A FILM STUDY DEMONSTRATING THE EFFECT OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT FOR TEACHING SOCIAL BEHAVIOR TO INNER-CITY PREKINDERGARTEN 7 CHILDREN 3 Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY MARY 'M. HILL 1977 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A FILM STUDY DEMONSTRATING THE EFFECT OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT FOR TEACHING SOCIAL BEHAVIOR T0 INNER-CITY PREKINDERGARTEN CHILDREN presented by Mary M. HiTT has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Education Wl/ Wéa/z/z/f/ Major professor degree in Date June 7, 1977 0-7639 ABSTRACT A FILM STUDY DEMONSTRATING THE EFFECT OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT FOR TEACHING SOCIAL BEHAVIOR T0 INNER-CITY PREKINDERGARTEN CHILDREN By Mary M. Hill This study investigated the effectiveness of the use of positive reinforcement in the teaching of social behaviors to inner-city prekindergarten children. Three specific social beha- viors were examined: (1) taking turns, (2) following directions, and (3) group problem solving. Adult attention was systematically directed toward those children exhibiting desired behavior and withheld as an immediate consequence of undesirable behavior. A film study showed the effectiveness of positive rein- forcement. The use of this film will permit other observers to see the response of the children to adult attention that is directed toward desirable behavior and that this attention is powerful enough to change the undesirable behaviors of the other children. This film can be used as an aid for both parents and teachers for teaching of social behavior to young children. The data for this study were collected from 37 children enrolled in the Jessie Rouse prekindergarten program in the City of Saginaw School District. This prekindergarten program is Mary M. Hill federally funded through Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and its purpose is to prepare “disadvantaged" chil- dren for entry into kindergarten. A time sample recording technique was employed, in which each session was divided into time periods. All subjects' responses, both positive and negative, were recorded for taking turns, group problem solving, and following directions. Daily percentages were calculated and all data were summarized and placed on charts. V The statistical tests supported the following findings: 1. The number of times children took turns did increase when positive reinforcement was immediately directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. 2. The number of children following directions did increase when positive reinforcement was immediately directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. 3. .The number of children participating in group problem- solving sessions did increase when positive reinforcement was immediately directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. 4. Children continued taking turns when positive rein- forcement was intermittently directed to the children exhibiting the desired behavior. 5. Children continued following directions when positive reinforcement was intermittently directed to the children exhibit- ing the desired behavior. Mary M. Hill 6. Children continued participating in group problem- solving sessions when positive reinforcement was intermittently directed to children exhibiting the desired behavior. This study found that the use of positive reinforcement was effective in teaching social behaviors to inner-city prekinder- garten children. This study also found that adult attention that is systematically directed toward those children exhibiting desirable behavior will be powerful enough to change the undesir- able behavior of the other children. A FILM STUDY DEMONSTRATING THE EFFECT OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT FOR TEACHING SOCIAL BEHAVIOR TO INNER-CITY PREKINDERGARTEN CHILDREN By Mary M. Hill A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Elementary Education 1977 Capyright by MARY M. HILL 1977 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ....................... iv Chapter I. IDENTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM ....... 1 Purpose of This Research ............. 9 Research Questions and Hypotheses ........ ll Research Questions ............... ll Research Hypotheses .............. ll Definitions of Important Terms .......... l2 Limitations of the Research ........... l5 Summary ..................... l6 II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............ 17 Overview ..................... l7 Social Development ................ 17 Positive Reinforcement .............. 24 Summary ..................... 39 III. RESEARCH DESIGN .................. 41 Overview ..................... 4l Experimental Design ............... 4l Variables ................... 4l Treatments ................... 42 Hypotheses ................... 42 Method of the Research .............. 43 Subjects .................... 43 The Design ................... 45 Procedure ................... 46 Period A, Baseline ............... 46 Period 8, Positive Reinforcement ........ 47 Period C, Reversal ............... 48 Period 8, Return of Reinforcement ....... 48 Period D, Intermittent Reinforcement ...... 48 Setting .................... 49 Activities ................... 49 Response Definitions .............. 49 Observers ................... 50 Data Analysis .................. 52 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ....................... iv Chapter I. IDENTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM ....... 1 Purpose of This Research ............. 9 Research Questions and Hypotheses ........ ll Research Questions . .............. ll Research Hypotheses .............. ll Definitions of Important Terms .......... l2 Limitations of the Research ........... l5 Summary ..................... l6 11. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............ 17 Overview ..................... l7 Social Development ................ l7 Positive Reinforcement .............. 24 Swmmy .. ... .. .............. 39 III. RESEARCH DESIGN .................. 4l Overview ..................... 41 Experimental Design ............... 4l Variables . . ................. 4l Treatments ................... 42 Hypotheses ................... 42 Method of the Research .............. 43 Subjects .................... 43 The Design ................... 45 Procedure ....... . ........... 46 Period A, Baseline ............... 46 Period B, Positive Reinforcement ........ 47 Period C, Reversal ............... 48 Period B, Return of Reinforcement ....... 48 Period D, Intermittent Reinforcement ...... 48 Setting .................... 49 Activities .............. . . . . . 49 Response Definitions .............. 49 Observers ........ . .......... 50 Data Analysis .................. 52 Chapter Page IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA .......... 54 Introduction .................... 54 Test of Hypotheses ................. 55 Analysis of Data on Morning and Afternoon Sessions . 66 Summary of Findings From the Statistical Analysis of the Data ............... 75 V. THE FILM ....................... 81 VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ............... 84 Discussion ..................... 85 Implications .................... 87 Recommendations .................. 89 APPENDICES .......................... 92 A. A SCREENING DEVICE FOR PRESCHOOL READINESS . . I . . . 93 B. PREKINDERGARTEN SCHEDULE ............... 96 C. PROBLEM-SOLVING ACTIVITIES .............. 98 D. FORMS OF ADULT ATTENTION ............... lOO E. SAMPLE RECORDING SHEET ................ lO3 F. OBSERVER AGREEMENT TABLES .............. l05 G. EQUIPMENT ...................... lOB H. SCRIPT AND SHOOTING PROCEDURES ............ llO BIBLIOGRAPHY . . ....................... TI7 iii Table 3.l 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 LIST OF TABLES Range and Mean Percentage of Observer Agreement for Each Behavior Reported . . . .......... Taking Turns ..................... Percent Times Children Participated Positively in Taking Turns ............. . ..... Following Directions . . . . ............. Percent Times Children Participated Positively in Following Directions ........ . ....... Group Problem Solving . . . . . ........... . Percent Times Children Participated Positively in Group Problem Solving ...... . ......... Range and Mean Frequency of Teacher Positive Reinforcement Directed Toward Those Children Performing the Desired Behavior ........... Taking Turns in the Morning Session . . . . ...... Percent Number of Times Children Participated Positively in Taking Turns in the Morning Session . . Taking Turns in the Afternoon Session . . . . . . . . . Percent Number of Times Children Participated Positively in Taking Turns in the Afternoon Session . Following Directions in the Morning Session ...... Percent Number of Times Children Participated Positively in Following Directions in the Morning Session .......... . ........ Following Directions in the Afternoon Session . . . . . Percent Times Children Participated Positively in Following Directions in the Afternoon Session . . . . iv 58 63 64 67 68 69 7O 71 72 73 74 Table 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 F1 F2 F3 Group Problem Solving in the Morning Session . . . . . Percent Times Children Participated Positively in Group Problem Solving in the Morning Session . . . . Percent Number of Times Children Participated Positively in Group Problem Solving in the Afternoon Session ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . Group Problem Solving in the Afternoon Session . . . . Mean Percentage of Observer Agreement for Taking Turns ................... . Mean Percentage of Observer Agreement for Group Problem Solving ................. . . Mean Percentage of Observer Agreement for Following Directions ................ Page 76 77 78 79 106 CHAPTER I IDENTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM In a Gallup Poll of July, 1976, reported in Phi Delta figppafl_(0ctober, 1976), the public identified lack of discipline as the most pressing problem in the schools. Teachers, responding to a similar poll of the National Education Association (1975), felt that disruptive behavior of students was the number one prob- lem in their classrooms. It is apparent from these results that teachers need to become more involved in teaching desirable social behavior in the classroom. Such instruction should begin when the children first enter school and should be a continuous step-by-step learning process throughout the grades. The study presented in this paper examines the effectiveness of one method of teaching desirable classroom behavior to prekindergarten children. The desirable behaviors that are to be taught must be decided upon prior to the initiation of the learning experience. Parents and teachers working together can identify and order priorities for those social behaviors they want the children to acquire in the classroom. Once these behavioral objectives have been identified, a particular method can be used to design a learning program to assist the children. There is general agreement among educators that one of the primary functions of prekindergarten, Head Start, and kinder- garten is to foster in each child those social behaviors that will contribute to a desirable learning environment. However, there is little direction in the literature as to the most effec- tive method of teaching desirable classroom social skills. Many writers subscribe to the mental-hygiene approach, which is based on a combination of psychoanalytic theory and child-centered therapy principles. Yet, this provides little direction for the teacher who must deal with children exhibiting disruptive beha- viors such as hitting, kicking, spitting, and taking another child's toys. Landreth (1942) advised limiting adult attention to a minimum but offering suggestions to the child. When in doubt, he said, do nothing unless the child is hurting himself or others. Read (1955) suggested talking with the child about his feelings and sublimating those feelings through vigorous activi- ties. Montessori (1912) suggested that disciplinary problems can theoretically be settled by offering the right activities at the right time and that anything of a coercive nature should be avoided since all growth is to be voluntary. As Whiting (1958) pointed out: Various positions have been taken as to the major determi- nants of a child's behavior. Gesell and Piaget, taking a developmental point of view, say the most important thing to know in order to predict a child's behavior is how old he is; Freud and his followers would insist that the most impor- tant determinant of a child's behavior is his life history, especially his relationship with his father and mother; the learning theorists would insist that a knowledge of previous rewards and punishments for the particular behavior in ques- tion is what is needed. The Gestalt school, as exempli- fied by Lewin, Baldwin and wright would take a historical approach and insist that knowledge of the situation that is, the setting and instigation is the thing to have; and of course, the anthropologists would insist that if you don't know what society the child is a member of, you can't pre- dict a thing (p. 3). Research concerned with the process of learning is divided into three general areas: primary learning, secondary learning, and social learning. Although this paper is concerned with the latter, the basic principles and concepts of social learning are developed during the primary learning stage. Pavlov viewed learning as essentially a process of stim- ulus substitution. A stimulus was chosen which could be counted on to evoke a response. This was then paired repeatedly with a neutral or conditioned stimulus until the latter gained power to evoke the response. Thorndike, Hull, Skinner, Miller, and Spence had a dif- ferent view of learning, generally referred to as the reinforce- ment theory of learning. This theory emphasizes motivation and reward. Rather than controlling the response and changing the stimulus as Pavlov did, the stimulus is held constant and the response is permitted to vary freely. This type of theory views learning as a process of response selection. Reward following a correct performance is held to be crucial in this theory. Rewards or reinforcements take several forms: (1) positive and negative, (2) extrinsic and intrinsic, and (3) primary and secondary. Using some combination of such guidance precepts, teachers have reported success in teaching social behaviors to prekinder- garten children. However, adherence to the same teaching principles has not always been helpful in eliminating many undesirable beha- viors. Indeed, it is usually not at all clear what conditions and principles may or may not have been operative. All of these precepts have in common the