uhlhorn, pp. git” p. 16. 9931911», 32. 33.. quoting Eictetus lies. 111. 13. 9. “hem. . p. 61. 1.11 “ 1131a,. pp. 61, 62. 25 stones along the way. and even road maps giving the distance from place to place.1.2 More extensive and more rapid travel was possible than in any other period of history.l.3 Roads and commerce favored the movement of peeples and ideas, and it was therefore natural that Christianity flourished along the trade routes and had its strongest followings in cities that had become trade centers.”1+ The general use of the Greek language throughout the empire also greatly facilitated the spread of Christian ideas. me the time of Alexander's empire the Greek tongue was known and used. especially along the trade routes and in the maJor cities.“5 The man who could speak Greek could make himself understood anywhere in the East or the West}.6 Wherever the Christian missionary went, therefore, he possessed in the Greek language a ready means of com- munication with the peeple. Greek was the language of the early church. Even in Rome the earliest Christian worship was in that tongue}.7 Creek was the medium of the expression of Christian 1.21bid. . p. 62. 1.3Kenneth Scott Latourette, The First Five Centuries (“A History of the Expansion of Christianity." I; New York: Harper and Brothers, 1937), p. 9. lwlbid. 1.5113311. 1 .G'Uhlhorn, pp. it” p. 20. 1.731811”. 32. 331.. p. 59. 26 thought, and the language of Christian literature and theolog. throughout the first age of the Christian church in both East and West}.8 The State of the Jews at the Beginning of the Christian Era. At the birth of Christ the Jewish nation. though subject to the sovereign power of Rome. was permitted to observe its own laws. maintain its priesthood. have its own senate (the Sanhedrim), and even its own king. as a. tributary to Caesar.“9 when Christ was born in Bethlehem of J udea, Herod. called the Great, was King of the Jews.n. Herod is remembered for his brutality. The slaughter of the innocents at the birth of Christ is typical. but by no means the only example of his cruelty. Among the many he killed were several of his ten wives and a number of his own chil- dren.1n It can be easily understood why Augustus once said that he had rather be one of Herod's swine than to be one of his sons.n2 l .gIbid. 1.9Mosheim, pp. pip” p. 13. 1 I'MStthOw 2 :1 e 111Goodman, pp. 933.. Po 2}. 112mm. 27 In government Herod was a tyrant. He had his police. and he would himself go among the people in disguise to seek out the disloyal ones.n3 Prisoners once they were taken to his castle, Byrcania. were never heard of again.11u Under Herod's administration Roman licentiousness spread over Palestine.115 The theater. with its lasciviousness. and the amphitheater. with its bloody games, were introduced.116 Pagan religions had their place in Palestine and a temple was dedicated to Caesar at Caesarea.117 0n Herod's death (AJ. 1) the Romans made his son. Archelans. ruler over half of Palestine (Judea. Samaria, and Idumea) and divided the other half between two of Herod's other sons. Herod Antipas and Philip.118 Ten years later, after the Jews had registered complaints with Augustus, Archelaus was deposed and the territories he had ruled were added to the Roman pronvice of Syria.119 'Judea was then 113Henry Hart Milman. The Histor 2f the Jews From the Earliest Period Down to Modern Times (3 vols.; New York: A. C. mtrong and Son. 1851-). TI. 8E. 1lulbid. 115M08h31m, 22. Cite. Po 13. ll 6Millnen. History 231132. Jews. II. 83. 1']'-,Zlbi.d., II. 83. 118.108.131ma Anuguities 3.1: ithews xvii. 12.1%: of. Matt. 2:22. u91bid.. xvii. 13.2. 5. 28 ruled by Homn procurators. Pontius Pilate being the most prominent in Bible history. Herod Antipas and Philip continued in their posi- tions during the ministry of Christ.12. The Jewish kingdom was restored for a brief period of three 121 At the years under Herod Agrippa I. Grandson of Herod the Great. death of Herod Agrippa I. Judea became a Roman province. Agrippa's son being too young to assume the throne}:22 This son. Herod Agrippa II, later became King of Chalcis and other cities.12:5 The end of the Jewish nation in Palestine in ancient times resulted from two insurrectione by the Jews against Roman rule. The first was the result of the barbarity of theiRoman procurator Gessius Florus. the most wicked of all Roman governors of Judas, who forced the Jews into a rebellion against Home. which ended, after four years of bloody fighting. in A.B. 70. with the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus and his armies.12l+ The second revolt. which occurred AJ. 132-1314, was led by Bar-cochab. 'Son of the Star." who 1 ”Luke 3:1. 121 Josephus Wars 3}; the Jews ii. 11.6: cf. Acts 12:1-9. & Ibid. 123Ibid., 11. 12.1; 11. 13.2. 01. Acts 26:23. 12M 11:11.. 11. 1h 1*. 29 claimd to be the Messiah. and was put down by the Roman general Julius Severus who caused Jerusalem to be ploughed like a field and sold the remnant of the Jewish peoPle into slavery.125 Religious Conditions of the Jews In the first century the religious affairs of the Jews were conducted by a high priest, with priests under him, and a national senate called the Sanhedrim. The Sanhedrim was made up of the three classes: the priests. the elders, and the scribes.126 The high priests had generally purchased their high positions by bribe and maintained themselves in their places of authority by acts of wickedness.127 The first century Jewish historian. Josephus, looked upon the destruction of the Jewish nation by the Romans as a visitation of the wrath of God upon the nation for these very sins.128 Those who were learned in the law and theolog were divided into various sects and parties. The three most prominent parties were the Pharisees. the Saddueees, and the Essenes. The three dis- 125Eusebius Church Histo iv. 6 and Milman. History 21; 313 17.913. 11. £133 1; of. Matt.“ '2E:‘1‘. '2. 5. 126.55nmdr1m.u 21.151.11.512; the Bible. ed. Philip Schaff. 11th ed. 1 2711081191131. 92. 52.1.. p. 11+. 128 Josephus Wars of the; Jews v. 13.6. 30 agreed on the interpretation of the law. the Pharisees holding to a double meaning (literal and figurative); the Sadducees accepting only the literal meaning. while the Essenes believed that the words of the law were of no authority. the real authority being found in the things sacred represented by the words of scripture.129 Rewards and punishment. the Pharisees held. referred to both body and soul; the Saddueees believed in no future retributions; while the Essenes took a middle ground, admitting future rewards and punishment. but con- fining them to the soul. completely rejecting the doctrine of the resurrection.13. Synagogues. where the peOple gathered for prayer and exhorte- tion in the law, were erected throughout the country.131 Schools were also to be found in the principal cities. where young people were instructed in both sacred and secular learning. 1'29Mosheim. pp. git... p. 11+. 1 3.Ibid. 1 3.11316... PP. 16’ 170 132Ibid.. p. 17. 1.1_ ____..___.____. i,“ 31 The Messiah In all of the history and literature of the Jews. prior to the birth of Jesus. the theme is the same-«the coming Messiah. “All the prophets prophesied not but of the days of the Messiah.“ says the '.l.'elllmd.133 To the followers of Jesus the law had but one purpose—to declare the Christ (Gr. Christos. identical in meaning with Heb. Heesiah meaning "the anointed“).13u Jesus said. ”Search the Scriptures . . . they are they which testify of me.”135 The law was understood to be the servant that was to bring them to Christ. The law was Israel's moral mentor. supervising their 136 The New lives until they reached spiritual maturity in Christ. Testament relates every important aspect concerning the birth. lineage. and earthly life of Jesus with a particular prOphecy in the Old Testament. Jesus came to fulfil the law and the prOphetB.137 and finally. by His death. He took the law out of the way. "blotting 133AIfred Edersheim. The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah (2 "118.: New American Edition; Grand Rapids; Wm. B. Eerdmns Publishing c... 1915). I. I. mung Saab. 99. 13“'Xpistos" _A_ Greek-English Lexicon 23 the New Testament m £1122 Clsvis Novi Testamenti. trans. ed. J oseph Henry Thayer. 135John 5:39. \ 136Gal. 3:2”.7fl‘5h7‘0Y” is here translated “schoolmaster“ in the Authorised Version; of. J. B. Lightfoot. St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. A Revised Text with Introduction. Notes. and Dissertati'o'n's— 0 .: L'sndon: Macmillan and-Co..18807. pf. 1%.7‘19: "'1‘ “55609.1- or tutor. frequently a superior slave. was intrusted with “1° m01‘31 supervision of the child . . . As well In his inferior W: as in his recognized duty of enforcing discipline. this person was a fit emblem of the Mosaic law.” 1371mm. 5:17. 32 out the handwriting of ordinances . . . nailing it to his cross."138 The Jews of ancient times were not looking for a meek and lowly Messiah. Their desired Messiah was rather a warrior here; one who should crush the might of Israel's oppressors. and bathe “the steps of the sanctuary with the blood of the sacrilegious."139 An unknown.Jewish writer caused the Sibylline oracles to describe the coming.Jewish Messiah as a warrior who would make Israel the master of the world, and bring the treasures of earth and sea to Israel's feet.1h. The Jewish nation was therefore ready to receive Bar— cochab as the Messiah. and rise with him in armed rebellion against the Roman Empire. but had been unwilling to accept the Prince of IPeace who declared. ”My kingdom is not of this world: if my kingdom 'were of this world. then would my servants fight . . .fllhl ' The Christian belief in the Messiah differed in all respects from the common Jewish expectation. Jesus conducted a threefold ministry: that of prophet. priest. and king; thus the title "The 138001. 2811‘. l 32!. )ePressenss. Jesus Christ: His Times, Life. and work. trans. A. Harwood (hth ed.; London: Hodder and Stoughton. 1371), Po 73. See also Paul Goodman. pp. 331.. p. 30. “'mau pp. 73-75. in John 18:36. 33 Anointed“ (“ The Messiah." or "The Christ") alluding to the Old Testament practices of anointing these three classes of persons.1 As Prophet He was the last and all-sufficient revealer of God's will; through Him.God had spoken. and He was to be heard in all things.1h3 11414 As High.Priest. “after the order of Melchizedek.I He once and for all made sacrifice. with His own life. for the sins of 1nankind.1u5 He reigns upon the throne of Bavid.1h6 the “only Potentate. the King of kings. and Lord of lords."1h7 "His name shall be called . . . Prince of Peace . . . Of the increase of his government and peace there shall be no end.']'u8 The Life of Jesus Christ The account of Christ?! birth. lineage. family. ministry. death. resurrection. and ascension is given in the four gospels. the 1H2: Kings 19:16: Levit. 8:12; I Saml. 15:17. lulfieb. 1:2; Acts 3:22; cf. )eut. 18:18. lhyheb. 5:6: 1e: cf. Psalm litth: Gen. lhtlS. 1‘45 Heb. 10:10 33 33. “611cm 2:30: of. Psalm 132:11: 11 8:11:11. 7:12. 13. 1’47: Timothy 6:15. ‘48 Isaiah 9:6. 7. 3h first four books of the New Testament. In each and every particular of the life of Jesus the fulfill- ment of prophetic utterances is evident in the New Testament record. Jesus was born during the reign of the Emperor Augustus.1h9 1 in the time of Herod the Great. 5. In accordance with prOphecy. He 151 152 was born in Bethlehem of Judah. the Son of God, born of a virgin. of the lineage of Pavid.153 We know little of the early years of Christ's life. In infancy He was saved from deaths: the hands of Herod by a flight into EgptR'Su After Herod's death Mary and Joseph returned with Jesus to Palestine, but upon learning that Archelaus reigned in Judea they went into Galilee. where they made their home in the town of Nazareth.155 At the age of twelve years Jesus was found publicly 156 disputing with learned men in the Temple. During the entire lthuke 2:1. 15.!latt. 2:1. 1511mm 294-7: Matt. 2:5. 6: Micah 5:2. 1Sailatt. 1:13-25: cf. Isaiah 7:ll+. 153Matt. 1:1-16: of. Isaiah 11:1: Jer. 23:5. 15MMatt. 2:13: cf. Jer. 31:15. 155Matt. 2:19-23. 156Luke 28,46. ’47s 35 period of His childhood He conducted Hiuelf as an obedient son in the family of Joseph end my. and 'increased in wisdom end stature. and. in favor with God and Ian.“157 Jesus began Hie ministry at about the age of thirty by being baptised in the Jordan 111": at the hands of John the. Baptist.15‘ who was sent by God to be the forerunner of the Messiah.159 to: a period of three years Jesus taught the people. not as one of the Scribes. who relied upon a great knowledge of the law. but “as one that had mthoritleé. To assist lie in His work He appointed twelve Ien.161 These apostles Jesus sent at first only to the Jews. 'the lost sheep of the house of Israel.‘ to preach the coming king- dos.162 Later. after Hie resurrection. Io sent the same man. with the exception of Jules Iseeriot. under a world-wide commission to teach the gospel to .11 311.163 1571-1:- 2:51. 52. 15‘s.“. 3:13-17: mt 1:941: m 3:21. 22. 159nm. 3:1.12: Mark 1:14: m. 3:1.15: of. was. 3:1. 16.10.“. 7:29. 151's“. 10:24. 163st“. 28:19-20. do 36 Jesus was opposed in His ministry by those men who were the religious leaders of the peOple—the Sanhedrim.161+ the Sadducees.165 and especially the Pharisees, whose hypocrisy He condemned.166 The Sanhedrim. aided by the treachery of Judas Iscariot. arrested Jesus. and condemned Him to death on the charge of blasphemr. be— cause He admitted to being “the Christ. the Son of God."167 Under Roman rule the Jews were not permitted to execute the death penalty.168 therefore. it was necessary for them to take Him before the Roman procurator. Pontius Pilate. charging Him now with treason against Caesar for claiming to be a king.169 Pilate. upon hearing that Jesus was a Galilean. sent Him to Herod Antipas. who. after beating md mocking Him. returned Him again to Pilate without passing Judgment upon Him.17. Pontius Pilate. after declaring. "I find no fault in this man,"171 was intimidated by the Jews,172 and reluc- 15"Mar1c 11 :27-33. 16Snark 12:18. 66Mark 12:13: Luke 16:11:. 15. 167148.“. 26:11: it. 533.: Mark lh:53 it. 533. 1 69Matt. 27:2-11; Mark 15:1. 2: Luke 23:1—25; John 18:28-33. 17.1.1112: 23:6-12. 15. 171Luke 2:3. 1+. 1 72mm: 19:12. 37 tantly delivered over Christ to be crucified. washing his hands before the crowd and saying. "I am innocent of the blood of this Just person: see ye to it."173 Jesus was resurrected on the third day after His death and 7t 1 burial. After His resurrection.He was with His disciples for forty days. “speaking of the things pertaining to the kingdom of God.“175 and was seen by over five hundred persons at one time.176 After He had commanded His disciples to "Go into all the world. and preach the gospel to every creature.“ He was “received up into heaven. and sat down at the right hand of God."177 Jesus. The Teacher According to the New Testament record. Jesus. in fulfilling Hie ministry as the Messiah. was first and last a teacher: not a teacher in any ordinary sense. but The Teacher. in the unique posi- 173Matt. 27:21:. 26. lTnfifltte 28:5‘70 175A0t' 1:3e 176I Cor. 15:6. 1 TYMQTK 163150 19s 38 tion of prophet;178 that is. a teacher speaking with divine authority. Thus. it is said of Jesus that He taught "as one that had authority. and not as the scribes."179 The scribe always spoke as the scribe before him had spoken. The scribe was "the wellgplastered pit.n filled with the water of knowledge. "out of which not a drop can escape.'18. He could,gdve only what he had received. and teach only as he had been taught. It was the Messiah alone who could say. Ire have heard that it was said by them of old time . . . but I say unto you . . .,181 The Christ was no mere teacher of the law of Moses. He superseded Moses. and spake by His own authority as the Son of God.182 Lewis Sherrill has listed the number of times that the words “teacher" and ”teaching“ are used in the four Gospels in reference to Christ and His words. He has found the word “teacher" referring to Jesus forty-two times. and in thirty-one of these 17§Acte 3:22. 23. 1 79m}; 1322. H‘sdonhsim. 32. 333.. I. 93. quoting 53. 11.8. 13114“th 5:21, 22. law]: 932-10. instances He is directly addressed as "Teacher.“ Five other times in the record He refers to Himself as teacher. Other forms of address equivalent to teacher are found fourteen times. Thus. Christ is called “Teacher" or the equivalent sixty-one times in the Gospels. as is called “Teacher“ four times by His disciples. five times by persons other than His immediate circle. and two times by His Opponents. Christ is spoken of as "teaching" fortybseven times. and His'words are called by the noun.'teaching" ten times in the Gospels.183 In His public speaking and teaching Jesus used the accepted customs of His day. He. like others. taught in the synagogues.18u and in.Jerusalem. in the courts of the Temple.185 He stood when reading the Scriptures.186 and sat when expounding them.187 He accepted questions from His hearers in the synagogue.188 18 3Lewis Joseph Sherrill. pp. 331.. p. 86. 18h , Matt. 12:9; 13:94; Mark 1:21; Luke 14:16. 1”Matt. 21:23; John 1.323. 186m. 14:16. 20. 1 8"Luke I4:20 2.3. 23. lunatt. 1239-12; John 6:28-33. 'v‘ Jesus did not. however. limit His teaching to formal oc- casions. He would teach wherever there were those to be taught- by the seaside.189 on the mountain.19. or in a grainfield.191 Jesus adapted His teaching to the needs of His hearers. In dealing with the Sadducees. the Pharisees. the scribes. and the chief priests. whose attitude was hostile and critical. Jesus was a polemicist. He met the scholars on their own ground. and turned their arguments upon them.192 Yet. when speaking to the multitudes or to the uneducated. He was able to adjust His teaching to the need and understanding of the common peeple. In such instances. as George Holley Gilbert points out.193 Christ does not speak of the 'summum bonum." but of ‘h0 "Pearl of great Pricefllgh and instead of speaking of "divine beneficence.‘ says that God Isends rain on the Just and the 189 Matt. 13:1; Mark 2:13; #:1. 19.115”. 5:1 33. 2.3- 1 9“.Matt. 12:1-8. 192nm. 19:3-12; 22:15-22; Mark 11:27-33; 12:18-27; Luke 1s:25-37; 13:1h-17; 11121-6. 193George Holley Gilbert. The Student's Life 25 Jesus (3rd ed.; New York: The Macmillan Co.. 19025. p. 11 e lggflatt. 133h6. 141 .195 undust. )ePressense calls attention to the fact Jesus used illustrations from the life of His times. with which all of His hearers would be acquainted;196 the wide and narrow gates. the dish washed clean on the outside. salt. leaven. and the new and old cloth sewed into the old garment.197 Much that Jesus taught was in the form of proverbs.198 These statements were short and to the point. easily remembered. and gave themselves well to quoting. The parable was also common in the teaching of Jesus. by which He drew lessons from the common experiences of His hearers.199 Ho small part of Christ's teaching. during His entire ministry. was reserved for His disciples-mthose men whom He had chosen to be trained as teachers and missionaries of the Gospel. It was first necessary for Christ to bring them to recognize His divine mission—His Messiahship and His Sonship to God. This recognition on the part of the disciples is recorded by Matthew. 195mm. 5:145. 196lsPresssnse. pp. 3.33.. p. 267. 197“.“ 9.5., 3.15; Luke 11:39: 13:18-21i. 193113“. 1ss2u; 13:57. 1991411“. 1333-52. and came when Peter confessed to Jesus: I'Thou art the Christ (Messiah). the Son of the living God.'2°. From this point on Jesus instructed them concerning His approaching death and resur- rection.2.1 the establishment of His church.”2 the things they were to suffer as His followers.”3 His return in glory. and the final Judgment.2.h Thus He prepared His disciples for the great responsibility they were to assume in the leadership of the church. and for the testimony they were to beer of the Christ 'in.Jerusalem. and in all Judea. and in Samaria. and unto the utter- most part of the earth.'2.5 In Summary: Jesus’Christ—the Answer to a World in Need The world into which Christ came was a world in need and in readiness for His coming. The early Christians firmly believed mum. 16:16. 2“Flatt. 16:18. 2”Matt. 16 :2‘4. ”butt. 16:27. 2'5»:- 1:3. 1:3 theirs to be the age selected before the beginning of time for the coming of the Messiah and for the establishment of His church. The Greece-Roman world was truly a world in need. It was in need of a new set of values to fill the moral vacuum of pagan culture. It was a generation in need of a system of worship to replace the decadent pagan cults of antiquity. Mankind was in need of faith to replace the skepticism which had dominated the thought of the times-faith for which philosophy had proven to be an insufficient substitute. Among the Jews, the religion of the Old Testament had been corrupted, and the men had "made void" the word of God by their traditions. The political and social life of the Jews had approached the depravity of that of the Greeks and Romans. It was into this world that Christ came. Through living a life of virtue He gave the example for individual moral integrity. Through His teaching He gave to mankind a new sense of dignity and a recognition of their kinship with God. He lifted the heads of women and children, and brought to the conscience of the world a respect for womanhood and a care and affection for little chil- dren. He gave to students of the teaching art for all future time the greatest example of how to be a good teacher. His life was lived in conscious fulfillment of His destiny—His will was to do the Will of God. He died, not a martyr, but a Savior. He gave hepe for eternal life in an age in which men had lost hope. He gave a new direction to the future develOpment of education when He commissioned His disciples to "teach all nations" the things He had taught them. I. II. III. IV. osmn mu APOBTOLIC A”: A.’. 30—10. Limits and Sources for the Apostolic A, A. Limits 3. Sources 1. The lew Testament Scriptures 2. Conteqorary Historians The lstablishment of the Christian Church A. lssential Instructions Given by Christ I. The Day of Pentecost. AJ. 3. l. Descent of the Holy Spirit 2. The Beginning of the Church The Persecuted Church A. The Jewish Persecution of the Church 1. An Initial Period of Peace 2. Peter and Jeha hefore the Sanhedrin 3. lsrtyrs a. Stephen '5. Jane the Apostle e. James. the Brothers of the Lord h. In]. of Tarsus. the Persecutor 5. lffect of the General Persecution 5. Jewish Persecution After the Conversion of Baal 3. The Roman Persecution of the Church 1. Under lero . a. Origin 3. Treatment of Christians 2. Under Domitian a. Circus-tenses of Beginning b. lamishunt of the Apestle John 3. lffects of the Persecutions Iducatien in the larly Christian Church L Variations in ldueational Theory 3. Distinctive llucation ef the Church in the Apostolic Age V. VI. VII. VIII. The Philosophy of larly Christian Iducation larly Christian Philosophy Given by Christ Behavioral Chang's lecessary: Christianity a Religion of Action Motivation: Love Per. and Obedience to. God low Principle for Hu-n Relations: Love lelationship to God: ll'ellcwship The Principle of Growth and Development Ultinte Goal: Perfection Organisation and Administration of the Apostolic Clmrch: Teachers and the Iducational function of Its Officers Twofeld Aspect of Apostolic Church Organisation 1. Intracrdinary (Temporary) 2. Ordinary (Permanent) The Apestolate 1. Qualifications 2. Iducational Function of the Office Teachers and Prophets The Gifts of the spirit and Their Teaching Uses The Persmnent Organisation and Offices of the Church 1. lishops and Deacons a. Qualifications b. Teaching function of Bach Office 2. The Synagogue Comes-ed 11th the Christian Congregation Curricu1um of larly Christian lducation Inter-relationship of all Ilements of Curriculum Christian Interpretation of Jewish Scriptures 'The Coepel.’ The Passion and Resurrection of Christ 1. Christ lied for Our line 2. He Tao Puried 3. He Arose the Third Day The Life and Swings of Jesus Moral and lthiosl Instruction tubject latter in the Teaching of the Apostolic Church: The A. 3. Sacred Scriptures Position of the Scriptures in Christian Teaching The Old Testament l. The only Literaturet the Iarly Chreh 2. The Canon of the Old Testament (See also Table 1) II. III. “1 a. Josephus on the Canon b. Ceqarison with Old Testannt of Today 3. The low Testament 1. Delationship to the Old Testament 2. low Testament Canon (See also Table 2) a. Dates of Triting ’s. Authorship 3. The Historical Docks 1;. The Dpistles 5. Prophecy—the Deck of Revelation The lethodolog of Christian Dducation in the Apostolic Period A. The Discourse I. The Imposition of Scripture C. lutual Admonition 1. Preedom Iithin the Christian Congregation 2. Teaching function of the lismbership 3e '1“ Peter. the Apostle to the Jews A. Early Life D. Pro-eminence Among the Twelve C. The Closing Tears D. lartyrdem Paul. The Apostle to the Gentiles A. Darly Life D. Ddueation O. heligious Leadership Among the Jews D. Conversion D. Arrest and Preliminary Trials 1'. Iqrisonment at home G. hartyrdom The Close of the Apostolic Age A. Growth of the Church During the Apostolic Age D. Johan-The Last of the Apostles 1. At lphesus 2. kilo on Patmos 3. Deturn to Iphesus and His Death (A.D. 9S) CHAPTER II THE APOSTOLIC AGE: A.D. 30-1" Limits and Sources for the Apostolic Age The Apostolic Age is reckoned as beginning with the resurrection of Jesus Christ and continuing through that period of church history in which tin apostles still lived. Roughly this would be from A.D. 3G to the end of the first century. Although the New Testament does not record the death of the last of the apostles. an old and widely accepted tradition states that John was the youngest of the twelve. and died a very old man in the year 2o6 98. The writings of the New Testamnt are our only primary sources of knowledge concerning the internal affairs of the church in the Apostolic Age. The Acts of the Apostles. written by Luke. the associate of Paul. is our earliest history of the church. The boo]: of Acts concerns principally the activities of the apostles Peter and Paul. and carries the account to the imprisonmnt of Paul in Home. which would bring the record to the time of the —‘ 2eG ”John the Apostle." Th: g3! Schaff-Herzo Incyclo dis, .3 nOligious Inowledg. ed. Samuel Masai-Icy Jackson. Vol. VII SIDS. . 1+9 Hmperor Nero.2.7 The other books of the New Testament were written at various times throughout the Apostolic Age. The four Gospels tell us of the life and work of Jesus Christ. and the epistles and the Revelation give additional information as to the affairs of the churches during the period. Tacitus the Roman and Josephus the Jew. contemporary historians of the first century. shed some light on the earliest persecutions of the Christians. The Establishment of the Christian Church Pentecost . A.D. 30 During His personal ministry Christ left instructions relative to the organisation of His church. He gave the essentials for a continuing organization. made provision for its religious and educational program of activities. when He established the Lord's Mper and later commissioned His disciples to ”Go . . . teach all nations. baptising them in the name of the Father. and of the Son. and of the Holy Ghost. teaching them to observe all things whatso- ever I have commanded you."2.8 a , Tldgar J. Goodspeed. Paul (Philadelphia: The John C. “alien Company. 