A STUDY OF DIFFERENCES IN THE PERCEPTION 0F. EIEMEN‘I‘ARY YEACHER PERSONALITY STRUCTURE Thesis for the Degree e-I Ph. VD. MICHIGAN S‘I‘ATE UNIVERSITY EarI' Eugene Hogan $963 'I'HE’SYS LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF DIFFERENCES IN THE PERCEPTION OF ELEMENTARY TEACHER PERSONALITY STRUCTURE presented by Earl E. Hogan has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Education Mw/fié/ Major professor Date August 6, 1963 0-169 Assesses -A.STUDY OF DIFFERENCES IN THE PERCEPTION OF ELEMENTARY TEACHER PERSONALITY-STRUCTURE by Earl E. Hogan The Problem The major concern of this study was to investigate, describe and discuss differences in perception d? the personality structure of ele- mentary teachers held by beginning elementary education wemen students, novice-and experienced elementary women teachers. The personality characteristics_considered were the fifteen manifest needs as contained in theEdwards_Person§l Preference Schedule. Procedure The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule and.a specially constructed Personal Inventory were administered to a group of beginning elementary 7 education women-students at Michigan State University. It was also administered t0=a group of randomly selected novice and experienced women elementary teachers in Michigan. I The directions on the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule'were" altered to have the respondees project answers not as they*would answer, but as they felt a.typica1 elementary teacher would answer. This technique was designed to elicit a stereotype view of elementary teachers in general. It was regarded statistically as a.significant difference at the .05.leve1 between means on a given EPPS measure that respondents hold for teachers in general with that held by EPPS norm groups in general. Earl E. Hogan Beginning student reaponse was 98%, and 81.3%.of the practitioners replied. Cases were randomly withdrawn to balance the basic matrix which finally included 60 beginning education women students, 30 novice and 50 experienced elementary women teachers. Analysis of variance and two-tailed."t" tests were used to analyse the data. An "r" technique determined homogeneity within experience groups in-relation to variables of age, residence, marital status, and tenure, since all correlations were below the 60% level deemed necessary for significance. Results Beginning education women-students, novice~and experienced ele- mentary women teachers held stereotypes of the personality structure 'of elementary teachers. They held them in relation to factors of experience, tenure, age, marital status, but not to any degree for grade-level and school-community variables. The nature and direction of the stereotype was hypothesized to be high "order", "deference", and "endurance", and low "exhibition" and "heterosexuality". Only "deference" was found to be substantiated. The other characteristics were found to be held as no different from women in general or in the opposite-direction than that hypothesized by the various experience groups. Conclusions .1. Perhaps the most significant finding was the positive nature of the stereotype held by teacher departure from.the negative reports in the literature as a whole on "actual" teacher personality structure. Only high "deference" was upheld as hypothesized for beginning elementary education women, students, and experienced teachers. Lower grade Earl E. Hogan Abeginning elementary education students scored elementary teachers high on Edwards characteristics of "deference", "exhibition", "intraception", "dominance" and-"heterosexuality", and low for "autonomy", "endurance", and "abasement". The upper grade division of this source group perceived elementary-teachers the same way except for low "order", and "autonomy" as for women in general. In all other Edwards needs the scores were the same as for women in general for each group. Nevice elementary women teachers projected a stereotype of low "endurance", "abasement", and high "heterosexuality". Upper grade novices projected an elementary teacher need for low "order" and high "exhibition", while their lower grade counterparts evinced high "dominance" and "intraception". All other scores were the same as for women in general. Experienced elementary women teachers at upper and lower grade levels view elementary teachers as highly "deferent" and low on needs of "abasement". One difference occurred: upper grade experienced teachers projected a high need for "achievement". Otherwise they view elementary teachers as no different than women in general. 2. .The stereotype of the-personality structure of elementary teachers was shown to be held by experienced groups of beginning ele- mentary education women students, novice-and experienced women teachers. This stereotype varies only slightly when these same groups are~comv pared by lower and upper grade differences. 3. Age, tenure, marriage and school-community were found to be correlated with experience and thus related to differences of stereotype ascribed to the experience groups of beginning elementary education women students, novice and experienced teachers. .A STUDY OF DIFFERENCES IN THE PERCEPTION OF ELEMENTARY TEACHER PERSONALITY STRUCTURE By Earl Eugene Hogan A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1963 G .2 L7 0 Ci 7 7/8/94 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer would like to acknowledge; the patience, guidance, and critical appraisal of his committee members Dr. Charles Blackmsn, Dr. Calhoun Collier, Dr. Stanley Wronski and especially Dr. .Willism V. Hicks. The encouragement and technical advice of Dr. Bernard Carmen and Dr..Ann Olmsted. The friendship,.advice and statistical skill of Mr..A1bert Elwell. The support, understanding and work of his wife Mary and his children Daniel and Catherine. