A THEORETICAL MODEL son
PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION
OF DIFFERENTIATED STAFFING

Dissertation for the Degree of PI}, D.

MICHIGAN SIATE UNIVERSITY
CARLETON WILLIAM. HOFFMAN
1 9 7 3

 

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This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

A THEORETICAL MODEL FOR PLANNING AND
IMPLEMENTATION OF DIFFERENTIATED STAFFING

presented by

C . William Hoffman

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D fiegree in Administration and
Higher Education

 

 

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ABSTRACT
A THEORETICAL MODEL FOR PLANNING AND

IMPLEMENTATION OF DIFFERENTIATED
STAFFING

BY

Carleton William Hoffman

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to survey some existing
differentiated staffing programs and compare the perception
of principals and teachers involved in such programs with a
proposed theoretical model of effective change to a differ-
entiated staffing organization.

The purpose of the design (which was descriptive in
nature) was to: (l) establish a model for planning and
implementation of differentiated staffing and (2) check the
components of the model against perceptions of experienced

personnel in the field.
Design of the Study

Six recommended Education Professional Development
Act differentiated staffing projects were selected as the
sample. The EPDA projects were Beaverton, Oregon; Laguna

Beach, California; Mesa, Arizona; Kansas City, Missouri;

Carleton William Hoffman

Sarasota, Florida; and Wayne County Intermediate School
District, Detroit, Michigan. All (n==400) principals and
teachers working in differentiated staffing in the six
projects were designated to participate in the study.

A survey approach was decided upon as the best method
for collecting data. A questionnaire of fifty—two items was
developed. The instrument measured the perception of the

respondents to the item. The items were assigned a priori

 

to a theoretical model for planning and implementation of
differentiated staffing.

It was hypothesized that principals and teachers
would rate questions on a specifically designed instrument
to measure a theoretical model of planning and implementa-
tion of differentiated staffing with sufficient agreement to
support the basic elements in the model.

Of the four hundred principals and teachers surveyed,
two hundred thirty-nine (60%) responded. The data was ana-

lyzed by using the Multivariate Test of Analysis of Variance.

Major Findings

1. The client system should be carefully identified
when changing from a traditional organization
structure to differentiated staffing.

2. The change agent must evaluate his relationship
with the client system.

3. The change agent must identify the strengths of
the client system and assess their potential for
change.

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

Carleton William Hoffman

Teachers considering a move to differentiated
staffing should be provided with adequate informa-
tion so that they understand such a move.

Steps must be taken to interest the client system in
moving to differentiated staffing.

The client system and change agent must evaluate
whether they can and want to further develop a
differentiated staffing organization and how long
a period of time it will take.

Goal analysis is an important component in imple-
menting differentiated staffing.

A model should be designed to organize the staff in
a differentiated staffing organization to best
accomplish the goals of that organization.

Parents should be involved in the implementation of
differentiated staffing.

The curriculum should be examined as part of the
implementation phase of a change to differentiated
staffing.

The client system must assess its needs in order to
successfully implement differentiated staffing.

In-service training is essential in implementation
of differentiated staffing.

Students must be prepared for the changes expected
of them in a differentiated staffing organization.

The differentiated staffing organization should be
evaluated to determine the effectiveness of the plan
and to decide where improvements should be made.

A THEORETICAL MODEL FOR PLANNING AND
IMPLEMENTATION OF DIFFERENTIATED

STAFFING

BY

Carleton William Hoffman

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Educational Administration
and Higher Education

1973

(5% ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

There are many people to whom I owe thanks during the
long ordeal of completing this dissertation.

I would like to thank Dr. Lou Romano, my committee
chairman. He took me as an orphan and although it took him
a long time to know my name, he came through when I needed
him.most.

The inimitable Dr. Clyde Campbell who has done so
much for so many so often, deserves my deepest appreciation.
Words cannot express my feelings for this fine gentleman and
all the help he has given.

Thanks also to committee member Dr. Norman Bell who
gave me the original idea for the dissertation and the
encouragement to trudge on to completion.

My gratitude goes to Dr. James McKee of the Sociology
Department who agreed to serve on my committee.

To my most cherished friend Dr. William Farquhar goes
my greatest thanks. His friendship, encouragement, faith in
me and unestimable help with the dissertation have been the
guiding light through all the work. I shall always appreci-

ate his help and value his friendship.

ii

My deepest appreciation to Linda Glendenning from the
Research consultation office who was so patient and helpful
to me in analyzing my data.

The support of the Mott Foundation has been a great
contributor to the completion of this goal. Their initial
financial support and the additional assistance of the Mott
Institute enabled me to begin and complete this program.

The patience of Dr. Howard Hickey in allowing me to complete
this dissertation and the encouragement of all those dear
friends on the institute staff will never be forgotten.
What beautiful people.

Finally and by no small measure lastly, I must thank
those who mean most, my family. Without my lovely wife,
Jean, it never would have happened. Her encouragement,
understanding, faith and patience were never ending. My
five children, Brad, Scott, Natalie, Drew and Eric were a
constant impetus to complete this thesis, so that they could
take pride in their father's accomplishment. Thanks to my
mother whose love, encouragement, energy, and hard work were
a constant motivation for me to complete my degree. My
deepest gratitude to my father, God rest his soul, whose
image of a man I have admired and loved, I know he shares

my feeling of joy.

' iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O

LISTOFCHARTS

Chapter

I.

II.

THE PROBLEM O O O O O O O O O O 0

Introduction . . . . . . .
Purpose of the Study . . . .
Significance of the Problem .
Definition of Terms . . . . .
Assumptions or Delimitations of

S tudy O O O O O O O O O O 0
Research Hypothesis . . . . .
Overview . . . . . . . . . .

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . .

Why Educational Change . . . .
Factors Which Inhibit Change .

Approaches and Strategies for Bringing

About Change . . . .

o o o ff. 0 o c

Q

(Do...

Rationale for Differentiated Staffing .

History . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Brief History . . . . . .
Review of Sample Projects . .
Temple City, California .

Cherry Creek Schools of Metropolitan

Denver, Colorado . . . .

Mary Harmon Weeks Elementary School
and Martin Luther King Junior High

School, Kansas City, Missouri .

Wisconsin Research and Development

Center for Cognitive Learning .

Beaverton, Oregon and Differentiated

Staffing . . . . . . .

Research of Differentiated Staffing .

S max-y O O I O O O O O O O C 0

iv

Page
vii

viii

53
55
58

60
61

Chapter Page

III. PRESENTATION OF THE DESIGN PROCEDURES . . . . 65
Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Statement of Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . 68
General Hypothesis I . . . . . . . . . 68
Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Model for Planning and Impleme entation of
Differentiated Staffing . . . . . . . . . 73
Planning Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Identify Client System . . . . . . . . 74
Evaluate Relationship . . . . . . . . . 74
Identify Strengths and Change
Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Assess Change . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Provide Information . . . . . . . . . . 76
Stimulate Interest . . . . . . . . . . 76
Evaluation—~Decision Point . . . . . . 77
Implementation Phase . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Goal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Model Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Choose Alternative . . . . . . . . . . 80
Pilot Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Total School . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Involve Parent . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Curriculum Examination. . . . . . . . 81
Needs Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Discrepancy Analysis . . . . . . . . . 82
In-Service Training . . . . . . . . . . 82
Student Preparation . . . . . . . . . . 83
Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . . . 85
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Research Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Inter-Consistency Analysis . . . . . . 86
Hoyt's Interval Consistency
Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . 87
The Theoretical Model Agreement
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Implementation Phase . . . . . . . . . 88
Change Section . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Chapter

Information Section . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis of Implementation Phase . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . .
Purpose of the Study
Limitations . . . .
Design of the Study
Analysis . . . . .

Conclusions . . . . . .

Implications for Future

Reflections . . . . . .

esearch

O O O O O O O O
O 0 O O O O O O
O O O O O O O O
O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O

owe...

BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0
Appendix

A. OUTLINE OF HAVELOCK'S PROCESS OF EDUCATIONAL
CHAN GE 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C C O I

B. COVER LETTER, FOLLOW-UP LETTER AND TEACHER
QUESTIONNAIRE O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

C. PRINCIPAL QUESTIONNAIRE . . . . . . . . . . .

vi

Page

90
93
95

99

99
100
100
101
102
104
109
109

111

115

124
132

Table

4.1

4.9

4.10

LIST OF TABLES

Correlation Coefficients of Paired Items
in Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Means and Standard Deviations of Subscores
of Change Section of Proposed Model . . . .

Results of the Multivariate Test of Analysis
Of variance 0 I O O O O O O I O O Q O O O 0

Correlation Matrix Stages One, Two, and
Three 0 O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 0

Means and Standard Deviations of Subscores
of Information Stage of Proposed Model . . .

Results of the Multivariate Test of Analysis
of Variance of the Information Section of
the Proposed Model . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Correlation Matrix Stages Four, Five, and
Six of the Information Section of the
Proposed Medel O O O O O O I O O O O I O O 0

Means and Standard Deviations of Subscores
of Implementation Phase of Proposed Model .

Results of the Multivariate Test of Analysis
of Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

_Correlation Matrix Stages One-Eight of the

Implementation Phase of the Proposed
MOde l O O O O I O O O I O I O O O O O O O 0

vii

Page

86

89

89

90

91

91

92

93

94

96

Chart

3.1

LIST OF CHARTS

Page
Summary of Number of Respondents to
Differentiated Staffing Questionnaire
from Six EPDA Projects . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Planning Phase of a Differentiated
Staffing Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Implementation Phase of a Differentiated
Staffing MOdel O O O I O O O O O O O O O O I 71
Assignment of Items to Stages in Planning
Phase of Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Items Assigned to Stages in Implementation
Phase Of MOdel O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 73

viii

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Introduction

 

The concept of educational change is not new or
unique to this day and age. As far back as the pharoahs of
Egypt, change was occurring and being questioned. In fact
a pharoah asking his advisers what would endure forever was
given the reply, "0 Exalted One! We have found nothing
enduring except the thought, 'This, too shall pass.'"

Change in education has been constantly happening
but probably more so since the time of Sputnik in 1957. At
that time all kinds of answers were being given for the ills
of the educational system. Some of these suggestions became
very popular, others passed by the wayside.

Miller offers four general values of our society
which are fundamental to change.

Deep and strong beliefs in the democratic way,
equality of opportunity, material progress and
education form the milieu for change in educa-
tion. Without these general predispositions,

our present attitudes toward change would be
quite different.1

 

1Richard I. Miller, "An Overview of Educational
Change," Perspectives on Educational Change (New York:
Appleton-Century-Crdft, 1966). p. 1.

More specific factors which have supported the
concept of educational change in America are the Cold War,
Viet Nam, the National Defense Education Act, growth of the
knowledge industry, outside pressure upon the education
profession, increased knowledge in the behavioral sciences,
improvement of teacher education programs and new ideas
which have arisen in the discipline of education, i.e., team
teaching, non-gradedness, teaching machines, and educational
television.

Rogers has pointed out that as students of society
we should be aware of "how social systems change their
structural form."2

Although several school systems have considered or
undertaken implementation of differentiated staffing, little
has been done to describe those components which are essen-
tial for effective implementation. This is not to say that
all differentiated staffing organizations will be identical.
However, it is suggested that there are common components
which are identifiable in those implementations which are
successful. Some of the writers have attempted to outline
in a general way those guidelines thought to be necessary
but these are based upon a limited experience in their own

programs or programs they have observed. If a school system

 

2Everett M. Rogers and Floyd Shoemaker (East Lansing,
Mich.: Michigan State University, 1971), mimeographed
advance publication copy.

desires to implement differentiated staffing, there should
be basic guidelines which it should follow to bring about
change. According to Rowland,3 schools are not organized
to initiate change. Facilitating a change to staff differ-
entiation is an especially challenging task for school
administrators. Bruce R. Joyce“ contends administrators
working with a large number of teachers soon discover they
are resistant to change.

Some forces blocking efforts in implementation of
differentiated staffing are:

1. Few teachers who are recent college graduates
understand how to teach in a flexible school, teach
on a team, utilize auxiliary personnel, evaluate
colleagues or engage in decision making.

2. Adequateguidelines are not available which are
based on relevant research and effective initiation
of innovation.

3. The school administrators are caught between deter-
mining that teachers gain acceptance of the program
while, at the same time, maintaining the stability

and security of the system.

 

3Monroe K. Rowland, "A String of Beads," Plannin
ang Managing Change,i9ccasional Papers No. 1 (Fort Lauderdale,
.: International Learning Corp., 1969).

“Bruce R. Joyce, "Staff Utilization," Review of
Educational Research, June, 1967, pp. 323-326.

 

4. Parents, in some instances with good reason, have
blocked change because of programs they perceive as
"far out" or not related to the "basics.“

5. Teacher's associations cautiously examine innovation
in areas they view as a threat to the security of
their members.

6. School facilities have limited certain types of

innovations from being implemented.

Horvat5 contends that some of the factors listed
above are a result of school systems not having the resources
at the present time to plan and implement change in education.
These resources probably will not be available for some time.
He suggests that the work will have to be done with teachers
and administrators in the field. Perhaps a feasible approach
would be to combine field experience with university designed
in-service training efforts. The program‘would be planned
innovation. Because educational change does occur as often
as it does, the ultimate goal would be to have a trained

staff member responsible for innovation.

 

5John J. Horvat, "Major Impediments to Educational
Change and Improvement," The Teacher and His Staff: Differ-
entiating Teaching Roles (Washington, D.C.: NEA,’1969TT
pp. 95-108.

 

 

Purpgse of the Study

The purpose of this study is: (a) to survey
existing differentiated staffing programs, (b) to analyze
and describe those components perceived to be essential in
the planning and implementation of differentiated staffing
by authorities in the field, by teachers, and by adminis-
trators who have had experience with differentiated staffing,
(c) propose a possible approach to effectively change to a

differentiated staffing organization.
Significance of the Problem

At the present time there are thirty differentiated
staffing projects funded under EPDA (Education Professional
Development Act). Many of these projects were funded with
little regard for how change occurs in social systems.

As Goodlad indicated in Behind the Classroom Door:

The winds of educational change blow strong
today in America. For more than a decade, great
cumulonimbus clouds of educational reform have
been blowing back and forth across the United
States. To what extent have these clouds

nourished with their fresh moisture the fields
below?6

The decade he was referring to was the period of
1957-1967 or the post "Sputnik" era. During this period of

time non—graded organizations, team teaching, programmed

 

6John I. Goodlad, M. Frances Klein and Associates,
Behind the Classroom Door (Worthington, Ohio: Charles A.
Jones Publishing Company, 1970). p. 3.

instruction, and individualized instruction were a few of
the innovative ideas proposed. There was also increased

interest in students becoming independent and self-directed

learners.

The need for stimulating subject matter, a
diversity of instructional materials, individ-
ualization of learning and teaching, student
involvement in planning his learning, learning
how to learn, and so on are well-worn pedagogical
ideas receiving widespread teacher endorsement.
One would expect them to be rather well estab-
lished in school practice.7

Goodlad was prompted to go into schools with his
associates to see if the kinds of things described were
actually happening. The dismay of his findings is reflected
in the following:

From the observations of our visiting staff

and from analyzing their reports, one gets an
impression of conventional, middle—aged build-
ings: experienced, dedicated, and rather hard-
working teachers; conventional, self-contained
classrooms, enjoying intermittent access to
specialized resources; the usual array of text-
books; and both reporting and testing procedures
which have characterized schools for some years.
Within this broad and rather uniform picture are
a few splashes of contrast representing movement
toward some of the innovations which have been
predominant in educational parlance for a decade.8

It was apparent that although some of the schools

were designated as innovative schools few of the innovative

 

7Ibid., p. 5.

°Ibid., pp. 42-43.

ideas previously mentioned were in operation. As Goodlad
so aptly puts it:

A very subjective but nonetheless general

impression of those who studied the data was

that some of the highly recommended and pub-

licized innovations of the past decade or so

were dimly conceived and at best, partially

implemented in the schools claiming them. The

novel features seemed to be blunted in the effort

to twist the innovation into familiar conceptual

frames or established patterns of schooling.9

Unless some attention is given to the dynamics of

change in developing differentiated staffing plans it may
meet the same fate of many other promising innovative ideas.
In addition, while considerable time and writing has been
spent discussing individual needs of students little has
been done to consider the individual differences of teachers.
The result has been students having to accept incompetent
instruction in certain areas, teacher dissatisfaction with
their teaching responsibility, a pay scale based on endur-
ance and longevity, and promotion of capable teachers away
from children to achieve status or more money. As Dwight
Allen3° points out, "It happens because we staff schools as

though differences in teacher ability don't exist or don't

matter if they do."

 

9Ibid., p. 72.

1°Dwight w. Allen, "A Differentiated Staff: Putting
Teaching Talent to Work," The Teacher and His Staff, Occa-
sional Papers No. 1 (Washington, D.C.: National Commission
on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, NEA,
December 1967, 12 pp.

 

Edelfelt11 and Olivero12 have both expressed what
they believe to be false assumptions about education today.
We have assumed that all educators are omnicapable, all
teachers are alike rather than different, years of expe-
rience is the best way to determine salary, there is no way
to assess the relationship between teaching and learning,
professional educators are not able to evaluate themselves,
educators should train students in certain selective skills,
the educator's responsibility is to pass on accumulated
knowledge, and educators know what should be taught.