191W). p. 211. 2.‘lia‘t‘li. 26:20-28: 28:19. 2.. 50 The disciples were not to carry out this commission im- mediately. but were to wait "in the city of J erusalem" until they were 'endued with power from on h1g1.“2.9 In obedience to these instructions the disciples were together in Jerusalem when. seven days later on the day of Pentecost. l'they were all filled with the Holy Ghost. and began to speak with other tongues as the Spirit 21. gave them utterance.” The report of this miracle brought tOgether the multitude. and the apostle Peter addressed the assembly.211 After proving that Jesus was the Christ (Messiah) from the Scriptures. and recounting the death. burial. and resurrection of Christ. Peter commanded "in the name of Jesus 212 Christ“ that his hearers repent and be baptized. Three thousand were baptized on that day. and "they continued steadfastly in the apostles doctrine. and fellowship. and in breaking of bread. and in prayers."213 From this point on in the Book of Acts the church is referred to as an established institution. and 'the Lord added to the church daily such as should be saved. "211* y 2.9LUk. 21": “9e 2:I'.Acts 2:144. 21:I'Acts 2:6 31 23. 212Acts 2322-160. 213m: 2:111, ha. aunt. 2 3 “7 e 51 The Persecuted Church Immediately following the day of Pentecost. and for some time thereafter. the church experienced a period of peace. and enJoyed the favor of all p60p19.215 During this period of time the Christians were not molested and their daily meetings were held in the temple.216 The followers of Christ were. however. to soon learn the meaning of Jesus' words when He told them. “Is shall be hated of all non for nw name's sake."217 The end of the period of general public favor came at the instigation of the same class of persons who were responsible for the crucifixion of Christ: the religious leaders of the people. Opposition to the new movement first became evident following the healing cf the lame man at the gate of the temple by Peter. and the sermon ocassioned thereby.218 The basis for the opposition is clearly stated by Luke in the Acts: And as they spake unto the people. the priests. and the captain of the temple. and the Sadducees. came upon them. being grieved that they taught the people. 215Ibid. 216Acts 2:16. 217 Matt. 10:17. 13. 22. 218 Acts 3:2 22333. and preached through Jesus the resurrection of the «.4539 In this instance the objection to the Christians is one of doo- trine-u-the teaching of the resurrection of the dead. The religious leaders of the Jews were also irritated that Peter and his associates into then responsible for the nurder of 0M1.t.22. hearings before the Sanhedrin resulted in threats. in- prisonnsnts. and beatings for the apostles. especially for Peter and Jehn.221 but did not stop the apostolic witnesses who. 'daily inths tenple. andineveryhouse . e e ceasednot to teachsnd preach Jesus Christo'm The persecution of the apostles did not hinder the growth of the church. In spite of the opposition the church pew rapidly. and soon numbered in their mmbership about five thousand. non.223 hen from along the persecutors were converts lads and 'a great nunber of priests were obedient to the fei th. '22!" 219““ 1m. 2. 22'»:- 5:28. mists 3:1 3; 23. gent. 5 3 l'2. 223“t. n: he mut' 687s 53 Threats and beatings led to stronger actions on the part of the priests and rulers. and now the Christians were called upon to die for their faith. The first Christian martyr was Stephen. 225 who was stoned to death by an angry mob. Later James. the son of Zebedee. became the first of the apostles to be put to death. 59 died by the sword at the hand of Herod Agrippa 1,226 Eusebiue describes the death of another James. the brother of the Lord. who was thrown from a pinacle of the temple. stoned. and then finally clubbed to death.227 Josephus. the contemporary Jewish historian. records the event. and states that there were others of the Christians who were stoned to death at the same time.228 Up to the time of the death of Stephen opposition had been directed in the main against the apostles. but with the stoning of stephen a general persecution broke out against the whole Jerusalem church. The Christians. in order to survive. were forced to scatter throughout Judea.and Samaria. The apostles. however. remained in the city of Jerusalem.229. 225Aoto 7:5u-60. 22§Acts lé312. 327 Eusebius Church History ii.23. 2ngosephus éptiguities of the Jews 11.9.1. 229 Acts 8:1. 5h The leader of the general persecution was Saul (later to become the apostle Paul). who is described as one who made “havoc of the church.“ entering into the homes of the Christians and committing both men and women to prison.23. He was responsible for 231 some of these persons being put to death. Saul was a zealous persecutor of the church. and hounded the Christians wherever they fled. even to cities distant from Jerusalem.232 That the blood of the martyrs was the seed of the Christian movement was being proved even in this first persecution of the church. In dispersing the Christians. the Jews unwittingly aided greatly the spread of Christianity. for nthey that were scattered abroad went everywhere preaching the word.'233 Christianity be- came a missionary religion. and the prophecy of Jesus concerning His disciples began its fulfillment: WAnd ye shall be witnesses umto me both in Jerusalem. and in.all Judea. and in Samaria. and 2 h unto the uttermost part of the earth.“ 3 23.ACtI 8:3e 2311mm 26:10. 232Acts 26:11. 233Acts 8:h. 23” Acts 1:8. 55 with the conversion to Christianity of the leading perse- cutor. Saul of Tarsus.235 the general J swish persecution of the church died down. and we are told that nthen had the churches rest throughout all Judea. and Galilee. and Samaria."236 An organized Jewish effort against the church continued to operate. however. Jerusalem was the center from which such activi- ties were carried out until the fall of the city to the Romans?” After the fall of the city the struggle was carried on by the synagogues and individual Jews by acts of hostility and by inciting hostility on the part of others.2:58 Barnack states that as a rule whenever bloody persecutions were afoot among the Gentiles. the Jews were neither in the background or the foreground."239 He suggests that it was they who instigated the Neronian persecution.2 This becomes an altogether reasonable conclusion when one remembers 2 3b-Acts 9:1—13. 236Acts 9: 31 . 2 3Tuiolf Earnadr. The Mission and Egansion of Christianity 22 £6. first Three Centuries. trans. J's—mes Moffatt '(find ed.; 2 701s.; New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1908). I. 1:87, 233mm. 311-22.». 5.. she Ibid. 56 that here was entirely under the influence of his wife. Poppaea. who was a Jewish proselyteoam' lero was the first of the lease esperors to become a perse- catcr of the church. The leronian persecution was not a general persecution throughout the hire. but was confined to the city of Rename The persecution by Nero originated as a result of the burning of the city of lens in the year 61‘ AJ. Tacitus. the first century holan historian. states that hero accused the Christians of the burning of the city. and inflicted tortures and death upon them to divert suspicion of guilt away from hiiasolf.2"'3 Nero first arrested all who admitted that they were Christians. and then upon their informtion a great multitude were convicted.21m The horrible suffering and death inflicted upon the Christian artyrs is described by Tacitus: Ilochery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with skins of beasts. they were torn by dogs gunma- Cushsan lchiffert. A histo of Christiani in the stolic (Revised «1.: low Yo-‘rrTfiaEIo—Tfio Scr r s as. Ti), 0 O amoibbon. 32. _c_i_t_.. I. use. an3Taicitus Annals xv. W. mtg. and perished. or were nailed to crosses. or were doomed to the flames and burnt. to serve as a nightly illumina- tion. when daylight had expired. Hero offered his gardens for the spectacle. and was exhibiting a show in the circus. while he mingled with the pe0ple in the dress of a charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence . . . there arose a feeling of compas- sion; for it was not. as it seemed. for the public good. but to glut one man's cruelty. that they were being destroyed. '5 Although the Neronian persecution was confined to the city of Rome. Nero's action in making scapegoats of the Christians served as an example to the outlying provinces. The Christians found themselves in the precarious position of liability for every local or national disaster. and were made the victims of popular prejudice and religious and patriotic seal. or even.petty Jealousy and spite.21+6 The second.Boman persecution came during the reign of Domitian (Sl-96.A.).) Vespasian. the father of Domitian. had done nething during his reign prejudicial to the members of the 21+? church. Domitianis persecution of the Christians began when two members of the royal family: the Consul Clemens and his wife Donatilla (the Emperor's neice). were convicted on a charge of 2 h51b1de ausflcGiffert. g. 21.2" Po 63'. 21:7 Eusebius Church History'iii. 17. 58 “Atheism and Jewish manners.“2u8 "Atheism" was thereafter a common popular charge against the Christians.219 The persecution under Domitian was of brief duration but many Christians were made to suffer either death or banishment. It was during this perse— cution that John. the last of the apostles. was banished to the Island of Patmos.25. where he wrote the book of Revelation.251 Education in the Early Christian Church In different periods of history and in differing societies education has possessed various forms and has been characterized by a variety of purposes. In the period of our study and within the church of the Apostolic era Christian education had its own peculiar characteristics. its own philosophy of education. its own body of literature. a distinctive methodology. a discernable curriculum. and an organization well adapted to the accomplishment of its educational objectives. It shall be the purpose of the following amnilman. Histog 33 Christianity. p. 193. 2’l‘glbid. 2 5.luse'hinis Church History 11.18. 251 Rev. 1:19. 59 several sections of this chapter to examine the evidences and to determine from our sources some of the characteristics of that education which existed within the church of the first century. The Philosophy of Early Christian Education The Underlying principles of education in the early church were stated clearly by Jesus during His personal ministry. In a world characterised by moral degradation He set before His disciples the goal of perfection—"Be ye therefore perfect. even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect."252 He made a clear distinc- tion between more words and apprOpriate action-JNot everyone that saith unto me. Lord. Lord. shall enter into the kingdom of heaven; but he that doeth the will of 11y Father which is in heaven.'253 Be inspired His disciples to strive for the goal. and gave them the example of how that it might be attained. He established a new basis for human relations when He gave a new commandment: '. e 0 Love one another. as I have loved you . . . '. making unnecessary the 2 law of commandments found in the mosaic code. 51+ Jesus sought to — zsghatt. 5:h8. 253Matt. 7:21. 25150:“. 1333i}; Rom. 13:8-10. bring His followers into a close and enduring fellowship with God. This Be expresses in the prayer for His disciples Just before His betrayal: “I pray e e e for them which thou hast given me: for they are thine . . . Neither pray I for these alone. but for them also which shall believe on me through their word; that they may all be one; as thou. Father. art in me. and I in thee. that they also may be one in us . . .I 255 This relationship is not one that knows human limitations by being confined to the period of human existence. for life in communion with.God is continuous and.eternal. depending upon the faithfulness of the believer. The goal of perfection is attainable in the world to come. and continual progress toward that goal is possible in this life. Hope is based upon the promise of Jesus who said. 'I go to prepare a.placo for you. And . . . I will come again. and receive you.unto myself; that where I am. there ye may be also.“256 The principle of growth and development within the Christian community is everywhere evident in the writings of the apostle Paul. In the teaching of the apostle the Christian life is a matterdz‘ continual growth all along the way. The degree of attainment in the 255John 17:9, 2:. 21. 25611.0“ Ill-Sac 3e 61 common discipline is the basis for day by day living; Paul says. 2 'Uhereto we have already attained. let us walk by the same rule." 57 Peal did not claim that he. himself had achieved the goal. which was not to be known short of the resurrection from the chasm.258 With Paul the goal was definite: he says. That I may know him. and the power of his resurrection and the fellowship of his sufferings. being made conformable unto his death: if by any means I might attain unto the resurrection of the dead. Not as though I had already attained. either were already perfect: but I follow after. if that I may apprehend that for which also I am apprehended of Christ Jesus. Brethren. I count not myself to have apprehended: but this one thing I do. forgetting those things which are behind. and reaching forth unto those things which are before. I press toward the mark for the prize of the high calling of God in Christ Josus.259 Since spiritual perfection is the goal. spiritual growth and deve10p- ment in this life is without limit. with the constant aim being to 'grow up into him in all things which is the head. even Christ.”26. In.the meantime. during this mundane existence. knowledge is in- complete. lbr we know in part. and we prophesy in part. But when that which is perfect is come. then that which is 257Phil. 3316. 2531mm. 3:11. 259pm1. 3:10.111.— 255m. Isis. in.part shall be done away e . . For now we see through a glass darkly; but then face to face: now I know in part: but then shall I know even as also I am known.261 The relationships of those wdthin this spiritual society. the church. are figuratively represented in various ways. The love of Christ for the church and the purity of the Christian life finds emphasis in the representation of Christ as the Bridegroom and the church as the holy bride to be presented .as a chaste virgin to Christ."262 Everywhere in the New Testament the relationship of the members within the church has the same emphasis-—the continual spiritual growth and development on.the part of the individual. and the equality of all members of the spiritual community. This is true whether the relationship is represented as a family. with God as the Father263 and the several members as children of God;26h or as the kingdom of heaven.265 with Christ as King 266 and the members as fellow-citizens;267 or as the body of Christ. with Christ as the head. and the Christians as the several members of the body in a relationship of mutual helpfulness.268 261I Cor. 13:9. 10. 12. 2621! Cor. 11:2. 2631phe 1}: 6e 26“Rom. 8:16. 26slatt. 16:16; Luke 22:30; etc. 2661 Tim. 1317; 6315; etc. 2‘7Phi1. 3m; lph. 2:19. 25‘: Cor. 12:13-31: Iph. 5:30. .0 63 The Organization and Admdnistration of the Apostolic Church: Its Teachers and The Educational Function of its Officers The organisation of the Apostolic church may be considered in terms of its ordinary and its extraordinary aspects. During the initial stages of church organisation the congregations were led by apostles._pr0phets. and teachers: men who had received divine appointment. and were dependent upon the inspiration of the Holy Spirit for their guidance.269 In our sources the office of “prophet. and “teacher" designate distinct and different func- tions.27. According to McGiffert the difference lay in that the prophet spoke by revelation received directly from God. while tin teacher spoke from his own thought and reflection under the guidance of the Spirit.271 The teacher. like the prophet. was inspired by God. but was not a mere mouthpiece of the Spirit.272 When the affairs of the church became more stable these extrap ordinary functionaries were replaced by the ordinary officers- asgicts 2:”: 13:1-3: I Cor. 12:28. 27': Cor. 12:23; mph. 14:11. 27“itocii'rsrt. 22. gig” pp. 528. 529. 272nm. 61+ the bishops and the deacons. who were selected on the basis of specific qualifications.273 There was quite naturally an intervening period in which a local church would have both the divinely appointed and the selected teachers and leaders. The apostles were the natural leaders and teachers of the church immediately following the day of Pentecost. It was their special task to organize the Christian movement. The temporary nature of the apostolate is indicated by the specific requirement that the apostles be witnesses of the resurrection of Christ.27u The apostle Paul is careful to point out that he possesses this par- ticular qualification.275 The apostles had received the Holy Spirit in a baptismal measure.276 and hence spoke and wrote by the inspiration of God.277 .At first the work of teaching was the sole responsibility of the apostles. The apostles gave themselves wholly to the teaching of the word. and refused to concern themselves with the material aspects of church administration. appointing others to 2731 Tim. 3:1—13. 27¥Acts 1:22. 2.75;”; 22:11.1; I Cor. 9:1. 27§Acts 1:5. 277nm: 13:11: Luke 21:1h. 15; Acts 2:14: Eph. 3:’+.‘5: I Cor. 2,13. 65 278 perform such duties. The apostle Paul twice refers to his office as that of 'a preacher. and an apostle. and a teacher of the gontiles."279 Since it was impossible for the apostles to be everywhere in the rapidly expanding work of the church. special "gifts of the Spirit” were bestowed upon certain disciples. according to the needs of the congregations they served.28. These gifts were transmitted by the laying on of the hand of the spostlss.281 These particular gifts were by their very nature different aspects of teaching. A number of spiritual gifts are listed by Paul in his first letter to the Corinthians.282 Of those listed. six: word of wisdom; word of’kmcwledge; faith; prophecy; languages; and interpretation of languages are directly related to the work of teaching; another. the discerning of spirits. served to identify false teachers; and the other two. the gifts of healing and the working of miracles. were signs given to confirm the teaching of the word.283 _‘ 278ACt. 6 31.6e 279: Tim. 2:7: 11 Tim. 1:11. 2“mph. Ins. 11.11;. anion 8:17. 18. 2321 Cor. 12:8-10. 23% 1682.e 66 The extraordinary features of church organization. being temporary by nature. ceased to exist simply through the passing of time. The apostolic office passed with the death of the last of the apostles. and the ministry of gifts continued but a short time longer. until. one by one. those upon whom.apostolic hands had been laid dropped from the scene of action by death. During this same period. however. the ordinary officers were being appointed in all 28” and thus provision was being made for the the congregations. permanent government‘of the church. The ordinary. or permanent. organization of the church con- sisted of “the saints. with the bishops and deacons."285 These officers. the bishOps and deacons. did not necessarily possess spiritual gifts. and were selected on the basis of their having attained the specific qualifications required for appointment to their offices. There are fourteen definite requirements listed for the office of bishop. and seven for that of deacon.286 The terms 'elders' and 'bishops' are used in the New Testament to refer to the same class of persons.287 The artificial distinction between L 2“Acts lhzajg Titus 135, 35min. 1:1. 2861 Tim. 3:1.13: Titus 1:5-9. 237 Acts 20:17. 28; Titus 1:5. 7; etc. .7 6'! presbyters (elders) and bishops. which was an important factor in the rise of the episcopacy in the second century. was completely unknown in the Apostolic era. In the New Testament the term 'elder‘I refers to the person's advanced age and experience in the faith. and "bishop" designates the function of the office to which he is appointed. The Greek word EV¢G¥OV¢S . translated “bishop" in the Authorized Version. means literally "overseer."288 and is so translated in one instance.289 The term "deacon“ is the angli- oised form of the Greek 6.1mm» meaning “servant."29. The word most apprOpriately applies to the deacon's role as subordinate to the bishOp. to which office the deacon might ligitimately aspire.291 The teaching function of the office of bishop is indicated in the qualifications set down for that office. The bishOp was to be 'apt to teach" or "an apt teacher.“ as it is rendered in the Revised Standard Version.292 Paul informs Titus that the bishOp 2888” Thayer. Lexicon 2.1.; _t_._h_e;_ N31 Testament. 239‘“. 20:28. 2 9See Thaver. Lexicon 23 the New Testament. 2911 Tim. 3:13. 2 921 Tim. 3:2. 68 must be Iblameless as the steward of God . . . holding fast the faithful word as he hath been taught. that he may be able by sound doctrine both to exhort and to convince the gainsayers."293 Paul requires of deacons. as to those who were in line for the office of b18h0p.29u that they hold "the mystery of the faith in a.pure conscience."295 that is. they were to understand. accept. and live the tenets of the Christian faith. Thus was the instruction of the church provided for-in a trained and able overseership. and in a movitiate (the deaconate) to provide future teachers and leaders for the church. After the order of the Jewish.synagogue. the elders in the Christian congregation formed a ruling council. and together governed and taught the peOple.296 This was a natural adaptation since in the beginning of the Christian movement congregations were almost universally formed by secession from.Jewish synagOgues.297 29”: Tim. 3:13. 2951 Tim. 3:9. 296Heander. 32. 911.. I. 1814; of. Acts 20:17. 28. 297M11man. History of Christianity. pp. 191+. 195; of. Acts 19389 90 69 The number of elders making up the council varied in each local church according to the size of the congregation and the number of men who could qualify for the office of bishoP. The Curriculum of Early Christian Education In considering the curriculum of the Apostolic church it is necessary to classify its several distinctive elements. It should not be thought. however. that such classification suggests that the groupings within the curriculum.were completely separate and unrelated. .All elements of the curriculum overlapped to some extent and were all inter-related in one pattern of Christian teaching. One element that was important in the curriculum was the Christian interpretation of the Jewish Scriptures. In the beginning of the Christian movement the Old Testament constituted the only Bible of the Christians. To the Old Testament the church appealed to establish with the Jews its claims as to the Messiahship of Jesus and the existence in prophecy of the scheme of redemption and the church of Christ. These same writings became the foundation teaching materials when the message of the church was extended to the Gentiles. Ekamples of this use of the Old Testament are numerous in the writings of the New Testament. The early Christians found in the promise of God to Abraham: “In thee shall all the families of the earth be blessed.“ a prephecy of the extension of God's grace to 7s a 2’3 Stephen. the Gentiles and of the worldawide mission of the church. the first Christian martyr. called upon the prophets to testify of the Messiahship of Jesus. stating that He had been spoken of by the mouth of all the prOphets ”since the world began."299 Every major part of the ceremonial of the Levitical priesthood and the temple worship are shown in the Epistle to the Hebrews to be but a type. the antitype for which is to be found in the Christian church.3°' The Old Testament was used for the exhortation and admonition of the church}.1 God had been strict in demanding obedience of the fathers. and it was not to be expected that He would be less exacting .2 Heroes of the Old Testament times were set in the later times.3 forth as examples of faithfulness.3.3 Harnack points out that the Old Testament was an ideal handbook for use in combatting paganism since it supplied a multitude of proofs for monotheism and innumerable 7 passages challenging polytheism."u m 298Ga1. 3:8. 1h; cf. Gen. 12:3. 2 92Lcts 3:18. 21. 3”See Heb. 3:1-—10:22. 3”: Cor. 10:11. 3'2: Cor. 10:1-11; Heb. 10:28. 29: II Pet. 2:1I-9: Jude 5-7. 3'3seb. chap. 11. 3“Hermetic. 32. 931.. p. 283- 71 Another element in the curriculum was that which was called “The Gospel" centering around the passion and resurrection of Christ. It was the very heart of the Christian message-the good news that through Christ's death man's redemption had been accomplished. Paul states that this had been the message he had brought to the Corinthians. He says. Moreover. brethren. I declare unto you.the gospel which I preached unto you . . . for I delivered unto you.first of all that which I also received. how that Christ died for our sins. according to the Scriptures; and that he was buried. and that he rose aggin the third day according to the Scriptures . . .J.5 Here the Christian teaching is summed up in a simple three-fold statement: (1) Christ died for our sins; (2) He was buried; (3) He arose from the dead. The remaining part of First Corinthians chapter fifteen demonstrates how this simple outline was expended to declare more fully Christ's vicarious death, and the hOpe for a general resurrection in that Christ arose from the dead as "the firstfruits of them that siept.n3‘6 A third element would be the life and sayings of Jesus. This division of the curriculum.would not be for the purpose of simply providing for a study of the details of the earthly life of 3.51 Cor. 15:1-h. 3.61 Cor. 15:30 72 Jesus. but to carry out the requirements of the commission given by Christ in which the disciples were to instruct the peoples of the whole world. "teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you.."3.7 This part of Christian teaching was the purpose for the writing of the fourth Gospel. John wrote of the life and sayings of Jesus to convince the unbeliever of the Messiahship of his Master. He says of his book. “These things are written that ye might believe that Jesus is the Christ. the Son of God; and that believing ye might have life through his n.=.