ABSTRACT TRENDS IN GENERAL AND ALTERNATIVE MODES OF EDUCATION IN THEIR ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL SETTINGS: A CASE STUDY IN SWEDEN By Ellen Heyting Rationale for the Study Since the Second World War there has been a world-wide trend towards more and extended general education as a means of promoting national and international social and economic equality. This has caused educational costs to soar to unbearable heights while inequal- ities have in many cases been aggravated. At the same time there has been a trend towards increased unemployment and social-psychological problems, especially among youth. These developments have led to a growing interest in alternative modes of education. Little is known, however, about a possible relationship between increased general education and the other developments, and about what alternative modes of education might be most effective for the reaching of the social and economic goals. Therefore, it was considered desirable to study trends in various types of education in social-psychological and economic perspectives in a country which has various modes of educa- tion and has introduced more general education. Sweden met these Ellen Heyting requirements and had, moreover, enjoyed a greatly increased prosperity concomitant with the introduction of more general education. Method010gy For background information historical, geographic, economic and social developments were studied. Statistical data were gathered and information was obtained from relevant literature and extensive interviews and personal observation in the country. The reasons for the introduction of more general education were studied together with the degree to which it had promoted the expressed goals. The educational changes and the concomitant social-psychological and economic deve10pments were studied. An attempt was made to assess the importance of possible educational and non-educational influences on the developments. Findings The study shows that: The introduction of more general education was based on social, economic and political grounds rather than on psychological and educational ones . Social equality has not been much improved by the measures, while they have caused educational problems. Social-psychological problems among youngsters have increased among ever younger age-groups, although not among the adults. There has been growing unemployment and need for labor market training and increased job-absenteeism among youngsters. Ellen Heyting Sweden's economic prosperity cannot be ascribed to increased general education but rather to other favorable circumstances. Sweden's economic growth is less than in some other comparable European countries. The various problems have necessitated disproportionately large increases in expenditure on the prevention and treatment of alcoholism, the keeping of law and order, and labor market training. The study of other possible causes for the various problems indicate that working mothers, illegitimacy of children, urbanization, increased wealth and structural change do not, or only in a minor degree, contribute to the increased problems. It is possible that unobserved factors or the interaction of various developments have contributed to the unfavorable trends, but it seems reasonable to assume that the introduction of more and general education has played a major part. There are strong indications that more general and formal education does not promote love of learning, while certain nonformal modes do. Enrollment figures in various types and levels of education are not as important as the kind of education received. The best modes for adult education are being studied in Sweden, while alternate periods of practical work and schooling, after eleven to thirteen years of formal schooling are prOposed, as a means for bridging the generation, social and educational gaps. Ellen Heyting Recommendations The problem should be further studied in other countries. Educational and other developments should be studied as a total system. An attempt should be made to find the relative values of different influences by means of the information theory. TRENDS IN GENERAL AND ALTERNATIVE MODES OF EDUCATION IN THEIR ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL SETTINGS: A CASE STUDY IN SWEDEN BY Ellen Heyting A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements fer the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1973 Capyright by ELLEN HEYTING 1973 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In deep appreciation for the possibilities offered to me by Michigan State University and for the encouragement received from my chairman, Dr. Ruth Hill Useem, and the other members of my committee, Dr. Dan Kruger, Dr. Cole Brembeck, and Dr. Walter Scott, who guided me all through my stay at Michigan State University. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 The Need for the Study . . . . . . . . 2 Reasons for the Study in One Country . . . . . 7 Selection of Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Definition of Terms . . . . . . 12 Some Terms Referring to Swedish Schools . . . . 14 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Study of Literature in the United States . . . 15 Interviews and Conversations in Sweden . . . . 16 Visits to Educational Institutions . . . . . 16 Infermation Gathering as to Milieu and Social Climate . . . . . . . . . l7 Processing the Information Obtained in These Ways . . . . . . . . . . 17 Information Obtained from Printed Sources in Sweden . . . . . . . . . . 17 Statistical Data Gathering . . . . . . . . 18 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 11. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . 20 General Introduction . . . . . . . 20 The Value and Efficiency of Formal General Education in the Early Years of Life . . . . . 21 Findings With Regard to a Number of Popular Assumptions . . . . . . 21 Theories and Findings With Regard to the Economics of Education . . . . . . . . . 33 iii Chapter Various Modes of Alternative Education . . . . Existing Alternative Education . . . . . . Preposals for Alternative Modes of Education . . . . III. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON SWEDEN . The Land and the People . . The Government and the Administration . . . Historical Overview . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions Drawn from Sweden's History . . . The Swedish Power Structure . . . . . . . Economic and Social Conditions in Sweden IV. TRENDS IN FORMAL EDUCATION . Pre-Elementary Education . . . Elementary and Lower Secondary Education: Up to the Second World War . . . . Developments in Elementary and Lower-Secondary Education Since the 1940's. . . . . . . The Situation Resulting from the 1962 Act The Present Situation . . . . Summary and Conclusions With Respect to Developments Since the 1950's. . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . Upper-Secondary Education . Administrative Organization . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . Tertiary Education . . . . . . . . . . V. TRENDS IN ALTERNATIVE MODES OF EDUCATION . . Vocational Education . . Labor Market Training Conclusions . . . . . . Private Training and Retraining Programs Government Correspondence Schools . iv Page 46 46 50 S8 58 62 65 74 75 84 93 93 95 102 111 112 112 113 114 118 119 119 123 124 128 136 137 138 Chapter Page Radio and Television Courses . . . . . . . . . 139 Local Evening Gymnasium Schools . . . . . . . . 140 The Folk High Schools . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Historical Deve10pment . . . . . . . 143 Administration, Finance and Curricula of the Folk High Schools . . . . . . . . . . 146 Population and Enrollments . . . . . 149 Nordens Folkhogskola "Biskop Arno, " Balsta. . . . 150 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Study-Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Historical Development . . . . . . . . 153 The Present Organization of the Lecture and Study- -Circles . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Enrollments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Private Correspondence Education . . . . . . . 160 University Extra-Mural Courses . . . . . . . . 162 VI. EDUCATIONAL GOALS, PRACTICES, PROBLEMS, AND PROPOSALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Educational Goals . . . . . . . . . 164 The Present Educational Policies . . . . . . . 165 Present Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Private Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Personal State Grants . . . . 167 Books for the Teaching of Theoretical Subjects . . 167 Objective Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Continual Information . . . . . . . . . . 168 Educational Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Grading and Admittance Policies . . . . . . . 172 The Dropping of Standards . . . . . . . 174 The New Curricula for the Gymnasium School . . . 176 High Failure Rates in the Free Faculties . . . . 177 Personnel and Organizational Problems . . . . . 179 Possible Causes of the Problems . . . . . . . 182 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Chapter Page New PrOposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Proposals for Reforms in Higher Education . . . 185 Administrative and Organizational Change . . . . 186 Proposal for Recurrent Education . . . . . . . 189 VII. SOCIAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS . . . . . . . 195 The Incidence of Drunkenness Among Youngsters . . 195 The Use of Drugs Among Young People . . . . . . 197 Suicide Rates Among Young Persons . . . . . 202 Mental Health Among Stockholm School Boys . . . . 204 The 1956- 57 Riot in Stockholm . . . . . . . 207 The 1965 Riots . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Fraud and Theft . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Further Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Working Mothers . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 The Educational Problem . . . . . . . . . . 217 Lack of Personal Attention . . . . . . . . . 218 Children Have Too Much Money to Spend . . . . . 219 Urbanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Insecurity . . . . . . . . . . . 219 The Price That Must be Paid for Equality of Educational Opportunity . . . . . . . . 220 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 VIII. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Economic Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Labor Market DeveIOpments . . . . . . . . . . 229 Unemployment and Education . . . . . 235 Possible Causes of the Labor- Market Problems . . . 240 Developments in Public Expenditure . . . . . . . 249 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 IX. MAKING UP THE BALANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Summary of What Has Been Found . . . . . . . . 