AUDIO-TUTORIAL BIOLOGY IN
LYMAN BRIGGS COLLEGE AT
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D‘
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
PAUL DALE HOEKSEMA
1969

 

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thesis entitled

AUDIO- TUTOPIAI EICIOGY IN LYN AN BRIGGS

COLLEGE AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

presented by

Paul Dale Hoeksema

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

PhoDo degree in Education

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Date July 21. 1969

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ABSTRACT

, AUDIO-TUTORIAL BIOLOGY IN LYMAN BRIGGS

COLLEGE AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

BY

Paul Dale Hoeksema

 

Problem investigated° The purpose of the study was
to examine an experimental, introductory biology course in
Lyman Briggs College at Michigan State University. This
course was implemented as a variable content-variable credit
Program by means of an audio-tutorial approach. The study
was designed to include an appraisal of student achievement
in the course, an evaluation of student participation in
the program, and an assessment of student reaction to the
instructional environment providedo

Qgscriptive features and treatment of datao The stu-
dents enrolled in Lyman Briggs College Biology 140 during
Winter term, 1969, provided the pOpulation for the study.
The population was surveyed with a pre-course Student
Preparation and Intent Questionnaire to collect relevant
biographical information and a post-course Course Evaluation

Questionnaire to collect student reactions to the course°

 

 

Paul Dale Hoeksema

A Course Achievement Test was administered at the
beginning and at the end of the course. One hundred thirty-
seven students were categorized by biology preparation in
high school, content sequence chosen for the college course,
and sex and the test data analyzed for significance with
the one-way analysis of variance and t test techniques.
Correlation coefficients between posttest scores and time
spent in individual study sessions on specific course con—
tent were also obtained and the 2 statistic used to check
for significance of the values.

Findings. The following conclusions were supported

 

by the data:

1. The kind of biology course the students had in
high school was not a significant contributor to
pretest achievement scores on a test deSigned for

the college course.

2. The number of biology courses the students had in
high school was not a significant contributor to
pretest achievement scores on a test deSigned for

the college course.

5° Students who selected more content in the college
biology course tended to show higher posttest
achievement scores on a test deSigned for the
course than those who selected less content.

4. Male and female posttest achievement scores on a
I test designed for the college biology course were

not significantly different.

5. Positive correlation coefficients between time
spent in individual study seSSions and posttest
were found in four course content areas, but only
one of these coefficients was suffiCiently large

for the finding to be significant.

From findings derived from questionnaire responses

relating student reactions to the course program, the

Paul Dale Hoeksema

following major conclusions were made:

1. More students at the beginning of the course liked
the idea of an audio-tutorial course than actual-
ly liked taking an audio-tutorial course.

2. The students generally believed the course contri—
buted to their awareness of and interest in eco-

logical relationships and to an understanding of
the areas of biology studied.

5. The students generally found the prepared study
guide materials to effectively organize the content
materials and eXperiences presented although they
tended to avoid the eXperiences presented outside
the study carrel.

The study, conducted as an integral and ongoing facet
of curriculum develOpment in Lyman Briggs College at Michigan
State University, indicates that continued improvements in
college biology curricular programs are possible, but that
the develOpment of innovative programs is a long term task.
Additional research is needed to clarify the relationships
between academic ability, intellectual attitudes, varying

amounts of classroom direction, and academic achievement in

audio-tutorial programs.

AUDIO-TUTORIAL BIOLOGY IN LYMAN BRIGGS

COLLEGE AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

BY

Paul Dale Hoeksema

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

1969

I IsI Illllllllbb.

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Sincere appreciation is expressed to those persons who
have assisted in the development and completion of the study:

To Professor John M. Mason, Chairman of the doctoral
committee, whose interest, advice, and encouragement
were essential to the planning and execution of the
study.

To Dr. Howard H. Hagerman, who served as a member of the
doctoral committee and was co-director of Lyman Briggs
College Biology 140, for his interest and cooperation
in all phases of the study.

To Drs. Julian R. Brandou and Robert L. Ebel, the other
members of the doctoral committee, for their sustained
interest and helpful suggestions throughout the study.

To Dr. Jack C. Elliott, who directed Lyman Briggs College
Biology 140 during the term in which data were col-
lected, for his continued interest in the study.

To Dr. Frederic B. Dutton, Dean of Lyman Briggs College,
for administrative encouragement and support throughout
the study.

To the students enrolled in Lyman Briggs College Biology
140 during the winter term, 1969, whose c00peration
made this study possible.

To my wife, daughters, and friends for their encourage—
ment, support, and patience throughout the program of
doctoral study.

ii

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Need for the study. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Purpose of the study. . . . . . . . . . . 8
General design of the study . . . . . . . . 8
Students in the study . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Hypotheses of the study . . . . . . . . . . 9
Definition of terms . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Assumptions of the study. . . . . . . . . . 13
Organization of the dissertation. . . . . . 15
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Core curricula in college biology . . . . . 15
Independent study-—Self—directed study
programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Audio-tutorial learning—-a systems approach 57
Audio—tutorial instruction. . . . . . . . . 58
Advanced placement programs . . . . . . . . 41
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
III. THE INTRODUCTORY BIOLOGY COURSE . . . . . . . 51
Lyman Briggs College. . . . . . . . . . . . 51
The college curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . 53

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS--continued

CHAPTER PAGE
Students at Lyman Briggs College. . . . . . 55
The introductory course in biology--Lyman
Briggs College 140. . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Development of the course content . . . . . 58
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
IV. SOURCES AND TREATMENT OF DATA . . . . . . . . 68
The Course Achievement Test . . . . . . . . 69
The Student Preparation and Intent Question-
naire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
The Course Evaluation Questionnaire . . . . 78
Grading procedure for Lyman Briggs College
Biology 140 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
V. ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS. . . . . . . . . 82
Hypotheses and models used to test the
hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Analysis of the data relevant to hypotheses
one and two-—Student preparation in high
school biology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Analysis of the data relevant to hypothesis
three--Content sequence selected for
Lyman Briggs College Biology 140. . . . . 87

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS—~continued

CHAPTER PAGE
Analysis of the data relevant to hypothesis
four—-Sex and student achievement. . . . . 97
Analysis of the data relevant to hypothesis
five--Relationship between time spent in
individual study sessions and course
achievement scores . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Gain scores and final grades . . . . . . . . 98

Student Preparation and Intent Question-
naire--Student comments. . . . . . . . . . 100

Course Evaluation Questionnaire—~Student

responses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Design of the study and treatment of data. . 111

Hypotheses tested. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Results and overall conclusions. . . . . . . 113
Educational implications . . . . . . . . . . 118
Some problems for further research . . . . . 119
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

 

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

I. Biology courses in core curricula for biology
majors at selected institutions. . . . . . . 18

II. Core curriculum for all students in Lyman

Briggs College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

III. Sample credit distribution for all students in
Lyman Briggs College . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
IV. PrOposed LBC 140 Biology course. . . . . . . . 60
V. Winter term, 1968, LBC 140 Biology course. . . 62
VI. Spring term, 1968, LBC 140 Biology course. . . 65

VII. LBC 140 Biology course format for the fall and
winter terms, 1968-69. . . . . . . . . . . . 66

VIII. Reliability, indices of item discrimination
and difficulty of Course Achievement Test. . 71

IX. One—way analysis of variance for the pretest
scores of the winter term, 1969, student
population based on high school preparation
in biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

.X. Mean posttest scores for the content sequence
groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

XI. Onedway analysis of variance for the posttest
scores of the winter term, 1969, student
p0pulation based on content sequence
selected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

XII. Pair-wise differences for the contrasts in-
volving posttest means for content sequence

groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

XIII. Sample Scheffe calculation to locate signifi-
cant differences between posttest means of

content sequence groups. . . . . . . . . . . 95

vi

LIST OF TABLES-—continued

TABLE

XIV. Pair-wise differences for the contrasts in-
volving pooled posttest means for combined

content sequence groups. . . . . . . . . .

XV. Onedway analysis of variance results on the
posttest scores of the required and op-
tional packages for the content sequence
groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XVI. Pearson product—moment correlation coeffi—
cients on time and posttest scores for
required course content packages and
Optional course content packages . . . . .

XVII. Gain score information for student pOpula-
tion completing designated parts of the
course program 0 O O O O O O C O O I O O O

XVIII. Final grades given in Lyman Briggs Biology
140 during winter term, 1969 . . . . . . .

XIX. Student responses on the total course
Program. 0 O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O

XX. Student responses on the large assembly
session. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

XXI. Student responses on the individual study
seSSion. O O O O O O O O O O O 0 I O O O 0

XXII. Student responses on the recitation and
response session . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

PAGE

95

96

99

101

102

104

106

107

110

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX PAGE
A Student Preparation and Intent Question-

naire O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 129

B Course Achievement Test and cover sheet. . . 155

C Course Evaluation Questionnaire and cover
Sheet 0 O O C O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O 155

D LBC 140 Description of Methodology . . . . . 171
E LBC 140 Study Guide for Package Number One--
Terrestrial Ecosystem: Part A-—Descrip-
tive ECOlOgy O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 174
F LBC 140 Course Description . . . . . . . . . 189

G LBC 140 Session Schedules for winter term,
1969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

viii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Curriculum reform in biological science education,
comparable to the recent decade of reform in the high school
science curriculum, should be directed toward upgrading
instruction in college biology with effective and efficient
core curriculum programs. Although there are no final
answers to questions concerning curricular programs, designs
should follow the growth and expansion of scientific knowl-
edge and understanding and improvements in educational
technology.

The task of determining the need for change and the
necessary action to bring about the changes are so complex
that many institutions are hesitant to attack these prob—
lems.1 For example, the point of view is held by some indi-
viduals that if something cannot be proven wrong with what
is presently in Operation, then the effort necessary for the

systematic and continuing attention toward improvement is

. lRichard G. Telfer. "Dynamics of change forces be-
hind curriculum modification." The Clearing House 41:154;
November 1966.

unnecessary.2 Planning for curriculum change should include
a thorough exploration of the possibilities of new teaching
aids and methods. The curriculum changes should include
the best of current educational technology and may be ex—
pected to involve a more widespread and ingenious use of
independent study.3

Novak infers that curriculum changes are often talked
about, explored, and planned, but seem to falter when
attempts are made to introduce these changes into the class-

room.4

The implementation problem related to curricular
change at the college level is one of the more crucial prob—
lems that exists in higher education today.5 Besides the
task of producing the materials and techniques necessary

for implementing new programs, patience and persistence are

required for putting changes into practice.6

 

2William Newsom. "Curriculum building practices on
the college level." Peabody Journal of Education 552160;
November 1957.

3John W. Gardner. "Agenda for the colleges and uni—
Xersities.“ The Journal of Higher Education 56:560; October
965.

. 4Alfred Novak. “The model biology curriculum."
_ioscience 16:519; August 1966.

5Fred Guggenheim. "Curricular development through
research." Education 84:49; September 1965.

 

6W. W. Charters. "Is there a field of educational
engineering?" Educational Research Bulletin 24:50;
February 14, 1945.

The 1956 National Academy of Science Conference
"urged widespread continuing and concerted effort by biolo-
gists to re—examine college biology programs and seek ways
to improve them".7 The President‘s Science Advisory Com-
mittee in its report Education for the Age of Science,
issued in May, 1959, stressed the need for a Specific and
urgent attention throughout educational systems for improve—
ment programs to bring about a major reconstruction and
modernization of curricular programs and course content.8
The demand for innovatively directed quality programs has
not been merely vocal. The National Science Foundation has
supported the develOpment of individual science curriculum
projects at the elementary, junior high, and high school
levels and the work carried on by the Commission on Under-
graduate Education in the Biological Sciences. This com-
mission, founded in October,1965, grew out of a recommenda-
tion of the Education Committee of the American Institute
of Biological Sciences and their concern for the need of a
continual evaluation of undergraduate instruction in the

biological sciences.9

7National Academy of Science. Conference on Under—
graduate Curricula in the Biological Sciences. washington,
D. C.: National Academy of Science. Publication # 578,
1958. p. 85.

 

8National Science Foundation. "The role of the
National Science Foundation in course content improvement

igssecondary schools." The School Review 70:1-2; Spring
2.

. 9Thomas S. Hall. "New directions in biology teach-
1n9-" Bioscience 14:31; April 1964.

There has usually been a concern about the quality of
teaching, but:
. . . there has been a suspicion of anything that savored
of concern about ‘methods‘ and the feeling has been wide-
sPread that with highly motivated Students any professor
well grounded in his discipline can provide good instruc-
tion without subjecting his classroom practices to
objective scrutiny.10
The curricular reform movements have brought with them a con-
cern for educational method.ll
. . . curriculum reforms are generally ineffective, make
little headway and lack traction until they are
'materialized' into instructional materials, learning
environments, and systems of instruction.12
The development and emergence of new biology course
content, new techniques of instruction, and the availability
of new media and materials have occurred at all school levels.
Students coming out of some high school courses are bringing

concepts and skills that may require a modification of what

is taught and how it is taught at the college level.13:14

 

10Paul L. Dressel. "The planning of instruction."
Improving College and University Teaching_14:69; Spring
1966.

11Theodore R. Sizer. "Classroom revolution: reform
movement or panacea?" In: Controversy_in American Educa—
tion. Harold Full (ed.). New York: Macmillan Co., 1967.
p. 680

12Phil C. Lange. "Technology, learning, and instruc-
tion." Audiovisual Instruction 15:228; March 1968.

13Russell m. Cooper. "The need for educational
change.“ Educational Record 48:252; Summer 1967.

14C. Easton Rothwell. "From high school to college:
new problems in adaptation in the high school curriculum."

JOurnal of Secondary Education 372253; April 1962.

The fact that some high school students have had excellent
preparatory programs in biology is evidenced by the results
of a questionnaire survey of two hundred biology departments,
in all types of colleges and universities, which illustrated
that ". . . students who have had the BSCS Second Coursels
. . . seem to be about equal to those who have completed a
half year of a freshman collegiate biology course".16 Enter-
ing college freshmen students also represent a conspicuous
upward shift in median ability levels.17

New departures are called for and are possible in the

18

college biology curriculum. The total educational climate

of the college and the intellectual needs of the students

should be such that any prOposed changes can become a func-

tional part of the college curriculum.19

Curriculum redesign must be imaginative, it must have
strong administrative support, and foremost, it must have
a faculty who wants a new curriculum, has time to design

 

15Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. Biological
§giencez Interaction of Experiments and Ideas. Englewood
Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall; 1965.

16Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. About BSCS
Biology. Boulder, Colorado: American Institute of Bio-
logical Science—Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, August
1967. p. 10.

17Arvo E. Juola. "Ten-year trend in ability scores
0f M.S.U. entering freshmen." In: "EDP comment." No. 5.
East Lansing: Michigan State University, Fall 1968.

. 18Donald G. Humphrey. "A new day in b10109Y teach-
ing." Improving College and University Teaching 15:75;
Spring 1965.

19Novak, loc. cit.

one, is personally involved in the designing, and has
the urge to teach it as designed?0

Need for the Study. Lyman Briggs College, one of
three residential colleges at Michigan State University, is
designed to provide students with a liberal education. The
college curriculum emphasizes the biological and physical
sciences and mathematics. The College began accepting fresh-
man students in the fall of 1967. A new class is added each
year and the necessary courses are provided or develOped as
required. University guidelines established for the College
Planning Committee directed the college "to innovate and to
'learn by doing' in the areas of curriculum, teaching, and
administration"?1 The guidelines also noted that a major
responsibility of the college faculty would be:

. . . the development of new materials and means for
facilitating student learning as well as the incorpora-
tion in their teaching of the best existing materials
and means to achieve this goal.22

The Lyman Briggs College Planning Committee has pro-
vided opportunity for the College to ”. . . provide a labora-
tory for comparatively small scale experimentation and

23

innovation in undergraduate instruction". Initial efforts

2°Ibid.

eiLYman Briggs College Planning Committee. "Summary
of and responses to Byerrum committee guidelines for college
11." East Lansing: Lyman Briggs College: MiChigan State
University, n.d. p. 5. (Mimeographedo)

22Ibia.

. 23LYman Briggs College Planning Committee. "PrOposed
Curriculum for Lyman Briggs Collegeo" Report to the Michigan

included the design of a structured sequence of experiences

to develop the facility and the desire for independent study

4

in students.2 Lyman Briggs College Biology 140, The Organ—

 

ism and Its Environment, is the first such eXperimental
course offering a variable content-variable credit program
using an audio-tutorial approach.

The deveIOpment of an innovative biology program for
a new college is a long term task. The task of approaching
curricular development is a multi-dimensional one since all
facets of the teaching-learning situation are necessarily
involved.25 The continued development of an effective
curriculum involving content and method changes and improve—
ments should never end.26 All modifications made should
result in an improvement of a course or curriculum; they
should not be made just for the sake of change. The evalua-
tion of a developing program should be continuous in the
sense that the processes involved should precede decisions
related to changes in the program. Feedback evidence of
student learning should be considered in making program
modifications. Student participation and achievement in a

State University Curriculum Committee. East Lansing: Lyman
Briggs College, Michigan State University, n.d. p. 13.

24Ibid.

2sFletcher G. Watson. "Curriculum design in science."
The Science Teacher 50:13; March 1965.

26W. Hugh Strickler. ”A superior college course."

igggoving College and University Teaching 15:128: Spring

course and student reaction to curricular develOpments may

be essential to the decision making process. In view Of

the curricular developments occurring at Lyman Briggs College
in biology, this study was deemed necessary to obtain
relevant data relating to student achievement in the course
together with student reaction to the Operational features
of the course.

Puppose of the study. The main purpose of this study
was to examine an introductory, audio-tutorial biology course
in Lyman Briggs College at Michigan State University. Basic
to this primary purpose was an appraisal of student achieve-
ment in the course, an evaluation of student participation
in the program, and an assessment Of student reaction toward
the instructional environment provided.

General design of the study, The study was conducted
as an integral and Ongoing facet of curriculum develOpment
in Lyman Briggs College at Michigan State University. The
study was conducted during the winter term, 1969. An account
of the development of the biology course investigated covers
the period from the summer term, 1967, to the winter term,
1969. The evaluative aspects of the study began at the open-
ing Of the winter term on January 6, 1969, and closed with
the end of the term on March 12, 1969.

A Student Preparation and Intent Questionnaire
(Appendix A) was used to Obtain biographical data related

to high school preparation in biology and initial student

reaction to an audio-tutorial course approach. A Course
Achievement Test (Appendix B) was prepared and used as a
pretest and posttest for the course to obtain a measure of
student achievement. Student Opinions related to the pre-
sentation of the program and individual participation in
the course were surveyed with a Course Evaluation Question—
naire (Appendix C).

Students in the study. The students enrolled in
Lyman Briggs College Biology 140, at Michigan State Univer-
sity, during the winter term, 1969, constituted the popula-
tion considered in the study. There were one hundred
forty-five students enrolled in the course. One hundred
thirty-seven students completed the instruments involved in
the study as a requirement for inclusion in the statistical
aspects of the study. There were ninety-seven males and
forty females involved. One hundred thirty Of these students
were freshmen and seven were sophomores. Student reactions
to the course program were accepted from all students en—
rolled in the program.

Hypotheses Of the study. This study was designed in
part to measure the relationship of high school preparation
in biology, the specific student elected content sequence
completed, sex, and time spent in individual study sessions
to achievement in an introductory college biology course.

A brief description Of the development of the course and the
resulting organizational structure Of the course are pre—

sented in Chapter III.

10

The determination of achievement for students in the
course was based on posttest scores students received for
the content packages presented during the course. Five re-
search hypotheses related to student achievement in the
course prOposed by the investigator were as follows:

1. Students who have had BSCS Biology in high school
have higher pretest scores on a test designed for
a college biology course than students who have
not had a BSCS Biology course in high school.

2. Students who have had more high school preparation
in biology have higher pretest scores on a test
designed for a college biology course than stu-
dents who have had less high school preparation
in biology.

3. Students who select more content in'a variable
content—variable credit college biology course

have higher posttest scores on a test for the
college course than those students who select
less content.

4. Male students receive higher posttest scores on a
test designed for a college biology course than
female students receive on the posttest.

5. Students who Spend more time in individual study
sessions on the content materials presented in a
college biology course receive higher posttest
scores on tests for the college course than
students who Spend less time in individual study

sessions.

Definition of terms. For the purpose of this study,
the following terms are defined as they were used in the
investigation.

1. Independent study was:
. . . an approach to learning . . . that embraces
various teaching and learning procedures in which

the student assumes a major responsibility for his
education and Shows significant independence in

11

some or all aSpects of the learning process,
whether apart from or in organized courses.‘;"7

2. Self-directed study was an instructional approach
in which course structure is preserved with a
single instructor simultaneously guiding the work

Of many students.28

5. Audio-tutorial approach was an educational program
integrating all teaching and learning experiences.
A taped program and two-by—two slide sequence
presented in individual study carrels were used
to guide students through a series of planned
activities in the carrel and in the laboratory.
Students proceeded through the program at their
own rate. Their pace was determined in part by
their prior eXperiences. Additional weekly ses-
sions were scheduled to supplement the materials
presented by means of the taped program and to
check individual progress.

4. Content package was a subject matter program provid—
ing student access to specific content areas in

which guidance was given for planned learning

activities.

27Winslow R. Hatch and Alice L. Richards (eds.).
Approach to Independent Study. New Dimensions in Higher
Education Series #15. Washington, D.C.: Office of Education,
965.

28Howard E. Gruber and Morris Weitman. “The growth
Of self-reliance." School and Society_91:222: May 4, 1965.

12

5. Variable content-variable credit course was a course
in which the student was allowed some freedom to
elect the content he wished to complete. The
amount of extra credit received was relative to
the amount of content selected beyond a required
course minimum and the achievement shown.

6. Content sequence was the specific set of content
packages students elected to complete in a variable
content-variable credit course.

7. Large assembly session was one of three sessions in
an audio-tutorial course format at which a senior
staff member directed activities suitable for
large group involvement. These activities included
films, minilectures, guest Speakers, testing, and
discussion.

8- Individual study session was a session which allowed
a student in a nonscheduled, individualized learn-
ing situation, provided in a laboratory study
carrel, to work with content package materials.

9. Recitation and response session was a scheduled
session which gave students,in small groups, the
opportunity to respond to and discuss aspects of
previously studied content materials.

10. ~Advanced placement was an advanced standing in
college work with or without credit on the basis

of college level work during high school.

15

Assumptions of the study. In designing the study,

the following assumptions were made:
1. The pretest given prior to student participation

in the activities of the course had no signifi-

cant learning value.
2. The questionnaires presented were valid instru-

ments for the collection of data relative to the

students and the data.

5. The pretest and posttest were valid instruments
for the content presented in the course and were

adequate samples for the specific content pack-

ages.

4. Any learning within the areas posttested which did

not constitute a part of a student's elected

content sequence resulted from his study in the

other areas.

5. Any data lost because Of an incomplete return of
the Opinion questionnaires was random and the

remaining samples were representative of the

total population.

Organization of the dissertation. This chapter con-

tains the need, purposes, general design, student pOpulation,

hypotheses, term definitions, and assumptions of the study.

A description of common "core" biology programs is presented

in Chapter II as well as a review of literature related to

independent study, self-directed study, and audio-tutorial

14

programs. Pertinent information related to advanced place—

ment is also reported in Chapter II. Chapter III contains

a brief description Of Lyman Briggs College and the imple-
mentation and evolved organizational features of the intro-
ductory, audio-tutorial biology course. The sources of

data and the treatment of these data are described in Chapter
IV. The findings related to the data collected are pre-
sented in Chapter V. Chapter VI contains the conclusions

of the study and some educational implications.

 

__ I“.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A review Of literature pertaining to core curricula

in college biology, independent study, and self-directed

study programs is presented in this chapter. Information

relative to the audio-tutorial approach to learning and
advanced placement programs is also reported.

Core curricula in college biology. -A review of the
literature relative to core curricula in college biology
reveals that a "core curriculum in biology" has different

connotations at different educational institutions. The

concept of a "core curriculum", which would include that

body of knowledge essential for all students of college
biology, also has different meanings for different peOple.
The determination of the objectives of and content for a
"core" biology course involves the treatment of the nature
of biological science, the nature of the students to be

taught, the nature Of the learning process, and the nature

of societal conditions of the time. The factors involved

in arriving at acceptable objectives and course content are

complex and, at present, no general agreement has been

reached. One of the basic problems is illustrated in the

15

16

following comment made at the CUEBSl Stanford Colloquium on

Biology in a Liberal Education:

Whatever problems contemporary biological education
faces, they are primarily the result of the success and
expansion of the field as an academic discipline. New
methods, new information, and new problems, all have
eroded away the central elements which characterize the
earlier systems of thought and our teaching of biology

must mirror these changes.

In the deliberations held at the Stanford Colloquium,

several prOposals were submitted for the organization of a

liberal arts, introductory biology course. The prOposals

included: (1) the "inquiry" approach, (2) the "scientific

method" theme, (5) the ”evolution" approach, (4) the "whole

organism" theme, (5) the "organismal-environment" complex,

(6) the "themeless" course, and (7) the "paperback" course.3

For some participants, the selection of content based on a

theme was most important, while for others the method of

presentation was more important.4

In a report of the CUEBS Panel on Undergraduate Major

Curricula,5 completed after an examination of representative

 

to designate the Commission on Under-

lCUEBS is used
the Biological Sciences.

graduate Education in
Baker (ed.). Biology in a Liberal
Education. Report of the Colloquium on Biology in a Liberal

Education, Stanford University, August 2-15, 1965. CUEBS
Publication # 15. Washington, D.C.: CUEBS. February 1967.

p. 7.

2Jeffrey J. W.

3;p;g., pp. 15—20. 4;p;g., p. 15.
5Commission on Undergraduate Education in the Biological

Sciences. Content of Core Curricula in Biology. Report of

the Panel on Undergraduate Major Curricula, CUEBS Publication

# 18. Washington, D.C.: CUEBS, June 1967.

17

core biology programs in biology at Purdue, Stanford, North

Carolina State, and Dartmouth,e some important trends in

biological science education were identified:7

1. There is a curricular core Of biological knowledge
to be transmitted to all biologists, regardless
of their intended specialization.

2. ~More adequate preparation of students in mathema—
tics, physics, and chemistry allows undergraduate
biology to be taught at a more sophisticated level.

5. Molecular, cellular, and pOpulation levels of
biological organization are being increasingly

emphasized over morphology and systematics.

4. Heredity, the cell, develOpment, mechanisms of
integration, and evolutionary dynamics have re-
placed the phylogenetic approach as organizing

principles.

5. Curricular changes are usually solutions to particu-

lar problems. There are no curriculum revision
shortcuts and no single ideal curriculum.

6. The basic criterion for sound curriculum decision-
making is content significance, not recency.

Biology courses in the core curricula for biology majors

at the four institutions are given in Table I. The titles

of these courses suggest a diverse organization of informa—

tion in the various programs. However. this conclusion is

somewhat misleading.8 Each of these core programs contained

approximately two thousand individual items of information.