It is reasonable to assume that the administrator
will need guidelines for the planning and implementation of
a differentiated staffing organization. A major goal of the
study is to identify components essential in the planning
and implementation of differentiated staffing as perceived

by authorities, experienced teachers, and administrators.
Definition of Terms

Differentiated staffingé-Term describing various plans of
staff utilization different from the more traditional

self contained classroom at the elementary level and

 

11Roy A. Edelfelt, "A Possible Dream: A New Educa-
tion and New Models of Teachers," The Teacher and His Staff:

Differentiatin Teaching Roles (Washington, D.C.: NBA,
7519 r. pp. T653111

12James L. Olivero, "Educational Manpower: An
Overview of Potentials and Problems," Educational Manpower
(Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1970),
pp. 12-23.

 

departmentalization at the secondary level within
the existing line-staff structure of school
organization.

Team teachingé-An organizational plan which permits two or
more teachers to plan and teach in one or more
curricular areas where they have strengths and
talents or assume varying levels of responsibility
for the instructional program.

Individualized instruction--A program of instruction
designed for the individual student in a class with
careful regard for his interests and ability.

Coordinating instructor--Title given to member of differen-
tiated staffing hierarchy who has primary responsi-
bility for coordinating activities of a number of
grades or levels.

Senior teacher--Title given to member of differentiated
staffing hierarchy with primary responsibility for
a team of teachers.

Flexible schedulingé-An organization for instruction that
permits classes of varying size, provides for
instructional groups which meet in various fre-
quencies and varying length, makes team teaching
possible for all students in any context area, and
requires numerous decisions by teachers about

students, context, and methodology.

10

Auxiliary personnel--Personnel who perform supplementary
services for regular school personnel such as speech
therapists, art, music, and physical education
consultants, etc.

Merit pay--Pay based on the merit judgment of one or more

 

people by an evaluation technique.

Change agent--An individual who facilitates change or
planned innovation.

Client system--A group of people usually interrelated being
served by a change agent.

Quasi model--A model which seemingly has components which

are essential but need further verification.

Assumptions or Delimitations of the Study

1. The amount of research available about change and
components to bring about change is limited. There-
fore the theoretical model will of necessity have to
be developed from the review of literature and what
little research that has been done.

2. It is not the purpose of this study to defend
differentiated staffing but to provide a possible
approach for planning and implementation.

3. There is some question as to whether the perceptions
of those involved in the various projects are valid
measures of what the components of planning and

implementation of differentiated staffing should be.

11

Research Hypothesis

The general research hypothesis of this study will
be: Principals and teachers will rate questions on an
especially designed instrument to measure a theoretical
model of planning and implementation of differentiated
staffing with sufficient agreement to support the basic
elements in the theoretical model especially developed

for this study (o= .05) .
Overview

It has been the intent in Chapter I to discuss the
purpose of the study and explain why it is important to
develop a systematic approach to planning and development
of differentiated staffing patterns. The first chapter
also defined terms which will be used throughout the study,
stated the general research hypothesis, and recognized
limitations of the study.

In Chapter II a review of the related literature
is presented. The major emphasis in this chapter is on
the change process and its relationship to differentiated
staffing. Also the rationale and review of differentiated
staffing; trying to point out essential characteristics of
a new staffing pattern which must be considered before

implementing it.

12

The research design of the paper will be discussed
in Chapter III. Included in this chapter will be the sample
to be used in the study, techniques that will be used to
gather data and the instrument to be used.

An analysis of the data will be presented in Chapter
IV. A discussion of the general hypothesis in light of the
data, and further discussion of questions which may have
arisen, will be included.

A summary of the findings, conclusions drawn from
the analysis of the data, and suggestions for testing the

model will be included in Chapter V.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review of literature is directed toward two
primary areas, change and differentiated staffing. It is
'the thesis of this paper that lack of concern for the
:strategies of change will result in ineffective planning

.and.implementation of differentiated staffing organizations.
Why Educational Change?

Few people will argue that the world changes as we
Vealk.in it. It is probably foolhardy to debate whether
cflaange is inevitable. As Lippitt13 explains:

The world is above everything else, a world of
rapid change. This is something upon which
observers in every field of thought and knowledge
are agreed. What does it mean? Many things, of
course; but perhaps its primary meaning lies in
its effect upon people. It means that people,
too, must change, must acquire an unaccustomed
facility for change if they are to live in modern
world. It means that the achievement and mainte-
nance of our mutual well-being is becoming pro-
gressively more important and more difficult for
us as individuals and as groups. It means that
if we are to maintain our health and a creative
relationship with the world around us, we must

 

13Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson, and Bruce Westley,

The Dynamics of Planned Change (New York: Harcourt, Brace
an wor I I P. o

13

14

be actively engaged in change efforts directed
toward ourselves and toward our materials,
social, and spiritual environments.

What forces push man toward innovations in modern
society? Four dominate: (1) Society is constantly using
technology to try to solve problems which have arisen in
our environment. Man is always looking for new ways to use
the natural resources in his environment. In trying to
solve these complex problems which arise there comes the
need to solve additional problems dealing with worker coop-
eration, new working patterns and new patterns of leadership.
(2) Another force created by the first is the need to adjust
to this new environment and use those resources which are
provided by it. The adjustment to a new way of life means
new laws are passed to accommodate this way of life, indi-
viduals must examine their personal goals, desires and
expectations, and as educators we must carefully examine
what we are trying to accomplish in the schools in light of
the ever changing society. (3) The competitive nature of
our society also drives us to change, trying to develop
better products and better ways of doing things. (4) The
revelation of knowing the way we have done things for so

long is not functional any longer pushes us to innovation

or change . 1"

 

1“1pm., p. 17.

15

As Toffler'15 states, time is the yardstick by which
we measure change. "Without time, change has no meaning,
and without change, time would stop. Time can be conceived
as the intervals during which events occur."

One only has to read the facts regarding the rapid
'urbanization which has occurred, the great technological
(advances which have been made in the last fifty years, and
'the tremendous explosion of knowledge to appreciate the ever
changing world we live in. We should not ask ourselves,
"Will there be change?" but, "How can we adapt to this con—
tinuing change," "How can we effectively plan for change,"
and "How do we involve others in change?"

All around us we see the impetus for change. More
specialization meaning more cooperation and concern for the
Ixrocesses of getting along together. Increased government
spending has suggested we look at what we are doing in
education at the present and suggesting that changes may

be in order.
Factors Which Inhibit Change

In general there are three factors which inhibit
change: traditionalism, laziness, and fear or insecurity.

More closely related to education you could list factors

 

15Alvin Toffler, Future Shock (New York: Random
HOUSE! 1970): P- 22. I

16

such as routinization of the teaching function, administrative
reticence, educational bureaucracy, insufficient finances,
community indifference and resistance, inadequate knowledge
about the process of change, and inadequate teacher education
programs.

The item "inadequate knowledge about the process of
change" has been underlined because of its relevance to this
study. Many good innovative ideas have been passed by or
dropped because of inadequate attention to the change
process. As Miller“ has indicated:

Three myths have grown up around planned change.
First some individuals think of planning with
overtones of 1984 and Brave New World. Educators
need to face Egfiarely the issue of_pIanning. It

is a fact that more planning will be a part of
the educator's future.

 

A second myth is that a good product will succeed
on its own merits. Given a good educational idea
or program the need for effective introduction
remains.

A third holds and assumes that the introduction

of new educational ideas can be final. Too often

an innovation is introduced as "the answer" rather

than something good but not perfect that can be

improved with experience and careful study.
Opposition or resistance to change is not uniform. Electric
lights, the telephone, automobiles and TV were met with some
fear but were easily accepted by the public. Innovative

ideas in the behavioral and social sciences have met with

much less enthusiasm.

 

16Richard I. Miller, "An Overview of Educational
Change," Perspectives on Educational Change (New York:
Appleton-Century-Cfoft, 1966), p. 12.

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17

‘7 contends that "all forces which contribute

Watson
to stability in personality or in social systems can be
perceived as resisting change." This is not all bad.

The forces of change naturally see this resistance as an

obstacle but it is these tendencies which permit duration
of character, intelligent action, institutions, civiliza-
tion, and culture.

The usual approach to change is through persuasion
and dissuasion which raise tensions in the system. A better
strategy might be to neutralize or transform the resistance
to change and enable forward movement of the existing forces
for change in the system.18

19

Watson divides the resistance to change into two

general categories, "Resistance in Personality" and "Resist-
ance to Change in Social Systems." Under Resistance in
Personality he lists nine contributing factors. They are:

l. Homeostasis
a. Those factors that seem to pressure the person
back to a complacent state even though there is
a strong desire and need to react with their
environment.

2. Habit
a. The idea that the familiar is preferred
b. What Allport calls functional autonomy

 

17Goodwin Watson, "Resistance to Change," Conce ts
for Social Change (Washington, D.C.: NBA, 1967), p. 0.

1°-ij..dro ' pp. 10-11 0
nIbid-r PP- 12-23.

18

3. Primacy
a. The way you first successfully cope with a
situation sets a persistent pattern for future
behavior.

4. Selective Perception and Retention
a. We hear and believe those things we agree with
or are consistent with what we want to hear or
believe.

5. Dependence
a. This is apparent early in life in dependence at
time of bith which causes children to imitate
or incorporate values, attitudes, and beliefs
of those who cared for them.
b. Also evidenced by the tendency of teachers to
teach as they were taught early in life.

6. Illusion of Impotence
a. Client system cannot change because they are
victims of circumstances beyond their control.

7. Superego
a. Parents pass on taboos to child and he must
be a strong person to overcome these and cope
realistically with changing life situations.

8. Self—Distrust
a. Because of childhood dependence and superego
children quickly learn to distrust their own
impulses and decide that what they want is bad
and they shouldn't want it. This results in
guilt which is mobilized to prevent change.

9. Insecurity and Regression
a. Even though people are unhappy about the
situation the thought of change increases the
anxiety more and they try to find a path to
the old, more peaceful way of life.

"Resistance to Change in Social Systems" is described
as having five contributing factors:

1. Conformity to Norms
a. The organization has certain institutional
norms which they expect its members to
conform to.

19

2. Systematic and Cultural Coherence

a. If you change one part of the organization you
may cause side effects which are destructive in
some other area.

3. Vested Interests

a. A threat to the economic or prestige interests
of individuals is one of the most obvious
sources of resistance.

b. The vested interest might be the freedom to
Operate as you choose.

4. The Sacrosanct

a. Problem in bringing about change in those areas

that are held sacred.
5. Rejection of "Outsiders"

a. The major impetus for change comes from outside
and there is feeling of suspicion and hostility
toward strange outsiders.

Resistance to an innovative idea may occur at the
beginning of the change process or may appear after the
change process is already begun. These resistance forces
may increase in their intensity for a while after the proj-
ect begins. Those involved may feel as though little head-
way is being made in resolving differences between groups.
The situation may become even more intense. After a period
of time, however, the resistance forces may be weakened or
the change forces strengthened by some success or crisis.

Akin to resistance forces are interference forces.
These are forces not opposing change but competing forces
to have their change project accepted. Interference may

occur also because of the difficulty a client system sees

in a proposed change project. This could be caused by too

(O

I‘-

20

few ideas or too many, lack of information, skill or

knowledge by the client system and no adequate resources

by which to hire the services of a change agent.

How can resistance to change be reduced? Watson2°

suggests the following:

A. Who brings the change?

1.

Resistance wil be less if administrators,
teachers, board members and community leaders
feel that the project is their own--not one

’devised and operated by outsiders.

Resistance will be less if the project clearly
has wholehearted support from top officials of
the system.

B. What kind of change?

3.

4.

Resistance will be less if participants see the
change as reducing rather than increasing their
present burdens.

Resistance will be less if the project accords
with values and ideals which have long been
acknowledged by participants.

Resistance will be less if the program offers
the kind of new experience which interests
participants.

Resistance will be less if participants feel
that their autonomy and their security is not
threatened.

C. Procedures for instituting change

7.

Resistance will be less if participants have
joined in diagnostic efforts leading them to
agree on the basic problem and to feel its
importance.

Resistance will be less if the project is
adopted by consensual group decision.
Resistance will be reduced if proponents are
able to empathize with Opponents, to recognize
valid objections, and to take steps to relieve
unnecessary fears.

 

”Ibid., pp. 24-30.

21

10. Resistance will be reduced if it is recognized
that innovations are likely to be misunderstood
and misinterpreted and if provision is made for
feedback of perceptions of the project and for
further clarification as needed.

11. Resistance will be reduced if participants
experience acceptance, support, trust, and
confidence in their relations with one another.

12. Resistance will be reduced if the project is
kept open to revision and reconsideration if
experience indicates that changes would be
desirable.

D. Climate for change

13. Readiness for change graduatlly becomes a char-
acteristic of certain individuals, groups,
organizations, and civilizations. They no
longer look nostalgically at a Golden Age in
the past, but anticipate their UtOpia in days
to come. The spontaneity of youth is cherished
and innovations are protected until they have
had a chance to establish their worth. The
ideal is more and more seen as possible.

Apprgaches and Strategies for
Bringing About Change
Benne and Chin21 outline three basic strategies

which are used to bring about change. .The first of these

is the (l) Empirical-Rational Strategy based on the "assump-
tion that men are guided by reason and that they will
utilize some rational calculus of self-interest in deter-
mining needed changes in behavior." The chief foes of this
strategy were ignorance and superstition. Scientific

investigation and research were ways of extending knowledge

 

21Kenneth D. Benne and Robert Chin, "General Strat-
egies for Effecting Changes in Human Systems," The Planning
of Change (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc.,
1969). PP. 32-57.

22

and removing ignorance. This strategy contributed strongly
to the trend toward universal schooling. This was the way
to do away with ignorance and superstition and spread reason,
knowledge and knowledge-based action and practice. Thomas
Jefferson and Horace Mann were two well-known proponents of
this approach. Under this strategy are found several
approaches.

1. Basic Research and Dissemination of Knowledge
through General Education. In this approach basic knowledge
building and general education are still thought by many to
be the best way to effect change in society. The approach
worked well in areas of knowledge-based thing technologies
where everyone is ready to accept findings of new technology.
Where the readiness for technology is not forthcoming or the
technology is a threat to the existing values and attitudes
it is much more difficult to use this strategy.

2. Personnel Selection and Replacement. The pro-
ponents of this strategy see the problem of getting knowl-
edge effectively into practice as lack of fitness of the
person in a position to perform this function. The answer
is to replace the unfit with those more fit to achieve
social progress. This idea was given a large boost by the
work of Binet and Moreno in testing. The focus of this
strategy is on system maintenance not change.

3. Systems Analysts as Staff and Consultants.

Today we are seeing more and more of the systems analysis

'«
on

23

type of person used in organizations to bring about change.
In most organizations they are used in a staff role rather
than a line position. This can be attributed to the fact
that their interest is in analysis of system difficulties
rather than problems with role occupants. They have fallen
into the realm of bureaucratically organized enterprise and
obtained the image of scientific management. Since these
individuals are usually experts in the area of sociotech—
nical systems and line management in looking for more
efficient organization of human and technical effort the
systems analysts have become very popular. More recently
behavioral scientists are being used in systems analysis
work. There are those who see system analysts as con-
tributors to the perpetuation of the established ideology
because they are problem centered and have a narrow view
of the problem. Others see the outlook in a more optimistic
manner. They see the behavioral scientist with a wider view
of the organization and the changing of the organization
involving all the input and output features of a large-scale
system. This strategy offers an interesting future for
analyzing the problems administrators of education face.

4. Applied Research and Linkage Systems for
Diffusion of Research Results is a prominent strategy which
is famdliar to many today. The idea of linking applied

researchers and practitioners and then those two with basic

24

researchers has been influenced strongly by the landegrant
university and the agricultural extension system. Justin
Morrill, author of the land grant college act and agricul-
tural extension act is given large credit for this develop-
ment. The county agent and his staff developed local
organizations of adults and youth. Through them they pro-
vided information on new and better products and techniques
in agriculture. This also provided a way by which problems
and concerns could get from the practitioner back to centers
of knowledge and research. This has been a most effective
strategy in "thing technology." The attempt to link basic
research, applied research and practitioners in education has
been through Research and Development Centers and Regional
Laboratories. The attempt has been made to take a well
researched innovation and install it into practice settings.
The main concerns are whether the innovation produces the
desired result and what it can accomplish in one or more
trial settings. The questions which arise are, "How to get
a fair trial," and "How to install an innovation in an
already going and crowded school system?" These questions
are not usually a part of this strategy. A great deal of
applied research effort has been wasted because the two
questions above have been neglected. Clark and Guba formu-
lated necessary processes related to and necessary if we are

going to have change in practice based upon research. They

25

are (1) development (invention and design), (2) diffusion
(dissemination and demonstration), (3) adoption (trial,
installation and institutionalization). Havelock and Benne
suggest concern with communication difficulties and role
conflicts that occur at points of intersystem exchange.
The lines of strategy suggested by their analysis
for solving role conflicts and communication dif—
ficulties call for transactional and collaborative
exchanges across the lines of varied organized
interests and orientation within the process of
utilization.22

5. Utopian thinking as a Strategy of Changing.
This strategy employs utopian thinking for practical pur-
poses. B. J. Skinner represented utopian thinking in
Walden Two and the eight-state project "Designed Education
for the Future" is another example.