252 The Relevant Literature . . . . . . . . . . 252 The Educational Reforms . . . . . . . . . . 256 vi Chapter Adult and Alternative Modes of Education . Social-Psychological Developments Economic DevelOpments . . . Conclusions . . Final Observation A Possible Solution to the Educational Crisis . Recommendations . APPENDIX . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . vii Page 259 264 267 271 276 276 278 280 304 LIST OF TABLES Table Page II-l. Educational Enrollments in Various European Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 11-2. Unemployment and Educational Cost . . . . . . . 49 III-1. International Comparison: Land/Water Area-- Population—-Natural Resources . . . . . . . . 60 III-2. Receipts from Taxation in Percent of G.N.P. in 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 III-3. International Comparison: G.N.P.--Economic Growth--Labor Force-~Investment . . . . . . . 85 III-4. International Comparison: Expenditures . . . . . 87 111-5. International Comparison: The Quality of Life . . . 89 IV-l. Enrollments Beyond Seventh Grade . . . . . . . . 108 IV-2. Enrollments Beyond Seventh Grade . . . . . . . . 115 IV-3. Enrollments: Higher Education . . . . . . . . 121 V-l. Enrollments: Vocational Education . . . . . . . 126 V-Z. Average Number of Persons in Labor Market Training in Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 V-3. Age Distribution in Labor Market Training and in the Labor Force . . . . . . . . . . 133 V-4. Educational Background in Labor Market Training and in Labor Force . . . . . . . . . 135 V-S. Evening Gymnasia: Enrollments in Various Levels and Educational Backgrounds . . . . . . . . . 142 viii Table V-6. V-7. V-8. VI-l. VII-1. VII-2. VII—3. VII-4. VII-5. VII-6. VIII-1. VIII-2. VIII-3. VIII-4. VIII-5. VIII-6. VIII-7. VIII-8. VIII-9. Page Folk High Schools: Enrollments and Public Expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Enrollments in Study Circles . . . . . . . . . . 157 Study Circles: Numbers of Circles in Various Subject Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 University Degrees Obtained . . . . . . . . . 180 Drunkenness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Admittance to Psychological Hospitals . . . . . . 203 Suicide Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Convicted in Courts of First Instance . . . . . . 211 Car Thefts Known to the Police . . . . . . . . 213 Number of Persons Put in Prison . . . . . . . . 214 Growth Rates of G.N.P. and Labor Productivity: International Comparison . . . . . . . . . . 227 Population in Labor Force . . . . . . . . . . 228 Unemployment, Labor Market Training and Relief Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Labor Market, Unemployment, Training, and Relief Work in Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Labor Supply and Demand in Sweden . . . . . . . 233 Unemployment by Age Group . . . . . . . . . . 234 Absenteeism by Age Group . . . . . . . . . . 236 Education and Unemployment in the Labor Force: 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Education and Unemployment in the Labor Force: 1971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 ix Table VIII-10. VIII-11. Appendix: VIII-1. VIII-2. VIII-3. VIII-4. VIII-5. VIII-6. VIII-7. VIII-8. IX-l. IX-Z. IX-3. IX-4. IX-S. IX-6. IX-7. Increases in Public Expenditures Between 1950-1970 in Percentages of G.N.P. Percentage Share of Various Services in Total State Expenditure International Employment Rates . Average Annual Rates of Change in Employment by Sector . . . . . . . . . . . National Accounts Expenditure on Social Services (in 1,000 Swedish Krone) Expenditure on Labor Market Purposes . Expenditure on Law and Order (in 1,000 Swedish Krone) . . . . State Expenditure on Education . State Expenditure: Alternative Education (in million Swedish Krone) Increase in Youth Social/Psych010gical Problems (in 100,000 of age group) . Working Mothers . . Illegitimate Children . Urbanization . . . . . . . Increased Wealth Labor Market Problems . . . Labor Market Problems; Structural Change Page 250 291 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 301 301 302 303 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction This dissertation is a descriptive report, supported by statistical data of trends in general and alternative modes of educa- tion in their economic and social-psychological settings. The object of the study was twofold: 1. To get some insight into the interaction between the following world-wide phenomena in education: a. a trend, since the last World War, towards extended compulsory education and more general education for all; b. growing unemployment with attendant social-psychological problems, especially among the young; and c. a new interest in alternative forms of education of various kinds and at various levels. 2. To acquire useful information as to the kinds and forms of education that might be most effective. To achieve these two objectives it was considered necessary to shed some light on the following points: what the overt and covert goals were for which compulsory education was extended and more general education for everyone introduced; to what extent the measures introduced have been effective in reaching these goals; what influence the measures have had on the development of voluntary and other forms of alternative education, and the desire for further learning; what educational problems have been encountered and what measures have been suggested to solve them; what concomitant economic and social--psychologica1 deveIOpments have taken place; and what might be the relationship between these changes and the educational ones. The Need for the Study It is a well-known fact that these days, all over the world, more children stay in school longer and get more general education than ever before. This development rests mainly on two factors: lo The_popular assumptions that more general education for everyone: a. makes for more social equality within and among countries; b. is necessary to improve the quality and versatility of the labor force, which is necessary to combat unemployment; c. improves the quality of life for the individual and the country; and d. stimulates the desire for further education, which is necessary for: (1) the keeping Up with the ever-changing stock of knowledge, and the resulting changes in job-requirements; and (2) making increasing leisure time more meaningful. 2. Theories and research with regard to the economics of education pointing to high rates of return on educational expenditure: a. for the individual in the form of greater occupational choice, better employability, higher status, higher income and a richer emotional and cultural life; b. for the country as a result of the contribution of education to economic growth; and c. for society in general as a result of the emergence of a more educated, more reSponsible, better adapted, and more satisfied citizenry. The combination of these assumptions and theories has caused what sometimes is called an "educational explosion," which has pre- cipitated an "educational crisis." The words "explosion" and "crisis" suggest that the world is faced by a serious problem which not only has suddenly come upon it, but which also requires a speedy solution. Some aspects of the "crisis" are: 1. Educational costs which are skyrocketing by geometric ratios. While school enrollments worldwide, are doubling every 14 years, school expenditures are increasing at an annual rate of approximately 10 percent and are doubling every 7 years.1 2. The alleged inefficiency of the educational system, which receives increasing attention and which comes to the fore in the following points: a. Many children drop out of school because what they learn seems irrelevant to them.2 b. Youth unemployment increases, due to the fact that youngsters come ill-prepared on to the job-market.3 c. There are complaints about lack of achievement and the dropping of academic standards.4 1"Program of Studies in Non-formal Education A.I.D." [csd 3279], (a report to the Administrator's Advisory Council, International Studies and Programs, Michigan State University, Jan., 1973). 2Colin Greer, The Great School Legend: A Revisionist Inte retation of American PubI c Education (New York: IBagic Books, I972;; Keith Goldhammer and RObert E. Tayrai, Career Education: Pers active and Promise (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E} Merrill Pu 1s 1ng o., . 3Howard Hayghe, "Employment of High School Graduates and Dropouts," Monthl Labor Review, XCIII, No. 8 (August, 1970), 35-42; Hammond Reese, "EéfectivePreparation for Apprenticeship," [IRRA Conference Papers], Monthly Labor Review, XCIII, No. 4 (April, 1970), 44-45. 4Annie Stein, "Strategies of Failure," Harvard Educational Review, XLI, No. 2 (1971), 158-204. d. These days more inputs calculated in constant purchasing power are needed to produce a standard secondary school graduate then some ten years ago.5 3. Findings that social differences have been maintained and even aggravated with increasedggneral education.6 These points will be fully dealt with in Chapter II, which discusses the relevant literature with respect to educational assump- tions and theories. All these developments have led to a widespread re-evaluation of educational practices,and research has been done to test the sound- ness of the assumptions and theories upon which the drive for more edu- cation has been based. This in turn has led to various proposals designed to remedy the situation. These have included plans for shoring up the old system with modern methods and media, for leaving the familiar system--slightly freshened up--intact but building addi- tional alternative educational possibilities into or onto it, for replacing some parts or aSpects of the old system by alternative possi- bilities, and for abolishing the old system altogether to be replaced by something entirely new. SMark Blaug, An Introduction to the Economics of Education (Penguin Books Ltd., I972); Greer,—The Great School Le end; and Jerome Judson, Culture Out of Anarcfiy: The Reconstruct1on of American Higher Learning (New York: Herder and Herdér, 1971). 