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS mmmmurs LIST or was 0 0 O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 0 Chapter Is m PROBLEM O Q s s s s s s s s e s s s s O 0 II. III. Purpose of the Study Statement of the Problem Background and Rationale Hypotheses Definition of Terms Summary ' REVIEW OF LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction Vocational Theory Psychological Needs and Vocational Development Psychological Needs and the Teaching Profession Concept of Role General Role Expectation of Teachers Concept of Stereotype Summary METHODS OF PROCEDURE AND SOURCES OF DATA. . . Instruments The Sample and Sampling Procedure Statistical Procedure Limitations — Summary IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA .......... . . . Hypothesis I Hypothesis II Hypothesis III Hypothesis IV Introductory Notes.to Hypotheses V through VIII iii Page 11 H o mflaupp 15 17 22 .27 38 47 49 .49 50 54 6O 61 61 62' 71 77 Chapter Page Hypothesis V 82 Hypothesis VI ‘ 84 Hypothesis VII 88 Hypothesis VIII 90 v. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS. . . . . . . 94 Common Characteristics .94 Differences by Grade Level and Experience 94 Positive Differences .95 Comparisons with Related Research Findings 98 Assumptions Underlying Implications .105 Implications Based Upon Assumption I 106 Implications Based Upon Assumption II 108 Implications Based Upon Assumption III .109 Recommendations of Areas for Further Research 111 Conclusions .112 BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . 114 APPENDH A. C O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 119 APPENDIX-Be O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 122 ”PM“ cl 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O . 126 iv Table 3.1 4.1 4.2 ,4.3 .4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 .4.11 5.1 LIST OF TABLES Basic Mhtrix for Analysis by Experiences.and Grade “val O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O I O 0 Mean Variance and Standard Deviation for Various Edwards Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . ,Analysis of Variance by Experience and Grade Level for Certain-EPPS Needs . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Edwards Means with Group Means for Edwards Characteristics of "Deference", "Order" ."Exhibition" "Autonomy" "Endurance" "Abasement" "Dominance" "Intraception" "Achievement" "Heterosexuality". . . . . . . . . . . . A Comparison of_Differences and Direction of Stereo- type Held by Upper and Lower Grade beginning Elementary Education Students Novice and Ex- perienced Elementary Teachers. . . . . . Correlations Between Factors-of Age Marital Status School—Community and Tenure with Edwards Charac- teristics Within Grade Level and Experience Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean Variance and Standard Deviation for Age Marital Status School-Community and Tenure by Ex- perience Level. .p. . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance of Group Means of Age Marital Status School-Community and Tenure by Grade Level and Experience-Level. . . . . . . . Comparison of Group and Experience Means with Age Marital Status School-Community and Tenure . Tenure and Grade Level Comparison by Experience Level Comparison of Tenure Means Standard Deviation and Variation by Grade and Experience Levels Comparison-of Grade Level Means with Tenure Beginning Elementary Education Student Stereotype of Elementary Teachers. ... . . . . . . Page 54 63 65 68‘ 7O 78 83 85 87 90 90 97 Table Page 5.2 Novice Elementary Teacher Stereotype-of Elementary Teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 5.3 Experienced Elementary Teacher Stereotype-of Elementary Teachers . ._. . . . . . . . . 98 vi CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM The writer has been aware in his experience with elementary education students and public school teachers,.as well as having been a member of these groups, that there~seems to exist certain expectations regarding teacher personality and behavior. These expectations appear to be held by various segments of society, including teachers themselves. The present study evolved from an interest in elementary teachers' ideas about their own personality. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which.dif- ferences occur in the perceptions of teacher personality structure held by three experience levels in elementary education: the beginning ele- mentary education student, the novice elementary teacher, and the experienced elementary teacher. Statement of the Problem The major concern of this study is to investigate, describe and discuss differences in teacher perception-of the personality of ele- mentary teachers. The concept of personality as it is commonly used, recognizes that there are certain classes of activities in which the individual would engage if unfettered by the realities.of everyday 2 existence.1 Projecting this concept, one result often is the prescrip- tion of behavior or stereotype based upon a rigid over-simplified idea 2 Once a group is stereotyped, pressures ebout a person or a group. tend to perpetuate the image, especially if it is based upon behavior Which may be found to some degree in the labled group. As a result, more and more members of the group and new members entering it either possess these qualities or change their behavior to conform to the stereo- type, are unhappy within it, or leave. Within-an occupational group an examination of those chosen, preferred, or expected activities become important for at least two reasons: (1) it offers clues to the reasons why particular individuals choose certain pursuits; and (2) it should yield insights into-such important concepts as job satisfaction, morale, and the like, through an assessment of the relative congruence between an individual's pre- ferred activities and the demands of the work situation. On these grounds alone an examination of this image seems justified in the analysis of any occupational group. When the inquiry concerns public school teachers, at least three additional reasons for such a study can be advanced. First, teachers perhaps more than any other professional group, are in a position-to serve as models for individuals whose preferences are as yet ill-defined. To be sure there are others within the community to whom the child can turn in search of an adult model. With the exception of parents, how- ever, teachers comprise the group of adults with whom the child has most LMurray, Henry A. Exploration‘igpPersonalitx. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1938). 2English, Horace B. and English, Ave C. ALngprehensive Dictionary g£_Psychological and Psychoanalytical Terme. (New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1958). ' 3 frequent and intimate contact. Second, in addition to the model- serving function, teachers are relatively free-to~sanction positively or negatively (either implicitly or explicitly) those preferences that children do exhibit. Third, to better understand the problems of recruitment, selection, education, and guidance of teacher candidates and practicing teachers, it is necessary to learn what perception the profession has of itself, and what kind of needs teachers feel are present in its members. While all of.these are compelling reasons for studies that could be pursued and help to frame-the total area, this study will focus upon the last area mentioned. Background and Rationale With nearly a million elementary school teachers in the United States, the task of generalizing the characteristics of this population becomes extremely difficult. When the problem concerns personality variables within this population, the problem becomes even more complex. Indeed, some have-suggested that it is impossible to speak in person- ality terms of a "teacher in general" and that teachingpgg 23, like managing pg£_gg_is less significant than the specific kind of teaching or managing.3 While it cannot be denied that the demands of.the situations in which teachers Operate vary considerably and that some degree of inter- 3Leiberman, Myroanducation_ggHg Profession (Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J.,_l956). 4 relation exists between type of teaching and personality structure, this condition does not preclude the possibility that general traits or qualities exist which characterize this professional group. Without arguing this point, the writer is assuming that teacher personality in fact does very widely. However the belief held by elementary teachers, and likely by others that a teacher personality does exist. It is the content or nature-of this stereotype which will be examined in this study. It might be expected that the level at which one begins to search for these characteristics would be of paramount importance. In a group as diverse as teachers one would hardly be-surprised to find a wide range of interests, attitudes, Opinions, and the like. It has already .been madefclear that making general statements concerning variables such as these is exceedingly hazardous. If, however, it is possible to look at elements within personality structure which are more stable, or take fewer forms than those mentioned above, the possibility of finding common denominators within the teaching population would be correspon- dingly increased. This possibility would also seem to be increased by _limiting the study to sub-groups of the teaching profession; i.e. prospective, novice, and experienced elementary teachers. The research to be carried on by the writer will be initiated on the basis of such reasoning. The findings should indicate that stereotypes exist within the elementary teaching population at the level of personality needs. Frmm the standpoint of personality structure some researchers state that the qualities with which teachers characterize themselves as a group are their deference, orderliness, and endurance and their low exhibition and heterosexuality.4 These characteristics appear to fit 4Jackson, P. W. and Guba, E. G., "The Need Structure of In-Service Teachers, and Occupational Analysis." The School Review 65: Summer 1957, pp. 176-192. 5 the stereotypic model of the teacher portrayed by some writers and researchers as sexually impotent, obsequious, eternally patient, pains- takingly demanding, and socially inept -- the stereotype which is frequently portrayed in mass media.5 Even with such_findings at hand, it would be wise to exercise caution in speculating the exact stereo- type since some evidence is at hand to temper such generalizations. For example, on the basis of first evidence based solely on STEP students,6 the validity of the belief that elementary teachers are high .in the need for nuturance can be questioned. It is also argued that low »heterosexuality attributed to veteran teachers may be a function of decline in age,.and would be typical of an aging population .in general not just the-occupational group of teachers. In relation to personality variables, it is assumed that experience level, sex, placement levels, age, and school community size and location may create variance in the content of the stereotype held for the occupa- tion by various practitioners within the occupation. Regardless.of the image which will emerge, it should become-clear that there is a stereotyped personality structure which is held by elementary teachers and beginning education students for their occupa- tional group and will be projected by them. .5Thomas, Donald R., "Our Professional Expectations of Teachers." _T_h_e_ Education {35313; May, 1960. 