6. Perceptual and conceptual reorganization through
the clarification of language. Proponents of this strategy
use semantics to clarify and reason more effectively and
provide a basis for action and changing. Superstition was
perceived as a foe of classical liberalism and superstitions
were carried from man to man by language. Alfred Korzybski
and S. I. Hayakawa are often identified with this strategy.

A second major strategy is known as the normative-

re-educative. In this approach clarification and recon-

struction of values is of pivotal importance in changing.

 

albido] p. 440

26

You do not assume that the client's problem is necessarily
one which can be solved by more technical information.

The problem may be rather in the attitudes,

values, norms, and the external and internal

relationships of the client system and may

require alteration or re-education of them as

a condition of its solution.23
The change agent must intervene mutually and collaboratively
with the client in efforts to define and solve the clients'
problems. The change agent and client learn to use the
concepts of behavioral science selectively, relevantly and
appropriately with regard to the pressing problems and prob-
lems of the future which are similar. The proponents of
this strategy feel ”people technology" is just as important
as "thing technology" in achieving desirable changes in
human affairs. Exponents of both problem solving and per-
sonal growth support re-education of persons as integral to
effective change in human systems. They both emphasize the
following as necessary conditions of the re-educative
process:

0 Norms of openness of communication

0 Trust between persons

0 Lowering of status barriers between parts of the
system

0 Mutuality between parts of the system

0 Release of creative responses of people being
re-educated. .

 

fi

23Ibid, p. 45.

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27

Still another major strategy is the Power-Coercive
Approach to Effecting Change. It is not power as we think
of one person imposing power on another or one group upon
another group that distinguishes this strategy from others.
"Power is an ingredient of all human action." The differ-
ences lie in the ingredients of powers upon which each of
the strategies rely and how this power is generated and
used in effecting change.

a. Rational-empirical depend on knowledge as the
primary ingredient of power. Men of knowledge are sources
of power. This approach uses processes of education and
dissemination for flow of knowledge from,men who know to
those who don't know.

b. Normative-re-educative while not saying knowl-
edge is unimportant feel not enough emphasis is placed upon
behavioral knowledge and people technologies. They also
recognize the importance of non-cognitive determinants
(values, attitudes, and feelings at the personal level and
norms and relationships at the social level) as resistance
of supporters of change efforts. You must influence these
non-cognitive attributes in the mutual processes of per-
suasion and in collaborative relationships.

c. Power coercive strategies emphasize political
and economic power. Others may emphasize moral power

Playing upon guilt and shame. Laws passed in regard to

28

racial imbalance utilizes political power to bring about
desegregation in schools. The threat of sanctions by law
reduces the resistance of those morally orientated against
breaking laws. Economic power was exercised by the Federal
Government in trying to increase the emphasis on science
education. It was economically beneficial for schools to
alter their curriculums. In most instances the strategists
of change try to exert economic and political power to bring
about the changes they feel are desirable. Opponents try to
organize the power in an opposite direction. This can cause
a splitting of the society. A person or group in a social
system that has legitimate political and economic power can
use power-coercive strategies to effect change without those
out of power knowing it. The power of those in control can
be challenged when their part of the social system realizes
their best interests are not being served.

There are a variety of power coercive strategies
used either by those in control for maintenance or those
outside position of control seeking to enlarge their power.

Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King were well
known exponents of the strategy of nonviolence. The use
of political institutions to achieve change is another
example of a power coercive strategy.

Changes of this kind in education have come in large

measure from state legislation. The problem.with this idea

29

is that the change agents think that when the law is passed
the desired change has been made. People have to be re-
educated to act in a different way. It is highly advisable
to use normative-re-educative strategies, as well as polit-
ical coercion, both before and after political action.
Failure to do this will result in an uninformed public
and chances are the desired change will not be achieved.

Still another power coercive approach to change is
changing through the recomposition and manipulation of power
elites. Karl Marx was the chief exponent of this idea.

Brickellz“ points out that educational change has
its basis on one of two factors. It may come from failure
of the program to provide the desired behavior of its stu-
dents or it may come from a desired change in the goals of
education.

He would approach bringing about change by local
school districts using three combined components: (1)
Setting Educational Goals, (2) Operating Instructional
Programs, and (3) Generating Instructional Programs.

In setting educational goals the needs of the
individual and society must be considered. Not all of these
needs can be met by education but many can be. From these

needs objectives must be chosen. The school board holds

 

“Henry M. Brickell, "The Role of Local School
Systems in Change," Perspectives on Educational Chan e,
ed. by R. I. Miller (New York: Appleton-Century-Crogt,
1966). PP. 76-92.

30

responsibility of selecting local objectives beyond specific
objectives spelled out by State law. The task should be
done in a cooperative effort of the board, the community,
the professional staff and the students. The board may set
up citizen committees as sensing mechanisms for change of
educational objectives. The committees will assist local
school systems in changing their goals so that students may
be prepared to take their place in society. A constant
follow-up of graduates will also help local systems assess
their educational objectives. It might be well to use out?
side help in forming alternative objectives based on what
society will be in the future. The information can be held
in reserve to be used when the people choosing the objectives
feel it is needed.

After the instructional goals are determined then an
instructional program must be selected to best achieve those
goals. The instructional program will lead us into the
second phase of Operating an Instructional Program. There
will probably be a delay in implementing the program because
of the following factors:

1. There must be time to arouse public acceptance.

2. The staff must be informed.

3. Initial staff training is essential.

4. Appropriate materials must be examined.

5. Modification of facilities may need to take place.

6. The staff may wish to try the program on a pilot
basis.

31

Once the program is in operation continuous evaluation of
student progress must be made. After a reasonable time

if the project does not seem to be contributing to the
accomplishment of the goals expressed, an alternative plan
should be selected.

Brickell suggests that in the final phase, Gener-
ating Instructional Programs, local school systems might
request help from a central agency to solve their problems.
This central agency would then try to develop a program to
solve similar problems of many school districts. In other
words, the agency's function would be one of development,
a process of invention and engineering. The following
conditions seem to be characteristic of successful cur-
riculum development.

1. A group of highly intelligent-peoPle with
differentiated and specialized roles (scholars

in academic subjects and learning processes,

researchers, writers, teachers and various tech-

nical support personnel).

2. Efforts are addressed to a limited problem.

3. There was time to do the job.

4. Places were provided to do the work.

5. Developers had or could produce materials or
equipment needed.

6. They kept aware of similar projects but were free

to pursue their own ideas.

32

7. The program was tried in a regular classroom.
8. Those involved could anticipate some personal

recognition for their efforts.

The developers must be concerned with basic research
dealing with the problem they are trying to solve and apply
this basic research to the problem. There are few school
systems which can provide the conditions necessary for the
development Of a program. Development of this kind requires
the cooperation of Several school systems or efforts should
be funded by agencies designed to do program development.

After the design of the innovative program has been
completed a trial Of the innovation in a limited setting
should take place. It is in this laboratory atmosphere
where the design can be improved and its characteristics
clarified. It is then ready to be tested in schools with
teachers not associated with its creation. Teacher-student
Opinion and student learning will help to evaluate the
problem. If revisions need to be made they should be made.
If there are severe‘problems with the program but it does
show promise, take it back for modification.

The program is now ready for field experimentation.
The program should be done in controlled experimental condi—
tions and in different settings. The purpose of this is to
(1) determine cost factors, (2) identify conditions under

which it can be used and (3) examine possibilities that it

33

will teach what it is supposed to teach. The cooperation
of school systems in this area is critical. The program
has been found to work well in laboratory tests and should
now be ready for general use. If the program doesn't seem
to be better there is no need to field test it. If it is
good only under certain conditions it should be studied to
see where it went wrong. The contrast Of settings of where
it worked and where it didn't work should help in modifica-
tion. After modification, the innovative program can be
tried again in schools where it was unsuccessful and work
out further problems.

At this point the innovative idea is ready for
dissemination to other schools. This involves the following
steps:

1. Make the local school system aware of the idea.
2. Provide resources to arouse interest.

3. Demonstrate the idea in a nearby location which
is similar to the clients.

4. Make materials and equipment available.

5. Provide initial training for staff and follow up
with support and encouragement.

6. Assist with evaluation.25

25Ibid., p. 91.

34

Samuel Mangione26 suggests that there is no one
approach to bringing about change but there are strategies
in the models already available that should be used: He
proposed the following six elements of change:

1. Need for involvement

2. Climate for change

3. Need identification and assessment
4. Establishment of priorities

5. Searching for solutions

6. Implementation.

The first element seems to be crucial. If all those
to be affected by a change cannot be involved, at least a
representative group should be included. An essential part
of this and all other elements suggested is communication
with those involved.

There is some evidence that there is a relationship
between the organizational climate of a school and its
receptiveness to change. There are those that contend,
however, that teachers seldom suggest new types of working
patterns for themselves even if given the freedom to do so.

It is important to identify and assess needs Of a
school system or client system. This helps those involved

become aware of the reason for needed changes. Mangione27

 

25Samuel Mangione, "Bringing Perspective to the
Change Situation," Educational Leadership, XXVII (January,
1970), 359-362. I

27Ibid., 361.

35

suggests that brainstorming might be used as a technique
to gather data about needs. Another means which might be
used is the use of outside consultants to assess needs.

Because of limited funds and personnel most systems
will have to establish priorities as outlined in element
three (3). If a large number of people make up the orga-
nization then a written survey approach might be used to
gather the opinions of the peOple. A representative com-
mittee might also establish priorities frOm the list of
identified needs. This should be done after the needs
have been appropriately categorized.

After needs have been identified and priorities
established the search for solutions begins. There are
various ways you might approach this. You may use the
brainstorming technique, circulate a list of priority
needs or use outside consultants.

A small pilot program may be tried prior to any
larger implementation. This pilot program should be
evaluated in terms Of goals and objectives previously
established. If the program seems to be good as is, it
should be ready to try on a larger scale. If it does not
meet the needs it should be modified and retested.

Gordon J. Klopf describes a group of interaction
processes which seem very helpful in permitting change to

take place. These were drawn from a study which was done

36

at a school of higher education. The project sought to
sort out those variables which have some impact in bringing
about change on the adults involved.

It appeared to the staff that it was the

quality, depth relatedness to the setting,

and meaningfulness of the interaction process
between the trainers and consultants and the
teachers, and eventually among the teachers
themselves, that brought about Observed changes
in the teachers and in turn created a more
effective learning environment for the children.28

The four processes discussed are (l) The Consulta-
tion Process, (2) The Process of Dialogue, (3) The Process
Of Encounter, (4) The Process Of Confrontation.

(l) The Consultation Process.--This process can be
described as a group of activities which enable a person
called a consultant to function in a role to help an indi-
vidual or small group become more professionally competent
in a certain situation.

The major goal of a consultation is to help a
consultee to understand the situation and to
recognize himself in the situation, his strength
and needs; to help a person help himself as he
relates to a task or set Of functions. A con-
sultation enables an individual to learn con-
cepts and information, to enact a role, to gain
competencies and skills in a face to face inter-
action with a person, the consultant, in rela-
tionship to a situation.29

 

28Gordon J. KlOpf, "Interaction Processes and Change,"
Education Leadership, XXVII (January, 1970), 334-38.

8Ibid., p. 335.

37

Some important characteristics Of the consultation process
are:

0 Consultant begins interview with a spirit of
warmth, respect, Openness.

0 Consultant clarifies who he is and why he is
present.

0 Consultant solicits response and listens.

0 Consultant facilitates clarification Of situations,
goals, issues, needs and problems.

0 Consultant shares relevant knowledge and experiences
as situation demands.

0 Consultant makes pertinent referrals for specific
kinds of assistance.

0 Consultant enables possible solution and approaches

to arise eventually from mutual interaction.3°

(2) The Process of Dialogue.--"Dialogue is an
exchange involving two, three, or four individuals. The
discussion is a mutual exploration of an idea, information,
a situation, an experience, or a task which may be central
to the group."31

The major emphasis Of dialogue is upon explanation
not resolution. It raises questions rather than providing
specific answers. Some teachers change more readily through
this approach because the discussion is of a more general

nature and not a direct attack on his own classroom

situation.

 

3°Ibid., p. 336.

31Ibid.

 

38

(3) The Process of Encounter.--The encounter is a
meeting Of from two to eight people that come together to
approach a situation in terms Of themselves and their dif-
ferent roles in the situation. From the encounter should
come a realistic appraisal of each person's role. It is
different from consultation and dialogue in that it deals
with the person or persons involved not just the situations
or problems to be solved.

The encounter provides the opportunity to
communicate feelings, to be angrY: to be
sympathetic, to be sensitive, to respond
with conviction of a deep personal nature,

to reflect passion and concern, to expe-
rience people as they are. The participant
does not play a role, the facade is down; he
is a real person and does not deny self. One

listens to what others are saying, what they
are trying to say and what they are actually

saying.

(4) The Process of Confrontation.--This particular
process is usually used when nothing else has worked to
move or change a person. It is a planned process which is
initiated by someone who understands the person involved,
the conflict, and the quality Of the relationship. It is

usually used when there is a crucial time factor involved.

 

32Ibid., p. 337.

39

There can be some real dangers in this approach and the
following questions should be asked:
0 Can the confrontee handle the attack?

0 Will the process really reintegrate his perception
Of self and his action?

0 Does he operate from.what he considers a position
of honesty and integrity for him?

0 If he is functioning outside the limits of the
situation, does he know what the limits are before
he is confronted about them?

0 Have other less direct and threatening processes
been used prior to the confrontation?

. Is the initiator ready for the crisis or hostile
behavior and negative attitude that may result from
the directions of his Observations?33
Confrontation is probably a more honest approach to

bringing about change in a person than some of the more
sophisticated processes. Anyone using it must realize,
however, that after the confrontation the person may not
change anyway, and the helping relationship one has enjoyed
may be destroyed by the interpersonal dynamics involved.
Peggy Miller indicates that human factors are more

crucial to curriculum change than non—human or material
factors. She would submit from a study done involving ESEA
Title III in the State of Michigan that working with people
effectively is the key to successful innovation and change.

Community support, support of administration, high quality

 

33Ibid., pp. 337-333.

40

staff, involvement of lay citizenry and parents, good
communication, extensive and enthusiastic involvement of
staff are all facilitators of change. "Human Obstacles to
change occur in the form Of suspicion, reluctance, threat,

and lack Of communication."3“

Two very important factors
needed in effectively working with the human element are
adequate planning-development time prior to implementation
of a new project and a meaningful in-service program for
professional staff.
Flanders considers four broad categories of forces
to bring about an environment for change:
First, personal incentive; second, provision
for continuing reinforcement which is free of
threat; third, having available various skills
for analyzing teaching behavior; and fourth,
having access to the time-space-and—equipment
that the job requires.35
It is felt by Flanders that the involvement of those
most concerned is spread over tOO long a period of time--a
meeting here, a meeting there and a committee report some
other time. If a high density approach were used keeping
in mind the four points mentioned above perhaps change
could be brought about more easily.

Havelock believes the focus for change should be on

the user. It is his needs and problems which should be the

 

3"Peggy L. Miller, "Innovation and Change in Educa-
tion," Educationaleeadership, XXVII, 339-340.

asNed A. Flanders, "Sharing in Change," Educational
Leadership, XXVII (January, 1970), 327-330.

 

41

primary concern Of the change agent. He sees the process
of bringing about educational change as having at least
six stages:

Stage I --Building a Relationship

Stage II --Diagnosing

Stage III--Acquiring Relevant Resources

Stage IV --Choosing the Solution

Stage V --Gaining Acceptance

Stage VI --Stabilizing the Innovation and

Generating Self-Renewal.36

These stages do not necessarily occur in the order
shown above nor would all the stages listed necessarily be
used. There is inter-relationship between all stages and
it is quite possible that two stages may occur simultane-
ously. For a closer look at each of these stages, please

refer to Appendix A.

Rationale for Differentiated Staffing

 

The review of literature up to this point has dealt
primarily with change. Because much more is known about
change than differentiated staffing, the bulk of the mate-
rials presented has to do with change. This in no way
discounts the importance Of differentiated staffing as an

alternative staffing pattern for schools.

 

36Ronald G. Havelock, A Guide to Innovation in
Education (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Institute for Social Research,
1970), p. 10. '

 

42

Although change is occurring all around us the
staffing patterns of schools have remained relatively static.
We produce teachers and perceive them as any project which
comes Off the assembly line. The parts are interchangeable
and one teacher is just like any other. Every teacher has
thirty students and is omnicapable in providing them with
their education.

We constantly hear the concept of individualized
instruction mentioned and the concern for the individual
differences Of students. Little has been said for the
individual differences of teachers. Staffing patterns as
seen in schools today do not appear much different than
they have in past years. Although teachers are probably
better trained today than ever before, the model for staff
utilization has changed little in the past 100 years.

If we look at the tasks most teachers perform in
their teaching day we find many that are unrelated to her
function as a teacher. Too much of a teacher's time is
engaged in clerical, technical and other non-teaching tasks.
Differentiated staffing offers an alternative approach to
free teachers to teach.