=.me."3°g A third kind of teaching would be that that had to do with moral and ethical instruction. All of the epistles and the book of Revelation were in their writing related to this aspect of the curriculum of the Apostolic church. They were all written with the purpose of helping the Christians who received them live more godly lives and to dedicate themselves more completely to the cause of Christ. Christianity as set forth in the New Testament is a way of life. rather than simply a system of doctrine. The Christian life 0 was a life in which the Holy Spirit was to lead.3 9 and the Christian 3.7Matt. 28:20. 3.8John 20:31. 3.9G81. 5 316-180 73 was represented as a temple of God with the Spirit of God dwelling in of by *‘t 0 He n.31. Such persons would indicate in their lives the presence the Spirit. Just as those without the Spirit would be characterized the works of ungodliness. One of several examples of this type instruction is found in Paul's letter to the churches of Galatia. contrasts the works of the flesh and the fruit of the Spirit as follows: Now the works of the flesh are manifest. which are these. Adultery. fornication. uncleanness. lasciviousness. idolatry. witchcraft. hatred. variance. emulations. wrath. strife. seditious. heresies. envyings. murders. drunkenness. revelings. and such like: of which I tell you before. as I have also told you in time past. that they which do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of God. But the fruit of the Spirit is love. Joy. peace. long-suffering. gentleness, goodness. faith, 311 seekness. temperance: against such there is no law. Subject Matter in the Teaching of the Apostolic Church: The Sacred Scriptures In early Christian education the Holy Scriptures comprised the entire literary subject matter. The inspired Scriptures were considered as entirely adequate in the teaching of the church since 31.! Cor. 2:16. 3llGal. 5:19—23. 7n they were given by God Himself. and therefore were accepted as “profitable for doctrine. for reproof. for correction, for instruc- tion in righteousness."312 By these the Christian was considered to be “thoroughly furnished unto all good works."313 The only body of literature which existed in the church during the Apostolic Age was that of the Old Testament Scriptures. The extensive use of the Old Testament Scriptures in the teaching of the early church is indicated by the fact that there are more than a thousand references to the Old Testament books to be found in the New Testament.31h There is clear evidence as to what constituted the canon of the Old Testament in the days of the apostles. Josephus in the first‘century discusses the subject in his apology gainst 5.23.22. He states that there were twenty-two books containing the records of all past time. "which are Justly believed to be divine."315 He divides the Scriptures into three parts: The five books of Moses. 312“ Tim. 3:16. 311"Frank Grant Lewis. How the Bible Grew: The Stogy as Told 31:322_Book and Its Keepers (Chicago: The University of Chicago hose, 1936): P0 90 31SJosephus Against Apion 1.8. 75 containing the Law and the'trsditions from the origin of mankind to the death of loses to the reign of Artemerxes. King of Persia; and four books containing 'hyns to God and precepts for the conduct of hunn life.“316 So sacred were these books considered that I'mo one has been so bold as either to add any thing to them. to tske any thing from then. or to nuke any change in them.'317 Other books had been written after the reign of Artmmsrns but these were not con- sidered of equal authority because there had not been 'sn exact succession of prophets“ since that tin)“ The Jews of ancient times combined certain books which we now count as separate works. The minor prophets were grouped together in a single book called 'The Twelve“; Esra and Nehemiah were considered one book: as were Jeremiah and his Lamentations: and lath was placed as an appendix to the book of Judges.319 3: combining these books as did the Jews. end by respecting the limits of the Scriptures as given by Josephus 315nm. 317nm. 31'nus. 319Christopher 'ordsworth. On the Canon of the Scriptures! the 01d _sn_d_._ 1e: Testament and 2 t3 M (3mm Francis and J-o'hn-i'fvington . mitt—3. p.-6§. 76 (Moses to the reign of.Artaxerxes). and the ancient threefold classification of the Scriptures. we are able to ascertain in.detail the Jewish canon of the Scriptures as it was in Josephus' day.32. Thus it may be seen that the first century Jewish canon contained all the books of our present Old Testament. excluding the Books of the Maccabees and other Apocrypha.321 Table 1 presents a comparison between the first century canon divided into its three parts and twenty—two books. and the Old Testament of today with its thirty-nine books. The translation of the Hebrew Scriptures in common use among the Christians of the Apostolic Age was that of the Greek. known as 322 In quoting the Greek. however. the writers of the Septuagint. the New Testament invariably corrected the Septuagint by the Hebrew in every case where the error involved a discrepancy of meaning.323 32.3‘01' detail study of the first century Jewish canon see: Arthur Cushman McGiffort. notes. £;Select Library 2: Nicene and Post- Hicene Fathers of the Christian Church. E). Philip Schaff and Henry Waco (and. series: New York: The Christian Literature Company. 1890). Vol. I. p. 1““: Solomon.B. Freehof. Preface to Scripture (Cincinnati: union of Hebrew Congregations. 1950). pt. I. pp. 13-19; Wordsworth. 22- 23.2-- app. 0. pp. 56-66. 321Edgar J. Goodspeed. trans.. The épocgzpha: An.American Translation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1§E3). pref.. P. 111. Morton Scott Enslin. Christian Beginnings (3rd ed.; New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers. I938). p. 183. F3"Q;uotations." :9; 31°u°mfl 3.1: 3.13.9. __—Bib1°’ ed’ Philip Schaff. 11th ed. I. II. III. The Torah (The Law) 1. 2. i: 5. Genesis . . Indus . Leviticus numbers . . Deuteronomy The Prophets 6. 7. c. 9. 1o. 17. 1‘. Joshua Judges and Ruth M1 e e e e Kings Chronicles lore and lehemiah lsther Job Isaiah WI TH! 1118! 01mm JEWISH CANON COMPARED WIT! M 01‘ TE! 0 Jeremiah and Lamentations Iuk1.100eeeeeee Daniel The Twelve 77 01' THE OLD TESTAMENT COMO! VERSIOI The Hagiographa (The Holy Writings) 19. 20. 21 e 22. Psalms Song of Seloaen Proverbs . . . . “OIOImu. e e O O O 0 Cone sis hodus Leviticus lunbers )euteronow Joshua Judges Ruth Samuel I Samuel II Kings I Kings II Chronicles I Chronicles II lsra lehemiah lsther Job Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations lsskiel Daniel loses Joel Leos Obadiah Jonah Iicah lahun Habakkt Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah lalachi Psal- Proverbs lcclesiastes Song of Solomon 78 During the last half of the first century there was produced in the Christian church a group of writings which. when collected together. became the New Testament. These writings made up an entirely new literature and subject matter for early Christian educap tion. They were a new set of Scriptures and comprised the rule of faith and practice for the church. The relationship between the Old and the New in early Christian teaching is suggested by the very title of the New Testament. As God had established a covenant with the fathers. so had He established with a later generation a "new and better 32“ As there had been a written covenant." which superseded the 01d. standard for the Old Covenant (the Jewish Scriptures). so was there needed a written standard for the New. The apostolic writings were received by the Christians as equal in authority and sacredness to the beaks of the Old Testament. The apostle Peter places "the commandment of us the apostles of the Lord and Savior' in the same class as 'the words which were spoken before by the holy prophets." and mentions the epistles of Paul in the same way as "the other .Scriptures.‘325 Thus the apostles reckoned their own writings to 3gull Cor. 336-13. 5II Peter 3:2. 16. 79 be a.part of “all Scripture given by inspiration of God. and profi- table for doctrine. for correction. for instruction in righteousness .326 The canon of the New Testament was develoPed and closed very early in the history of the Christian church. There is little doubt that all the books of the New Testament were written before the end of the first century.327 Before the middle of the second century the greater number of the New Testament books were in every Christian congregation in the known world. and were accepted as the divine rule of faith and practice.3‘?8 Eusebius (A.). 260-3M0) lists the twenty—seven bodks of the New Testament as they now stand. distinguishing them from other books which were known in his day but rejected by the church.329 The same twenty-seven books comprised the complete canon of the New Testament which was ratified in A.). 397 by the third Council of Carthage.33. The authors of the New Testament books subscribed their names to their works except the writers of the book of Acts and the 32611 Tim. 3:16. fiTIlewilg 22. .9122" Po 269s 328Mosheim. 22. 3%., p. 36. 329211501113 Church 313mg 111.2544. 33.William Smith. The N31;Testament History (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers.'I§77. p. 700. SC epistle to the Hebrews. The book of.Acts is obviously a continuation of the Gospel according to Luke and is universally ascribed to that writer. .Although the identity of the author of Hebrews is uncertain, the epistle has traditionally been placed among the letters of Paul. A.papyrue manuscript dating from about 290 to 255 A.}. lists Hebrews with Paul's letters.331 Matthew. Mark. Luke. John. and the book of Acts provide the only authentic historical accounts of the beginnings of the Christian church. The four Gospels are independent accounts of the life of Christ by well-informed men. and there is no evidence 2 In the book of Acts that either borrowed from the other writers}3 Luke continues chronologically from where the Gospel writers leave off in their narratives. The epistles of the New Testament arose as part of the correspondence which substituted for the personal instruction and visitation of the apostles in the greatly expanding work of the church. Paul wrote thirteen or fourteen of the twenty-one epistles of the New Testament; John. three; Peter. two; James and.John. one each. .A convenient classification has the letters of Paul (Romans to Hebrews) in one group. and the general epistles (James to Jude) 39'ngar J. Goodspeed. in litroduction E the New Testament (Chicago: university of Chicago Press. 19557} P. 257. 7 . ’32'Goap61o' A Dictionary ....of es. sans ed- Philip swaff' 11th ed. 81 in another. Some of the epistles are directed to a particular local assembly. or to the churches in a certain region.333 dealing with doctrinal or practical questions; others are private.33h being sent to individuals. but dealing with questions of general Christian concern; and yet others are general in nature. being intended for the use of all Christians and churches everywhere.335 After the congregational and private letters had served their initial purposes. they. like the general epistles. served as tracts. and were circus lated from congregation to congregation.336 for the instruction and admonition of all. The Revelation was written by John on Patmos during the persecution by Domitian about A.D. 96.337 The first three chapters of the back consist of particular epistles. written at the dicta» tion of Christ Himself. addressed to the seven churches of the Roman province of Asia. These seven short letters deal with the vices and virtues of the churches. and have such varying features. that 33330mans. I and II Corinthians. Ephesians. Philippians. Colossians. I and II Thessalonians. and Galatians. 331+I and II Timothy. Titus. and Philemon. 33snobrew’s. James. I and II Peter. I. II and III John. and Jude. 33688s Col. h:16. 1 ' ’37Goodspeed. Introduction to the New Testament: Po 251- TABLE2 MW TESTAMENT: THE APPROXIMATE TIIV‘E AND PLACE 03‘ WRITING THE BOOKS OF THE L Book late Place Thessalonians I. II . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Corinth Galatians . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 56 or 57 Ephesus CorinthiansI........... ..58 Ephesus Corinthians II . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Macedonia Bomans.............. ..59 Corinth Matthew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bet. 5e-60 Palestine Luke............. .. ..bet.58-6O Caesarea James................ ..62 Jerusalem Colossians. Ephesians. Philemon. Philippians . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61—63 Home Acts............. .53 Home Mark........... . ..bet.63—-70 Home Hebrews........ . ..61+ Italy Peter I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6h Babylon Timothy 1! and Titus . . . . . . . . . . bet. 614—66 Macedonia Timothy II. and Peter II . . . . . . . . 67 or 68 Home John .......... ....... .78 Ephesus Jude.......... . ”tense-90 Unknown Rovelation............. ..950r96 Patmos John I. II. III . . . . . . . . . . . . . bet. 96—100 Ephesus Sources: fistament History (New York: Edgar J. Goodspeed. An __ Introduction to the New Testament (Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 13143)} A Dictionary of the Bible. ed. Philip Schaff. 11th ed.; William Smith. TENew Harper and Brothers. Publishers. 1877). 83 they may be looked upon as letters to seven typical churches of the times. The remainder of the back consists of prophecies written in symbolical language. The prephecies begin with "things which must shortly come to pass."338 and end with the re-affirmation of 7 Christ's promised return."39 The Methodology of Christian Education in the . Apostolic Period The discourse was a common method of teaching during the period of our study. Early Christian preachers took advantage of every Opening thus to teach. whether in the Christian assembly. as he did.Paul at Troas:3 in the templeg3hl in Jewish synagoguesrjh2 in 33KBev. 1:1. 3”Rev. 22:20. SMACt' 2. 37s 3mActs 3:2 gt. 33:1. 31:2 Acts 9:20. sh ‘1 private homesg3h3 in the market places;Juh or before a court when on trial because of their faith.3u5 The discourse was used either before a large assembly. as with the apostle Peter on the day of 3M6 Pentecost. or with but one hearer. as in the case of the evangelist Philip and the EthiOpian.3u7 Another closely related method on instruction was that of expository teaching or preaching. This method was inherited from the Jewish synagogue in which the reading of the law accompanied by an exposition of the text was the central act of worship}1+8 The early Christians never missed an Opportunity to so teach in the Jewish synagogues. explaining the Old Testament Scriptures as they related to Jesus the Messiah..3)+9 Much of the New Testament reflects this type of instruction. especially the epistle to the Romans and the epistle to the Hebrews. 31+Beets 5:h2. 31mActs 17:17. 3M5; 3’46Acts Chap. 2. Ct. 2536 its 223. 3WActs 8:26-35. 3mWilliw P. Maxwell. An Outline 9: Christian Worshop. its levelo ment and.Forms (London: Humphrey Milford. Oxford University m. 93 TEST. " 3u3Acts 13:1n: 1731, 2, 17; 18:h: etc. 85 Mutual admonition was a prominent method of teaching in the Apostolic church. In early Christian meetings any brother might feel free at the preper time to admonish the congregation.35. The meetings were conducted in a free and informal manner. but only one person was permitted to speak at a time and all things were done "decently and in order.”351 Singing was also used in mutual admonition. The early Christians were instructed to "Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly in all wisdom; teaching and admonishing one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs . . ."352 Peter. the Apostle to the Jews The most active apostle in the early years of the Apostolic church. and the most outstanding teacher and leader in the church at Jerusalem. was the apostle Peter. Before he was called to the apostleship Peter was a fisherman 1 by trade."53 and lived in the town of Capernaum of Galilee with his 35.1 Cor. 1h:26; Col. 3:16. 3511 Cor. 111a». 352001. 3316; cf. Eph. 5:19. 353M“. Lula; Mark 1:16: Luke 531‘30 86 wife and mother-in—law.35h His original name was Simon. but upon his being called by Jesus to the apostleship. he was given the name Peter. or Cephas. which means "stone."355 From this point on in the New Testament he is known as Peter. or as Simon. or by both names. being called Simon Peter. As has been evident throughout the preceding pages of this chapter. Peter was the outstanding personality during the early period of the Apostolic Age. The first twelve of the twenty-eight chapters of the Book of Acts are concerned largely with the work of the apostle Peter. It was Peter who really Opened the way for the work of Paul. the great apostle to the Gentiles. since it was Peter who baptized. and thus received into the membership of the church. Cornelius the first Gentile convert.356 It was Peter who was the spokesman for all the apostles on many important occasions. both inpreaching357 and in defending the doctrines of Christ before the 1 8 Sanhedrim.’5 or in the arbitration of disputes between the 35hfiatt. 8:5. 1h: Mark 1:29. 36; Luke “:31. 33. 3”John 1:142. 35§Acts Chap. 10. 3"37Acts 2:11}. 23. 163. 353m. as. 19 2.1:.- 1634 59-9- 87 brethren.359 The apostle Peter evidently did not exercise authority superior to that of the other apostles. Paul described Peter. James. and John. all as “pillars“ in the church at Jerusalem.36° When Samaria had received the gospel "the apostles which were at Jerusalem "361 This would seem to . . . sent unto them Peter and John . . . indicate that Peter was in authority an apostle among equal apostles. The apostle Peter evidently enjoyed a pre-eminence among the twelve in the Jerusalem church in the ability. zeal. and energy he demonstrated in his work. rather than in superior authority. The particular area of activity in which the apostle Peter excelled (the ministry to the Jews) is indicated in the same context in which he is referred to as a 'pillar' of the church at Jerusalem. Paul says. '. . . The gpspel of the uncircumcision was committed unto me. as the gospel of the circumcision was unto Peter; for he that wrought effectually in Peter to the apostleship of the circumcision. the same was mighty in me toward the Gentiles . . .“362 The first half of the Book of Acts testifies as to how completely Peter fulfilled his apostleship 359Acts 5:1 31. £33. 36.6a1. 2:9. 361 Acts 8:1”. 3526a. 2:7. 8. 88 to the Jews as the later chapters witness to the devotion of Paul in exercising his to the Gentiles. The closing years of the apostle Peter are very obscure. The New Testament gives no information concerning the last days of the apostle. and we are left to depend upon tradition to complete the story. Clement of Rome. writing at the close of the first century or the beginning of the second. is the earliest writer to mention that Peter died a martyr's death.363 Tertullian made the same state- ment in a writing dated about 205 A.B.36u Eusebius states that Peter was crucified in Rome during the Neronian persecution. citing as his sources of information a Christian called Caius, and Pionysius. bishOp of Corinth (c. 167-175). whose writings are not now extant.365 In another place Eusebius says that Peter at his own request was crucified head-downwards. for his information giving a source in a writing of Origin that is now lost.366 6 3Clement Epistle to the Corinthians 1.3.12. (Hone ed.) 36“Tertullian Scogpiace chap. l5. 365Busebius Church Histogy ii.25.5-8. See 8180 notes by McGiffert. in. loc. cit. 3661Eusebius Church History iii.l. See also notes by McGiffert. in 1.33. cit. 89 Paul. the Apostle to the Gentiles By far the greatest of the apostles. in terms of the amount of missionary travel. preaching. and writing. was the apostle Paul. Paul. or Saul. who was to become the apostle to the Gentiles. was born of Jewish parents of the tribe of Benjamin.367 in Tarsus of Cilicie,368 into a family of Roman citizens.369 The date of Paul's birth is variously estimated as sometime during the first fifteen years of the Christian era. Goodspeed places it between 0 A”). 10 and 15.37 and Farrar puts it in the first ten years of the first century. believing that Paul was probably born about AiB.3.371 At the time of Paul's birth Tarsus was a city of about a half million population. the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia. and possessed a thriving university.372 The university at Tarsus 373 excelled in some respects the schools at Athens and Alexandria. 3671mm. 1131. 368Acts 21:39: 22:3. 369A°t3 22 3 27 . 28o 37'Goodepeed, Paul. p. 12. 371rrederic w. Farrar. The Life and Works of St. Paul (2 vols.; Imndon: Cassell. Patter. Galpin & Co.. n.d.§. 1,—lh. 372Goodspeed. Paul. p. 3. 3733. Martin P. Bavidson. Good Christian Men (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 19NO). p. 13. 77* A. 90 i The city had a fine harbor and was a center of commerce.374 Paul understandably referred to himself as “a citizen of no mean city.“75 376 Tarsus was also a center of Greek culture. On one occasion Paul explained his ability to speak Greek by stating that he was of 377 Tarsus. Paul would at an early age have had the opportunity to observe the depravity of the GraecoqRoman culture as Tarsus is described as a place of moral and religious degradation.378 The education of Paul was thorough from childhood. He speaks of the early period of his life as follows: "my manner of life from nw'youth . . . after the most straitest sect of our religion I lived 379 aPharisee.a The language of the home was in all probability Aramaic.38' but he must have been familiar with the Greek of his native Tarsus from an early age. Jewish boys. destined to the office of Rabbi. at the age of thirteen entered their studies under some great Jewish teacher.381 To do this Paul would have found it neces- sary to go to Jerusalem. Thus. Paul states that he was "brought up" 37thid. 375Acts 21:39. 376 Goodspeed. Paul. p. 3. 377Acts 21:37-39. 378Farrar. Paul. I. 28. 373iet. zest, 5. 380 381 Goodapeed. Paul. pp. M. 5. Farrar. Paul. I. uh. in.Jerusalem "at the feet of Gamaliel. and taught according to the perfect manner of the law of the fathers."382 This was Gamaliel I. one of the greatest of Jewish teachers. the grandson of another great teacher and founder of the school. Hillel.383 Gamaliel is described in the New Testament as "A.Pharisee . . . a teacher of the law. held in honor by all the peOple."38u There were only seven teachers among the Jews who were ever elevated to the dignity of "Rabban"; Gamaliel was one of them.385 Gamaliel conducted his work 86 in Hebrew and Greek. and possibly Latin also.3 and the training involved a thorough coverage of both the Hebrew Old Testament and 8 the Greek Septuagint version.3 7 Gamaliel's method included the permission of questions and the encouraging of students to cross- question one another.388 Paul was an outstanding student in the 38encts 22:3. 383Tarrar. Paul. I. uh. 38¥Acts 5:3ussv. 38SFarrar. Paul. I. 1m. 335A ‘1. ‘Acton, oler Land and Sea With the épostle“ Paul (New York: Fleming H. Revell Company. 193373 P. —20. 38.Il's‘arrar. Paul. I. in. 388Acton. pp. 933.. p. 20. 92 8 school of Gamaliel.3 9 That he was also versed in Greek learning is indicated by his familiarity with Greek poetry.39. During student 1 days. according to rabbinic custom.39 Paul learned the trade of 02 I tentmaking. by which he at times supported himself.3’ Before his conversion to Christ. Paul was a leader in religious thought and action among the Jews. He says to the Galatians. Ye have heard of my conversation in time past in the Jews' religion. how that beyond measure I perse- cuted the church of God. and wasted it: and profited in the Jews' religion above many my equals in mine own nation. being more 2e§§gus exceedingly of the traditions of my fathers. Paul took part in the killing of Stephen.39u and became the ring leader in the general persecution of the church which followed.395 After his conversion Paul looked back upon this period of his life with much regret. 396 389Gal. 1311+. 39‘Acts 17:28; Titus 1:12. 391Goodspeed. Paul. pp. 10. 11. 392Acts 18:3: 20:3M; I Cor. #312: I Thess. 2:9. 393Ga1. 1313. 1k. 39¥Acts 7:58. 395icta s:1~3. 3961 Cor. 15:9. \O KN At the time of his conversion Paul was on a mission from the Sanhedrim with letters of authority to arrest Christians and to 397 Paul's statement concerning 398 bring them as prisoners to Jerusalem. his conversion is found three times in the Book of Acts. In these Paul relates how that Christ appeared to him on the road to Damascus. how later at Damascus the Christian messenger Annanias came to him. restored his sight (He had been blind since the vision). and commanded him to be baptized and informed him concerning his future mission as a servant of Christ. Paul acknowledged publicly his new faith and began the work of the world-wide apostleship to which he had been called. He says. at his hearing before King Aerippa: I was not disobedient unto the heavenly vision: but showed first unto them of Damascus. and at Jerusalem. and throughout all the coasts of Judea. and then to the Gentiles. that they should repent and turn to God. and do works meet for repentance . . . Having therefore obtained help of God. I continue unto this day. witnes- sing both to small and great. saying none other things than those which the prophets and Moses did say should come; That Christ should suffer and that he should be the first that should rise from the dead. and should show light unto the peeple. and to the Gentiles.399 397Acts 9:2; 22:h, 5: 26:12. '1 93 Acts 9:1-21; 22:5—22; 2632—18. 399Acts 26:19h23. 91+ The remainder of Paul's life was dedicated to building up the faith he had set out to subvert. Luke in the Book of Acts traces the work of Paul from Damascus to Rome—ofrom his conversion to his imprison- ment. Luke seems to have been the companion of Paul a great part of this time. and was the only Christian with him when he faced his trial and his martyrdom.h.. Paul says concerning the extent of his labors. nFromJerusalem. and round about unto Ilyricum. I have fully preached the gospel of Christ.“u.1 Ilyricum was the Roman province north of Macedonia. across the Adriatic Sea from Italy. Paul's statement indicates that at the time of the Roman letter he had preached and taught in a great part of the then known world. Before his death he was to realize his desire to preach the gpspel to those of Rome also. as he had to other Gentilesf‘.2 The last eight chapters of the Book of Acts supply us with a detailed account of the circumstances concerning the arrest and preliminary trials of the apostle Paul. but give no information concerning his final trial and execution. for which we must turn to secular history. h..II Tim. h:11. 1m Rom. 15:19. has Rom. 1:10-13. 95 On.Paul's last visit to Jerusalem. about 56 A.D..ue3 he was attacked in the temple by a mob of Jews from the province of Asia. who accused him of profaning the temple by bringing Greeks into the sacred precincts.hon When he was saved from the mob by a group of Roman soldiers the commanding officer. Claudius Lysiasfl.5 ordered that he be examined by scourging. Paul protected himself from the beating by claiming his rights as a Roman citizen.""6 The following day Paul was brought before his accusers. and was once more rescued by the Roman captain when the Jews again became violent.1407 When Claudius Lysias had been informed by Paul's nephew concerning a conspiracy against the apostle's life he transferred the prisoner at night and under heavy guard to Caesarea.