adult behaviors of approaching and attending to a child. Therefore, it seems to this writer that a first step in developing possible explicit criteria for teaching desirable social behavior is to study the precise effects that adult attention can have on certain behaviors. Classrooms are social situations, and each child must adapt to this social environment if he is to be successful in school. For years, teachers have been using the system of rewards and punishments to control undesirable behaviors and have gotten almost nowhere. Skinner (1971) said it is true people work for pleasure and to avoid pain. What we have found in the laboratory is that the impor- tant thing is not the magnitude of what you get but the conditions under which you get it--the relationship between the consequences of behavior and the behavior. We call it the contingencies of reinforcement: How is a reinforcer contingent upon the behavior? If the contingencies are good, the behavior will be strengthened. If they're bad, you can reward and punish as much as you like and you'll get nowhere. You've neglected the contingencies. Teachers must recognize what they are doing, which is reinforcing the children, and then note what behavior it's contingent upon. By doing that they can develop great power to manage a classroom, for example. You want kids to come to school, sit down, study and learn something. If you make the pr0per reinforcers contingent on those behaviors, you'll get them. You don't need to threaten, you don't need to send them to the principal for a spanking. Nothing of that sort. You just get the results by reinforcement (Ravis, 1971, p. 21). In order to develop an effective program of positive reinforcement, the teacher must be aware of the physical, emo- tional, and cognitive needs of the children in his classroom. Culturally deprived children present many unique problems in these cases. Many culturally deprived children come to school ill- prepared and find the school ill-prepared to receive them. These children have been referred to as problem children, retarded, slow learners, underprivileged, socially malnourished, disadvan- taged, and many other terms and phrases intended to describe their environmental handicaps. Deutsch (1962) pointed out that slum life provides a minimum range of stimulation and little opportunity to manipulate objects or to experiment with them in an orderly manner. This results in a deficiency in the development of intelligence. Bernstein (1960) found that lower-class conversations are limited to the immediate instant and generally do not include time, sequences, relationships between concepts, logical sequences, or causal relationships. These deficiencies might be easy to correct if they did not also include the additional complications of emotional char- acteristics and attitudes. Allinsmith and Goethals (1956) found that it was diffi- cult for any person to span two cultures. For the young child from a culturally deviant environment entering school can produce a cultural shock. The psychological consequences of this shock can impede socialization and be severe enough to lead to dis- organization and neurotic behavior. Variations in background naturally create a discrepancy between the cognitive, perceptual, and emotional development of the child, according to Taba (1964). The socialization process is carried on in the schools in a manner that incudes conflict between the child and his home. Taba (1964) maintained that this conflict leads to doubts in the child's mind about himself and his parents, his way of life and the values he has invested with feelings and emotional identification, and on which, therefore, his self-esteem rests. According to Krogman (1956), inner-city children tend to have a low self-concept, limited trust in adults, many feelings of guilt, and a low standard of conduct. They are also hyper- active, question their own worth, fear being challenged, have a desire to cling to the familiar, and usually show apathy and lack of responsiveness. It is also difficult for them to develop any meaningful relationships in school. Many Mexican-American children are actually making a jump from the eighteenth century to the twentieth century. They come primarily from rural areas both in Mexico and the United States. This transition involves a difficult adaptation, from a simple, easy- going culture into a more complex society that is mechanized, anonymous, and alienated from their previous environment. These conditions create an increasing social distance between the school culture and that of the home and neighborhood. Taba (1964) stated: . . . Homes of these children have a limited education tra- dition and, hence, little "know-how" about the school and its expectation. Not only are the parents themselves unedu- cated, they also have a meager understanding of the require- ments for success in school. Therefore, they cannot help their children with academic content, skills in conduct, or in kindling aspiration for continued education (p. 150). Schools often add to the difficulty by failing to recog- nize the problem, by demanding too abrupt a transition, and by paying too little attention to the role school life plays in facilitating acculturation. If inner-city students are to have an equal opportunity to learn, it must begin with social learning. Moore (1964) felt the "schools must fill the gaps left by social learning at home and mend the conflict between the culture of the home and of the school." Goldberg (1964) described a successful teacher of the culturally deprived as one who is aware of their home environment and who knows that native potential intelligence is unmeasurable. The successful teacher sets clearly defined limits and is aware that, unlike middle-class children, they rarely respond to exhor- tations intended to control behavior through invoking feelings of guilt and shame. He, therefore, sets the rules, fixes the boun- daries, and establishes the routines with a minimum of discussion. He is also warm and outgoing, adapting his behavior to the indi- vidual pupils in his class. This teacher respects his students and communicates this respect by setting high but reachable expec- tations, by impartial and consistent firmness and honesty, and by warm personal regard for each individual. Like other success- ful teachers, he has extensive knowledge of the content of the subjects he teaches. Educators have recognized the schools' failure to educate culturally deprived children and have made some attempts to over- come it. Aided by such disciplines as psychology, they have tried to identify these children and diagnose their particular problems. However, diagnosis is frequently accompanied by labels that tell the teacher nothing about how to teach those children effectively. Another problem with labels is that they too often are used to rationalize what is in fact ineffective teaching. This study will go beyond labels to show the effectiveness of positive reinforcement in teaching social behaviors to inner-city prekinder- garten children. It is widely believed that American education has neglected systematic methods and teaching strategies for promoting social- emotional aspects of child development. This position has been noted by commentators in several disciplines: education (Borich, 1971), humanistic psychology (Henderson, 1972), special education (Bradtke, 1972), and behavioral psychology (Homme, 1970; Ninnett and Ninkler, 1972). Skinner (1971, 1974) has written that behavioral tech- niques can be used to produce environments where cooperation, friendship, and respect prevail. Others (Homme, 1970; O'Leary and O'Leary, 1972) have suggested that if schools should decide to emphasize affective goals such as the develOpment of love and joy, the techniques of positive reinforcement would be a more effective approach. With such a positive approach to teaching, it is possible to have students who pay attention, not because they are afraid of the consequences if they do not, but because paying attention has proved to be worthwhile. According to Skinner (1971), it is possible that students can become interested in their work, not because the work has been chosen which is interesting, but because the complex behavior called "taking an interest" as been abundantly reinforced. This approach produces students who learn because they have begun to understand the natural advantages of knowledge over ignorance, not because they fear punishment. Skinner (1971) contended that positive reinforcement methods can be easily adapted to the classroom and that it entails no drastic changes in classroom organization or teaching methods but requires only that the teacher be aware of the basic prin- ciples of human behavior and utilize them in a consistent way. Skinner also felt that the current serious problem of school dis- cipline could be solved by the use of positive reinforcement instead of punishment in the classroom. Purpose of This Research This research investigated the effectiveness of the use of positive reinforcement in the teaching of social behaviors to 10 inner-city prekindergarten children. Three specific social behaviors were examined: (1) taking turns, (2) following direc- tions, and (3) group problem solving. Adult attention was sys- tematically directed toward those children exhibiting desired behavior and withheld as an immediate consequence of undesirable behavior. The effectiveness of positive reinforcement will be examined on film as the children respond to these three situa- tions. This research is important for a variety of reasons. First, it contributes additional information to the body of research literature concerned with teaching desirable classroom behavior in a prekindergarten inner-city school. Second, this research gives teachers of young children an effective method of teaching desirable social behavior. The current research literature on teaching social behavior to inner- city prekindergarten children is inconclusive. Finally, this research is helpful in demonstrating the technique of positive reinforcement to parent education groups and prospective teachers. Because this research will demonstrate on film the results of positive reinforcement, it should be an addi- tional instructional aid for both parents and teachers. 11 Research Questions and Hypotheses Research Questions The primary research question of this study is: Will the use of positive reinforcement be effective in teaching social behaviors to inner-city prekindergarten children? This question is examined by showing on film the children's responses in the three specific social behaviors. The three behaviors that are examined are: (1) taking turns, (2) following directions, and (3) group problem solving. In each situation the following proce- dures were followed: (1) the teacher reviewed with the children the desirable behavior, (2) the children who performed the desir- able behavior were given adult attention, and (3) the desired behavior was intermittently reinforced with adult attention. The second question posed by this research is: Will adult attention that is systematically directed toward those children exhibiting desirable behavior be powerful enough to change the undesirable behaviors of the other children? Researchgflypotheses In examining the research questions posed above, six research hypotheses are proposed to explore the various relation- ships. H]: The number of times children take turns will increase when positive reinforcement is immediately directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. H2: The number of children following directions will increase when positive reinforcement is immediately directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. 12 The number of children participating in group problem- solving sessions will increase when positive reinforce- ment is immediately directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. Children will continue taking turns when positive rein- forcement is intermittently directed to children exhibit- ing the desired behavior. Children will continue following directions when positive reinforcement is intermittently directed toward children exhibiting the desired behavior. Children will continue participating in group problem- solving sessions when positive reinforcement is inter- mittently directed toward children exhibiting the desired behavior. Definitions of Important Terms The following are definitions of important terms used frequently in this research study. Contingency management is a systematic approach to the use of reinforcement. It involves a statement of the functional relationship between the child's responses and their consequences (Haring and Phillips, 1972). Cueing is the process of giving a hint, a clue, or a tip to the child. The cueing procedures include: (1) visual model- ing and other types of visual cueing; (2) verbal instruction, verbal modeling, and other types of auditory cueing; (3) physical guidance; and (4) precise environmental arrangements (Becker, 1971). Desirable behaviors are used to refer to those behaviors with which those who comprise the child's social environment would be pleased (Gardner, 1974). 13 Discrimination is a reaction to differences and is learned through selective reinforcement and extinction (Hilgard and Atkinson, 1967). Egocentrism is the child's inability to take another's point of view because he is unable to integrate the ideas of others into his thinking (Piaget, 1965). Extinction is a deliberate strategy of withdrawing all reinforcement, positive or negative, in response to a behavior (Haring and Phillips, 1972). Modeling is a condition in which the behavior to be acquired is demonstrated for the learner (Brown and Avery, 1974). Prompting is the same as cueing. Punishment is an aversive environmental event that decreases the frequency of occurrence of the response with which it is associated (Deese, 1958). Reinforcement can be defined as anything that both increases the strength of a response and tends to induce repetitions of the behavior that preceded the reinforcement (Luthans, 1973). A pgsitive reinforcer is one that strengthens an associa- tion between a stimulus and response. I A negative reinforcer also strengthens the association between stimulus and response but it does so by its termination rather than presentation. An extrinsic reinforcer does not have a direct relation- ship to the behavior itself. It is artificial and often arbitrary, such as money. 