 

mple included a large private school
titutions (Purdue and North Carolina

liberal arts institution

6Representative sa
(Stanford), two state ins
State), and a small, private,
(Dartmouth).

7CUEBS, pp. cit., pp. 27—28.

81bid., p. 15.

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19

Some two hundred fifty lecture hours or equivalents were
allocated by each institution to these items. Seven per cent
of the items appear in the programs of all selected schools.
These items comprise sixteen per centcfi the total core time.
Five hundred items and fifty per centcflfthe core time appear
in the programs of three of the four institutions.9 The
Panel and Commission recommended that:10

1. An in-depth analysis be used in the examination
and redesign of curricula that have not recently
been analyzed.

2. Curriculum analysis and redesign require the indi-
viduality of the teacher and his department while
insuring that students will be well prepared for
further professional advancement.

5. Biology courses should be related to the background
that students have in mathematics, physics, and
chemistry.

4. A common or core program in biology cover a minimum
of two years Of courses to be taken in a fixed
sequence.

5. A balanced curriculum cover the now recognized
fundamental concepts so that students are made
sufficiently aware Of the scope of biology.

CUEBSll reported that seventeen representative insti-

tutions were making progress with respect to accomplishing

meaningful curriculum changes. The report noted that some

91bid., p. 21.

 

1°Ibid., pp. 30-55.

11CUEBS. "The ever changing curriculum." CUEBS News
5(5); February 1969.

l

20

of the curricular changes were accomplished by means of
innovative features. The results of these planned programs
for curriculum change supports the point of view that cur-
ricular innovation and experimentation are closely allied
with high morale and productivity.12 The CUEBS report also
SUpports the generalization ". . . that once a faculty com-
mits itself to a serious examination of its teaching re-
sponsibilities, it continually revises its curriculum”.13
The inference can be drawn from CUEBS publications that
introductory biology courses are needed at the college level
and that there is no one best course. Thus, the conclusion
appears valid that several courses should be developed for
trial and feedback in a continuous curriculum revision pro-
gram.

Another problem in curriculum development is illus-
trated by the report of the Committee on Educational Policies
of the Biology Council. The report of this committee noted
that colleges and universities are custodians of learning,
but more importantly.are also producers of learning.14

12William Alexander. "Innovations in curriculum de-
velopment." Virginia Journal Of Education 61:22; September
1967.

13CUEBS, Content Of Core Curricula in Biology,
9p. cit., p. 7.

14Committee on Educational Policies of the Biology
Council. Improving College Biology Teachipg. NAS-NRC Publi-
cation # 505. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Of
Sciences - National Research Council, 1957. p. 5.

21

Thus, in curriculum development, there is a need for this
idea to be reflected in a continuing renewal of courses
and curricula. The committee called for a continuing effort
“to break the academic lockstep" and "unleash the learning
capacities of students".15 The committee also contended
that biology teaching might be most vital and stimulating
if creative and experimental teaching attitudes existed.16

Independent studygr-Self-directed study programs.
Since the purposes of independent study and self-directed
study programs are somewhat Similar they are reviewed to—
gether in this report. Bonthuis, Davis, and Drushal}7 in
an account of the Operation of independent study programs
in the United States,noted that a purpose of higher educa-
tion is to stimulate and assist individual growth. They
reported that independent study has been used as a way to
help students enrich and accelerate programs, although it
was usually held to be the prerogative only of superior

students.18 They defined independent study as a program:

l"SIbid. Also see Fred T. Wilhelms. "The curriculum
and individual differences." In: National Society for the
Study of Education. Individualizing Instruction. Chapter
IV, Sixty—first Yearbook, Part I. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1967. p. 64.

 

16Committee on Educational Policies of the Biology
Council, pp, cit., p. 42.

17Robert H. Bonthuis, F. James Davis, and J. Garber
Drushal. Independent Study_in the United States. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1957. p. vii.

lerid.

22

. . . which provides a formal Opportunity on an insti-
tution wide basis for the pursuit of special tOpics or
projects by individual students, under the guidance of
faculty advisors, apart from organized courses, for
honors only or for credit toward graduation, available
to students who meet certain requirements or required
of all students.19
One of the first attempts to provide an independent
study program was the introduction of a course elective
system at Harvard University in 1869.20 The elective system
did not alter teaching, but did allow more student freedom
in determining the content of an educational program. In
1909, this student controlled curriculum at Harvard was
replaced with a concentration-distribution system which
allowed students to elect subjects in various areas, but
required courses to be taken in a number of fields.21 In
1912, the comprehensive examination was added at Harvard as
a stimulus to broad learning and an achievement measure in
the new curriculum and a tutorial system was introduced to
insure maximum effectiveness in these examinations.22
One reason for the application Of individualized
education programs to undergraduate students has been the
success experienced by university teachers using these

methods with graduate students.23 Between 1920 and 1950

more than seventy-five institutions adopted some kind of

 

lsIbid., p. 9. 2°Ibid.. p. 11.
alIbid. 22’Ibid.

23Ibid., p. 10.

25

program for individual instruction.24 The goals of these

programs were:25

1. To give students a better grasp of the meaning of
scholarship.

2. TO acquaint students with the methods and tech-
niques of gaining new knowledge.

5. The develOpment of an ability to analyze, organize,
and present new knowledge.

4. The improvement of undergraduate academic work.
5. The enrichment of academic majors.

6. To relieve students from the restraints of course
work.

7. To increase the responsibility of a student for
his own education.

8. To bridge important gaps in student knowledge in a
given academic area.

9. The encouragement of tutorial instruction in
departments toolarge to make it possible.

10. The encouragement to pursue subjects of personal
interest.

11. To attract superior students to college.

12. The granting of college degrees which would have
increased distinction.

The most frequent change in independent study programs over
the years has been an increased subject and work latitude?8
Van Deventer27 listed several approaches to individual-

ized instruction in science courses. These approaches

2‘Ibid., p. 12. 251bid., pp. 56-59.
26Ibid., p. 17.
27W. C. Van Deventer. "Individualized instruction in

1 basic science course." Science Education 50:269; December
946.

24

included programs covering relatively long periods of time,
programs providing for pacing according to ability, using
an increased variety Of materials in and outside the class—
room, decreasing the emphasis On formal lectures and
recitations, and increased emphasis on the teacher as a
subject matter counselor. He concluded that individualized
instruction involves a broadened conception of what labora-
tory work includes.28 Baskin29 in presenting and discussing
models and means of increasing educational quality in higher
education viewed independent study as a way of learning
designed for all students and not as a Special approach
applicable only to the abler student. He noted that we
critize "spoon feeding" college students and yet we continue
to educate them in three and five hour packets. These
credits for learning and the learning itself are Often
assumed to have a close relationship with the frequency with
which a student enters a classroom.30 Baskin31 also pointed
out that colleges and universities faced with an increasing
number of students and pressed by the concerns for achiev-
ing quality have begun to examine their assumptions Of the

nature and organization of the teaching-learning process.

 

28Ibid., p. 275.

. 29Samuel Baskin. Quest for gpality. New Dimensions
in Higher Education Series # . Washington, D.C.: Office
of Education, 1960. p. 1.

 

3°Ibid., p. 2. SlIbido, p. 1.

25 ‘

As early as May,1959, a report of the Fund for the
Advancement of Education32 listed sixteen institutions
which had been eXperimenting with the independent study
approach as part of their regular classroom teaching pro-
cedures with all the students enrolled in a particular
course. The students appeared to be able to learn as well

with much less class time than is usually required of them.33

McKeachie,34

in discussing independent study, noted that if
one goal of education is the development of the ability to
continue learning after the end of a formal education,
provision should be made for supervised eXperience in learn-
ing independently. Higher education has traditionally
relied on teaching methods in which the teacher exercised a
close control over the time and thinking of the student.

In this highly directive procedure, the teacher often does

more work than the students rather than liberating and

directing the intellectual energies of the students.35

 

32Fund for the Advancement of Education. Better Uti-
liZation of College Teachinngesources. A report by the
Committee on Utilization of College Teaching Resources.
New York: Fund for the Advancement of Education. May 1959.
p. 18.

33Baskin, 9p. cit., p. 9.

34W. J. McKeachie. "Research on teaching at the col—
lege and university level." In: ,Hgndbook of Research on
Teaching. N. L. Gage (ed.). Chapter 25, pp. 1118-72.
New York: Rand McNally and Company, 1965. p. 1145.

35HowardE. Gruber and Morris Weitman. Self-directed
Study: Eerriments in Higher Education. Boulder, Colorado:
University of Colorado. -April 1962. p. 1—1.

26

Gruber and Weitman,36 in reviewing the findings of independ—
ent study research at the University of Colorado at Boulder,
noted that an educational environment is fundamentally
hostile toward independent intellectual work on a student's
part when the greater part of his time is spent in teacher
directed activities.

Self-directed study programs have had a significant
develOpment in higher education as programs designed to in-
crease a students responsibility for his own education.
Self-directed study programs preserve the course system
while substantially reducing the proportion of time devoted

7 These programs are differ—

to formal classroom meetings.3
ent from those methods ordinarily called independent study
in that the one teacher-one student relationship is not
maintained. This may allow for more economical use Of an
instructor's time.

If intellectual independence is considered to be an
aspect of individual growth, it is important to know when
an individual is ready for self—directed study. Gruber and

Weitman,38 in a general psychology course, found that in

final examination performance sophomore students benefited

 

36Howard E. Gruber and Morris Weitman. "The growth
<xfself-reliance." School and Sociepy_91:225; May 4, 1965.

37Gruber and Weitman. Self—directed Study: Experi-
mgnts in Higher Education. loc. cit.

381bid., p. 25-7.

27

more than freshmen from self-directed study, as evidenced
by posttest scores, but that, in change in attitude toward
intellectual work, the freshmen gained from exposure to
self-directed study while the sophomores did not. On the
basis Of this finding, Gruber and weitman concluded that.
"Self-directed study may be best introduced in the freshman
year, not because it leads at once to better performance,
but because it leads to the most rapid change in educational

values".39

Hatch,4O in reviewing the research on inde-
pendent study, supported the findings of Gruber and Weitman
and concluded that the right time for exposure to independent
study is the first course taken at the university and the
right way is to be very matter of fact about student in—
volvement in the program. Hatch also stated that independent
study programs begun at a later time in a student's college
program have been disappointing because these "students had
become so spoiled by Spoonfeeding that they could not be
persuaded to do with good grace what freshmen did, and did
well, without persuasion".4l

Baskin and Churchill, at Antioch College, found "no

evidence that the independent study methods needed to be

 

391bid.

40Winslow R. Hatch. Approach to Teaching. New Di-
mensions in High Education Series# 14. Washington, D.C.:
Office of Education, 1966. p. 55.

41Ibid.

28

reserved for the superior or advanced student only”.42

Gruber and Weitman43

also found little or no support for a
direct relationship between ability and capacity to profit
from self—directed study in nineteen courses at the Univer-
sity of Colorado, Boulder. In a general psychology course,
where an interaction was present between ability and per—
formance, the higher ability students seemed to have
profited from directed study. However, the results did

not indicate that the lower ability students were handicapped
by the eXposure to self—directed study. In a physical
optics course, Gruber and Weitman44 found that lower ability
students profited the most from an exposure to self-directed
study especially if they had a high academic aspiration
level. They reasoned that some high ability students may
have learned how to succeed in their college work without
really trying and may become particularly handicapped when
faced with an instructional method different from what they
are accustomed. An independent study program at Vanderbilt

University45 involved a reduction of class time by from

 

42Samuel Baskin and Ruth Churchill. "EXperiment in
independent study." In: "Antioch College reports". No. 2
1961. p. 4.

I

43Gruber and Weitman, 9p, cit., p. 25-8.
‘4Ibid., p. 25-8,9.
45Vanderbilt University. "A report on the Vanderbilt

University experiment." Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt
University, Summer 1958. p. 6.

29

twenty-five to fifty per cent. The conclusion reached was
that students of average or superior ability performed and
learned as well on the reduced schedule as on a standard
schedule. The students believed that the experience had a
beneficial effect on their study habits and the majority
estimated they had not learned less than they were accus-
tomed to under conventional classroom arrangements.
Parsons,46 in a child development course involving
upperclassmen at the University of Michigan, found that
independent study appeared to be an effective technique for
the learning Of facts from a textbook. Kersh,4'7 at the
University of Oregon, and Parsons48 noted that self-directed
study fostered an increased retention ability as evidenced
on posttest scores of achievement. Gruber and Weitman,49
in discussing the results of the study in a general psy-
chology course, suggested that self-directed study initiates
a struggle within students for them to develop the ability

to carry out independent study and then, if successful, a

 

46Thomas S. Parsons. "A comparison of instruction by
kinescope, correspondence study, and customary classroom
procedures." Journal of Educational_gsychology_48:40;
January 1957.

4‘7Bert Y. Kersh. "The adequacy of 'meaning' as an
explanation for the superiority Of learning by independent

discovery." Journal of Educational Psychology 49:292;
October 1958.

48Parsons, loc. cit.

4"5"Gruber and Weitman, pp. cit., p. 15-8.

 

5O

struggle with the subject matter itself. The effect, they
pointed out, seems to be more permanent after self-directed
study than after listening to a lecturer who is Often far
more diligent than his students. Kersh,so in referring to
his study with college students at the University of Oregon,
suggested that if the learner is forced to rely on his own
cognitive capacities, motivation may more likely be present
to continue the learning process or to continue practicing
the task after the learning period. As a result, learning
transfer is much more effective than when the learner is
not so motivated.

Very little difference in academic achievement between
students working independently and those taught in conven-
tional classes was reported by Churchill,51 at Antioch
College, McCollough and Van Alta,52 at Miami University, and

by the Antiochss and OberlinS4 studies. Goldstein,55 at

 

soKersh, loc. cit.

 

SJ"Ruth Churchill. "Preliminary report on the reading

péan study." Yellow Spring, Ohio: Antioch College, September
57.

52Celeste McCollough and E. Locke Van Alta. "EXperi-
mental evaluation Of teaching programs utilizing a block of
independent work." Oxford, Ohio: Miami University,1960.

s3Antioch College. "EXperiment in independent study."
Yellow Springs, Ohio: Antioch College, 1950.

54Oberlin College. "Report on independent studies
experiment at Oberlin College." Oberlin, Ohio: Oberlin
College, 1957-58. p. 14.

. 55Avram Goldstein. "A controlled comparison of the
Preject method with standard laboratory teaching in pharma—
cology." The Journal Of Medical Education 512575—74; June 1956.

 

no“

.mu.

«(v

 

51

Harvard Medical School, found that students taught pharma-
cology by a project method did not learn more than a control
group taught in a standard laboratory. Novak,58 in a study
involving botany students at the University of Minnesota,
found that students taught botany by the project method
learned fewer facts than students in a conventional class
did. Weitman and Gruber57 reported that students, in fresh-
man English, physical optics, and educational psychology,
spending a part of their class time in independent groups
without an instructor were superior to students in conventional
classes in the ability to make difficult applications, in
learning new materials, and in illustrating curiosity.
Timmel58 found no difference in the effectiveness of the
lecture and project methods in changing the adjustment status
of mental hygiene students.

Gruber and Weitman,59 in reviewing studies of fresh-

man English, physical Optics, and chemical engineering

 

58Joseph D. Novak. "An experimental comparison of a
conventional and a project centered method of teaching a col-
lege general botany course." The Journal of Experimental
Education 26:229; March 1958.

57Morris weitman and Howard Gruber. "Experiments in
self-directed study: effects on immediate achievement,
permanence Of achievement and educational values." Boulder,
Colorado: University of Colorado, 1960.

. 58Gustave Bernhardt Timmel. "A study of the relation—
ship between methods of teaching a college course in mental
hygiene and a change in student adjustment status."
Dissertation Abstracts 15(1):90: 1955-

 

59Gruber and Weitman, 2p. cit., p. 25—4,5.

52

courses, stated that students who are not novices in the sub-
ject area in which they are working are more successful
studying independently than those who are novices. They
suggested that the non-novice has a collection of "models of
thought and study“. He apparently has sufficiently internal-
ized these from his previous experience for them to be helpful
in a self—directed study program within a subject that he has
been shown how to study. These models do not seem to be
sufficiently general to permit an attack on a new field
independently.80

Gruber and Weitman, in several psychology courses,
found that "self-directed study increased the student's
curiosity about the subject studied, as measured by the rise

in questioning behavior. . ."51

In one group of seven
courses where unfavorable evaluations of the self-directed
courses were given, the students placed an increased emphasis
on the value Of doing independent intellectual work.52

Hovey, Gruber, and Terrell,63 in a study of two educational
psychology courses, noted that although there is no obvious

reason tO expect independent study to produce better results

on a final exam this may be expected if a greater interest

eoIbid. 611bid., p. 25-5.

 

62Ibid.

. 63Donald Hovey, Howard E. Gruber, and Glenn Terrell.
'Effects of self-directed study on course achievement, re-
tention, and curiosity." The Journal of Educational Research
56:546; March 1965.

 

 

3-

(I)

f

In

r)

55

and curiosity is generated by independent study. They found
the small group discussion approach to be associated with

an increase in curiosity among students.64 Mason and
Angell,65 studying a biological science course at Michigan
State College, found the discussion technique, in which the
students initiated the questions, especially effective while
the technique was new and that the interest or effort de-
creased as the term progressed.

Morale problems with experimental groups have been
reported by Eglash,66 in introductory college psychology
classes, Neel,67 in a required psychiatry course with medical
students, Beach,68 in a social psychology course, Baskin and
0

Churchill,69 at Antioch College, and Gruber and Weitman,7

at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Eglash71 and

64Ibid., p. 551.

65John M. Mason and George W. Angell. "The improvement
0f general education courses in college biology." School and
§2212§y,80:9o; September 18, 1954.

66Albert Eglash. ”A group-discussion method of teach—
ing psychology." Journal of Educational Psychology_45:267;
May 1954.

67Ann F. Neel. "The relationship of authoritarian

personality to learning; f scale scores compared to classroom
Performance." Journal of Educational Psyghology_50:198;

October 1959.

68L. R. Beach. "The use of instructorless small-groups

in a social psychology course." Paper read at Western Psycho-
logical Association, Seattle, Washington, June 1961.

69Baskin and Churchill, pp. cit., p. 4.

7°Gruber and weitman, pp, cit., Po

 

71Eglash, loc. cit.

54

Beach72 reported that the initial negative reaction to
methods Of instruction, in which students are given a greater
independence than they are accustomed, may give way to a

more favorable attitude during the eXperimental course.
Neel,73 Baskin and Churchill,74 and Gruber and Weitman7S
reported a somewhat unfavorable student reaction even at the
end of a directed study course. Gruber and Weitman76 dis-
cussed these unfavorable student reactions in light of the
development of a more positive attitude toward independent
intellectual work and suggested the Occurrence of the follow-
ing sequence of events: (1) the initial exposure is un-
pleasant because it is a change from accustomed and comfort-
able teaching methods, (2) the student's exPerience with
various teaching methods leads him toward an attitude which
is more accepting of individual study, (5) the initial re-
actions persist even though the underlying attitudes have
been changed by exposure to the new method, and (4) a new

set of expectations must be adOpted before maximum benefit
can be anticipated from self-directed study. A theoretical

. 77
formulation Of this sequence has been offered by Festinger.

73Neel, lgg. cit.

72Beach, loc. cit.

74Baskin and Churchill, loc. cit.
75Gruber and Weitman, loc. cit.

7erido l p. 25-6 0

77L. Festinger. A Theory Of Cognitive Dissonanc;_e__.d
Eva“StOn. Illinois: Row, Peterson, 1957. In: Gruber an
Weitman, ibid.

55

who indicates that individuals respond to "dissonance"
between Opinions and required actions by changing their
Opinions to reduce the dissonance. Festinger and Carlsmith78
substantiated the theory and found that the greatest Opinion
change occurred when the pressure used was just sufficient
to produce the overt behavior. Greater pressure produced
smaller changes in Opinion. The rate of progress through
the attitudinal and behavioral changes in adjusting to self-
directed study may depend on variations in teacher behavior,
the degree to which the program varies from institutional
norms, and factors affecting the felt amount of pressure
toward the change.79

A commonly advanced hypothesis related to achievement
is that students with a high need for independence will do
better in situations which allow for an increased Opportunity
for independent work.80 This hypothesis was not supported

1

by Koenig and McKeachie,8 in an elementary psychology course

at the University of Michigan. In an eighth grade group,

Amidon and Flandersae found that dependent-prone children

78L. Festinger and J. M. Carlsmith. "Cognitive conse-
quences of forced compliance." Journal of Abnormal and

Social Psychology 58:209; March 1959.

79Gruber and Weitman, loc. cit. 80Ibid.

BlKathryn Koenig and W. J. McKeachie. "Personality
and independent study." Journal of Educational Psyphology
50:154: June 1959.

. 82E. Amidon and N.-A. Flanders. "The effects Of
direct and indirect teacher influence on dependent-prone
students learning geometry." Journal of Educational Psy-
Chology 52:290; December 1961.

56

learned more from teaching methods involving less direction
than from more directive methods. The independent—prone
students did not seem to be affected by this teaching method

variable. Koenig and McKeachie,83 supported these findings.

84 in undergraduate and graduate

Bendig and Hountras.
educational psychology classes at the University of
Pittsburgh, found that the authoritarian student would be
happier in well structured courses. Gruber and Weitman,85
in the review of their studies at the University of Colorado,
reported that students who have a high regard for independent
intellectual work tend to do better work in self-directed
study programs. These students also gave a more favorable
course evaluation in self-directed study groups than if they
were in conventional groups.

Gruber summarized the research on self-directed study
by emphasizing two major findings:

First, when the criterion for evaluating self-directed
study is the student's learning of subject matter, the
results are indeterminate, producing no very powerful
argument for or against self-directed study and no argu-
ment for or against conventional methods such as lecture
courses meeting two or three times per week.

Second, when the criterion for evaluation of self-

directed study is a group of attitudinal changes such as
increased curiosity, critical thinking, and attitude

83Koenig and McKeachie, loc. cit.

84A. W. Bendig and P. T. Hountras. "Anxiety, authori-
tarianism, and student attitude toward departmental control
0f college instruction." Journal of Educational Psycholggy
50:6; January 1959.

asGruber and Weitman, pp. cit., p. 25-7.

57

toward independent intellectual work, brief experiences

with self-directed study do typically produce small,

favorable changes.86
Gruber suggested that certain attitudinal behaviors are a
necessary prequisite to stable changes in intellectual work
habits. Campbell,87 in examining self-directed study and
programmed instruction for different learning objectives,
indicated that changes in attitudes and work habits must
precede self-directed study if an improved learning of sub-
stantive material is to result. His findings also noted
the need for specific training in develOping new patterns of
active intellectual work and enabled him to conclude that,
"the first Obstacle to be removed in making self-direction
successful is the student's strong habit of passive acquies-
cence".88

Audio-tutorial learningfin-aisyppems approach.

Springer89 states that, "A rational systematic approach to

education can promote greater innovation because it produces

 

86Howard E. Gruber. "The future of self-directed
study." Inn Winslow R. Hatch and Alice L. Richards (eds.).
Approach to Independent Study. New Dimensions in Higher Edu—
cation 15. washington, D.C.: Office of Education, 1965.
p. .

87V. N. Campbell, "Self-direction and programed in—
struction for five different types of learning Objectives."

Technical report AIR-D10-12/65 TR(b). Palo Alto, California:
American Institute for Research, December 1965. p. 16.

88Ibid.

89C. H. Springer. "The 'systems' approach."
§§turday Review 50:56; January 14, 1967.

58

O in considering

continuous dynamic modifications”. Eraut,9
a course as an instructional system, noted that the purpose
Of course develOpment is to design validated instruction
guaranteed to guide learners with the required initial knowl-
edge toward the instructional system's output specification.
Students who use the system in its developmental phases may
not meet these criteria, but the information gained will
allow system revision and.redesign. Phillips91 considered
the aims Of a systems approach as a restatement Of the ends,
means, and concerns of educational philOSOphy in terms of an
application of resources to the attainment Of system Objec-
tives.

‘Apdio-tutorial instruction. Audio-tutorial instruc-
tion involves a multimedia approach. -A wide variety of
teaching—learning experiences are integrated to effectively
present some important aSpect of a subject. The taped pro-
gram is not a lecture, but an attempt to provide a one-to—
one relationship between the student and teacher originating

as a way of aiding students toward eXpected learning out—

comes. Postlethwait92 stated that the three sessions used

90Michael R. Eraut. "An instructional systems approach
to course development." AV Communications Review 15:92;
Spring 1967.

. 91Murray G. Phillips. "Learning materials and their
Implementation." Review of Educational Research 56:574;
June.1966.

. 923. N. Postlethwait. "Teaching and technique: an
audlo-tutorial approach to teaching." ggcific Speech
1:58—59: May 1967.

59

to implement the audio-tutorial system, in a botany course
at Purdue, provide the personal attention important for
student motivation. In answering questions related to the
opportunity given students for inquiry, he defined the levels
of inquiry and noted that the system allows inquiry at all
of the levels. He reported positive results in the audio-
tutorial approach from several points of view. "Better
instruction can be given with equal or less staff and space.
Grades and student interest have improved. Costs are re—
duced for equivalent levels of instruction."93

Keislar and McNeil,94 in working with first grade
pupils, found that auto-instructional features permitted a
consistency of instruction. McNeil and Keislar95 found that
students of lower and higher mental ability are distinguish-
able in terms of criterion performance calling for transfer
Of principles even though nearly all children display
evidence Of profit from instruction at the primary grade

level. .Doty,96 at the college level in an introductory

931bid., p. 59.

94Evan R. Keislar and John D. McNeil. "Teaching scien-
tific theory to first grade pupils by auto-instructional
device." *Harvard Educational Review 51:75: Winter 1961.

95John D. McNeil and Evan R. Keislar. "Individual
differences and effectiveness of auto-instruction at the
primary grade level." California Journal of Educational
Research 12:165; September 1961.

953arbara A. Doty. “Teaching method effectiveness in
relation to certain student characteristics." The Journal of
Educational Research 60:564; April 1967.

40

psychology course, found that students performing best
under taped lecture conditions had low social needs, moderate
achievement need, and were low in creativity. High GPA and

achievement need students performed well under all instruc-

7 d98

tional methods.9 Underwoo

noted the following desirable
features of audio-instructional programs: (1) students can
use the laboratory at their own convenience and take as much
or as little time as needed, (2) students are forced to work
on their own with help from a laboratory instructor. Banks99
presented the following problems with a general college
chemistry course implemented as an auto-instructional program:
(1) the basic-educational problem of student self-discipline
remains, (2) programmed courses are at a certain disadvantage
with courses having deadlines in competition for a student's
time, (5) if extra reading is required the slow reader is
decidedly handicapped, and (4) the habitual malingerer finds
the chance to neglect the program irresistable. Umstattd,loo

from a study in the College Of Education at the University of

Minnesota, reported that the loss of time due to a lack of

97Ibid., p. 565.