“8 The Roman officer sent along a letter recounting the circumstances of the arrest (in a manner most favorable to himself) and saying that the Jews had made no charges against Paul Justifying either death or im~ prisonmsnt.m9 Hearings before the Roman gpvernor Felix produced n.3Goodspeed, 2231. p. 222. 1which 21:27-30. “'5Act. 23:26. h'fiicts 22:2N-29. h‘ZActs 22:30-—23:19. ”'3Acts 23;12~33. ‘ ”93Acts 23:26-36. '- ’“- 96 no further evidence of guilt. but Felix kept him a prisoner hoping that Paul would pay him money for his release.h1. Two years later Porcius Festus succeeded to the office of governor. and Paul was given two additional hearings. one before Festus and another before Agrippa. in neither of which was guilt establishedffl1 When the Jews requested that Paul be brought to Jerusalem to stand trial. planning to ambush him on the way. Paul once more claimed his legal rights as a.Boman citizen. When Festus suggested to Paul that he be tried in Jerusalem before the Jews. Paul said. "I am standing before Caesar's tribunal. where I ought to be tried . . . I appeal to Caesar." When Festus had conferred with his council. he answered. "Iou.have appealed to Caesar; to Caesar you.shall go."u12 In.Rome the apostle was permitted for two whole years to live in his own rented house. given the privilege to receive all who came to see him, and to preach and teach without hindrance.ul3 Concerning the death of the apostle Paul we must look to other sources than the Book of Acts. as Luke leaves off his account lmitts 2n:26. 1 Acts 25:6 9.1“. sag. 12 Acts 25:9-12 nsv. ’41} Acts 28:30. 31. r.» 'w-A‘._. ‘ g 2 with Paul's arrival in Home and his imprisonment there. Clement. the earliest post-apostolic writer. at about the beginning of the second century. mentions Paul's martyrdom but does not tell the manner in which he was put to death.L1u Tertullian. writing around 265 A.D.. states that Paul was beheaded at Rome.h15 Eusebius in his history (c. 326 A.D.) says that Paul was put to death under Hero.”16 The approximate date of the death of the apostle Paul was A.D. 61. five years after his arrest in Jerusalem.1417 Paul himself speaks of his approaching death in a statement that summarizes in few words a life of faithful and selfless service to Christ. he writes. I am now ready to be offered. and the time of my departure is at hand. I have fought a good fight. I have finished my course. I have kept the faith: Hence- forth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness. which the Lord. the righteous Judge. shall give me at that day: and not to me only. but unto all them also that love his appearing.I18 ”luClement Epistle £2,322_Corinthians i.e.1h. lab-Tertullian Scogpiace chap. 15. l h amusebius Church History iii.l. l 7Goodspeed. Paul. p. 222. #181 I Time )4: 6-60 - 'V_"T_h.fl p _'...__‘_‘. 98 The Close of the Apostolic Age From the small beginning in 39 A.D. of one hundred and twenty followers of Jesus Christ. including the twelve atjpostlesf;19 the Christian church grew to number its membership in the hundreds of thousands by the end of the first century. The number of Christians at the close of the Apostolic Age has been estimated at 500.00@.h2. Christians and established churches were to be found throughout the Roman Empire. The apostle John lived longer than any of the other apostles of Christ. John's last years were spent at Ephesus. from which center he ministered to the churches of Asia minor.1421 Following his exile on Patmos. where he wrote the Revelation (A.D. 95 or 96). John returned to Ephesus and there wrote his epistles.u22 The apostle John died near the close of the century at the beginning of the reign of Trajan (A.D. 98-Il.l'()l'L23 and thus brought to a close the Apostolic Agp of the history of the Christian church. 1‘19Acte 1:15. uBQA. Cleveland Coxe. Ante-Nicene Fathers. ed..Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (Emerican reprint of the Edinburgh ed.; Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing 00.. 1951). Vol. IV. p. 126. ”alumnus Church History 111.1. heaSee Table 2. 1‘23llichiffert. Nicene and Postéfiicene Fathers. (Series II). v01. 1’ p. 132. ...—- ...- . I. ,Q- H... n I. II. III. OUTLINE CHAPTER III THE EARLY PATRISTIC ERA: Amp. 100-2 Characteristics of the Period The Church in Conflict with the Roman Empire 3. Conditions at the beginning of the Century Persecution Under Trajan 1. 2. 3. Legan Basis of Persecution Manner of Conducting Investigations and Trials Results of Pliny's Investigations Persecution under Hadrian and.Antonius Pius 1. 2. 3. 1+. 5. Mob Violence and Popular Persecutions Attitude of Provincial Governors Rescripte of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius Curelty of Official Roman Methods Martyrdom of Polycarp Persecution under Marcus Aurelius 1. 2. 3. u. Intensified Persecution during Reign Personal Attitude of the Emperor Christian ApOIOgists Martyrdom of Justin Reasons for the Persecutions 1. 2. 3. Political Rather than Religious The Charges of Atheism and Treason Emperor Worship Effect Upon Life and Teaching of the Church 1. 2. 3. 1. Made Necessary Greater Secrecy in Meetings L Increase in Membership - Made the Church.Pure Produced a Great Body of Literature-~the , Apologies Conflicts Within the Churchp—Reresies and Schisms A. Greek Speculation in the Second Century Church 1. 2. 3. Freedom from Speculation During Apostolic Period—qReaeons Growth of Speculation During Second Century- Reasons Effect of Inroads by Pagan Religions 99 \,. La ‘ ‘—‘ ......_ 2"? 3‘5132’1’.“ $‘7 I. Stun I 106 B. The Judaistic Sects 1. Early Judaistic Tendencies 2. The Nazarenesc-liot Really Heretics 3. The Ebionites a. Rejected doctrine of the Atonement b. Rejected the doctrine of the Virgin Brith c. Insisted on compliance with ceremonial law by Jew and Gentile alike d. Anathematized Paul and rejected his writings C. The Marceonites 1. Repudiated.Judaism and the Old Testament 2. Affinity to Gnosticism D. The Gnostics 1. Origin of Gnosticism 2. Dualism 3. Intermediary Beings (Lesser Gods) a. ”Aeons". Emanations from the Supreme God b. Demiurgus. Lowest in scale. Identi— fied as Creator. God of the world. and Jehovah of the Old Testament h. ChristOIOgy of Gnosticism a. Jesus an ordinary man-mno Virgin Birth b. Jesus became Christ at baptism and ceased to be before crucifixion c. Sent as Redeemer to bring knowledge 5. Redemption attained through knowledge ("gnosis") imparted by Redeemer E. The Montanists . Montanus the Founder . Orthodox in Theology . Belief in continuing revelation and miracles Premillenarianism Strict manner of life Acceptance of doctrines by Tertullian . Condemnation of the movement . Decline of Montanism os-Joxgzumw IV. Changes in Structure of Organization: The Rise of the EpiscOpacy and the Sacerdoctal Caste A. Effects of Loss of Apostolic Supervision B. Changes in Structure as Compared with New Testament Times . -‘hn.1—v... c V. 101 C. Genditions at Beginning of Century—little Change from Apostolic Period 1. Testimony of Clement of Rome 2. Testimony of Polycerp 3. Origin of the Monerchiol lpiscopato 1. Use of the Term “Glory“ 2. The Theory of “Apostolic Succession' 3. The Throefold Division of the Clergy: Bish0ps. Presbytoro (Priests). and lessons 1'. Change from Congregational Autonomy to Provincial Hierarchy l. Congregations Autonomous luring Greater Part of Second Century 2. Beginnings of Symods and Provincial Councils 3. Growth of the Power of the Bishop ll. The Diocesan lpisoopeto and Its Later Developments Authoritorionisn and Its Effect on Teaching and Intropgroup Relationships A. Causes of the Changes 1. Conditions at the Beginning of the Century 1. In the Didache s. Both Ordinary end Extraordinary Aspects of Church Organismti on Evident b. The Tests of Prophets C. The Rise of Authoritorisnism 1. Restriction of Freedom 2. Passing of New Testament Teaching Iothods 3. Teaching Coley in Hands of Clergy ). Authoritmrisnism in the Writings of Ignatius l. hoverence for Clergy as 'Superiors' 2. Clorg Possessed 'All Authority and Power“ 3. nothing to be lone Without the Clerc 1:. Infallibility of the Bishop 5. Line and Staff Relationship of Clerc end Riv I. Authoritmrienism in gostolic Constitutions 1. Origin of Agosto ic onstitutions 2. Bishop to Govern. Not to be Governed 3. hmotioning Obedience to Bishop Necessary P. Over-ell lffoets of Authoritsrisnism The Beginning of the Cotoehumonnto A. Heturo of the Catoohumensto 3. Origin end Develop-mt C. Changes in Preparation for Baptism in First and Second Centuries 1. No lengthy preparation in Apostolic times-- reason for this 2. Extended preparation in second century--reason for this D. Three Gradetions in Instruction 1. Elementary instruction 2. Admission to lessons. sermons. and homilies along with congregation 3. Advanced studies E. Catechumenate Obscure in Second Century VII. Subject Matter for Catechumenal and Membership Instruction General Field of Christian Literature Shepherd of Hermes . Didache or *Teaching_ of the Twelve Apostles . Other Writings: l. Epistle of Clement 2. Epistle of Polycerp 3. Epistles of Ignatius Epistle of Barnabas E. Material for Advanced Studies 1. writings of Irenaeus against the heretics 2. Ap010g ies of Justin Martyr A B C D VIII. Individual Efforts in Christian Education: The Beginning of the Catechetical School A. Need for Higher Education B. Nature of Earliest Christian School: Private Lectureship or Chair ' C. Schools of the Second Century 1. Justin Martyr 2. Basilides 3. Valentinus h. Tatian P. Forerunners of the Catechetical Schools of the Third Century E. The School of Pantaenus at Alexandria-a Link with the Next Century IX. Justin, Christian PhilosoPher and Martyr A. Summary of Justin's Life B. Justin by Profession a Philosopher 193 His Training in PhilosOphy 1. Stoic 2. Peripatetic 3. Pythagorian M. Platonist His Conversion and Acceptance of Christianity as the Only Safe and Profitable PhileSOphy Justin Re-evaluates Platonism 1. Charges Plato with Borrowing from Moses 2. Accuses philosophy of imitating Christianity 3. Justin's definition of “philosophy" h. Differences of view regarding knowledge 5. Supremacy of Christ as Teacher Justin’s Doctrine of the LOgos l. The LOgos: The Incarnate Word 2. The Logos: The pre-existent Word 3 The Activity of the Word before the Incarnation a. Inspiration of Socrates and others b. All writings of philosophers not equally inspired--some not at all c. Ancients saw realities "darkly"-—the true comprehension only through Christ Writings of Justin 1. The A ology 2. The Dialogue with Trypho X. Tatian, Exponent of Universal Education A. B. C. 9. Summary of Tatian's Life Writings l. Diatessaron or Harmony of the Four Gospels 2. Address to the Greeks .— His School at Antioch Tatian on Universal Education 3X1. Irenaeus, Defender of the Faith and Exponent of Authorita- tive Tradition Summary of Irenaeus' Life Principal Works of Irenaeus l. égainst Heresies 2. roof of the Apostolic Preaching His Evangelistic Activities His Philosophy of Education Irenaeus' Idea of Authoritative Tradition CHAPTER III THE EARLY PATRISTIC ERA: A.D. ICC-«200 Characteristics of the Period The early patristic era of church history was a period of adjustment--adjustment to the absence of the apostles of Christ in the leadership of the church. The early part of the period was that of the Apostolic Fathers~-those Christian teachers and writers who were themselves the students of one or more of the apostles. By the middle of the century they too. and much of their influence, had disappeared from the churches. The early patristic era was a time of intensified suffering on the part of the Christians at the hands of the pagans. It was a time that saw the rise of heresy and schism. It was a period of evolution in church government and the beginning of a hierarchy that should in many respects change the very nature of the church as a religious and educational institution. It we the time of the beginning of the Christian school. We shall see that the philosophy. method. and administration of education within the church was greatly modified during this period, especially as a result of the changes which took place in the structure and organization of the church. The Church in Conflict With the Roman Empire At the beginning of the second century persecution was in full sway against the Christians in the East.‘gm Though these Asiatic persecutions were probably localLL25 there grew out of them a legal basis for prosecuting the Christians under Roman law. Once the precedent had been established a succession of persecutions ensued, with each new emperor providing his successor with additional examples of such legal prosecution. The Emperor Trajan (A.D. °8~—117) was the first of the emperors to invoke Roman law in the persecution of Christian congre- gations. This he did by applying a law that prohibited secret socie- ties.”26 Roman governors in the pronvices by his order made local rulings prohibiting Christian assemblies of any kind. In the prosecution of individual Christians accusation of actual crimes was not necessary. Members of the church were brought before the magis— trates and punished simply as Christians, for the name itself, and as #27 a rule no attempt was made to discover any actual transgression. O hgnHenry Hart Milman, History 2: Latin Christianity (9 vols.; Nth ed.; London: John Murray, 1872). I, 31. ’425mm. h26Qualben, Pg. SELF... P. 81“. l‘lE-(Justin Martyr Apology i.‘; 11.2. 5-- u. - ..--L 106 The Roman manner of conducting investigations and prosecutions of Christians is preserved in a collection of the letters of Pliny the Younger which includes an exchange of correspondence between Pliny while governor of Bithynia and the Emperor Trajan}28 In his letter to TraJan. Pliny describes his practice as including threats. tortures. and death. His policy was to repeat the question as to whether the accused was a Christian a second and a third time. If an affirmative answer was given a third time, after threats had been made before each question, the accused was led away to be executed. A way of escape was provided for those who would renounce their faith, and the whole trial, it seems, was an attempt through threats and tortures to force the Christian to do so. Pliny caused the images of the gods and that of the emperor to be brought in and spared the lives of those who would consent to burn incense as an offering before the images and blaSpheme the name of Christ. These actions, it had been reported to Pliny, could never be forced upon those who were true Christians. Pliny gained information in his investigations by means of torture. These in» vestigations revealed no other crime than that the Christians met on I+28: Pliny the Younger Epistles 1.96. 97. included in the collection edited by Anne Fremantle, é Treasury 2: Early Christi- anity (New York: The Viking Press. 19535, pp. 2534255. 107 a stated day before dawn, prayed to Christ and obligated themselves never to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, and to deal honorably at all times. The policies established during Trajan's reign were followed by his successors, Hadrian (117-138 A.D.) and Antoninus Pius (138- 161 A.D.). Mob violence and general persecution by the pOpulace was common. and provincial governors were inclined to appease the rage - . “‘7‘ .._.._-‘__u .1 of the peOple by sacrificing a few obnoxious Christian victims by throwing them to the lions in the arena.n23 Both Hadrian and I 4 «mu—..— Antoninus Pius. however, issued edicts prohibiting the voice of the multitudes to being admitted as evidence in the trials of Christians.“30 And yet in dealing with Christians the Roman rulers turned to violence, "the scourge and the rack were called upon . . . and every art of cruelty was employed to subdue . . . inflexible, and, «“31 as it appeared to the pagans, criminal obstinacy. It was during the reign of the "mild" emperor Antoninus Pius that the aged bishop Polycarp of Smyrna was burned at the stake about 155 A.D.h32 The reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180 A.D.). the Stoic negGibbon, 33. _c_i_t.. 1, M65. M66. ”Rum” p. M66. 1511mm sewn“. 32. 333.. p. 85. 108 philosOpher emperor, was an especially difficult time for the church, and the persecution grew more severe than ever before. Being a Stoic, Marcus Aurelius disliked the religious enthusiasm of the Christians. He despised the exultations of Christian martyrs. and accused them of a desire for theatrical display.u33 A number of Christian apologies were written and addressed to the emperor in the vain hope that the philosoPher who sat on the throne of the Empire would grant a just hearing to the cause of the suffering church. Chief among these apologists was Justin Martyr who addressed one apology to the Roman Senate and another to the Emperor Antoninus Pius. Justin was put to death in.Eome early in the reign of Marcus M31; Aurelius. The reasons for the persecutions of the church were more political than religious. When specific accusations were brought against Christians, the most common were those of atheism and treason.M35 The monotheistic belief of the Christians did not seem to the politicians and pagans so much a religion as a form of 1BBIbid. 143ullibid. h 3SAdolph Harnadk, "Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire Down to Decius,I New Schafféfierzog EncyclOpedia of Religious Knowledge, ed. Samuel Macaulay Jadkson, Vol. VIII (1910). mi. nus—- film—"I -..! 199 atheism, and the refusal to worship the pagan gods a vicious obstinacy.h36 These two, atheism and treason, were actually the same, since political loyalty was considered inseparable from the Roman religion, especially typefied in the emperor cult.LL37 Loyalty to the state deities. and especially the worship of the emperor, was therefore a test of loyalty to the Empire. Hence, more and more religious accusations were merged with the charge of treason};38 The effect of persecution upon the life and teaching of the church was great. During the times of persecution all of the teach- ing of the church was of necessity either in the privacy of the home or in secret meetings of the church. Another result was that a great body of Christian literature was produced in the writing of defenses of the Christian faith. One significant and obvious fact was that in spite of persecution the church grew in numbers. Another Just as obvious effect was that persecution kept the church pure and morally strong. Few who were insincere would choose to cast their lot with those who for the very reason of their faith were daily facing death. Those few among the Christians who were hypocritical were ready to denounce Christ when there was given to 110 them the choice between denouncing their religion and certain and horrible death. Some who were known to have been Christians when brought before the Roman governor Pliny, stated that they had ceased to be Christians, "some many years before; one, only twenty days."l+39 Conflicts Within the Church-AHeresies and Schisms During the Apostolic Age, while the activities of the church were under the direct supervision of the apostles. and the member- ship of the church principally Jewish, there was little tendency toward.speculative thinking. In the second century, however, when the church became principally Gentile in membership, largely among the Greeks of Asia Minor, it is not surprising that speculation of the Greeks tagether with all sorts of strange opinions would find their way into the church. Hence, during the second century the Christians found themselves not only Opposing the pagans but com- batting heretics among their own number who would corrupt the teaching of the church. Accommodation to, or reaction against, inroads of unchristian religion and philosophy accounted for many of the heresies and schisms which arose in the second century. The Judaistic sects were clear reactions against any and all Greek influences within the church. There is evidence that during M39P11ny9 22- 22-30: x- 96: 970 .1 fimL-H 111 the Apostolic period there were those who would, had they been able to do so, have bound the Mosaic code in all of its particulars upon the whole church-«Jew and Gentile alike.uu. In the second century, beginning during the reign of Hadrian, these elements formed themselves into a distinct group, holding to a strict observance of all the Mosaic law.mu The Judaizers were themselves divided into two separate bodies-—the Nazarenes and the Ebionites. Those called Nazarenes, although they would not discard the ceremonies prescribed by Moses, did not force Mosaic Observances upon Gentile Christians, and did not make the matter a test of fellowship between Christians.uu2 The Nazarenes were, therefore, in no real sense a schism, nor were their teachings and practices heretical, since their position was in keeping with practices of Jewish Christians in New Testament M3 times. The Ebionites on the other hand were completely schismatic and heretical. They totally rejected the doctrine of the Atone- nun :ment. They looked upon Christ as an ambassador of God rejecting m“See Acts 1531-31. l“.IJ'MOShfilm, 22. 9.143" P. 750 hhzlbid. uuiActs 1536-31. MEHerbert B. Workman, Christian Thought :2 the Reformation (New York: Charles Soribner's Sons, 1913), p. 3. l ‘Afi w,, - _ J5, 112 the doctrine of the virgin birth they believed Christ to be the natural son of Joseph and Mary.m‘*5 They insisted that the ceremonial law must be observed by all, Jew and Gentile alike, who wished to be 14146 saved. The apostle Paul was considered by the Ebionites as an apostate and a heretic and they rejected all of his writings.uh7 _ ..zirp The Judaistic groups flourished during the early second century but jpractically ceased to exist by the close of the centuryfll“8 ""-“_". F— v . The Marceonites represented the opposite extreme from the Judaizers. This group, originating about the middle of the second century, repudiated both Judaism and the Old Teste.znent.)"'1"’9 In so doing Marceon left Christianity without historic support, rejecting the foundations of the Jewish religion and the Scriptures. The Christian apologists felt it necessary to date Christianity badk to the very beginning of the human race, and the average Christian »found in the Old Testament.an affective bulwark against the complete Woeheim, pp. 332.. p. 75. m+61b1£hs P90 750 760 hh 7Camlben. 33. 932.. pp. 73. 7h. workman, 22, cit., p. h. lmgIbid” p. 5. ll} IEellenization of the church, which was already much in evidence in use the second century. Marceon was influenced by the teachings of the Gnostics, especially as to dualism, but this was not the dom- inant aspect of his position. The Gnostics perpetrated a far more damaging heresy than any of the others. Gnosticism (Greek gaosis, knowledge) is itself older than Christianity. Originating as a syncretism of the religious ideas of Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, and Egypt,“51 it made its way into the Christian church by way of a well established.Jewish Gnosticism which existed in the time of Christ}152 and from.Gentile Gnostic influence, especially in the churches of Asia Minor where the doctrine flourished. The Gnostics were divided into innumerable sects, the exact difference between them being obscure. There were characteristics held in common, however, which clearly set them apart as a distinctive class. Gnosticism was actually a grafting of Christianity on.paganism. The Gnostics were dualists, emphasizing the contrast between spirit and matter and holding to the existence of LL50 Ibid., p. 6. l n5.Arthur Cushman McGiffert, A.History of Christian Though_ (Vol.1,E and Eastern; New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1950) . I, ""'—" M52 Qualben, pp, cit., pp. 7h ff. 11% two worlds-~the material world in which men live and the spiritual world to which they should aspire.153 Two equal powers, Good and Evil, were recognized as co-eternal.h5h God, it was believed, did not directly create the world, but from Him proceeded a series of aeons or emanations on a descending scale, the lowest of which was called Bemiurgus, or Creator.”55 The Gnostics identified Demiurgus with.Jehovah of the Old Testament, and considered Him far inferior to the Supreme God of the Spirit.”56 Between the God of the world, Demiurgus, and the Supreme God a number of intermediary Beings (varying from three to three hundred sixty-five in different Gnostic systems) were recognized};57 The Gnostics believed in a threefold division of the universe corresponding to the threefold nature of man. In men there was body, soul, and spirit; in the universe there was the visible world and sky, next the stars and planets, and finally the third heaven in which the Supreme God dwells};58 Christ was looked upon as a Redeemer, sent forth by a council of intermediary Beings (lesser gods) to save the incarnated spirits of u53MxGiffert, History 3f Christian Thought, I, #5. 1AID-)‘lCZualben, pp. cit., p. 76. 15511314. ‘456mm. l”’Wlbid. uBgIbid. 115 ,men. In the Gnostic system redemption consisted of the liberation of the spirit from the material body. Salvation came by knowledge (ggosis) imparted by the Redeemer. Jesus was looked upon as an ordinary man upon whom the divine Christhood came at baptism. His Christhood was believed to have left Him before His crucifixion. A.distinction was also made between a higher heavenly Christ and a lower earthly Christ,n59 Gnostics in the church believed that their system was of a very superior type, set apart for the elect and unfit for the vulgar crowd.u6° Gnosticism and Marceonism both ceased to exist as such in the church during the third century.h6l The Montaniet movement began in Phrygia about the middle of the second century, taking its name from Montanus a former priest of Cybele who had been converted to Christianity.L62 Montanists were orthodox in theOIOgy and in sharp contrast with the Gnostics and other heretics,h63 They possessed several characteristics which distinguished them from the church at large. They believed in a direct operation of the Holy Spirit through themselves which was made manifest by the working of miracles, especially prephecy, and made _‘ Ll591b1d.. pp. 76-78. Ibid., p. 78. 1‘61}JIcGiffert, History of Christian Thought, I, 162. 14621nd,. p. 165. * M63Ibid., p. 168. 116 h these gifts the test of true Christianity.'6u They believed that spiritual endowment constituted the true qualifications and appoint~ ment of the teacher, and valued such to a higher degree than a regular appointment};65 Montanism was a premillenarian movement and the members believed that the time was near at hand when Christ would return to set up His thousand-year kingdom on earth, and that Montanus had been specially commissioned to announce Christ's 1'66 coming.