6E. W. Sudale, Continued Education [a study of the education of young European school leavers during their last years at school and early years at work] (Strasbourg: Council of Cultural Co- Operation, Council of Europe, 1971). All these plans will be discussed and documented in Chapter 111. As will be shown, the various plans and suggestions are not based on relevant educational research findings, however. Many are in contra- diction with available findings and with each other. To make the situation even more confused, there are trends in Europe which go in the opposite direction. In many European countries, where non-formal education has always played an important part, is a tendency to intro- duce extended compulsory and general education.7 This is done at the very moment that in the United States and in some develOping countries there is a growing awareness of the need for other forms of education, and official American studies were made of vocational and apprentice- ship training in various European countries. This was done in view of the high rates of unemployment among American youth.8 The European reforms have hardly been based on practical research findings, but rather on ideologies and assumptions. Finally, in the various proposals for educational reforms little serious attention is paid to a possible connection between the extension of general education and the wave of youth problems which has swept over many countries. Papers, journals, books all over the world report and discuss youth dissatisfaction and revolt. Drug and 71bid. 8Thomas W. Gavett, "Youth Unemployment and Minimum Wages," Monthly_Labor Review, XCIII, No. 3 (March, 1970); Margret S. Gordon, Retrainin and Labor Market Adjustment in Western Euro e [report submitte to the Office of Manpower, AutomatiOn and raining, U.S. Dept. of Labor, July, 1964] (Berkeley: Institute of Industrial Relations, University of California, 1964); Harvey Hilaski, "Labor Standards and Job Training in Foreign Countries," Monthly Labor Review, XC, No. 9 (September, 1967), 36-42; and J._Rundig, Manpower Ag ects of Recent Economic Development in EurOpe (Geneva: International LEEour Office, 1969). 0. '1 ‘WI I fit Cf‘ alcohol abuse, theft, fraud, alienation draw the attention as never before. There have been student revolts before, and it is sometimes said that they are cyclical, but the situation is somewhat different now. There is a growing concern about the fact that the problems have spread to secondary and even elementary school youth, that ever younger children seem to be affected by the general unrest and dis- satisfaction; with disenchantment with schooling. All the developments thus far discussed suggest that there is a great need for a comprehensive, coordinating study of the practical developments and the possible connections between educational and economic and social-psychOIOgical developments. The information that such a study might yield may promote the making of more sound educational decisions. It might yield some knowledge of possible favorable or adverse results of certain prac- tices. This would make decision-making less hazardous, for as Poincaré said: "1e hasard n'est que le mesure de notre ignorance" (the risk is but the measure of our ignorance). Reasons for the Study in One Country The main reason to do the research in one country rather than as a comparative international study is that there are too many dif- ferences between countries to make international comparisons reliable or even possible. This is especially true if educational developments are to be studied in conjunction with other trends. The differences between countries are not only very large but also very complex, because various national characteristics influence each other. This is pointed out by Beckerman.9 Countries progress along a variety of manpower growth paths and the range of alternatives is almost as wide as the range of their living standards. Differences in attitudes and political systems, not to mention the costs and finance of educational systems, widen the range even further. In short, we learn from international comparisons, at least in this area, that we do not learn from international comparisons.10 Further he says: it is not enough simply to add up the number of doctors, engineers, teachers and so on. "Quality in the sense of product definition and categories are essential to quantification." Does a doctor in country 1 mean the same thing as a doctor in country 2? If not, little significance can be attached to comparisons of the number of doctors in the two countries. Second, how can one compare x doctors plus y dentists in country 1 with m doctors and n dentists in country 2, unless some means of weighting them together can be found. . . .11 Beckerman also points out that in the same country there may be large differences over time in the quality of say a scientist. This touches upon change in quality of education due to various circumstances. An "International Study of Achievement in Mathematics"12 attempted to compare achievement in mathematics in twelve different Wilfred Beckerman, "Human Resources and Economic Developments: Some Problems of Measurement," International Social Science Journal, XXIV, No. 4 (1972). 1°1bid., p. 734. 11Ibid., p. 725 (quotation from A. Allan Schmid, "Nonmarket Values and Efficiency of Public Investment in Water Resources," American Economic Review, May, 1967, p. 159). 2Torsten Huzén, International Study_of Achievement in Mathe- matics: A Comparison of’Twelve_Countries [International Project for the EvaIuation ofhEducational AEhievement, I.E.A.] (Stockholm: Almqvist; New York: Wiley, 1967). developed countries. The age of the students, the years of education received, the numbers of other subjects studied, the use of new methods for the teaching of mathematics, educational expenditure and other factors were also taken into consideration. The study shows that there are great differences on all counts and that these cannot be clearly ascribed to any single factor. The study gave rise to reac- tions from various countries. One such reaction showed that low achievement in a country might be viewed as high achievement, if the percentage of youngsters receiving a certain kind of education is taken into consideration.13 This, of course, touches upon the controversy relating to quantity versus quality. A decision in this respect depends on ideological and national values and on the availability of the neces- sary funds which must make the implementation of the ideological prin- ciples possible. The ability to invest in educational expansion depends also on the economic situation of a country, which in turn is influenced by the availability of natural resources, world markets for particular commodities, the population/land ratio, the stability of political institutions, and many other factors, including social 14 and cultural traditions. These facts give sufficient indication of the difficulties by which international studies in the field of education are beset. They 13Torsten Husén, "Does Broader Educational Opportunity Mean Lower Standards?" International Review of Education, XVII, No. l (1971), 77-91. 14F. Harbison and Charles Myers, Manpower and Education: Country Studies in Economic Development (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1965). 10 clearly suggest that the study in one single country might yield more reliable and more valuable information. That such information may also be valuable for other countries is hinted at by Coombs15 who is of the opinion that it is possible to borrow from and combine in new ways experiences in other countries. Hardin16 gives a similar indication when he suggests that an exchange of infOrmation across national boundaries may help accelerate the testing and development of methods and findings, though he recognizes that the methods and results in rich nations may not be wholly appro- priate to poor nations. He is of the opinion that one or more inter- national institutes could help promote such an exchange of information. The seeming gap between these opinions and the earlier mentioned impossibility of making international comparisons is bridged by the warning given by Brembeck17 when he says that no educational program can be adequately understood apart from its milieu, because some of the 15Philip H. Coombs, "How Shall We Plan Nonformal Education?" New Strategies for Educational Development: The Cross-Cultural Search for Nonformal Alternatives, ed. by C61e S.tBremBeck afid’ TimotEy Thompson [Institute for'International Studies, College of Education, Michigan State University] (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1973), pp. 145-59. l6Einar Hardin, "Economic Evaluation of Nonformal Education," New Strate ies for Educational Development: The Cross-Cultural SearcE for Nonformal Alternatives, edfwby Cole S. Brembeck and Timotfiy Thompson (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1973), pp. 159-70. 17Cole S. Brembeck, The Strate ic Uses of Formal and Nonformal Education (a paper prepared for the SEAMS7SEADAG and Korea/SEADAC Seminars, October, 1971). 11 most important aspects of an educational program are its links with other institutions in society. All that has been said in this section suggests that a study as outlined can best be done in one country, but that it is necessary to give full attention to all types of other circumstances in the country. Only then can the findings be of use to decision-making in other countries. Selection of Sweden In the first place the researcher thought it desirable to choose a European country for her study, not only because she is familiar with European approaches to education, but also because European education has evolved over a long period of time and has produced a great variety of types of education side by side in one country, which would facili- tate the making of comparisons between formal and alternative forms of education and their interrelationship. Out of the various European countries Sweden was chosen for the following reasons: 1. Since 1950 it has introduced a great number of educational reforms all in the direction of extended general education and of more of the same general education for all. 2. The reforms were introduced after extensive and lengthy public deliberations, whidh makes it possible to ascertain what the reasons for and the objectives of the reforms were, and in what measure the latter have been aChieved. 3. Sweden has a great variety of very old and very popular institutions for voluntary and alternative forms of education, 12 which makes it possible to study the developments of such education and the impact the reforms in the formal educational system have had on the other forms of education and on the desire for further learning. 4. Sweden has a highly centralized formal educational system and excellent statistics which facilitate the study of the impli- cations of the introduction of the educational reforms. 5. Of late years the formal educational system has received a great deal of publicity in Europe and it has been held up as an example for the other European countries. 6. Sweden has long been backward in comparison with most other Western European countries, but has made a sudden economic spurt in the early 20th century, so that it has the highest G.N.P. in Europe.18 This development may yield some insight in the possible influence of education on economic development. 