It is difficult to comprehend how teachers in
schools today can possibly be the great dispensers of
knowledge as they have been viewed in the past. If in
fact we are experiencing a tremendous knowledge explosion,

how can we maintain this concept of omnicapability?

43

One can look at salary schedules of most communities
and see how teachers are perceived as all being alike or as
Dwight Allen37 elaborates:

For the impossible expectations we hold of him

in his position, we compensate this little master
of the universe, the teacher, by pigeonholing him
in a salary scale in which he looks very much
like every other little master of the universe
within his school district--both in responsibility
expected him and remuneration granted him. The
longer he stays on the job, the fewer duties we
require of him (we drop his homeroom assignment
or give him an extra free period, or waive a club
assignment), and the more we pay him. His one
hope Of moving two steps up the scale in any
given year, rather than one step, is the addition
of a couple Of inservice credits in his field at
the nearby university. Or, he can move away from
students altogether and slip into administration.

If we examine this even further there are probably

three additional criteria considered in promotion and

remuneration as noted by Nikolai:38

l. The chances are very good that all of the
teachers on the salary schedule have the
same responsibilities, that is, they all are
teaching thirty children, five to seven periods
per day, five days a week. Thus, the remunera-
tion is not remotely connected to responsibility
or competence.

2. It is obvious that the way to make more money
is to go back to school and earn more credits,
and to grow Older. The criterion is a "time
served" concept, rather than a "performance"
concept.

hL-

37Dwight W. Allen, "A Differentiated Staff: Putting
Teacher Talent To Work, The Teacher and His Staff," Occas-
sional Papers NO. 1 (Washington, D.C.: NEA, 1967).

asIrvin Nikolai, iDifferentiated Personnel: A
Rationale," In Educational Manpower, ed. by Edward G. Buffie
and Janis L. Olivero (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University
Press, 1970), pp. 27-28.

44

3. Promotion is automatic. As the teacher

grows Older he moves up the salary schedule.

The fact is that the only alternative teach-

ers have is to get out of teaching completely,

and to move into administration and/or super-

vision; or teach at the junior college or

university level. However, the former type

of "promotion" has an ominous implication in

that it moves the teachers outside the class-

room and away from their classes.

More importantly than what happens to competent
teachers in this kind of staffing organization is what
happens to the students who have to sit in a math classroom,
as an example, with an incompetent teacher. Certainly the
needs of the student, which we have long proclaimed as our
main reason for being are not being met. This is true of
the needs the teacher has also. This is not to say that the
teacher is incompetent to handle any teaching chores,
(though we know there are some Of those) but the compe-
tencies which she can best give are not being utilized.

Bernard McKenna?’ states several factors or ration-
ales for differentiated staffing.

1. If schools are going to individualize programs
for children they need to individualize responsibilities of
teachers. They need to capitalize upon the talents and

interests of teachers. We can no longer expect individual

teachers to assume similar responsibilities at all levels.

 

asBernard H. McKenna, "Differentiated Staffing: A
Proposal for Redesigning the Educational Professions,"
Research Bulletin New Jersey DevelOpment Council, Graduate
SOHOOI of Education, Rutgers University, Winter, 1971.

45

2. The day Of the generalist teacher is becoming
less and less reasonable. With the explosion of knowledge
and the technological advances in equipment, one teacher at
any level cannot possibly hope to keep up with what she is
expected to do.

3. Differentiated staffing is one possible way to
strengthen career patterns in teaching. If a teacher is to
improve himself careerwise he must move into an administra-
tive or supervisory role. When he does this he is removed
further from students. There are others in the profession
who are not interested in it as a career and will only stay
with it for a brief time. It is possible through differen-
tiated staffing for career people to help new teachers by
becoming leaders of the new staff members. They may become
specialists in diagnosis of learning disabilities and pre-
scribing for them.

4. The idea of a career ladder in teaching is
another benefit of differentiated staffing. About the only
way one enters teaching now is through completion of four
years of college. In the career ladder idea you could enter
with less than college preparation and in some instances
less than high school. As a person gained experience and
education he could move up the ladder. The lattice idea
provides for horizontal as well as vertical movement. As
the level Of his training, interest and expertise dictated

he could move horizontally and vertically.

46

5. A differentiated staffing organization can
provide an Opportunity for teacher education to bridge the
gap between theory and practice. Rather than the formal
coursework followed by student teaching approach we now
have, students could begin experience in schools as Freshmen
working with carefully selected senior teachers trained to
help bring young prospective teachers into the teaching
field. There would then be a combination Of courses at the
college or university with practical experience at various
levels in the public schools.

6. The above point could lead to a more cooperative
effort Of teacher education by the public schools and col-
leges Of education.

7. Another rationale is to place the responsibility
for governing the profession in the hands of those best
equipped to handle it, the professionals themselves. This
does not mean control of education since this would still
rest with the duly elected body of the people.

8. Curriculum decisions need to be placed nearer
the students and with teachers as implementers of policy.
Because of the widening range of knowledge and teaching
strategies the principal can no longer fulfill the role Of
educational leader in his building. This responsibility
should be placed with staff teams and the principal would

play a different role in the scheme of things.

47

9. More men might be lured into teaching if it
were a more powerful career.

10. The substitute problem.would not be as complex
as it is now.

11. You would not need large groups in order to
have small groups.

12. You could involve the community to a much

greater extent.

History

A Brief History

Various models of differentiated staffing have been
proposed. Anyone studying these begins with Temple City,
California. This is probably where the idea of differen-
tiated staffing as it is perceived today was first born in
1965. Dr. Dwight Allen who was located at Stanford Univer-
sity at that time sat down over lunch with Fenwick English
and M. John Rand superintendent Of the Temple City Schools.
From this meeting eventually evolved a preliminary model
which was presented to the California State Board of
Education.“°

A short time later Dr. Allen visited the Temple City

School District for a second presentation to board members,

 

Y

noFenwick W. English, A Handbook Of the Temple Cit
Differentiated Staffing Project, 1965-1970. An Up-to-Date
Revision Of Project Procedures and Policies, June, 1970,
pp. 44.

48

PTA representatives, administrators, and a group of
elementary teachers. At this meeting he presented a more
up-to-date version Of the concept of differentiated staffing.
Fenwick English was then appointed to chair a committee to
develop a proposal to be presented to the Charles F. Ketter-
ing Foundation of Denver, Colorado."1 The proposal which
was submitted was approved and in October 1966 the Temple
City School District received a check for $41,840.00.

At this point several task forces were formed from
the steering committee and from the job analysis task force
group came Model II of the Temple City plan. This model was
presented to staff members for their reactions and in light
of their reactions a further revision was made and this
became Model III. In the Spring Of 1968, Oak Avenue Inter-
mediate School was selected as the pilot school to put Model
III into effect. The school year 1969-70 saw funds coming
from the federal government by way of the Education Profes-

sions Development Act (EPDA).“2
Review Of Sample Projects

Temple City, California
The hierarchy which exists under the Temple City

plan involves the Master Teacher, Senior Teacher, Staff

 

I“Ibid., p. 3.

”Ibid.

 

49

Teacher, Associate Teacher and auxiliary support personnel.
The role of the Master Teacher is one of research special-
ist. He represents an attempt to bridge the gap between new
research and the local school. He works closely with the
Senior Teacher to devise pilot projects tO test these new
ideas. It is through him that the organization tries to
achieve self renewal.

The Senior Teacher has the primary responsibility
for the course content in his particular subject area and
is also responsible for applications Of innovations into
the classroom. He also hires and evaluates various para-
professionals and gives those student teachers in his sub-
ject area their assignments. He serves on the school's
Academic Senate and along with the principal assists in
selection and evaluation Of his colleagues in his subject
area. If he is in a team teaching situation, he is the
team leader.

The Staff Teacher would have the same responsibility
as a full time classroom teacher today. He would have to be
effective in instruction of groups of various size.

The Associate Teacher could be a student teacher, a
probationary teacher, or a teaching intern. He could be
used wherever needed in the subject area or skill level in

which no advanced experience or expertise is needed.

50

Auxiliary support personnel refer to instructional
aides and clerks. The aides are working with students and
teachers in resource centers, learning laboratories and the
like. This frees the teachers for about one-third more time
to concentrate on teaching tasks.

Cherry Creek Schools Of Metropolitan
Denverf:COIOradO

Whereas the Temple City Differentiated Staffing
project was located in one school the Cherry Creek project
represents a more system wide approach. There are various
components which are located in different schools throughout
the system. The seven components which have been identified
are:

l. Differentiation of role
2. Differentiation of subject matter competencies
3. Differentiation of methodological competencies

4. Differentiation of salary, prestige, and promotional
levels

5. Differentiation Of professional and non-professional
tasks

6. Differentiation of trainee-trainer relationship

7. Differentiation of same dollar resources.
Some of the schools have all of the components implemented,
some have as few as three. It would appear that the schools
are at various stages Of development with their respective

programs. Walnut Hills Elementary School is probably the

51

best known program of those implemented. The building was
brand new in September, 1969 when the differentiated staff-
ing program began. The school is built as an Open space
facility with three large self-contained learning centers.
These centers serve from 125 to 150 students each. The
library is an open space area blended in with the learning
centers. In Walnut Hills School one would find individual—
ized instruction, team teaching, non grading, 50 percent
independent study or one to one tutoring, and variable
scheduling. Because of the non-graded situation one would
find overlapping age groups in each learning center.

Each learning center is organized with a team leader,
three certified teachers, a full—time paid intern, a part-
time instructional assistant, a part-time student teacher,

a part-time teacher aide, a senior and junior high school
assistant, and parent assistants.

The team leaders are given a pay differential for
the additional responsibilities they assume. These differ-
entials vary from $1,300 to $2,003 above what they would be
paid on the regular salary schedule. This type Of staffing
arrangement was implemented at a cost of $39,017 less than a
conventional program. This was not true in Temple City
where initial costs were somewhat more.

The approach to individualized instruction at Walnut
Hills involves a diagnosis, prescription, and treatment

philosophy.

52

1. Diagnosis of student requirements is done
by all teachers and is an attempt to system-
atically analyze and determine the next step
in pupil learning.

2. Prescriptions or interpretations of the
diagnosis findings is individually developed
and tailored to the requirements of each
learner. These are Of both short term (one
day) and long term (two weeks) duration,
depending upon the diagnosis.

3. Contracting--Prescriptions are implemented
by means of the execution Of learning con-
tracts. These contracts--oral and written--
are developed cooperatively by all team mem-
bers, cleared through the team leader, and
executed by the parent, student, and the team.
The contract can be amended at any time by
those contracting. The contract not only
serves as the road map to instructional
strategies to be used but also is used as
the method of reporting to parents and the
Official records Of the students.

4. Treatment--Very simply, the treatment includes

the actual instructional strategies employed

by the team and implemented by the learning
contract. Treatment includes self-instruction,
tutorial, independent study, small, medium, and
large group instruction. The kind and size Of
group activity are usually decided on the basis
of several criteria including: performance or
achievement, requirements, interests, learning
style concepts.

5. Assessment of each student is then made on the
basis of clearly defined behavioral Objectives
specified in the learning contract and demon-
strated in past test performance. These per-
formance results become part of a new diagnosis,
prescription, contract-treatment-assessment cycle.“3

 

I'“Differentiated Staffing in Schools," National
School Public Relations Association, 1970, pp. 19-20.

53

Mary Harmon Weeks Elementary School
and Martin Luther K1ng JunioriHigh
SchOol, Kansas Cipy, Missouri

 

The two Kansas City schools were Opened in the Fall
of 1968 with a differentiated staffing organization. Each
of the schools accommodates about 1,000 students and is
located in the central part of Kansas City. One advantage
which the two schools enjoyed was being able to select the
personnel specifically for a differentiated staffing pattern.
This factor enabled the administration to involve the teach—
ers before the program began. As Dr. Donald Hair”' points
out: "If a traditional school which already has a staff
wants to try differentiated staffing, generating teacher

“5 In the Kansas City project two

involvement is a must."
weeks of intensive orientation were conducted for the
teachers prior to the Opening of school. The emphasis in
the workshop were in developing a differentiated staffing
philosophy, Objectives, and programs for their respective
schools.

The certified hierarchy in the Kansas City plan has
five levels. They are (l) Coordinating Instructor, (2)
Senior Instructor, (3) Instructor, (4) Associate Instructor,

(5) Interns. This core group is supported by other certi-

fied personnel in Art, Vocal Music, Physical Education,

 

“Donald Hair, "Differentiated Staffing and Salary
Patterns Underway in Kansas City," School and Community,
April, 1969, pp. 8-14.

“Ibid.

54

Speech and Reading, Pupil Service, Nurse, Instrumental Music
and Resource Center Director. Added to this are the non-
certified personnel such as clerks, paraprofessionals,
student teachers, resource persons and all other volunteer
services.

The Coordinating Instructor is concerned with
coordinating activities with a broad segment of the cur-
riculum. The coordinating instructor teaches demonstration
lessons and also teaches some scheduled classes. She eval-
uates and makes suggestions in regard to this broad segment
of the curriculum. She has the responsibility for super-
vising the ordering and distribution of equipment, materials
and supplies. The coordinating instructor also is respon-
sible for the assessment of community needs. She brings the
impetus for curriculum innovation to the level with which
she works as well as new materials which show promise.

The Senior Instructor serves as a team leader. He
is a representative on the instructional council which in-
cludes other senior instructors, coordinating instructors,
and the principal. One of the most important functions he
has is diagnosis and prescriptions for the needs Of the
individual children in his team. He also has major respon-
sibility for the planning Of activities for each day.

The Instructor is a full-time teacher. He is

responsible for large group instruction in this specialty

55

field. He works with small groups and individuals in
enrichment and developmental activities.

The Associate Instructor is usually a certified
teacher who only wishes to work part time. She carries
out activities as assigned by the senior instructor and
uses plans and schedules as set up by the team.

The Student Teacher and Intern personnel for Kansas
City follow closely those in other cities. The Teacher Aide
is used primarily in doing clerical work. This includes
taking attendance, preparing orders for materials and
equipment. They also set up machines and equipment as
needed.

The costs of the Mary Harmon Weeks and Martin Luther
King differentiated staffing programs cost $18,087 and
$17,698 more than conventional staffing patterns. They
receive additional services, however, that many conventional
plans do not."6

Wisconsin Essearch and Development
Center for Cognitive Learning

 

The Multi-Unit Elementary School-Individually Guided
Education represent a unique teaching-learning strategy.
The Individually Guided Education organization is a com-
bination of differentiated staffing, non-gradedness, and

team teaching. The school is divided into units of 100 to

 

“Ibid., pp. 27-28.

56

150 children with unit leaders, teachers, aides and interns.
The school of 600 students would typically have four units
with 150 students in each unit. A unit would consist of a
unit'leader, five teachers, a teacher aide, an instructional
secretary and an intern. Unit meetings are held once weekly
at least and more often if it is deemed necessary. These
meetings are devoted to planning and evaluating the total
instructional program for the entire unit. All certified
members are required to be there. At least two hours of
time a week are needed for these meetings. Various ways
are used to get this necessary time for planning.

There is a committee called the Instructional
Improvement Committee which is made up Of the unit leaders
and the principal. This committee also meets weekly and is
chaired by the principal. This committee utilizes the ser-
vices of central Office personnel when considering certain
changes in a subject matter area or school function. The
central Office staff acts as consultants bringing special-
ized knowledge regarding content, methodology, materials,
evaluations, etc. This also provides a link between the
building program and the systemrwide program.

Another organizational level is the Systeeride
Policy Committee. This is chaired by the superintendent
or another person designated by him. The committee is made

up of principals, representative unit leaders, representative

57

teachers, and other relevant central Office staff. Their
purpose is to establish broad policies and guidelines for
the multi-unit schools. The Systeeride Policy Committee
decides the functions the Multi-Unit Schools will serve,
makes sure that necessary personnel and resources are made
available and that the functions are interpreted to the
school board and the community.

The process of instruction is left primarily up to
the staff in each unit. The staff in that unit is respon-
sible for assessment of each child, the development Of
Objectives, selection Of content and activities, the place-
ment of each child in activities relevant to his interests,
and the evaluation to be used. By this method the student
in each unit can benefit from the best possible instruction
that is available in that unit. In most self-contained
classrooms this is not the case. The consultants meet with
the staff during regular school hours and assist the unit
team in planning and executing the instructional program.

The role of the principal is changed somewhat under
this organizational structure. In the multi-unit school the
principal has more leadership responsibility for initiating
and refining the system of individually guided education,
managing the inservice and preservice activities in his
building, and administering the research and development

activities in his building. The principal has the additional

58

responsibility of choosing the Instructional Improvement
Committee, an important communication link in the building.

The responsibility of the unit leader is instruc—
tional, not administrative or supervisory. He has respon-
sibilities as a team leader, as a member Of the Instructional
Improvement Committee and as a teacher in a unit. He has the
responsibility for seeing that the unit deals successfully
with the Objectives, content materials, student activities,
utilization of time, and utilization Of space. The unit
leader does have the assistance Of the principal in these
responsibilities as well as input from his team members.
Other responsibilities include: demonstration teaching,
teacher education and research development.