‘ .A strict manner of life was imposed, and those who were unwilling to live accordingly were empelled from the church.”67 Al- though Montanism was condemned by the church at large, there were some outstanding adherents to its tenets. One of these was Tertullian who was attracted by its strictness of life, its enthusiasm, and its emphasis upon the direct Operation of the Spirit. Tertullian saw in Montanism a bulwark against the growing worldli- ness and laxity in the church);68 The great fear of the church was that to recognize the Montanist claim that spiritual teachers were of a higher order than the duly appointed officers of the church ushq‘ualben: 22- 22309 P0 870 h 65McGiffert, History 23 Christian Thought: 1: 166° 1+661mm. I, 172. lmunch. p. 169. 1Mime... p. 170 117 would be to throw the door open to every type of heresy and to give place to every self-styled prOphet. With great hesitancy, due to the high character and devotion of the Montanists, the group was finally condemned. The movement continued its existence apart from the main body of the church, but gradually through degenerating from its original character it finally disappeared altoLrether.)469 Changes in Structure of Organization: The Rise of the Episc0pacy and the Sacerdotal Caste Once the personal direction of the apostles ceased in the affairs of the church, significant changes took place in its organization and government. These changes included the distinc— tion between "bishop" and "presbyter" (elder),u7a terms which were used to denote the same office in Apostolic tin-emu71 the subse- quent elevation of the bishop over the presbyters in a monarchial form of local church government, with presbyters serving as a council and deacons as assistants to the bishOp; and the formation of a sacerdotal caste as opposed to the priesthood of all believers.n72 The diocesan episcopate deve10ped in the latter part of the second century,h73 u691b1d.. Pp. 172. 173. uYoNeander, 32. 333.. I, 199. 1+7 1SEpra, p. 23. lriflNeander, pp. 3311., I, 193. u. ‘73Ib1d., I, 296. 118 The changes mentioned did not take place all at once but were, though gradual, definite and easily traced. At the beginning of the second century none of the changes mentioned was evident. By the end of the second century the monarchial episc0pate, with its bishops and lower clergy, had been firmly, if not universally, established.h7u The changes did not take place without Opposition, and there were throughout the period congregations and individual Christians who refused to give way to innovation. Clement writing at the close of the first century (between 93 and 97 A.D.) in his letter to the Corinthians presents a clear picture of the state of organization in the churches in Home and Corinth. Clement speaks of bishOps and deacons in the New Testa- ment sense and refers to such organization as the will of the apostles.”75 The object of his writing to the Corinthian church was to correct a situation involving "sedition against its presby— ters,")+76 which in itself indicates that at the time of writing the church was thought to be properly ruled by its entire council of elders. These elders had been placed in their office "with the uYEErwin R. Goodenough. The Church in the Roman Empire (New Yerk: Henry Holt and Company, TEWES, p. 25: “Emergent of Home 33 the Corinthians 1&2. 141+. h76Ib1d” 1.1:8. 119 consent of the whole church.“u77 Clement admonished any individual member who was interested in the good of the church to say, "If on my account sedition and disagreement and schisms have arisen, I will depart, I will go away whithersoever ye desire, and I will do what- ever the multitude commands; only let the flock of Christ live on terms of peace with the presbyters set over it."u78 Here is clearly indicated not only the lack of a monarchial episcopacy but rule by the will of the people with their own selected leaders and teachers. The elders still set as a ruling presbytery at Smyrna in Polycarp's time. Polycarp writing at about the same time that Clement wrote began his letter with this selutation: "Polycarp and the presbyters with him, to the church of God sojourning at Philippi . . ."h79 He makes no reference to any single officer as bishop, but refers to the "presbyters and deacons."u8° The first changes may have occurred by a natural selection of one elder to simply preside over the presbyterial college in its meetings, which may have been at first on a basis of rotation WYIbid. , 1AM. Clement of Home To the Corinthians 1.5'. o hYCPolycarp 22 the Philippians, pref. chapt. i. h861b1d.’ vi. 120 ‘1'! whereby the sane person did not preside at all times.”°l Soon after the age of the apostles, however, the standing office of ‘48: president of the presbytery came into being. In process of time I the title of "Bishop“ (EW‘I‘OW'OS) came to be applied to the presiding officer to distinguish him from other presbyters, though at first the bishop had no powers, other than to preside, not [‘33 common to other presbyters.' The shift of power from the presbyters to bishOps was not accomplished without protest on the part of . ,. 1481+ the presbyterso-a struggle which continued into the third century. The sacerdotal caste developed along with the episCOpacy and was used by the bishOps to bolster their position. The bishops persuaded the peeple to think of them as corresponding to the high priest of the Jews, with the presbyters standing in the place of 4. * yr 1 L585 the priests, and the deacons in that of the nevites. During the second century there was develOped another theory, that of "apostolic succession," which was used to support the bishops in their claim of authority. This doctrine represented the bishop 1‘Lgl’s’seander, 22. cit., p. 133. 24821bid. l483Ibid. 148141.016“. pp. 12, 193. LSSI-iosheim, pp. git” p. 63. 121 £13 deriving his authority not by the voice of the congregation, but ‘by his being the successor in authority to the apostles, the power of ordination being thought to pass from generation to generation.166 By the end of the second century only the bishop, in the new sense, was believed to be able to transmit to others the apostolic gifts of the Spirit.“7 Presbyters, now called priests, although having received the apostolic teaching authority at ordination, were not thus enabled to create new priests.u38 The idea of the universal priestly character of all Christians was repressed, and the function of the priesthood reserved to a particular order which assumed the role of a mediatory priesthood on the Old Testament order which was unknown in the New Testament church.“89 The title of "clergy" came to be applied to all those who had been consecrated in the particular priesthood.hag During the greater part of the second century the various congregations continued to be autonomous bodies, and not connected by 148/ o Goodenough, 32. cit., p. 29. M8 7Ibid. 1488Ibid. Neander,'gp. cit., p. 19”. he '“QIbid., p. 195. 122 sissociations or confederacies of any kind.h91 Toward the close of the century, however, the custom arose of chur hes in the same pro- vince meeting together and discussing matters of mutual interest.h92 At first no claim was made by the bishOps meeting in these synods, or councils, of any authority except as representatives of the people. Little by little they made higher claims and finally maintained that authority was given to them by Christ Himself to dictate rules of faith and practice.)493 With higher organization, higher offices were created, with particular bishops appointed to preside over all other bishops of the province.h9u Thus did the diocesan episc0pate develop, and thus was the precedent established for even higher development of the hierarchy in future centuries, when the provinces themselves were drawn into yet greater confederacies in the West under the Bishop of Rome and in the East under the Patriarch of ConstantinOple. Authoritarianism and its Effect on Teaching and Intragroup Relationships The changes in methods of teaching during the second century uglMosheim, 32. 333.. p. 62. 1mime” pp. 62, 62. u93lbid., p. 63. 123 there due partially to the natural transition from the extraordinary .features of early Christian education, with teachers and prOphets endowed with spiritual gifts, to the regular organization with teachers and leaders selected by the congregation on the basis of personal qualification . Another reason for change; involving the whole theory of freedom, equality, and authority in teaching, is found in the rise of the episc0pal system with its clergy-laity structured church organization. During the early part of the second century the extra- ordinary aspects of Christian education and church organization were still evident in the church, since there yet remained in the congregations those upon whom the apostles' hands had been-laid and who thus possessed miraculous gifts in teaching, such as speaking in foreign tongues, interpreting such languages. and the gifts of supernatural knowledge and the power of prOphecy.u95 Instruction through Spiritual gifts necessitated a great amount of freedom in Christian assemblies in order that all who had a spiritual message or revelation might have the Opportunity to be heard. With the lapse of time the testing of prephets was not so sure as in the <1ays of the apostles when revelation was used to certify the pro- jpkwtic teacher. Practical means of discerning between the true u95Supra, chapt. II.- 12h IprOphet and the false teacher took the place of revelation. The .ectivities of the prOphet were increasingly restricted and as time passed the position of the prophetic teacher became less and less conspicuous in the affairs of the church until finally the office disappeared completely. The extraordinary aspects of instruction were still in evidence when the Teaching of the Twelve épostles (or Didache) was written. This work was written at about the beginning of the second cen- tury.1+96 In the Didache the co-existence of both features of organi- zation are recognized, and the admonition is given: "Appoint, therefore, for yourselves, bishops and deacons worthy of the Lord . . . Despise them not therefore for they are your honored ones, together with the proPhets and teachers."LL97 The prophets and teachers were to be received or rejected on the basis of their actions, and a set of rules were given by which the false prophet or teacher was to be recognized: "Therefore from their ways shall the false prOphet M98 and the prOphet be known.” If the teacher taught the truth but ugGMcGiffert, History of Christian Thought, I, 172. h 9YDidache xv.1, 2. u 981b1d., 11.3. 125 “99 did not live accordingly, he was a false prOphet. l Traveling teachers were to remain but one day, in emergency two, but if he "50. If he asked for remain three days, “he is a false prophet. money, "he is a false prophet."5°l As the supernatural gifts disappeared the freedom of expression characteristic of their time also disappeared and a more formal type of instruction, and a more rigid order of service develOped. During the same period in which prophetic teaching was passing, freedom within the congregations was being further curtailed, and formality of teaching increased, by the rise of the episcOpacy and the sacerdotal caste. The emphasis Upon mutual admonition. and the relationship of fraternal fellowship gave way to an authoritarian attitude on the part of the bishop and clergy. with all instruction coming from the authorized source-the bishOp and his appointees. Instead of the "word of Christ" dwelling in the membership "richly is all wisdom" that they might "teach and admonish one another,"902 it was now thought to dwell only in those who held position by “apostolic succession,“ and who alone could bestow h991mm. x.1o. 5'°Ib1d.. 11.5. 5.11bid., x1.6. 5.2001. 3:16; cf. Eph. 5:19. 126 ‘the office of teaching. Hippolytus, writing at about the begin- :ndng of the third century, says, "But we being their (the apostles') successors, and as participators in their grace, high priesthood and office of teaching, as well as being reputed guardians of the Church, must not be found deficient in vigilance."593 The authoritarian position of the bishop in the congregation was buttressed by extravagant claims made for him with increasing force throughout the second century. The position of the bishop is set forth in especially strong langmagp in the writings attributed to Ignatius. If the epistles are the work of Ignatius they were written toward the end of the reign of Trajan (between A.D. 119 and 117). If genuine at all they have suffered extensive interpolations for the particular purpose of strengthening the case for the episccpacy.Sou In the Ignatian epistles the church is exhorted to "reverence your bishOp as Christ Eimself.'5°5 The church member who would do "anything apart from the bishop, the presbyters, and the deacons" was said to be defiled in conscience and "worse than an infidel."5.6 In the 5.3Hippolytus Refutatiqn, pref. to Bk. I. 5.I‘Gerhard Uhlhorn, ”Ignatius of Antioch,u New Schaff—Herzog IEncyclo edia of Religious Knowledge, ed. Samuel Macauley Jackson, 0 . . 90977 5.51gnatius'gg the Trallians vii. 5'6Ib1d. 127 «:ongregation the bishop was said to be the one who "beyond all others" possessed "all power and authority so far as it is possible for a man to possess it."507 Baptism and the Eucharist were not to be administered except by the bishop or by one to whom they had been intrusted by him.598 Members of the clergy were to be reverenced as ”superiors."5°9 The bishop's authority was to be unquestioned, for athat which seems good to him is also well-pleasing to God."510 Subjection to authority was looked upon by the writer of the Ignatian epistles as necessary in all degrees and ranks, and status was recognized according to a strict line and staff relationship. He says, "Let the laity be subject to the deacons; the deacons to the presbyters; the presbyters to the bishop; the bishOp to Christ, even as He is to the Father.”511 The same position of authority and power is given to the bishop in the work known as the Apostolic Constitutions. The épostolic Constitutions were purportedly the pronouncements of the 5°71b1d. *— 5.glgnatius 22 the Smyrnaeans viii. O 5 9Ignatius'ggthe Magnesians iii. 51°Ignatius 22 the Smyrnaeans viii. 5111b1d.. ix. 128 apostles themselves, but the composition is actually of a much later time than that of the apostles.512 The bishop's position is stated in no uncertain terms. He is assured that it is his "privelege to govern those under" him, "but not to be governed by them."513 The jprOper attitude of a layman toward the bishOp is stated no less definitely: As to a good shepherd, let the lay person honour him, love him, reverence him as his lord, as his master, as the highepriest of God, as a teacher of piety. For he that heareth him, heareth hrist; and he that rejec- teth him, rejecteth Christ.51 Thus did the freedom of the early Christian assembly give way to the usurped authority of an episcopacy. The mutual admoni- tion of brethren during Christian meetings found no place in an organization so structured that only teachers certified by the episc0pal authority were permitted to speak. The discourse and the exposition remained as methods in teaching, but had come to be the sole domain of the clergy. The Lord's Supper ceased to possess the aspects of a fraternal meal in which brothers and sisters 1 Christ sat down at the Lord's table as equals in the family of God. 5123. Achelis, "Apostolic Constitutions and Canons,” New Schaff-Herzog EncyclOpedia 2: Religious Knowledge, ed. Samuel MaanIey Jackson, Vol. I (19087. 5134postolic Constitutions 11.3.1”. 51“:b1d., 11.3.29. 123 The equality had been destroyed in the development of a hierarchy. Consistent with the requirements of a sacerdotal caste, the table became an alter, and the materials of the supper itself a “sacrifice," properly administered only by the clergy as consecrated priests. The Beginning of the Catechumenate The catechumenate was devised for the benefit of adult converts to Christianity and was what we would now call adult education. There were three outstanding purposes for this type of training: First, moral discipline and the development of an appre- ciation of the Christian way of life; second, the acquainting of the convert with the Christian tradition; and third, the creation of a profound devotion to the Christian faith.515 The function served by the catechumenate was that of inducting the individual into the Christian community.516 Those receiving instruction were called catechumenoi, or as it has come into English, "catechumens." The content of that which was taught was called "catechesis." The Greek 'verb used means literally to "sound down," and was used in medical speech to refer to the oral instructions given by the physician to l 5 5Sherrill, pp. 333., p. 186. =1 ’ 61bid., p. 187. - .13 T" 130 his patient. When taken into educational terminology the idea was out" in chor' s the that the students were to be taught by "singi ng 517 answers to the questions asced by the teacher. The catechumenate may be traced from its beginning in the second century, through a period of growth in the third and fourth centuries. to its decline in later centuries when such a prOgram of adult education became unnecessary owing to the general practice of admitting infants to baptism.518 In the beginning of the second century the only preparation for baptism, other than that common in New Testament times, seemed to be a period of prayer and fasting observed by the candidate and the church prior to the baptizing.519 This in itself was a deve10p— ment beyond the apostolic times, when on one occasion three thousand were baptized after hearing but one sermon.52o When the gospel was extended to the Gentiles, however, there were greater problems in teaching the unbeliever. More lengthy instruction was necessary in (dealing with Gentile converts coming from pagan bedkgrounds than in 517Ibid., pp. 151, 152. 5lgFrederick Eby and Charles F. Arrowood, The History and Philoso hy of Education Ancient and Medieval (1 ew Yer": Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1910), p. 668. 519Didache vii.h. 529Acta 2:1u-u1. 131 preaching to the Jews who had been trained from their youth in the Mosaic moral code and were when first hearing the Christian message well-versed in the Old Testament Scriptures. Thus, the ground was already prepared with the Jews for the teaching of Christian doc- trine. In dealing with the Gentiles, however, the church found the candidate for membership lacking in the basic understandings neces- sary to the intelligent and genuine acceptance of the Christian faith. The length of training was extended more and more until from the brief period of fasting and prayer mentioned in the Didache it had grown to a period of several years duration in later centuries.521 Even in the earliest stages there can be discerned at least three gradations in the program of instruction for the catechumenate. There was first a preliminary step in which the candidate became acquainted with the first principles of the faith; a second, in ‘which the catechumen was admitted along with the baptized to hear the lessons, the homilies, and other types of oral instruction; and 'third, a more advanced stage in which the learner could receive a snore thorough type of instruction by seeking out competent teachers, 0 car by reading their writings which were beginning to be available.5“2 521Sherrill, pp, 233., p. 189. 5221bid., p. 187. 132 The last mentioned type of instruction was of course made use of by those members of the church who sought further instruction, as well as by the catechumens. The organization of the catechumenate as an educational institution is still obscure in the second century, since information concerning it, except for its subject matter, is very limited in second century sources. The further develOpment of the catechumenate swat, therefore, be dealt with in the next period of our study where the details are more plentiful. Subject Matter for Catechumenal and Membership Instruction In addition to the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments there were used certain books and letters, though not accepted as a jpart of the canon of inspired Scriptures, which were none the less valuable as subject matter in the educational program of the church, There were writings of particular value in the elementary stages of instruction, such as the Shepherd.2£ Hermes and the Dideche. For Inore advanced study there were available works of major importance, including the writings of Irenaeus and the writings of a number of ap010gists, the most outstanding being the apolOgies of Justin Martyr, The Shepherd of Hermes (or Pastor of Hermes) is the writing 133 of an ordinary Christian, not a clergyman, possibly a merchant, whose revelations and visions reminded him of his need of repentancefi‘23 The book is of uncertain authorship and probably written about 16% 13.3.52“ The work was one of the most pepular books in the Christian church from the second through the fourth centuries and was received by some as an inspired writing.525 AcCording to his statement the writer received his revelations by visions and from "the angel of repentance" who appeared to him in the likeness of a shepherd.526 The work is divided into three books-wBook First, Visions; Book Second, Commandments; and Book Third, Similitudes. The Shepherd .93. Hermes was an especially important writing in bringing before catechumens and new Christians the dangers which beset those who desire to be pure in thought and deed, who would "cleanse their hearts from the 'vain desires of this world . . . and live to God.v527 Another important work was the Didache (or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles), which has been called " the earliest textbook for instruction in Christian doctrine and ethics.“528 The Didache, as 523Ib1d., p. 163. 521%, Cleveland Coxe, Ante-Nicene Fathers, II, 3. 525E. Crombie, Ante-Iioene Fathers, II. 6. 7. 526Pastor of Hermes 1.5.5. 527Ibid., 11.12.6. 52‘Sl'lby and Arrowood, pp. cit., p. 608. "f “"I'Ir ”v.15 A. '1‘- 13h has been mentioned in another connection, was written at about the beginning of the second century. The work was something of a hand- book for early Christian congregations, consisting of materials for moral and ethical instruction, teaching on fasting and prayer, as well as instruction on church organization and the preper observance of Christian ordinances. The value of the book in the instruction of catechumens and new church members is clearly indicated in those sections dealing with "The Two W "s"—-one, the way of life, and the other, the way of death. The way of life is stated in positive terms, inculcating the principles of behavior found in the Sermon K on the Mount,”29 followed by a delineation of those things in conduct which are contrary to Christian principles. In the way of death is presented a picture of pagan life and morals which stands out in stark contrast to the Christian way of life: And the way of death is this: First of all it is evil and full of curse: murders, adulteries, lusts, fornica~ tions, thefts, idolatries, magic arts, witchcrafts, rapines, false witnessings, hypocrisies, double-hearted— ness, deceit, haughtiness, depravity, self-will, greediness, filthy talking, Jealousy, over-confidence, loftiness, boastfulness; persecutors of the good, hating truth, loving a lie, not knowing a reward for righteousness, not cleaving to good nor to righteous judgement, watching not for that which is good, but for that which is evil; from whom meekness and endurance are far, loving vanities, pursuing requital, not pitying a poor man, not laboring for the afflicted, not knowing Him that made them, 2 5 9Didache,i.1—5. “ll 9 "J‘- 135 murderers of children, destroyers of the handiwork of God, turning away from him that is in wan , afflicting him that is distressed, advocates of the rich, lawless judges of th poor, utter sinners. Be delivered, children, from all these.539 In addition to these writings there were a number of epistles which were being circulated among the churches and used for teaching. Among these were the epistles of Clement of Home and Polycarp, also those attributed to Ignatius, and another of unknown authorship, the so-called epistle of Barnabas. These epistles dealt with expositions of the Scriptures, moral and ethical instruc- tion, and problems and issues which were current in the second century. They were, therefore, of value as subject matter in the educational program of the church. For those interested in advanced studies in Christian doctrine the field of polemics was rich in materials for study. Works of this type were the natural productions of an age in the history of the church when the faith was under attack both from the outside by pagans and from inside the church by heretics. Out— standing exponents of the faith in the second century were Irenaeus, who defended the church against the heretics, and Justin Martyr who ably defended it against the pagans and championed its cause in his Ibid., chapt. v. as. n ‘1 fl sun—.... 136 apologies addressed to the Roman rulers. These works will be dis- cussed under the headings relating to their individual writers. Individual Efforts in Christian Education: The Beginning of the Catechetical School During the first century Christianity had its strongest following among simple folk who possessed little formal education, but towards the end of the second century converts were being made from among the teaching class, the grammarians, the rhetoricians, and the philosOphers.531 These converts brought with them their love of learning and they desired such for Christian youth, During the second century the teachinrs of Christianity were subjected to the attacks of learned pagans, creating the need for Christian institutions of learning of the highest level.532 A number of outstanding scholars and philosophers who had accepted the Christian faith continued in their role of teachers and made use of their reputations and positions to bring the Christian religion to those who resorted to their lectures. These schools were the same type as those of the philosophers a1l were in the natule of a private lectureship or chair occupied by an outstanding teacher.533 —_ 53lstophen Duggan, ,5 Students Textbook in the History of lflducation (3rd ed.; New York: Appleton—Century-Crofts, Inc.,‘ 131113) a P0 71. 5321bid. 5333. G. Good, op. cit., p. 63. 137 There were a number of such philosophers and teachers whose reputations have caused their names to be remembered in history. Justin Martyr was one of the greatest of these teachers. Later we shall hear more concerning his work. One of the earliest of these private schools to be Opened was that of Basilides, the Gnostic, which .3“ 1 began in Alexandria about 125 A,D. Eusebius mentions Easilides' school and also states that Saturninus of Antioch established a school "of godless heresy" in Syria.535 A similar school was established in home by Valentinus,536 another Gnostic who became the founder of the sect which bore his name. Yet another Gnostic teacher was Ptolmaeus, "whose school may be described as a bud from' that of Valentinus."5:57 The school of Tatian deserves special consideration due to its educational importance, and will be taken 12p under another topic. These private schools of the second century were the fore— ‘rumners in principle for the catechetioal schools which played an important role in Christian education during the third and fourth centuries. With one exception the schools of the second century 531Trood. 