7. The researcher speaks four European languages, including Dutch, so that graSping the meaning of publications in Swedish would not pose too great a problem. Definition of Terms Because there is a wide variety of terms covering the same idea, and on the other hand, the same term may cover different types 18Kurt Samuelsson, From Great Power to Welfare State: 300 Years of Swedish Social Development [written at the request Oftthe Swedish State Bafik] (London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1968); United Nations, Statistical Yearbook, 1970; (according to radio- reports, July 6,.I973ttGermany has now the highest G.N.P. in the world). 13 of education, it is desirable to give some definitions of terms as used in this dissertation. Alternative education, or alternative forms or modes of education, refers to all education which does not follow the schedule and pattern of the familiar school system, public or private, in which students follow an officially pre-determined program during a consecu- tive period of years, mostly during their youth years, to obtain an official certification. Alternative education can, therefore, be taken at any period in a life-time, can be adapted to student requirements, can be taken on a full- or a part-time basis, can be consecutive or non-consecutive, has no or few academic prerequisites, and does not primarily prepare for officially recognized diplomas or degrees, though such certifica- tion can be obtained, if desired, mostly through outside examinations. Compensatory education refers to all education given to younger or older persons to make up for handicaps acquired in whatever way, but mostly linked with social and economic disadvantages. Formal education refers to all education which follows the methods, curricula, grading systems, certification, of the formal educational system, whether this education is given during the normal school hours or not. Some part-time education may, therefore, be termed formal education. Such education is classified in this research report as "alternative education," however, though the atten- tion is drawn to the formal aspect of the education. It is hard to 14 draw a clear dividing line between formal and alternative education, since each may shift into the other's direction over time. Labor market training refers to all education and training offered by or through the National Labor Market Board, whether in the formal educational system or in any other institution. Such training may be general education or training for Specific skills. Some Terms Referring to Swedish Schools Common school refers to the old, now abolished elementary school, which depending on the period in time, comprised three, four and six years. The entrance age was seven. Comprehensive school refers to the present nine-year compulsory school. Continuation school refers to a two-year school,building on to the nine-year comprehensive school. This school is now incorporated in the Gymnasium school as a two-year stream. Girls school refers to a now abolished secondary school which could be entered from the third, the fourth or the sixth grade of the common or comprehensive school and which led up to an educational level which is more or less similar to that of the continuation school. Real school refers to a now abolished lower secondary school which, like the girls school could be entered from the third, the fourth or the sixth grade, but which led up to an educational level more or less similar to that of the present nine-year comprehensive school. 15 Gympasium refers to the upper-secondary school. It used to be entered from either the Girls school or the Real school, but is now entered from the Comprehensive school. The New Gymnasium had various courses of three and of four years but also the two year continuation school was incorporated into it. The Gymnasium school may be looked upon as the New Gymnasium in which also two-year vocational streams are incorporated. This school, therefore, contains two-, three-, and four-year courses, the last two of which prepare for university entrance. Methodology Study of Literature in the United States Before going to Sweden the researcher studied the literature relevant to: 1. educational developments in Sweden; 2. historical, social and economic developments in that country, together with its position in international context; 3. the latest findings and opinion as to the validity and/or relevance of various assumptions and theories relating to education in general; and 4. various trends and suggestions with regard to alternative forms of education. After her visit to Sweden the researcher supplemented this information by means of further library research. 16 Interviews and Conversations in Sweden From the end of January until the beginning of April, 1972 the researcher stayed in Sweden--mainly in Stockholm. In that period she interviewed a great number of knowledgeable persons in various fields, as enumerated on the appended list. On every issue she attempted to interview persons who might be assumed to have Opposing views, so as to get an unbiased impression. New leads which emerged during an interview were followed up by new interviews, or by personal investigation and observation. The researcher visited many parts of Stockholm and its sur- roundings by train, by bus and on foot. Wherever possible she engaged in conversations with persons in shOps, in restaurants, in trains and in railway stations. Visits to Educational Institutions The researcher visited the fellowing schools, of which she was assured that they were not the best nor the worst in their sort. Official assurances in that respect were confirmed by personal investigation. 1. a comprehensive school in Stockholm; 2. a public gymnasium school just outside Stockholm; and 3. a private gymnasium in Stockholm. Furthermore she visited: 1. a number of infant playgrounds in Stockholm and some infant schools; 17 2. a study-circle cum Folk high school institute in Stockholm; and 3. a Folk high school outside Stockholm. In all the educational institutions the researcher engaged in conversations with the principal or leader, with teachers and with students. Information Gatheringas to Milieu and SOEial Climate When the researcher was informed that some of the problems might be ascribed to conditions with respect to housing and the design of certain new suburbs, she visited, on her own, various residential areas and suburbs. She usually did this on Saturdays because the youngsters would then be about. She gave Special attention to what the youngsters were doing, and what recreation facilities were available. She visited the local libraries, and gave special attention to the youth-section in these libraries. In Stockholm's downtown she would go to the places where the youngsters would gather and observe what was going on. Processing the Information Obtained in These Wax§_ Every night the researcher made memos of what she had exper- ienced and heard. Reports of official interviews were made and sent to the interviewees for approval. Thus an attempt was made to obtain a fair representation of what had been said and implied. Information Obtained from Printed Sources’in’SWeden Official booklets, fact sheets and handouts, received from the various offices and agencies were studied. 18 Relevant Swedish research was studied in the Royal Library in Stockholm, old research reports were obtained from various official bodies, and books and booklets were bought in bookstores. Newspapers were scanned. If an article seemed of interest the researcher had it translated for the details in it. She obtained the help of a translator for the grasping of the exact content of booklets and reports of which no English trans- lations were available. Such a translator was made graciously avail- able by the "Swedish Institute." The texts were read through and translations were written over it. Statistical Data Gathering_ Statistical data were obtained from the Swedish Statistical yearbooks, supplemented by statistics contained in the various official publications, and by international statistics available in the United States. Raw data were converted into more meaningful data by computing percentages of age groups, of enrolled students, of G.N.P. and so on. They are mostly reported in the form of tables showing the various trends in educational enrollments and in social, psychological and economic developments. Limitations Findings with respect to Swedish developments may not be made directly applicable to other countries. The Swedish experiences may be valuable in that they give indications of what may happen under certain conditions. The trends found in Sweden must therefore always a. 1 Oh; i but My...‘ ‘Ili v 61: :4 h nilh .O A ‘14 19 be viewed against the local background as given in the dissertation. It must, however, be pointed out that within the scope of this study the information had to be limited to what was most essential. Detailed information on total educational costs was practically unobtainable. The national statistics only give state educational expenditure, and global figures for local and county costs. The localities are reimbursed by the state for what they spend on buildings and teachers, but the rest must be covered out of local taxes which may be different in the various localities. The researcher tried to obtain more detailed figures on developments in educational costs from the official at the Ministry of Education, who is entrusted with the drafting of the yearly budget proposals, it proved that the information she sought was not directly available even here, and that it could only be gathered through a very difficult and time-consuming investigation by this official. Consequently educational costs are sometimes reported as "total costs" and sometimes as state-costs. This is, however, clearly indicated on the tables. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE General Introduction The literature relevant to the study deals with two main issues, each of which consists of two sub-issues. The literature review will, therefore, be given according to the following outline. l. The value and efficiency of formal education in the early years of li fe . a. Four findings with regard to a number of popular assumptions. b. Four theories with reSpect to the economics of education. 2. Various modes of alternative education a. Existing alternative education b. Proposals for alternative modes of education. It is clear that some of the literature discussed under dif- ferent headings is interrelated and sometimes overlaps but for clarity's sake, it is desirable to make a distinction between the various topics. 