The other staff members serve in a capacity similar
to those described in previous projects. The main differ-
ences for the teacher in the unit in comparison to the self—
contained classroom is the cooperative planning that is done
with other members of the unit, working with many children,

and performing at a higher professional level."7

Beaverton, Oregon and Differentiated
Staffing

The Beaverton, Oregon differentiated staffing plan

got under way in the Fall of 1970-71. The plan began

 

“Herbert J. Klausmeier, Richard G. Morrow, James E.
Walter, and Russell S. Way, "Individually Guided Education
in the Multiunit Elementary School--Guidelines for Imple-
mentation," Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction,
1970, p. 32.

59

Operation in three schools: Cooper Mountain Grade School,
Mountain View Junior High School and Aloha High School.
There were two guiding principles which were fol-

lowed in the Beaverton plan:

1. Teachers must be involved in planning if it is
to succeed in the classroom.

2. "Schools are for kids."

The staffs Of the three schools did undergo exten-
sive in-service training during the summer of 1969 and 1970.
The personnel Of each pilot school created, together, their
mutual staff structure.

The organizational hierarchy has at the top of the
professional ladder the Instructional Coordinators. The
responsibilities of these coordinators are primarily in
curriculum bringing new and up-to-date knowledge in methods
and curriculum content. They spend approximately 25 percent
of their time with students.

The Team of Area Leaders form the second level Of
staff organization. They are experienced teachers used in
.a.more specialized manner. As team leaders they are more
lcnowledgeable in student needs and problems in certain areas.
TUIe team leaders are particularly concerned with improving
tdie quality of teaching in their area and the amount of

learning Of their students.

60

The Associate Teachers are beginning teachers.

These staff teachers are given more additional time for
planning their instruction than the more experienced
teachers.

The Teacher Interns are graduate college students
who receive salary while working. The interns assist the
certified teachers where they are best suited.

The Clerical Aides free the teacher from non-
teaching tasks so that he may spend his time doing what
he was hired to do—-teach. Those who are more qualified
are known as Teacher Assistants and may perform tasks more
closely related to instruction than those less qualified.

The Beaverton project also used peer aides. These
are students that are better able to communicate with others
of their own age than a teacher. The peer aides are used in

small groups or in tutoring on a one to one basis.

Research Of Differentiated Staffing

The research which has been done to examine differ-
entiated staffing is quite limited. Most Of the research
has been of a local nature to determine improved achievement
13y students. There is little evidence to support this claim.

The most extensive study was conducted by the Center
iiar the Advanced Study of Educational Administration (CASEA).
CHXSEA recently completed a two-year study of Differentiated

Staffing in four schools in the Northwest. The center also

61

participated in a national study involving fifty schools
across the United States. The main Objective of the study,
a part of CASEA's program 20, is to discover barriers to
initiation and implementation of change projects.

The study revealed some change had taken place and
some progress was made. They also found that no great
strides had taken place in any of the schools to convert
previously existing programs to a new form. The researchers
gained the following insight into the nature Of innovations.
"Because of the vague and unspecified sense Of many educa-
tional innovations and the lack Of a 'blue-print' for change,
it was Observed that innovations must Often be invented on

the inside of schools rather than imported from the outside.

Summagy

Differentiated staffing Offers an Opportunity for
school systems to change the structure of their schools,
something which has remained static for years. No longer
can we Operate as though teachers are omnicapable. The
knowledge explosion has caused teachers and administrators
to re-examine their roles as great importers of knowledge.
Somehow teachers must be freed from the many non-teaching
tasks which occupy their time. Differentiated staffing
Offers an organizational structure which can accomplish

these goals.

62

Most change and innovation in education has
filtered from the top down. Little concern has been given
to the planning and implementation of innovation in educa-
tion. If innovation is successful it requires the involve-
ment of those who are going to make the change. Change
agents must be aware of the.resistance they will meet in
working with client systems.

Many authors have submitted elements for bringing
about change in education and describing those factors which
inhibit change. Watson describes nine personality factors
which inhibit change. They are: (1) homeostasis, (2) habit,
(3) primacy, (4) selective perception and retention, (5)
dependence, (6) illusion of impotency, (7) superego, (8)
self-distrust, and (9) insecurity and regression. He also
submits five factors in social systems which inhibit change.
They are: (l) conformity to norms, (2) systematic and cul-
tural coherence, (3) vested interests, (4) the sacrosanct,
and (5) rejection of outsiders.

Watson also suggests thirteen ways resistance to
change can be reduced. Resistance will be less when: (l)
the client system feels the project is their own, (2) the
project has wholehearted support from top officials, (3) the
Participants see the change reducing their present burdens,
(4) the change agrees with the values and ideals of partic-

1Pants, (5) the change Offers the kind of new experience

63

which interests participants, (6) the autonomy and security
of the participants is not threatened, (7) the participants
have been a part of the diagnostic process and agree upon
the real problem, (8) the change is adopted by the consensus
of the group, (9) the proponents have empathy with opponents
recognizing valid objections and relieving unnecessary fears,
(10) there is an opportunity for feedback of the perceptions
of the change so that misinterpretations and misunderstand-
ings can be resolved, (11) the relationships of participants
is built on trust and confidence, (12) the project is open
to revision if change seems desirable, and (13) the readi—
ness for change becomes a characteristic of the group.

Berne and Chin suggest there are three basic
strategies used to bring about change. These are the
empirical rational strategy, the normative-re-education
and the power-coercive approach. Brickell would approach
bringing about change in school systems using three compo-
nents. They are: (1) setting educational goals, (2)
operating instructional programs, (3) generating instruc-
tional programs. Brickell submits there may be a delay in
implementing because (1) there must be time to arouse public
acceptance, (2) the staff must be informed, (3) initial
staff training is essential, (4) appropriate materials must
be examined, (5) modification of facilities may need to take
Place, and (6) the staff may wish to try the program on a

Pilot basis.

64

Mangione suggests six elements of change which are:
(1) need for involvement, (2) climate for change, (3) need
identification and assessment, (4) establishment of prior-
ities, (5) searching for solutions, and (6) implementation.

Havelock places the focus for change on the user.
The change agent should be concerned about the users' needs
and problems. Havelock recommends six stages in bringing
about change. They are: (1) building a relationship, (2)
diagnosing, (3) acquiring relevant resources, (4) choosing
the solution, (5) gaining acceptance, and (6) stabilizing
the innovation and generating self-renewal.

Based upon the essential components postulated by
the above authors the theoretical model for planning and
implementation Of differentiated staffing was developed for
this study. The model is delineated in the following

chapter .

CHAPTER III

PRESENTATION OF THE DESIGN PROCEDURES

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the
research design, the instrumentation, and the procedures
used to conduct the study. The population and sample used
in the study are identified in the chapter. Also, included
is a discussion of the instrument used, statements of the
research questions to be answered and the statistical

methods used in the study.
Population

The population of the study included teachers and
administrators engaged in the seventeen, differentiated
staffing projects throughout the country. All projects
were funded under the Education Professional Development
Act"8 (EPDA). Other schools in the process of implementing
differentiated staffing were not included in the study
because of the possibility that they were: (1) not far
enough along in implementing their program to reply to
questions on the instrument, (2) calling their program

differentiated staffing but did not meet the minimum

 

“Hereafter referred to as EPDA.

65

66

requirements of such a program, or (3) in pilot status and

too small to provide adequate data.

Sample

Through contact with one of the administrators of
the EPDA program six of the seventeen funded projects were
identified as being well developed differentiated staffing
organizations. The projects described as well developed
had been in operation for two or more years and they were
also selected for their regional location. The regions
represented were the Northwest, West, Southwest, Southeast
and Midwest. A11 (n==400) principals and teachers associ-
ated with the six projects were designated to participate
in the study.

The EPDA projects were Beaverton, Oregon; Laguna
Beach, California; Mesa, Arizona; Kansas City, Missouri;
Sarasota, Florida; and Wayne County Intermediate School

District, Detroit, Michigan.

Personnel

 

The range of numbers of principals and teachers
involved in the six projects was from 25 to 110. Laguna
Beach (n==30) and Wayne (n==25) each had one school engaged
in differentiated staffing. Beaverton, Oregon (n==50) had
one elementary and one junior high school. Mesa (n==95),

Kansas City (n==90), Sarasota (n==100), each had two or

more schools in various stages of differentiated staffing.

 

67

The characteristics of the sample are summarized

in Chart 3.1.

 

 

 

Percentage
Total ‘2:

School System Personnel Respondents Responses
Beaverton, Oregon 50 28 56
Mesa, Arizona 95 61 64
Kansas City, Missouri 90 50 56
Sarasota, Florida 110 57 52
Laguna Beach, California 30 22 73
Wayne County Intermediate 25 21 84

School District,
Detroit, Michigan

Chart 3.1. Summary of Number of Respondents to Differentiated Staffing
Questionnaire from Six EPDA Projects.

Of the 239 respondents listed above nineteen were
administrators. Two from Beaverton, Oregon; six from Mesa,
Arizona; and one from Kansas City, Missouri; five from
Sarasota, Florida; four from Laguna Beach, California; and
one from Wayne County Intermediate School District, Detroit,
Michigan.

A follow-up letter was sent to all persons who had
been sent questionnaires. A copy of this letter may be

found in Appendix B.

68

Statement of Hypothesis

To determine whether a theoretical model for
planning and implementing differentiated staffing was
valid it was necessary to ask those who were working in
differentiated staffing organizations if they agreed with
the components of the model. The general hypothesis of

this study was:

General hypothesis I

Principals and teachers will rate questions on a
specially designed instrument to measure a theoretical model
of planning and implementation of differentiated staffing
with sufficient agreement to support the basic elements in

the model (a= .05) .
Instrumentation

At the time this study was initiated little research
had been done to determine essential steps which should be
taken in planning and implementing a differentiated staffing
organization. Instruments to measure the perception of
principals and teachers regarding planning and implementa-
tion of differentiated staffing were non-existent. It was
therefore necessary to design a special instrument for this

study. The items in the instrument were constructed from

the concepts in the published literature, in consultation

 

69

with colleagues, and from conversations with recognized
authorities in the field.

The instrument consists of forty-eight items
constructed to measure twenty—four concepts, an attempt
was made to write each of the twenty-four statements twice
to measure both poles of a differentiated staffing philo-
sophical and action stage. Thus item 21 (Goal analysis is
not a necessary component in planning for a differentiated
staffing organization) is the converse of item 29 (It is
important for a group considering differentiated staffing
to have their goals well identified).

The original instrument was pilot tested on the
staff of Averill Elementary School, Lansing, Michigan.
After the pilot test the instrument of forty-eight items
was revised to include four additional items. In final
form the questionnaire consisted of fifty-two items which

measured twenty-six theoretical concepts.

2392.122

This study is descriptive in nature. A theoretical
model was constructed and data on a survey questionnaire was
collected to determine how closely the model approximates
what experienced principals and teachers declared essential
in planning and implementing differentiated staffing. The

theoretical model appears as Chart 3.2 and Chart 3.3.

 

 

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71

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72

It was determined a priori that certain items on
the questionnaire should be used to measure agreement with
the stages of the model. The items assigned to each stage
in the planning phase can be found in Chart 3.4. The items
assigned to each of the eight stages of the implementation
phase can be found in Chart 3.5. The items may be found in

Questionnaire in Appendix B.

 

§EEE§. Planning Phase Title JEEEEE
1 Identify Client System 6,8,10,15,18,30
2 Evaluate Relationship 32,37
3 Identify Strengths and Change Potential 1,7,19,51
4 Provide Information 26,39
5 Stimulate Interest 1,51
6 Evaluation 2,48

Chart 3.4. Assignment of Items to Stages in Planning Phase of Model.

 

2

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Wit
the

ti:

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Sm:

73

 

§£ggg_ Implementation Phase Title EEEEE
1 Analyze Goals 21,29
2 Design Model 11,14,16,20,22,23,24,33,34,47
3 Involve Parents 6,18
4 Examine Curriculum 9,52
5. Assess Needs 5,12,17,27,35,38,40,44,45,49
6 Provide In-Service Training 3,4,25,28,31,41,42,43
7 Prepare Students 46,50
8 Evaluate 13.36

Chart 3.5. Items Assigned to Stages in Implementation Phase of Model.

Model for Planning and Im lementation of
Differentiated Sta ing

 

 

The model in charts 3.2 and 3.3 was derived from the
following: (1) planning experiences in a differentiated
staffing project, (2) consultant services which were done
with schools, (3) visitations to several projects throughout
the country. The components of the planning and implementa-

tion model are defined in the following section.
PlanningiPhase

All good administrative theory includes a planning
phase in development of new programs. It is important to
summarize the essential components of the planning phase of
a differentiated staffing organization. This phase is

explained step by step in the following narrative.

.0
HO

.u-

98

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(I)

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74

Identify Client System (1.0)

Identify those people with whom you will work in
attempting to change to a differentiated staffing organiza-
tion. Administrators, teachers, students, parents and
representatives of the community must all be considered
as part of the client system. When constructing a quality
representative group to constitute this client system four
basic questions should be answered: (1) Who are the opinion
leaders? (2) Who represents the formal authority? (3) Who
are those who have vested interests? (4) Who are those with
public relations ability? (5) Who are those who have credi-
bility and respectability?

The group that is identified from this process will
form a committee which will do further study and planning in

this phase of the model.

Evaluate Relationshipi(2.0)

It is essential that any change agent evaluate his
relationship with the client system. The starting point may
be a blank, meaning no former relationship. The change
agent may try to reestablish a previous relationship which
had been uncertain. Redefining a present relationship may

be the goal. It may be necessary to ask, "Is outside help

needed?"

 

 

7S

Identify Strengths and Change
Potential (3.0)

 

One of the facilitators of change is openness in the
client system. Do they receive and seek new ideas? Is
there a desire for self renewal? Are they willing to listen
to the problems of others and show new ideas? Do they give
authentic feedback to others? Many of these questions will
be answered if the administrator permits experimentation and
allows some degree of failure by the innovators. If, how-
ever, failure is not permitted on some basis any new idea
will represent a threat. The chances of change and inno-
vation in that environment are very remote. If the answers
to the questions above are positive the chances that the
client system will change will be much improved.

In identifying strengths it is best to build on
the positive aspects of the group. What are the components
of the organization which are functioning well? These com-
ponents are the initial building blocks.

It is important to look at inhibitors and facil-
itators to change in evaluating change potential. For
example, inhibitors of change are: (l) a past history
of lack of responsiveness to change or innovation, (2) the
change is being used to serve a special purpose of a person
in power, (3) lack of power of the client to effect change
made by administrative decree rather than involving those

affected, and (4) rigidity, inability to assemble resources,

76

inability to assemble people and little or no financial

or administrative support.

Assess Change

 

It is at this point a decision must be made. The
determination must be made whether the client system is
receptive to change and.willing to look at the concept of
differentiated staffing or whether the relationship of the
change agent and client system be terminated. If the

client system is receptive, then move to the next step.

Provide Information (4.0)

After it has been determined that a group is
receptive to change it is necessary to provide information
about the innovative program. In this case the program
would be differentiated staffing. This step is designed
to create a system to the point of inquiry. The material
being presented should be brief, interesting and easy to
understand. Furthermore, the material should make clear

how the program will benefit them.

Stimulate Interest (5-0)

If an adequate job of providing information has
been done, interest will increase. At this point the client
should be motivated to seek further information about dif-
ferentiated staffing, team teaching and individualized
instruction. At the next step special attention is keyed

to evidence of interest by the client system.

l ‘ '-
“L
H.

77

Evaluation--Decision Point (6.0)

The decision must be made whether to try a
differentiated staffing organization or stop efforts in
that direction. The evaluation should be done by the
change agent in cooperation with those people who are
involved as the client system. Evaluation should key on:
(1) enthusiasm of the client system to use the resources
provided and seek out resources on their own, (2) clear
communication among members, (3) attendance at meetings
when they are called, and (4) support from administrative
personnel for committee members.

If the planning committee decides to proceed, the
decision must also be made whether that committee should be
responsible for implementation. The following questions
should be answered: When was the committee formed? Has
the committee done any work? Is the planning committee
made up of those people who could do the best job of

implementation?
Implementation Phase

After a decision has been made to implement differ-
entiated staffing there are definite steps which should be
taken to complete implementation. At this point a decision
will have been made whether to have the planning committee

continue through the implementation phase or to select a new

 

78

committee for this purpose. The model for the implementation
phase is found in chart 3.3. The following paragraphs

describe in more detail the stages of the model.

Goal Analysis (1.0)

The client system must identify goals they will
seek to accomplish in a move to differentiated staffing.
Discussion of what their goals are and what they should be
is imperative. The committee should strive to keep their
goals somewhat flexible so that they can make changes with
changing times and circumstances. These goals should be
broadly stated.

Openness in communication is a necessity at all
times among all members of the client system. They must
be open to new ideas within the system, as well as open to
ideas outside the system. The freedom to express ideas
back and forth is essential in this step of the implemen-
tation phase as well as all others.

The client system must consider if the capacities
are there to accomplish the goals identified. It is essen-
tial that there be people, time, money, materials and
facilities to attain the goals they seek.

Are there benefits and rewards derived from working
toward these goals? This is another question that must be

asked at this point in the flow chart. There should be

benefits for students, teachers and administrations. After

79

this type of goal analysis is completed, then the client
system should be better prepared to design a model

facilitating the achievement of their goals.