32.333” p. 63. 535Eusebiug Church History iv.7.3, h.; See also Irenaeus .Against Heresies i.§fi;l. 536Good., 22.. 23.: Po 63' 537Irenaeus Against Heresies, pref. to Bk. 1. 138 passed out of existence with the death of their teachers and there is no evidence that an historical connection existed between them and the schools which flourished in the third century. This one excep- tion was the school of Pantaenus, which was established at Alexandria in 179 A.D.538 This was the beginning of the welléknown catechetioal school of Alexandria. Pantaenus was succeeded as head of the school by Clement, and Clement in turn by Origen. The founding and development of the cstechetical school at Alexandria will be dis- cussed in more detail in the nex chapter. Justin. Christian Philos0pher and Martyr Justin was born in Flavia Heapolis, a city of Palestine.539 lie was the son of Prisons and the grandson of Bacchius,5L6 who were eaither Greek or Roman and evidently of a family of considerable Ski 1 9 ~ , 1 she wealth. Tne date oi his birth was probably about ill-ULD. He 'travelled widely. both before and after his conversion to <3hristianity. and finally settled down in Rome as a Christian 533Paul Monroe, éLTeztbook in the History of Education (flew York: The Macmillan Compwany, 19337 _""“ 533Just1n Apology 1.1. 5h°lbid. 5M1Albert Henry Newman. "Justin Martyr." The New Schaff— Eerzog Encyclo edia 2: Religious Knowledge. ed. Samuel Macauley Jackson, Vol. VI {1910). 5“21b1d. 139 teacher},+3 As a Christian teacher and philosOpher he acted as an evangelist. proclaiming the Gospel as the only safe philos0phy and the only way of salvation.5141+ In Rome he met with a martyr's death during the reign of Marcus Aurelius when Rusticus was Prefect of the city--between 152 A.D. and 163 A.D.5h5 Eusebius states that his death was the result of a plot laid by Crescens, A Cynic philosoypher.5L6 Justin himself said that he expected to be plotted against by Crescens. who he identified as a “lover of bravado and boasting . . . not worthy of the name of phiIOSOpher who publicly bears witness against us in matters which he does not understand.“51+7 Justin was by profession a philosopher and was from his youth a diligent student of philOSOphy.5h3 Even after his con— version to Christianity he wore the Greek philosoPher's garb, a distinctive cloak or mantle called the Palliuxnij'9 The Pallium 51+3Marcus Dods §t_§l,. Ante—Nicene Fathers. I. 160. 51mTbid. 51"jlbid. 51+621t‘usebius Church History iv.l6.7. 5u7Justin Apology 11.3. 514-8 Newman. "Justin Martyr." pp. cit. :\ ’49McGiffert. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, I. 18%. 1% gave the wearer immediate recognition and respect and added to his opportunities for discourse in the street, market, and other public placeg,55o This undoubtedly accounts for Justin's continued use of the garb after his conversion. He himself refers to the Pallium in his Dialogue with Trypho, and it was his wearing of it that brought about his conversation with Trypho.551 Justin studied in various schools of philosophy before he accepted Christianity. having "found this philosophy alone to be safe and profitable," and could say, "Thus (in this way) and for this reason I am a phiIOSOpher."552 Justin first mentions his studies in the school of the Stoics. This philOSOphy, however, brought him no satisfaction in his search for knowledge of God. He says that after he had spent considerable tine with a certain Stoic philos0pher, and "had not acquired any further knowledge of God (for he did not know himself, and said that such instruction was unnecessary ," that he left off his studies with that philosopher.553 Next Justin ap- plied himself to his studies under a teacher of the Peripatetic school. 6 55 Ibid. See also Eusebius Church History iv.ll.i. R “SyJustin Dialogue 1. 5521bid., viii. 553Ibid., 11. -;O§-‘1- “-4-" 11+1 He concluded that this man was "no philosopher at all" when after a few days the teacher suggested that he "settle the fee. in order that our discourse might not be unprofitable."551+ Justin then proceeded to a Pythagorian but was unable to satisfy the prerequisites for the course of study. He describes his interview with the Pythagorian as follows: And then. when I had an interview with him. willing to become his hearer and disciple. he said, "What then? are you acquainted with music. astronomy. and geometry? Do you expect to perceive any of those things which conduce to a happy life, if you have not been first informed on those points which wean the soul from sensible objects, and render it fitted for objects which appertain to the mind. so that it can contemplate that which is honorable in its essence?" Having commended many of these branches of learning, and telling me that they were necessary, he dismissed me when I confessed to him my ignorance. Ac- cordingly I took it rather impatiently, as was to be expected when I failed in my h0pe. the more so because I deemed the man had some knowledge; but reflecting again on the space of time during which I would have to linger over those branches of 132 hing, I was not able to endure longer procrastination. 3 Following this experience Justin turned to the Platonists. "for their fame was great." In this philos0phy Justin found a real interest and made great pregress in his study. He says. I thereupon spent as much of my time as possible with one who had lately settled in our city.--a sagacious man, u 55 Ibid. 555Ibid. 1142 holding s. hid: position along the Platonists.-end I progressed. and node the greatest improvements daily. And the perception of imtsriel things quits overpowered no. and the contemplation of ideas furnished Iv mind with wings. so that in s little while I supposed that I had bosom wise; and such was my stupidity. I expected forth- with to look. Pen God. for this is the end of Plato's philosophy.55 Hers Justin uses in s light manner the trite phrase of Plato's ('fornishsd q mind with wings“). end es 9. Christian expresses his disdnin of the vein hope of‘Pletonisn in saying. I'I supposed that I had become wise; and such was w stupidity. I expected forthwith to loo]: upon God . . .' Justin relates at length the circumstances of his conversion. lo sttribntes his conversion to the chance meeting and ensuing conversation with an aged Christian.557 In telling of the converse- tion Justin dononstrstes the indecency of his one-tine Platonist views as compared to the Gospel as presented by the old Christian. It was pointed out to his that by revelation alone. and not by hues endeavor. could the blessodnoss of true wisdom sought by the philosopher be attained. the Christian nssssgo was sumd up in the following words of the old Christian: fliers existed. long before this tins. cortsin son It)!" snoisnt than :11 those who are esteemed philosophers. both 5561““... 5511311. . iii-Jvii. 1M3 righteous and beloved by God, who spoke by the Divine Spirit. and foretold events which would take place, and which are now taking place. They are called prOphets. These alone both saw and announced the truth to men, neither reverencing nor fearing any man. not influenced by a desire for glory. but speaking those things alone which they saw and which they heard, being filled with the Holy Spirit. Their writings are still extant. and he who has read them is very much helped in his knowledge of the beginning and end of things, and of those matters which the philosoPher ought to know, provided he has believed them. For they did not use demonstration in their treatises. seeing that they were witnessestn the truth above all demonstration, and worthy of belief; and those events which have happened, and those which are happening, compel you to assent to the utterances made by them. although, indeed. they were entitled to credit on account of the miracles which they performed. since they both glorified the Creator, the God and Father of all things, and proclaimed His Son. the Christ sent by Him . . . But pray that, above all things, the gates of light may be opened to you; for these things cannot be perceived or understood by all. but only the man to whom God and His Christ have imparted wisdom.558 "When he had spoken these and many otter things." said Justin. ". . . he went away bidding me attend to them . . ."553 Justin's :reaction to this experience was immediate and positive. He says. "Straightway a flame was kindled in my soul; and a love of the Ixrophets. and of those men who are friends of Christ. possessed me; said whilst revolving his words in my mind. I found this philosophy alone to be safe and profitable."569 5581b1d.. vii. 559Ibid.. viii. 56°Ib1d. 1th Justin was no longer a Platonist but now only a Christian, since he had found in Christianity alone the philosOphy that was safe and profitable. With the new understanding;Justin re-evaluated the teachings of Platonism. and stated that Plato was indebted to hoses for some of his teachings. He charges that "Plato borrowed his statement that God, having altered matter wfich was shapeless. .n561 made the world . Justin quotes the Genesis record of the creation and says that Moses "was the first prephet. and of greater antiquity than the Greek writers."562 "It is not," says Justin, "that we hold the some opinions as others. but that all speak in imitation of ours."563 Justin may have retained the definition he had given of philosophy: "The knowledge of that which really exists. and a clear perception of the truth; and happiness is the reward of such knowledge and wisdom."561+ His belief as to what constituted that wisdom and knowledge, and how it might be obtained, had radically changed. When a Platonist Justin believed that in the r "mind's eye" men might see and know God. if the mind itself was pure.)65 56¥Justin.Anologz 1.59- 5621bid. 5631mm. 1.69. 5°EJustin.Dialogue iii. 5651bid.. iv. n - 1‘45 He says concerning the soul that "so long as it is in the form of a man. it is possible for it to attain to this (1.6. to seeing God) by means of the mind."566 To Justin the Christian, the mind of man unaided by God could receive no knowledge of Him. As a Christian he accepted Christ as "a power of the ineffable Father. and not the mere instrument of human reason."-567 Even the ignorant are able to receive through Christ a knowledge of God. says Justin. "Amon us," he says. "these things can be heard and learned from persons who do not even know the forms of the letters. who are uneducated and barbarous in speech, though wise and believing in mind . . . so that you may understand that these things are not the effect of human wisdom. but are uttered by the power of God.”568 Thus Justin advises Trypho and his friends to "be earnest in setting a higher value on the Christ of the Almighty God than on your own teachers."569 Some have thought that Justin's teaching regarding the l£§33_ represented a major compromise with Greek philosOphy. A.careful examination of Justin's writings. however. reveals that he used the 566Ibid. 567Justin Ap ology 11.10. 568 560 ’Justin Dialogue xclii. ‘ ' -r_a-.-—_._il- . 1M6 term "A;7°3" in much the same way as did the apostle John. identi— fying the pre-existent Word (A0905) with Jesus the Son of God.576 Justin says, "It is wrong . . . to understand the spirit and power of God as anything else than the Word (APYOS), who is also the first—born of God."571 He did, however. deveIOp the idea beyond the New Testament concept. Accepting as a fact that Christ, the Word, communicated with the minds of men before the Incarnation, Justin granted that the ancient philos0phers were in varying degrees inspired; and that those men who received the direction of the Word were 'Christians."572 Thus he placed both Abraham and Socrates among those who had been enlightened and made them "Christians."573 All of the ancient writers, according to Justin, were not equally inspired by the Word, "for each man spoke well in proportion to the share he .had . . . but they who contradict themselves on the more important jpoints appear not to have possessed the heavenly wisdom . ."BTM (The ancients were able "to see realities darkly." says Justin, the real thing itself can be comprehended ”according to the grace which is from Him."575 57OSes John 1:l~1h. 571Justin Apology 1.33- 57?;2393’ i.h6. 57%;222. 5714;119. 11.13. 5751b1d. 14—...“ g». - _.__f___ ...;wr 1M7 we have two works from.Justin's pen. They are his Apology in two parts and his Dialogue with Trypho. These are the only existing writings of Justin Martyr. Other works ascribed to Justin r :7 are not his."76 In the Apology. written about 15C link."7 Justin nukes a defense of the Christian faith addressing it to the rulers F" of the Roman state. The Dialogme. which was written a little later,"7 records the conversations between Justin and a Jew named Trypho. In the Apology Justin defends the Christian religion in such a way as to appeal to the Gentiles. In the Dialogue Justin sets out to demonstrate that Christianity is the only safe philosOphy, and (drawing his arguments from the Old Testament) that it is the only true religion; that havin supplanted Judaism it is the only way of salvation for both Jew and Gentile. The two writings, although written from two different points of view, are consistent in their concept of Christianity. The ApOIOgy and the Dialogue served the purpose of strengthening the faith of Christians as well as the convincing of pagans and Jews of the truthfulness of the Christian faith. 6 57 McGiffert, History 2£_Christian Thought. I. 97. 577 Ibid. ! 1 mg“ Iizffl.‘ _ .a—fi J ..----” 1&8 Tatian, Exponent of Universal Education Another individual effort in education was that of Tatian, who established a school at Antioch dedicated to the promotion of the sect which he had founded. Tatian seems to have embraced Christianity at Rome where he became a student of Justin's.579 After the death of his teacher he came under the influence of the Gnostics and about 155 AiD. founded an ascetic sect called the Encratites, that is. "The Self— controlled," or "Masters of Themselves."53@ Tatian died a few years after establishing his new sect.581 Due to his heresy the greater number of the works of Tatian have perished. Only two of his works have come down to our times—- his Diatessaron. or Harmony of the Four Gospels, and his Address to the Greeks. The Address is orthodox in doctrine and is one of the s most unsparing exposures of the depravity of heathenism.’32 The Diatessaron not only has the distinction of being the first harmony J. E. Rylend, Ante-Nicene Fathers. II. 63. 1143 of the Gospels, but also constitutes a clear testimony of the middle-second century acceptance of the four Gospels as the sole authority on the life and ministry of Christ. After leaving Rome, Tatian established himself in Antioch where he acquired a large number of students.533 Tatian became one of the earliest exponents of universal education. He urged like Opportunities for all regardless of status. In Speaking to the Greeks of Christian practices he says. As for those who wish to learn our philosophy, we do not test them by their looks, nor do we judge of those who come to us by their outward appearance; for we argue that there nmy'begfitrength of mind in all, though they may be weak in body.5 .Boys. girls, and women were not excluded from educational Oppor- tunities by the Christians. The high respect held for women, in contrast to pagan attitudes, as well as the Christian belief in (equal educational Opportunities for all, is expressed by Tatian as follows: You who say that we talk nonsense among women and boys, among maidens and old women, and scoff at us for not being with.you. hear what silliness prevails among the Greeks. For their works of art are devoted to worthless objects, while they are held in higher estimation by you than even your gods; and you behave yourselves unbecomingly in what 583Ibid. 81+ 5 Tatian Address to the Greeks xxzii. - “—T_—-4-;. ~fl 15o relates to women. For Lysippus cast a statue of Praxilla . . . My object in referring to these women is, that you may not regard as something strange what you find among us, and that comparing the statues which are before your eyes, you may not treat the women with scorn :ho among us pursue philoso— phy. This Sappho is a lewd, lovesick female, and sings her own wantonness; but all our women are chaste, and the maidens at their distaffs sing of divine things more nobly than that damsel of yours. Wherefore be ashamed. you.who are professed disciples of women yet scoff at those of the sex who hold our doctrine, as well as at the solemn assemblies they frequent. 85 The emphasis upon universal education was maintained by the church throughout the ancient period. During the Middle Ages, how- ever, formal education came to be understood as primarily for those who were being prepared for the priesthood. The emphasis of early Christianity upon education for all was restored in the Reformation and became the policy of Luther and the other reformers. In the Reformation the fundanentals of learning were seen to be necessary for all as the means whereby every individual might read and interpret the Scriptures for himself. Irenaeus, Defender of the Faith and Exponent of Authoritative Tradition Irenaeus was born between A.D. 120 and A.D. IMO and spent 586 - - . his boyhood in Smyrna. He himself tells us that in early youth 8 5 51bid., xxxiii. 8 S'éa, Cleveland Coxe, Ante—Ricene Fathers. 1. 312- 151 he had been acquainted with the martyr Polycarp of that city.587 He became BishOp of Iyons in Gaul, succeeding Pothinus to that office after Pothinus had died a martyr's death.588 It has been conjectured that Irenaeus was put to death about 202 A.D. during the severe persecution which took place in Lyons during that year.589 Irenaeus made his life work the combatting of heresy and his writings are principally devoted to that task. The two principle works of Irenaeus which have come down to us are: Proof of the Apostolic Preaching, and his Against Heresies which is divided into five books. The full title of the major work is given as é Refuta— shorter title “Against Heresies" is most commonly used. By looking into these writings we are able to recognize their probable uses in catechumenal and catechetioal instruction. and in the combatting of heresy. We nay also learn something of Irenaeus' philosOphy of religion and education. 537 Irenaeus Against Heresies iii.3.M. 88 5 Eusebius Church History v.5.8. I" . )gaJoseph p. Smith, S. J., translator and annotator, St. Irenaeus Proof 33 the Apostolic Preaching (Westminster, Maryland: The Newman Press, 1952). P. 3. 530 ' . Eusebius Church History v.7.1. gum-4 152 Irenaeus stated his purpose in writing Against Heresies as (1) to "furnish . . . assistance against the contraditions of the heretics"; (2) "to reclaim the wanderers and convert them to the Church of God"; (3) "to confirm the minds of the neophytes that they my not be led astray by false doctrines."591 He wrote that his readers might "obtain a knowledge of the subjects" against which he was contending.592 This knowledge was not to be considered knowledge for knowledge's sake. but rather was to be used to prepare his readers to receive the proofs which were to be brought against the heretics, and that his readers might contravert heresy “in a f‘ legitimate manner."5j3 The polemic method which.was used by the heretics, as well as that which was used by Irenaeus in combatting heresy, is indicated in the following: But since these men delight in attacking us, and in their true character of cavillers assail us with points which really tell not at all against us, bringing forward in Opposition to us a multitude of parables and captious questions, I have thought it well, on the other side, first of all to put to them the following inquiries concerning their own doctrines, to exhibit their improbability, and to put an end to their audacity. After this has been done. I intend to bring forward the discourses of the Lord, so that they may not only be rendered destitute of the means of attacking us, but that. since they will be unable 591 Irenaeus Against Heresies, pref. to bk. v. 592Ibid. 593Ibid. t..- -.‘ u___r____._ _?_. fl. 153 reasonably to reply to those questions which are put. they may see that their plan of argument is destroyed; so that, either returning to the truth, and humbling themselves . . . or that, if they still persevere in that system of vainglory which has taken possession of their minds, they may at least ffind it . to necessary to change their kind of argument against us./J The intention of Irenaeus to produce another work in which II ° ‘ " " 4‘ 'r *II5C'5 he would brin forward the discourses o. the here 1 was realized 5 in the writing of his Proof of the Apostolic Preachin . Several passages in the Proof are therefore dependent for clarification upon 596 statements found in Against Heresies. The purpose of the Proof 2: the Apostolic Preaching is clearly indicated by the title. The work was polemical; its aim was to establish by proof the Christian position. Irenaeus states his purposes in writing to Marcianus. to whom he addresses himself in the book, as (l) "to set forth in brief the preaching of the truth"; (2) to confirm the faith of the reader; (3) to equip the reader to "confound all those who hold false views."597 Thus the book was intended as a positive approach to the same Drobleu as had been dealt with b Acainst Heresies in A. O the negative. In the previous set of propositions he had debated, taking the negative; in the last set of propositions he assumes the affirmative. The book was by nature a compendium of Christian teachings and a valuable handbook in catechumenal instruction. k sgulrenaeus Against Heresies ii.ll.2. 3751b1d. 5jéSrnith. 311. 933.. p. u. 597 Irenaeus Proof of the Apostolic Preaching i. --—fi_ .__._. .._ i i t .1. “a.“ .‘u- 151+ Irenaeus realized the inmortance of an aggressive educational program for the church. He had witnessed a kind of teaching devastate a great part of the church, and he was determined that education, backed by a strong episcopate, should be the means by which the church should be rebuilt.598 The episcopate of Irenaeus was distinguished by his labors in the evangelization of Southern Gaul.599 He seems also to have sent missionaries into other parts of what we now call France.600 Under his teaching Lyons became a Christian city. The philos0phy of education held by Irenaeus can be stated in terms of a direct chain: Revelation, Scripture, church, education, salvation, growth in love, and fellowship with God.601 No part of this chain could be omitted and the final aim of fellowship with God be realized. The authority of the church was of primary imp portance in this scheme of education. Although he expresses a belief in human liberty and the freedom of the individual to make 602 his own decisions, Irenaeus believed in a rigid church organiza- 598Sherrill, 223 cit}, p. 188. “99 J A. Cleveland Coxe, notes, Ante—Nicene Fathers, I, 310. 6°51b1d. 601 Sherrill, 22, cit., p. 188. 602 See Irenaeus Against Heresies iv.37.l, 3. In; a..n..-— 155 tion and his writings did much to further authoritarianism and to confirm the power held by the episcopacy.€03 He saw in a strong episc0pacy what he considered to be the only protection of the church against the inroads of heretical teaching. In his clear formulation of the idea of tradition Irenaeus made his most lasting contribution.60u The importance of this concept in the history of the church and Christian educztion, and its influence on Western thought, can hardly be overemphasized. In stating the principle of tradition, Irenaeus helped to establish 6 system of authoritarianism which, with its struggle with the consciences and minds of men, was to greatly determine the future history of the church and Western education. Irenaeus in Opposing the speculative thinking of the Gnostics, and as a defense against it, moved to an Opposite extreme and adopted a strict authoritarian position.€05 His position was the forerunner of the doctrine of an infallible church and of the inability of the individual to under- stand the Scriptures for himself. Irenaeus held that the only ac— cePtable interpretation of Scripture was to be found in the authori— tative tradition of the Church. The truth to Irenaeus was that 603 Ibid., 1v.26.2. Olfiqorlcmn. £22. Cit.’ p0 1C2. 605 . Irenaeus Against Heresies iii.a.1. ." ..f-“A .._“. _:_ __.r ‘ #3.... . A 156 position in doctrine which had supposedly been preserved intact 63‘ "by the means of the succession of presbyters in the churches." “ He recognized orthodoxy on the basis of the theory of apostolic succession in the episcopacy.607 He believed that truth had been "deposited" in the Church and that apostolical doctrine, i.e. proper _ €08 interpretation of the Scriptures, could be found nowhere else. Irenaeus points out the Church of Rome as an example of what he considered to be the true preservation and transmission of the 609 1 apostolic tradition through episcopal succession. He toos the position that the church at Rome represented something of a norm of faith and held that "it is a matter of necessity that every -1 Church should agree with this Church."6 0 Thus, in the second century Irenaeus laid the foundations for the rise of the Papacy and paved the way for the dominance of the Church of Rome in the affairs of the Western church during the Middle Ages. 606Ibid., 111.2.2. 6°7Ib1d., 111.3.1. 608 Ibid., 111.u.1; iv.26.l. 6°91bid., 111.2.2. 61°Ib1a., 111.3.2. ’\ law... 157 The Second Century-«An Era of Transition The second century was a most important period in the history of the ante—Eicene church and of early Christian education. It was a period in church history which was of great significance in the later development of Western education. It was a time that witnessed many changes in the organization and structure of the church. These changes were the outward manifes- tation of a significant change that was taking place in the spirit of formal Christianity. The church as we saw it in the first century was all but to disappear in the short span of one hundred years. A blanket of authoritarianism was spread over the church that was to stifle the freedom of spirit that had been so characteristic of the church in the previous century. The unity also of the Christian church was shattered by strange doctrines brought in from pagan sources. The authoritarianism 0f a.powerful episcopacy could not preserve the unity thrt in an earlier time had been maintained through mutual faith and love, when "the multitude of them that believed'were of one heart and of one soul . "611 In the early part of the second century the ways of the first Chrisidens were maintained in the churches. This state of affairs 61lActs h:32. 