20 21 The Value and Efficiency of Formal General Educationtin the Early Years of Life As has been outlined, attention shall first be given to the first issue under this heading. Findings With Regard to a Number of Popular Asspmptions Educational practices have largely rested on a number of assumptions whose validity is increasingly being subjected to investi- gation. A picture of the latest findings and Opinions is important for the evaluation of existing educational practices and for pro- posals for educational reforms. The first assumption that will be discussed is: Early youth is the best time for the learning of cogpitive skills.--A1though the majority of people still believe this to be true, Thorndikel and Lorge2 found that learning ability keeps in- creasing with age; that therefore adults learn better than children, who may be better at imitating. Older adults may, however, need some more time than younger adults. The issue is fully dealt with in the report on the 1971 White House Conference on Aging.3 1Edward Thorndike et al., Adult Learning (New York: McMillan Co., 1936. 2Irvin Lorge, "The Adult Learner," Adult Education Theory and Method (Washington, D.C.: Adult Education Associition in the U.S.A., Igags, pp. 1'90 3"White House Conference on Aging," a report to the delegates from the Conference Board, Arthur S. Fleming, Chairman (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971), ED 057 335. 22 The findings suggest that: 1. It may be more economical to extend the learning experience over the entire life span of the individual rather than over a continuous period in youth. 2. It may be more efficient and economical to start academic learning at some later age. It is, therefore, not surprising that with respect to Ethiopia it has been suggested that it would be better to have the children enter school at a later age "because an older student can absorb more and faster."4 This suggestion was made to cOpe with the pressing need to curb rising educational cost, while offering the greatest amount of education to the greatest number of youngsters. The soundness of the argument is supported by findings by Rohwer.S He found that the students who could learn rows of pairs of unconnected words well could put the pairs of words together in some form of context. The poor performers on the learning task did not do so. They also had lower I.Q.s. When the pairs of words were offered in some context, the poor performers showed better achievements but the good performers achieved better if they made their own "elabora- tions"--put the pairs of words in their self-made context. 4Niehoff/Wilder, "Rural Mass Education for Ethiopia" (unpublished paper, Michigan State University, May, 1972). 5William D. Rohwer, Jr., "Mental Elaborations and Learning Proficiency" (Berkeley: University of California, Office of Economic Opportunity Contract No. 24204, 1970), (mimeographed); and William D. Rohwer, Jr., "Prime Time for Education: Early Childhood or Adolescence," Harvard Educational Review, XL, No. 3 (August, 1971), 316-41. 23 Subsequent attempts to teach the poor learners to make their own "elaborations" proved inefficient before the students had reached a certain age. It took more time and energy than the original in- efficient way of learning in which the poor learners engaged. It was found that the earliest age at which the making of elaboration could be learned was early adolescence but that the more disadvantaged the learner was, the later the age was at which the making of elaborations could be learned. As a result of his findings, Rohwer suggested that the prime time for education may be early adolescence, rather than early child- hood--at least if his findings with regard to the learning of paired associates apply to all kinds of cognitive learning. Rohwer suggested further, that if young children mg§£_be sent to school, for whatever reasons, they had better be taught social and manipulative skills, rather than cognitive ones. Rohwer's findings cast doubt on the validity of the following assumption: More of the same_general education for all will_promote equality of opportunity and lessen socio-economic differences.--If, as Rohwer's findings suggest, children can be taught to learn efficiently at different ages, depending on their socio-economic backgrounds, socio-economic differences will be increased if all children are required to learn the same cognitive skills at approximately the same age. Differences in academic performance at the lower educational levels must, of necessity, increase over the years. This is exactly what is found in actual practice. Furthermore, since academic per- formance at the lower educational levels is required for entrance into the higher educational institutions, and degrees from these 24 institutions are required for the obtaining of the more prestigious and well-paying positions, the original disadvantages become cumula- tive. The educational system then perpetuates socio-economic differ- ences if it does not aggravate them. Of late growing inequality has received increasing attention with respect to the developing as well as to the developed world. This is evident from what follows. In the "Meaning of Development,"6 the opinion is expressed that it is possible that with the increase of education, inequalities in most countries have not been reduced, but, as a matter of fact, these may well have increased in most countries. Greer7 also found that, in Spite of the "Great school legend" the common school in the United States has in fact promoted upward mobility for certain classes and ethnic groups only. The consistent pattern has been that the poor do poorly in school. They have always experienced extremely high failure and drop-out rates, and conse- quently have only been able to get the lowest paying jobs and have often been unemployed. Much of their lack of success must be ascribed to economic pressures and irrelevance of what had to be learned. In reading this one cannot but think of Rohwer's finding that the putting of the pairs of words that had to be learned in some meaningful context--which is a kind of relevance--made efficient learning 6Dudley Seers, "The Meaning of Development," reprint of a paper given at the 11th World Conference of the Society for Inter- national Development, New Delhi, November 14-17, 1969, under the title "Challenges to Deve10pment Theories and Strategies" (New York: Agricultural Development Council, Inc., September, 1972), pp. 1-11. 7Colin Greer, The Great School Legend: A Revisionist Inter- ppetation of American PuEIic Education (New'York: Basic BEoEs, I972). 25 possible. This may explain Greer's observation that in spite of considerably increased enrollments, the ratio of success has not greatly improved over the years. The conclusion Greer draws is that to make the public schools truly an instrument for creating mobility among poor peOple, requires something quite new, something of which there have not been models in the past. Greer's observation with regard to the high failure and drop- out rates among the poor are supported by data in "Education of the American Population."8 The findings do not only apply to the lower levels of educa- tion, either. Karabel of Harvard University9 points to the per- petuation of social differences through the community college movement and the social pressures within the colleges, which have produced submerged class conflicts in higher education. He found that the rate of drop-out at a college or university is inversely related to the class composition of its student population. He is of the opinion that class and social differences will increasingly determine who 10 graduates among college entrants. But what is worse is that Hansen in a study in California found that the poor people who cannot afford 8John K. Folger and Charles B. Nam, Education of the American Po ulation (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, Department of Cammerce, Bureau of the Census, 1967). 9Jerome Karabel, "Community Colleges and Social Stratifica- tion," Harvard Educational Review, XL, No. 2 (November, 1972), 521-62 0 10Lee W. Hansen, "Who Benefits from Higher Education Subsidies?‘ Monthly Labor Review, XCIII, No. 3 (March, 1970), 43-46. 26 to send their children to public institutions of higher learning pay for the education of the youngsters whose parents are in a better financial position. A new dimension to the entire relationship between upward mobility and the common school is given by Karabel when he says in a footnote: Contrary to popular perception, American and European rates of social mobility from manual to non-manual occupations, are very similar. . 1 This suggests that the degree of selectivity of an educational system need not necessarily influence social mobility. This is sup- ported by Jencks who found that: Neither track nor curriculum content seems to have an appreciable effect on student's cognitive development.12 Jencks furthermore found that: The relationship between test-score and economic background also seems stronger in the United States than in other countries. This reinforces our conviction that the range of environmental variation is greater in the United States than in most other industrialized countries.13 In view of the findings thus far discussed it is not sur- prising that Judson writes: Like many other liberal inventions, well-intended to solve social problems, schooling exacerbates the condition it is intended to relieve. It increases class differences, leads 11Lipset and Bendix, Social Mobility in Industrial Society [mentioned in Jerome Karabel "CEmmunity ColIeges and Sociil Strati- fication"] (Berkeley University Press, 1967), p. 522. 12C. Jencks et al., Inequality: A Reassessment of the Effect of Family and Schooling in Amefica (New York: Basib_Books, 1972), p. 34. ”Ibid” p. 78. 27 to further Oppression and burdens the earth with a technology and Specialized elite which we are hard pressed to live with and sustain.14 What is more, the "Statement on Equal Educational Opportunity" published by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development--the OECD--Shows that the phenomenon is world-wide rather than typically American, as apparent from the following quotation: . . a careful analysis reveals that, in many cases, this tremendous [educational] expansion has had little effect on social disparities in educational participation. Although everyone is getting more in absolute terms, in relative terms the situation is much the same as before.IS The evidence was presented to the recent OECD Conference on Policies for Educational Growth, and will be published in a series presenting the Conference Proceedings. In the same statement one can read: In almost every country reviewed, the opportunities for education are very great for children from the upper classes, good fer those from the middle classes, and distinctly poor for those from the lower classes or with an agricultural background. . . . In short, social differences in educational participation seem to be a pervasive and constant characteristic of educational structures in all countries. What change has taken place has been gradual and has not so far appreciably altered the above picture. . . . To sum up, one can say that children from lower classes enter the educational system with a handicap which manifests itself first in the low levels of achievement, then, in high l4Jerome Judson, Culture Out of Anarchy: The Reconstruction of American Higher Learning (New Yotk} Herder and Herder,197I5, p. xxi. 15OECD, Centre for Educational Research and Innovation, ggual Educational Oppgrtunity: A Statement of the Problem With pecia eference to Recurrent Education (Paris, an.), p. 15. 