98David L. Underwood. "Creativity in instruction."
Apdio—Visual Instruction 12:682; September 1967.

99James E. Banks. "Evaluation of an auto-instruc—
tional program in general college chemistry." Journal of
Research in Science Teaching 1(4):551-52: 1965.

100J. G. Umstattd. "Students appraisal of independent
study." The Journal of Higher Education 6:240: May 1955.

41

understanding Of the aims of a program and the requirements
are other disadvantages.

101 at Purdue re—

Postlethwait, Novak, and Murray
ported a positive relationship between time spent in an
audio-tutorial carrel and total posttest scores. When
grouPed by analytic ability, it was noted that the knowledge
gained for the middle analytic group was greater for a given
amount of study time than the higher group. Although the
high analytic group spent less time in the session their mean
scores were higher than the scores of the middle analytic
group who worked more than twice as long in the carrel.
Wash,”2 using programmed materials in teaching high school
chemistry, also reported a positive relationship between
time spent in a programmed sequence and achievement.

Adyppced_placementprograms. Advanced standing or
placement programs are described by Radcliffe as a college
"pattern which enables superior students to receive appro-

priate placement, credit, or both on the basis of college

level courses they have taken in high school".103 A broad

1018. N. Postlethwait, J. Novak, and H. Murray. ‘gp
Ippegrated EXperience Approach to Learning with Emphasis on
Independent Study. .Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess Publish-
ing Company, 1964. p. 105.

l°2James Alexander wash, Jr. "An experiment in the
use of programmed materials in teaching high school chemistry."
Dissertation Abstracts 26(2):915; 1965.

 

1°38hirley A. Radcliffe. Advanced Standing. New Di-
mensions in Higher Education Series #78. (washington, D.C.:
Office Of Education, 1961.

42

conception of the function Of a placement program is that of
planning educational experiences that contribute to the
further development Of a student. This kind of curricular
plan is geared to supplement a student's earlier training,

105 reported that place-

not repeat it.104 Bloom and Allison
ment programs are necessary because entering college students
have heterogeneous educational and experiential backgrounds.
Students coming from a variety of high schools Show very
little uniformity in their former course patterns. Students
-with equal intellectual abilities may be on entirely differ-

105 Entering college

ent levels of subject matter exposure.
students also differ with respect to the kinds and amount of
independent reading and study that may have been required of
them.l°7 The determination of the level of student compe-
tence from records and transcripts of previous work may
almost be impossible. According to Bloom andAllison,108

when the courses in college are quite different from the

courses the student may have had in secondary school the

104Benjamin Bloom and Jane M. Allison. "DevelOping a
college placement test program." The Journal of General
Education 5:214; April 1949.

105;bid., p. 211.

loaPostlethwait. Novak. and MurraY: 92° Lit-I P° 2-
107Bloom and Allison, pp. cit., p. 211.

1°81bid., p. 215.

45

problem is further complicated. We Simply Should not assume
a student is educated because he has passed prescribed
courses or has accumulated a fixed number of credits.

Credit by examination seems to be Older and broader
in scope than advanced placement. Exemption examinations
usually aim to cover only course essentials. There is no
assurance that exempted students would be able to hold their
own in competition with a superior student who has completed
specific course materials.“9 If exemption is to be given,
the depth of the examination should satisfy the faculty and
students that they have deserved exemption. In addition to
the exemption feature, the examinations may make it possible
to detect many students who are likely to fail regular
course examinations if given only the regular instruction
in a course.110

Bloom andAllisonlll also noted that colleges seem
to emphasize achievement levels and demonstrated competencies
rather than the manner in which this background was attained.
The educational development of individuals through educa-
tional development outside the school may extend far beyond

the requirements of a certain course° Placement programs

1°9Lily Detchen- "A program of required exemption

Examinations.” The Journal Of Higher Education 24:249; May
955.

1103100m and Allison, pp. cit., p. 215.

111Ibid., p. 211-12.

44

should have some definition of levels of competence as well
as some stable technique for determining when that level
of competence has been reached.

The College Entrance Examination Board112 Committee
for the Advanced Placement Examination in Biology has been
interested in encouraging secondary schools to provide
college level courses for their best students. The Committee
has provided a course description for the use Of teachers
planning to meet the objectives Of college biology courses
in high schools. The Advanced Placement Examination is based
on the suggested course description. Colleges and univer-
sities are encouraged to give advanced placement to students

113 Major concern

who are successful on the examination.
centers around whether these compromise examinations can
measure the level Of student achievement provided by so
diverse an array of high school programs. ~Abraham and
Grobman114 were concerned that misassignment of students in
collegiate biology and cognate courses may result if specific

high school programs are not considered in the testing pro-

grams.

 

112College Entrance Examination Board. Princeton,
New Jersey.

ll3Claude W. Gatewood and Ellsworth Obourn. "Improv-
ing science education in the United States." Journal of
figsearch in Science Teaching 1(4):586; 1965.

114Norman Abraham and Arnold Grobman. "The biology
achievement tests of the college entrance examination board
and BSCS biology." News and Viewgpof NABT 9:1—5; April
1965.

 

Si

a.»

 

45

Lewis115 reported that credit by examination gives
flexibility to curriculum programs without necessitating or
encouraging changes in them. Rothwell118 suggested that
the advanced placement program is purely an interim measure
that treats symptoms rather than ailments. Detchen117
stated that students are often modest or fear failure on
exemption examinations. Successful students are usually
quite ready to omit courses through exemption programs.l'18

119 concluded that placement tests can

Bloom and Allison
serve as the basis for assembling placement evidence when
consideration is given to the relevant kinds Of competence
which a student may attain.

Summary. A review of the literature revealed that
curriculum revision in biology at the college and university
level may involve change in the content presented and the
innovative techniques used. The core curriculum concept in
biology featured content which is apprOpriate to all biology
students. The curricular changes themselves are not easily
effected since opinions as to what a curriculum should

. 115Lanora G. Lewis. The Credit System. New Dimen-
Sions in Higher Education Series # . Washington, D.C.:
Office of Education, 1961.

116C..Easton Rothwell. "From high school to college:
new problems in adaptation in the high school curriculum."
dpurnal Of Secondary Education 57:256; April 1962.

117Detchen, loc. cit. 118Ibid.

119Bloom and Allison, pp. cit., p. 215.

nA!

\vul

. .‘Ull’li.

.hu

n ’.l-.E, 1 13

flV

 

46

contain are so varied. The changes result from continued
efforts at all staff levels with administrative support.

Efficient and better educational programs may be
simultaneously attainable through innovative changes in a
curriculum. The changes may facilitate an increase in the
credit productivity of an instructional staff by decreasing
the average number of student contact hours required to
reach course objectives. Curricular change is not new, but
the changes should involve educational method as well as
biology content.

The research on educational programs which reduce
the number of classroom contact hours showed that students
of various abilities learn as well as they might in con-
ventional classes. Baskin (50),12° Baskin and Churchill
(45) and Gruber and Weitman (44) citing research at the
college level found no evidence that independent study
methods should be reserved for superior or advanced students.
At Vanderbilt University (46), average and superior ability
students performed and learned as well on a reduced class
schedule as on a regular one. Gruber and Weitman (44)
found that while higher ability students seemed to have
profited from independent study, lower ability students were
not handicapped. Gruber and Weitman (45) also found that

the lower ability students profited most if they had high

‘laoThe number in parentheses refers to previously
cited references.

 

47

academic aspiration levels. McNeil and Keislar (94) at

the primary school level were able to distinguish higher
and lower ability students in terms of a criterion perform—
ance calling for a transfer of principles although all
students profited from the instruction.

The most effective learning results appear to occur
when college students are reoriented upon their arrival at
college not to look for success in academic work through
random efforts to learn all there is to know. The attempt
to inculcate new patterns Of intellectual work may have
to be a deliberate one until intellectual self-reliance
becomes a student tradition. (According to Gruber and
weitman (59), SOphomores benefited more from self-directed
study than freshmen, as evidenced by posttest scores, but
that the freshmen illustrated attitudinal changes while
the sophomores did not. Hatch (41) concluded the best
time for students tO begin independent study at college is
as freshmen.

The studies of Churchill (52) and McCollough and
Van Alta (55), Showing that independent study programs re-
sulted in few significant differences in achievement when
compared with regular college courses, were confirmed in
the Antioch (54) and Oberlin (55) reports. Gruber and
weitman (58) found that independent study groups were Super-
ior in the ability to make difficult applications and that

(60) better results occur when the students are not novices

 

 

W

O“

\‘a

.u'.

3

48

in the subject area using the approach. Kersh (48) and
Parsons (49) found that self-directed study fosters an in—
creased ability tO retain facts presented in a book.
Goldstein (56) and Timmel (59) found no difference in
achievement in lecture and project method courses while

NOvak (57) reported that project method students learned less.

Self—directed study programs appear to foster desir-
able attitudinal changes. Gruber and Weitman (61) in re-
viewing the research on self-directed study noted that these
programs increased student curiosity. Hovey, Gruber, and
Terrell (64) found that small group discussion sessions
are associated with an increased student curiosity. Mason
and Angell (65) found the group discussion technique in which
the students initiated the questions especially effective
early in a school term, but noted that the student interest
or effort decreased throughout the term.

Student personality factors appear to influence
student performance in self-directed study programs. Doty
(95) found that low social need students, moderate achieve-
ment need students, and students low in creativity performed
best under taped lecture conditions. That students with a
high need for independence do better in independent study
programs was not supported by Koenig and McKeachie (80).

Doty (96) also reported that high grade point average and
high achievement need students perform well under all edu—
cational methods. .Gruber and Weitman (85) found that students

with a high regard for independent intellectual work tend to

49

do better in self-directed study programs. Bendig and
Hountras (84) found authoritarian students happier in well
structured courses and Koenig and McKeachie (85) noted that
students who thought the teacher should be authoritarian
did poorly in independent study. Amidon and Flanders (82)
found that eighth grade dependent prone children learned E
more in teaching methods involving less direction.
Eglash (71) and Beach (72) reported that initial
morale problems existed within programs giving greater inde-
pendence to students, but noted that these problems gave way
to more favorable attitudes later in the programs. Neel
(75), Baskin and Churchill (74), and Gruber and Weitman (75)
reported a somewhat unfavorable reaction even at the end of
an independent study course.
Time spent in an instructional program appears to be
somewhat related to posttest achievement scores. Postlethwait,
NOvak, and Murray (100) reported a positive relationship be-
tween time spent in an audio-tutorial carrel and posttest
score achieved. wash (101) reported similar findings in a
high school classroom Situation involving programmed se-
quences.
The review of the literature related to advanced place- (
ment programs indicated that students should not be forced to
repeat course materials with which they have become familiar *
through exPeriences inside or outside the school. The re— I

view also showed that advanced placement, advanced credit,

50

and exemption programs do provide some flexibility in a
curriculum without changing the curricular program and in
so doing may treat symptoms rather than ailments. Exemp—
tion or waiver examinations are generally of value in
determining student proficiency, according to the litera—

ture, and are recommended as aids in planning the further

educational growth of students.

CHAPTER III

THE INTRODUCTORY BIOLOGY COURSE

This chapter includes a treatment of the establish—
ment of Lyman Briggs College at Michigan State University
and background information concerning the develOpment of the
introductory course in biology for the College. The chapter
also describes the course as evaluated in the winter term,
1969.

Lyman Briggs Collegp. Michigan State University
established Justin Morrill College, its first residential
college, in 1965. This College was established in order to
provide a curriculum which emphasized international and
cross-cultural studies as a feature of an overall liberal
education. The success Of this college was instrumental in
the establishment Of two similar semi-autonomous colleges,
James Madison College, emphasizing the social sciences, and
Lyman Briggs College, emphasizing the biological and physi-
cal sciences and mathematics in their respective curricular
programs.

The first official action toward the establishment
of Lyman Briggs College occurred when the Michigan State

University Board of Trustees, on October 20, 1966,

51

52

authorized the formation of a planning committee to develOp
a curriculum apprOpriate for a broad liberal program in the
sciences and mathematics. Members of the university
faculty appointed by the Provost to serve on the planning
committee for the College were: Dr. Frederic B. Dutton,
Chairman; Dr. John E. Cantlon, Botany; Dr. James L. Fairley,
Biochemistry; Dr. Frederick H. Horne, Chemistry; Dr. Gerhard
D. Linz, Counseling Center; Dr. Lee S. Shulman, Education;
Dr. Marvin L. Tomber, Mathematics; Dr. Emanuel Hackel,
Natural Science; Dr. Gerald J. Massey, PhilOSOphy; Dr. Harold
T. Walsh, PhilOSOphy; Dr. Michael J. Harrison, Physics;
Dr. Richard Schlegel, Physics; Dr. William Stellwagon,
Psychology; and Dr. Bruce R. Poulton, Provost Representative.
Lyman Briggs College formally came into existence on
July 1, 1967,and Dr. Frederic B. Dutton was named Dean of
the College. The College was named Lyman Briggs College in
the memory Of a distinguished alumnus of Michigan State
University. Dr. Lyman J. Briggs was the long-time director
of the Federal Bureau of Standards and the initial director
Of the Manhattan Project during WOrld War II.1 The first
class of students was admitted for the fall term, 1967.
The original planning committee has been supplemented with

other university faculty members and continues to serve the

 

lLyman Briggs College. "Lyman Briggs College news—
letter." Vol. 2, No. 2. East Lansing: Lyman Briggs College,
Michigan State University, n.d. p. 6. (Mimeographed.)

55

College and its students in an advisory capacity as College
Fellows.

The college curriculum. The Lyman Briggs Planning
Committee in their deliberations regarding the College
curriculum noted that the criticism of higher education in
the sciences focused on at least two major areas of concern:

1. The failure of students in the sciences to develop
equally in human terms so that they may perceive
ends as well as means, and

2. The rigid bulk of technical detail required in
curricula designed to serve potential professional
‘5pecialists'.

The committee attempted to recognize these two criticisms by

providing an education in the sciences which is balanced by

3

the components of a liberal education. The core curriculum

was designed to provide such a balance with the following

features:

1. A sound foundation in the Biological and Physical
Sciences and Mathematics.

2. A unique general education arranged to focus atten-
tion to the relationships between science and
society and science and man.

5. Fields of concentrated study which seek to develop
high levels of scholarship and the qualifications
for useful citizenship, graduate study, secondary
school teaching, or entry into business, industry,
or government services.

. 2Lyman Briggs College Planning Committee. "A prOpOSed
program for Lyman Briggs College." Report to the Education-
al Policies Committee. East Lansing: Lyman Briggs College,
Michigan State University, March 8, 1967. p. 2. (Mimeo—
graphed.)

aIbid. 41bid., p. 5.

54

Guidelines prepared by both the Planning Committee
to the University Provost and the Educational Policies
Committee provided the framework within which the College
Planning Committee was to develop a proposed program of
curricular implementation. The curricular program was to
be appropriate for the following objectives established for

the College:

First, provision for general education in addition
to the sciences, by means of instruction in English
rhetoric, foreign languages, social sciences, and
humanistic studies.

Second, an education on a university level in the
elements of mathematics, chemistry, physics, and
biology, sufficient to give graduates of the College a
sound* understanding of these sciences and of relation—
ships between them.

Third, attention tO the historical, philosophical,
and social aspects of sciences, through formal course
work and occasional lectures, seminars, and informal
discussions to significantly relate science to society
and to man.

Fourth, concentration in some one science, or related
science providing a field Of concentration and interest
(equivalent to a major) so as to give preparation for
professional work, graduate study, administration in
science based industry, business, or government service,
or secondary school teaching.

Fifth, a concern through student advising and curricu-
lar flexibility for the individual interests and poten—
tialities of each student.

Sixth, the attainment of the advantages of a small,
cohesive residential college community withuse at the

*
By a sound foundation is meant the acquisition of

the knowledge, the understanding of basic principles and
ideas and theoretical structures and the develOpment of
skills that are prerequisites to the Opportunity for a
choice of a field of professional or vocational endeavor.

55
same time of the resources Of a large, multi—faceted
university.5

The adOpted core curriculum shown in Table II includes
a program Of courses which meet the general education re-
quirements Of the University and give special attention to
the problems in science as they affect society. The field
of concentration which a student selects in Lyman Briggs
College correSponds to a major chosen in departmentally
organized colleges. Table III shows a sample distribution
Of credits for a student's college program in Lyman Briggs
College.

An entirely new interdisciplinary approach for cur-
riculum building was recommended by the Lyman Briggs College
Planning Committee. The Committee also proposed that ini-
tial efforts, in a systems approach to educational instruc-
tion, be centered in the biological and physical sciences
to ". . . search for new and better ways for Michigan State
University and higher education in general to meet its
Objectives".6

Students at LymgppBriggs College. Lyman Briggs Col—
lege is Open to any student who meets the general university

requirements and desires to enroll in the College. Each

5Lyman Briggs College. "Program planning handbook."
East Lansing: Lyman Briggs College, Michigan State Univer-
sity, Fall 1968. p. 2. (Mimeographed.)

8Lyman Briggs College Planning Committee, "A proposed
Program for Lyman Briggs College," pp. cit., p. 9.

56

Table II. Core curriculum for all students in Lyman Briggs

 

 

 

 

College.a
Course Area Quarter Credits
Mathematics (thru LBC 115-Calculus II) 15
Computer Science 5
Chemistryb 8
Physicsb 12
Biologyb 10
Social Sciences 12
Humanities 12
Logic, History and Philosophy of Science 12
Third Culture Rhetoric 6

 

Senior Seminar

 

Total credits 99

 

aTaken in part from "Lyman Briggs College 1968-1969."
A college brochure. East Lansing: Lyman Briggs College,
Michigan State University.

bCredits may be earned in a variety of sequences.

Table III. Sample credit distribution for all students in
Lyman Briggs College.a

 

 

 

 

Curriculum Area Quarter Credits
Core Curriculum (Including 51 99
credits general education)

Physical Education (5)b

Field Of Concentration 52

Electives 49
Total credits 180

 

aTaken in part from "Lyman Briggs College 1968-1969."
A college brochure. East Lansing: Lyman Briggs College,
Michigan State University:

bPhysical Education credits are not included in the
total credits to be earned in Lyman Briggs College.

57

freshman class is eXpected to be limited to four hundred
students and the anticipated maximum enrollment for the
entire College may approach twelve hundred students. The
first class at the College enrolled two hundred twenty—four
individuals. For the fall term, 1968, the total enrollment
was four hundred twelve students. The College program is
designed for students:7

1. Interested in a broad field Of concentration in
one of the physical or biological sciences and
mathematics as preparation for entry into grad-
uate work in a Single science or indisciplinary
fields.

2. Seeking pre-professional scientific training lead-
ing into such areas as medicine, dentistry,
patent law, science writing, history and phil-
osophy Of science, administration and management
in science-based industries, and government
service.

5. Interested in science but wish to defer their
choice Of specialization until later in their

upper—class or graduate experiences.

4. Seeking certification as secondary school science
teachers.

The introductory course in biology--Lyman Briggs
College 140. The introductory biology course as evaluated
during the winter term, 1969, was designed to provide for
group instruction by lecture—question—discussion techniques
and for individual learning experiences through an audio—
tutorial approach. Three different kinds of situations were

provided in order to implement instruction. All students

 

7Ibid., p. 4.

 

58

met for fifty minutes a week in a lecture-like situation.
In this situation, major concepts or current topics were
discussed by senior staff members, films were shown, guest
lecturers spoke, and examinations were administered. The
students were also scheduled to meet in groups of approxi-
mately ten students for a fifty minute period each week for
a recitation and response session. These sessions were
handled by senior staff members or graduate assistants.

Another kind Of Situation was provided by the mainte-
nance Of carrels for nonscheduled, individual study use by
the students. The nonscheduled, individual study session
facilities were supervised by Briggs College students who
had previously taken the course. These individuals were
responsible for maintaining the facilities and for assisting
students.

In order to familiarize the students with the pro—
cedures to be followed in the course and the rationale for
organizing and implementing the various aspects of the
course, a handout was distributed with the study guide ma—
terials at the first large assembly session of the term.
This handout is included in Appendix D.

Development of the course content. The responsibility
for develOping the beginning course was assumed by Drs.
Howard Hagerman and Jack Elliott during the summer term, 1967.
In planning the couose content, subject matter concepts and

Principles were selected and situations were provided for

59

implementing the overall objectives for the course. These
objectives, with respect to student acquisition and behavior
were: (1) to become familiar with or aware of systems
ecology-organism oriented, and (2) to become familiar with
representative organisms in ecosystems—plants and animals

in the environment. The prOposed subject matter units8 and
the time allotments for the first offering of the course in
the winter term, 1968, are shown in Table IV.

A tremendous amount of work was required to assemble
the necessary materials to implement these units. Scripts
were written, master' tapes cmt to organize and integrate
the planned eXperiences, and study guides prepared to assist
the students in their study. A representative study guide
is shown in Appendix E. Two graduate assistants helped in
planning experiments, gathering materials, and organizing
displays. Carousel projectors, tape decks, microscopes,
carrels, and all necessary laboratory materials had to be
purchased. Two by two slide sequences paralleling the taped
program were also produced. In most cases, these slide
sequences were duplications of printed materials and slides
from the personal collections of staff members. Charts and
graphic materials were prepared by the Instructional Media
Center at Michigan State University.

The investigator assumed the responsibility Of prepar-
ing and collecting test items suitable for the materials and

h

8These units were later designated packages in the
development of the program.

60

 

 

 

Table IV. Pr0posed LBC 140a Biology course
Unit Time in To ic
Weeks p
I 1 The Terrestrial Ecosystem.
A. Levels of organization.
B. Primary examples (Sanford Woodlot
and Eastern Deciduous Forest).
II 1 The Seed Plants - Life Cycle and Morph—
ology.
A. Angiosperms and Gymnosperms.
B. Adaptations of seed plants.
III 1 Higher Animal Life Cycle and Morphology.
A. Chordate.
B. Adaptations of selected chordates.
IV 1 The Aquatic Ecosystem.
A. Lake Stratification.
B. TrOphic levels and biological
factors.
C. Physical factors.
V 1 Phytoplankton.
A. Life cycles and methods Of repro-
duction of selected phytoplankton.
B. Adaptations.
VI 1 ZOOplankton.
A. Life cycles and reproduction of
selected ZOOplankton.
B. Adaptations.
VII 1 Systems of Classification - Plants
A. Taxonomic principles
B. Evolutionary trends.
VIII 1 Systems Of Classification - Animals.
A. Taxonomic principles.
) B. Evolutionary trends.
IX 1 (POpulations — Human Factors in the Eco-

 

system.
A. Man's place in nature.
B. Man's responsibility as a social
animal in systems ecology.

 

 

aLBC 140 is the University designation for the biology
course Offered in Lyman Briggs College.

61

experiences which were planned for the course programs.
These materials were planned, developed, and evaluated over
a period of fifteen months for the purpose of testing stu-
dents during the winter term, 1969, when the study being
described was undertaken.

Time did not permit the preparation of all of the
proposed units prior to the Opening of the winter term, 1968.
However, at the beginning of the winter term four units had

been completed and others were nearing completion deadlines.

 

Each content unit was planned for a week of student time
apprOpriate for a three credit course. When the first unit
was placed in the individual study session during the winter
term, 1968, it satisfied the expected student time require-
ment. The second unit was extended on two occasions for
additional study session time and the third unit was also
rescheduled for a two week time block. The course content
units offered during the winter term, 1968, are shown in
Table V. The mean amount of time students spent in the in-
dividual study session is also Shown. These data were most
useful in determining the amount of time the materials were
being used by students so that the course content and course
experiences could be adjusted to keep the time requirements
within reasonable limits.

While conducting the course program during the winter
term, it became apparent that the entire program could not
be implemented as proposed and major content revision began

immediately after initial student use. The major changes

 

 

62

Table V. Winter term, 1968, LBC 140 Biology course.

 

 

Mean Student
Time in Indi—
vidual Study

 

Time in Session per
Unit Weeks Topic Week in Hours
I 1 The Terrestrial Ecosystem 5.05
II 5 The Flowering Plant in 5.27
the Ecosystem
III 2 -An Animal in the Terrestrial 4.44
Ecosystem
IV 1 An Aquatic Ecosystem 5.25
V 1 Plant Life in an Aquatic 5.60
Ecosystem
VI '1 Animal Life in an Aquatic 5.58

Ecosystem

 

“r

Ce

.nm.

N

‘5'!

~11

 

65

involved a reduction of the number of examples used and
the extent to which the remaining examples were discussed.
Unit two, for example, was limited in revised tapes to a
discussion of the sugar maple plant rather than all seed
plants. Larger units were revised into smaller parts,
while previously unused content materials were woven into
other tapes.

Midway through the spring term, 1968, administrative
approval was granted to permit a variable content-variable
credit course format to be implemented. This allowed stu—
dents to select some of the planned course content on an
Optional basis and extended the obtainable credit from three
to four or five credit hours. Two course units were Of-
fered for Optional credit and each was temporarily valued
at one hour of credit. The Option plan allowed the entire
course content to be Offered and gave each student some
choice in the content that would be completed. The Option
plan also allowed students to reappraise their total credit
hour load during the term and consider the possibility of
increasing the amount Of biology credit they could attain.
These decisions were to be made after the student had com-
pleted the required course packages. The additional credit
was Offered in Lyman Briggs College 290--Special Problems.
The Optional packages could also be completed in any term
following the completion of the required packages of the

course. The units Offered during the spring term and the

 

., )1

O
1-

64

individual study session mean completion times for the units
are shown in Table VI. The completion of the seven required
units Offered three hours Of credit. The selection of ad-
ditional units allowed an extra hour Of credit for each one
selected.

For the fall term, 1968, ten taped programs and com-
plementing study guides were available for student use.
Three of the original units had been revised and reorganized
into two part packages. Two of the original units became

a single package and the two remaining units were redesig-

nated content packages. Three of these packages were required

of all students taking the course. The other three packages
were Optional packages although each student had to select
at least one of these packages for the minimum Of three term
hours of credit. The course format as Offered during the
fall term, 1968, is Shown in Table VII (p. 66). Additional
carrels were also made available and a second room acquired
to facilitate the placing of displays and demonstrations.
The preceding information has been presented to pro—
vide a background for an understanding of the audio-tutorial
course which was studied during the winter term, 1969. The
course program in use during this winter term evolved during
three terms of student use and revision and reorganization
in both the course content and course structure. The most
extensive change that occurred during the term in which the
course was investigated was the elimination of the oral quiz

procedure that had existed in the recitation and response

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66

Table VII. LBC 140 Biologya course format for the fall and
winter terms, 1968—69.