158 is clearly ir .dica ted by the writings of the tine—-The Lidache and the letters of early Christian leaders. The purity of the life and teaching of the church was maintained in part throuUi the influence of these early \m Fiters who x-.fere known as "the Apostolic Fathers"—~ the men who were themselves the per onal disciples of one or more C of the apostles of Christ. When the restraint of these godly men was removed, a general apostacy oegan to Le evident in the church, and 0y the middle of the centurv th e influence of the Aiostolic Fathers had all but disappeared. Such men as Irenaeus, who in other respects was praiseworthy, and the pseudo-Ignatius corrugted the simple organization of the early congregation. The sacerdotal systen and the ecclesiastical hierarchy fostered by these men domir ated the minds and consciences of men throughout the Middle Ages. Christiw liberty was sunpressed until the voice of freedom xx 9 heard again in the labors of a Luther, a Zwingli. and a Calvin in the sixteenth century Reformation. It was the return to the spirit of the first Christians that br0“7ht these reforners to see the evil of an authorita rianis n that VNNlld rob men of their right to read and interpret the Scriptures fOI‘ themselves. It was this spark of early Christianity that opened the umw’for the great public school system where the children of all the peoole might learn to read the Scriptures for themselves and he 0 +‘ - a I O E. “3913 rearts o*ened to the ”0rd of Life. The spirit of Tatien, the P earl5r Christian advocate of universal education, lived again in the up.- I "" ‘u-m‘sc— - 15 KL) 1 realization that every human soul is of ines i.r w‘le worth and that teaciiir -g must therefore be for all-men.and women, boys and girls, old and young in all clin ms and in all walzs of life. The second century saw th be gi nning of th inter—relation- ship of forn'l or ristizn educ: tion and secula er educ wti n. It was the century of the esta olishment of the Christian school where th earning of the pagan world could be seen in the oerspective of }—J the Christian Gospel. The second century witnessed ti 1e two k of ustin Martyr who conducted such a school, and taught the Gospel of Christ on the academic level of ti e grea t teac}-ers of page learn'ng. The school of Justin was in essence the proto-type of every Christian common school and college since his time that has endeavored to teach the essentials of human learning along with the Word of God to a group of students who were being led to see that they were in the world but not of the world. To Justin it ‘ras not enough to no able to converse intelligently on the nrture of the universe without aving at the same time a personal Christian philosophy that would give nmaning to the individual's own existence. The conditions which calledthe Christian school nto existence in that time have brought into twing similar schools in other times and 911”11 do so in the f‘L‘d‘aure, whenever existing institutions fail to provide for the needs 0f Christian youth. THE CHURCH IN THE THIRD CEITUBY AXE THE RISE OF THE CHEISTIAH SCHOOL: A.D. 281—330 I. Relations of State to Church in the Third Century Varied Circumstances of the Church During the Century Conditions at the Beginning of the Century 1. Edict of Septimius Severus. 202 A.D. C Persecution Under Caracalla: 2ll-~217 A.D. D. Seventeen Years of Best from Persecution: 213-—235 n.3, 1. Reign of Heliogebalus: 218-222 A.D. 2. Reign of Alexander Severus: 22 -—235 A.D. E. Persecution Resumed Under Maximius. 235 AsD. F. Peace for Eleven Years: 233——2M9 A.D. 1. Reign of Gordianus: 238—~24h A.D. 2. Reign of Philip the Arabian: aha-ing A.D. G. The First General Persecution of the Church: 2h9.. 26° A.D. 1. Edict and Reign of Decius Trajan: 2h9-25l A.D. 2. Reign of Callus: 251--253 A.D. 3. Reign of Valerian: 253—..260 A.D. H. The Persecution Ends for the Remainder of Century. 260 A.D. 1. Gallienus and His Successors 2. Legal Basis for Toleration 3. Effect of Peace Upon the Church a. Increase in Membership b. Material Prosperity c. Increase of Worldliness and Relaxation of Discipline A. ‘ B 11.. Greek Influence on Christian Thought A. Hellenism and the Church 1. Eclecticism 2. Neoplatonism B. Eclecticism 1. Its Center—«Alexandria r‘ ““f—‘g‘j 2. Position of Clement of Alexandria a. PhilosOphy the Schoolmaster to Load the Hellenic Mind to Christ b. Philosophy Not Sole Means of Arriving at Full Truth 3. Position of Crigen a. PhiIOSOphy a Preparation for Christianity b. Extracting the Useful C. Neoplatonism . Sect Apart from Christinaity . Founders; Saccus and Plotinus . The Heeplatonist Position a. Difference in NeOplatonists and Eclectics b. Syncretism_ c. Allegorical Kethod of Interpretation h. Work of Porphry D. Effect of Greek Learning Upon the Church 1. Increase in Number of Learned Men 2. Influence in Medieval Church 3. The Question of the Value of Human Learning KNFOH III. The Church in Conflict With the Pagan School A. A Situation of Conflict B. Differences in the Pagan and Christ an Cultures With Reference to the Purpose of Education 1. Emphasis Upon Life in this World or World to Come 2. The Aristocratic System and the Democratic Concept C. Content of Instruction and Manner of Teaching 1. Heathen Religion and Impure Morals 2. Pagan.Rites 3. Biting Criticism by Teachers H. Fraudulent Misrepresentation D. Christian Schoolmasters and Their Problems in the Pagan Schools 1. Participation in Pagan Bites 2. Moral Responsibility of the Teacher for the Thing Taught E. Problems of Christian Parents F. Pagan Schools Inadequate and Hostile—~the Christian Elementary School an Imperative IV: The Christian.Elementary School A. An Answer to a Need 3. Contributions of Early Christian Elementary Education to Western.Educational Thought 162 Education for the Masses Opposition to Class Society Love and Care for Children Christian Elementary School at Edessa The Cradle of Christian Elementary Education School Founded by Protegenes he Church at Edessa Famous Alumnus: Lucian of Antioch Curriculum 8. Reading b. Writing c. The Study of Scripture Texts d. Psalmody D. Later DeveIOpment of Christian Elementary Education 0 0. Th \firKANl-JCDKJJNH e V. The Cetechumenal School Origin in the Second Century Purpose of Catechumenal School Place and Frequency of Instruction Implimented by Instruction in Christian Homes Catechists and Their Qualifications 1. At Carthage 2. At Alexandria F. Classification of Learners and Grades of Instruction 1. Originally Only One Group——Catechumens 2. Catechumenate in Time of Origen a. Those Taught Privately b. Those Admitted to the Church.Assembly 3. Later Classification of Catechumens a. Outsiders, Instructed Privately b. Audientes. or Bearers c. Genuflectentes. or Xneelers d. Competentes. or the Competent h. Advanthent Depended Upon Progress a. Time Indefinite b. The Lapsed Returned to Lower Grade c. Comprehensive Examination Preceded Baptism 5. Individual Differences: Recognition of and Provision for G. Curriculum 1. As Set Forth in Apostolic Constitutions 2. Graded Subject Matter ' a. Elements (1) Doctrine of Repentance and Remission of Sins HUPtfib 163 (2 Nature and Use of Baptism (3) The necessity of Proper Living b. Advanced Studies (1) Articles of Christian Belief (a) The Immortality of the Soul (3) The Canon of the Scriptures H. Experimental Learning VI. The Catechetical School At Alexandria A. The Origin of the School B Facilities at Alexandria l. The University of Alexandria 2. The Museum 3. The Libraries C. Growth of the School D. Curriculum 1. The Sciences a. Logic b. Physics c. Mathematics d. Astronomy 2. Philos0phy. with special emphasis upon a. Ethics b. Metaphysics 3. Exegetical Study of the Scriptures E. The Student Body-at Alexandria 1. First. Open to All 2. Later, Primarily for Training Clergy F. Succession of Presidents of School 1. Pantaenus 2. Clement of Alexandria 3. Origen h. Heracles 5. Others VII. The Work of Pantaenus Eusebius' Statement Concerning Pantaenus The Teacher of Clement of Alexandria Missionary to India 1. Brought Back Hebrew Gospel According to Matthew Becahe Head of Alexandria School Upon His Return Retirement OU’ID- o 0. EU Anmn-fi- «.._ ......” VIII. IX. 161+ Clement of Alexandria A. B. F. Succeeded.Pantaenus as Head of Alexandria School His Surviving Works 1. Exhortation to the Heathen 2. The Instructar 3. 'Stromata Method of Discipline-Fear Tempered With Mercy Motivation: Fear of Punishment and Desire for Reward Broad Curriculum . Physical Education 2. Music 3. Rhetoric h. Sciences 5. PhiIOBOphy An Appraisal of Clement as an Educator .._: Origen and His Wbrk at Alexandria and Caesarea 333.05.! Origen's Appointment to the School at Alexandria His Education 1. Liberal Grecian Education 2. Training in the Scriptures Reputation Prior to Appointment at Alexandria The Teaching Personality of Origen The Curriculum in Origen's Teaching 1. Students Advised to Read All the Poets and PhilosOphers except Atheists 2. Taught not one, but all kinds of Greek PhiIOSOphy 3. The Course of Study a. Common Branches for Beginners and Those Less Gifted b. Higher Course for the Advanced and More Intelligent (l) Arithmetic, Geometr'. and other Preparatory Studies (2) The Systems of the PhilosOphers On Freedom on Research and Discussion Support in Teaching by Personal Financial Resources Zeal and Perseverance as a Teacher and His Manner of Life Origen's Literary Productions 1. Commentaries and Expositions of the Scriptures 2. The Father of Textual Criticism. 'The'Hexapla The Allegorical Method of Interpretation The Closing Years of the Life of Origen 1. Departure from.A1exandria 165 2. His Work at Caesarea 3. His Sufferings in the Decian Persecution )1". His DB“th The Catechetical School at Caesarea A. The School Under Origen 1. On the Same Order as Alexandria~-Secular as Well as Religious Subjects Taught 2. Rival of Alexandria in Sire and Reputation B. Reorganized by Panphilus as Theological School 1. Pamphilus an Admirer of Origen 2. Work as a Cepyist and Student of the Scriptures C. The Library of the Catechetical School of Caesarea l. Collected by Pamphilus 2. Works of Origen and Other Ecclesiastical Writers 3. Copies of the Scriptures and Commentaries D. The Work of Eusebius 1. His Use of the Library at Caesarea 2. The Father of Church.History Tertullian and the School of North Africa at Carthage A. The School at Carthage B. Characteristics of the School 1. Condemned all Classical Literature, Science, and Philos0phy 2. Special Stress on Apostolical Tradition 3. Greater Moral Emphasis M. Holiness of Life Stressed 5. Asceticism C. Tertullian . Early Life . Conversion to Christianity . His Turn to Montanism . His Scholarship In Background and Personality a Lawyer a. His Defense of the Christian Faith b. His Arguments Against Heresies 6. Attitude Toward Grecian Learning.After His Conversion to Christianity a. ‘Human Wisdom Corrupts the Truth b. Opposed to Attempts at Harmonizing Chris- tianity and Philos0ph* c. The Gospel of Christ Sufficient 7. Emphasis Upon Tradition 8. The Father of Latin Christianity \J'l-P'WNH XII. XIII. XII? The Catechetical School at Antioch bdt5f>n3h> The Beginnings of the School Malchecn Critical Method in Biblical Exegesis Lucian and Dorotheus, Co-Presidents of School The Work of Lucian 1. Educated at Edessa.and Caesarea 2. A Great Christian Scholar 3. Produced a Revised Version of the Septuagint h. His writings 5. The Real Founder of Arianism 6. Martyrdom The Work of Dorotheus l. A Man of Great Learning 2. A.Scholar in the Hebrew Langmage e Later History of the School 1. Its Decline 2. The Contribution of its Theology to the Cate- chetical Schools of Edessa and Nisibis Th Later Schools A. B. C. E. The Schools of the Middle Ages The Decline of the Catechetical Schools 1. Decline after Sixth Century 2. Replaced by Cathedral and Monastic schools The Rise of the Cathedral Schools 1. Outgrowth of the Catechetical Schools 2. Located in Cathedral Cities 3. Curriculum in Theology M. Purpose: Training for the Regular Clergy The Monastic Schools 1. Similar to Cathedral Schools 2. Under Supervision of Monks 3. Purpose: Training for Monastic Life h. Externs: Non—clerical Students The Forerunners of the Colleges and Universities of the Middle Age 9 The Curriculum and Teaching in the Catechetical Schools: A Summary A. B. The DevelOpment of the Catechetical Schools During the Third Century The Curriculum of the Catechetical Schools 1. At Alexandria and Caesarea 167 2. At Antioch 3. At Carthage Teaching Methods 1. Characteristic of Individual Teachers 2. Principles of Interpretation: a. Origen: Allegorical b. Lucian: Critical c. Tertullian: Authoritarian 3. Teadhing Personality a. Tertullian b. Origan Discipline l. Gentleness 2. Severity Motivation 1. Emotions: Love and Fear 2. Incentives: Desire for Reward and Dread of Punishment Present-day Representatives of Third Century Schools of Thought 1. Alexandria and Caesarea: Present—day Allegorical Scripture Exposition 2. Carthage: Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches 3. Antioch: Protestant Theologians The Catechetical School as the Proto-type of Parochial Schools and Church Related Colleges CHAPTER IV a THE CHURCH IN TEE 'KIED CEITJBY AID TH hISE OF TEE L CHRISTIAN SCHOOL: A.D. 20l-«3OC Relations of State to Church in the Third Century The attitude of the Roman state toward the church varied during the third century. Sometimes it was hostile. at other tiuss passive, or even friendly. dependin upon the temperament of the reigning emperor at the time. There were periods of persecution, followed by seasons of rest from persecution during which the church experienced rapid growth both in membership and material prosperity. ’In the beginning of the third century, A.D. 202, a severe law was enacted by Septimius Severus with the purpose of stepping the further spread of both Christianity and Judaism.612 The per- secution was especially intense in Egypt and North.Afriea and produced 17 a large number of martyrs.6‘J The persecutions continued through the first years of the reign of Caracalla (211—-217.A.D.) though no 613+ new laws were enacted against the Christians. 612Philip Schaff, History 2: the Christian Church (7 vols.: New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1835}. II, 57. 613Ib1doo II: 570 58. 6lulbid., I, 53. ON K0 A.eeventeen-year period of rest from persecution began for the church with the reign of Eeliogabalus (218—«222.A.D.) Heliogabalus was himself a sun-worshiper but held to something of a religious syncretism and did not Openly assume an attitude of o 615 I w hostility toward Christianity. His successor, Alexander Severus (222——235 A.D.) was a true syncretist in religion and in his own beliefs had united many faiths. He was distinctly favoratle toward Christianity and even placed a bust of Christ in his private chapel 616 along with the images of other religious leaders. and caused the "Golden Rule" to be engraved on public monuments and the walls of 1 his palace.6 7 A change of policy occurred under Maximinus (235-238;A.D.), who turned again to persecution seemingly out of simple Opposition 'I l ' to his predecessor.6 8 The Christians were hated as enemies of the gods and freecourse was given to the peeple's fury against the CV, Christiane which had been excited ans! by an earthquake.“"9 615Williston Walker, 5 History _o_i‘_ the Christian Church (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, lQEES. p. 85. 616Ibid. 617 - SCbfl-ff. 22. 3-1-10. II. 59. 613mm. 6191bid. 170 The church was aga‘ at rest under Gordia.us (238-—2¥h-A.D.) The respite was to be of short duration. however. for the more fer- seeing realized that a new outbreak of hostility was imminent. Crigen predicted that the period of rest would soon come to an end, "since those who calumniate Christianity in every way are again attributing the present frequency of rebellion to the multitude of believers, and to their not being persecuted by the authorities as '.620 in old times. The peace continued through the reign of Philip the Arabian (2hh—-2h9.A.D.) broken only by one mob attack on the . 621 Christians at Alexandria. About mid-century the persecution broke out with greater vigor than ever before. The year 2kg A.D. was the thousandth anniversary of the founding of Rome and its celebration was a time of remembering 0") (LC. former splendor and of the revival of ancient traditions. At the same time the Empire was in grave danger from barbarian attack at ts borders and torn by internal disputes-all of which was attributed to tolerating the Christians.6C3 Decius Trajan (2D9--251 A.D.) in 620 Origen Against Celene 111.15. n Walker, 32, cit., p. 86. 632nm. . p. 85. 623Ib1d.. pp. 85, 86. 171 an effort to restore the old Roman spirit and to bring stability to the Empire resolved to exterminate the church as a seditious a.d atheistic sect. In the year 250 A.D. he issued an edict to all governors of the prinvices enjoining a return to the old state 62h religions. This was properly the first persecution that covered all the Empire at one and the sane time and therefore produced a . 25 . greater number of martyrs than any persecution beiore it. Jhen according to the Emperor's view the governors were too lenient in dealing with the Christians, they were replaced by those who would 626 , be more strict. In carrying out the imperial decree every sort of torture and abuse was used to move the Christians to apostacy, and many of those who had never known the trial of persecution before hastened to save themselves by sacrificing to the gods, while 697 hundreds of their brethren Just as anxiously sought martyrdom. The persecution continued under Callus (251-—253 A.D.) and Valerian (253n260 A.D.). being given fresh.inpulse by pestilence. drought, and famine,628 which was attributed to the wrath of the gods brought upon the people by the presence of the Christians. EZMScharr, 32. 333.. II. 60. 625Ibid. 696 k Uhlhorn, Cor”lict 22 Christianity, p. 366. 97 6“‘Schaff, 22. cit., II, 60. 61. 6281hid.. II. 63. 172 Peace was again brought to the church by the Enperor Gallienus (260-—268 A.D.) This rest from persecution was to last for the remainder of the century. through the reigns of succeeding emperors until 303‘A.D. when the persecution broke out again under Diocletian Gallienus extended such a degree of favor to the Christians that it has been thought by some to have been a legal toleration. Such was not the case, however, since the old laws against the Christians remained unrepealed.630 Gallienus, rather than creatin~ a new set of Li) p, laws concerning the Christians, handle the matter by making public proclamations restraining the persecutions and br personally directing the bishops to perform in freedom their customary duties.651 Eusebius records the rescript of Gallienus as follows: The Emperor Caesar Publius Licinius Gallienus. Pius. Felix, Augustus, to Dionysius. Pinnas. Demetrius. and the other bishops. I have ordered the bounty of my gift to be declared through all the world, that they (the heathen) may depart from the (Christian) places of religious worship. And for this purpose you may use this copy of my rescript, that no one may molest you. And this which you are now enabled lawfully to do, has already for a long time been conceded by me. Therefore Aurelius Cyrenius. who is the chief adminis- trator of affairs, will observe this ordinance which I have given. Walker, pp, cit., p. 87. 6 o 3 Ibid. 631 Eusebius Church History vii.13.1. 173 During the longp eriod of forty- th ree year sof peace the church grew rapidly-in membership and material prosper rity . Splendid edifices for Christian worship were erected and provided with collections of sacred books as well as vessels of gold and giver for use in th e sacraments.632 In the same preportion to this outward prosperity, however, worldliness increased in the church, discipline 67': was relaxed, and quarrels and factions multiplied. “J Creel: Influence on Christian Thought Attempts to harmonize Christianity with philosOth were much in evidence in the third century. These attempts resulted in the creation of new sch isms and sects in t? e Christian church and Heller izati on of Christim.1 thought that was to be of great {‘3 534 (I) ignificance in the later develOpment of Christian teaching. Alexandria became the center for various syncretic movemer -ts collec- , . v 635 tlvely celled Hellenistic PhilosOpny. The alliance of Christian teachers to the philosophy of the Greeks repreSe nt ed varied degrees of acceptance. all the way fro only a slight tincture of Hellenism to an outright acknowledgement 6328cha ff ,'gp. cit., 11.63. 633Ibid. 63“Wericzrl-wn, 22! cit., pp. 59. 60. f-. o . )5Graves, 0p. cit., p. 26 R c; a pagan philos0phy and apostacy from the Christian faith. iwo main groups of devotees to Hellenism may be distinguished. The first of these is the party known as th Eclectics. This phi osophy was adopted by those who wished to still be considered Christians, and yet retain the name, garb, and status of philosopher. other was that of the Keoplatczists. The group was not truly latonist since they had collected from various philosOphies that which more nearly coincided with their own views. They preferred the title of Platonist since they.considered Plato to be more accurate in his beliefs concerning God and those things beyond the 6-"- cognizance of the senses. 3‘ Keeplatonism represented a complete departure from Christianity and became an actual rival of the Christian system in a battle for the minds of men. The Eclectic philosophv cleiied the loyalty of a succession of Christian teachers in the catechetical school at Alexandria. ‘ perhaps from its beginning and including both Clement of Alexandria and his pupil C-rigen.638 , 630Mosheim. 22, cit., p. 59. 61 “Tibia. 038Ibid g) 175 Cleeent of newbie. the greeteet Platoniet thinker of hie day. ecceptei Christianity late in the second century and hence- forth need. Pleteniet reaeoning in hie interpretation of the Coepel.6:59 Clement looked upon philoeophy as e. neene of leaning the learner to Chriet. ee ie indicated by the following: And otherwiee erndition commie him. who eete forth the meet eeeentiel doctrinee eo no to produce permeion in hie heerere. engendering edeiretion in thoee who ere tenght. end leede them to the truth. And ouch pereueion ie convincing. by which those that love learning ednit the truth; on that philoeophy doee not ruin life by being the originator of fnlee precticee and beee deede. althougi eon have celmieted. it. though it he the clear ilege of truth, e. divine gift to the Creche; nor doee it ere; ne ewe: from the faith. no if we were bewitched by lone lelneive ert. but rather. eo to epeek, by the use of en eepler circuighebteine e. con-on exerciee denonetretive of the feith. le mete thet philoeoph: wee 'e echoolleeter' to bring 'the lellenio mind“ to Chriet ne the law had been to lend the Behrewe to Chrietfim' 'Philoeophy. therefore.‘' he ewe. 'wae e prepere— tion. peving the way for his who ie perfected in Chrietflsl'a Clement held that 'the we: of truth ie . . . one. but into it. ee into e perenniel river. etreeme flow from ell eldeeJ'g‘} lo expreeeed 539!» Ind mowed. 32. 331.. p. 591. 6”Clement of Alexandrie Stronte 1.2. mum" 1.5; a. on. 3.21:. “zones” of Alemdrie Stromte 1.5. “3131a. 176 in no uncertain terns his belief in the agency of human reason in arriving at truth, thouCh gr-nting that the "kindling spark" wes supplied by God. He says, Now, then, many things in life take their rise in some exercise of hunen reeson, having received the kindling spark from God. For instance, health by medicine, and soundness of body through gymnastics, on wealth by trade, have their origin and existence in consequence of Divine Providence indeed, but in consequence, too, of human co- operation. Understanding also is from God. Bit god's will is especially obeyed by the freewill of good men.“ Clement did not believe that philosoehy could lead to the full t uth in end of itself. but held tnet t was "a concurrent and ..Je m.- . . L . co—0pereting cause of true apprehenSion."O“9 He avowed it to Le 6M6 "a preparatory training for the enlightened men." He does not assign as the ceuse "that which is but the joint cause; nor as the upholding cause, whet is merely consperetive; nor . . . to philosoPhy , the place of a sine qua non."OW He grants that "almost all" of the Christians became such "without treininr in arts and sciences, and 6 fl.” the Hellenic philosophy. and some even without learning at all."°‘° 6““Ib1d., v1.17. \ V 645Ib1d.. 1.20. C Uh6lbid. 6L71bid. 6hSItid. 177 These, he says, received the word of God "through faith . . . trained by self-Operating varisdxim."6""9 He believed that "the teaching which is according to the Saviour, is complete in itself, and without defect, being the power and wisdom of God"; therefore, "Hellenic philosophy does not, by its approach, make the truth more powerful," but does render powerless "the assault of sephistry against it . . . frustrating the treacherous plots laid against the truth."653 He concludes that "logical discussion . . . called Dialectics . . . establishes, by demonstration, allegations respecting truth, and demolishes the doubts brought forward."651 Origen, the pupil of Clement and his successor in the catechetioal school at Alexandria, expresses the same acceptance of philosophy as the handmaiden of the Gospel. In writing to a young student, Gregory Thaumaturgus, who later became a Christian and in time use elevated to the bishopric, Origen recommends highly the study of philosOphy as a preparation for Christianity. He says, A natural readiness of comprehension, as you.well know. may, if practice be added, contribute somewhat to the con- tingent end, if I may so call it, of that which any one eugibid. 6501bid. 65lIbid.. v1.17. 173 wishes to practice. Thus your natural geod parts might L°k0 of you a finished Roman lawyer or a Greek philosopher, so to speak, of one of the schools in high reputation. But I an anxious that you should devote all the strength of your natural good parts to Christianity for your end; and in order to this, I wish to ask you to extract from the philoso— phy of the Greeks what may serve as a course of study or a preparation for Christianity, and from geometry and astronomy what will serve to explain the sacred Scriptures, in order that all that the sons of the philosophers are wont to say about geometry and music, grammar, rhetoric, and astronomy, as fellow-helpers to philos0phy, we may say about philosOphy itself, in relation to Christianity. 5 Origen's Ecelecticism, suggested by his recommendation to Gregory to "extract from the philosoPhy of the Greeks what may serve" in preparing for Christianity, is evident throughout the epistle. He compares the taking of Greek studies for use in serving God with the use of gold, silver, and other valuables, taken from Egypt for the construction of the tabernacle and its equipment by the Israelites.653 He warns against those who misused the things taken from the Greeks, for "these are they who, from their Greek studies, produce heretical notions, and set them up like the golden calf . . ."65h .Above all, however, Origen recommends to Gregory the study of the Scriptures, to which philosophy must but lead him, that he might apply himself to "the divine study," and "seek aright . . . with 6320rigen'23 Gregory 1. 