14 An intrinsic reinforcer is a natural consequence of the behavior, such as self-satisfaction or the acquisition of a new skill. A primary reinforcer reduces some innate, vital physio- logical need, such as the need for food, water, or to escape pain. A secondary reinforcer is a stimulus which, after it has been paired with a primary reinforcer, reinforces a behavior. Intermittent reinforcer is used to encourage a child to continue performing an established behavior with few or no rewards, gradually and partially decreasing the frequency of the reinforcement. Social reinforcement is a method of maintaining and modify- ing the behavior of children with adult approval or attention. Shaping is a process that consists of reinforcing suc- cessive approximations of the desired behavior (Haring and Phillips, 1972). Socialization is the term that sociologists use to describe the process of transforming babies who can do little but cry, eat, and sleep into adults who can communicate and function rather effectively in their society. Socialization varies from culture to culture (Bushell, Wrobel, and Michaelis, 1968). Undesirable behaviors are used to refer to the child's behaviors that will be objectionable or cause negative reactions in the classroom, such as hitting, yelling, destroying property, slapping, and kicking (Gardner, 1974). 15 Limitations of the Research Listed below are those aspects of the research that cannot be controlled: 1. All children in both morning and afternoon sessions of the prekindergarten will be included; thus any children with severe abnormal social behavior will be included in this study. 2. Since student attendance is not mandatory in the pre- kindergarten, numbers of participants will vary from day to day. 3. The number of participating children is small. The possibility of selecting several prekindergartens was dismissed on the grounds that it might present results of questionable reliability. The reason is that it would introduce such inter- fering variables as teacher variability and curriculum variability, both of which might affect the behavior of the children. 4. The interest and difficulty of the group problem-solving activities will vary between each activity and could distort the results. 5. Since many children come from Spanish-American homes, there could be a language barrier between the teacher and the students. 6. Intelligence levels of the children were not obtained. It was the view of the observers and the teacher that none of the children in the study departed greatly from a normal range of intelligence. Intelligence, as determined by intelligence tests, was not considered to be an interfering variable as long as a child did not depart from the normal range of intelligence. This 16 assumption is based on findings by Bijou (1965) that age is a more powerful variable in determining the social behavior of prekindergarten children. Therefore intelligence would have little influence on the social behavior of young children as long as it did not vary from the normal range. 7. Since the children may not be representative of all inner-city prekindergartens, the results of this study may not be generalized beyond the characteristics of this particular p0pula- tion and subject content area selected. Summar An attempt was made to establish a need for the most effec- tive method of teaching social behavior to inner-city prekinder- garten children. Literature was presented that discussed the different learning theories and their relationship to social learning. Definitions of terms, objectives of the study, stated hypotheses, and limitations were presented. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Overview This section presents a brief review of the literature relating to the research question under examination in this study. Two specific topics are investigated here: (1) a review of Jean Piaget's studies on the social development of prekindergarten children and (2) a review of the effects of positive reinforce- ment in the classroom. Each of these areas is discussed and sum- marized. An overall summary follows them. Social Develgpment This section reviews the literature on the effects of positive reinforcement in teaching social behaviors to prekinder- garten children, based on the work of Jean Piaget. In the period Piaget calls preoperational (18 months to age 7), the child is perceptually oriented; he makes judgments in terms of how things look to him. The child centers on only one variable and has difficulty realizing that an object can possess more than one property. During this stage, children confuse their own point of view'with that of others. Piaget's studies found that each child at this age plays games according to his own rules and every one is a winner--to win means to have a good time. 17 18 Each child speaks for himself even though he thinks he is listening to and understanding others. This kind of "collec- tive monologue" is really a mutual excitation to action rather than a real exchange of ideas. The child speaks not only to others but he constantly talks to himself. Early social behavior remains midway along the road between egocentrism and true sociali- zation. Rather than extricating himself from his own point of view in order to coordinate it with the views of others, the child still remains unconsciously centered on himself. Piaget observed that the morals of the young child are essentially heteronomous, and are subject to the external will of either respected persons or parents. Through his habits of play and imagination and his spontaneous thinking, a child is led to modify reality and to bend it to his own desires. He thus dis- torts the truth without misgivings. The child, nonetheless, accepts the rule of truthfulness and considers it right that he be blamed or punished for his own lies. Only lies to adults are blameworthy since it is adults who prohibit them. Regardless of the intention, the child feels that the further the falsehood is from reality, the worse the lie. These reactions, although seemingly typical, show how much the first moral values are derived from unilateral respect and how these values are inter- preted according to their formation rather than their intent. In short, interest, self-evaluations, spontaneous inter- personal values, and intuitive moral values appear to constitute 19 the principle crystallization of the affective life at this level of development. Piaget's research found that, except in rare instances, children of this age do not generalize. Wahler's (1969) study supported Piaget's findings. Wahler described a change in the absence of spontaneous generalization of behavior from a child's home to the school setting. A behavior management program was initiated in the home of a five-year-old boy who displayed a general pattern of stubborn and disruptive behavior in both home and school settings. Although the behavior in the home improved, it did not generalize to the school setting. At school, he remained a stubborn and disruptive child. This behavior did change in the school only when the teachers initiated a similar behavior management program in that setting. Piaget's studies showed that children of this age think concretely. They deal with each problem in isolation and do not integrate their solutions by means of any general theories from which they could abstract a common principle. When children of this age try to furnish explanations to others, they are not really able to put themselves in the place of the other person; hence they talk as though they were talking to themselves. In this period, a young child, who is less socialized than he is after the age of seven and much less so than the adult, needs a system of signifiers other than language, that are more individual and more motivated. The three symbols that are most 20 conmonly found in the young child and that affect intelligence are: (l) symbolic play, (2) deferred imitation, and (3) mental imagery. Symbolic play appears at about the same time as language but develops independently of it. It is of considerable signifi- cance in the young child's thinking. It is a source of personal, cognitive, and affective representations and of equally personal representative schematizations. Deferred imitation or imitations is that which occurs for the first time in the absence of the model to which it corre- sponds. Mental imagery, according to Piaget, is a symbol of the object that is not yet manifested at the level of sensorimotor intelligence. The image can be conceived as an internalized imi- tation. These three types of symbols are derived from motor imi- tation. It is independent of language, even though it aids in the acquisition of language. Language is thus a necessary, but not a sufficient, condition for the construction of logical operations. Symbolic play constitutes a real activity of thought but remains essentially egocentric. Its function is to satisfy the self by transforming what is real into what is desired. The child who plays with dolls remakes his own life as he would like it to be. A child's interest is a regulator of his energy and mobilizes internal reserves of strength. Piaget believed it is 21 for this reason that students make infinitely better progress when their studies correspond to their interests and needs. According to Brearley and Hitchfield (1966), Children need freedom to make mistakes so that they may see the results of their own small injustices as well as those of others. They need to be in situations safe enough for them to be relatively free of adult interference in this social experimenting because only so can they bring the situation to its own close. After some poignant experience of this kind the youngest children often need to have their energies and attention directed elsewhere (p. 128). It is possible, according to Piaget (1965), to foster the ideas of consideration for other people, at first on the grounds that this is the kind of thing one likes oneself. A certain amount of retributive behavior in young children must be toler- ated by the teacher since it is only through experiences of this type that children can come to the next stage of thinking and feeling. Young children have a different attitude concerning punish- ment than do adults. Younger children are only groping toward the idea that unacceptable behavior will be punished, or reciprocated in some form by their peers. Piaget felt children must be given ample Opportunity in real social experiences to develop these ideas. The teacher must verbalize with the child the reason for the beha- vior and take this into consideration. Generalized discussion of moral issues is usually not appropriate in the prekindergarten. The results of Piaget's studies with young children con- cerning punishment lead one to rethink the whole question of rules and regulations in school. School and classroom planning must be 22 such that the children's participation leads educators to think in terms of the solution to problems rather than obedience. If the teacher organizes everything himself, then it becomes merely a question of the children's conformity to this plan. The chil- dren are learning nothing of the reciprocity of self-command; 'they are not building up the permanent school of values that leads them to self-control and accepting the consequences for their own behavior. Piaget (1965) felt the educational system must take into account the child's deeper psychological tendencies which urge him to work with others. Children working and studying in isola- tion can lead to good marks but is a handicap to the formation of reasonable beings and good citizens. Piaget's studies found that young children's morality is determined by what adults around them permit and do not permit. Children believe that the rules are absolute and inflexible and that the same definitions of right and wrong hold true for every- one. An action will be viewed bad if it does not conform to a rule, if it causes damage, or if it is punished. Piaget found that young children view a child who broke 15 cups accidentally as being naughtier than a child who deliberately broke one cup. At the same time young children can perceive their own inner states and they expect everyone to understand their own innocent intentions. A prekindergartener, for example, who accidentally breaks a glass may deny responsibility for the act. 23 While children's ideas about right and wrong remain fairly stable, their behavior varies from situation to situation. Piaget's studies showed that children are not uniformly "honest" and "dis- honest." A study by Nelson et a1. (1969) found that children who will cheat in one situation may not cheat in another, depending on the opportunities, pressure to achieve, sanctions, and peer pressure. A summary of Piaget's research provides many insights into teaching social develOpment to young children. 1. Acquiring social skill is similar to motor develop- ment; the order of the stages and their nature does not change appreciably from one child to the next, but the rate of progress may be different. 2. Young children play games not to win but for the enjoyment of the game. 3. The child accepts orders, commands, and discipline from the adults he respects. Rules between children do not exist. Only adults have rules for children. Reinforcement from an adult whom the child respects will be more effective. 4. A child will stay with an activity longer if it meets his needs and is interesting. 5. A child needs to internalize his own social behavior. Unless a child performs a behavior as the result of his own moti- vation then the behavior has not been learned. 6. Young children tend to distort the truth and lies are not intentional. Lies that exaggerate reality are more serious to the chde. 24 7. Lies to his peers are not considered to be serious by the child. 8. Behaviors must be learned in each new environment. Behaviors do not carry over from the home, school, on field trips, in the gym, or on the playground; they must be learned in each new situation. 9. Children at this age cannot be expected to exchange ideas, for they cannot integrate the ideas of the other children into their thinking. 10. Imitation is important in the learning of new social skills. Piaget's studies have given some insights into the child's mind, and this knowledge should help adults become more effective in developing desirable behaviors in young children. An adult who is trying to teach children social behavior must be aware of the children's cognitive, physical, and emotional development. Piaget's findings demonstrate some of the differences in a young child's reasoning. It is these differences that must be under- stood to insure that young children will become successful learners and furthermore, will come to enjoy learning. Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement for the purpose of this study is defined as giving adult attention in the form of praise, approval, and affection to those desirable behaviors that are being per- formed by the prekindergarten children and withholding such 25 attention from negative consequences. The major concept under- lying positive reinforcement emphasizes a positive, humanistic orientation. This approach, according to Gardner (1974), develOps the highest possible level of self-direction, self-control, and independence in each young child. Contingent positive reinforcement helps children develop an internal focus of control, according to studies by Crandal (1969) and Risley and Baer (1973). They found that reinforcement can also raise their general expectations of success and encourage their continued performance of appropriate behaviors. Social reinforcement, which is an extrinsic and positive reinforcer, has been found to be a powerful weapon in controlling the aberrant behaviors of preschool children. A few examples include hyperactivity (Allen, Henke, Harris, Baer, and Reynolds, 1967), operant crying (Hart, Allen, Buell, Harris, and Wolf, 1964), and mutilative self-scratching (Allen and Harris, 1966). A single unifying theme is apparent in each of these experimental analyses: The common everyday social behaviors or responses of preschool teachers are powerful determinants of child behavior. Therefore, the behaviors to which a teacher responds will increase, while the behaviors to which a teacher fails to respond will cease to exist. If a teacher wishes to eliminate the isolated tendencies of a withdrawn child (Allen, Hart, Buell, Harris, and Wolf, 1964), she withholds her smiles, praise, and conversation as long as the child remains withdrawn. But the moment the withdrawn child moves toward a peer or interacts with them the 26 teacher immediately directs attention to him. By controlling the timing of responses, that is, holding responses contingent on the desirable behavior rather than the undesirable behaviors, pre- kindergarten teachers have demonstrated that beneficial behavior changes can be effected (Harris, Wolf, and Baer, 1964). The research detailed in this paper uses this method of teaching desirable social behaviors. A study by Harris et a1. (1964) demonstrated the effec- tiveness of positive reinforcement in changing the behavior of a three-year—old child attending a prekindergarten program. The child spent 80 percent of her time in school crawling. The teachers viewed this behavior as a form of regression that followed the birth of a second child in her family. The teachers observed that she was getting considerable attention when she was crawlw ing. The teachers agreed to ignore her when she was crawling and give adult attention only when she was in an upright position. Within one week of using positive reinforcement, she returned to a normal pattern of walking, running, and standing. The teachers, using a reversal control procedure, returned to providing attention when she was crawling and within two days the child regained the crawling rate of 80 percent. When the teachers again provided attention for walking, standing, and running the child returned to her normal pattern within four days. The use of positive rein- forcement was continued and she retained her normal mobility behavior. 27 Birnbrauer and Lawler (1964) found that social reinforce- ment may be ineffective in influencing desired classroom behavior. They reported the development of numerous social and study beha- viors in a highly disruptive, severely retarded boy. These newly acquired behaviors were soon lost when only social approval was provided. A token reinforcement system was necessary before the boy returned to desirable classroom behavior. Brown and Elliott (1965), in their study with a group of nursery school students, were able to reduce significantly both physical and verbal aggressive behaviors. The undesirable beha- viors were ignored by the teacher, while the cooperative and non- aggressive behaviors received frequent attention. The aggressive behaviors were controlled by using positive reinforcement proce- dures. During the training, the nursery school teacher tried, as much as possible, to ignore aggression and to reward peaceful behavior by attention and praise. Ratings of the children's aggression were made for a week prior to the training period in an effort to determine a base or reference rate of aggressive responses. Similar ratings were made after the first week of a two-week training period and again after three weeks to assess the effects of training. Although the effects on verbal aggression were enduring, physical aggression increased after the brief training period and decreased again with further training. Johnston et al. (1966) examined a shaping procedure whereby successive approximations of the desired behavior were reinforced for a child who was physically inactive. Initially the child had 28 never used the climbing bars. The adults began providing social reinforcement for successive approximations. Whenever the child would go near or walk by the climbing bars, the adults would smile and speak to him. The adult attention was gradually changed to require the child to be nearer and nearer the bars. The adults terminated their attention when the child moved away from the bars. The child soon touched the frame and then climbed on them. Within a short period of time, the child was vigorously playing on the bars. The reports of Wolf et a1. (1964, 1967), Lovas (1964), and Lovas et a1. (1966) found that it is not necessary to under- stand how a particular behavior developed out of past experiences in order to effectively change the behavior in the present. In most cases a focus on the child as he responds in his present environment can result in some appropriate behavior development. In these studies, children with limited and highly deviant beha- vior patterns were provided positive reinforcement that resulted in the development of a wide range of desired social behavior patterns. A study by Becker and his colleagues (1967) examined the use of adult attention on a group of culturally deprived elemen- tary school children who were identified as exhibiting a high rate of disruptive behaviors. These disruptive behaviors included getting out of one's seat frequently, rocking one's chair, destroying another's property, hitting, slapping, kicking, crying, and ignoring the teacher's requests. The teacher reminded these 29 children about the expected behaviors and then began ignoring the undesirable behavior and praising the desirable behavior. State- ments of praise and recognition were used. After a few weeks of providing adult attention for the desirable behavior, there was a significant reduction in the undesirable behaviors. The teacher did the following: 1. Specified the desired behaviors. The children were told exactly what behavior was expected of them. 2. Did not give attention to the undesirable behaviors but instead gave praise to the children who were per- forming the desirable behavior. 3. Praised the children for improvement of behavior and when praising specified the behavior. After six weeks, over 90 percent of the teacher's comments were observed as being positive. Both students improved greatly. In a follow-up study it was found that merely repeating the rules was not effective in changing classroom behavior. Scott et a1. (1967) reported that consistent use of con- tingent positive attention works in the classroom because children reinforced for good behavior will tend to engage in that behavior again and children observing the situation may motivate the child receiving the attention and will imitate the behavior that has been rewarded. Evidence from several studies (Gelfand et al., 1974; Scott et al., 1967) indicates that children often use teachers as their models and children are more likely to imitate positive nurturant adults than punishing adults. 3O Kanfer and Zich (1974) concluded that the less obvious external control exerted by the teacher, the more responsibility children have for directing their own behavior and the more oppor- tunity they will have for learning and practicing self-control. Therefore direct commands should be kept to a minimum; otherwise, teachers may find themselves constantly involved in compelling children to obey. Hoffman and Saltzstein (1967) presented evidence that when children learn social development through positive approaches rather than fear of punishment, the children tend to internalize such actions. With positive approaches children are also more likely to accept the blame for their own behavior, feel guilty when doing something wrong, and are more resistant to temptation. They also begin to formulate a general definition of "right" based on concerns for others rather than on concern for consequences to themselves. Reynolds and Risley (1968) and Bereuter and Engelmann (1966) found in their studies that social attention in its various forms is less likely to be as effective in influencing behavior as are more concrete tangible events. They suggested that material reinforcers are disproportionately strong and that social reinforce- ment (praise, attention, and approval) from adults is a weak rein- forcer among preschool children who live in culturally deprived homes. Adults appear to be important chiefly as dispensers of tokens. 31 Ward and Baker (1968) evaluated the effects on other class members when teachers provided selective social reinforcement to individual children who either presented a high frequency of dis- ruptive behaviors or who were withdrawn and nonattentive. Other class members were responded to as they had been prior to the initiation of the specific training program. The children who received the selective social attention for desirable behavior showed a significant decrease in undesired behaviors. Although teachers did slightly decrease the amount of attention to the other class members, there was no significant increase in their deviant behavior. A study by Buys (1970) found that although disruptive beha- viors decreased with the use of contingent social reinforcement, it rose again when reinforcement ceased. Herman and Tramontana (1971) have shown that individual and group reinforcement were not differentially effective in modifying classroom behavior. Further- more, the addition of instructions to reinforcement strengthens the capacity to modify behavior. In administering what they believe to be punishment, teachers must take care that they are not actually increasing the behavior they wish to discourage. Harris et a1. (1964) found that any form of adult social reinforcement would increase that specific behavior. In addition to the effects of attention, teachers must be aware of the model they are setting for children's behavior. In a study by Gelfand et a1. (1974) the adults used rewarding or 32 punishing techniques to teach a game to six- to eight-year-old children. When these children were asked to teach the game to another child, they imitated the punishing or rewarding behavior of their own teacher. Bandura and Walters (1963) reported that teachers who don't want children to develop coercive, punishing interaction patterns should be wary of employing such techniques themselves. The adult who uses physical punishment provides a model for aggressive behavior that may be imitated by the children. Punishment by itself may suppress an undesirable behavior, according to Walter and Parke (1964), but it will be ineffective in the long run if the teacher does not take the Opportunity to teach and reinforce alternative desirable behaviors. Parker and Deur (1970), in a study of prekindergarten boys, found that punishment clearly was effective in reducing the amount of aggressive response. Other studies have shown that punishment can facilitate children's learning (Meyer and Offenbach, 1962; Penney, 1967; Macmillan et al., 1973). Aronfree (1968) found that discrimination learning in children is improved when punishment and reward are used as complementary outcomes. They found this approach to be more effective than when a reward/no reward system was used in complementary fashion (Spence and Segner, 1967; Stevenson et al., 1959). These authors did not advocate an unquali- fied or even an increased use of punishment, nor did they advocate not using extinction procedures where applicable. They remained firm advocates of positive reinforcement techniques in every instance possible. 33 Differences in persistence at a task due to monetary and social incentives have been examined by Williams (1970). Findings demonstrated that social reinforcement was more effective than monetary reinforcement in increasing persistence. No differential effects due to socioeconomic level were found. Females, however, demonstrated greater persistence than males. A recent study by Bergan, McManis, and Melchert (1971) investigated the effects of token and social reinforcement on the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children performance. Boys were found to be more accurate in the token reinforcement condition than in the verbal or control conditions. Girls, on the other hand, were more accurate when they received social reinforcement. Considering speed of performance, boys were the fastest when they received social reinforcement, while girls were equally fast in both rein- forcement conditions. Brown (1971) found that a combination of token and social reinforcement was more effective in modifying behavior than either form of reinforcement alone. It was concluded that altering social and token incentives apparently altered the meaning of the token reinforcer to include approval. Deci (1972) found that verbal reinforcement was more effecé tive in increasing intrinsic motivation than was monetary reinforce- ment. This finding, however, was restricted to male subjects. Brown et a1. (1969) reported that, for kindergarten chil- dren, tangible rewards do not generally have more reinforcement value than social approval comments from an adult. A combination 34 of tangible and social reinforcement may be more effective than tangible or social reinforcement alone. It was also noted that young children respond to different kinds of rewards and that much thought must be given to the manner in which appropriate responses are shaped and strengthened so that they can eventually be main- tained by natural consequences. A study by Hassett (1970) examined the effects of money, candy, personal praise, and performance praise of several lower- class cultural groups (Anglo, Navaho, Spanish-American, and black). The unanimous response to material rewards observed among the groups was attributed to lower-class membership and not to cultural differences. Other research examining the differential effects of social and nonsocial incentives further suggests a simultaneous considera- tion of individual characteristics and/or the behavior under inves- tigation. Witryol, Lowden, Fagan, and Bergen (1968) examined the effects of reinforcement schedule (100 percent verbal versus 100 percent material; 100 percent verbal versus 50 percent material), motivation-inducing instructions, age and sex upon a two-choice‘ discrimination learning, problem-solving task, in which one choice was rewarded with a verbalism and the other with a small toy. Results