28 drop-out rates. These findings, which trace the causes of this situation back to early childhood, have resulted in the introduction of so-called compensatory educational programmes. . . .16 Since the OECD findings refer to the developed countries and . . 1 the remark earl1er taken from "The Mean1ng of DeveIOpment" 7 to the developing countries, it is clear that all over the world more general education has not reduced inequalities. In some countries equal Opportunities for higher education have even officially been reduced. In the OECD statement is men- tioned that the increase of enrollments due to the extension of compulsory and the introduction of more general education caused such increases in educational costs that discriminatory measures had to be taken at higher levels of education. The pressure, notably on higher education, has become so great that, even in countries where access to higher education was traditionally Opened to all those who had successfully completed the appropriate secondary level, restrictive policies, such as numerous fixus or numerus clausus, had to be introduced or are being seriously considered.18 The Latin terms mean limitation of the number of students that can be accepted in higher education or in certain faculties. It is clear that this entails a great deal of selectivity and the blocking of the road to higher education for many persons whose previous education had been directed towards such further education. 16mm. , pp. 16-17. 17Seers, "The Meaning of Development." 18OECD, Equal Educational Opportunity, p. 38. I?! :11. Ii "1 D1 I‘m PU h a .1 \fww 29 Such a situation exists in Sweden and Norway. It is of inter— est to mention that some years ago a preposal to restrict the admit- tance to the medical schools in the Netherlands was defeated in Parliament as unconstitutional. Under the pressure of financial necessity a numerus fixus has now been introduced, however, for a number of faculties. These measures and the way in which the selection must take place are hot issues in the various countries.19 The OECD Statement discusses compensatory education as a means of solving the problem of differences in achievement due to socio-economic differences. This leads to the discussion of the following assumption. The influence of social differences can be lessened by compensatory education.--Rohwer's findings20 discussed earlier, cast serious doubt on the efficacy of extra education given in early childhood to make up for social handicaps. It is, therefore, not surprising that Erickson21 in his evaluation of experiments in "Headstart" and "Early Education" found that the programs did yield some initial advantages, but that these soon disappeared. After a Short time in school the customary gap between the advantaged and 19Information obtained in Sweden. For the Netherlands-- personal readings. For Norway--personal information received in Oslo in April, 1972. Rohwer, Mental Elaborations and Learning Proficiency. 21Edsel L. Erickson et al., Experiments in Headstart and Early Education, Final Report O.E.O. 4150 (DivisiOn of Research and EvaIfiation, November, 1969). (Mimeographed.) 30 disadvantaged grew again. He found that neither Headstart nor kinder- garten attendance improved cognitive performance in elementary school even if it might facilitate social interaction. On the basis of his findings Erickson suggests that other, highly structured compensatory COgnitive education be given to the disadvantaged. Insufficient data are available about the efficacy of this prOgram. While "Headstart" was for disadvantaged children, the popular T.V. program "Sesame Street" was made to solve the increasing reading problems among all school children. The Educational Testing Service in Princeton evaluated the impact of this program22 and found that the advantaged as well as the disadvantaged learned from the program; that the more a child watched the more he profited, and that school- environment and teacher-supervision did not necessarily enhance learn- ing from the program. The implication would be that the disadvantaged would have to watch more than the advantaged to make up for their initial disadvantage. One wonders how the disadvantaged children can be forced to watch the prOgram more frequently. Furthermore, what impact "Sesame Street" will have on later school performance and attitude towards school learning has not yet been ascertained. Thus far only pre-school compensatory education has been discussed. The OECD Statement also discusses compensatory education at the primary and secondary level and the impact of the United States 22Educational Testing Service, Sesame Street: Summative Research (September 7, 1971), ED 057 914;tSamuel BEIIandGerry Ann Bogatz, Research on Sesame Street: Some Implications for Compensato3y_ Education, Proceedings OtFthE Second Annual HumantBIfimBerg Symposium on Research in Early Childhood Education (Princeton, N.J.: Johns Hepkins Press, 1972). 31 Title I of the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act. The Statement mentions that a report evaluating Title I points out: . . . that very little change in reading achievements has occurred as a result of the implementation of Title I projects. . . . The reports for 1967 and 1968 indicated that less than one-fifth of the Title 1 participants achieved a significant gain in reading, roughly two-thirds Showed no change, and the rest showed some loss. It is also interesting to note that the majority of gains were attained in the higher grades. This is contrary to popular impression. Thus, it would appear that Title I pro- grammes which motivated older children were more successful than the remedial programmes at a lower age.23 The OECD Statement also discusses the "More Effective Schools PrOgramme (MES) in New York City in which the pupils exhibited the classical pattern of increasing academic retardation. The Statement points out that: The general criticism of the American Compensatory educational programmes is that they have concentrated heavily upon deficiencies of children, and neglected to give serious attention to the deficiencies of schools. . . Most programmes provide additional services which are supposed to make up for cumulative effects of poverty and discrimination, but they leave the rest of the educational system unchanged. In that sense one could say that they are piling wooden ploughs on wooden ploughs.24 Also Greer25 points to the fact that there has been a tendency to promote equality by giving more of the same of what thus far has proved ineffective. 23OECD, Equal Educational Opportunity, p. 21. 24Ibid. , p. 22. 25Greer, The Great School Legend. 32 If many youngsters suffer from increasing retardation due to the environment into which they were born, and they consequently have unrewarding educational experiences, one wonders if the following assumption can be valid in its generality. More general education creates a desire for continuing Educationu-This assumption is based on data which may be found in all countries showing that there is a relationship between the amount of education received and the inclination to engage in further learning. As far as could be ascertained, no causal relationship has been eStablished, however. It is quite well possible, and even probable, that not education per se causes the phenomenon. One may assume that unrewarding earlier educational experiences deter many persons from seeking further education. It is of interest to note that the OECD Statement mentions that: The risk that, given the chance of returning to school at some future date, too many pupils would leave earlier than they otherwise might, and that those early leavers would later feel least motivated to resume their education, cannot be disregarded. one wonders whether it is the chance of taking further education at sOllie later date or frustration with the educational experience which Inakes many pupils leave earlier. Also, if persons experience that the education received has not prepared them for the jobs they must 1ater perform, they may be disinclined to seek further education. l(aufman and Brown wonder about the kind of education that is best Suited for the production of high quality workers. k 2(’OECD, Ewl Educational Opportunity, p. 36. 33 The basic but unanswered question is this: Which form of education has a greater positive effect on the quality of the worker?27 The quality of the worker is undoubtedly affected by the willingness to learn further to cOpe with changes in job requirements Little is known yet about the entire problem. The Council <3f'Europe held a symposium on what kind of education might lead to 1 i fe- long learning . 28 As has been said in the introduction, it is hoped that this Study will shed some light on this complicated question. Summa:y.--One may say that the literature on the four popular assumptions seems to indicate that the first three are invalid and that the last needs further research. Eeories and Findings With Regard to the Economics OTEducation All the literature discusses increasing educational costs, Whether directly mentioned or implied. The cost aspect of education liens led to various theories with respect to return on educational eDCpenditure. These theories can be subdivided into four topics which will be discussed separately. 27Jacob J. Kaufman and Anne F. Brown, "Manpower Supply and IDemand," Review of Educational Research, XXXVIII, No. 4 (October, 1968), 331. Comparative Education, VIII, No. 3 (December, 1972), 103. 34 Schultz29 and Denison30 broached the subject and found that .increased formal schooling yields increased economic growth and :increased personal incomes. Since then many economists have cr1t1- <:ized, supported and extended the theories and the methods used for . 31 . uneasuring the various returns. What has been mainly argued about 1:5: 1. whether human beings can be viewed as capital; 2. what is cause and what effect of a possible relationship; 3. what the relative value is of various levels and types of education and how the values can be assessed in different countries; Theodore W. Schultz, The Economic Value of Education (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963). 