 

 

Package 1b
Required

Package 2 Two Credits
Packages

Package 5

Package 4
Optional d

Package 5 c One Credit Each
Packages

Package 6

 

 

aLyman Briggs College Biology 140 has a three credit
hour minimum. One Optional package is selected in addition
to the required packages taken.

IA description of the content included in each of the
content packages is given in Appendix F.

CAll selections are made during the third and fourth
week of the term. By this time the student has had the
Opportunity to become familiar with the instructional ap-
proach and is aware of the content which is covered in each
Optional package.

dLyman Briggs College 290 has a two credit per term
maximum. One additional credit is given for each extra
package selected.

67

sessions. Oral responses were not assigned grades after the
fourth week of the term. The change was made to give the
recitation and response session a somewhat informal struc—
ture in an attempt to foster a continuous pattern Of student
prompted discussion. The package materials have been brief-
ly described in Appendix F. The course format used during
the term in which the investigation was conducted is shown
in Table VII (p. 66) . Appropriate session schedules for the
winter term, 1969, are shown in Appendix G.

Summary. An experimental, audio-tutorial course--
Lyman Briggs College Biology 140--was offered for the first
time at Michigan State University during the winter term,
1968. The course features a variable content-variable credit

fOrmat in a curriculum effort to meet stated learning objec-

tives in interesting and innovative ways. The content and

structure Of the course had evolved from three terms Of
student use when a research study was initiated in the

course during the winter term, 1969.

CHAPTER IV

SOURCES AND TREATMENT OF DATA

This study collected data related to an audio-
tutorial biology course in Lyman Briggs College at Michigan
State University. The students in the study were those
regularly enrolled in the course during the winter term,
1969. The study was initiated on January 6, 1969, at the
first scheduled class held during the winter term, and
terminated on March 12, 1969, the day of the scheduled final
examinations.

Data from one hundred thirty-seven students who com-
pleted the Student Preparation and Intent Questionnaire and
the Course Achievement Test, used as both a pretest and a
Posttest, were included in the statistical analyses pre-
sented in this study. A Course Evaluation Questionnaire was
developed to survey student Opinion related to the methods
used in the course and the situations in which these methods
were used.

The develOpment and implementation of the course
materials were presented in Chapter III. The hypotheses

Presented in Chapter I are related to an evaluation of

68

(Ill-'3'“. b

 

69

student preparation for and achievement in the course.
Student Opinions were used to evaluate the course program
as presented during the winter term, 1969. This chapter
contains a description Of the evaluative instruments used
in the study. The administration Of the instruments and
the collection and treatment of the data are also described
in the chapter.

The Course Achievement Test. A course examination
was prepared to measure student achievement on the subject
matter materials and eXperiences presented for the biology
course. The Course Achievement Test contained one hundred,
five foil, multiple choice items. These items were selected
from a test file of items which had been collected or pre-
pared by the writer and used during previous terms to test
achievement in the course. Item analysis data on the test
questions were used in the selection Of the final items.
Forty items were selected as an achievement measure for the
three required content packages and twenty items were se-
lected for each of the three Optional packages. The items
chosen for the Course Achievement Test had been selected
for testing purposes by the senior staff members in previous
terms and each subtest constructed was judged by them to
have curricular validity. The one hundred item Course
Achievement Test is shown in Appendix B.

Twenty—three of the items on the completed examination

Vinstrument were derived from Biological Science Curriculum

70

2'3 Eighteen were items

Study experimental test materials.1'
or modifications Of items found in the CUEBS4 Report of the
Panel on Evaluation and Testing.5 The remaining 45 new test
items were prepared by the investigator. .Kuder Richardson
20 estimates of test reliability and indices of discrimina-
tion and difficulty for the subtests and the total test are
shown in Table VIII. These data were obtained from the
Michigan State University Office of Evaluation Services
through the use Of the IBM 1250 Optical Scanner and IBM 554
Card Punch and processed on the Control Data 560 Computer.
The one hundred item Course Achievement Test was
administered to all students enrolled in the course as a pre—
test examination. The longest amount Of consecutive time
available in any scheduled class meeting was fifty minutes.
The total test was conveniently divided into two parts and

given during two separate time blocks. The first forty pre-

test items covering content Packages I, II, and III were

1Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. Test Booklet
for High School Biology. Boulder, Colorado: BSCS, 1966.

2Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. Test Booklet
for an Inguiry into Life. Boulder, Colorado: BSCS, 1966.

3Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. Test Booklet
for Molecules to Man. Boulder, Colorado: BSCS, 1966.

 

4CUEBS is used to designate the Commission on Under-
graduate Education in the Biological Sciences.

. 5Commission on Undergraduate Education in the Bio—
logical Sciences. Testipg and Evaluation in the Biological
Soiences. ~A report of the panel On evaluation and testing.

Egggs publication # 20. Washington, D.C.: CUEBS, November

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71

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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. HHH> OHQMB

72

administered during the large assembly session held January
6, 1969, the first class day of the winter term. The stu—
dents were tOld that the pretest data would be useful to
the staff in evaluating average student achievement in the
course program. They were encouraged to respond to each
item and told that the scores would not be used for grading
purposes. The remaining sixty pretest items based on
Packages IV, V, and VI were administered to the students at
their respective recitation and response sessions held dur-
ing the second week Of the term. The same test instructions
given at the initial session were repeated at these sessions.
One hundred thirty-four students took the first part
of the pretest at the initial large assembly session. The
class roster was checked to determine which students were
enrolled in the course, but were absent for the first ses-
sion of the course. Individual appointments with these
students to complete the examination were arranged by tele-
Phone. Within two days complete pretest data had been ob-
tained for one hundred forty-five students enrolled in the
course. Data for all the students in the class on the
second part of the test were Obtained at recitation and
response sessions held during the second week of the term.
Scoring of the student responses tO the test items
was accomplished on the IBM.1250 Optical Scanner at the
Michigan State University Scoring Office. The raw pretest

scores on the Course Achievement Test were recorded from

 

75

the examination answer sheets onto data sheets. The raw
scores were listed by student and categorized by the high
school preparation in biology the student had received.
The students were placed into one of seven categories on
the basis of biographical data they had supplied. The cate-
gories were: (1) no biology preparation, (2) BSCS Blue
Biology, (5) BSCS Green Biology, (4) BSCS Yellow Biology,
(5) one year of some other biology, (6) more than one year
of biology including BSCS Biology, (7) more than one year of
biology not including BSCS Biology. A one-way analysis of
variance on the pretest examination scores used the raw
scores grouped by student preparation in high school biology.
The F statistic described by Hays6 was used to test for a
significant difference between the examination scores achieved
by students in the seven biology preparation categories. The
F value Obtained was checked for significance in Guenther.7
The Course Achievement Test was also presented as
the final examination in the course. The students were given
instructions to respond to those items of the examination
indicated for the content packages they had selected for
their course program. To Obtain posttest data for this re—

search study the students were asked tO respond to all of

6William L. Hays. Statistics for Psychologists.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. p. 569.

7William C. Guenther. Apalysis Of Variance. Engle-
wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice—Hall, 1964. pp. 172—85.

 

35

.II
on
v
.‘
-
hl.
II.
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t:-
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r
e
k
r

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74

the remaining items before turning in the examination materi-
als. They were told that the responses they made to ques-
tions covering content areas which they had not selected

as a part of their content program would not be used for
grading purposes. Scoring of the Course Achievement Post-
test was accomplished on the 1250 Optical Scanner at the
Michigan State University Scoring Office.

The raw posttest achievement scores were recorded on
data sheets from examination answer sheets. Student selec-
tion of the Optional content package materials facilitated
the designation of six content sequence groups. The content
sequences involved included packages: (1) I, II, III, and
IV, (2) I, II, III, and v, (5) I, II, III, and VI, (4) I,
II, III, IV, and v, (5) I, II, III, v, and VI, (6) I, II,
III, IV, V, and VI. The'raw posttest achievement scores were
recorded by student and categorized by the content sequence
the students had selected for the term. A one-way analysis
Of variance technique used student raw scores grouped by
the content sequence selected. The F statistic was used to
test for a significant difference between the examination
scores achieved by the students in the Six content sequence
categories. The F value obtained was checked for Signifi-
cance in Guenther.e Since the F value Obtained showed over-

all significance, the data were explored to find the source

8Ibid.

75

of the difference which existed. A significant F test can

be interpreted as evidence that among all possible comparison
values at least one true comparison value is not zero.9

The Scheffe method described in Hayslo was used to evaluate
the comparisons among the means and grOUped means Of the

six content sequence groups to locate the sources of the dif-
ference existing in the data.

The posttest achievement scores of the six content
sequence groups were also recorded separately for the re-
quired content packages and each of the optional content
packages. The analysis of variance technique was used in
each case to analyze the variances of the groups and provide
a measure of any difference between those sequence groups
which had included the Specific package or packages in their
content selection and those groups that had not included the
specific package or packages.

The raw achievement posttest scores were also tabu-
lated on data sheets and categorized by sex. A t test
statistic described by Weinberg and Schumakerll was used to
test for a Significant difference between the mean achieve-
ment posttest scores of the sexes. The t value produced

was checked for significance in Hays.12

 

9Hays, pp. cit., p. 485. 1°Ibid., pp. 485-87.

11George E. Weinberg and John A. Schumaker. Stapippics;
An Intuitive Approach. Belmont, California: Wedsworth
Publishing Company, 1962. pp. 199-205.

12Hays, pp. cit., p. 674.

—

76

The amount of time students indicated they Spent in
the individual study session, to the nearest quarter hour,
was recorded on data sheets. The time figures were taken
from time cards kept in the study center and filled in by
the students at the time of each visit. The time was tabu-
lated for the three required packages and for each of the
three optional packages. The amounts of time listed for the
required packages were recorded for those students who
responded to all of the question areas on the achievement
posttest. The amounts of time for each of the Optional
packages were recorded only for those students who completed
the package and also answered the questions for all of the
question areas on the posttest instrument. The Pearson
product-moment correlation formula presented by weinberg
and Schumaker,13 was used to calculate a correlation coeffi-
cient between time spent and raw posttest score achieved
for the required packages and each Of the Optional packages.
A 2 conversion described by Weinberg and Schumakerl4 was
used to transform the correlation coefficient into a 2 value.
The 2 value obtained is representative of the computed
correlation coefficient and can be located in the normal
distribution of z scores to determine significance. The 2
value produced was checked for Significance in weinberg and

Schumaker.15

laweinberg and Schumaker, 22- GLE-v P; 254-

14Ibidcl pp. 287—89. . lsIbidol p. 520.

77

Separate listings of the raw achievement pretest and
posttest scores were also made by student for each of the
Optional content packages and the required content packages.
Mean gain scores were calculated for each Optional package
based on the scores of the students selecting the specific
content. The mean gain score was also found for the re-
quired packages of the course which was completed by all
the students included in the sample.

The Student Preparation and Intent gpestionnaire.

A series Of questionnaire items was constructed by the
author during the fall term, 1968, to collect biographical
information from the students who would be enrolled in Lyman
Briggs College Biology 140 during the winter term, 1968.
This questionnaire was revised after it was used in that
winter term. The questionnaire was also revised following
use during the spring and fall terms, 1968. The third re—
vision Of the questionnaire was presented to the student
population enrolled during the winter term, 1969, the term
in which this research study was conducted.

The students were asked to fill in the required re-
sponses to the questionnaire items during their first visit
Of the term at the individual study center. Of major
interest to this study were those items related to the kind
and number of biology courses the students had taken in
high school. This information was used to categorize the

student population for the one-way analysis of variance

 

78

using the course pretest achievement and high school prepara-
tion in biology reported earlier in this chapter. Since
student Opinions were used to evaluate the course program,
the factors students noted as producing individual concern

or self-confidence about the course they were beginning were
also of Special interest. The Student Preparation and Intent
Questionnaire is shown in Appendix A.

The Courpe Evaluatiop_gppstionnaire. The Course
Evaluation Questionnaire was develOped by the author to
survey student Opinion related to the biology course with
which this study is concerned. Similar evaluation question-
naires had been presented to all students completing the
course during the time before the winter term, 1969, in which
this study was completed. The form used during this term
resulted from the revisions of these earlier instruments.

The Course Evaluation Questionnaire contained one hundred and
one positive statements placed within the context of four
broad course categories. The students were asked to mark
answers to designate: (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (5) no
basis for an Opinion, (4) disagree, or (5) strongly disagree,
for each statement. The questionnaire items are listed in
Appendix C.

The Course Evaluation Questionnaire was given to stu-
dents at the last large assembly session of the winter term,
1969. Questionnaires with the necessary instructions at-

tached were placed in the mail boxes of all students who were

 

79

not present at this final session of the term. One hundred
forty-two students returned response sheets at the time of
the scheduled final examination as requested. This was a
97.9 per cent return for the response sheets. The course
evaluation responses were anonymous. Since this was the
case, all students who completed responses are included in
the reported results. -A tabulation of the student responses
to the evaluation questionnaire items was completed with the
IBM 1250 Optical Scanner and IBM 554 Card Punch and pro-
cessed by the IBM 1401 Computer.

Grading ppocedure for Lyman Briggs College Biology
1&9, Final grades given in Lyman Briggs College Biology 140
were based on the total raw score points any student had
achieved in the given term. These total raw scores were con-
verted to percentages and numerical grades assigned on a
0-4.5 grade scale. For the three credit course there were
one hundred and fifty possible points. These points were
achieved on a midterm examination for Packages I, II, and
III (fifty points), final examination questions on Packages
I, II, and III (forty points), a recitation and response
evaluation for Packages I, II, and III (thirty points), the
final examination on the required additional package (twenty
Points), and a recitation and response evaluation from the
additional package (ten points). The raw scores achieved
on the package selected as a part Of the three credit course
minimum were added directly to the scores received on the

required packages and a grade distribution constructed.

80

Grade distributions for the Optional packages were
arrived at individually and all scores achieved in a speci-
fic package were used to construct the grade distributions.
Separate grades were given for the extra packages taken and
credit listed under a Special Problems title, Lyman Briggs
College 290.

Summary. During the winter term, 1969, Lyman Briggs
College Biology 140, as described in Chapter III, was ex-
amined. The examination included an evaluation of student
achievement in the course as evidenced by course achieve—
ment pretest and posttest scores and student opinions of
the course collected on a Course Evaluation Questionnaire
response sheet.

All of the students enrolled in the course completed
the Course Achievement Pretest and a Student Preparation
and Intent Questionnaire. Students were included in the
statistical analyses of the raw scores collected during the
study if they also completed all of the parts Of the Course
-Achievement Posttest. The student raw scores were grouped
by high school preparation in biology, content sequence
elected for the course, and Sex and were analyzed with the
one-way analysis of variance and t test techniques. Time
spent in the individual study session was correlated with
raw posttest achievement scores and the coefficient trans—
formed into a 2 value to check whether the correlation

coefficient represented by the 2 value was significant.

:H-un .- 4' -l 8"

 

81

Gain scores were reported for the required and Optional
packages of the course. Final grades were also recorded

for presentation with the data.

 

CHAPTER V

ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS

An analysis Of the data collected on the student pOpu-
lation enrolled in Lyman Briggs College Biology 140 during
the winter term, 1969, is presented in this chapter. The
hypotheses and models used to test these hypotheses, as well
as the analysis Of the data relevant to the hypotheses, are
included in the chapter. The data retrieved from the Student
Preparation and Intent Questionnaire to reflect initial stu-
dent feeling about an audio-tutorial course are listed.

The findings Of the Course Evaluation Questionnaire are also
reported in the chapter.

Hypotheses and models used to test the hypotheses.
Pretest scores, posttest scores, and individual study ses-
sion time data for the winter term, 1969, student population
of Lyman Briggs College Biology 140 were compiled for statis—
tical analysis. The research hypotheses formulated for the
study and the null hypothesis used for testing each were
as follows:

Hypothesis

One : ,Students who have had BSCS Biology in high

school have higher pretest scores on a test
designed for a college biology course than

82

85

students who have not had a BSCS Biology
course in high school.

H01: BPl = BPZ = BP3 = BP4 = BP5 = BP = BP

(BP indicates a group Of students within
the population categorized by kind Of
biology preparation in high school.)

HyppsgeSIS: Students who have had more high school prep-

aration in biology have higher pretest
scores on a test designed for a college
biology course than students who have had
less high school preparation in biology.

H0”: BPl = BP2 = BPS = BP = BP = BP = BP

(BP indicates a group of students within the

pOpulation categorized by number of biology
courses taken in high school.)

Hyppfigzzis: Students who select more content in a varia-

ble content——variable credit college biology
course have higher posttest scores on a test
for the college course than those students
who select less content.

CS1 = CS2 = CS = CS = CS = CS

5 4 5 6

(CS indicates a group of students within the

population categorized by the content se—
quence selected for the course.)

HYPSEEESIS: Male students receive higher posttest Scores

on a test designed for a college biology
course than female students receive on the
posttest.

O
U)

[.3
(n

N

(S indicates a group of students within the
pOpulation categorized by sex.)

84

HYP;ES:SIS: .Students who spend more time in individual

study sessions on the content materials
presented in a college biology course re-
ceive higher posttest scores on tests for
the college course than students who spend
less time in individual study sessions.

TPC = O

O

5 (TPC indicates the correlation coefficient
for the correlation between time Spent in
the individual study session and posttest
achievement score.)

Analysis of the data relevant to hypotheses one and
two-—Student_preparation in high school biology. Course
achievement pretest data for the student population was
organized into seven groups based on high school preparation
in biology. These groups included students in the popula-
tion who had high school programs which included: (1) no
biology (3P1), (2) Bscsl Blue Biology (BPZ), (3) BSCS Green
Biology (BP5)' (4) BSCS Yellow Biology (BP4), (5) one year
of biology other than BSCS Biology (BPS), (6) more than one
year of biology including BSCS Biology (BP6), and (7) more
than one year of biology other than BSCS Biology (BP7).

The one-way analysis of variance technique was employed to
test for a significant difference between pretest examina-
tion scores for the students grouped by high school prepara-
tion in biology. Table IX summarizes the results of the
analysis of variance procedure used to test the hypotheses
(HO,1&2: BP1=BP2= . . . =BP7). Based on the statistical

lBSCS is used to designate the Biological Sciences
Curriculum Study.

85

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87

evidence, the null hypotheses stating that there were no
differences in the pretest achievement scores of the student
groups, categorized by high school preparation in biology,
was not rejected. NO significant difference was found be—
tween the seven categories of student preparation in high
school biology based on course pretest scores. Since no
significant difference existed between the seven categories
at the 0.05 level, one may conclude there was no significant
difference between any two categories or between combina-
tions of these categories at or beyond that level.2 This
finding would indicate that no significant difference was
apparent for course pretest achievement based on the kind
of high school biology (BSCS Blue Biology, BSCS Green
Biology, BSCS Yellow Biology, biology other than BSCS Biology,
or a combination of BSCS Biology and other biology) or number
of high school biology courses (no biology, one year of
biology, more than one year of biology). One can conclude
from these findings that there is no significant advantage
or disadvantage for student achievement in Lyman Briggs
College Biology 140 based on the kind or number of biology
courses students had taken in high school.

Analysis Of the dppp relevant to hypothesis three--

Q_ntent_§eguence selected for Lyman Briggs College Biology
14

O

. Posttest data for the student population was organized

l

with respect to six possible course content sequences.

2William L. Hays. Statistics for Psyphologispp.
New YOrk: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. p. 485.

i ”I

 

I!“

""1

 

88

The course content sequences which were Selected by the six
student groups in the population were as follows:

(1) Packages I, II, III, and IV, (2) Packages I, II, III,
and v, (5) Packages I, II, III, and VI, (4) Packages I, II,
III, IV; and v, (5) Packages I, II, III, V, and VI, or

(6) Packages I, II, III, IV, V, and VI. The mean posttest
scores for the content package sequence groups are shown in
Table X. The one-way analysis of variance technique was
employed to analyze posttest examination scores for the
students grouped by the course content sequence they had
completed. Table XI (p. 90) summarizes the results of the
analysis of variance procedure used to test the hypotheses

(H C81=CSZ= . . . =CS6). The null hypothesis was re-

0,5:
jected at the 0.001 level of Significance. This indicates

that a significant difference existed between the content
sequence grouPs as evidenced by their course posttest scores.
Since overall significance was indicated by the data, the
Scheffe method of evaluating comparisons among the content
sequence groups was used to find the sources of the differ-
ence existing in the data. The pair—wise differences between
the content sequence groups means are shown in Table XII(p. 92).
A sample of the calculation technique used to test each Of

the contrasts is shown in Table XIII (p. 95). Only two of

the differences between the group means were sufficiently

large for significance to be illustrated at the 0.05 level.

The two significant contrasts were between content sequences

Table X. Mean posttest scores for the content

groups.

89

sequence

 

 

Number of

 

Designations Mean Individuals
, for Sequence Posttest in Sequence
Content Sequence Group Mean Score Group
I,II,III,IV,V n4 64.58 8
I,II,III, IV,V,VI us 60.65 95
I,II,III,IV (I, 55.50 8
I,II,III,VI n3 50.75 11
I,II,III,V,VI n5 49.80 5
I,II,III,V 47.08 12

 

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95

a .
Table XIII. Sample Scheffe calculation to locate significant
contrasts between posttest means of content
sequence groups.

 

 

A
= _ 2
W H2 Hi i. ‘VrS MSW mg

A
Where: w is the value of a particular comparison
among group means.

up and ul are group means.

0.05 ).

2 - —
s — (K 1) (2K4, N_K

MSw is the mean square within value.

w is the weighting factor for sum of squares
in the comparison.

 

 

 

I? = -8.42 i 7 (5) (2.21) (91.556) (% + 3%)
I? = -8.42 i \/ (11.05) (91.556) (.2085)
I? = -8.42 I. y 210.25

I73= -8.42 I 14.5 nsb

 

aFrom: William L. Hays. Statistics for Psychologists.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. pp. 485-87.

bNot significant at 0.05. The interval crosses zero.
The Obtained difference between grOUp means Of -8.42 is not
greater than 14.5 in absolute magnitude.

94

I, II, III, IV, and V and I, II, III, IV, V, and VI with
means significantly different from the I, II, III, and V
content sequence mean. Contrasts were also made for the
means of the content groups involving the amount of course
content selected. These contrasts involved those groups
selecting four, five, or six packages of course content. I r
The contrasts and differences are shown in Table XIV.
Only the difference between the means of the four and Six

package content sequence groups was large enough to be sig-

 

nificant at the 0.05 level. From the above the inference
may be made that, although only the posttest scores of those
students taking four or six packages were significantly

different, students taking more content tended to have higher

posttest scores.

The contribution of the Optional content Packages V
and VI toward the course posttest scores appeared to be some—
what less than that Of the Optional content package IV.

To provide a check on these results the posttest achievement
scores of the content sequence groups for the required con-

tent packages and each of the Optional content packages were

analyzed. A summary of a one-way analysis of variance of

the package scores categorized by content sequence group is pre—

sented in Table XV (p. 96). The posttest achievement levels for

the sequence groups on the required packages were not 319-

nificantly different at the 0.05 level. The posttest achieve—

ment levels for the sequence groups on each of the Optional

content packages was significant at the 0.001 level.

95

Table XIV. Pair-wise differences for the contrasts involving
pooled posttest means for combined content

sequence groups.

 

 

 

 

 

Pooled 1,2,5,4,and 5
Groups 1,2,5,5,and 6 1,2,5,4,5,and 6
(H4 + 85) (us)
Posttest
Mean 57.09 60.65
112;?)Iand 4
1,2,5,and 5 a
1,2,5,and 6 51.10 -5.99 -9.62 S
(81+ua+us)
1I2I334’and 5
57.09 -5.56

112:5,SIand 6
(H4 + #5)

 

 

 

 

aSignificant contrast at 0.05.

96

Table XV. One—way analysis of variance results on the post-
test scores of the required and Optional packages
for the content sequence groups.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fa Obtained

Posttest scores Of content b
sequence grOUps on I, II, III 1.69 NS
Posttest scores of content

sequence groups on Optional C
Package IV 21.52 S
Posttest scores of content

sequence groups on Optional“ c
Packagefv 6.2 S
Posttest scores of content

sequence groups on Optional c
Package VI 6.70 S

 

 

aChecked in William C. Guenther. Analysis of Varipnce.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Pre

85.

hNot significant at 0.05.

2.21.

CSignificant beyond 0.001.

4.10.

ntice-Hall, 1964. pp. 172-

0.05
(5,

.Tabled P?é°°:o) value is

Tabled P )value is

97

This would indicate that the course achievement posttest
scores for the content sequence groups varied due to the
presence or absence of Specific Optional packages and were
not the result of a significant difference between the
achievement of the content sequence groups on the required
content packages included in the course format of each con-
tent sequence. .The F value Obtained from the analysis of
variance of the posttest scores of the content sequence
groups on Optional content Package IV was much larger than
that Obtained on either Package V or Package VI. From
these results it can be inferred that a student selecting
Package IV, as the only optional package or in combination
with other Optional packages, might have had the best Oppor-
tunity to achieve a high posttest score.

Analysippof the data relevant to hypothesis four--
§ex and student achievement. Posttest data for the student
population was organized with respect to a student's sex.
The t test was used to test for a Significant difference
between the course posttest means of the male and female
students. The t value Of 0.59 produced was checked in Hays2
for significance. The hypothesis (HO 4:Sl=82) failed to
be rejected at the 0.05 significance level. These results
indicate that no significant difference existed between the

male and female groups based on course posttest scores.

2Hays, Op. cit., p. 674. Tabled t?&3? value is 1.645.

98

The conclusion can be made that no significant advantage or
disadvantage was apparent for student posttest achievement
on the basis Of the male and female groups tested.

Analysis of the data relevant to hypothesis_fiye--
Rplppionship between time spent in individual study sessiong
and course achievement scores. The amount of time the stu-
dents in the pOpulation spent in the individual study ses-
sion, to the nearest quarter hour, was correlated with the
posttest scores the students received on specific parts of
the course. The Pearson product-moment formula was used to
Obtain the correlation coefficient between time spent and
posttest scores achieved. These data are presented in
Table XVI. The hypothesis (Ho’szTPC=O) failed to be rejected
for the required content packages and Optional Packages V
(and VI. The hypothesis was rejected for content Package IV.
These results indicate that only the correlation coefficient
obtained between time spent in the individual study session
and posttest achievement scores for Package IV was suffi-
ciently far from zero to produce a significant positive
relationship. The inference can be made that on Package IV
an increase in time spent in the individual study session
would result in increased achievement as evidenced by
higher posttest achievement scores.

Gain scores and final gradep. Gain scores for the
students completing the required packages of the course and

each of the optional packages and related data are presented

 

 

i
I

 

99

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table XVI. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients
on time and posttest scores for required course
content packages and optional course content
packages.