indicated that choice of verbal reward increased as a func- tion of instructions, schedule, and age. Subjects who were low in socioeconomic status chose more verbal than material rewards. Subjects considered high in socioeconomic status were not responsive 35 to the schedule conditions, while middle-class subjects were most influenced by the instructions. Drabman and Lahey (1974) and Drabman et a1. (1974) reported that the reduction of disruptive behavior will increase positive social interaction between children. Strain and Timm (1974) reported results suggesting that changes in the rate of positive social responses by the recipient of contingent adult attention may be accompanied by comparable changes in the social behavior of interacting peers. Viewed together, these correlational and func- tional analysis data suggest that as a child increases his rate of emitting positive social behaviors, his peers will in turn increase their rate of emitting positive social behaviors toward him. Sarbin and Allen (1968) examined the ability of social reinforcement to alter group behavior. Low participators who received positive reinforcement increased participation during the first half of the reinforcement sessions and maintained that level in the remaining sessions. High participators who received negative reinforcement decreased participation greatly in the first half of the sessions yet increased to original operant levels during the remaining half. Data presented by Sorensen (1968) support the con- clusion that social reinforcement can successfully strengthen domi- nant behavior in a group setting. In a study by Crowley (1968), the teacher administered praise, blame, or silence to the children as they completed a task. It was found that the children receiving praise persisted the 36 longest and those receiving blame remained at the task the shortest period of time. Yarrow et al. (1973) found that teachers can become more effective models by getting involved in a close relationship with children. In this study teachers spent several weeks building a relationship with children before systematically demonstrating helping behavior. Teachers used pictures and dramatic settings to portray situations in which people needed help. The teacher explained what she would do to be helpful. Children who observed models they already knew and respected were themselves more helpful and considerate to others than children who observed models with whom they had no previous relationship. The children continued to demonstrate their helpfulness several weeks after the study. Allen (1966) reported that positive comments from an adult can influence children to spend more time doing a task. He found that the effect may be even more pronounced when the teacher praised the children intermittently rather than every time the task was performed. With these conditions, children will tend to continue an activity during fairly long periodscfi’time without any encouragement at all. It is not necessary to provide tangible rewards such as money, candy, snacks, or prizes to prekindergarten children for motivation purposes, according to Lepper and Greene (1973). They found that children who had been promised a certificate for drawing a picture of a visiting adult soon became disinterested in this activity. Children who drew a picture for the adult without 37 promise of the reward still maintained an interest in this activity, even though they received the reward as a surprise. Environmental situations have a strong influence on the level of complexity of children's social interactions, according to Charlesworth and Hartrup (1967). Among prekindergarten children, they fOund that complex social interactions are most likely to occur in the doll corner and during dramatic play. Toys and games that promote group play encourage more complex social interaction than providing toys such as crayons, puzzles, and points for indi- vidual work. When teachers attend to groutiplay and encourage it by providing positive comments and new suggestions, the number of com- plex interactions is likely to.increase also. As children grow older they tend to Spend more time with other children and less with adults. Marshall and McCandless (1957) reported that children who spend a great deal of time interacting with adults tend to be less popular with their peers and such emo- tional dependence may interfere with this developmental shift. Scott et al. (1967) reported that teachers can influence in subtle ways the contingencies peers set for each other. When teachers give positive attention to cooperative friendly behavior and ignore inappropriate behaviors, children often imitate the teacher's example. They often stop responding positively to negative or inappropriate behaviors and begin to praise each other's construc- tive and desirable behaviors. One effective means of raising a child's peer standing is to put that child in charge of a desired activity. Kerby and Toler 38 (1970) found that when they put a prekindergarten child in charge of dispensing candy to the class, he began to engage in more coop- erative play. The candy had provided this prekindergarten isolate with a reason to approach other children and gain practice in making social initiatives. It also enhanced the boy's status in the group. The preceding studies provided many strategies for teaching social behavior to young children: 1. Eliminate toys that suggest aggressive play, such as guns, toy soldiers, and cowboys (Bandura, 1973). Do not allow aggressive acts to be rewarded with teacher attention or submissions by another child (Bandura and Walters, 1963). Model a reasoned, cooperative, nonaggressive approach to social conflicts (Bandura and Walters, 1963). Praise children who are behaving cooperatively con- sistently (Harris et al., 1967; Risely and Baer, 1973). Avoid lecturing to children when they are not sharing or cooperating (Harris et al., 1967). Provide models of sharing, helping, and cooperating (Yarrow et al., 1973). Give attention to children who are behaving well. Use a form of attention the child finds pleasant (Risley and Baer, 1973; Brown et al., 1969). Ignore misbehavior whenever possible and praise the children who are behaving appropriately (Brown and Elliott, 1965). 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 39 Specify the desired behaviors when praising the chil- dren (Becker et al., 1967). DevelOp a few clear rules with the children and discuss the reasoning behind the rules (O'Leary and Drabman, 1974). Provide equipment that can be used by several children at a time to increase social interactions (Thomson, 1972). Provide and suggest to the child playing alone ways to interact with others and attend to the child only when he is playing with others (Johnston et al., 1966). Avoid physical punishment (Bandura and Walters, 1963). Direct commands should be kept to a minimum (Kanger and Zich, 1974). Once a child has learned a task, praise him only intermittently (Allen, 1966). Summary It is apparent from the research considered here that there is no consistent nor consensual definition of what constitutes social reinforcement. The mere presence of an adult as well as interest items that allegedly have social connotations have qualified as social reinforcers. In several studies of low-income children, it was shown that tokens could change behavior and that verbal praise was not enough. In other studies of low-income children, disruptive 4O behavior was changed by verbal praise. Punishment was even found to be effective with young children in changing behavior. These results indicate a very mixed picture. Many of the studies with young children were done in lab- oratory settings under controlled conditions. Several studies were done with children who had extreme problems with social behavior. There are no consistent results that determine the effectiveness of positive reinforcement in the teaching of social behavior to inner-city prekindergarten children. CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN Overview This section of the dissertation presents a description of the research and procedures for the research investigation. The first topic is the experimental design, which includes a descrip- tion of the design, variables, and the research hypotheses. A second topic is the method. Here the subjects, treatment, and the data-collection procedures are described. The final tapic of this section is a discussion of the validity and reliability con- cerns of this research investigation. Experimental Design This investigation examined the effects of learning social behavior with the presence or absence of positive reinforcement and the effects of intermittent positive reinforcement in maintain- ing the desired behavior. Variables There are two independent variables that will be exam- ined in this study. They are (l) the absence or presence of posi- tive reinforcement in the teaching of three specific social beha- viors and (2) maintaining the behaviors by intermittent positive reinforcement. 41 42 The two dependent variables of interest in this investiga- tion are (l) the number and frequency of the children performing the social behaviors that receive positive reinforcement and (2) the number and frequency of the children performing the social beha- viors that receive intermittent positive reinforcement. Treatments The children were observed receiving no positive reinforce- ment for the three social behaviors. The children were then observed receiving positive reinforcement and they were observed receiving intermittent positive reinforcement. These observations were recorded by two observers for two weeks and by one observer for the last three weeks. The children were observed and data collected for a total of five weeks. Hypotheses As outlined in the first section of the research, six hypotheses were advanced to examine the research questions posed by this investigation. The number of times children take turns will inCrease when positive reinforcement is directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. H]: 2: The number of children following directions will increase when positive reinforcement is directed toward the chil- dren exhibiting the desired behavior. 3. The number of children participating in group problem- solving sessions will increase when positive reinforce- ment is directed to the children exhibiting the desired behavior. 43 H4: Children will continue taking turns when positive rein- forcement is intermittently directed to the children exhibiting the desired behavior. H5: Children will continue following directions when positive reinforcement is intermittently directed to children exhibiting the desired behavior. H6: Children will continue participating in group problem- solving sessions when positive reinforcement is intermit- tently directed to the children exhibiting the desired behavior. Method of the Research Subjects Data for this study were collected from children enrolled in the Jessie Rouse prekindergarten program in the City of Saginaw School District. This prekindergarten program is federally funded through Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. The prekindergarten program purpose is to prepare "disadvantaged" children for entry into kindergarten. In this case, the "dis- advantage" means that children in this program come from a back- ground that may not have equipped them with the skills necessary for success in school. A number of variables are involved: socioeconomic status, income level, number of books in the home, and family situation, among others. It is hoped that after a year of prekindergarten these children will be at least on a par with other four-year-olds as they enter kindergarten. The class began in late September and the observations took place from October 4, 1977, to November 4, 1977. No data were collected on October 28, the day of the prekindergarten Halloween party. 44 Class composition was as follows: Sex Morning Group Afternoon Group 9 boys 13 boys 11 girls ' 4 girls Racial Composition Morning Group Afternoon Group 7 Caucasian 7 Caucasian 6 Black I 1 Black. 7 Mexican-American 9 Mexican-American The total N for the morning group was 20. The total N for the afternoon group was 17. The total N for all groups was 37. For the entire sample, ages ranged from 45 to 57 months. The median age was 52 months. As was mentioned in discussing the limitations of the Study, this is not a large sample when one considers the various factors that are known to affect the chil- dren's behavior. However, it seems to be representative of the racial composition of inner-city schools. The children attend school two and one-half hours either in the morning or the afternoon. Each session meets on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday. On Fridays the children do not attend school. The teacher participates in in-service meetings, holds parent-child meetings, or has conferences with the prekinder- garten parents. In the fall before school starts, the children are given a screening test to determine their eligibility for the prekindergarten 45 'program (Appendix A). This test is administered to each child indi- vidually by the teacher in the classroom. The test results are sent to the prekindergarten supervisor, who determines what chil- dren qualify for this program. The prekindergarten teacher then visits each child and parents in their home. At this time the parents are informed of the starting date of school, which was September 27, 1976. The first day the six oldest children attend school, the second day the next six oldest attend, and on the third day all the children attend. This study began on the fifth day of school. The Design The reversal design for comparing the effect of positive reinforcement has been used by Allen et al.