Model Design (2.0)

The client system is ready to determine which
differentiated organizational plan they wish to employ.

The differentiated staffing plan should be tailored to the
client system since resources may not be identical to those
of other clients. The design should be the one which is
considered to be best suited to accomplish the goals
identified in 1.0.

The importance of the following questions cannot
be emphasized enough. The questions are directed toward
the responsibilities the personnel will assume in a dif-
ferentiated staffing organization.

Agreement must be reached regarding levels of
[personnel to be used in the plan. Can someone other than
the certified teacher take over some of the lower level
learning tasks in the classroom? Should there be differ-
entiation of pay for those accepting more responsibility
in the instruction program? Should the team leader be
expected to teach part of the time in light of other duties
she has? What are the tasks that persons at each level of

responsibility are expected to perform? Should job descrip-

tions be developed for personnel? These are all questions

 

80

to be considered in developing a model appropriate for

the client system.

Choose Alternative (3.0)

A decision must be made to either try a pilot
program involving only a part of the population of a school
or a total school population. Although the population
involved may differ in size the implementation steps which
are followed are essentially the same.

Some of the components which will influence your
decision will be cost, staff enthusiasm, physical facilities

and availability of human resources.

Pilot Program (3.1)

The effort of this approach is concentrated at one
level within a school. The level can be determined by a
nucleus of teachers most anxious to try a differentiated
staffing organization.

The pilot program approach does not require as much
in the way of immediate resources. The results are more
easily visible and the problems encountered can be remedied

more easily.

Total School (3.2)
If the client system decides to involve the total
school in a differentiated staffing organization the imple-

mentation steps will involve larger numbers of people, but

81

the process to prepare for implementation will be the same.
Total school involvement requires complete staff support.
Provisions muSt be made for those who do not wish to
participate. This approach works best when new facilities

are being opened.

Involve Parents(4.0)

Although a limited number of parents may have been
involved in the planning phase it is at this point that
parents of those children who are participating in the
program be involved. They should be provided with adequate
information about differentiated staffing and what effect it
will have upon the education of their children. It would be
feasible to have these parents select a committee to work
with the teachers and administrators so that communication

is freely flowing between school members and parents.

Curriculum Examination (5.0)

A critical look at the curriculum or "What are we
doing or trying to do with children?" should be taken at
this point. It is one thing to reorganize the staffing
arrangement of a school but continuation of the same
instructional program in the same manner accomplishes

little.

82

Needs Assessment (6.0)

After a careful look at the curriculum it is
determined that the curriculum is obsolete, a needs assess-
ment should be made to determine what the curriculum should
look like. This assessment involves the perceptions of
students, parents, community, education, the state and
society as a whole. These needs should reflect immediate

as well as future needs to better serve the students.

Discrepancy Analysis (7.0)

At this point a comparison must be made between what
is and what should be. The results of comparing the curric-
ulum examination and the needs as established by the needs
assessment will determine those areas most in need of atten-
tion. A further comparison of the needs determined by the
needs assessment and the talents available on the teaching

staff will determine areas where training is necessary.

In-Service Training (8.0)

The discrepancy analysis done in 7.0 should reveal
areas of needed in-service training for staff. Those needs
for which there is not adequate staff expertise should be
met through a strong in-service program. The in—service
should be based upon the needs assessment. In-service based
on the whim of an individual or individuals who think they

would like to have some work done in a certain area is

83

usually not productive. In addition to curriculum needs,
in-service work in interpersonal relationships, use of
auxiliary personnel, decision making, team teaching and

use of time is essential.

Student Preparation (9.0)

If students are to move into a new organizational
structure, it is appropriate that they have an orientation
to what is expected. With a differentiated staffing plan
there will be a need for self direction and flexibility of
movement. Some schools may need to institute specific

training for some students.

Methods of Analysis

A multi-variate analysis of variance was applied
to the data to determine if the sample agreed with the

proposed planning and implementation model.

Summary

The purpose of the design was to: (1) establish
a model for planning and implementation of differentiated
staffing, and (2) check the components of the model against
perceptions of experienced personnel in the field.

The model consisted of two phases. Phase one,
planning, contained six stages: Identify Client System,

Evaluate Relationship, Identify Strengths and Change

84

Potential, Provide Information, Stimulate Interest and
Evaluation. Phase two contained eight stages: Analyze
Goals, Design Model, Involve Parents, Examine Curriculum,
Assess Needs, Provide In-Service Training, Prepare Students
and Evaluate.

From a total sample of four hundred, two hundred
and thirty-nine principals and teachers participating in
six differentiated staffing projects in various regions of
the country responded. The respondents were asked to rate
a fifty-two item questionnaire especially constructed to
identify the components of planning and implementation of
differentiated staffing postulated in the theoretical model.

In the following chapter, the data will be analyzed
using Multivariate Analysis of Variance to determine if the

respondents agreed significantly with the proposed model.

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Introduction

The analysis of data of the study consisted of
testing each item for (l) consistency of those items
postulated to be polar statements of the same concept and
(2) consistency of interval agreement with the a priori
classification of each statement into the sub-components

of the theoretical model.
Research Hypothesis

The research hypothesis of this study was that
principals and teachers would rate questions on a specially
designed instrument to measure a theoretical agreement

(a==.05) to support the basic stages in the model.
Analysis of Data

The results of the analysis is presented in three
main sections-~item consistency, item reliability, and item

agreement with theoretical model.

85

 

86

Inter-Consistency Analysis

Each of twenty-six items were written in an
attempt to measure both poles of a differentiated staffing
philosophical and action stage. When analyzing the inter-
consistency of the 26 paired items using simple correlations
it was found that only four matched items had high corre-
lations. Therefore, all of the items were treated indi-
vidually in the analysis. The lack of high correlations
between item pairs could be due to items not discriminating
sufficiently well to give evidence of polarization. The
paired item numbers and their correlation coefficients can

be found in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1. Correlation Coefficients of Paired Items in Questionnaire

 

f w—~ Y

 

 

Paired Items r = Paired Items r :-
1-51 -.1579 17—45 .1302
2-48 - .0722 20-34 .3237
3-42 .3040 21-29 .2945
4-31 .2686 22-47 .3425
5-12 .3086 23-33 .0841
6-18 .0836 25-41 .2147
7-19 .4467 26—39 .0889
8-15 .3919 27-40 .2815
9-52 .1372 28—43 .2108

10-30 .2970 32—37 .0193
11-16 .2092 35-38 .6593
13-36 .2326 44-49 .4371
14-24 .3038 46-50 .6013

 

 

87

Hoyt's Interval Consistency
Reliability

The Hoyt Interval Consistency Reliability
Coefficient test was used to measure the interval con—
sistency of the items for the Change Section, Information
Section and the Implementation Phase. The breakdown of
Hoyt's estimate of reliability for each section was: the
Change Section (r==.68), Information Section (r==.51), and

Implementation Phase (r==.89).

The Theoretical Model Agreement
Analysis I

All the item analysis data were treated as follows.
In order to assess the degree of respondent agreement the
items were weighted on a five point scale as follows:

-2 = strongly disagree, —1 = disagree, 0 = undecided, +1 = agree,
and +2==strongly agree. Therefore, if the respondent marked
a +2 he indicated strong agreement.with the item. If the
respondent marked a -2 he indicated strong disagreement with
the item. Zero represented the midpoint or neutral point in
the response column of the questionnaire.

The original decision to split the theoretical model
into a Planning and Implementation Phase was based on the
reasoning that a school might do the planning phase and
decide not to implement. In develOping the Planning Phase
the sub-system involved a critical decision point before

continuing planning, so this phase was developed in two

88

sections. The first section is devoted to assessment of
the climate for change and the second section is devoted

to the information portion of the planning process.

Implementation Phase

The Implementation Phase was theorized as one
continuous system. Once the commitment to implement is
made, the assumption is made that the plan will be followed
to the logical point of evaluation. Thereafter the decision
of continuing or not continuing can be made.

If the means of the subscore means were greater than
zero overall respondent agreement for the three stages of the

proposed model was indicated.

Change Section

The Change Section was divided into three stages.
Stage one in the data represents 1.0 in the model "Identify
Client System," stage two represents 2.0 in the model
"Evaluate Relationship," stage three represents 3.0 in the
model "Identify Strengths and Change Potential."

The means and standard deviations for stages one,

two, and three are reported in Table 4.2.

89

Table 4.2. Means and Standard Deviations of Subscores
of Change Section of Pr0posed Model

 

W

 

Variable Mean Standard Deviation
Stage one 0.752456 0.5816
Stage two 1.039749 0.6902
Stage three 0.384937 0.6774

 

The Multivariate Test of Analysis of Variance was
used to test the three stages in the change section of the
model simultaneously. This analysis was done to determine
if the means of the three stages differed significantly from
zero. The results of the Multivariate test for stages one,

two, and three are reported in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3. Results of the Multivariate Test of Analysis of Variance

m

 

Dependent Within Between Univariate p Less
Variable Mean Squares Mean Squares F Than
Stage one 0.338214 135.3193 400.1002 0.0001
Stage two 0.476355 258.3776 542.4061 0.0001
Stage three 0.458869 35.4142 77.1772 0.0001

 

The means were greater than zero indicating overall
respondent agreement in rating the three stages of the

change section of the model.

90

The correlation among the items of stages one, two

and three are given in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4. Correlation Matrix Stages One, Two, and

 

 

 

 

Three
Stage One Stage Two Stage Three
Stage one 1.000000
Stage two 0.261025 1.000000
Stage three 0.090486 -0.003657 1.000000

 

The correlation matrix shows a low correlation
between the three stages of the change section of the pro-
posed model. Because the correlations between the dependent
variables are low, and the univariate F statistic for each
stage was significantly different from zero, the data indi-
cate that each dependent variable (each stage) could stand

independently in the proposed model.

Information Section

The Information Section was also divided into three
stages (see Chart 3.2, page 70). Stage four in the data
represents 4.0 in the model "Provide Information," stage
five represents 5.0 in the model "Assess Interest," and
Stage six represents 6.0 in the model "Evaluation."

The means and standard deviations for stages four,

five, and six are reported in Table 4.5.

91

Table 4.5. Means and Standard Deviations of Subscores
of Information Stage of Proposed Model

 

 

 

Dependent Standard
Variable Mean Deviation
Stage four 1.410042 0.5531”
Stage five 0.215481 0.6865
Stage six 0.156904 0.6179

 

The means of the Information Section of the proposed
model were greater than zero. Again, respondent agreement
is indicated.

The Multivariate Analysis of Variance was used to
test stages four, five and six of the Information Section of
the model simultaneously. This test.was used to determine
if the means of the three stages differed significantly from
zero. The results of the Multivariate test for stages four,

five and six are reported in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6. Results of the Multivariate Test of Analysis of Variance
of the Information Section of the Proposed Model

 

__-_ v a
T

 

 

 

Dependent Within Between Univariate p Less
Variable Mean Squares Mean Squares F Than
Stage four 0.305949 475.1841 1553.1473 0.0001
Stage five 0.471230 11.0973 23.5496 0.0001
Stage six 0.381790 5.8839 15.4113 0.0002

df= 1 and 238

 

92

The Multivariate F for the Information Section of
the proposed model was 525.5287 which is significant (p less
than 0.0001). The principal and teacher respondents agreed
significantly with the overall Information Section of the
proposed model. To determine if any one particular stage
was contributing to the over significance the univariate
F score for each stage was calculated and is reported in
column four of Table 4.6. The mean for each of the three
stages is significantly different from zero.

The correlation between stages four, five, and six

are given in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7. Correlation Matrix Stages Four, Five, and Six of the
Information Section of the Proposed Model

 

Stage Four Stage Five Stage Six

 

Stage four 1.000000
Stage five 0.029134 1.000000
Stage six 0.216659 0.026443 1.000000

 

The correlation matrix shows a low correlation among
the three stages of the Information Section of the proposed
model. Because these correlations between the dependent
variables are low, and the univariate F statistic for each
stage was significantly different from zero, the data indi-
cate that each dependent variable (each stage) can stand

independently in the proposed model.

93

Analysis of Implementation Phase

 

Because of the continuous flow of the elements of
the Implementation Phase of the proposed model the data for
this phase was treated as a whole. There were eight stages
for which data was analyzed (see Chart 3.3, page 71). Stage
one in the data represents (1.0 in the Implementation Phase
"Analyze Goals," stage two represents 2.0 "Design Model,"
stage three represents 4.0 "Involve Parents," stage four
represents 5.0 "Examine Curriculum," stage five represents
6.0 "Assess Needs," stage six represents 8.0 "Provide In-
Service Training," stage seven represents 9.0 "Prepare Stu-
dents," and stage eight represents 10.0 "Evaluate Program."
The means and standard deviations for stages one through

eight of the Implementation Phase are reported in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8. Means and Standard Deviations of Subscores of Implementation
Phase of Proposed Model

 

 

 

Dependent Variable Mean Standard Deviation
Stage one (1.0) 0.864540 0.4238
Stage two (2.0) 1.349372 0.5484
Stage three (4.0) 0.740586 0.3535
Stage four (5.0) 1.037657 0.6694
Stage five (6.0) 0.525105 0.7199
Stage six (8.0) 0.576151 0.3663
Stage seven (9.0) 0.633891 0.9252
Stage eight (10.0) 1.399582 0.5819

 

94

The means were greater than zero indicating
respondent agreement as found in the previous section of
the model.

The Multivariate Test of Analysis of Variance was
used to test the eight stages of the Implementation Phase
of the proposed model simultaneously. The test was done to
determine if the means of the three stages differed signifi-
cantly from zero. Results of this test for stages one
through eight of the Implementation Phase are reported in

Table 4.9.

Table 4.9. Results of the Multivariate Test of Analysis of Variance

 

t 1'

 

Dependent Within Between Univariate p Less
Variable Mean Squares Mean Squares F Than
Stage one 0.179643 178.6355 994.3903 0.0001
Stage two 0.300745 435.1726 1446.9800 0.0001
Stage three 0.124943 131.0837 1049.1520 0.0001
Stage four 0.448156 257.3389 574.2175 0.0001
Stage five 0.518275 65.9006 127.1539 0.0001
Stage six 0.134177 79.3359 591.2795 0.0001
Stage seven 0.855947 96.0345 112.1968 0.0001
Stage eight 0.338613 468.1600 1382.5803 0.0001

 

The multivariate F for the Implementation Phase of

the proposed model was 335.3484 which is significant (a==

.0001).

The principal and teacher respondents agreed

95

significantly with the overall Implementation Phase of the
proposed model. To determine which particular stage was
contributing to the overall significance the univariate F
score was found for each stage of the Implementation Phase
and is reported in column four of Table 4.9. The mean for
each of the eight stages of the Implementation Phase of the
proposed model is significantly different from zero.

The correlations between stages one through eight of
the Implementation Phase are given in Table 4.10. The corre-
1ation matrix shows low correlations among the eight stages
of the Implementation Phase of the proposed model. Because
the correlations between the dependent variables of the
Implementation Phase are low, and the univariate F statistic
for each stage was significantly different from zero, the
data indicate that each dependent variable (each stage)

could stand independently in the proposed model.

Summary

One basic research hypothesis was proposed and
studied for this study: Principals and teachers would rate
questions on an especially designed instrument to measure a
theoretical model of planning and implementation of differ-
entiated staffing with sufficient agreement to support the
basic elements in the model. The research hypothesis was

supported by the data.

96

 

 

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97

The Planning Phase of the model was divided into two
sections. One section included the elements essential to
beginning and assessing the change process. There were
three stages in this section: Identify Client System,
Evaluate Relationship and Identify Strengths and Change
Potential. Using the Multivariate Analysis of Variance the
data from the respondents (n==239) was analyzed. The data
indicated the respondents agreed significantly with the
three stages of the Change Section of the model. The low
correlations between the stages gave further support that
those dependent variables could stand independently in the
Change Section of the model.

The Information Section of the model was analyzed
next and it too had three stages: Provide Information,
Assess Interest and Evaluation. The three stages were
analyzed using the Multivariate Analysis of Variance. The
low inter-stage correlations supported the notion that each
stage could stand alone in the model.

The Implementation Phase was analyzed with eight
dependent variables using the Multivariate Analysis of
Variance. The eight dependent variables were: Analyze
Goals, Design Model, Involve Parents, Examine Curriculum,
Assess Needs, Provide In-Service Training, Prepare Students,
and Evaluate Program. The data supported the eight depen-

dent variables as essential elements in the Implementation

98

Phase of the model. The ability of each of these variables
to stand independently was substantiated by the low inter-

stage correlations.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The final chapter is devoted to a summary of the
study, a discussion of the conclusions drawn from the data
collected, and recommendations and implications for future

research.

51111111135!

A review of the literature on change and innovation
in education indicates a lack of a planned approach to
accomplishing the change. Many authorities have suggested
the importance of a systematic approach to planning and
development of innovation but in practice change is treated
casually resulting in little quality innovation occurring.

Resistance to change in school systems can be
reduced if those who are to change are involved in the
process. Resistance will be less also if those who are
participating see the change as reducing rather than in-
creasing their present burdens. The perceptions of those
involved in the innovations, i.e., differentiated staffing,
must be respected. The focus of the change effort should

be on the user.