Number of
Individuals
Completing
“ , Designated Correlation
Packages Content Coefficient z
I,II,III 157 .1124 1.51 nsb
IV 109 .2145 2.25 3C
v 118 .0509 0.55 usb
VI 109 .1261 1.51 NSb

 

aChecked in:
Spatistics:

George H. weinberg and John A. Schumaker.

An Intuitive Approach. Belmont, California:
_Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1962. p. 520.

bNot significant at 0.05.

cSignificant at 0.05.

 

 

100

in Table XVII. The per cent raw score gains for content
Packages I, II, and III and content Package V are somewhat
below that Of the other content packages. This can be
expected when the pretest means are somewhat higher.3
Final Grades given during the winter term, 1969, are pre-
sented in Table XVIII (p. 102).

Student Preparation and Intentpguestionnaire--Student
comments. Before the students had actually started their
individual study work, they were asked on a Student Prepara—
tion and Intent Questionnaire to note their initial concern
and/Or feeling of confidence in anticipation of the audio-
tutorial program. .A compilation of the types of student
concern and the actual frequencies of those types which were
reported by ten or more students is as follows:

1. Lack of individual discipline; tendency to pro-
crastinate; indolence generated in an independent,
flexible course when planning is required for
necessary study time. (45)

2. Poor academic background in biology; poor high
school course; non-recency of contact with bio—

logical science materials. (24)

5. Unfamiliarity with course organization, methods
and requirements. (18)

4. Fear of having to give oral responses in rigid
recitation and response sessions without an
appropriate indication of achievement. (15)

5. Early "jitters" regarding tests, grades, and
animal dissection. (11)

6. Lack Of motivation. (10)

3Personal conversation with Dr. Clarence H. Nelson,
Evaluation Services, Michigan State University.

 

.101

 

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102

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105

An initial feeling of student confidence or assurance
was noted in the following questionnaire responses:
1. Interest in biology. (56)
2. Biology background. (57)
5. Can benefit from independent study. (17)
4. High school record. (16) F
Course Evaluationpgppptionnaire--Student responseg. ‘
The percentage of students marking the response categories

for the Course Evaluation Questionnaire is shown in Appendix

w!

 

C. The categories strongly agree and agree and disagree and 3
strongly disagree were tabulated as agree and disagree,

respectively. Those items in which the student responses

held significance, in the Opinion Of the investigator, are

noted in Tables XIX-XXII (pp. 104-110) . The implications

presented in Chapter VI considered these student responses

as well as other investigator contacts with students, student

assistants, graduate assistants, and senior staff members.

104

Table XIX. Selected student responses on the total course
program from the Course Evaluation Questionnaire
results.a '

 

 

 

 

. . Perce
Questionnaire ntage
It N b of Popula-
em um er . . tion Having
Reference Student Opinion Opinion
2 The course was not among the most 62
intellectually satisfying college
courses students had taken.
5 One of the course Objectives was to 82
teach general principles (generali-
zations). E
6 One of the course objectives was to 58
teach application skills.
10 One of the course objectives was to 54
instill a desire for further learn—
ing.
12 It was difficult for students to get 55
answers to questions in content
areas where understanding was dif-
ficult.
15 Course instructors were readily 47
available to help with student prob-
lems that required their personal
attention.
19 The testing or evaluation procedure 66
used in the course was not adequate
for grading purposes.
20 The test scores did not adequately 57
evaluate an understanding noted by
the content objectives.
24 The course did make a contribution 75
in the areas of biology studied.
25 The course did make a contribution 54
to an intellectual interest in
ecology.

continued

105

Table XIX--continued

 

 

 

. »Percentage
Questionnaire Of POpula-
Item Number tion Having
Reference Student Opinion Opinion

26 The course did make a contribution 84

to an awareness Of ecological rela—
tionships.

51 Students desire more help in choos- 45

ing which packages they should take.

52 -At the beginning of the program 71

students liked the idea of being
able to take an audio-tutorial
course.
55 ~At the close of the course students 56

liked the experience of having taken
an audio—tutorial course.

 

aComplete results are shown in Appendix G.

 

”E

106

Table XX. Selected student responses on the large assembly
seSSIOn from the Course Evaluation Questionnaire

 

 

 

results.

. . Percentage
Questionnaire of popula_
Item Number tion Having
Reference Student Opinion Opinion

55 The large assembly session help- 52

ed to increase student interest
in the course.

57 The large assembly session 50

helped to make the course intel-
lectually stimulating.

59 Guest speakers discussed subject 66

areas relative to the course.

40 Films presented subject matter 49

material not used in the individ-
ual study session.

41 Films presented subject matter 56
material later used in the indi-
vidual study session.

46 Test scores received on the mid- 66
term were not indicative of an
understanding of course materials.

47 Midterm test did not illustrate. 65
an adequate content sample for

grading purposes.

 

2Complete results are shown in Appendix G.

 

107

Table XXI. Selected student responses on the individual
study seSSion grom the Course Evaluation Question-
naire results.

 

 

 

. . Percentage
Questionnaire of POpula—
Item Number tion Having
Reference Student Opinion Opinion

48 IndividUal study sessions are in- 47

tellectually more rewarding than
college classroom lectures.
49 Individual study sessions enable 49
students to make more efficient
use of study time.

54 Individual study sessions made a 70
contribution toward comprehension
in the areas of biology studied.

55 Individual study sessions made a 55
contribution toward an intellect—
ual interest in ecology.

56 Individual study sessions made a 69
contribution toward student
awareness of ecological relation-
ships.

58 Noise and distraction did not hinder 71
effective study in the individual
study session.

59 Study materials were readily avail— 65
able for student use.

60 Content package objectives were 77
clearly pointed out.

61 Study materials emphasized rela- 58
tionships rather than minute'
detail.

65 As a result of the study program 68

students can work easily with a
micrOSCOpe.

continued

 

108

Table XXI--continued

 

 

 

 

. . . Percentage
Questionnaire of Popula-
Item Number tion Having
Reference Student Opinion Opinion

66 .Adequate instruction was given for 72
proper use of the study carrel.

67 Study programs are sufficient to 56
guide_students through the ex-
periences'provided.

69 I completed less than fifty per 50
cent of the individual study
session activities presented out-
side the carrel.

70 I completed more than seventy-five 47
per cent of the individual study
session activities presented out-
side the carrel.

71 Activities presented outside the 62
study carrel were not essential
for content package understanding.

72 More "do-it-yourself“ projects 22
should be provided for maximum
program effectiveness.

75 Slide sequences are a necessary 72
part of the session.

75 Study guides and outlines are use- 80

ful in helping students to organize
"the materials presented.

76 Study guides Should have more 64
informative content and fewer

questions.

77 For every hour spent in the indi- 60
vidual study session, I spent less
than 1§-hours in other course study.

78 For every hour Spent in the indi-
vidual Study session, I spent
between 1fi-and 5 hours in other

urse stud . .
co y continued

109

Table XXI--continued

 

 

*7
. . Percentage
Questionnaire of POpula-
Item Number tion Having
Reference Student Opinion Opinion
79 For every hour Spent in the indi- 1O
vidual study session, I spent 5
hours or more in other course
study.
85 Students found study carrels un- 54
available when they wanted one.
84 An insufficient number of study 19

carrels prevented my weekly use
of the prepared materials.

. i.-r‘

 

 

aComplete results are shown in Appendix G.

If

110

 

 

 

Table XXII. Selected student responses on the recitation
and response session from the Course Evalua-
tion Questionnaire results.a

Percentage

Questionnaire Of Popula-

Item Number . tion Having

Reference Student Opinion Opinion

87 Recitation and response sessions 51
facilitated an expression of in—
dividual achievement.

88 Students did most of the talking 66
in the session.

92 Participation in the session con- 66
tributed to a comprehension in the
areas of biology studied.

94 Participation in the session con- 58
tributed toward an awareness of
ecological relationships.

95 Study guides were more effective 56
than the course text or other
references in preparing for the
recitation and response session.

96 The appropriateness of participa- 51
tion in the session was directly
related to the amount of time
Spent on the content packages.

97 The quality of student responses 58

were directly related to an under-
standing Of the materials.

a . .
Complete results are shown in Appendix G.

n—. 2.4.

 

‘.

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The purpose Of this study was to examine an experi-

mental, beginning biology course in Lyman Briggs College

at Michigan State University. The course was organized as

 

a variable content-variable credit prOgram and presented by 8
means Of an audio-tutorial approach. The evaluation Of

the course consisted Of an appraisal of student achieve—

ment in the course and student reaction to and participation

in the course.

Qeeign_p§ the study and treatment of dapg. The study
involved one hundred thirty-seven college students enrolled
in Lyman Briggs College Biology 140 during the winter term,
1969. These students completed a pre—course Student Prep-
aration and Intent Questionnaire, took the Course Achieve-
ment Pretest and Posttest, and returned a Course Evaluation
Questionnaire reSponse sheet. The data retrieved included
the nature of the student's preparation in high school
biology and his pre—course feelings about the biology course,
the raw score achievement illustrated on the course pretest
and posttest, and post-course student reaction to their

Participation in the course program.

111

112

The course achievement pretest scores, based on the
kind and number of high school biology courses the students had,
were analyzed for significant differences with the one-way
analysis of variance technique. The course achievement
posttest scores, based on the student selected content
package sequence were also analyzed with the one-way analy- F
sis of variance technique. The course achievement posttest
scores, based on student sex, were analyzed with the t test.

The 0.05 level of significance was selected as the minimum

 

KIT

criterion against which all statistical results were
checked. Results significant at this level were considered
to have originated from other than chance events. Student
opinions, represented by the responses given to selected
items on the Course Evaluation Questionnaire, were used as
basic data in assessing student reaction to the course.
Hypotheses tested. The hypotheses related to the
examination Of student achievement in the course studied

were:

1. Students who have had BSCS Biology in high school
have higher pretest scores on a test designed
for a college biology course than students who
have not had a BSCS Biology course in high
school.

2. Students who have had more high school preparation
in biology have higher pretest scores on a test
designed for a college biology course than stu-
dents who have had less high school preparation
in biology.

5. Students who select more content in a variable
content-—variable credit college biology course
have higher posttest scores on a test for the
college course than those students who select
less content.

.115

4. Male students receive higher posttest scores on
a test designed for a college biology course
than female students receive on the posttest.

5. Students who spend more time in individual study
sessions on the content materials presented in
a college biology course receive higher post-
test scores on tests for the college course
than students who spend less time in individual
study sessions.

Results and overall conclugions. Hypothesis One,
which held that students who had BSCS Biology in high school
would have higher pretest scores on a test designed for a
college biology course than students who had not had a BSCS
Biology course, was not supported by the data. Therefore,
the conclusion can be drawn that the kind of high school
biology a student had taken in high school did not offer a
significant advantage or disadvantage for a student as
preparation for Lyman Briggs College Biology 140.

Hypothesis Two, which held that students who had more
biology courses in high school would have higher pretest
scores on a test designed for a college biology course, was
not supported by the data. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn
that the number of high school courses in biology a student
has had was not Of significant advantage or disadvantage
for a student as preparation for Lyman Briggs College
Biology 140.

Hypothesis Three involved posttest examination scores
for students grouped by their selected course content

sequences. The hypothesis held that those students who

selected more content in Lyman Briggs College Biology 140

 

‘E-r

114

would have higher posttest scores than those students who
selected less content. The data supported this hypothesis.
Significant differences were found between those students
who selected Packages I, II, III, and V and those who
selected either Packages I, II, III, IV, and V or I, II,
III, IV, V, and VI. In addition, the achievement of the
student group that selected Six content packages was sig—
nificantly different from those who Selected only four con-
tent packages. The content sequence groups did not differ
in their posttest achievement scores on the required packages
of the course. The sequence groups, as evidenced by post-
test scores, were Significantly different in their achieve-
ment on the Optional packages. The inclusion or exclusion
Of Package IV in a content Sequence produced greater sig-
nificance than the inclusion or exclusion of either Package
V or Package VI in a content sequence. That is, Package IV
when used as a part Of a four package content sequence or
in combination with other Optional packages increased the
student's chances Of achieving a higher posttest score.
The conclusion can also be made that students who select
more course content, evidenced by a selection of four,
five, or six content packages, do tend to achieve higher
posttest scores in the college course.

Academic achievement in Lyman Briggs College Biology
140 in relation to student sex was investigated by hypothe—

sis Four. The hypothesis held that male students would

 

115

achieve higher posttest scores on a test designed for Lyman
Briggs College Biology 140 than the female students. The
data failed to support the hypothesis. This would indicate
that no significant advantage or disadvantage was apparent
fOr the male and female grOUps tested for achievement in
the college course.

Hypothesis Five held that students who Spend more
time in individual study sessions on the content materials
would receive higher posttest scores on tests designed for
the college biology course than students who spend less time.
This hypothesis was separately tested for the required
packages and each of the Optional content packages. The data
failed to support the hypothesis for the required packages
(I, II and III), Package V, and Package VI. The data sup—
ported the hypothesis for Package IV. The conclusion can
be made that only on Package IV were time Spent in indi—
vidual study sessions and posttest Score significantly re—
lated. From these findings the inference may be drawn that
on Package IV materials an increase in the time spent
tended to result in an increase in the achievement score.
These results tend to support the findings of Postlethwait,
Novak, and Murray (101)1 and Wash (102).

From a tabulation of student responses on the Student

Preparation and Intent Questionnaire related to early

_ 1The numbers in parentheses refer to references
Cited in Chapter II.

 

116

student confidence and concern regarding the audio—tutorial

course, several conclusions appear justified. Students at

the beginning of the biology course appeared to base their
individual feeling of confidence or lack of confidence on

their strong or weak academic background in high school

biology, respectively. It can also be concluded that while F}

some students feel that they can benefit from an independent
type study program other students have considerable concern

originating in an individual tendency to procrastinate in ‘
The presence i!

 

making adequate study plans for such a course.

of an interest in biology was indicative of a feeling of

early confidence about the course while the lack of motiva-

tion did produce a feeling of student concern. Student

interest in biology may affect student performance in the

course. Students who like a course may have distinct ad-
vantage, while the marks of those who do not suffer accord-

ingly.
as evidenced by student responses

Student Opinion,
in the opinion of

on the Course Evaluation Questionnaire,

the investigator, suggested the following conclusions re-

lated to the audio-tutorial program:

1. .More students liked the idea Of being able to take
an.audio—tutorial course than liked taking the
course. These feelings are also in evidence
when some students noted that the course was not
among the most intellectually satisfying or
stimulating college course they had taken.

2. The students generally believed that the college
biology course did contribute to their awareness
of ecological relationships, to an understanding

117

of the areas Of biology studied, and to an
intellectual interest in ecology.

5. The students generally felt the major course objec-
tives were to teach general principles, application
skills, and to instill a desire for further
learning.

4. The students believed that the content objectives
were clearly pointed out, but that the test
scores generally were not indicative of student
understanding of the course materials and that
tests did not contain an adequate content sample
suitable for grading purposes.

5. The students found the two-by-two slide sequences
to be an essential program activity, but that
those program activities presented outside the
study carrel were not essential for an understand—
ing of the content materials.

6. Some students felt that individual study sessions
were not more rewarding than college classroom
lectures, but did result in a somewhat more ef-
ficient use of study time.

7. The students generally found a carrel available for
their use during each week of the term, but not
always exactly when they wanted one.

8. The study guides appeared to be useful and suf-
ficient as aids in organizing the content materials
presented in the program. Some students would
have appreciated more information in the study
guides and fewer questions.

9. The student responses suggest a desire for more
assistance with difficult subject matter content
and materials especially in the individual study
session.

10. The students felt that the recitation and response
sessions allowed them to express individual
achievement directly related to an understanding
of the course content.

11. Students generally Spent less than one and one—half
hours of study effort outside of class for each
hour Spent in an individual study session.

 

118

Educgpional implications. In View of the findings of

this study related to the data presented, the student opin-

ions gathered, and personal contacts with the students,

student assistants, graduate assistants, and senior staff

members the following implications for audio-tutorial pro-

grams appear tO be justified:

1. Materials used in audio-tutorial programs Should
be designed to specify what a student should be
able to do following the completion of the con—
tent. Test items Should be prepared to adequately

sample the eXpected outcomes.

2. When a variable content-variable credit approach is
used in an audio-tutorial course program, care
should be taken not to duplicate educational
experiences in the required and optional content

areas of the course.

5. Course materials which have been develOped to re-
quire manipulative skills or first hand discovery
should be designed to provide for periodic checks
on student progress and adequate instructor
analysis of the final results.

4. For efficient and effective audio-tutorial instruc-
tion all persons connected with the instruction
should be involved in the planning and set-up
duties associated with the course program. These
persons should also be fully acquainted with the
laboratory equipment and supplies and be advised
how to help students complete crucial phases of

all programmed experiences.

5. An audio-tutorial course should be more than a pro-
gram. .Course content materials should be enhanced
with topic lectures and films presented in large
group sessions. Guest speakers should be used to

supplement course content materials.

6. Students may be given the most help in planning their
study of the content materials if a regular ape
praisal is made of their individual progress.
Written and oral responses should be used to
acquaint the students with the kinds of informa-
tion they should be gathering and the problem—

solving abilities they should be develOping.

 

119

7. Pretest information should be made available to
students and advice given to guide them in the
selection of Optional content materials. ,Students
who have apparent competence in a topic area
should be advised not to repeat that content.

8. Students do appear to place a great deal Of con-
fidence in their prior academic achievement in
high school biology courses. Students with better
backgrounds may be unwilling to Spend the time

 

 

to relearn somewhat familiar content materials and k}
place greater efforts and time on less familiar I .
and more Openingly demanding, lecture courses. I
Some problems for further research. Continued improve-
ment in the teaching environment may require an increasing h
flexibility in learning procedures to be effective with an Li

increasingly heterogeneous student body. College instruc-

tion geared toward the individual seems to have the greatest

potential Of upgrading achievement. -Although independent

study programs have been in use at the college level for some

time the audio-tutorial approach to learning is a relatively

recent innovation. -Additional research in the area of audio—

tutorial teaching and learning seems highly important and

this study points to further research that needs to be under-

taken. Some of the problems are:

1. What is the extent to which academic achievement
is related to academic ability in the audio-

tutorial course?

2. What combination of classroom direction and inde-
pendent work make for the most effective learning

in the audio-tutorial course?

5. rWhat are the specific behavior and attitude changes
accomplished in the audio-tutorial course?

120

4. What factors characterizing student approaches to
learning tasks are illustrated by students with
varying attitudes in the audio—tutorial course?

5. What attitude changes are evident in students
taking the second level biology course at Lyman

Briggs College which are not found in entering
biology students?

 

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APPENDICES

 

APPENDIX A

STUDENT PREPARATION AND INTENT
QUESTIONNAIRE

APPENDIX A

LBC 140al - THE ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
STUDENT PREPARATION AND INTENT QUESTIONNAIRE
Winter Term 1969

Please answer the following questions as they refer to you,
your high school biological preparation, and your career
intentions.

Please fill in all the blanks and encircle answers of ques-
tions to which you are directed.

Name Student NO.
Last First Initial

Local Address .Local Phone

 

Home Town and State

 

High School Attended NO. of Students
(in Grades 9-12)

How many terms have you completed at Michigan State?

1. Did you have a "High School Biology" course in junior

high or high school?
a. Yes (answer question #2 next)
b. NO (answer question #12 next)

2. At which of the following grade levels did you take your
first "High School Biology" course?

a. Grade 7 or 8 (Answer question #5 next)
b. Grade 9 (Answer question #5 next)
c. Grade 10 (Answer question #5 next)
d. Grade 11 (Answer question #5 next)

e. Grade 12 (Answer question #5 next)

3- Which of the following responses are applicable to the
textbook you used in your first "High School Biology
course?

a. BSCS Blue Version

(Answer question #4 next)
(Molecules to Man)

b. BSCS Green Version (Answer question #4 next)

(High School Biology)

aLBC 140 is the University designation for the biology
course Offered in Lyman Briggs College.
129

10.

11.

150

c. BSCS Yellow Version (Answer question #4 next)
(Biological Science:
An Inquiry into Life)

d. Some other textbook (Answer question #7 next)

Did you have a second or an advanced level biology course
in high school?

a. Yes (Answer question #5 next)
b. NO (Answer question #10 next)

What was the length of your second level or advanced
biology course?

a. One semester (Answer question #6 next)
b. Two semesters (Answer question #6 next)

Which text(s) did you use?

a. BSCS Advanced text (Answer question #10 next)
b. Some other college text (Answer question #10 next)
c. Pamphlets and/or booklets (Answer question #10 next)

d. Some combination of the
above (Answer question #10 next)

Did you have a second level or advanced biology course in

high school? .
a. Yes (Answer question #8 next)

b. No (Answer question #10 next)

What was the length of your second level or advanced

biology course? .
a. One semester (Answer question #9 next)

b. Two semesters (Answer question #9 next)

Which text(s) did you use?

a. BSCS Version (Answer question #10 next)
b. BSCS Advanced text (Answer question #10 next)
C- Some other college text (Answer question #10 next)

d. Pamphlets and/or booklets (Answer question #10 next)
e. Some combination of the

above (Answer question #10 next)

Did your high school work seem to concentrate in at least

one unit on ecology?
a. Yes
b. No

(Answer question #11 next)
(Answer question #11 next)

1 background seem to apply to

veral
How well does your 0 KEY: 1 = Excellent:

the following content areas?
2 = Average; 5 = Poor.

a. Terrestrial Ecosystem
b. Aquatic Ecosystem
c..Man in the Ecosystem

 

 

 

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

151

d. Flowering Plant in the Terrestrial Ecosystem

 

e. A Mammal in the Terrestrial Ecosystem

 

f. Plants and Animals in the Aquatic Ecosystem

 

(Answer question #12 next)

Have you ever attended a summer program designed specific—
ally for high school science students at some college or

university?
a. Yes (Answer question #15 next)
b. No (Answer question #14 next)

What subjects did you study at the summer institute for
high school science students and at which institution was

the institute given?

 

 

(Answer question #14 next)

Do you plan a career in the biologically oriented science?
a. Yes (Answer question #15 next)
b. No (Answer question #15 next)

What specifically do you intend your career area or .
speciality to be upon completing an AB degree and possibly

graduate work?

 

 

(Answer question #16 next)

Place a check in front of those packages you intend to

complete. (You must take Packages 1, 2, and 5. At least

one other Package must be selected for 5 credit hours.

Other Optional Packages are valued at one credit hour each.
a. Package One - A Terrestrial Ecosystem

 

 

 

(Required) .

b. Package Two - The Aquatic Ecosystem
(Required) .

c. Package Three - Man in the Ecosystem
(Required)

d. Package Four - A Flowering Plant in a Terres-

trial Ecosystem (Optional) .
Package Five - A Vertebrate in the Terres-

trial Ecosystem: (Optional) ' .
f. Package Six - Plant and Animal Life in an

Aquatic Ecosystem (Optional)
(Answer question #17 next)

 

e.

 

 

17. If you checked a total of 4 packages above place check

here / 7 and answer #18 next.

If you checked a total of 5 or 6 packages above place
check here / 7 and answer #19 next.

18.

19.

20.

21.

152

I am choosing only one of the optional packages above

because: (encircle best answer)

1. I needed no more than 5 hours credit to fill a
schedule

2. I needed no more than 5 hours credit to fill a
schedule and I hope to register for the other package
some other term.

5. My academic preparation warrants omitting the other
packages.

4. Only one of the optional packages interests me.

5. None of the optional packages interests me but I had
to enroll in one. (Answer #20 next)

I am choosing a total of 5 or 6 packages above because:

(encircle the best answer)

1. I needed 4 credits to fill my schedule.

2. I needed 5 credits to fill my schedule.

5. I needed 4 credits to fill my schedule and I hope to
finish the sixth package some other term.

4. I was advised to take 6 packages and retain the con-
tinuity developed within the entire course.

5. My poor academic preparation warrants taking six
packages.

6. I think I can do well in them.

(Answer question #20 next)

What things worry you about this course?

What things give you confidence at the beginning of this
course?

APPENDIX B

COURSE ACHIEVEMENT TEST
AND COVER SHEET

APPENDIX B

LBC 140a - THE ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
COURSE ACHIEVEMENT TEST
Winter Term 1969

DIRECTIONS: Place your name on this sheet and the provided
answer sheet. Mark the proper spaces on the answer sheet

to record your student number. Select the best answer to
each question and record it by filling in completely the
prOper answer space. Erase all changed answers and extran-
eous marks. Answer the questions for the packages you
completed first. Sub-scores will be found for each set of
questions. Scores will be the total number of correct an-
swers for each set. Only the answers given for the packages
you completed will be used for grading purposes.

Questions 1-40 are for: Package 1 - The Terrestrial Eco-
system

- The Aquatic Ecosystem

- Man in the Ecosystem

Package
Package

Terrestrial Ecosystem
— Rat in the Terrestrial
Ecosystem
- Plants and Animals in
thequuatic Ecosystem

2
5

Questions 41-60 are for: Package 4 — Sugar Maple in the
Questions 61-80 are for: Package 5
6

Questions 81-100 are for: Package

)

 

All students take Package 1, 2, and 5 ,ZXX/ and
Select one of the following:
Package 4 / /
Package 5 ZL_7 -LBC 140
(5 Hours
Package 6 / / J Credit)
Mark any additional Packages you selected for
Optional credit: .
Package 4 z;_/
Package 5 .z__/ "LBC 290
A — . (maximum 2
Package 6 / / packages '
J 1 hour each)

 

 

aLBC 140 is the University designation for the biology
course offered in Lyman Briggs College.

155

154

THE ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Package One - The Terrestrial Ecosystem
Package Two - The Aquatic Ecosystem
Package Three - Man in the Ecosystem

DIRECTIONS: Place your name on the provided answer sheet.
Blacken the proper spaces to record your student number.
Select the best answer to each question and record it by
filling in completely the proper answer Space. Erase all
changed answers and extraneous marks. There are 40 questions
to provide answers for. Your score is the total number of
correct answers.

1. A decaying log and all the organisms living in and on it
could best be considered:
1. a society.
2. a population.
5. an organismal unit.
4. a community.
5. an ecosystem.

2. Carbon is made available to most consumers by:
1. the activities of decay organisms.
2. the activities of green plants.
5. rain falling through the atmosphere.
4. upheavals in the earth's crust.
5. carbonification.

5. If precise quantitative measurements are made on a confined
ecosystem in a laboratory we will find amounts of which
of the following to be a one-way flow rather than cyclic?

1. Carbon.

2. Free energy.
5. Nitrogen.

4. Oxygen.

5. Potassium.

e rock proceeds through the years
then in the crevices to ferns

and finally to trees, which

This is an

4. The vegetation on a bar
from lichens to mosses.
and other herbaceous plants,
continue as permanent residents of the area.
example of:

1. succession.
2. adaptation.
5. a hydrosphere.
4. selection.
5. a food chain.

5.

10.

155

When biologists refer to a balance of nature, they mean

that there is little change over the course of years in:

1. the number of plants and animals present.

2. the organismal requirements and environmental pro-
ductivity.