(l967h Baer and Wolf (1968), Harris et a1. (1967), and Hart et a1. (1964). The reversal design is typical of behavior modification experiments in general. In these studies, the length of the baseline period as well as any other phase of the experiments were usually determined by waiting until a relatively stable picture was obtained of the behavior. When this was achieved the second phase began, in which some rein- forcement procedure was initiated. Much of the work in behavior modification has relied on reversal design of experimental effects. For example, journals like the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis and Behavior Research and Therapy_will document that the preponderance of research in the area of classroom management has involved reversal designs. The 46 effectiveness of procedures such as token reinforcement programs and contingent teacher attention has been convincingly demonstrated with the reversal designs (O'Leary and O'Leary, 1972). Procedure This investigation employed a combination of a reversal and multiple-baseline design (Baer et al., 1968) to evaluate these conditions: (A) baseline behavior, (8) use of positive reinforce- ment, (C) withdrawal of positive reinforcement, and (D) intermit— tent positive reinforcement. These conditions were implemented in this order: A-B-C-B-D. Baseline period is the rate of behavior prior to treatment of intervention. After a pattern of behavior emerges and per- fbrmance is relatively stable, the use of positive reinforcement is implemented and is called the B phase. The next phase, reversal or withdrawal of positive reinforcement, was added to determine what caused the change. If behavior reverts to the initial baseline phase, this strongly suggests that the use of positive reinforce- ment was responsible for the change. To increase the plausibility of this conclusion, positive reinforcement is reinstated. If beha— vior again changes, this should be a clear demonstration that the intervention was responsible for the change. Period A, Baseline The existing rate of activity participation prior to the systematic application of positive reinforcement was recorded during the first full week of school. This stage involved conditions in 47 which no prompting or reinforcement for positive social behavior was provided by the teacher. At the end of the first week, the beha- viors of the children reflected a stable and systematic movement. The number of times children were taking turns remained near 40 per- cent. The number of children following directions remained below 16 percent, and the number of children participating in group problem solving remained near 50 percent. There was little vari- ability in behavior, and it is assumed that this level would remain stable if no intervention was begun. Period B, Positive Reinforcement The purpose of this stage was to increase and maintain an increased frequency of positive social behavior for each subject. The procedure for positive reinforcement each day was: 1. Tell the children the behavior that was expected. 2. Immediately reinforce the children for performing the desired behavior. 3. When reinforcing the children, refer to the specific behavior. 4. Ignore the undesirable behaviors. When the undesired behavior occurred, the teacher did not in any way attend to the child, but remained absorbed in one of the many necessary activities of teachers with other children or rein- forced the children who were performing the desired behaviors. If the undesirable behavior occurred while the teacher was attending to the child, she at once turned to another child in a matter-of- 48 fact way. The teacher gave immediate attention whenever the chil- dren performed the desirable behavior. This period was in effect for one week (four days). Period C, Reversal To ascertain whether positive reinforcement was, in fact, the determining factor in modifying the behavior under study, reinforcement was withdrawn. This reversal period lasted only three days because data showed the alteration affected the behavior in the direction observed during baseline. Johnson et al. (1966) and Hawkins et a1. (1966) both used somewhat shorter second base- line periods in their studies. Period 8, Return of Reinforcement In this phase of the study reinforcement procedures were reinstated. Children performing the desired behavior were imme- diately given positive reinforcement and the other undesirable behaviors were ignored. This phase was carried on for one week of the study (four days). Period D, Intermittent Reinforcement During this phase adult positive reinforcement was gradually reduced and the desirable behaviors were only reinforced intermit- tently. The frequency of the positive reinforcement needed to maintain the desirable behaviors were recorded for one week (four days). 49 Setting The study took place in a classroom located in Jessie Rouse Public School in Saginaw, Michigan. The room is a regular classroom size, 24.5 feet wide by 36 feet long. The class routine and schedule were‘closely followed each day. The class schedule is located in Appendix 8. Activities For taking turns, the children were divided into three groups with five to seven in each group. The children would take turns sliding down the slide for a total of three minutes. This activity was repeated each day throughout the study. In group problem solving, the activities used were putting a cart together, constructing a shape tower, and putting puzzles together. A schedule of problem-solving activities is listed in Appendix C. Activities for group problem solving were similar both to the degree of difficulty and interest of the prekindergarten children. It was this writer's view that if the group problem- solving activities were repeated the children would remember the activity and would make it easier for them to participate. Response Definitions Takipgpturns is defined as giving another child a chance at an activity while the child waits for his turn. A child who did not go to the end of the line or who moved in front of another child was not considered taking turns. Recordings were made for three minutes for each group. 50 Followingpdirections is defined in this study as following the specific instructions of the teacher. Each day the children were told to help put the toys away and then sit on the rug. The children were given five minutes to complete this task. Group problem solving is defined in this study as three or more students working together to complete a motor activity that overcomes some type of barrier to accomplish the goal. The chil- dren had to contribute to the problem solving by using either some motor movement or verbal response and participate for three minutes. All tasks were too difficult for the children to complete. Positive reinforcement by adult attention included verbal sayings such as, "These children are taking turns," "You are very fast workers," and "Look at all the children who are sitting on the rug." Nonverbal responses were a smile, a pat on the back, and close proximity to the children performing the desirable behavior. Other types of adult attention are listed in Appendix D. Observers Two observers were used for the first two weeks of the study. Total observer reliability for these weeks was 89.5 percent. One observer was used for the remainder of the study. Both observers were college students. The observers were given training for one session period. During this time the definitions of (1) group problem solving, (2) taking turns, and (3) following teacher direc- tions were reviewed. One day of trial runs was made. It was decided 51 at this time to have the children wear name tags pinned on their backs. The observers were instructed to record each time a child participated in the desired response with a positive (+) or a minus (-). A separate recording sheet with the children's names was provided each observer for each activity. Recording sheets are found in Appendix E. A timer was set at the beginning of each activity and rang at the completion of the time. The observers would then reset the timer and record the next group of children. During taking turns, the observers recorded each group for three minutes. There were three groups with five to seven children in each group. At the end of each three minutes another group of children was recorded. The teacher rotated the children within the groups each day. The same procedure for group problem solving_was followed. During following directions, the teacher would tell the children: "It's clean-up time." "Let's all help put the toys away and then come sit on the rug." This was repeated five times, one minute apart. The children would have five minutes to complete this activity. This same procedure was followed each day through- out the study. The assessment of reliability among the observers was cal- culated by scoring the frequency of each child during each interval as agree or disagree and dividing the total number of agreements by the total number of agreements plus the total number of disagree- ments, or: 52 # of agreements # Of’agreements + # of disagreements An example of instruments scoring and calculation of agreement is included in Appendix F. Table 3.1 shows the range and mean per- centage of observer agreement for each behavior reported. Data Analysis A time sample recording technique (Bijou, Peterson, Harris, Allen, and Johnson, 1969) was employed, in which each session was divided into three-minute periods for problem solving and taking turns. Following directions was a five-minute period. All subject responses, both positive and negative, were recorded on a prepared coding sheet. All data collected were of a frequency nature. The frequency of both positive and negative behavior across all experi- mental conditions was collected. Table 3.1.--Range and mean percentage of observer agreement for each behavior reported. Behaviors Range of Agreement Mean Agreement (76) (A) Taking turns Positive 82-86 84 Negative 94-96 95 Problem solving Positive 33-95 92 Negative 96-100 98 Following directions Positive 86-88 87 Negative 82-98 90 53 Daily percentages of the number of times each child par- ticipated in taking turns either negatively or positively were calculated. The frequency of the positive and negative behavior fbr each subject was calculated and summarized for following direc- tions and group problem solving. All data were summarized and placed on graphs. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction This study attempted to provide data to support the follow- ing statements: 1. The number of times children take turns will increase when positive reinforcement is immediately directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. 2. The number of children following directions will increase when positive reinforcement is immediately directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. 3. The number of children participating in group problem- solving sessions will increase when positive reinforcement is immediately directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. 4. Children will continue taking turns when positive reinforcement is intermittently directed to children exhibiting the desired behavior. 5. Children will continue following directions when posi- tive reinforcement is intermittently directed toward children exhibiting the desired behavior. 54 55 6. Children will continue participating in group problem- solving sessions when positive reinforcement is intermittently directed toward children exhibiting the desired behavior. This study also attempted to provide answers to the fol- lowing questions: 1. Will the use of positive reinforcement be effective in teaching social behaviors to inner-city prekindergarten chil- dren? 2. Will adult attention that is systematically directed toward those children exhibiting desirable behavior be powerful enough to change the undesirable behaviors of the other children? Test of Hypotheses The number of times children take turns will increase when positive reinforcement is immediately directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. H]: During Baseline I, the subjects engaged infrequently in taking turns. The mean percentage of the frequency of taking turns was 41 percent (Table 4.1). When teacher attention was directed toward the children taking turns (Baseline II), the desirable behaviors rapidly increased to a mean of 88 percent. During Baseline 111, reinforcement of the desirable beha— viors was stopped and the behaviors decreased abruptly to a mean of 32 percent. 56 mm .m mm a > . mm “A mm m Rom mm mu em N mcwwwumm _m mm we _ NR um, mp. RN emu mm _mp ___ om >H . mm mmp mp. , mm weapomem Rm esp NN_ _N RN map _m om HHH awn em N~_ Ne mp sq SN, mm m. m=P_mmam mm m_P oo_ 4, emm em mm, mo_ m, HH . mm wp_ o_P NP weapamam mm _~_ ¢o_ __ 34 mm, mm N H me _¢P Fe m &_4 mm mm, mm m acmwwmam as amp mm e cum: unmogwm _muoh mmwwmmwm .mcazp a=_xap--._.e m_amh 57 During Baseline IV, the subjects rapidly returned to taking turns when teacher attention was directed toward the desirable beha- vior. The mean number of positive behaviors was 78 percent. The positive behaviors were maintained and increased with intermittent positive reinforcements (Table 4.2). The frequency of taking turns rapidly increased when posi- tive reinforcement was immediately directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. H2: The number of children following directions will increase when positive reinforcement is directed toward the chil- dren exhibiting the desired behavior. During Baseline I only a small number of children followed the teacher's directions by putting the toys away and sitting on the rug. The mean percentage of children responding to the direc- tions was 6 percent (Table 4.3). When the teacher gave the directions and then immediately called attention to those children who were following directions (Baseline II), the mean percentage of children responding rose to 60 percent. When the attention was withdrawn and the teacher only gave the directions (Baseline III), the children following directions abruptly dropped to a mean average of 10 percent. When teacher attention was reinstated the percentage of children responding increased to 79 percent (Baseline IV). 58 .zugma :mmzoppm: .mgmu oza > >H HHH HH H mcflammmm mcflaommm mcmemmm oaflaommm mcflaommm ucoaooHquwom acme m>wuflmom usoEooH0mcHom ucwEumouB itUHOmcfimm unmaumoue ucmuuflEHmucH o>fluflmom oz o>wuflmom oz - a E I I. qI - 1 a om mawahasmamavamamaaaoammhm m¢m~a *3 wow \/ > 8m / \ / j, \\k .1 wow. N w \ / z mom \\\7// mom WOOH x\ \s /l\ .mcgzb m:_xmu cw xpm>wuwmoq umumawowpgma :mgu__;o mos?» ucmogmaan.m.¢ opnmk 59 NN mm NN e > _N am SN m New Nm mm mm N mcwwwumm so. om om _ mm mm mN NN NmN mm em mN 8N >H _N _m mN mN weapomam we Nm FN FN m an N 0N HNH NON m mm m mp m_ an m N. mcwpmmam .N Fm NN NP New 0N mm 8N NP NH . me mm mp N. m=P_mmam we _N m_ _P 0 NM N N H s m, N W m m mm _ e poo cam: ucmuema ~mpop mmwnmmwm .mcowpumawe N=P30_Poa--.m.¢ spank 60 The behaviors continued to increase during the intermit- tent period as the teacher continued to positively reinforce the desirable behavior during Baseline V (Table 4.4). The number of children following directions rapidly increased when positive reinforcement was directed toward those children performing this desired behavior. The number of children participating in group problem- solving sessions will increase when positive reinforcement is directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. H3: During Baseline I, the mean percentage of children who were participating in group problem solving was 41 percent (Table 4.5). When teacher attention was directed toward those children participating in group problem solving (Baseline II), the mean percentage of children participating rose to 78 percent. During Baseline III, positive reinforcement was withdrawn and the mean number of children participating in problem solving dropped steadily each day for a mean number of 48 percent. When teacher attention was reinstated and directed toward those children performing the desired behavior, the mean number of children increased to 89 percent (Baseline IV). During the intermittent positive reinforcement period (Baseline V), the desired behavior continued to increase and reached 100 percent participation on two days (Table 4.6). The mean participation for this period was 97 percent. 