99

100

In order to properly plan and implement differentiated
staffing there is a need to change not only the structure of
the organization but how learning is conducted in the class-
room. How are the needs of children met? Are there precise
steps through which schools must go to develop differen-
tiated staffing? This thesis posits there are such steps.
Furthermore, the purpose of the study was to empirically
validate a theoretical model using responses of experienced

teachers and administrators in the field.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to survey some
existing differentiated staffing Programs and compare
the perceptions of principals and teachers involved in
such programs with a proposed theoretical model of effec-
tive change to a differentiated staffing organization.
The purpose of the design (which was descriptive
in nature) was to: (l) establish a model for planning
and implementation of differentiated staffing and (2)
check the components of the model against perceptions

of experienced personnel in the field.

Limitations
Two limitations highlighted the study:
1. Little adequate research has been done about

change and the components to bring about change

101

in education. The research that has been done
has had little effect upon actual educational
practice.

2. There may be a question whether~the perceptions
of those actively involved in differentiated ‘
staffing projects are valid measures of what the

components of change should be.

Design of the Study

Six recommended EPDA differentiated staffing proj—
ects were selected as the sample. The EPDA projects were
Beaverton, Oregon; Laguna Beach, California; Mesa, Arizona;
Kansas City, Missouri; Sarasota, Florida; and Wayne County
Intermediate School District, Detroit, Michigan. All
(n==400) principals and teachers working in differentiated
staffing in the six projects were designated to participate
in the study.

A survey approach was decided upon as the best
method for collecting data. A questionnaire of fifty-two
items was developed. The instrument measured the percep-
tions of the respondents to the item. The items were
assigned agpriori to a theoretical model for planning and
implementation of differentiated staffing. A copy of the
model appears as Charts 3.2 and 3.3 in Chapter III.

It was hypothesized that principals and teachers

would rate questions on a specially designed instrument to

102

measure a theoretical model of planning and implementation
of differentiated staffing with sufficient agreement to
support the basic elements in the model.

Of the four hundred principals and teachers surveyed,

two hundred thirty-nine (60%) responded.

Analysis

In analyzing the model the Implementation Phase was
divided into two sections. The first section focused on
change and the second section on information. The change
section contained three stages. They were: Identify Client
System, Evaluate Relationship and Identify Strengths and
Change Potential. There was sufficient agreement from the
respondents to retain the three stages of the change section
of the model.

The Information Section of the model also contained
three stages. They were: Provide Information, Create Inter-
est and Evaluation. The three stages of the Information
Section also received sufficient agreement to retain them
in the Planning Phase of the model.

The Implementation Phase of the model was analyzed
in eight stages. There was sufficient agreement from the
respondents to retain all eight stages of the Implementation
Phase of the model.

A five point scale was used to assess the degree of

agreement the respondents had with each item. The categories

103

included Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree and
Strongly Disagree. The means of the item included in each
stage were calculated for each respondent. This was done
to remove the effect that some stages included more items.
If the means of the subscore means were greater than zero,
overall respondent agreement was indicated for the stages
of the model. There was such agreement for all stages of
the model.

The Multivariate Test of Analysis of Variance was
used to determine if the means of stages of the Change
Section and Information Section differed significantly
from zero. The same test was used for the eight stages
of the Implementation Phase of the model. There was sig-
nificant agreement at an alpha level of .0001.

To determine which particular stage was contributing
to the overall significance the univariate F score of each
stage in the model was found. The F test indicated that the
mean for each of the stages of the model was significantly
different from zero.

The correlations between the stages of the Change
Section, Information Section and the eight stages of the
Implementation Phase were all found to be low.

Because the correlations between the dependent
variables were low and the univariate F statistic for

each stage was significantly different from zero, the

104

data indicates that each dependent variable (each stage)

stood independently in the proposed model.
Conclusions

The following conclusions were derived from the
data collected from questionnaires sent to principals and
teachers actively involved in differentiated staffing. The
importance of each of the elements listed here cannot be
overemphasized. The components should be examined carefully
when planning and implementing differentiated staffing. The
data in the study show significant agreement with these
elements as being necessary in bringing about a change to
differentiated staffing. These are the steps needed to
carry through efforts to plan and implement differentiated

staffing.

1. The client system should be carefully identified
when changing from a traditional organizational

structure to differentiated staffing.

The data of the study gave significant agreement
that the client system selected to plan a move to differ-
entiated staffing should have broad representation of
administration, teachers, students, parents and other

community members.

105

2. The change agent must evaluate his relationship

with the client system.

Respondents agreed change would take place best
when the relationship between client system and change
agent was positive and the role of the change agent was

perceived as helping the client system.

3. The change agent must identify the strengths of

the client system and assess their potential for

change.

Respondents stated that it would seem reasonable
if a client system were extremely reluctant to change and
there were not sufficient strengths in personnel the rela-

tionship between the client system and change agent should

be terminated.

4. Teachers considering a move to differentiated
staffing should be provided with adequate infor-

mation so that they understand such a move.

There was significant agreement by respondents that
teachers should have adequate knowledge of differentiated

staffing before deciding to implement it in their school.

5. Steps must be taken to interest the client

system in moving to differentiated staffing.

106

All types of resources must be used to create
further interest in differentiated staffing. Written
materials, film strips, video tapes and site visitations

all should be used to increase interest.

6. The client system and change agent must evaluate
whether they can and want to further develop a
differentiated staffing organization and how long

a period of time it will take.

The data indicated that after study a decision must
be made whether to move to implementation or stay in the
present organization. There was indication that a period
of two years or less to accomplish the implementation task

was needed.

7. Goal analysis is an important component in

implementing differentiated staffing.

There was significant agreement that goals should be

well in mind when implementing differentiated staffing.

8. A model should be designed to organize the staff
in a differentiated staffing organization to best

accomplish the goals of that organization.

The organizational model determines the responsi-

bilities of those in the organization who will perform

107

certain tasks, if there will be salary differentiation
on the basis of responsibility, if paraprofessionals will
be used, and if all members of the teaching teamwwill teach

full time.

9. Parents should be involved in the implementation

of differentiated staffing.

There was significant agreement that parents should
know what was being planned for their children. If parental
support is desired, they must be involved in the changes

that are being made.

10. The curriculum should be examined as part of the

implementation phase of a change to differentiated

staffing.

It is quite possible in changing the organizational
structure of a school to continue to do the same kinds of
activities in the classroom. A critical examination should
be made of the curriculum and what was done with students to

meet the objectives of the curriculum.

11. The client system must assess its needs in order

to successfully implement differentiated staffing.

There was significant agreement that needs assess-

HEnlt was important to the implementation of differentiated

108

staffing. The needs of students, community, society and

staff must all be considered.

12. In-service training is essential in implementation

of differentiated staffing.

Respondents agreed that instructional objectives
should be defined and that implementation of differentiated
staffing required extensive in-service training in order to

meet those elements identified in the needs assessment.

13. Students must be prepared for the changes expected

of them in a differentiated staffing organization.

Students could not be expected to move from a
traditional self-contained organization to differentiated
staffing instantly. They must be given time to develop
self-direction and time to handle the movement usually a
part of differentiated staffing. The respondents supported

this stage of the model.

14. The differentiated staffing organization should
be evaluated to determine the effectiveness of
the plan and to decide where improvements should

be made.

The component stage of evaluation was significantly
agreed upon by the respondents in the study. They felt a

project must be evaluated to determine its worth.

109

Implications for Future Research

The proposed model in the study was given support
by principals and teachers involved in differentiated
staffing. However, the true test of a model is its use-
fulness and effectiveness in accomplishing what it was
designed to do. Future studies may test the model in an
actual situation to determine if it is effective in planning
and implementation of differentiated staffing.

The instrument used to gather the data could be
improved upon. The matching of items in the instrument
to stages in the model could be more adequately done. The
improvement of the instrument would give greater support
for the model which was proposed.

Further study could be given to the validity of the
perceptions of those who are involved in differentiated
staffing. Are they a true indicator of what actually should

be done in bringing about change?
Reflections

Although there was significant agreement by the
respondents with the proposed model, it should be accepted
with cautious optimism. The model needs to be tested to
determine if it is effective in bringing about a change to
differentiated staffing. The questionnaire which was used

should be revised if the study is replicated. The original

110

questionnaire was pre-tested at one school,_but little
attention was given to revision of the items. The items
should be more closely examined in relationship to the model.

The proposed model does not represent an ultimate
implementation model. It is an attempt to emphasize the
need for a systematic approach to innovation,in this case
differentiated staffing. From the attempts that have been
made in many areas to implement differentiated staffing, a
model of this type is sorely needed. The model does not
presuppose a package to be plugged into any system. It may
be used as a guide by any school or school system to develop
their own organizational structure. Too often schools have
been given a packaged plan to implement with little concern
for their own particular problems. The failure of these
attempts has been described in the literature.

A word of caution must be given to those pursuing
differentiated staffing. Differentiated staffing is an
organizational structure which can facilitate a move to more
individualized instruction and better use of teacher talent.
Teachers can, however, continue to teach children in the
same manner as they have always taught. Hopefully a move
to differentiated staffing will involve a careful examina-
tion of the activities and methodology teachers are using
with children. Differentiated staffing offers a framework
for teachers to do many different things but teachers must

examine their relationships with children as well.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Benne, Kenneth D., Warren G. Bennis and Robert Chin.
The Plannin of Change. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, nc., 1969.

Buffie, Edward G., and James L. Olivero. Educational
Manpower. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana—finiversity
Press, 1970.

Eidell, Terry L., Philip K. Piele and Stuart C. Smith.
Social and Technolo ical Chan e. Eugene, Ore.: Center
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1970.

 

Goodlad, John 1., Francis M. Klein and Associates. Behind
the Classroom Doog, Worthington, Ohio: Charles A.
Jones Publishing Company, 1970.

Havelock, Ronald G. A Guide to Innovation in Education.
Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute for Social Research,
1970.

 

Lippitt, Ronald, Jeanne Watson and Bruce Westley. The
Qynamics of Planned Change. New York: Harcourt, Brace
an Wor , .

Miles, Matthew B. Innovation in Education. New York:
Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964.

Miller, Richard I. Pers ectives on Educational Change.
New York: Appleton-Century-Croft, I966.

Rogers, Everett M., and Floyd Shoemaker. Diffusion of
Innovation: A Cross Cultural and CommuniCation Approach.

New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1967.

 

 

 

Toffler, Alvin. Future Shock. New York: Random HOuse,
1970.

 

111

112

Watson, Goodwin. Egange in School Systems. Washington,
D.C.: NEA, 1967.

Watson, Goodwin. Concepts for Social Chang_, Washington,
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Periodicals

 

Allen, Dwight W. "A Differentiated Staff: Putting Teacher
Talent to Work, The Teacher and His Staff." Occasional
Papers No. 1. Washington, D.C.: NEA, 1967.

 

Allen, Dwight W. "Needed: A New Professionalism in
Education." Washington, D.C.: AACTE, May, 1968.

Barbee, Don. "Differentiated Staffing: Expectations and
Pitfalls." Ngtional Commission on Teacher Education and
Professional Standards. Washington, D.C.: NEA, I969.

Beaubier, Edward W. "Experience with Differentiated
Staffing." Today's Education, NEA, March, 1969.

Bhaerman, Robert D. "A Study Outline on Differentiated
Staffing." Quest Report on Diffggentiated Staffing #2.
Department of Research, American Federation 0 Teac ers,
Washington, D.C., 1969, pp. 22.

Denemark, George W. "The Teacher and His Staff." NEA
Journal , December, 1966 .

Doak, E. Dale. "Organizational Climate: Prelude to Change."
Educational Leadership, XXVII (January, 1970), 359-362.

 

Edelfelt, Roy A. "A Possible Dream: A New Education and
New Models of Teachers." The Teacher and His Staff:
Differentiated Teachipg Roles. NationalIEducation
Association, 1969, pp.i109-110.

Edelfelt, Roy A. "A Position Statement on the Concept of
Differentiated Staffing." Washington, D.C.: NEA,
May 11, 1969.

English, Fenwick. Et Tu, Educator, Differentiated Staffing.
Commission on Teacher Education and Professional
Standards. Washington, D.C.: NEA, 1969.

 

English, Fenwick. "Questions and Answers on Differentiated
Staffing." Today's Education, March, 1969.

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English, Fenwick. "Teacher May I? Take Three Giant Steps!
The Differentiated Staff." Phi Delta Kappan, December,
1969.

 

English, Fenwick. "Temple City: From Theory to Practice."
Florida Education, February, 1969.

English, Fenwick. "The Differentiated Staff: Education's
Techno-Structure." Educational Technology, February,
1970, pp. 24-27.

 

English, Fenwick, and John M. Rand. "Towards a Differen-
tiated Teaching Staff." Phi Delta Kappan, January,
1968, pp. 264-268.

Flanders, Ned A. "Sharing in Change." Educational
Leadership, January, 1970, pp. 327-30.

Frinks, Marshall L., and Cynthia Perkinds. "Florida
Teachers Speak on Differentiated Staffing." Bureau
of Curriculum and Instruction, Division of Elementary
and Secondary Education, October, 1960, 20 pp.

Frinks, Marshall L. "A Readiness for Differentiated
Staffing: Questions Relevant to Development and
Training Activities."- Information Report #2,
Department of Education of Florida, October, 1969,
p; 8.

Hair, Donald. "Differentiated Staffing and Salary Patterns
Underway in Kansas City." School and Communipy, April,
1969, pp. 8-14.

Hedges, William D. "Differentiated Teaching Responsibil-
ities in the Elementary School." The National
Elementary Principal, September, 1967, pp. 48-54.

Horvat, John J. "Major Impediments to Educational Change
and Improvement." The Teacher and His Staff: Differ-
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pp. 95-108.

Joyce, Bruce R. The Teacher and His Staff: Man, Media and
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NBA, 1967.

 

Joyce, Bruce R. "Staff Utilization." Review of Educational
Research, June, 1967, pp. 323-326.

 

114

Klausmeier, Herbert J., Richard G. Morrow, James E. Walter,
and Russell S. Way. "Individually Guided Education in
the Multiunit Elementary School--Guidelines for Imple-
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Klopf, G. J. "Interaction Processes and Change." Education
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"Locus of Change: Staff Utilization Studies." NASSP
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McKenna, Bernard H. "Differentiated Staffing: A Proposal
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Mangione, Samuel. "Bringing Perspective to the Change
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National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional
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National Department of Classroom Teachers. "Innovations for
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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

OUTLINE OF HAVELOCK'S PROCESS OF

EDUCATIONAL CHANGE

APPENDIX A

OUTLINE OF HAVELOCK'S PROCESS OF

EDUCATIONAL CHANGE

In stage I "Building a Relationship," Havelock

points out the following questions a change agent should

be concerned with:

I. Who is the client?

A. It may be a classroom, a faculty, or a community.

1.

Relating to client system

a.

What are the norms of the client system?

1)

Who
1)
Who

1)

Who

1)

Common beliefs, values, or rules of
behavior

are the leaders?
The formal leadership structure
are the influentials?

Those who are not part of the formal
leadership but have great influence

are the gatekeepers?
Those who have little formal or informal

leadership but are in a strategic spot
in relationship to information flow

With whom should you choose to work:
(Change agents have found those which rep-
resent the following system characteristics
best to work with)

1)
2)

Opinion leadership

Formal authority

115

2.

116

3) Representative of major factions or
vested interests

4) Public relations ability

5) Credibility and respectability

6) Compatibility with you
Relating to the larger social environment
a. What are the norms in the community?

1) Who are the most powerful and influ-
ential people in the community?

2) How do these people usually react to
innovation in the community?

3) How can these people be approached and
influenced to endorse the change effort?

b. Who are the influentials in the community?
c. What is the community leadership like?

d. What percentage of your efforts should be
devoted to these outside forces?

What is your relationship at the very beginning?

1.

Blank slate

Reestablishing a good relationship
Reestablishing an uncertain relationship
Redefining an existing relationship

Ideal Relationship

Reciprocity

a. There should be give and take of information
Openness

a. Open to new ideas (client and change agent)

b. Eagerness to seek out new ideas

117

c. Desire for self renewal

d. Willingness to share new ideas with others
e. Listen to the problems of others

f. Give authentic feedback to each other
Realistic expectations

a. Don't oversell yourself or expectations
Expectations of reward

a. Give some reason for optimism

b. Point out some future reward

c. Pilot program can sometimes do this
Structure

a. Definition of roles

b. Working procedures

c. Expected outcomes

Equal power

a. Power should not play a significant role
Minimum threat

Confrontation of difference

a. Ability to talk out your differences
Involvement of all relevant parties

a. Not only those in the client system but

those outside who influence the client
system.

118

Stage II involves the diagnosis of the needs or
problems of the client system.

If you do not take the time to study and under-
stand the current state of the system, your
change efforts are likely to be misdirected--
and disappointing in the long run. For this
reason you and your client should pause, at the
beginning of your relationship, and take a care-
ful look at the system around you. This is what
we mean by diagnosis (p. 59).

A. How do you make a good diagnosis?
1. Three approaches that may be used
a. Identify the problem
b. Identify the opportunities
c. Look at the client as a system

2. Identifying the problem

a. You will probably identify surface symptoms
first.

b. There may be underlying problems which are
less obvious and have led to the outbreak
of the symptoms. These should be identified
and evaluated.

c. You may have to go further and interpret
the evidence and infer underlying causes.