5. the number of a particular kind of plant or animal.

4. the number of a particular kind of producer or con-
sumer.

5. the number of immigrations and emigrations.

Physiological tolerance ranges are:

1. the same for all the individuals of a given pOpulation.

2. the result of hypothetical limiting factors.

5. generally illustrated on a population basis rather than
an individual basis.

4. the same for all factors in the environment of an
organism.

5. often exceeded by individuals of a pOpulation.

Which of the following lists shows an increasing complex-
ity in biological organizational levels?

Molecule, tissue, population, community, ecosystem.
Cell, individual, community, population, ecosystem.
Organism, organ, ecosystem, community, population.
Molecule, organ, ecosystem, pOpulation, community.
Tissue, organism, community, ecosystem, population.

UHFOJNH

Competition for food, light, space, etc. is probably
most severe between two: .

1. closely related species occupying the same niche.
2. closely related species occupying different niches.
5. unrelated species occupying the same niche.

4. unrelated species occupying different niches.

5. species in different overlapping ecosystems.

Which of the following does NOT represent a way in which
a single sugar maple tree is like a population of sugar
maple trees? . .

1. It may increase in biomass with time.

2. It is subject to genetic change. . .

3. It is sensitive to temperature changes in the enVironn

ment. . .
4. It is subject to parasitism.
5. It may have a cyclical pattern of growth.

n of the decomposer in the food web?
ir for use by the producers.
dead organisms for use by other

What is the functio
1. Return energy to the a
2. Release minerals from

organisms. .
5. Increase available energy in the system.

4. Decrease the mineral supply.
5. To provide food for consumers.

156

11. Urban areas have a higher food web energy level than
rural areas. This is an unnatural type of ecosystem
because:

1. there are more producers than consumers.

2. the producers and the consumers are almost equal in
number.

5. the normal energy pyramid is reversed.

4. there are more consumers than producers.

5. normally food webs are cyclical.

12. Which best describes a self-contained Spacecraft?
1. Organ system
2. Population.
5. Community.
4. Ecosystem.
5. Biosphere.

15. Living things are composed of matter and use energy for
life's activities.

Matter and energy:

1. both circulate or move in cycle from nonliving to
living things, back to nonliving and again into the
living things.
both pass from nonliving to living things but are
then lost and are never used again.
differ in that matter moves in cycles but energy

2.
5.

does not. . .
4. differ in that matter is mostly carbon diOXide and
5.

energy is mostly oxygen. . .
differ in that matter is expended while energy is

conserved.

14. A dynamic equilibrium would be most characteristic of a
community that: .
1. has not yet started succeSSion.
2. is undergoing rapid succession.
5. is at the end of its succeSSion.
4. is slowly undergoing succession.
5. is in its lag phase of growth.

15. Although populations remain relatively constant over
long periods they fluctuate or OSCillate about the con—
stant or average. The regulation of populations has.
been called a form of homeostasis. Which best describes
the relation of the oscillations to homeostasis?

1. The larger the oscillations, the more effiCient the
homeostatic mechanism.

2. The smaller the oscillations, the more e
homeostatic mechanism. .

5. The more frequent the oscillations,
the homeostatic mechanism.

fficient the

the more efficient

16.

17.

157

4. The less frequent the oscillations, the more effi—
cient the homeostatic mechanism.

5. There is no relationship between Oscillations and
homeostasis.

The energy flow through fungi and bacteria is:

1. equal to the sum of all energy in the organisms
higher in the food web.

2. less than the energy in all the organisms high in
the food web.

5. dependent on the energy fixed by producers.

4. circulated through the entire ecosystem by a series
of transfers.

5. not restricted since they are at the base of a
pyramid of numbers.

Ecological succession:

1. always progresses through the same series of plant
types.

. always is community controlled.

always arrives at a beech-maple climax community.

is unaffected by normal biological processes.

is caused by the specific physical environment

present.

UHF-(NM

18. The use of energy entering an organism from the outside

is nearly 100% efficient in:
1. unicellular green plants.
2. all green plants.

5. unicellular animals.

4. bacteria.

5. no known organism.

19. A biologist studying an ecosystem would be most con-

20.

cerned with:

1. determining population changes in the area being
investigated.

2. making measurements of regional variations in
temperature, wind velocity, and precipitation.

5. analyzing the inter-relationships of both living and
non-living components of the region.

4. determining the effects of parasites on plants and
animals found in the region.

S. noting the environmental changes over time and its
effect on the organisms living there.

As man studies living systems he selects certain indi-
viduals, populations, communities, and ecosystems for
his investigations. The information Obtained can never
be complete and accurate because:

a ’3

 

an'IJ—H-F-W . 3.". i

21.

22.

25.

24.

158

1. man is not capable of this task.

2. there are always new and undiscovered factors with
which man cannot COpe.

5. by selecting one level for intensive study we miss
many inter-relationships.

4. man himself is a part of the ecosystem.

5. most niches cannot be observed.

If plants are grown at various wave lengths of the light
spectrum, the greatest growth would be expected for those
grown in the:

1. violet and ultraviolet range.

2. green range.

5. red and blue range.

4. yellow and orange range.

5. green and orange range.

Which of the following best characterizes a dystrophic
lake?

1. Low energy utilization.

2. Extremely clear water.

5. Heavy silting.

4. Fall stratification.

5. Presence of rooted aquatics especially near the shore.

During summer months temperate zone lakes stratify.

Water in the hypolimnion:

1. is colder than the surface and therefore has a higher
oxygen content.

2. is warmer than the surface and therefore has a lower
oxygen content.

3. is colder than the surface and has an equal oxygen

content.

4. is warmer than the surface and has an equal oxygen
content.

5. is colder than the surface but has a lower oxygen
content.

Iléuminated Elodea leaves give off bubbles of gas at
20 C. A plot of the volume of gas emitted in a given
time interval against C02 concentration is shown on the
following graph.

10 4: *4

 

Volume “I"
of 5. ’Z///1

gas (cc)

0 - 1 AL AL

I» 1 2 5 4
Percentage C02

mL

‘3

 

25.

26.

27.

159

If the hypothesis principle of "limiting factors" is
valid, then the volume of gas given Off Should increase
at point “I" if:

1. more C02 is added.

2. the temperature is decreased.

5. the light intensity is increased.

4. more water is added.

5. less 02 is present.

Elodea leaves were ground in acetone and the sediment

was filtered through cheese cloth. The Spectronic 20 f

was used to measure relative absorbance of this extract. I a

A blank of acetone was used to obtain zero absorbance. ' ‘

This was done because:

1. the Spectronic 20 is accurate only in the range of
500 to 500 millimicrons and this increases its range. '

2. the acetone absorbs the UV which would otherwise give .«A
false readings. ' 1

5. the acetone has its own absorbancy and thus must be é?
subtracted out originally.

4. the acetone has essentially zero absorbancy and the

5

 

instrument must be calibrated against that.

. the acetone is quickly destroying chlorOplastS and
therefore zero readings would occur if this were not
corrected.

During a particular Michigan winter an ice cover occurred

early in the fall just following the fall turnover.

A period of several days followed that were sunny but

cold enough to maintain the ice cover. Shortly after

this a heavy snow fall completely covered the lake.

The next spring when the ice melted large numbers of fish

were found dead along the shore. A probable cause for

the kill was:

1. the fish froze to death during the cold weather.

2. nutrients were unavailable and the fish starved to
death.

5. the warm sun on the ice caused increased fish activ—
ity which used up the oxygen.

4. an algal bloom followed by excessive decay raised
the oxygen demand.

5. increased photosynthesis caused depletion of C02
which was needed as a buffer.

Which of the following does NOT illustrate a character-

istic of water?

1. The density of ice is less than that of water at 0°C.

2. Its latent heat of evaporation.is useful in cooling
animals and plants.

5. Its specific heat is greater than other liquids under
room temperature.

28.

29.

50.

51.

140

4. OBe calorie is reguired to change 1 gram of ice at
0 C to water at 0 C.

5. Has a dipolar moment, its large polymer attributed to
hydrogen bonding.

In any aquatic system carbon dioxide is important because
it is the primary carbon source for photosynthesis and
because it:

1. aids animal circulation.

2. forms a complex with toxic pollutants.

5. forms carbonic acid which serves as a buffer.

4. decreases plant respiration.

5. aids bacteria in decomposition activities.

Hydrogen bonding occurs in water when:

1. positive hydrogens exactly cancel a negative oxygen
making water quite neutral.

2. two positive hydrogens form a 105 degree angle with a
single oxygen.

5. part of the water molecule remains positively charged
and the other part negatively charged.

4. positive hydrogens of one water molecule attract the
negative oxygens of others.

5. water has a positive dipole moment.

 

 

In a fairly deep body of water, there is apt to be more
biomass on or near the bottom than at most other levels.
Yet, the energy of sunlight, on which living organisms
depend, diminishes rapidly in being passed through water.
The best of the following ways of accounting for this
apparent paradox is:

1. all photosynthesizing plants must be rooted in the
bottom to obtain minerals.

2. organic minerals continually drop to the bottom of the
water.

5. the animal population on the bottom converts enough
carbon dioxide to organic compounds to supply all
nutritive needs.

4. all organisms must have a solid substratum to support
them.

5. temperature is more uniform at the bottom than anywhere
else.

The most common unit of evolutionary change is the:
1. ecosystem.

2. community.

5. individual organism.

4. population.

5. Species.

52.

55.

54.

141

Assume that a new method is found to remove continuous
cores 1 foot in diameter and 2,000 feet long from the
earth. Examination of thousands of cores would probably
reveal that as one goes from tip (surface) to bottom
(inward) the number:

. and kinds of fossils decrease.

and kinds of fossils remain constant.

and kinds of fossils increase.

. of fossils decreases but the kinds increase.

. of fossils increases but the kinds decrease.

U'IIF-CNNH

Which of the following best states the evolution theory?

1. Evolution is the maintenance of life under changing
conditions.

2. Evolution is the survival of the fittest.

5. Evolution is the descent of humans from lower animals.

4. Evolution is goal-directed change.

5. Evolution is variation.

 

 

Both plants and animals are made of tiny units called

cells; they use oxygen to release energy from their food;

they may store food reserves as fat; these facts:

1. provide information that all life had a common origin.

2. support the idea that being alive is about the same in
all living units.

5. indicate that plants evolved from animals.

4. support the idea that animals have gradually evolved
from plants.

5. support the diphyletic theory.

55. Which of the following is a characteristic of all primates?

56.

57.

1. 1200-1500 c.c. brain capacity.

2. Differing amounts of body hair.

5. Upright posture with bipedal locomotion.
4. Opposable thumb.

5. High foot arches and ten toes.

Which of the following statements concerning a comparison
between man and the great ape is (are) correct?

1. Man has shorter arms and longer legs than the ape.

2. Man has a smaller cranium but larger toes than the ape.
5. Man has smaller but more canines than the ape.

4. Both man and the ape have vertical spines.

5. Two of the above answers are correct.

Which of the following is most important in determining

the direction of evolution of an animal species.

1. High mutation rate for certain traits.

2. Independent assortment and recombination of certain
traits.

5. Selection of certain traits by environmental condi-
tions.

4.
5.

142

The gradual change of certain traits by environmental
conditions.
"An inner desire to survive in the face of change."

58. From the point of view of evolution, the greatest ad-
vantage Of sexual reproduction is:

1.
2.

5.
4.

5.

the variety of animals and plants it can produce.

the consistency of traits that will appear generation
after generation.

continuance of the species.

the fact that a smaller percentage of eggs is ferti-
lized.

that it encourages social mating and ranking.

59. Which of the following is evidence that man no longer
has biological (as opposed to cultural) self-regulation

of
1.
2.
5.
4.

5.

his population?

War has been practically eliminated.

The birth rate has remained high despite insufficient
food and a decrease in death rate.

Outbreaks of serious diseases failed to reduce the

population. . _
Man has no predators and few paraSites which he can't

control. ,
POpulation growth has been constant for centuries.

40. Which of the following illustrates the proper sequence of
events postulated in the theory of evolution for the

origin of life?

1.
2.
5.
4.

5.

Organic compounds--colloids--coacervates--self-repli-
cating systems—-stable metabolism.

Colloids--organic compounds-—coacervates--stable
metabolism--self replicating systems.
Coacervates--organic compounds--colloids--stable
metabolism-—self replicating systems. .

Self replicating systems--coacervates--collOids--
organic compounds--stable metabolism. .

Organic compounds-~stable metabolism—-collOids--
coacervates--self replicating systems.

145

THE ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Package Four: A Flowering Plant in the Terrestrial Ecosystem.
Part A: The Primary Plant Body of Sugar Maple.
Part B: The Secondary Plant Body and Reproduction.

DIRECTIONS: Place your name on the provided answer sheet.
Blacken the proper spaces to record your student number.
Select the best answer to each question and record it by fill-
ing in completely the proper answer space. Erase all changed
answers and extraneous marks. There are 20 questions to pro-
vide answers for. YOur score is the total number of correct

answers .

41. The primary function of guard cells in green plants is to:
1. control the amount of light entering.
2. allow carbon dioxide to escape.
5. allow water vapor to enter.

4. control the exchange of gases.
5. allow internal osmotic pressures to be decreased.

42. What is the biological significance of mitosis?

1. Genetic continuity within an organism is assured during
cell division.

2. Gamete formation is made possible.

5. One cell can produce two daughter cells.

4. The reduction division prevents a doubling of genetic
material during fertilization.

5. Concentration of soluble nuclear materials is placed
in equilibrium with the rest of the cell.

45. The development of large size in land plants is especial-

ly correlated with:
1. increased efficiency in asexual reproduction.

2. insect pollination.
5. specialization of vascular tissues.
4. appearance of an electron transport system.

5. development of a cambium.

44. Adventitious roots:
1. originate from the radicle of the seed.
2. originate from primary and secondary root pericycle.
5. are functional plant organs.
4. are thickened and elongated root hairs.
5. are produced from plant stems and leaves.

45. If a ring of bark around a tree were removed the tree

would die because:
1. water would not be available for food production.

2. its protection has been destroyed and disease would
kill it.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

144

5. no more xylem or phloem could be formed.
4. the roots would have their food supply cut Off.
5. the tree would no longer have storage areas.

Branch roots have their origin from:
1. epidermal cells.

1. axillary buds.

5. pericycle cells.

4. primary meristem.

5. young root hairs.

How could you determine the length of time required to
produce a certain length of a sugar maple twig?

1. Count axillary buds.

2. Count annular rings.

5. Count bud scale scars.

4. Count bundle scars.

5. Count leaf scars.

The vascular tissue of a young root of a flowering plant

is so arranged that:

1. xylem surrounds phloem tissue.

2. phloem surrounds xylem tissue.

5. radiating xylem tissue has phloem in the bays between
the xylem arms.

4. secondary growth cannot occur.

5. radiating phloem tissue has xylem in the bays between

the phloem arms.

Perennial plants:
. produce seeds twice a year in a two year growing cycle.

2. Produce seeds each year in a two growing season cycle.

5. Require two growing seasons to complete vegetative and
reproductive processes.

4. live from year to year with varying reproductive

periods.
5. are always herbaceous.

The tissue in plants which gives rise to all other plant

tissues is called:

1. sclerenchyma tissue.

. parenchyma tissue

. permanent tissue

4. meristematic tissue
. mature tissue.

51. A monecious plant has:

1. sepals and petals only in its flowers.
2. only staminate flowers.

5. only pistillate flowers.
4. both staminate and pistillate flowers.

5. perfect flowers.

52.

55.

54.

55.

56.

145

Recall the last time you had lima beans for dinner.
Which of the following fruit parts did you include in
your meal?

1. Exocarp, mesocarp, endocarp, and pericarp.

2. Mesocarp, endocarp, and pericarp.

5. Only mesocarp and endocarp.

4. Only mesocarp.
5. None of the above.

A fruit is:

1. an enlarged succulent peduncle.

2. a ripened ovary and attached parts Of one or more
flowers.

5. a seed specially and specificall
by animals. .

4. a ripened ovule containing one or more undeveloped E
plants and stored food for nourishment.

5. an accumulation of endosperm to be used by an embryo
after it is planted and begins to absorb water.

y adapted for dispersion

 

Regarding alternation of generations:

1. the sporophyte generation begins at
ends with meiosis.

2. the sporOphyte generation begins wi
with fertilization.

5. the gametOphyte generation begins
and ends with mitosis.

4. the gametOphyte generation begins with mitosis and
ends at the time of fertilization.

5. both the gametOphyte and sporOphyte generation begin
with fertilization and end with meiosis.

fertilization and
th mitosis and ends

with fertilization

Annual rings in a tree are the result of:
1. differences in the size of phloem cells produced during

a single growing season.
2. differences in the length of the vascular rays pro-

duced during a single growing season.
difference in the amount of cork tiss
a single growing season.

5. ue produced during
4. differences in the size of
5.

xylem cells produced during

a single growing season.
differences in the amoun
growing season.

t of pith produced in a single

In the Christmas holly some trees produce flowers which
have only pistils and other trees produce flowers which
have only stamens. Which should be planted to Obtain
branches that bear red berries?

1. Pistillate trees.

2. Staminate trees.

5. Both pistillate and staminate trees.

4. Sterile'trees.

5. Sports.

57.

58.

59.

60.

146

How far from the terminal bud on a tree branch does the
youngest annual ring extend?

1. Down to the adjacent bud scale scar.
2. Down to the adjacent node.

5. Throughout the branch and tree trunk
4. Down to the adjacent bundle scar.

5. Down the branch to the trunk proper.

down to the root.

A three-quarter inch Upholstery nail is driven full
length into a trunk of a tree whose bark is one inch
thick. The tree grows one inch in diameter each year.

At the end of four years (assuming that none of the bark
has been weathered or sloughed off) the nail head will be:
1. flush with the surface of the bark.

2. buried in the tree trunk.

5. pushed out some distance from the bark.

4. buried in the bark.

5. none of the above.

What is the biological Significance of meiosis?
1. During cell division a constant amount of genetic

material is retained.
2. When the fertilized egg divides the number of chromo-

somes is reduced.
5. The amount of genetic material is halved to prevent a

doubling Up of genetic material during fertilization.
4. It ensures the continuity of germplasm.
5. None of the above.

What purpose does bark serve in the woody dicot plant?
1. Protection from mechanical injury.

2. Storage of food materials.

5. Translocation of food materials.

4. Support of phloem elements.

5. All of the above.

147

THE ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Package Five: A Vertebrate in the Terrestrial Ecosystem
Part A: Anatomy and Physiology of a Selected Vertebrate.
Part B: The Animal in its Environment.

DIRECTIONS: Place your name on the provided answer sheet.
Blacken the proper spaces to record your student number.
Select the best answer to each question and record it by
filling in completely the proper answer space. Erase all
changed answers and extraneous marks. There are 20 questions
to provide answers for. Your score is the total number of

correct answers.

61. Mammals are successful with small eggs, while lower

vertebrates produce larger eggs. Why?

1. Mammalian eggs are fertilized by a Simpler process.

2. Mammals are the only vertebrates that care for their
young.

5. The land egg makes it possible for reptiles to live
away from bodies of water.

4. Mammalian embryos receive nourishment from the blood

5.

of the mother.
The blood of the mother circulates through the mam—

malian embryo.

62. Which does 39; demonstrate the interrelationship between
form and function?
1. Spherical shape of the nucleus and storage of DNA.
2. Convoluted tubules and glomerular filtrate reabsorp-
tion.
5. Moist membrane and gaseous exchange.
4. Muscle fibrils and contraction.
5. Extension of nerve cell (axons and dendrites) and

impulse condition.

65. The rat life cycle is completed in about:
1. 21-25 days.
2. 5-4 months.
5. 1 year.
4. 5 years.
5. None apply, litters are produced continuously through—

out the year.

64. When a muscle contracts:

. fibers stretch like elastic.

. different kinds of filaments slide past each other.
. tendons shorten.

individual filaments shorten.

sixty per cent of the available chemical energy is

converted to mechanical energy.

memmp

148

65. A certain mammal has a g i 2.5. dental formula. How
eet 0

many canine and molar t h d es the animal have?
1. 8

2. 10

5. 12

4. 16

5. 20

66. Skeletons of aquatic animals can be less bulky and less
strong than those of land animals of the same size
because of the:

1. need of more protection on land.

2. buoyancy of water.
5. larger size of land animals.
4. presence of pseudOpodal rather than bipedal locomotion.

5. need for quadrapedal suspension in land animals.

67. What is a probable advantage of social ranking among rats?
1. It reduces energy Spent in fighting for food, space,

etc.

2. It enables specialization of behavior patterns for
certain tasks as protection and reproduction.

5. It produces strong, central leadership.

4. It provides for general conformity.

5. It eliminates a pseudo caste system.

68. The liver is an important rat structure. Why?

. It secretes hydrochloric acid.
It secretes bile salts to be stored in the gall bladder.

It converts glucose to glycogen and stores it.
Its many villi make protein absorption possible.
It secretes a hormone essential for the normal metabol-

ism of sugar.

U‘HPOJNH

69. The kidneys perform two major functions. What are they?
1. They excrete the end products of metabolism and regu-
late elimination from the digestive tract.
2. They control the concentration of most constituents
of the body fluids and excrete the end products of

metabolism.
5. They excrete the end products of metabolism and regu—

late bile secretion.
4. They excrete the end products of metabolism and the

substances used in the digestive processes.
5. They excrete the end products of metabolism and ex—

crete waste drugs.‘

70. What is the value of a rat's belly muscles?
1. They help to increase head flexibility.
2. They help to keep the backbone up-curved.
5. They provide limb motility.

71.

72.

75.

74.

75.

149

4. They allow places for the storage of brown fat.
5. They push internal organs into place.

If two species of rats whose distribution ranges and

ecological niches overlap are competing then:

1. a new Species will arise in the overlapping zone
because of hydridization.

2. both species will coexist in the overlapping zone if
the environment is different from either "Specific
zone".

5. both species will coexist in the overlapping zone if
the environment is like one "specific zone".

4. each species distribution will end abruptly in the
middle of the overlapping zone.

5. one species will eventually "take over" the overlap-

ping zone.

The best evidence that an organism is surviving in a
particular environment is its:

1. amount of population biomass.

2. record of emigration.

5. successful reproduction.

4. Spot in the social pecking order.

5. position in the food chain.

In a certain ecosystem field mice are preyed Upon by
snakes and hawks. The entrance of wild cats into the
system adds another predator on the mice. Of the follow-
ing the most likely short-term result of this addition is:
1. increase in snake population.

2. tendency for hawks to prey on the cats.

5. extinction of the hawks.

4. reduction in number of mice.

5. migration of hawks to another ecosystem.

In ecological terms, the adaption of an animal refers to
its:

1. ways of modifying its environment.

2. rate of mutational change made to increase its survival.

5. fitness for a particular kind of life.
4. modification due to effects of the environment.
5. reproductive or biotic potential.

In general, the animals higher in the scale of vertebrate

life can maintain their species with fewer eggs. Why?

1. The higher vertebrates are better adapted to their
environments than the lower ones.

2. The higher vertebrates give greater care to their
eggs and their Offspring.

5. Sexual reproduction is characteristic of the higher
vertebrates while asexual reproduction characterizes

the lower vertebrates.

76.

150

4. Internal fertilization characterizes the reproduction
of all vertebrates.

5. The higher vertebrates do not produce enough sperms
.to fertilize as many eggs as are produced by the
lower vertebrates.

Generally the factors tending to prevent increases in

pOpulation size of higher vertebrates to the extent of

overcrowding, and decreases to the point of extinction,

are those that are:

1. primarily related to control by predator populations.

2. dependent Upon population size for their effectiveness.

5. acting independently of population size and with
cyclical frequency.

4. Operating independently of population size and with
irregularly fluctuating frequencies.

5. controlled by burrow metabolism.

77. A population growth gives the following curve when numbers

(N) or organisms are plotted against time: At which por-
tion of the curve does the unchecked rate equal the en-
vironmental resistance?

1. I

2. II III

5. III II

4. I and II

5. I, II, and III

 

 

Time -——-—+

78. Which of the following identifies a population?

1. In 1967 there were 204 of them.

2. 58,672 students enrolled.

5. 204 mature rats.

4. Rats in Sanford Natural Area on April 1, 1968.

5. 210 on April 7, 1968.

79. The size of a population is primarily determined by:

80.

1. current death rate.

2. average birth rate.

5. ratio between normal birth and death rates.
4. available energy.

5. emigration and immigration.

n an animal community the smallest animals usually:

are primary producers.

are third-order consumers.

have the least biomass.

illustrate the most carrying capacity.
have the highest reproductive rate.

UHPOJNHH

151

THE ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Package Six: Life in an Aquatic Ecosystem
Part A: Plant Life in an Aquatic Ecosystem
Part B: Animal Life in an Aquatic Ecosystem

DIRECTIONS: Place your name on the provided answer sheet.
Blacken the prOper spaces to record your student number.
Select the best answer to each question and record it by
filling in completely the proper answer Space. Erase all
changed answers and extraneous marks. There are 20 questions
to provide answers for. Your score is the total number of

correct answers .

81. Which of the following does not limit the depth in water
to which light can penetrate?
1. Water turbidity.
2. Amount of absorption by water.
5. Density of plankton.
4. Depth of water.
5. Light intensity.

82. Which of the following are characteristic of the lower
tropholytic or hypolimnion zone?

. Respiration exceeds photosynthesis.

. Photosynthesis exceeds respiration.'

Decomposition compensates for the low, non-effective

light penetration making it trophogenic.

.Respiration balances photosynthesis.

5. 2 and 5 above.

:15 UNI-4*

85. Respiration is a process which involves:
1. the release of energy.

2. the storage of energy.
5. both storage and release of energy.
4. the same energy change as in photosynthesis.

5. none of the above.

84. A man is surface- sterilized and placed in a lighted,
germ- -free capsule with a tank containing only green algae
(Chlamydomonas Sp.) and sterile distilled water. The
man's wastes are placed in the tank and he drinks only
filtered water from the tank and eats only algae. The
man is not likely to survive. Why?

1. He contracts disease from the contaminated water.
2. The algae are unable to use the nitrogen in the air

or in the man's wastes.
The algae supply only carbohydrates for the man's food.

5
4. Man cannot live without a wide variety of organisms
5

around him.
Man cannot evolve so that he can use atmOSpheric

nitrogen.

152

Plant A

Y

85. Plant A would be better
suited than plant B for
living'in:

1. artificial light.

2. light having an in-
tensity of 50.

5. light of all intensi— -
ties.

4. total darkness.

5. the shade.

I

Photosynthetic ActiVit
(Amount of 02)
p.
C)
C)
r\

500

N
O
O
r

  

#Plant B

 

 

 

r,

I 1 I * l \l
10 20 50 40 50 6C .
Light Intensity

86. Which of the following characterize Oedggonium and

Ulothrix? J
1. One has isogametes and the other heterogametes. 5
2. One has a holdfast for its attachment to substrate ‘

while the other doesn‘t.
5. One illustrates an alternation of generation while

the other doesn't.
4. One consists of a single cell and the other a

colonial aggregation.
5. Both have special sex organs which are different

from vegetative cells.