61 .zugma cmmzo_FmI .mumu ozs > >H HHH HH H maflaommm mafiammmm ocflammom omflaommm onwaommm acoEoou0quom acme m>HuHmom pcmeooH0mcflom ucmEumoua io0H0mcwom uaoaummua pcouuHEuoucH m>Huflmom oz o>Huwmom oz . u .I d . I. .I u q d on mamaharoamavamamaaaoammhe momma \/ EN. NS \ \ N x N N \ \ \ , I V \/ , Nam / N \ \7 \ Z\ . Now \ / 7\\ mg /\ N03 .mcowpumgwu mcwzoFFom cw x_m>wpwmoa umpmnwowucma coca—Psu mos?» ucmoemm--.¢.¢ mFQNF 62 cop PN PN e > 0 mm mm mm m NNm mm NN mN N mew»wuam cop mm mm P mm em on KN wmw mm em om mm >H . mm mm mm mm wcwpmmwm Fm cm mN pm mm mm m cm HHH va mm on Fm mp Km mm ON mp wcPPwmwm mm mm mm cp NNN mm om mN m_ NH s on mm pm NF mcwpmmmm on em mp —p cc mm «P m H Npe mm om up a o:w_mmmm mm Pm —~ m .900 mm mm m c .m=w>.om Empnoga qaogouu.m.¢ m—nmh 63 .xpgma cmmzo__m: .momu oza > >H HHH HH H mcflaommm mafiammmm mcflaommm ocHHmmmm mcflaommm ucmEooHowcflmm puma o>fluflmom unmeoou0mcwmm pcoEumouB io0u0mcwmm unmawmoue pcouuHEHmucH o>HuHmom oz m>HaHmom 02 q om mH mH hHamH mH vH MH NH HH 0H m h w m w m N H \ /\ .ch>Fom Empnoca asogm cw x_m>wuwmoa umumawuwucmq cmcvacu mwewp pcmogmauu.o.¢ mFQNH d - — q d — A m wOH mom wom wow mom wow wow wow wom WOOH 64 The number of children participating in group problem solving increased rapidly when positive reinforcement was directed toward those children performing this desired behavior. H o 4. Children will continue taking turns when positive rein- forcement is intermittently directed to the children exhibiting the desired behavior. During Baseline IV, the number of positive reinforcements by the teacher ranged from 111 to 122 during taking turns (Table 4.7). This number reflects the number of positive desirable beha- viors. Each time a child was observed taking turns, he was posi- tively reinforced with some form of teacher attention. Table 4.7.--Range and mean frequency of teacher positive reinforce- ment directed toward those children performing the desired behavior. Behavior Range Mean Taking turns Baseline IV 111-122 115 Baseline V 11-38 19 Following directions Baseline IV 21-29 26 Baseline V 7-11 9 Group problem solving Baseline IV 28-30 29 Baseline V 12-14 13 65 During Baseline V, the teacher reduced the number of reinforcements from a mean of 115 to 19. Children were reinforced for their desirable behaviors approximately once for every five times they performed the behavior. The children continued the high frequency of taking turns when positive reinforcement was intermittently directed to those children exhibiting the desired behavior. Children will continue following directions when positive reinforcement is intermittently directed at children exhibiting the desired behavior. H5: During Baseline IV, the mean frequency of teacher attention was 26. When children were following directions the teacher would call attention to those children who were putting their toys away and then sitting on the rug. When teacher attention was decreased during Baseline V to a mean frequency of nine, the children still continued to follow directions. During the first day of intermittent positive rein- forcement all the children in attendance followed these directions. On the second day there was a slight decrease to 91 percent, with another decrease occurring on the third day to 71 percent. By the fourth day, the number of children participating had increased to 81 percent (Table 4.4). Perhaps there should have been more inter- mittent reinforcement on the second and third days. Based on this trend, it appears that children will continue following directions when positive reinforcement is intermittently directed to children exhibiting the desired behavior. 66 Children will continue participating in group problem- solving sessions when positive reinforcement is inter- mittently directed to the children exhibiting the desired behavior. During Baseline IV, the mean frequency of teacher atten- tion was 29 (Table 4.7). The children were positively reinforced when they participated in problem-solving activities. When teacher attention during Baseline V was reduced to a mean frequency of 13 (Table 4.7), the children still continued to increase their participation in group problem solving. During two days, all children participated in this activity (Table 4.6). Children will continue participating in group problem- solving sessions when positive reinforcement is intermittently directed to the children exhibiting the desired behavior. Analysis of Data on Morning and Afternoon Sessions The desirable behaviors between the morning and afternoon sessions varied slightly. In taking turns (Tables 4.8, 4.9, 4.10, and 4.11), the morning group showed a greater response in all base- line behaviors after the entry behavior was recorded. In following directions, the afternoon prekindergarten was significantly higher in positive behaviors in Baseline IV and Baseline V. The mean of the positive behaviors in the morning was 78 percent, while in the afternoon session a mean of 95 percent was achieved (Tables 4.13 and 4.15). Positive behaviors in group problem solving were similar for both afternoon and morning groups. There was only a 1 percent 67 mm oe mm c > mm mm ow m NON MN 04 mm N mcwwwuam No _m mm P mm mm mm mm VGN N0 Nw mm 0N >H . Km om Fm mm mcw_omwm mm mop mm ON HHH N~¢ RN mm ¢N mF mm mm em mp mcwpmmwm mm mm mm «P mm mm nm N_ mcwpmmmm pm mm on FF mm mm mm s H Nmm om Pu mm o mcwpmmmm Pm mm N. m .puo we mm F¢ ¢ new: Hemogma quop “wwwmmwm .cowmmmm mcwccos msu cw mega“ mcwxmpuu.w.¢ mpnmh 68 .xpgma cmmzo_pm: .mumu ozs > >H HHH HH H mCHHommm mcHHommm ocHHommm ocHHommm ocHHommm unoEoomowchm acme m>HuHmom ucoEooHOwCHmm ucoEpooue imoH0mchm ucofiumoua ucmuuHEumucH m>HuHmom oz m>HuHmom oz 1 I- d - I— qII d — a J om mHmH hstHmH «H MHNH HH 0H m m h w m w m N H MOH wow \ / Non \ \ / H \ A \ L, N x x .2 \\ / \ / H a. \/ \\ /\\ / Nom / NOS .cowmmmm mcwcgoe mzu cw mcgzp mcwxmu cw xpm>wpmmoa uwuwawomugmq cmgupwco was?“ we amass: ucmogmauu.m.¢ mpnmh 69 ON NN OH O O ON ON ON N NNN ON NN HN N OOWMMUON NN NN NN N ON ON NO NN ONN NN ON ON ON >H . NN ON ON NN NOHNONNN ON ON NN NN ON NN ON ON NNH NNN ON NN NH ON ON ON NN NH OONNONON NN NO NO ON ONN ON NN NO NH NH . NO ON NN NH OOHNNNON ON NN OO HN ON NN ON N N . NO ON NN N NNO NN NO ON N chwwme ON NN OO O :Nmz ucmocma —Nuop “wwwmmwm .coNNNmN cooONNHON as» :N Nags“ mcwxmhuu.op.e NOON» 70 .NNLNO :mmzoNNN: .NuNu ozN > >H HHH . HH H mcHHommm ocHHmmmm oGHHmmmm maHHmmmm ocHHmmmm ucoEmoHOmcHom ucmE o>HuHmom ucmfiooH0mcHom ucmEumoHB ideOmcHom ucoaummue ucmuuHEHoucH o>HUHmom oz o>HuHmom oz I‘ II— HI u q _ om mHmHhHamHmHvHMHNHHHOHmmno mvmmH mOH wom won wow \ NON / NON \\ won V‘, My > t\ / / > .s / \ / 1\ NON . cowwmmm coocgmvwm «cu cw Nata» mcwxmu :N apm>NpNNoa umquNuNuNNa cogupwgo Nos?» #0 Lungs: ucmugmaui._N.O NOONN 71 NN NH NH O > . 3 NH : N NNN ON OH NH N OOHHONHMUON OOH NH NH N NN NH NH NN ONN ON NH ON ON ON . NN 2 ON NN 8:33 NO OH O N : ON N ON NHH : W” m M my 2.5% ON ON : ON ON NN OH OH 2 NH . ON ON N NH OONNRON NN NH N : O OH O N H O O N N N NN N O to cmmz ucmugma Napoh mmwwmmwm .coNNmmm mcwcgoe mg“ :N Ncowuuwgwn chzoNNomu-.~_.O «NQNN 72 .NNNNQ :mmzoNNN: .NpNu ozO > >H HHH HH H mcHHommm mcHHommm oGNHmmmm ocHHmmmm ocwHommm unmEooH0mchm ucofi o>HuHmom unmEoOHOMcHom usofiumoua ImoHOMQHoM ucoaumoua ucmuuHEuoucH o>HUHmom oz o>HuHmom oz 1 uq a - Id «I J —II . ON NH mH anmH mH «H MH NH HH OH m m N. m m w m N H wOH / N /\ NON N/\ NON N N N N N , N . N N N .2 / N / I \O/XN NOO /§ NOON .coNNNmN mcwcgos mcu cw NcoNuumNNu chzoNNom :N NNN>NNNNoa umumaNoNuNNO :wNuNN5o NmENu mo Logan: u:mogma--.mN.O mNONN 73 ooH mp m— e > Hm mp mp m &mm OOH up up N unwwwumm ooH mp mH H mm NH ¢H NN ficw Hm 0H mp 0N >H mm «H HH mN mcmemmm Nm mH NH —N O NH O ON NHH NO MN m” m m” mcmpmmmm mm mH HH cp mo oH OH NH mcwpwmmm mH mH N N H NN MN w” m m m:NHwNNm O NH O O NO :Nmz ucmugwa NNuoN mmwwmmwm .cowmmmm coocgmaum mcu :N Ncowuumgmu memonHoN--.OH.O mNNNh 74 .NNNNO :mmonHN: .NuNo OZN > >H HHH HH H mcHHommm oamemmm mCHHommm mmHHmmmm ocHHommm unoEooHOHGHom acme m>HuHmom unoEoUH0mchm #cmEumoua imoHOMGHom usofiumoue acouuHEHmucH o>HuHmom oz m>HuHmom oz - .fi H. II. I H m J om mH mH NHNNH .3 OH MH NH HH 0H m m h m m v m N H / P'”VNNAr”" N\ .coNNNmN coocgwumm NON NON NON NOO NON NON NON NON NOO NOOH as» cw Ncowuomgwu chzoNHom cw x—m>wpwmoa umumawowpgmq :mgupwgu NmENp pcmocmmuu.m_.O mHnmh 75 difference in the final mean percentage of these behaviors (Tables 4.17 and 4.19). On the last day of the study, the positive behaviors in taking turns, following directions, and problem solving were all above 90 percent, except for the morning class in following direc- tions. The afternoon class in problem solving and following directions had 100 percent participation in positive behaviors on the final day. The morning class also had 100 percent on the last day in taking turns. Summary of Findings From the Statistical Analysis of the Data The data gathered from this study show the effectiveness of positive reinforcement as a technique for teaching social behavior to inner-city prekindergarten children. The data clearly show that positive reinforcement does increase desirable behaviors in young children. When positive reinforcement was withdrawn, the frequency of positive behaviors abruptly dropped to the level of the entrance behavior. When positive reinforcement was rein- stated, the children quickly increased those desirable behaviors. This study has shown that teacher attention is a powerful tool when it is systematically directed toward those children exhibiting desirable behavior. This attention is powerful enough to change the undesirable behaviors of the other children. Once children have learned a particular behavior, it is not necessary for the teacher to give attention to each desirable 76 OOH HH HH O H . HO HH OH N NNO OOH HH HH N OcmfiquN OOH NH NH H NN NH NH NN NNN NN NH OH NN >N OOH NH NH NN OOHHONON NN NH NH HN ON NH N ON NHN N N N N NN NH OH OH NNN NN NH NH NH HH NO OH O NH OOHHONON NN NH OH HH NN OH N N N NN NH OH N NOO OO NH N N OOWWWMNN ON NH N O =Nwz acmugmm HNHoN “mmwmmwm .coHNNmN mcpcgos ms» :N mcw>HoN EmHnoga answui.NH.O NHNNN 77 .NHLNQ :mmonHNz .NHNc oze > >H HHH HH H maHHommm mcHHommm mcHHomom oaHHommm ocHHommm ucmEmoH0maHom acme o>HuHmom unoEoOHOMGHom unmfiummna io0H0mchm ucmfiumona #couuHEHoucH m>HUHmom oz m>HHHmom oz «I H q . N H H ON mH mH hHNmH mH wH NH NH HH 0H m m N. m m HO m N H NQH NON wom ;}/ New. : H H \. NON wow won \ / \ NON \.\\/ \H [H NOO \ \ /\ NOON .coNNNmN mcwcgos mcp :N mcH>HoN Empnoca aaosm cw NHm>HHNNoa umHNaNuHHLNO :mguHNNN mmewu pcwogmauu.NH.O «NOON .ngma Ommzo__mz .mumu OZN 78 > 3 EH 3 H mafiammmm mcwammmm wcflammmm mcflawmmm mafiammmm HCQEQUHOMCHmm UCQE m>wuflmom quEmoHOMQNmm ucmaummua ImUHOMGHmm quEummHB ucwuuflsnmucH m>fluflmom oz m>HuHmom oz 1 JW J 1 1:" q‘ d q - ON 3 NH :1: fl 3 2 3 S OH O O O O m N m m H NON NON P x \ NOO \ \\ \ K NOO / . NOO NOO /Y_ NOON .cowmmmm coocgmpmm ms“ ON ch>Pom empaoga aaogm cw z—m>wpwmoa OmmePOPNOOO cmgupwsu was?“ we LmOEOO ucmugma--.m_.¢ open» 79 OO. O. O. N > OO. N. N. O NNO OO O. N. N NOW»MNNO OO. .. .. . NO O. O. NN NOO NO N. O. ON >. NO N. .. ON NO..NONO ON O. N. .N N. N. N ON ... NON .N N. N O. NN O. N O. OO..OOOO NO O. N. N. N.N OO O. N. N. .. ON O. N. N. NO..NONO ON N. O .. NO O. N N O OO N. N O NNN .N O. O O OOWWWWNO OO O. O N :Omz ucmugma .ONON “memmwm .OONOOOO coocgmumm ms» :N OON>NOO Em.noga angwun.m..e ONOON 80 behavior. Children will continue high frequencies of desirable behaviors when positive reinforcement is intermittentiy directed to those children exhibiting the desired behavior. CHAPTER V THE FILM The purpose of this film is to show educators and parents an effective method for teaching social behaviors to children. The filming took place in an inner-city prekindergarten classroom as described in this study. This is an 18-minute film study divided into three main segments. The first segment takes place in the first weeks of school. It shows the children: l. playing alone or parallel to other children, 2. incapable of taking turns and following directions in groups, 3. unable to participate in group problem solving, 4. unable to work and play cooperatively with others. The middle segment of the film demonstrates the use of positive reinforcement as a means of helping children to acquire specific social behaviors. It shows how quickly children will respond to adult attention that is systematically directed to the children who are performing desirable behaviors. The procedure for positive reinforcement is demonstrated by the teacher with the children. (1) The children are told what behavior is expected of them. (2) Adult attention is directed 81 82 toward those children performing the behavior. (3) The teacher refers to the Specific behavior when calling attention to the children. The final segment of the film shows the children as they perform desirable social behaviors as the result of their own moti- vation and self-control. Children are shown sharing ideas and activities with each other. It shows children playing and problem solving in groups cooperatively. This film shows the power of adult attention for control- ling behaviors. It emphasizes the importance of teachers handling students' behavior problems in a positive manner. This film is important for a variety of reasons. First, it will be helpful in demonstrating the technique of using posi- tive reinforcement for teaching social behavior. Second, it shows the importance of adult attention in determining the social beha- viors of children. Finally, this film supports this study by showing how specific behaviors can be rapidly acquired by children through the systematic application of positive reinforcement. This film study was written, filmed, edited, and narrated by this writer on super-8 sound film. The movie was filmed in the classroom by the teacher as she performed her teaching duties. This writer wishes to encourage other teachers to use this medium (or color video tape) with their students. Sound movie film can be used to: l. build self-concepts of children by seeing themselves in a movie projected on the screen. 83 2. demonstrate to parents activities that go on in the classroom. 3. demonstrate to teachers successful teaching strategies and activities. 4. film dramatic presentations that the children have written and participated in. Very little training is necessary to Operate an automatic super-8 sound camera. The teacher can edit and narrate the film by using guidebooks that come with the equipment. After the initial investment of the camera, projector, and splicing equipment (Appendix G), the cost for six minutes is approximately $l5 (l977). The super-8 sound film can be duplicated on color video tape for a slightly additional cost. The script and shooting procedures are found in Appendix H. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The purpose of this study was to investigate the effec— tiveness of positive reinforcement in the teaching of social beha- viors to inner-city prekindergarten children. It is important to remember that this study took place precisely at the beginning of school in the fall, before any behavior patterns were firmly established by the children. Three specific social behaviors were examined: (l) taking turns, (2) following directions, and (3) group problem solving. Adult attention was systematically directed toward those children exhibiting desired behavior and withheld as an immediate consequence of undesirable behavior. The major finding of this study, based on the data analysis, was that adult intervention procedures directed toward increasing desirable social behaviors reliably increased positive social behavior and decreased negative social behavior. More specifically, the study found that: l. The number of times children took turns did increase when positive reinforcement was immediately directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. 84 85 2. The number of children following directions did increase when positive reinforcement was immediately directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. 3. The number of children participating in group problem solving did increase when positive reinforcement was directed toward the children exhibiting the desired behavior. 4. Children continued taking turns when positive rein- forcement was intermittently directed toward children exhibiting the desired behavior. 5. Children continued following directions when positive reinforcement was intermittently directed toward children exhibit- ing the desired behavior. 6. Children continued participating in group problem- solving sessions when positive reinforcement was intermittently directed toward children exhibiting the desired behavior. The results of this study show that positive reinforcement can be an effective tool for teaching social behaviors to inner- city prekindergarten children. The study found that adult attention, when systematically directed toward those children exhibiting desirable behavior, is powerful enough to change the undesirable behaviors of the other children. Discussion This research controlled for several variables in addi- tion to the actual time allotted for the study. They were: 86 (l) a consistent environment, including scheduling and routine; (2) the continuous presence of the children in the classroom; and (3) the reinforcement of other desirable classroom behaviors through- out the study. The presence of two observers in the classroom did not cause any dramatic reactions by the children, and they seemed to ignore them completely. It was apparent from the data that the reliability of observation of the individual children was not as accurate as recording the number of behaviors. A set of identi- cal twins in the morning and duplication of first names led to this confusion. For taking turns, the children were moving about so quickly that it was difficult for the observers to see the name tags. The recording of individual behaviors was much easier in group problem solving and following directions because the chil- dren remained less active. Dividing the children into groups for problem solving and taking turns was an unnatural procedure in a normal prekinder- garten program. Many times the children were reluctant to leave the learning activities they had chosen. For several months after the study, the children would ask if it was their time to slide. For some children, a group-oriented approach is not an effective method of teaching desirable social behaviors. As in other areas of education, those children need individual help and direction. Although research on individual behavior in laboratory settings is presently available (Allen et al., 1964; Harris 87 et al., l964; Wolf et al., l964), more studies in typical class- rooms seem highly desirable. Positive reinforcement does offer a potential path for teaching social behavior in all classrooms, but its predicted effects are presently intertwined with a vast number of "moderat- ing variables." The rate and consistency of learning social behaviors depends on the intellectual, physical, emotional, and social development of the individual child. Unusual difficulty in development in any of these behavioral areas will have an effect on the child learning social behaviors. The learning envi- ronment must be well-designed with the individual child's specific learning and behavior in focus. Those in the child's environment must provide successful learning experiences with positive inter- action. Implications The findings demonstrate that positive social behaviors in young children can be achieved through teacher attention. The results of this study seem to indicate that teachers may help many children by systematically reinforcing desirable social behavior. It appears that the use of positive reinforcement is an effective, humane, and acceptable method for teaching desirable social behavior. It encourages children to feel good about them- selves while limiting discipline problems and traditional 88 punishment responses by the teachers. However, further research in this area is necessary. A review of the literature of Piaget revealed that pre- kindergarten children can remember only a few rules. If teachers wish to teach a number of desirable behaviors to their pupils, they must continually remind them of these behaviors. Piaget found that children have learned a behavior only when their actions are the result of their own thinking. Positive rein- forcement is an effective method that gives teachers the oppor- tunity to increase the desirable behaviors and at the same time gives students the freedom to act as the result of their own thinking. This study has shown the effectiveness of adult attention in controlling behavior. It is imperative that teachers and parents understand that the behaviors they attend to will be the behaviors the children acquire. For this reason teachers must be aware of their own beha- vior and model the desirable behaviors they want the students to learn (Bandura, l963). If teachers or parents resolve their problems by shouting or physical punishment, then the children will likely resolve their conflicts in the same manner. Current psychological studies and theories support the contention that adults can change and control the performance of children, both academic and disciplinary (Hall et al., l964; Madsen et al., l968; Thomas et al., l968). It is necessary that both parents and teachers receive training and education in these 89 techniques. One such approach was presented in this study, that of positive reinforcement, which emphasizes positive and human- istic controls leading to self-discipline and self-control. Recommendations For future group studies with prekindergarten children, activities should be selected that fit routinely into the program and cause as little disruption as possible. Young children should not be regimented into time slots for such studies. The findings of this study support, in general, results of laboratory research on social development reviewed by Horowitz (l963). Further studies in school situations that can implement this research in the classroom seem highly desirable. Social behavior should be a continuous learning experi- ence for children at every grade level and should be given a top priority in the school curriculum. Parents, teachers, and administrators should receive inservice training concerning the methods of teaching social beha- vior. Educators need to formulate specific guidelines for handling behavior problems in their respective settings. These guidelines should be based on individual differences between and among groups of students. Pre-planning by educators and parents should always precede any treatment for behavioral change. Parents, teachers, and administrators must become aware of the importance of teaching social behavior if there is to be proper discipline in the home and school. Social competencies 90 must be identified, grade-specific teaching strategies must be developed and become an area in the school curriculum. Similar research should be conducted in schools from other socioeconomic areas and also in other grade levels. Replication of this study with an experimental and control group seems highly desirable. Frequently effects that are attrib- uted to treatment interventions can be due solely to developmental processes. It is impossible to differentiate treatment changes from those due to maturation unless one concurrently compares subjects who receive no treatment with those who do receive a particular treatment. Experimentation can benefit by applying both approaches and then judging both results. Although some educators have raised questions concerning the use of behavior techniques, it seems that many more ethical issues are raised by not developing a scientific analysis of classroom behavior. It would seem that positive reinforcement could be used more effectively in classrooms. Based on the findings of this study, teachers could: l. Increase the use of adult attention for desirable social behaviors. 2. Withhold attention for inappr0priate behaviors. 3. Use adult attention and withdrawal as a means to effect change in pupil behavior rather than an occa- sional response to selected behaviors. 91 It is time educators directly address themselves to beha- vior problems and develop effective methods and teaching strategies for controlling undesirable behavior and teaching desirable social skills. APPENDICES 92 APPENDIX A A SCREENING DEVICE FOR PRESCHOOL READINESS 93 APPENDIX A A SCREENING DEVICE FOR PRESCHOOL READINESS Raw Score (27 items) Name Boy Girl Last First Middle Date of test Date of birth Year Month Day Year Month Day Attendance area Scoring: R = right or correct response; W = wrong or incorrect response; N = no response; I = inappropriate (i.e., child may echo examiner, response not relevant to question, etc.). Instructions to examiner are enclosed in parentheses and should not be verbalized to child. For unintelligible responses place an X in I column on test form. R W N I Sample 0. What is your name? -- Sample item l. What is your last name? How old are you? Fingers used [:7 Put your finger on your neck. What do you call this? (Knee)* What do you do with your ear? Give me one this color. (Blue) Show me the green one. What color is this? (Yellow) OGDVOSU'I-bWN What color is this? (Black) *Remember, bend your knee sharply and cup your fingers over it to demonstrate. 94 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 95 . (circle upper limit) Count to five. 1 2 3 4 5 Give me four blocks. How many do I have? (Three) Give me all_the blocks. Can you walk like this? (Teacher walks back— wards toe to heel.) Clap your hands, walk around your chair, and sit down. What are books for? Copies a cross. + Show me how you can hop. Tw?_;eet 0"?_;°°t Stand up and throw me the ball. Which of these is most like a wheel? Which of these is most like a tent? Which of these is most like a stick? Which is bigger, a tree or a flower? Traces a diamond from a template. Tell me a poem or a nursery rhyme. Mastery of Y and J sounds. (Say, yellow jello!) Tends to engage in conversation-like responses. R W N I APPENDIX B PREKINDERGARTEN SCHEDULE 96 DEDIODOOOQCD —-l-l NN-u—l-Jn—l—lu—l—l—J-J—INN :45- 9:00 :00- 9:30 :30- 9:33 :34- 9:37 :38- 9:41 :42- 9:45 :46— 9:49 :50- 9:53 :54- 9:59 :00-11:20 :20-11:00 :00-11:15 :15-1l:30 :20-12:30 :30- 1:00 :00- 1:03 :04- 1:07 :08- 1:11 :12- 1:15 :16- 1:19 :20- 1:23 :24- 1:29 :30- 1:50 :50- 2:30 :30- 2:45 :45- 3:00 APPENDIX B PREKINDERGARTEN SCHEDULE Morning Session Free time Share time, finger plays, story, Peabody lesson lst group, taking turns 2nd group, taking turns 3rd group, taking turns lst group, problem solving 2nd group, problem solving 3rd group, problem solving Following directions Washing hands, juice and crackers Learning centers Music, games, movies Dismissal Afternoon Session Free time Share time, finger plays, story, Peabody lesson lst group, taking turns 2nd group, taking turns 3rd group, taking turns lst group, problem solving 2nd group, problem solving 3rd group, problem solving Following directions Washing hands, juice and crackers Learning centers Music, games, movies Dismissal 97 APPENDIX C PROBLEM-SOLVING ACTIVITIES 98 October November APPENDIX C PROBLEM-SOLVING ACTIVITIES Swedish variplay set (Community Playthings) Shape blocks and shape ball Shape stack (Child Guidance) Donkey and chicken puzzle, 8 pieces (Judy) Swedish variplay set (Community Playthings) repeat Shape blocks and shape ball, repeat Shape stack (Child Guidance) repeat Donkey and chicken puzzle, 8 pieces (Judy) Shape fitting blocks Gingerbread boy and horse puzzle, 8 pieces (Judy) Sort boxes Shape fitting blocks, repeat Gingerbread boy and horse puzzle, 8 pieces (Judy) repeat Sort boxes Jack and Jill, chicken puzzle, 10 pieces School bus, farm puzzle, 10 pieces Farm puzzle, school bus, 10 pieces Fire truck, donkey puzzle, 10 pieces Donkey, fire truck puzzle, 10 pieces 99 APPENDIX D FORMS OF ADULT ATTENTION 100 U'l-F‘DOQN OS 10. 11. 12. 13. APPENDIX D FORMS OF ADULT ATTENTION (Thomson, 1972) Nonverbal Watching the child Nodding, raising an eyebrow, winking Facial gestures (smiling, faking surprise, etc.) Establishing eye contact Making physical contact (holding hands, arm around the shoulder, patting, holding child on the lap) Remaining in close proximity to the child Waiting for the child to finish an activity so he may be included in the next event Assisting the child with tasks the child finds unpleasant or difficult Handing the child attractive materials Participating with the child in an activity (building blocks, carrying boards together, setting up equipment) Laughing with the child at appropriate times Complying with a child's request Listening to a child and not allowing thi§_conversation to be interrupted Lena Small talk (nondirective general conversation) Suggestions to facilitate the child's involvement and participation Challenges, dares Praise and approval 101 10. 11. 102 Questions and requests Directive statements Encouragement of a child's participation in making appr0priate decisions Expressions of honest affection Comments related to the child, the child's activity, or the children the child is interacting with Expressions of humor that children can appreciate Invitations to participate in attractive activities APPENDIX E SAMPLE RECORDING SHEET 103 .mN .v— .mN .NN .NN .op ON r—NMQ'LOSONQ Hmmzm quomoumx u4mz