6931bid., ii. 179 unwavering trust in God, the meaning of the holy Scriptures, which 6R5 so nmhy have missed." ’ g \ NeOplatonism, founded in n41 A.D., represented the extreme in Hellenization, and constituted a sect which withdrew itself from any true identification with Christianity. The sect was founde by Ammcn us Saccas (16§——2hl A.D.) and his pupil Plotinus €36 (BOB-~235 £13.). Saccas was born and educated a Christian and 55? probably made pretensions to Christianity all his life. Ammonius Secces and Plotinus proposed that all systems of nhilo oohy and religion should be united into a syncretistic fellow» J- L I s 68 a; . . p a i. J- 17 - ' 1- ship. A diIierence, thereiore, between the neoplatonists and the Eclectics was that the Eclectics held that there was a mixture of good and bad, true and felst in all systems; they therefore selected out of each that which appeared to them to be consistent to reason and rejected the rest; while the Keeplatonists held that all sects actually professed the same system of truth with the only difference being the way it was stated; and that with suitable exgla— K," nation they might all be brought into one body.”9 655Ib1a., 111. 656 \Graves, 32. cit., pp. 28%. 235. r.- O . 6981bid.. p. 60. «so CJJIbia. 180 One of the most damaging of the influences of Heeplatonism on the church and Christian education was the allegorical method of 660 teaching which was characteristic of the sect. By this system of teaching the true meaning of arything seemed to always differ “3 rom the apparent meaning. Thus the EeOplatonists explained away difficulties arising from such teachings as the pagan's doctrine of demons. The allegorical method of teaching was eclectically adopted from the Neoplatonists by Origen and other Christians and applied to the interpretation of the Scriptures, thus involving in philosophical obscurity many aspects of the Christian religion that in and of themselves were plain and easy to be understood.661 By this means of deriving additional meaninfs from plain statements there were attributed to Christ many precepts of which the Scriptures know nothing.662 Porphry (A.D. 233——30h) was especially active in the latter part of the century in attempting to proselyte orthodox Christians 6‘3 by offering NeOplatonism as a substitute for Christianity. 0 660Ibid., p. 61. 661Ibid. 6621bid. 663 Qmalben, on. cit., p. 105. 131 As to tr e total over-a ll effect of the inroads of Greek learning upon the church, there is. of course. no ad quate means of determina- tion. An apparent e feet was the gran-t increase of learned men in the church of the third century. most of whom followed the Eclectic philosOphy and in their choosing preferred Plato aWco e other philosophers. 66h The influences of Greek philosOphy were to be encountered in the Medieval church and the educatioral systems of the Middle Ages. Jerome set his monks to the task of COpying the ancient pagan authors and Augustine "brought Plato into the Christian “.- l'. 665 schools uncer his bishop's robe. An even greater significance in the study of Christian education perhaps lay in the question as to the value of human learning to the Chri Mt an and to the church-- a question engendered by the conflict produced by the intrusion of Greek philosophy. Christians were not agreed in the third centur', or in subsequent centuries, as to the real value of huma an lea ming and philosOphy to a system of religion which professed dependence upon revelation as the source of truth. This conflict is pictured clearly by Mosheim, and the implications for the study of Christian education are abundantly evident. His statement he {es an er _cellent \" ’ HI-Iosheim, 32. cit., p. 62. 665Theodore Haarhoff. Schools of Gaul A StUdJ Of P8Fan and Christian Education in the Last Century of the -Western Enpire Cfandon: Oxford University Press,l 92—). p. 17h. conclusion to this section. He says concerning the conflict: At this time . . . broke out that war between faith and reason, religion and philoso ph3, devotion and intellect which has been protracted thro ugh all succeeding centuries down to our own times, and which we by all our eff01ts cannot easily terminate. By degrees, those ootair.ed the ascendancy who thought that philosoPhy and erudition tiara profitaLle, rather than hurtful, to religion and piety; and laws \Jere at length established that no person entirely illiterate and unlearned, should Lo admitted to the office of teach er in the chure Yet the vices of the philosophers and learned men, among other causes, prevented the Opposit ,party from ever being destitute of patrons and advocates. 0° The Church in Conf ict with th Pagan School During the period of our study, before the general establish- ment of the Christian common school, Christian parents were confronted with serious problems respecting the education of their children. The pagan school constituted an unavoidable situation of conflict with paganism for the church and the Chris ian home. An irrecon ilable difference existed between the Christian and th epagan cultures in res pact to the purposes of education. Pagan education concerned itself chiefly with life in this world, hile the chuich placed the greater emphasis upon the life to come; to the pagan truth was based upon human reason, to the Christian Upon revelation of God; the Graeco-Roman way of life was aristo- . ci .. p. 62. 0 d Mosheim, 183 cunitic, t.e Christian way of life was essentially democratic. In H (D O o b H pa. c+ ‘1 i :‘ a: the church the individual was irportant. The pa considered sacred, and women and children were respected. All Christians, as the children of God, were equals. In all of these respects Christianity differed with paganism. These differences 111 the nature and purposes of education could but lead to con“lict and.to the withdrawal of the Christians from the pagan schools. ran school was (3 The very content of instruction in the pa reprehensivle to Christian faith and morals. Pagan learning was inseparably bound u: with heathen religion with ts false gods and impure morals to such an extent that it was intolerable to th Christian.667 Christian youth were continuously embarrassed by the biting criticism of Chr stianity coming from.pagan teachers of grammar and rhetoric.608 This conflict is described in detail by Gaston Boissier as follows: All these schools were pagan. Not only were all the ceremonies of the official faith—~and more especially the festivals f Minerva, who was the patroness of masters and pupils-celebrated at regular intervals in the schools, but the children were taught reading out of books saturated with the old mytholOgy. There the Christian child made his first acquaintance with the deities of Olympus. He ran the danger of imbibing ideas clean contrary to those which he had received at home. The fables he had learned to detest in his own home were explained, elucidated, held up to his admiration every da"r by his masters. Was it 66 7Eby and Arrowood, 22, cit., pp. 600, 601. 668 Ibid., p. 601. 18h right to put him thus into two schools of thought? Who could be done that he mi:ht be educate d like everyone else, and yet not run the risk of losing his faith?0V The danger to the faith of Christian youth was incr seed by the deliberate and fraudulent misrepresentation of Christianity in the pa gs n school. At Antioch the governor of the city, Theotecnus, with imperial sanction forged certain "Acts of P11 a.te" which were by nature slander us and set forth with the intention to discredit and ccnfute Chris stianity .670 The false document was distributed throughout the Empire and was delivered to schoolmasters to be learned by their pupils.671 Another problem arose in the church respecting these con— verts to Christianity who were teachers by profession. Should these peeplc, after becoming Christians, continue to teach in the pagan schools? Could they, as Christians, teach those things which were an in tearal part ofp an learning and yet complete y contrary 669 Gaston Boiss sier, Histoire de la Peda 50gie, p. 51, as quoted by Geraldine Hodgson,.gp. cit., pp. 183, 189. A.near1y identical quotation is given from another were by Boissier (La Fin du.Peganisme, Vol. I, p. 200) by Boy and Arrowood,o _p'. cit., pp. ETI“‘602. 67°Arthur Carr, The Church and theR Roman Empire (Le ew York: Anson D. F. Randolph.& Company, 18877, p. 20. "1 6‘ Ibid. 135 to Chiis Ma nity? Tertullian took the position that schoolmasters on becoming Christians could not continue their a Ht1v ties in the pa gen schools. He describes in detail the impossible situation such persons would find for themselves in the pegan schools. he says, Moreover, we must ir quire liceW se touching so hoolmmsters; nor only of them, but also all other professor of literature. N85, on tb e contrary, we must not doubt the t t:.ey are in affinity x-ith manifo d idolatry: first, in that it is necessar" for them to pr sch the gods of the LE tions, to express their nan s, geneelogies, honourable distinctions, all and singular; and further, to observe the solemnities and festivals of the same, as of them by whose means they compute their revenues. What schoolmaster, without a table of the seven idols (i.e. the seven planets), will yet frequent the Quinquatria? The very first peynmnt of every pupil he conse- crates both to .2: honour and to the name of Minerva . . . The Minervalia are as much Minerva's as the Saturnalia Saturn's. Saturn's . . . must necessarily be celebrated even by little slaves at the time of the Saturnalie. Hew- year's gifts likewise must be caught at, 5nd the Septimontium kept; and all the presents of Midwinter and the feast of Deer Kinsmanship must be exacted; the schools must be wroathed with flowers; the flamens' wives and the aediles sacrifice; the school is honored on the appointed hol; —deys. The same thing takes place on an idol's birthday; every pomp of the devil is frequented. Who will Ehink t.hat these things are befitting to a Christian master. 72 Tertullian granted that under certain conditions a Christian might learn these things as matters of information, though he might not teach them, "for the principle of learning 9. d of teaching is differen ."673 The Christian learner. Tertullian asserted, would 672Tertullian‘23 Idolatry 1. 673Ibid. 1 reject the falsehoods of paganism on the oasis of his previous 1: es“; ... 67,4 T1“ 0 ,. , L, x‘ w 1 - ‘ rain-n5. 1e h.isti‘n tescier oi such things. he beliered, assumed a moral responsibility concerning the thing taught, for "if a believer tench literature, while he is teaching doultless he commends, while he delivers he affirms. while he recslls he hears testimony to. the praises of idols interspersed therein."675 It became clearly evident to believing parents and educators that the pagan school wos alike unfriendly to Christian teacher and pupil. Under such conditions there was no place for the presenta— tion of their way of life. Pagan schools were not only void of spiritual values but were inimicel to the church, the Christian schoolmaster, the believing pupil, and every aspect of the religion of Christ. Thus were parents confronted with the serious decision es to whether they should send their children to the psran school and by so doing endanger their souls. or permit them to grow up in ignorance. The danger of contamination of faith and morals was so greet thst many parents could not conscientiously send their children to the existing schools. Pagan schools could not in a.“ 187 real sense meet the needs of church youth. The establishment of Christian elementary schools became an imperative. The Christian.Elenentery School In establishing elementary schools, in which the essentials of human learning were taughtalong with the Scriptures, the church met the need that had not been satisfied by the pagan educational system. In assuming a distinctive role in education. the church made significant contributions to the total devsIOpment of Western education. One of the great contributions of Christianity to educa- tional thought was the idea that education should be for the masses. The practice of teaching all, the high and the low, the young and the old. men and women alike, which had been the common practice of Tatian and others in the catechetioal and the cetechuncnal schools. was carried over into the Christian elementary schools in the teaching of secular learning. The rigid class distinctions within the Greece-Roman culture made such an idea ixpossible in the pagan school, but in the development of Christian elementrry education 676 there was a real democratization of letters. In applying the Christian teachinc of the brotherhood and e unlit of men, the _, q p. artificial distinctions of social classes tends to disappear. In 67632arhoff, 22, cit., p. 175. ’ —‘ *- "firs .‘ 2.1.K' . “......“ ... ...: 185 placing a particular emphasis on elementery education during this period. the church followed not only her own needs but reflected \ -‘7'! b , Christ's example of love and care for children. “ Among the first, if not the first, attempts at Christian elementary education was anuarently the establishing of the school .fi ,1. at Edessa in Gaul. This school was established by Protogenes co the close of the second century.678 Edessa was a place worthy f being the cradle of Christian common school education. It had suffered much for the cause of Christ. The church at Edessa had been martyred in the second century. Being revived at the close of thct century the church had established a school for its children. t experienced further persecution, including the banishment of some of its outstanding teachers. including Protogsnes, the founder of the 679 Edessa school. At Edessa. Lucien, who was to become a famous third century presbyter and teacher at Antioch, received his 630 . , , elementary education. The curriculum at Edessa included reading, 68 writing, the study of texts of Scripture, and psnlm s-nging. 677Ib1d. 8 l. m a , 67 Levi Seeley, history of Education (neviscd ed.; New York: American Book Comeaiy, 130? , p. C5. A 672Eaarhoff, 22, cit., p. 176. As persecution lessened, other schools were established in rapid order, until in later centuries the pegon echo n I » 71 6'3]- 1“ w; » way to the christian schools throufhout the #321? - *he ed-Ct I:C_u f Justinian closing the heels in F9? 6 V. was hardly needed 0 is? ‘14} The Cetechumenal School The cetechunerete, or pre-beptisnrl treininr, which began in the second century, grew into a highly deveIOped progren of instruction during the third century. As in the previous century, the sole purpose of the catechumenel school was to prepare adult persons for baptism and reception into church membership. The experience of the church during several persecutions had emphasized the necessity of a fixed H) eriod o probation in order that informers not be admitted to ’J n assemblies and that the church not be disgraced by the u (a? isti "1 apostacy or lapse of those who had not seriously considered the 4.x. step they were taking. 682 Ibid. 63 3Good, 22,.g££.. p. 63. Grey'es, C‘g. Cito. PO 2730 _ -._--.7? O‘-‘ fTiflcrau a» : ion /\v The instruction of cotecfu.ers was conducted in the p rtico of the church, or in some other gortion of the church building ‘ especially reserved for the purpose. Meetings for instruction rare '5 . v '2“ 2 ‘L ..v' 1 -. 7 fi- :1- n /. v-r \ helc seterel times in the ween 01 even oe_l; end He ‘ O n) su"yle;onted ( by th.orough reli gious end morel instw‘ ctim ifor younr rdults in the C.) n 'l 605 christian family. -he teachers were called "catechists," end usuelly were the (or rf' most able men in the church. At Carthage the office 01 catechist was given to some indit iduel who hr distinguished “imSLl of the church readers after 0 geriod of pr0t Alexondrie, where often the hL :hly educated end those treined in ohilosoohy spelled for church nencc~e‘-g, it yes necessary for the catechists to be men of liberal educrtion who would to Q‘ lified to meet the objections endc .‘tts of leerred prgrno. At Aloao-diit, therefore, sole end highly educe ted loy:.en were selected by the 553 7'7 60) vs: T. d~ OH 7/ 600 ‘ 3 q Py“ IDLQ. ’ p. LOAD. ”— fl 1'7 c8.“ ‘ _A, necncer, 0p. cit., I, goo. of inst'uCtion :ccame defir ite in the third century. Orig inelly ell those who h d not yet received trot 'isn, and were in the stat of ,4:03 J3 ration and probation, were in one leGS and. were denominrted ’ (ra by one cook-ton neme—-Ka.1’7)é¢5u£-VO¢, ce tech ns.‘“j This class of oersons were not ellowed to renein ior the entire service in the chm ch, but were permitted to hear the reedin 30f the Scriptures cm Q \J U - . .._.“ end the oreeching of the word. J B; the tle o Crigen the cate- churens were distinctly separated into two divisions; those who were receivine pr riv ate instruction, and those who were edmi tted 631 to the meetines of the church and were ready for baptism. In course of time there came to be four distinct gra‘etions of eaten chu enal instr1 ictio.: (l) theéfU’W/lueVOL, or outsiders, who I were instructed dprivately outside t!” e church; (2) the aKfoV/‘QVOL, audientes, or her rers. who were admitted to the ass or tiles to hear the Scriptures read and to hear the sermons, but were required to I leave before the prayers; (3) ‘theya-VVL’MVOVT‘S, genuflectentes. or kneelers, who were permitted to rennin through the prayers; and I (1+) theflvrlfivf‘evq‘ competentes, or the competent, who were con- .._) Kt ) N sidered to be fully preM red and were imredlate candidates for 0 ant: 1.1 ‘- 1 J I bagtism.VJ In this period auvarce ment from one level to the next was dependent upon progress rather than ugon a definite f riod or time, and those who had attained advanced status in the catechumeuate might be returned to the lower level in case of lause. The Council of Hicea (325 A. D. ) decreed that 19pm ucateehumens should without distinction of previous standing be returned to the grade of hearers 593 ! - w + . for a period of three years. tiny deliberate y Chose to rezrin in the catechumenate indefinitely in order thrt they not s in after the 'hristian life, end preferred to be beet is ed and this 604 purifie’ fro'r Sin only shortly before dee th. Some of the most a famous men in the affairs or the early church \.'ere built;' of this CH or: abuse of baptism. “J When the final stage, that of the cohgetent, was entered, the name of the catechumen was formally entered upon (A ' of? Q the register of those who had presented themselves for begtisn. There then fol -owed e thoroub h examin 'tion to determine their pro- ficiency under all the preceding stages of catechumen .el instruction on 'L’. . n a o o \ _ J Joseph Bingham, The Antiquities of the Christian lurch (2 vols.; London: Henry G. thn, 1830. Io—EBEa M35- 693Ibid .. I. 151+. Graves, 22, cit., p. 280. AF 6filoid. 6362311152”. . 32. cit., 1, 131+. .—.- F ~'_421-’1\m l n acts for baptisn,v" U) 0 ch and the approved were then accepted as fit In the event that the baotism was further delayed after the examina- tion, the examination was repeated in full just before the baptisnal ceremony. (A hr! )0 Individual differences in learners were recognized and n provided for in the catechumonal school. Instruction was varied in content and organization according to the abilities of the Std-Wm“ -14 - .o it; 'I.: individual catechumen. Those of lesser ability vere instructed only 4‘“. H) in the more general and fundamental princioles 0 Christianity, while ; E. those who appeared to be capable of comprehending such things were instructed in everything considered necessary to fortify and perfect . CF) 0" I Christian knowledge and faith. 11 Dizferent methods of teaching were adapted to use in reference to these two classes, and especial-a well prepared catechists were provided for the instruction of those YCO who seemed to be of superior capacity. The Aoostolic Constitutions provides for the instruction of catechumens according to several distinct groupings of subject I 698Ibid. on ”’Koshei , 22, cit., p. LO. 1...: \i) matter and provides something of a course of study for the catechumenal school: Let him, therefore, who is to Le tau5h t the truth. in regard to p- at = to in structcd before his captisn in the knowledge of the unbegottcn God, in the understanding of His only begotten Son, in the assured acknowledgement of the Holy Ghost. Let him learn the order of the sev ral parts of the crea tion, the series of providence, the dif- ferent dispensatior s of Thy law Let hin be instructed why the rorld was made, and why man was appointed to Le a citizen therein; let him also know his own n'ture, of what sort it is; let him be aucht how God punished the wicced with water and fire, and did glorify th e so ints in e ery generation-I mean Seth, and Enos, and Enoch, and Noah, and Abraham and his posterity, and: ielchizedec, and Job, nd hoses, and Joshua, and Caleb, and Phineas the priest, :nd those that were holy in every generation; and how God took care of and did not reject mankind, ‘ut called them f on their erro and vanity to the achrowledgement of the truth at various seasons, reducing them from bondage and irpietg ur.to liberty and piety, fro ninjustice to righteousness, from death eternal to everle eti glife. Let him that offers himself to baptism lezrn these nand the1 like things during the time that he is a c:techunen.7v~ Catechumenel instruction usu.slly Leger with lessons on the doctrine of repentance and the remission of sins, on the necessity of pro.er ’JO livinr, on the nature and use of bapt sn wherebv tie r were to O nto a new covenant with God.7o“ There then followed a more ’Jo enter detc 11 ed account of the articles of the Christian faith, the im— mortality of the soul, and an rccount of the booze of Scripture 0 _. . which we e accepted as ca nonical. 7 3 Thus was the curriculum so 7oligpostolic Constitutions vii.h. 70231nghan, on. ci ., I, M32. I -.’A“""-‘l ’ ‘4— - 3 so“; ._ . .l ‘J 135 organized that the learner was gradually introduced to the meaning of Christian beliefs. By the spreading of instruction over a period of time there was provided the opportunity for the student to put into practice, step by step, the things in which he had been instructed. Thus the catechumenate was at one and t-. period of instruction and a time of experimental learning thine taught.70hr Christianity was still a way of life, and the .2 items of instruction were meaninéless if separated from the actual life situation. The C°techetical School at Alexandria The historical beginnins of the catccheticel school is L; shrouded in obscurity. Tradition, based on a statement by Jerome, makes Mark the Evangelist the founder, but the actual founder and . (x. r- in of the school is in fact unknown.7“) ihe the date of the orig earliest mention of the school in history is made by Eusebius (c. 325 A.D.) who speaks of the school as having been established at -’ -\ Alexandria "in ancient times."‘OC He says that Pantoenus was the on 7 Ibid. 0“, , ‘ 7 “McGiffert, Licene and PostANicene Fathers, I, 28H, citing Jerome Lives xxxvi. 706 Eusebius Church history v.10. “Writs“; gruj—W.“ .. ‘vL‘ '. head of the school at the time Commodus became egnperorj")7 which would be 180 A.D. The Catechetical school was probably at outgrovth of the Alexandrien catechumenel school when the need for a school of . r ~ 70-3 advanced and general studies cecane evicent. For a time at least the school had no building of its own 70° and the students met in the home of their teacher. J The students were able, hovever, to take edrantaae of the facilities of the University of Alexandria, the Huseum, and the libraries of the a 710 % o -. c1ty.‘ In such a favoraule envrronnent the school soon ceveloied into an ’"stitution where secular subject matter was taught as ...—L thoroughly as in the pagan schools, though always as the "handmaiden of the Scripture."711 The curriculum contained, along with the Scripture and theoloaical studies, the subject matter that was common to the leading pagan schools, including logic, physics, geometry, and astronomy.712 After these sciences philos0phy, especially relatinx to ethics and metaphysics, was offered, with the exception of the l7 , sensual teachinrs of the E;icurians.7 J Since hellenic learning O 7 71bid.’ V'ogg 1'3. ed 00 ,, 7 HcGiIfcrt, Nicene are Postéficene Fathers, I, 22h, go 7 “Graves, 0p. cit., p. 285. 71A _ , ' ”Ibid., and Eb" and Arrowooc, 22, cit., p. 610. 12 7 Boy and Arrowood, on. cit., p. 611. 7 ‘lBIbid. , 5 84'flm.' . AA - was looked upon es the schoolmaster which wes to leed the mine to Christ, the course of study quite naturally culmineted in the 711+ exegeticel study of the Scripture.‘ The student body of the cetecheticsl school wes composed of those persons who hed advanced in their studies beyond the r- . offerings of the cetechumenel school in religious treining, or the 3 common school in sec" er studies. 5nd inclufled educated page; 002- E ! verts to Christianity as well as those who desired to prepare for .t 71 kn the office of church teacher. Luring the entire period of our study the cetecheticel school wes open to all who desired to learn end understand the doctrines of Christianity and to gain a View of '7‘/ seculer truth from a Christien standpoint.‘*° In later times. :1 I L however, as we shell see, the catechetioal school gradually ’eveloee into a theological semi ary with a program of strdies set up with the primary purpose of preparing young men for the ministry. Pantaenus as followed in the presidency of the school at Alexandria by Clement about 133 A.E.717 Clement in turn was suc— ceeded by his pupil, Origen, about 202 A.D., who remoinee es head of 1f 7+0 . - r ELM gnu Arro"ooc, op. cit., pp. olO, 6+1. the school until between 223 and 331 A.D. w! en he sets Ml siied a 1" . . , similar school at Caesarea.7 b After Crigon's departure to Ceeseree its need 3 series of 1'0 the school co itir.“‘d its activities, heving a prominent ISL. Heracles succeeded Crigen about 231 A.D. and was followed in office by Bionysius in 232 A.E. to be succe fled by Theognostus in 2R8 A.D. who was followed in turn my Sers pion, Peter, "A.,D719 and finally Did5mus w! to died in 5? The York of Panteenus Eusebius gives a brief statement as to the cherscter and work of Penteen-is. He says, . . .Pa teenus, a men highly dis tin‘uish ed for his learning, had cheice of the school of the feithful in Alexandria. A school of secred lee rnizg, t'hich continues to oui dey, wss sets ”11 hed there in ancient times, and as we have been informed, we s meneged by men of greet ability and zeal for divine thifié9. Among these it is reported that Penteenus was at thrt time especially con- spicuous, as he had been educated in the philosOphicsl system of those called Stoics. Th e5r say that he dis- ‘ a d ‘l.. '2 f ‘ ml ‘- I- ;.1d 1-;- n 6 {vii d ploye s C“ ze l 01 He QlVl‘e "o , th t e x: 3 pic nte es s herald of th.e Gospel of Christ to the neticns in the East, and was sent as f: r as India . . . After merg' we od 1. U deeds, Penteenus finelly oecere th e heed of the sciool e f divire doc- I“ AlE’ZC {rpikll‘ie ’ 911;. ex; Ow QC“ the tl‘€.€o