30Edward F. Denison, The Sources of Economic Growth in the IJIIited States and the Alternatives BefOre Us, Supplementary Paper Fat). I3 of the Committee for Economic Development (New York, 1962); aund.Edward F. Denison, The Residual Factor and Economic Growth (Paris: OECD, 1964). 31Mark Blaug, An Introduction to the Economics of Education (reissued 1972; Penguin Books, 197m; Matktiaug, ed., Readin s: IEconomics of Education 1 (reprint 1971; Penguin Books, 1968); w Mary éiean Bowman, 'Economics of Education," Review of Educational Research, )(XXIX, No. 5 (December, 1969); Edward F. DeniSon, Why Growth Rates Eliffer: Postwar Experience in Nine Western Countries (Washington: IBrookings ‘Institute, 1967); R. S. Eckhaus, "Economic Criteria for ducation and Training," Review of Economics and Statistics, XLVI, 190. 2 (May, 1964), 181-90; Frederitk Harbison and Charles Meyers, Education, ManpowerL and Economic Growth: Strate ies of Human liesource Development (New Yetk: McGraw-Hill, 1964); Kaufman and Erown, "Manpower Supply and Demand"; Theodore W. Schultz, Investment in.Human Capital: The Role of Education and of Research (New York: The Free Press, 1971); Donald’Sanders and Peter S. Earth, "Education and Economic Development," Review of Educational Research, XXXVIII, No. 3 (June, 1968); Maureen Woodhall, “The Economics of Education," Review of Educational Research, XXXVII (October 4, 1967); and UNESCO, Readings in the Economics of Education (1968). 3S 4. the amounts that must be taken into consideration for "income foregone" (the income the student would have received if he had taken a job instead of going to school); 5. what the interaction is between the results of expenditure on social measures, education and capital investment; and 6. what the influence is of the labor market supply-and-demand on income and therefore on return on educational expenditure. With the exception of the first point, these issues will be discussed under the main theories with regard to the economics of education. The first one is: More general education promotes economicg:ewth.--This theory is strongly linked with the question of cause and effect. Bowen and Anderson” found that for a number of countries: 1. 1938 income predicted 1950 primary enrollments better than 1938 enrollments did 1950 income; and 2. 1938 income predicted 1966 income better than any of the education indices and much better than 1930 primary enrollments. Their conclusion was that there is no support to the assump- tion that increased schooling is uniformly followed by rising income. 1r}he findings indicate that in some countries at least, educational erll‘ollments are the result of increased income and not the cause. 32Mary Jean Bowen and C. Arnold Anderson, "Concerning the ROle of Education in Development," Readings in the Economics of Education (UNESCO, 1968). 36 Harbison and Meyers33 point to an interaction between economic growth and educational development, while Blaug:54 is of the Opinion tfliat the relationship between the various types Of expenditure is ianortant; what is spent on education cannot be spent on social nuaasures or capital investment. Sanders and Barth point to the possible irrelevance of the issue itself when they say: Even if we found an entirely unambiguous and universally agreed- upon estimate of the contribution of formal education to past rates of U.S. economic growth, it is not readily apparent how this would assist decision making about future investment in education.35 111. saying this they hint at the lack of knowledge about what kind of education contributes most to economic growth. Furthermore, of recent years the principle of G.N.P. and of economic growth has been subjected to questions such as: 1. What is G.N.P.? 2. How must it be measured? 3. What relationship is there between G.N.P. and "development?" 4. What is "development?" 33Harbison and Meyers, Education, Manpower, and Economic Growth . 34Blaug, An Introduction to the Economics of Education. 35Sanders and Barth, "Education and Economic Development," 9. 220. 37 Beckerman36 expresses the opinion that much that is usually .incduded in national product may be costs that Should be deducted. Also, assets such as leisure time are not taken into consideration, though they may have to be put on the credit side of the balance. How questionable G.N.P. is as a standard for measuring the value of education has very recently been brought to the attention by the fact that suddenly--due to the drOp in the value Of the U.S. dollar-mo longer the United States, but Germany has the highest (3-19.P. in the world. According to various radio interviews, the drOp in the value of the dollar is largely due to the influence of the Watergate affair. This shows that psychological factors too influence the G.N.P. Furthermore, G.N.P. need not necessarily denote "develOpment." Beekerman:57 points out that what is "develOpment" and "welfare" depends on personal and national value judgments. This point is highly I‘elevant to the developments in Sweden, as will be shown later. Finally, the desirability of economic growth is increasingly ‘lllestioned. A study done by M.I.T., Massachusetts, for the "Club (’1? Rome" unambiguously points to the necessity of curbing growth and striving after "equilibrium." The "Club of Rome" was formed by one 36Wilfred Beckerman, "Human Resources and Economic Develop- ment: Some Problems of Measurement," International Social Science Journal, XXIV, No. 4 (1972), 725-44. 37Ibid. 38 of the leading industrialists in Europe, and the report is one of the most discussed tepics in Western Europe.38 If economic growth should not be striven after, the entire attitude towards education might have to be reviewed. This could influence the following economic theory. More general education is required to meet the new and :rapidly_ehanging job demands.--Doubt on the soundness Of this theory :is.cast by the fact that, in spite of enormous increases in educa- 1:ional enrollments, unemployment has grown almost everywhere. . . in fourteen Third World countries of which usable figures are available, the value Of overt unemployment has been growing at an average of about 8-1/2% a year, or more than three times the rate of pOpulation growth.39 Also in the developed countries and especially in the United States, growing youth unemployment causes increasing concern.4 In the latter country this has led to a growing awareness of the need for more vocational education and the importance of work-experience. 38The Club of Rome, The Limits to Growth: A Report for the (Zlub of Rome's Project on the Ptedicament 6f Mankind (New York: Utii verse BOoks . 39Seers, "The Meaning of Development," p. 4. 40U.S., Department of Labor, The Transition from School to Work (a report on the Princeton Manpower Symposium, organized By the U.S. Department of Labor, the WOodrow Wilson School and the Industrial Relations Section, Princeton University, May 9-10, 1968), PB 182 965; and U.S., Department of Labor, Youth Unemplgyment and Minimum Wa es, Bulletin 1657 (U.S., Department ofLEbor,BEteau of LEEor Statistics, 1970). 39 There are complaints, however, about the vocational education that is offered in the schools. Reese comments: Despite the expenditure of some $50 billion per year for education, less than $1 billion is spent on vocational education and most of that doesn't prepare youngsters for work.41 Ruttenberg concurs as he says: The school system, at great expense, keeps turning out ill- prepared persons for the labor force; and the Federal Govern- ment, at great expense, attempts to mold these persons into productive citizens with the aid of private industry, using the same basic training which was available in the school system.42 ztnd further: The school system both vocational and academic, has tended to recede from the realistic needs of the present and the future. Learning for the sake of learning, arbitrary academic require- ments and poor teaching tools have taken their toll of pupils.43 Marland expresses himself even stronger when he says: Half of our high school students, a total of approximately 1,500,000 a year are bein offered what amounts to irrelevant general educational pap.4 41Hammond Reese, "Effective Preparation for Apprenticeship" [IRRA Conference Papers], Monthly Labor Review, XCIII, No. 3 (April, 1970), 44-45. 42Stanley Ruttenberg, "Manpower Training: The Seeds of a Dilemma," Manpower, I, No. 1 (January, 1969), 3. 43lbid. 44S. P. Marland, Jr., "Career Education Now," Career Education Perspective and Promise, ed. by Keith Goldhammer and ROEert E. TayIOr (Celumbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1972), p. 36. 40 These are but a few forcibly expressed opinions,and labor- market literature abounds with additional information supporting these Opinions. The literature indicates that general education does not necessarily prepare persons efficiently for the job market. If this is so, the soundness of the following theory must also be questioned. It pays for the individual to get more (general) education because it impgeves his chances ofgettipga higher income and better pgpmotionAppportunities.--There is no doubt about the fact that there is some relationship between income and amount of schooling received. 'There is considerable doubt, however, about what is cause and what :is effect and whether the relationship is sound. Parness4smentions legal certification as one of the causes (If higher incomes due to education, while Berg46 is of the opinion that the entire relationship is unsound. He points to unrealistic and discriminatory hiring practices and to the fact that insufficient 155 known about the influence of education received on productivity. In one aspect Blaug agrees with Berg when he says: .A university degree or a secondary school diploma may function ‘more as a certificate of diligence and perseverence than as evidence of the possession of particular verbal and mathe- :matical skills. Employers may regard a paper qualification as a reliable indication of personal ability, achievement drive and perhaps docility, reasoning that, say, a graduate must \ 4SS. Parness, "Relation of Occupation to Educational Qualifi- cation," Readin 5: Economics of Education 1, ed. by 818118 enguin BOOKS, 1968). 46Ivar Berg, Education and Jobs: The Great Training Robbery [Center for Urban Education] (NOw—York: Praeger, 1970)1 41 make a better salesman than a man who has never met the challenge of higher education; the graduate gets the job and better pay, not because higher education has improved his skills, but simply because the degree identifies him as the better man.4 The same idea is expressed by Kershaw when he says: A prime attraction of the bachelor's degree to employers is evidence it affords that the holder normally disciplines himself to carry out tasks somewhat conscientiously and on time, no matter how irrelevant they may seem to be.48 Also native ability is mentioned as a cause of higher income. Jencks49 found that incomes depend on competencies that have very little relation to education and cognitive skills. This Opinion is supported by Pettitt . 