 

87. Which of the following regarding alternation of genera-
tions in plants is correct?
1. The algae (Ulothrix) sporOphyte and gametOphyte are

equal in size.
2. The algae (Ulothrix) sporophyte is smaller than the

gametOphyte.

5. In flowering plants the Sporophyte and gametOphyte
are equal in size, each being independent.

4. In flowering plants the gametOphyte is larger than
the sporophyte; each is dependent on the other.

5. None of the above.

88. Unlike sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction means

to the species that:

1. the Species will be continued.

the offSpring will be different.

the offspring will be a duplication of its parents.
a great deal of genetic material is available to the

evolutionary process.
variations of type will continue to occur.

0'! FUN

155

89. When their environment changes, living organisms:

90.

91.

92.

1.

2.
5.
4.
5.

produce adaptations as a direct response to the new

environment.
may survive if they already have suitable variations.

must move to a better area, and let others move in.
change in ways which cannot be predicted.
are unaffected.

Which of the following characterizes a diatom?

1.
2.
5.

4.
5.

Minute green spheres with a cuPlike chloroplast.
Yellow green or golden brown in pigmentation.
Microsc0pic pillboxes arranged in a thread-like fila—
ment.

Most useful as a food additive.

Anchored by a small multicellular holdfast.

Although two cells unite in the process of fertilization,
the zygote of animals generally has no more chromosomes
than the number typical of the body cells of the parents.

Why?

1.
2.

5.

4.
5.

.Meiosis occurs during the process of gametogenesis.

In parthenogenesis, eggs develOp which have not united

with a sperm.
Cleavage occurs following the fertilization of an egg

by a sperm.

.Sperms contain fewer chromosomes than eggs.
vMitosis occurs during the process of gametogenesis.

Which example of living material represents the greatest
total expenditure of energy in the system?

1.
2.
5.
4.
5.

95. AS

94.

to
1.
2.
5.
4.
5.

One pound of soft green grass.
One pound of plant lice.

One pound of mice.

One pound of snake.

Pound for pound energy expenditures are equal.

we proceed down the classification table from kingdom

species we see:

more diversity in organisms.

less similarity in organisms.

more similarity in organisms.
increasing complexity in organisms.
none of these.

The clam life cycle differs from that of a rotifer in
that the clam:

1.
2.
5.
4.

5.

has sexual reproduction.
has a parasitic larval stage.
has an aquatic adult life, but a terrestrial larval

one.
has a short life Span while the rotifer has a long

one.
has species level characteristics while the rotifer

has only generic ones.

95.

96.

97.

98.

99.

100.

154

Assimilation is a metabolic process in which:

1. organic materials are synthesized within organisms.

2. organic materials are taken into organisms.

5. food materials are broken down into components
usable by organisms.

4. organic materials are changed into organismal struc-

tures.
5. energy is made available at organismal structures.

Why would you eXpect phytoplankton blooms to occur 2

times during the year in temperate regions?

1. Semi-annual turnovers bring most organisms living in
the aquatic environment back into the epilimnion.

2. Temperature stratification is unrestrictive after semi-
annual turnovers.

5. Nutrients are most readily available to phytOplankton
in early spring and late fall.

4. Semi-annual turnover reduces the limiting factors.

5. All of the above.

Which of the following organisms found in a pond would
you consider scavengers?

1. Clam.

2. Crayfish.

5. Daphnia.

4. COpepods.

5. Rotifers.

Which of the following animals is a diploblast?
1. Rotifer.

2. Planaria.

5. Hydra.

4. Didinium.

5. Crayfish.

The diphyletic theory divides the animal kingdom into
large groups. The names of these groups are:

1. protozoa and metazoa.

2. bilaterial and radiata.

5. acoelomate and eucoelomate.

4. protostomia and deutorostomia

5. arthrOpoda and echinodermata.

Of what value is a resting egg in a permanent pond in

Michigan?

1. It allows the survival of the egg through temporary
drying conditions.

2. It permits an accumulation of food for the embryonic

development which is to occur.

It allows eggs laid in the fall to begin rapid develOp-

5
ment in the spring.

4. It prevents overcrowding by not allowing all eggs to

5

develOp at once. . 0
. It provides only for an exchange in genetic material

without any further value.

APPENDIX C

COURSE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE
AND COVER SHEET

APPENDIX C

LBC 140a - THE ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Winter Term 1969
Information has been collected this term to provide for

continuous improvement of LBC 140. The information you have

provided will be most helpful to the LBC staff in determin-
ing which changes will be made in the course. Future LBC
students will benefit by any suggestions you can make as to
where and what kind of change is needed. Your co-operation
is requested in the following ventures:
1. Please provide responses to the items found on the
attached questionnaire relating to your participa-
tion in the LBC program and return the booklet and

the completed, but unsigned, IBM response sheet to

the final exam on March 12. 1969.

2. Gain scores for each student will be available for
evaluation and analysis if you will complete all of
the questions on the final exam. we are interested
in determining if the content you selected helped
your to gain understanding in the packages you did
not select. You Should respond to the items relat-
ing to the packages you completed first and then the

others. Only the scores for the content you selected

will be used to determine your course grades.

aLBC 140 is the University designation for the biology
course offered in Lyman Briggs College.
155

156

LBC 140 - THE ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
COURSE EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE
Winter Term 1969

Attached is a questionnaire which is part of a LBC 140

research study. All of your answers should be placed on a

scoring sheet with a #2 pencil. Your name should not be

placed on the sheet.
The positive statements to which you are being asked

to reSpond are divided into four sections. These sections

refer to: The Total Program, The Large AssemblygSession,
The Individual Study Session, and The Recitation and Response
Session. You are asked to select one of the five responses
placed at the top of the response columns and to blacken
one space corresponding to that response on the scoring sheet.
Please reSpond to each item only as you feel it applies to
the indicated setting. Mark the Spaces as follows:

Mark "1" if you STRONGLY AGREE

Mark "2" if you AGREE
Mark "5" if you have NO BASIS FOR OPINION

Mark "4" if you DISAGREE
Mark "5" if you STRONGLY DISAGREE
Use the last page to clarify any of the responses you

have made or to add any recommendations or additional com-

ments.

157

Strongly
for Opinion

Agree
IAgree
No Basis
lDisagree
IBEzasgéz

THE TOTAL PROGRAM:
------- Percentage-------

1. LBC 140 has been among the
most interesting courses I
have taken in either Briggs a a
College or the University. 56

2. LBC 140 has been among the
most intellectually satisfy-
ing courses I have taken in
either Briggs College or the b
University.

5. LBC 140 has been more diffi-
cult for me than other
courses I have taken in
either Briggs College or the
University. 44 18 58
4. One of the objectives of LBC
140 was to teach facts. 57 15 51
5. One of the objectives of LBC

140 was to teach general
principles (generalizations). 82 9 9

6. One of the objectives of LBC
140 was to teach application

skills. 58 18 25

7. One of the objectives of LBC
140 was to teach problem

solving skills. 48 25 50

8. One of the objectives of LBC

140 was to teach attitudes. 41 5O 29

aAgree categories and disagree categories have been
combined.

bPercentages Shown do not always total 100% due to omits
and rounding off of subtotal results.

THE TOTAL PROGRAM:

9.

10.

11.

12.

15.

14.

15.

16.

17.

158

------- Pe

One of the objectives of LBC
140 was to teach appreciations.

One of the objectives of LBC
140 was to instill a desire
for further learning.

The level of my achievement as
illustrated in evaluation
scores seemed to be directly
related to the amount of time
I had available to spend on
the course.

I experienced some difficulty
in getting answers to questions
in content areas where I found
understanding difficult.

Instructors were readily avail-
able to help with student prob-
lems that required their
personal attention.

Most students seemed to believe
that LBC 140 was more interest-
ing than other college courses.

Most students seemed to believe
that LBC 140 was more intel-
lectually satisfying than other
college courses.

Most students seemed to find LBC
140 more difficult than other
college courses.

I had to spend more time to.
complete the work expected in
LBC 140 than in my other Briggs
College or University courses
which offered equal credit.

Strongly

Agree

50

54

28

55

47

16

50

49

lAgree
No Basis

for Opinion

26

22

25

22

51

27

5O

51

11

Disagree

Strongly
Disagree

 

24

25

49

25

25

58

61

19

4O

rcentage -----

THE

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

25.

24.

25.

26.

TOTAL PROGRAM:

159

Most students seemed to spend
more time to complete the

work eXpected in LBC 140 than
in other courses offering equal
credit.

The testing or evaluation pro-
cedure which was used in LBC
140 was adequate for grading
purposes.

My test scores and subjective
grades adequately evaluated
my understanding of the LBC
140 materials as noted by the
course and individual content
package objectives.

LBC 140 made a contribution
toward my ability to find and
assemble facts.

LBC 140 made a contribution
toward my ability to aSSOCiate
and evaluate facts.

LBC 140 made a contribution .
toward my ability to draw valid
conclusions from facts.

LBC 140 made a contribution
toward my comprehension in the
areas of biOlogy studied during
the course.

LBC 140 made a contribution
toward my intellectual interest

in ecology.

LBC 140 made a contribution .
toward my awareness of ecologi-
cal relationships.

Strongly

Agree

lAgree

4O

24

25

4O

48

45

75

54

84

No Basis

for Opinion

------ Percenta

54

1O

17

25

25

20

11

IDisagree

(.0
(D

Strongly
Disagree

26

66

57

57

28

57

18

55

10

28.

29.

50.

51.

52.

55.

TOTAL PROGRAM:

160

.I based my choice of a selected

amount of content in LBC 140 on
the amount of study time I would
have available.

Students generally seemed to base
their choices of a selected amount
of content in LBC 140 on the
amount of study time they hOped to
have available.

I selected my LBC 290 packages to
parallel my interests rather than
to remove subject area deficiencies
which existed in my academic prep-
aration.

I found it difficult to make a se-
lection from the content packages
available for credit and extra
credit because of a conflict between
the importance of filling in subject
matter background deficiencies and
my desire to succeed in those pack-

ages I chose.

Students should be given more help
in choosing which packages of LBC
140 they should take.

When beginning LBC 140 I liked the
idea of being able to take an audio-

tutorial course.

Having completed LBC 140 I liked
the experience of haVing taken an

Strongly
Agree

>10)
rim
0L4
cc»
Otu
Lam
U-u-l
(0Q

58

17

59

59

22

22

59

c

O
-H

m c b

'33. 3

m MC) m

(D m a!

S 08 .2

d: Z‘H Q

————— 3 eras-.33----—

49 12
41 42
55 27
27 54
45 55
71 8
56 4

.audio-tutorial course.

LARGE ASSEMBLY SESSION:

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

40.

41.

42.

45.

161

Strongly

Agree

------ Percenta

The Large Assembly Session was a
necessary part of the learning-
experience format of LBC 140.

The learning experiences presented
in the Large Assembly Sessions
helped to increase the general
interest I had in LBC 140

The learning experiences presented
in the Large Assembly Sessions
helped to make LBC 140 intellec—
tually satisfying.

The learning experiences presented
in the Large Assembly Sessions help-
ed to make LBC 140 intellectually
stimulating.

The Large Assembly Sessions were
coordinated with the Individual
Study Session materials.

Guest Speakers discussed material
relative to LBC1140

The films used in the Large Assem-
bly Sessions introduced new materi-
als not presented in the Individual
Study Sessions.

The film used in the Large Assembly
Sessions presented and explained
materials which were later used in
the Individual Study Sessions.

Sufficient time was allowed during
the Large Assembly Sessions for
the discussion of student questions.

Five to ten minute topic lectures
generally would be of more value in
the Large Assembly Sessions than
long lectures.

44

52

48

50

48

66

49

56

44

25

[Agree
No Basis.
for opinion

15

15

17

17

15

14

20

20

20

28

Inisagree

LQ

lStronle
Disagree

(D
I
I
I
I
I

42

54

55

52

56

19

5O

25

56

47

162

trongly
or Opinion

gree
trongly

|Agree

Po Basis
f
Eisagree

LARGE ASSEMBLY SESSION:

Li

------ Perce

:3

tage -----

44. Five to ten minute topic lectures
generally would be of more value
in the Large Assembly Sessions
than the films that were used. 50 29 41

45. The Large Assembly Session would
have been more effective if more
content had been presented in
planned tOpic lectures. 42 51 26

46. The score I received on the test

given in the Large Assembly

Session was indicative of my under-

standing of the subject matter

presented in the Individual Study

Sessions. 22 11 66
47. The testing in the Large Assembly

Session relative to the content

packages was illustrative of an

adequate content sample for grad-

ing purposes. 20 18 65

165

INDIVIDUAL; STUDY SESSION:

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

55.

54.

The Opportunity for self—directed
study as provided in LBC 140
Individual Study Sessions has been
intellectually more rewarding for
me than college classroom lectures
usually are.

The Opportunity for self-directed
study as provided in the LBC 140
Individual Study Sessions has re-
sulted in a more efficient use of
my LBC 140 study time.

My intellectual satisfaction
throughout LBC 140 has been
directly related to the time I
could spend on the materials pre-
sented in the Individual Study
Sessions.

The Opportunity for self-directed
study as provided in the LBC 140

Individual Study Sessions made a

contribution toward my ability

to find and assemble facts.

The Opportunity for self-directed
study as provided in the LBC 140

Individual Study Sessions made a

contribution toward my ability to
associate and evaluate facts.

The Opportunity for self-directed
study as provided in the LBC 140
Individual Study Sessions made a
contribution toward my ability to
draw valid conclusions from facts.

The opportunity for self-directed
study as provided in the LBC 140
Individual Study Sessions made a
contribution toward my comprehen—
sion in the areas of biology
studied during the course.

a
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us mtm H mt:
£10) 0 MO I» I20"
OCD (D m m on
HM H H 0) H0)
«Hm O" 00 -:-I «(J-r4
ma: 4 2% 0 mo
----- :Percentage--—--
47 18 55
49 18 52
42 18 58
57 20 41
40 19 4a
41 20 57
7O 12 16

164

INDIVIDUAL STUDY SESSION:

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

The Opportunity for self-directed
study as provided in the LBC 140
Individual Study Sessions made a
contribution toward my Intellec—
tual interest in ecology.

The opportunity for self-directed
study as provided in the LBC 140
Individual Study Sessions made a
contribution toward my awareness
of ecological relationships.

The level of my understanding Of
the LBC 140 materials seemed to be
directly related to the time I had
available for the study of the
materials in the Individual Study
Sessions.

The amount of noise and distrac-
tion around the Individual Study
carrel environment hindered effec-
tive individual study.

The package content materials for
the Individual Study Sessions
have been readily available for
student use.

The objectives for each package
of content used in the Individual
Study Sessions were clearly
pointed out.

The Individual Study Session ma-
terials emphasized relationships
rather than minute detail.

I planned a convenient sequence of
time blocks on a weekly basis for
using the study materials presented
in the Individual Study Sessions.

c
O
-H
a): m >~m
-A~4 m ~10
mm H on
a) m mo 0‘ CO‘
m a) m m OtU
H H H m Lam
0" U‘ 00 -.-| 4.3.,4
EL. zua..sa .911
------ Percentage-----
55 11 55
69 11 17
46 10 41
16 10 71
65 9 24
77 6 15
58 15 26
46 11 40

165

INDIVIDUAL STUDY SESSION:

65.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

The flexibility inherent in LBC
140 fosters putting Off Individual
Study Sessions until some other
time and thus results in minimal
use of the facilities.

I am able to Operate a microtome
and can prepare mounts of suitable
materials for micrOSCOpic exami-
nation with ease.

I can work with the microscope
used in the study carrels and dis-
plays as evidenced by my ability
to find, focus, and vary the light
intensity and magnification for
wet and dry mounts with ease.

Adequate instruction was presented
to facilitate my initial use of
the buttons and switches found in
each study carrel.

The directions given in the taped
study programs were sufficient to
direct me through the experiences
provided.

Adequate instructional material
was provided for the "do-it—your-
self" projects and experimental
work that I was asked to do in the
Individual Study Sessions.

I completed less than 50% of the
activities that were directed to
be done outside the carrel.

I completed more than 75% of the
activities that were directed to
be done outside the carrel.

c
O
:H
m a): U tam
H "4...: q) I-IQ)
Oi ma. H on
s<n U m<3 U» ctr
c>U U m m <3m
335‘» S at; .3 33.3
ma: :1: Z‘H O can
----- :Percentage-----
57 16 44
40 15 45
68 11 18
72 8 17
56 10 30
45 11 42
5O 5 61
47 6 44

166

INDIVIDUAL STUDY SESSION:

71.

72.

75.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

My participation in most of the
presented activities outside the
study carrel in the Individual
Study Sessions were not essential

to an understanding of the package

content.

The Individual Study Session should

provide more "do-it-yourself"

projects and experiments for maxi-

mum program effectiveness.

The slide sequences as presented
and programmed into the tape are

a necessary part of the Individual

Study Session.

Slide sequences as presented during

the Individual Study Sessions are
more useful than “do-it-yourself"
projects.

The prepared study guides and out-
lines were useful in helping me to

organize the materials presented
in the Individual Study Session.

The study guides prepared for the
Individual Study Sessions Should
have more informative content and
fewer questions.

For every hour I Spent in the
Individual Study Session, I spent
less than lé-hours studying else-
where with the text, study guides,
and references.

For every hour I Spent in the
Individual Study Session, I spent
between 1% and 5 hours studying
elsewhere with the text, study
guides, and references.

a
O
:H
>. 01$ 0 >m
H -a«4 m 940
m via. H om
sq; D «so 0‘ GU‘
O O Q) m m on!
us4 H n m um
+1 U‘ 03 00 ...{ 4.)...1
md 5_2m _3 mo
------ Percentage-----
62 15 20
22 28 47
72 1O 14
49 25 24
80 6 10
64 15 18
60 9 27
26 7 65

INDIVIDUAL STUDY SESSION:

79.

80.

81.

82.

85.

84.

85.

86.

167

For every hour I Spent in the

Individual Study Session I spent
three hours or more studying
elsewhere with the text, study

guides, and references.

I Spent more time outside the
Individual Study Session reviewing
with the study guides and my
associated notes than studying
44

with the text.

I Spent more time outside the
Individual Study Session studying
with the text than with other

49

references.

Outside references were useful in
helping me gain an understanding

of the materials presented in the
Individual Study Sessions. 51

A study carrel was available for
my use at the time I needed one. 54

An insufficient number of study
carrels for those enrolled pre—
vented my weekly use of the pre-

pared materials.

Graduate assistants have generally
been able to assist me in my prog-
ress with the Individual Study

Session materials.

19

50

Student assistants have generally

been able to assist me in my
progress with the Individual

Study Session materials

49

S trong 1y
isagree

D

9 41

58 27

12 65

52

55

25 ‘25

RECITATION AND RESPONSE SESSION:
------ Percenta

87.

88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

95.

94.

168

I Agree
N0 Basis
for Opinion
Strongly
Disagree

LG 0
ml Disagree

Strong 1y
Agree

The time available for Recitation
and Response Sessions was used to

facilitate an expression of indi-

vidual student achievement. 51 15 52

Students do most of the talking
in the Recitation and ReSponse
66 9

Sessions.

My preparation for participation

in the Recitation and Response
Sessions made a contribution toward

my ability to find and assemble
45 20 51

facts.

My preparation for participation
in the Recitation and Response
Sessions made a contribution
toward my ability to associate and
45 18 55

evaluate facts.

My preparation for participation

in the Recitation and Response
Sessions made a contribution toward

my ability to draw valid conclusions
from facts. 59 17 40

My participation in the Recitation
and Response Sessions made a con-
tribution toward my comprehension
in the areas of biology studied
66 11 20

during the course.
My participation in the Recitation

and Response Sessions made a con-
tribution toward my intellectual
57 15 44

interest in ecology.
.My participation in the Recitation

and Response Sessions made a con-
tribution toward my awareness of
58 15 24

ecological relationships.

RECITATION AND RESPONSE SESSION:

95.

96.

97.

98.

99.

100.

101.

169

Strongly
Dlsagree

------ Percentage-----

I have found the study guides to
be more effective than either the
text or other references in pre-
paring for the Recitation and
56 19

Response Sessions.

21

 

v: r.“

The apprOpriateness of my partici-
pation in the Recitation and Re-
Sponse Sessions seemed to be
directly related to the amount of
time I had Spent on the content
51 17 28

packages.

The quality of my recitation and
response Seemed to be directly re-
lated to my understanding of the

58 14 24

content package materials.

 

it

Oral recitation and the chance to

respond to the recitation of
others has been more helpful to me
in gauging my accomplishment than

46 22 28

written quizzes have been.
The scores I received on my oral
recitation and relevant responses
are indicative of my understanding

of the course content as noted by
the objectives of LBC 140 and the
57 28 52

content packages.

The scoring technique relative

to the Recitation and Response
Session was an adequate procedure
45 19 54

for grading purposes.

The Recitation and Response Session
meets student need relative to the

Session purpose.

5O 18 42

170

If you wish to clarify any of the responses you made, please

do so here:

If you were to improve the structure of LBC 140 what would
you do to each of the following sessions to improve them?

1. Large Assembly Session:
2. Individual Study Session:

5. Recitation and Response Session:

Please add any additional comments you wish to make on the

nature and Operation of LLBC 140:

APPENDIX D

LBC 140
DESCRIPTION OF METHODOLOGY

APPENDIX D

LBC 140a

DESCRIPTION OF METHODOLOGY

Lyman Briggs Biology 140 (The Organism and its Environ-
ment) is a three credit course with an ecological emphasis
which uses an audio-tutorial approach. This approach may be
broken Up into three different kinds of learning experiences
in which you will participate. The three parts are as
follows:

1. The Large Assembly Session. All students in the
course will meet together in a Single grOUp once a
week. The purposes of these sessions are:

a. To Show Specially selected films.

b. To answer questions which may have arisen in the
other activities of the course.

c. To discuss briefly major concepts or current
tOpics.

d. To have an occasional quest Speaker.

e. To have a common examination period for hour exams
(see schedule for exam dates)

2. The Recitation and Response Session (R & R). A maxi-
mum Of ten students will be assigned a 50 minute
period once a week and each student will be allowed
to respond orally on some aspect of the previous
week's materials. The response procedure will be as
follows:

a. The instructor in charge will select an item to
be discussed and a student will be chosen by
lottery to discuss the item.

b. Student order of recitation will be done at the
beginning of the period by the student selecting
a numbered disc from a group of discs which have
been previously scrambled and the numbers masked.

c. Each student will be expected to respond at every
session, but the order of response Should be
random throughout the term. .

d. The instructor will choose the item to be dis-
cussed and ask the question, "What is this?"
The student whose turn it is to respond will

identify the item (an item may be any object used

in the program).

aLBC 140 is the University designation for the biology
course offered in Lyman Briggs College.
171

172

e. The instructor will then ask the student what the
objective was in using this item in the learning
procedure.

f. Finally the student is allowed to tell what he
knows about the item.

g. At the end of the response time (usually about
5 minutes) the instructor will assign a numerical
grade to the student on the basis of his or her
response. Grading will be on the following basis.

Ninegoints The student identified thefiitem,
identified the objectives, knew about
the item in that he understood the
concept illustrated.

 

SevenPoints The student could not either identify
the item or didn't know the objectives
or was weak in understanding the con-

cept.

 

Five Point§_ The student couldrot identify the
item or could not identify any objec-

 

tives or had little or no understanding

of the concept.

h. Once the student has completed his response, the
discussion of the item is thrown open to any who
wish to add or make corrections. Additions or
corrections are to be made in rank order thus the
first student to respond has the first chance to
correct, etc. In this way a student who had done
poorly in his original reSponse could recover
some of his lost points by adding or correcting

on future responses.

The purpose of this session is twofold. First it
is an assessment of the Individual Study SeSSion
and second it is a mechanism by which you as stu-

dents may teach each other.

The Individual Study Session. As the term individual
implies you can move along through the material at a
rate which is suited to your individual needs and
previous learning experiences. In this way you are
independent of your classmates. This is accomplished
by Using audio-tape programmed along Wlth Slides andf
various "typical" laboratory exercises such as use 0
a microsc0pe, dissection, observations, and inter—
pretations of graphs and charts. A tape deck play—
back Unit is used in the audio portion of the program

to give verbal instruction.

175

Each block of content is called a content
package, and each package has a study guide which
is designed to direct you through the Individual
Study Session, ask pertinent questions and assign
readings. At the beginning of each study guide
there is a statement as to the general objectives
for that unit. The questions posed throughout the
study guide Should serve to imply the Specific
objectives for the program.

AS you progress through any given study guide
you will notice that at times there are drawings
to complete, tables to be filled in, and usually
questions to be answered. We will pg£_ask for
these to be handed in, but they Should serve to
guide you in your study.

APPENDIX E

LBC 140
STUDY GUIDE FOR PACKAGE NUMBER ONE

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM: PART A--DESCRIPTIVE ECOLOGY

APPENDIX E
LBC 14.0a -Biology I

Package Number One —-Terrestrial Ecosystems
Part A-u-Descriptive Ecology

Study Guide

Contents

I. Points of Emphasis
II. Biology, The Science that Deals with Organisms

III. Terrestrial Ecosystem
IV. Ecological Succession
V. Sanford Natural Area
VI. Distribution of WOrld'S Major Biomes

VII. Glossary
VIII. References
IX. List of Slides

aLBC 140 is the University designation for the biology
course offered in Lyman Briggs College.

174

A.

175

I. POINTS OF EMPHASIS

Objectives:

1. To consider the organizational levels of life.

2. To structure the concept of a terrestrial ecosystem.

5. To consider Sanford Natural Area as an example of a
terrestrial ecosystem in order to help you understand

this concept.
4. To characterize the world's major ecosystems (biomes).

Operational Mechanics.
The structure of this individual study session con—

sists of a tape recording about the concept of a terres-
trial ecosystem with visual aids and demonstrations keyed
into the tape. You will be told when to change the tape
and when to leave the carrel for observations at a demon-
stration area. When conducting an Observation at one of
these areas please turn off the tape recorder and turn
the projector back to the fan position before leaving the
carrel. -

If, at any time during this individual study session,
you fail to understand directions or have questions regard—
ing the materials, turn off the equipment and ask your

instructor for assistance.

II. BIOLOGY, THE SCIENCE THAT DEALS WITH ORGANISMS

The Biological Ship. Reference: Platt and Reid, Bio

Science, pp. 4-5.
1- Question Set Number One:
a. What are the organizational levels of life?

b. List several factors which comprise the physical
environment.

c. In what ways could the factors of the physical
environment be influenced by the biological systems?

d. In what ways could the factors of the physical
environment affect the biological systems?