3. Identifying the opportunities

a. Spend time identifying areas of strength and
potential for change. Do not focus exclu-
sively on the problems the client has.

b. Look at the history of the client system in
solving problems. You may find the system
has competencies in solving problems in
certain areas. These should be noted.

d. Sometimes a comparison of one systemwwith
another will help a system see how it might
change.

119

4. Understanding the client as a system
a. You must look at the client as a system.
A number of interrelated parts working
together to accomplish certain goals.
b. When you have the goals clearly in mind
you can begin to describe the activities
which are necessary to achieve these goals.

c. There are four major elements which should
be considered in a system diagnosis.

1) Goals (desired outputs)

2) Learning environment (administrators,
teachers, students)

3) Inputs (other systems)

4) Boundaries (protects but allows
stimulation)

5. Making a diagnostic inventory
a. There are five basic questions which should
be asked and answered in a good diagnostic
inventory.

1) What are the system goals?

2) Is there an adequate structure for
attaining these goals?

3) Is there openness in communications?

4) Does the system have the capacities
necessary to achieve its goals?

5) Does the system reward its members for
working towards its stated goals?

6. It is important to involve the client in the
process of diagnosing his own problem.

120

In stage III we seek to acquire relevant resources.

These resources can come in the form of printed material,

people,

or products. It is important for the client to

know what has happened, what is available, and what is

potentially useful and relevant. Havelock asserts the

following:

A.

general

A.

There are seven major purposes for resource
acquisition

1. For diagnosis

2. For awareness

3. For evaluation-before—trial
4. For trial

5. For evaluation-after-trial
6. For installation

7. For maintenance

There are three basic processes in the resource
acquisition strategy

1. Acquisition for diagnosis
2. Awareness of the resources universe

3. Homing in on relevant resources

Stage IV, Choosing the Problem, involves four
steps with suggestions for each.
Deriving Implications from Research

1. Retrieve statements from the summaries of
research reports

2. Summarize the findings of the research in
your own words

121

3. Relate the findings to the diagnosis of the
problem

4. State in behavioral terms ideas for action
Generating a Range of Solution Ideas

1. Brainstorming is one technique that may be used
Feasibility Testing

1. Potential benefit

2. Workability

3. Diffusibility

Adaptation.

You may have to redesign or make further changes in

the selected innovation. The previous information has taken

us through the procedure of preparing a system for a program

of change. We now come to the stage, stage V, of transforms

ing intentions into actions. This is the point at which we

want to gain acceptance for the innovation. There are four

issues for consideration in this stage suggested by Havelock.

A.

How Individuals Accept Innovations

1. Researchers have identified six phases in the
adoption process

a. Awareness--exposure to the innovation
b. Interest-~active information seeking
c. Evaluation--mental trial of innovation
d. Trial--use of innovation on small scale

e. Adoption-~results or trial are considered
adopted or rejected

f. Integration--use of innovation becomes routine.

122

B. How Groups Accept Innovations
1. Common things and key people
a. Acceptance by a few key members
2. How can you gain group acceptance?

a. Diagnose the forces for and against the
innovation

b. Use key people as stepping stones

C. How to Communicate
1. Selecting the right medium for the right job

a. Written and oral presentations

b. Film

c. Demonstrations

d. Person-to-person contacts

e. Group discussions

f. Conferences, workshops, and training events
D. Keep your program flexible

1. You may have to change your plans as you get
further into the innovative process

Perhaps the most important stage in the entire
process is stage VI, "Stabilizing the Innovation and Gener-
ating Self-Renewal." It involves three sections:

A. Insuring continuance of the innovation

1. Continuing reward

2. Practice and routinization

3. Structural integration into the system

123

4. Continuing evaluation
5. Providing for continuing maintenance
6. Continuing adaptation capability
Creating a self—renewal capacity
1. A positive attitude toward innovation
2. An internal change agency
3. An external orientation

a. Seek out new solutions to problems
4. A future orientation

a. Belief in progress and the future
Disengagement
1. When does the change agent disengage?

2. How does he disengage?

APPENDIX B

COVER LETTER, FOLLOW-UP LETTER AND

TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EAST LANSING - MICHIGAN 48823

 

MOT? INSTITUTE FOR COMMUNITY IMPROVEMENT

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 0 517 BRICKSON HALL

August 1, 1972

Dear Teacher:

I need your help. My chairman has accused me of trying to
be a Ph.D. candidate taking the longest time in history to
finish his degree. In order that I may try to avoid that

pleasure, I would appreciate it if you would fill out the

enclosed questionnaire.

As you read the questionnaire, you will see it is related

to something with which you are familiar—-Differentiated
Staffing. I would like to ascertain from those who have
been involved with differentiated staffing the essential
components of planning and implementation. In other words,
"What are those things that must be done during the planning
and implementation phases?" '

I realize you are busy enjoying your vacation, but please
take a little time to fill out this questionnaire. My
chairman will appreciate it, my family will quit bugging
me, and I can sleep nights.

Thank you so much.

Sincerely,

William Hoffman

WH:dk

124

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EAST LANSING - MICHIGAN 48823

 

MOTI' INSTITUTE FOR COMMUNITY IMPROVEMENT

COLLEGE OP EDUCATION 0 317 ERICKSON HALL

August 15, 1972

Dear Teacher:

This short letter has a twofold purpose. I want to
sincerely thank all of you who took the time to fill out
the questionnaire I sent you on differentiated staffing.
Your cooperation was most appreciated. Many of you made
some additional comments which were extremely helpful.
Thanks to all of you who wished me well with this hurdle
that I'm trying to get over. It is strange, but I feel
as though I did get to know you a little bit. It was
apparent that you have a strong interest in kids, and

I know you will have a fine year. Please do.

For those of you who haven't had time to fill out the
questionnaire, won't you please take a little while and
do so. As my boy says, "I will be proud of you" if you
will. It would be greatly appreciated if you.would.

Thanks again to all of you. You're important people to
those youngsters and to me. Keep up the great work!

Sincerely,

5M”, 3%,; g x

C° William Hoffman, Coordinator
Differentiated Staffing Project

CWH:kj

P.S. The sleep is getting a little better, although there
is another one now that is interfering.

125

126

Introduction:

 

Below you will find 52 statements related to the planning and
implementation phases of differentiated staffing. It is the purpose
of this questionnaire to try to determine those activities which are
essential in planning and implementation of a differentiated staffing
organization. Respond to each statement from your honest perceptions.
Do not spend a great deal of time on any one item. There are no

"correct" answers.

Directions:

 

Each of the following statements is followed by five responses.
Indicate how important you feel each statement is by circling one of

the responses.

Circle the number 1_if you strongly disagree with the statement.
Circle the number g_if you disagree with the statement.

Circle the number 3 if you are undecided about the statement.
Circle the number g_if you ggggg_with the statement.

Circle the number g if you strongly agree with the statement.

 

100

ll.

12.

127

Only teachers who are prepared and cooperative
should enter a differentiated staffing project.

An effective change to staff differentiation
can be implemented.within two years from the
start of planning. ,

The administrator and his staff should define
instructional objectives in expected student
behavior.

Detailed job descriptions should be constructed
so that each teacher is aware of his (staff)
responsibilities.

Increased planning time is essential if you are
involved in a differentiated staffing organiza—
tion.

A representative group of the community should

be involved in the planning sessions to consider

the feasibility of differentiated staffing.

When making a major change in staffing patterns,

some provisions should be made for teachers who
wish to function in traditional self-contained
classrooms.

Broad representation of admdnistrators, teachers,

students, parents and other community members

should be involved at the outset of planning for

differentiated staffing.

A critical examination of the curriculum should
be an essential component in the planning phase
of a differentiated staffing organization.

The local teachers organization should be
notified of the change in staff utilization
after plans have been well formulated.

Change takes place when the coordination and
responsibility of the project is shared
primarily by the administrative team.

The individualizing of instruction for students
does not require additional time to plan their
program.

It!

IC:

I?

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.
18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

128

If a unit or a school decide to try differentiated
staffing an evaluation design should be a part of
the project.

It is not possible for master teachers or
coordinating instructors to teach and do the
tasks required of their position in a differ-
entiated staffing pattern.

Only members representing the professional staff
of the school system should comprise the planning
committee for differentiated staffing.

The best method for implementing change is to make
one administrator responsible for supervising the
change.

Teaching is impossible to define and evaluate on
the basis of an efficiency study.

The organizational plan of the school is the
exclusive responsibility of the administrators.

The change to a new staffing pattern works best
when the administrator does not permit some
teachers to remain in traditional assignments.

Someone with less than a college degree in
education can handle some of the lower level
learning activities in a classroom (example,
working with students to learn basic sight

'words).

Goal analysis is not a necessary component in
planning for a differentiated staffing organization.

A single salary schedule based upon years of service
and hours of training should be retained even though
a differentiated staffing organization is adopted.

The administrator should indicate his commitment
to change by including a large portion of the
school population in the initial implementation.

All members of the teaching hierarchy of a differ-
entiated staffing organization should teach at
least part of the day.

The cost of in—service education for teachers
preparing for a change in staff assignments is
greater than the benefits derived.

£3.12

IU

IE

I?

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

129

An administrator will find implementation of
differentiated staffing easier if teachers have
limited knowledge about the subject.

Leadership and responsibility of the team in
differentiated staffing should move from person
to person with the team according to the needs
of students.

A change in staffing patterns cannot be realized
without using the personnel of some university,
professional organization or research and
development center.

It is important for a group considering differen-

tiated staffing to have their goals well identified.

When making a change in staff use the local
teachers' organization should be actively involved.

Because each teacher is professionally trained,
specific job descriptions are not needed for
teaching positions.

In making a change in staffing patterns the admin-
istrator should remember that authority is the
central, indispensable means of managerial control.

Staff differentiation should be introduced on a
small scale and be incorporated throughout the
district on a gradual basis.

Teaching basic skills is the responsibility for
a certified teacher and cannot be delegated to
anyone else.

A school district cannot move to a differentiated
staff without substantial outside financial
support such as from a foundation or a higher
level of government.

Evaluation of a project is not important in
determining the worth of the differentiated
staffing project.

Change takes place best.when the administrator
possesses great skills in group dynamics,
sensitivity and human engineering.

lo

IG

[5

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

130

A major change in staff use, such as differen-
tiated teaching assignments, can be adequately
financed by the operating funds of the local
school district.

Information regarding differentiated staffing
should be provided to teachers before discus-
sion of a possible organizational change in a
school.

One person should be responsible for the
leadership of a team.

The changes required of teachers moving to a
differentiated staff assignment requires
extensive use of teacher in—service education.

Expressing student goals in behavioral terms
should be avoided because it reduces teaching
to a mechanical process.

Because of their theoretical outlook, college
professors and staff members of outside agencies
can provide little help in making a change in
staff utilization.

Making decisions on staff assignments is solely
the responsibility of the school administrators.

An analysis of the duties teachers perform would
provide an administrator with valuable informa-
tion needed in making assignments.

Students should have adequate preparation before
participating in a more flexible organizational
plan such as differentiated staffing.

If a school is to try differentiated staffing,
there should be differentiation of pay for
those involved on the basis of responsibility.

An administrator should begin planning for a
change in staff utilization at least two years
before implementation.

Teachers should be actively involved in staff
assignment decisions.

lo

[C

I?

 

50.

51.

52.

131.

An orientation period for students about to be
involved in a differentiated staffing organiza-
tion is not necessary. '

If a teacher does not wish to participate in
a staffing pattern such as differentiated
staffing, he should be transferred to another
school.

Differentiated staffing can be accomplished
without changing the curriculum the school
offers.

IU

IC:

IV

APPENDIX C

PRINCIPAL QUESTIONNAIRE

 

132

Introduction:

 

Below you.will find 52 statements related to the planning and
implementation phases of differentiated staffing. 'It is the purpose
of this questionnaire to try to determine those activities which are
essential in planning and implementation of a differentiated staffing
organization. Respond to each statement from your honest perceptions.
Do not spend a great deal of time on any one item. There are no

"correct" answers.

Directions:

 

Each of the following statements is followed by five responses.
Indicate how important you feel each statement is by circling one of

the responses.

Circle the number 1 if you strongly disagree with the statement.

 

Circle the number 2 if you disagree with the statement.
Circle the number gpif you are undecided about the statement.
Circle the number 4 if you agree with the statement.

Circle the number 5 if you strongly agree with the statement.

1.

10.

11.

12.

133

Only teachers who are prepared and cooperative
should enter a differentiated staffing project.

An effective change to staff differentiation
can be implemented within two years from the
start of planning.

The administrator and his staff should define

instructional objectives in expected student
behavior.

Detailed job descriptions should be constructed
so that each teacher is aware of his (staff)
responsibilities.

Increased planning time is essential if you are
involved in a differentiated staffing organiza-
tion.

A representative group of the community should

be involved in the planning sessions to consider

the feasibility of differentiated staffing.

When making a major change in staffing patterns,

some provisions should be made for teachers who
wish to function in traditional self-contained
classrooms.

Broad representation of administrators, teachers,

students, parents and other community members

should be involved at the outset of planning for

differentiated staffing.

A critical examination of the curriculum should
be an essential component in the planning phase
of a differentiated staffing organization.

The local teachers organization should be
notified of the change in staff utilization
after plans have been well formulated.

Change takes place when the coordination and
responsibility of the project is shared
primarily by the administrative team.

The individualizing of instruction for students
does not require additional time to plan their
program.

[G

lo:
I»

l3.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

134

If a unit or a school decide to try differentiated

staffing an evaluation design should be a part of
the project.

It is not possible for master teachers or
coordinating instructors to teach and do the
tasks required of their position in a differ-
entiated staffing pattern.

Only members representing the professional staff
of the school system should comprise the planning
committee for differentiated staffing.

The best method for implementing change is to
make one administrator responsible for super—
vising the change.

Teaching is impossible to define and evaluate
on the basis of an efficiency study.

The organizational plan of the school is the
exclusive responsibility of the administrators.

The change to a new staffing pattern works best
when the administrator does not permit some
teachers to remain in traditional assignments.

Someone with less than a college degree in
education can handle some of the lower level
learning activities in‘a classroom (example,
working with students to learn basic sight
words).

Goal analysis is not a necessary component
in planning for a differentiated staffing
organization.

A single salary schedule based upon years of
service and hours of training should be
retained even though a differentiated staffing
organization is adopted.

The administrator should indicate his commitment
to change by including a large portion of the
school population in the initial implementation.

All members of the teaching hierarchy of a
differentiated staffing organization should
teach at least part of the day.

.82

IU

IC

Iv

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

135

The cost of inrservice education for teachers
preparing for a change in staff assignments is
greater than the benefits derived.

An administrator will find implementation of
differentiated staffing easier if teachers have
limited knowledge about the subject.

Leadership and responsibility of the team in
differentiated staffing should move from.person
to person with the team according to the needs
of students.

A change in staffing patterns cannot be realized
without using the personnel of some university,
professional organization or research and
development center.

It is important for a group considering differ-
entiated staffing to.have their goals well
identified.

When making a change in staff use the local
teachers' organization should be actively
involved. '

Because each teacher is professionally trained,
specific job descriptions are not needed for
teaching positions.

In making a change in staffing patterns the
administrator should remember that authority

is the central, indispensable means of managerial
control.

Staff differentiation should be introduced on a
small scale and be incorporated throughout the
district on a gradual basis.

Teaching basic skills is the responsibility for
a certified teacher and cannot be delegated to
anyone else.

A school district cannot move to a differentiated
staff without substantial outside financial
support such as from a foundation or a higher
level of government.

ID

IE

I?

. "‘1'

 

‘.1

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

136

Evaluation of a project is not important in
determining the worth of the differentiated
staffing project.

Change takes place best when the administrator
possesses great skills in group dynamics,
sensitivity and human engineering.

A major change in staff use, such as differen—
tiated teaching assignments, can be adequately
financed by the operating funds of the local
school district.

Information regarding differentiated staffing
should be provided to teachers before discussion
of a possible organizational change in a school.

One person should be responsible for the leader-
ship of a team.

The changes required of teachers moving to a
differentiated staff assignment requires
extensive use of teacher in-service education.

Expressing student goals in behavioral terms
should be avoided because it reduces teaching
to a mechanical process.

Because of their theoretical outlook college
professors and staff members of outside agencies
can provide little help in making a change in
staff utilization.

Making decisions on staff assignments is solely
the responsibility of the school administrators.

An analysis of the duties teachers perform would
provide an administrator with valuable information
needed in making assignments.

Students should have adequate preparation before
participating in a more flexible organizational
plan such as differentiated staffing.

If a school is to try differentiated staffing,
there should be differentiation of pay for
those involved on the basis of responsibility.

An administrator should begin planning for a
change in staff utilization at least two years
before implementation.

'0

IC‘.

I?

49.

50.

51.

52.

137

Teachers should be actively involved in staff
assignment decisions.

An orientation period for students about to
be involved in a differentiated staffing
organization is not necessary.

If a teacher does not wish to participate in a
staffing pattern such as differentiated staffing,
he should be transferred to another school.

Differentiated staffing can be accomplished
without changing the curriculum the school
offers.

ID

If:

I?