50 Bailey and Schotta51 studied the return on graduate education arud found that in general it is zero or less than 1 percent. 47Blaug, An Introduction to the Economics of Education, p. 30. 48.1. A. Kershaw and A. M. Mood, "Resource Allocation in Sligher Education," Monthly Labor Review, XCIII, No. 3 (March, 1970), 49Jencks et al., Ineguality: A Reassessment. S . soGeorge A. Pettitt, Prisoners of Culture (New York: Charles crlbner, 1970). 51Duncan Bailey and Charles Schotta, "Private and Social Rates of Return to Education of Academicians," American Economic E1131, LXII, No. 1 (March, 1972), 19-31. 42 What has been said thus far refers to higher education. Wiener52 and Shaw Hamilton53 found that also high school diplomas are used as a screening device. For many jobs such a diploma is required while only the ability to read and write, ability to under- stand and accept instruction, and motivation to learn and work are needed for the job. A growing imbalance between the demand and the supply with respect to certain educational levels is discussed by various writers. PettittS4 mentions that jobs requiring much schooling and training increase less than jobs requiring less education. In 1900, 4.3 jpercent of the work force was made up of professional and technical hulrkers; in 1975 they will constitute 14.3 percent, while clerical workers, who represented 3 percent of the work force in 1900 will constitute 16.2 percent of it by 1975. He says: Almost 60 percent of the young people now in school must earn their livings as clerks, saleSpeople or blue collar workers.55 Also in "The Courage to Change"56 it is mentioned that 80 percent of the jobs in the seventies will require less than a bachelor's \ SzRose Wiener, "Does Everybody Need a High School Diploma?" W: 1» N0. 2 (February/March, 1969), 7-9. 53Gloria Shaw Hamilton and J. David Reassner, "How Employers Sereen Disadvantaged Job Applicants," Monthly Labor Review, XCX, N0. 9 (September, 1972), 14-21. S4Pettitt, Prisoners of Culture. 551bid., p. 225. 56Roman C. Pucinski and Sharlene Pearlman Hirsch, The Coura e New Directions for Career Education (Englewood Cliffs, 1“) Chan e: “HI—Tu rentice-Hall, 1971). 43 degree, while 70 percent of the American parents expect their sons to go to college. How serious the problem is, is Shown by the following quotation from Berg: There will be about 3.1 million more high-school graduates, 850,000 more people with some college education, and 3.3 million more college graduates than will be required.57 The literature discussed thus far does not only indicate that the higher incomes received for more schooling may be un- realistic, but also that an oversupply of persons with much educa- tion may cause a drop in the incomes, while a shortage in persons with less schooling but with certain skills may cause incomes for these kinds of persons to rise. Furthermore, increased education Inay lead to unemployment. All this may have an influence on the following theory. More general education will improve the guelity of life 33;: the individual and for society. This theory could only be valid inf'the education received is experienced as relevant and rewarding by the individual, and makes him a better balanced and adapted Person in social and economic respect. Pettitt,58 however, points 'tc>'various undesirable social and psychological developments which l‘anle accompanied increased general education. Also Drucker 9 dis- cuS-ses frustration and undesirable behaviors combined with \- 57Berg, Education and Jobs [referring to Folger and Nam, JESEigation of the American Popfilation]. 58Pettitt, Prisoners of Culture. 59Peter F. Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity: Guidelines to 0urChanging Society (New Yor : arper Row, I969). 44 psychological problems. He ascribes them to enforced extension of schooling combined with earlier maturation. According to him "adolescence" is an abnormal period in a person's life, caused by the stress of being half child and half adult. In some cultures it is normal to step from the one stage into the other quickly and smoothly. This problem is also discussed by Marin who says: Yet it is just during this period in his life that we adults seem compelled by a persistent lunacy to isolate them. . . . Through law and custom we make the only legal place for him the school, and then, to make sure he remains dependent, manipulable, we empty the school of all vivid life. The young are displaced. There seems no other word for it. They are trapped in a prolonged childhood almost unique in the world. We can no longer imagine learning outside the schools, or child-adult relationships in the community.60 Brembeck adds to this: Not only do schools set children and youth apart from adult 61 society; they further segregate them among themselves. . . . and further: If the aim of education is to widen the generation gap, isolate them from the inherited culture, and sort out for election to the elite those who learn well through abstract symbols, then the formal secondary school is admirably suited to the purpose.62 6oPeter Marin, "The Fiery Vehemence of Youth," Challenges to Education: Readin s for Analysis of Major Issues, e . y Manuel Hurwitz, Jr. and Charles A. Tescond, Jr. (New York: Dodd, Mead Co., 1972), 300. 61Cole 8. Brembeck, "The Strategic Uses of Formal and Non- formal Education" (paper prepared for the SEAMS/SEADAG and Korea/ SEADAG Seminars, October, 1971), p. 11. 62Cole S. Brembeck, "The Strategic Uses of Formal and Nonformal Education," New Strateg¥es for Educational Development: The Cross-Cultural Search for NOn ormal Alternatites (Lexington BOOKS, D.C. Heath and Co., 1973). 45 The increase of youth unemployment has been discussed earlier, while also mention has been made of the fact that too much general education may lead to further unemployment. Drucker,63 Bowen and Finegan64 and David65 discuss the unfavorable effect of unemplomment on immature young people. Furthermore, Berg66 points out that many persons are under-employed, have to perform work which does not require the education they have received. This causes job- dissatisfaction, which in turn leads to costly turn-over and absenteeism. Summa:y.--All these comments do not only cast doubt on the validity of the theory that prolonged education yields social returns but they suggest also that they may unfavorably affect the economic return on education. If more general education leads to the necessity of increased expenditure on training and retraining programs for the young, and for the keeping of law and order to curb undesirable social behavior, these costs should be calculated in the educational costs of the country. What is worse, however, more general education may adversely affect individual satisfaction and happiness. 63Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity. 64William G. Bowen and T. Aldrich Finegan, The Economics of Labor Force Participation (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1969). 65Paul T. David, "Barriers to Youth Employment," White House Conference on Children in a Democracy (prepared for the American Youth Commission, AmericantCOuncil of'Education, Washington, D.C., 1942). 66Berg, Education and Jobs. 46 In view of all this it is not surprising that Illich67 makes a case for "deschooling society" and that Margaret Mead writes: In thinking about an effective educational system we Should recognize that the adolescent's need and right to work is as great (perhaps greater than) his immediate need and right to study. And we must recognize that the adult's need and right to study more is as great as (perhaps greater than) his need and right to hold the same job until he is 65 years old. . . . Various Modes of Alternative Education Existing Alternative Education First existing and well-tried out modes of alternative education will be discussed. Sudale and other writers69 give an overview of nonformal or vocational education and training in various European countries. In many of these countries large numbers of 13-15 year olds go to a vocational and/or apprenticeship program. These types of education vary widely with respect to administrative organization. The skills fer which one can be trained vary considerably in the various 67Ivan Illich, Deschooling Society (New York: Harper Row, 1971). 8Margaret Mead, "Thinking Ahead," Harvard Business Review, XXXVI, No. 6 (November/December, 1958), 170. 69E. W. Sudale, Continued Education: A Study of the Education of Youn European School Leavers Durin ’TheirtLast Years at SEBOOI ‘r and Early_Years at Work(StrasBOurg: EOuncil for CulturaI’Co- operation, CounciI OnyurOpe, 1971); P. Deheuvels, Aims and Develgpf ment of Secondary Education (OECD, Spring, 1969); International Labour Offite, Euro ean Epprenticeships, Cirf Monograph I, No. 2 (Geneva, 1966); OEC , Develo ments oftSecondary Education: Trends and I lications, I96I-T939 (Paris: Council iOrCulturaltCooperation OT thb Council of Europe, Technical and Vocational Education, Six Area Studies, Strasbourg, 1970). 47 countries, but mostly include office-skills, and skills for the catering trades as well as technical education. The literature indicates that not enrollments in these pro- grams per se is important, but that the efficiency of the education and training depends very much on a balanced combination of theoretical and on-the-job experience. Table II-l gives an impression of the enrollments in different types of education at the secondary and at the tertiary level, in various countries. The attention is drawn to the fact that most European countries have various possibilities for non-university tertiary education, which is mostly more vocationally oriented. It usually has lower entrance requirements and accepts students from lower vocational schools, allows graduates from the higher vocational schools to enter universities. In this way there is a kind of "second route" to university degrees, which need not run through the institutions for general education. The higher vocational schools can mostly be attended on part- or full-time basis and by persons of various ages. Studies also show that not only total unemployment but also the relative youth unemployment is much lower in most European countries than in the United States. This is accompanied with lower educational costs as expressed in U.S. dollars while higher education is mostly free or practically so. Table II-Z gives some relevant figures. 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