The Analogy of the Biological Ship Emphasizes that:
1. It is the individual organism that meets the challenge

of existence.
2. The field.of biology is predominantly organism
oriented. That is, we study man, the rodent, disease

organisms, domestic and wild animals and plants, etc.
5. An understanding of the organism is predicated as much
on knowledge of its external environment as of its
internal environment.
4. Knowledge gained through research in the external
environment is coordinate in importance with that
gained through the internal environment.

176

C. A Point of View Regarding the Biological Ship.
1. Statement:
The success or failure of an organism is dependent

upon two primary controls:
a. Its genetic character as determined at the molecular

level-—DNA and RNA.

b. The evaluation of living systems from molecule to
ecosystem is toward achieving increasing control of
the physical environment.

2. Question Set Number Two:
a. Give some examples which Show how the genetic char-

acteristics of an organism determine its success or
failure within a given physical environment.
b. What is your interpretation of the Statement: "The

Balance of Nature?"

III. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

A. Components of the ecosystem:
1. The abiotic (nonliving) component: Basic elements and

compounds of the physical environment.
2. The biotic (living) component: TrOphic (food) Bevels.
a. AutotrOphic Level: Producers
1. Green Plants
2. Chemosynthetic Bacteria
b. HeterotrOphic Level
1. Consumers
a. Direct or grazing herbivores
b. Indirect carnivores and detritus-—feeding
saprovores
2. Decomposers
a. Fungi of decay
b. Bacteria of decay

B. Question Set Number Three:
1. List some of the basic elements and compounds which

make up the abiotic component of a terrestrial eco-

system.
2. Give some examples of the autotrOphic organisms associ-

ated with a terrestrial ecosystem.
5. Give some examples of the heterotrOphic organisms

associated with a terrestrial ecosystem.
4. What is the energy source of a terrestrial ecosystem?

5. What role do bacteria and fungi play in a terrestrial
ecosystem?

IV. ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

A. Odum's Parameters of Succession:
1. It is an orderly process of community changes: these

are directional and, therefore, predictable.

177

2. It results from modification of the physical environ-
ment by the community.

5. It culminates in the establishment of as stable an
ecosystem as is possible on the sight in question.

B. Demonstration One:
1. Primary Succession.

a. A Hydrosere.
The pioneer sequence of succession in a lake or

pond having deep water is frequently called the

bare bottom stage. Algae, bacteria, protozoa,

insect larvae, snails, crustacea, and fish are the
characteristic organisms. With the passage of time
the lake or pond becomes partially filled with humus,
and then becomes favorable for the invasion, growth,
and develOpment of different Species of organisms.

The next seral stage consists of submerged aqua-
tic plants, which accumulate after their death and
decay and, together with silt deposits, gradually
raise the lake bottom. Conditions are now favorable
for the develOpment of other species of algae and
various pondweeds. Dragonfly, Mayfly, nymphs, and
additional Species of crustacea, snails, and fish
are associated with this stage of succession.
Ultimately, a suitable water depth and a richer
substrate for other invaders is formed.

Various species of floating plants begin to invade
the area OCCUpied by the submerged plants which
migrate mainly by underground stems from their strong-
hold in the shallower water. Common among the float—
ing plants are various water lilies and pondweeds.
As these invaders increase in numbers, their leaves
occupy more of the water surface and the amount of
light available for submerged plants is decreased.
Often the mass of unattached floaters, such as duck-
weed, cover the surface and aid materially in reduc-
ing the light. Due to the dense tangle of stems,
much water-borne soil is deposited in the floating
plant zone, and the decay of the dead bodies of many
Species builds up the substrate.

The floating stage is replaced by a reed-swamp
sequence. The tall bulrush, cattail, and reeds in—
vade the area OCCUpied by the floating plants.

Many other species, such as arrowheads, water plan-
tain, and sweet flag are common associates in this
stage of seral changes. These species, the immerg—
ents, cause a decrease in water depth which makes

the habitat less fit for them, but more favorable

for the next sequence, the sedge-grass stage. AS

the taller species of the reed-swamp stage disappear,
light conditions become, more favorable and the
sedges, grasses, mints, and bedstraws become estab—

lished°

2.

178

Finally, the sedge—grass stage becomes too dry
and the sequence is replaced by another community.
Depending on the regional climate, this stage
could result in a climax grassland, a deciduous
forest, or a coniferous forest biome.

b. Study the pictorial model of a hydrosere and deter-

mine the seral changes which take place in this
kind of primary succession.

c. The single concept, film lOOp, “Evolution of a Lake"

is pertinent to this concept of systems ecology,
and should be viewed while at this demonstration
area.

Secondary Succession.

Secondary succession occurs when there is an interrup—
tion in the seral sequence of a primary successional
development. Here, a part or all of the community may be
so disturbed that an earlier stage of the sequence is re-
established on the Site. Such a disturbance may be caused
by fire, clearing by man, livestock grazing, wind throw,
flooding deposition, landslip, or snowslides.

This pictorial model shows secondary succession on
abandoned agricultural fields in the Piedmont Region of
Southeastern United States. In the late summer or fall,
following cultivation, crabgrass is usually dominant.
During the first year of abandonment, when the fields are
not too severely eroded, horseweed, conspicuous because it
is 4 to 6 feet tall, and crabgrass are frequently dominant;
however, ragweed may share in the dominance. During the
second year, aster usually becomes the dominant with horse-
weed and crabgrass still present. During the third year,
broomsedge assumes dominance and maintains it for a number
of years until replaced by pine trees. In due time the
climax oak and hickories occupy the area.

Soil. _
Succession must always be accompanied by the develop-

ment of a soil. Vegetational succession and soil develop—
ment go hand in hand; they can't be separated, nor can one
reach stability without the other.

a. Soil Profiles.

If we were to examine the cut edge of a trench we

would see that the soil is composed of several distinct
layers. These layers are termed horizons, and the
sequence of horizons from the surface down is called a

soil profile.

It is customary to designate these horizons by

letters: The upper layer as the A horizon; the nfixt
lower horizon as the B: the third as the C; an: the
deepest layer, or bedrock, as the D horizon. a;
horizon may be further SUbdiVided for purposes Croces-
identifying the various stages of $011 forgingtp the
see. Thus, the A horizon may be SUbdiVide in Odebris)-
Ag) layer (leaf litter and undecomposed organic ,

179

A0 layer (matted and decomposed organic material):
A; (some leaching of minerals evident and a high
proportion of finely divided organic material
present, consequently dark in color); and A2 por-
tion, which represents the zone of maximum leaching,
is light in color. The B horizon is the zone of
maximum accumulation of materials leached from above.
This horizon may be divided into several subsections
depending on the degree of accumulation of leached
materials in evidence. The C horizon is a zone of
parent material which, as a whole, is assumed to be
Similar to that which was on the surface before the
soil-forming processes began.

b. Observations:

1) Observe the pictorial model of a soils map of
Sanford Natural Area. Read Veatch, J. O.,

Soils and Lands of Michigan, for a description
of the soil types Shown by the map's legend.

2) Look at the soil profiles taken from.Sanford.
Natural Area and then connect each profile with
the prOper area on the map by means of the
attached string.

5) Study each of the soil profiles and determine
the A, B, and C horizons. Where possible,
identify any subdivisions of each profile
which may be present. Sketch each profile
with its horizons and subdivisions in the space

below.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Soil Type: Soil Type: Soil Typea_____

C.

180

Question Set Number Four:

Ecological Succession.

1. Characterize the pattern of vegetational changes in

a hydrosere.

2. What changes in the physical environment do the bio-
logical systems cause during succession in a hydrosere?
5. Construct a model Showing the vegetational changes in a

xerosere o

4. How does secondary succession differ from primary

succession?

5. What are the essential abiotic and biotic factors
Operative in ecological succession.

6. Explain how Odum's parameters of succession are empha-
sized in a sequence of ecological succession.

7. How does Veatch characterize the vegetation for the
soil types shown on the soils map of Sanford Natural

Area?

8. Is Carlisle Muck a podzol or an organic soil?
9. In what respects does the Oshtemo soil type differ from
the Genessee soil type? From the Berrien soil type?

V. SANFORD NATURAL AREA

Demonstration Two:

Some representative plants and animals

which may be found in Sanford Natural Area.

1. Presence List:

a. AutotrOphic Component.

1) Forest Canopy:
Beech
Sugar Maple
Black Cherry
White Ash
American Elm
Basswood
White Oak
Red Oak

2) Forest Understory:
Ironwodd
Blue Beech
Red Maple
Sassafras
Flowering Dogwood
Hackberry

5) Forest Shrubs:
Spice Bush
Leatherwood
Elderberry
Witch Hazel
Bladdernut

Fagus grandifolia
Acer saccharum
Prunus serotinia
Fraxinus americana
Ulmus americana
Tilia americana
93ercus alba
Quercus rubra

Ostrya_virginiana
Carpinus caroliniana
Acer rubrum
Sassafras albidum
Cornus florida
Celtis occidentalis

Lindera benzoin
Dirca palustris
Sambucus canadensis
Hamamelis virginiana
Staphylea trifolia

181

Wafer Ash (HOptree)
Arrow Wood
Greenbrier

Forest Vines:
Poison Ivy
Virginia Creeper
Wild Grape
Greenbrier

4)

Herbaceous Plants:
Columbine
Jack-in-the-Pulpit
Wild Ginger

Sedge

Blue Cohosh
Spring Beauty
Toothwort

Trout Lily

White Snakeroot
Bedstraw

Wild Geranium
Nettle

Sweet Cicely

May Apple
Solomon's Seal
Swamp Buttercup
False Solomon's Seal
Goldenrod

Violet

Skunk Cabbage

b. HeterotrOphic Component.

5)

Ptelea trifoliata
Viburnum dentatum
Smilax rotundifolia

Rhus radicans
Parthenocissus guinquefolia
Vitis sp.

Smilax herbacea

Aquilegia canadensis
Arisaema atrorubens

Asarum canadense

Carex Sp.

Caulophyllum thaligtroides
Claytonia virginica
Dentaria diphylla
Erythronium americanum
Polygala senega

Galium sp.

Geranium maculatum

Urtica gracilis

Osmorhiza Claytoni;
PodOphyllum peltatum
POIygonatum pubescens
Ranunculus septentrionalis
Smilacina racemosa
Solidagg_sp.

Viola sp.

Symplocarpus foetidus

The animals on display represent some of the macro—

consumers (herbivores,

skull, teeth,
1) Macroconsumers:
Deer
Opossum
Short-tailed Shrew
Eastern Mole
Raccoon
Least Weasel
Short-tailed Weasel
Skunk
Chipmunk
Red Squirrel
Fox Squirrel
Deer—Mouse
White-footed Mouse
Porcupine

carnivores,

omnivores) and some of the microconsumers.
and body adaptations of these animals.

insectivores,and
.Note the

Odocoileus virginianus
Dideiphis marSUpialis
Dlarina brevicauda
SculoEus aquaticus
Procyon lotor

Mustela rixosa
Mustela ereminea
Mephitis mephitis
Tamis striatus
Tamiasciurus hudsonicus
Sgiurus Niger
Peromyscus meniculatus
Pergmyscus leucopus
Erethizon dorsatum

 

2)

5)

182

Barn Owl

Crow

Downy WOodpecker
Blue Jay
American Toad
Tree Frog

Green Snake
Blue Racer Snake
Garter Snake

Tyto alba

Coruus brachyrhynchos
Dendrocgpos borealis
annocitta cristata
Bufo americanus

Hyla versiocolor
Opheodrys vernalis
Coluber constrictor
Thamngphis SE;

Red-basked Salamander Piethodon cinereus

Spotted Salamander

Microconsumers:
Earthworm
Slugs

Snails

Ants

Bees

Ichneumons

Carabid Beetles
Rover Beetles
Scarab Beetles
Blister Beetles
Click Beetles

Leaf Beetles
Crickets

Martids

Termites

Wolf Spiders

Orb weaving Spiders
Comb-footed Spiders
Crab Spiders
Jumping Spiders
Black Widow Spiders
Mites

Centipedes
Millipedes
Pseudoscorpions
Daddy Longlegs
Decomposers:
a) Fungi:
b) Bacteria:

Ambystoma maculatum

Lumbricus terrestris
Limax sp.
Helicodiscus Sp.
Mesodon Sp.
Triodopsis sp.
Helix Sp.
Succinen Sp.
Formicidae
Apidae
Ichneumonidae
Carabidae
Staphglinidae
Coocinellida
Meloidae
Elatenidae
Elatenidae
Gryllidae
Maridae
Rhinctermitidae
Lygosidae
Argiopidae
Theridiidae
Thomisidae
Attidae
Latrodectus Sp.
Acarina
Lilhobius Sp.
Parajulus sp.
Pseudoscorpounida
Opiliones

Wood decaying (Fomes sp.)

The importance of bacteria to natural plant
communities is difficult to evaluate accurate-

ly, however,

their significance is indicated

by their functions of making nitrogen available
by fixing it, or releasing it with other
nutrients through their activities in decompos-

ing organic matter.

Digestion of proteins,

185

ammonification, and nitrification must all

occur before organic nitrogen can be used

by plants, and a succession of bacteria must

be present if the processes are to take place.
Observe the demonstration micrOSCOpes and

answer the following questions:

(1) What trOphic level do these organisms
represent?

(2) What is their importance to a terres-

trial ecosystem?

B. Question Set Number Five: Sanford Natural Area.

1. What are the dominant tree Species of Sanford Natural
Area?

2. What is the function of the autotrOphic component of
Sanford Natural Area?

5. What kinds of organisms are found in the heterotrOphic
component of Sanford Natural Area?

4. In what manner would such microconsumers as earthworms,
slugs, and snails influence the physical environment
of the Soil?

VI. DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORLD'S MAJOR BIOMES

A. Demonstration: Distribution of the World's Major Biomes.
1. On display are several types of terrestrial ecosystems.
In what climatic zone would each of these ecosystems

be found?

2. Statement: Although the physiological develOpment of
an animal or plant is directed by its genetic character—
istics, the extent to which the organism does develop
is directed by its environment; that is, the prOper
conditions at the proper times and in the prOper in-
tensities and amounts.

Would the animals Shown in the several ecosystems
be a success or failure in terms of the above state-
ment?

5. On page 10 of the study guide is a map Showing the
distribution of the world's major biomes. The descrip-
tive portion of the map's legend has been omitted from
this map. Complete the map by supplying the prOper
descriptions opposite the legend's key.

B. Question Set Number Five:
1. What factors of the physical environment effect the
distribution of the world's major biomes?
2. What is a climax ecosystem?
5. Contrast the tropical rain forest biome with the
temperate rain forest biome.
4. Distinguish among: natural savannas, disturbed savannas,

and grasslands.

184

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185

5. In what way do differences in altitude affect biome

distribution?
6. How do heat relations differ between deserts and humid

lands?

C. Optional Observations.
The University Museum has several excellent displays

centered around various types of ecosystems. It is
recommended that you visit these displays to SUpplement
the materials of package one. Particularly pertinent is
the panorama of the geological time scale, located in the
basement, and the major habitats of North America which

will be found on the second floor.

VII. GLOSSARY

Abiotic: non-living things.

Ammonification: decomposition with production of ammonia or
ammonium compounds, especially by the action

of bacteria.

-AutotrOphic: referring to a plant which is able to manufac-
ture its own food, e.g., green plants.

Biome: a large, natural assemblage of associated plants and
animals, extending over large regions of the earth's

surface.

Chemosynthetic: obtaining energy by oxidation of organic
compounds.

Climax: a relatively permanent plant association which
maintains itself with little change in a given
region as long as there is no major changes in

environmental conditions.

Deciduous: refers to plants which lose their leaves regularly
each year, as Opposed to evergreens, the leaves
of which remain on the stems longer than a year.

Decomposer: heterotrOphic organisms, chiefly bacteria and
fungi, which break down the complex products
of dead protOplasm, absorb some of the decompo-
sition products and release Simple substances

usable by the producers.

Ecology: that part of biology which deals with the relation-
ships between organisms and their environment.

Edaphic: of or relating to the soil.

186

Environment: the complex of climatic, edaphic, and biotic
factors that act Upon an organism or an eco-
logical community and Ultimately determine
its form and survival.

Flora: the plants of a particular region or period.
Floristic: concerned with or relating to flowers or flora.

Herbaceous: plants which do not develop much woody tissue
and thus remain soft and succulent.

HeterotrOphic: obtaining nourishment from organic sub-
stances.

Lichens: plants composed of an alga and a fungus growing in
symbiotic association.

Microclimate: the climate of small areas, as of confined
Spaces.

Nitrification: the oxidation (as by bacteria) of ammonium
salts to nitrites and further OXidation of

nitrites to nitrates.

Organism: an individual constituted to carry on the activi-
ties of life.

Predator: any animal which kills other animals for food.

Producers: plants which produce their own food, i.e.,
autotrOphic.

Species: a population of interbreeding individuals.

an ecological, geological, or seasonal sequence

Succession: . .
of species; the develOpment of plant communities.

ore or less intimate

' ' : livin to ether in m . . .
SymbiOSiS the g 9 on of two d1531m11ar

association or close uni
organisms.

Terrestrial: of or relating to land as distinct from water.

energy level in a food chain of an

TrOphic Structure:
ecosystem.

VIII. REFERENCES

A.. ' d: _ _
PigttreR. B. and G. K. Reid. BiOSClenCe. Pages 189 201.

187

B. Optional:
Allee, et al. Principles of Animal Ecology
Billings, W. D. Plants and the Ecosystem
Darlington, P. Jr. Zoogeography
Dice, L. R. Natural Communities
Gilman, J. C. A Manual of Soil Fungi
Life Nature Library: Ecology
Life Nature Library: The Forest
Life Nature Library: The Desert
Odum, E. P. Ecology
Odum, E. P. Fundamentals of Ecology
Oosting, H. J. Plant Communities
Richards, P. W. TrOpical Rain Forest
Schery, R. W. Plants for Man
Smith, R. L. Ecology and Field Biology

IX. LIST OF SLIDES

Number Title

1 The Biological Ship--Platt and Reid
2 Points of Emphasis--Biological Ship
5 A Forest Scene

4 Unicellular Organism

5 Terrestrial Ecosystem

6 Odum's Parameters of Succession

7 A Hydrosere

8 Secondary Succession

9 Sanford Natural Sign

10 Interior--Sanford Natural Area
11 American Beech

12 Sugar Maple

15 Species Reproduction

14 Flowering Dogwood

15 Poison Ivy

16 A Colony of Spring Beauty
17 Wild Geranium

18 Stinging Nettle

19 Canada Violet

20 wakerobin or Trillium

21 A Population of May Apple
22 Jack-In—The-Pulpit

23 Hairy—Cap Moss

24 Christmas Fern

25 The Chipmunk

26 A Raccoon

27 The Opossum

28 A Squirrel

29 A Garter Snake

50 A Box Turtle

51
52
55
54

55
56
57
58

59
4O
41
42
45
44

188

Fungus on a Log

Distribution of the World's Major Biomes
Tundra Biome

Compensatory Effects Between Latitude and
Altitude

Coniferous Forest Biome

Temperate Rain Forest

A Deciduous Forest

Subdivisions of the North American Deciduous
Forest Biome

TrOpical Rain Forest

Savanna Biome

Grassland Biome

Deserts: Their Location and Causes

Heat Absorption by Day

Heat Loss at Night

APPENDIX F

LBC 140

COURSE DESCRIPTION

Package One:

Part A:

Part B:

Package Two:

APPENDIX F

LBC 140a

THE ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

COURSE DESCRIPTION
The Terrestrial Ecosystem
Descriptive ecology.
Considers the organizational levels of life.
Structures the concept of a terrestrial eco-
system using the Sanford Natural Area to help
in understanding the concepts of both the
biotic and abiotic components. The world's
major biomes are also characterized.
Energetics.
The point is made that an ecosystem is a
natural system which has independence, except
for an energy source; self—regulation and
maintenance, balanced energetics, recycling

of nonliving components, and both functional

and interspecies diversity. As such it is the

Ultimate level of biological organization.

The Aquatic Ecosystem
The physico-chemical properties of water are
related to the organisms that inhabit this

medium. The major aquatic medium considered

is the lake. .Energy flow through lakes is

 

aLBC 140 is the University designation f

or the biology

course offered in Lyman Briggs College.

189

190

discussed as well as lake evolution and annual
lake cycles.

Package Three: Man in the Ecosystem
Emphasis in this unit is based on the convic-
tion that Brigg's students should be aware of
the physical and biological nature of man's
environment and through this awareness contribute
as citizens to wholesome and intelligent plan-
ning for the future. Some of the tOpics con-
sidered are: the population challenge, man's
pollution of his environment, environmental

health, resources-—renewable and nonrenewable,

wildlife management and recreation.

(Package Four: A Flowering Plant in the Terrestrial Ecosystem

Part A: The Primary Plant Body.

Emphasis is placed on the importance of an in—

dividual organism as one type of ecological

system. A sugar maple tree is used as a typical

plant in order to develOp an understanding of

the form and function of the primary plant body.

Part B: The Secondary Plant Body and Life Cycle.

Growth and development of the secondary plant

body of a sugar maple tree is followed through

the activity of the vascular and cork cambiums.

Reproductive processes are considered and the

concept of an alternation of generations is

presented.

191

Package Five: A Vertebrate in the Terrestrial Ecosystem

Part A: Anatomy and Physiology of a Selected Verte-
brate.
The white rat is studied from the anatomical
point of view. The names and locations of
selected structures are studied and discussed
in relationship to adaptation to terrestrial
life.

Part B: The Animal in its Environment.
Emphasis in this unit is on the ecology of
the Norway Rat including life cycle, food
habits, reproduction and social and popula-
tion interactions. Some of the structures
and functions learned in Package Five, Part A,

will be considered in relation to the organism
and its environment.

Package Six: Life in an Aquatic Ecosystem
Part A: Plant Life in an.Aquatic Ecosystem.
The zonation of a fresh water ecosystem is

discussed and the plant life characteristics

of the several zones described. The role of

phytOplankton is emphasized with form, func—

tion and classification of the algae considered.

192

Part B: Animal Life in an Aquatic Ecosystem.
Selected aquatic invertebrates are studied
with emphasis on their taxonomy, life cycles,
and food habits. Animal phylogeny is also

discussed.

APPENDIX G

LBC 140
SESSION SCHEDULES
FOR WINTER TERM, 1969

 

January 6

January 15

January 20

January 27

February 5

February 10

February 17

February 24

March 5

March 12

APPENDIX G

LBC 1403: LASb SCHEDULE

Winter Term--1969

Terrestrial Ecosystems. Pre—test: Packages
1, 2, and 5.

Terrestrial Ecosystems
Film: A Strand Breaks
Concept: Energy Flow and Biogeochemical Cycles

Aquatic Ecosystem
Film: Limnology
Concept: Formation of a Bog

Man in the Ecosystem
Guest Lecturer: Dr. Georg Borgstrom--Food

SUpply and POpulation Problems.

First Hour Examination
Packages 1, 2, and 5

A Flowering Plant in a Terrestrial Ecosystem
Guest Lecturer: Dr. William Drew--Economic

Botany and the Ecosystem.

A Selected Vertebrate in a Terrestrial Ecosystem
Guest Lecturer: Dr. John Cantlon--POpulation

Dynamics.

Plant Life in an Aquatic Ecosystem .
Guest Lecturer: Dr. Brian Moss--Two African

Lakes and Their Associated Biological and
Human Problems.

Animal Life in an Aquatic Ecosystem
Guest Lecturer: Dr. Arthur Reed--The Ecology

of a Coral Reef.

Final Examination
12:45 - 2:45 p.m.

 

aLBC 140 is the University d

esignation for the biology

course Offered in Lyman Briggs College.

b

Large Assembly Session.

195

194

LBC 140: R and Ra Schedule
Winter Term—-1969

January 6-10 Film: The Strands Grow

Orientation: Individual Study Session
January 15-17 Pre-test: Packages 4, 5, and 6
January 20-24 Package One: Terrestrial Ecosystems
January 27-51 Package Two: Aquatic Ecosystem
February 5-7 Package Three: Man in the Ecosystem

February 10-14 Package Four: A Flowering Plant in a
Terrestrial Ecosystem

February 17-21 Package Five: A Selected Vertebrate in a
Terrestrial Ecosystem

February 24-28 Package Six: Part A. Plant Life in an
Aquatic Ecosystem

March 5-7 Package Six: Part B. Animal Life in an
Aquatic Ecosystem

 

 

aRecitation and Response SeSSIon.

195

LBC 140: ISSa Schedule
Winter Term-~1969

REQUIRED PACKAGES

January 7-20 Package One: Terrestrial Ecosystems
Part A: Descriptive Ecology.
Part B: Energetics.

January 21-27 Package Two: Aquatic Ecosystem

January 28- Package Three: Man in the Ecosystem
February 5

OPTIONAL PACKAGES

February 4- Package Four: A Flowering Plant in the
March 7 Terrestrial Ecosystem

Part A: Primary Plant Body.
Part B: Secondary Plant Body and Life Cycle.

Package Five: ~A Selected Vertebrate in the
Terrestrial Ecosystem
Part A: Anatomy and Physiology of a
Selected Vertebrate.
Part B: The Animal in Its Environment.

Package Six: Life in an Aquatic Ecosystem

Part A: Plant Life in an.Aquatic Ecosystem.
Part B: Animal Life in an Aquatic Ecosystem.

aIndividual Study Session.

 

DAY

Monday

Tuesday

wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

196

LBC 140: ISSa Hours

Winter Term--1969

SCHEDULED HOURS

2:00 - 5:00 P.M.
6:00 - 10:00 P.M.

Carrel set up time all
day
6:00 - 10:00 P.M.

2:00 - 5:00 P.M.
6:00 10:00 P.M.

8:00 - 12:00 A.M.
12:00 - 2:40 P.M.
5:00 - 5:00 P.M.
6:00 - 8:00 P.M.
8:00 - 10:00 P.M.

12:00 - 5:00 P.M.
5:00 — 6:00 P.M.

9:00 - 12:00 A.M.
12:00 - 5:00 P.M.

R.
D.

C.

C.
R.
A.
A.

R.

D.

A.’

STUDENT ASSISTANT
IN CHARGE

McCleese
Chapman

. Brockway

Killian

. McCleese

Killian
Brockway
Smith

. Chapman

Smith

McCleese

. Killian

Chapman
Smith

 

aIndividual Study Session.

 

197

LBC 140: Final Examination Rooms
Winter Term--1969
March 12: 12:45-2.45 P.M.

 

 

R and R REGULARLY ASSIGNED EXAMINATION
SECTIONS STAFF MEMBER ' ROOM
12 Dr. Hagerman C 105-106
5a Mr. D. Ray c 105-106
8a
2.
4b Mr. P. Hoeksema C 105-106
7
8b
1
6a Dr. Elliott C 102
9
10
5
4a Mr. L. Clingenpeel C 104
5b

11

   

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