6STEP is an abbreviation for Student-Teacher Education Program. It is a five—year elementary teacher-education degree program utilizing Michigan Public Schools, community colleges, and Michigan State University facilities in a cooperative arrangement. The community colleges are responsible for the first two years of preparation and the university and public schools cooperate in completion of Bachelor's degree requirement, a laboratory experience, and a two-year internship. It is being researched, concurrent with its deve10pment, by a Ford Foundation grant to Michigan State University. Hypotheses The major hypotheses with which this study is concerned are stated below: I. II. III. VI. VII. VIII. It is hypothesized that there are stereotypes of the person- ality structure of elementary teachers held by beginning elementary education students, novice, and experienced ele- mentary teachers. It is hypothesized that there is a difference in the stereotype of the personality structure of elementary teachers held by .beginning elementary education students, novice, and experienced elementary teachers. It is hypothesized that novice and experienced elementary teachers will hold a different stereotype of the personality structure of elementary teachers depending upon the grade at which they teach, and beginning education students depending upon the grade level at which they want to teach. It is hypothesized that beginning elementary education student, novice, and experienced elementary teachers hold stereotypes .of the personality structure-of elementary teachers in relation to personality needs of high deference, orderliness, and endurance; and low exhibition and heterosexuality, and will also project the same stereotypes in relation to lower and upper elementary teaching or preference levels. It is hypothesized that there is a difference in the stereo- type of the personality structure of elementary teachers held by novice and experienced elementary teachers in relation to the size and location of the school community in which they are employed, and beginning elementary education student for the school community in which they want to teach. It is hypothesized that beginning elementary education students, novice and experienced elementary teacher hold a different stereotype of the personality structure of elementary teachers depending upon age. It is hypothesized that beginning elementary education students, novice and experienced elementary teacher hold a different stereotype of the personality structure of elementary teachers depending upon tenure. It is hypothesized that beginning elementary education students, novice and experienced elementary teacher hold a different stereotype of the personality structure of elementary teachers depending upon marital status. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Definition of Terms Lower Elementary - is all grades Kindergarten through grade 2. ,Upper Elementary - is all grades 3 through 6. ,Beginning Elementary Education Student - is a Michigan State University Student enrolled in the Education 200 course, The School and the Child, fall term, 1962. _Novice Elementary Teacher - is a practicing teacher with zero to three years experience employed in Michigan schools during the year 1962 - 63. Experienced Elementary Teacher - is a practicing teacher with four or more years experience employed in Michigan schools during the year 1962 - 63. Role - is a set of behaviors appropriate to an individual in a given group and expected to him in a given situation. Stereotype - is a conception characterized by rigidity, resistance to change, and a tendency to persist in the face of demands for modification made by objective facts and conditions. A stereotype is not necessarily false or erroneous, since there are correct stereotype constructs. Personality Traits - are fifteen traits measured by the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule. Personalitnyrofile - is a graphic method of portraying, scaling, and contrasting personality traits and differences. Edwards Personal Preference Schedule - will be abbreviated EPPS. Tenure - is the number of years of teaching eXperience in lower or upper elementary grades (see 1. and 2. above). Experience - is the total number of years of teaching in any grade, Kindergarten through 6. ‘School Community - is the school community in which teachers are employed in, or in which beginning elementary education students would like to teach rather than actual residence. Size and location are specified as rural to city of 100,000, and city of more than 100,000 to metropolitan area. _Marital Status - is defined as married at some time during the respondees life time, or never married. Summary This chapter begins with a.statement of the problem which is to investigate, describe, and discuss differences in elementary-teacher perceptions of the personality of elementary-teachers as an occupational group. The purpose and importance are discussed, followed by background information and a discussion of the rationale for the study. Of par- ticular importance in this section is the idea that teachers' personality varies widely, but the belief is held by teachers, and likely by others that a teacher personality exists. In the final section, major hypotheses are stated and terms used in the study are defined. Chapter II will contain a review of research and literature in areas pertinent to the study: vocational theory, psychological needs, teacher characteristics, role concept, and stereotype. In Chapter III design and methodology will be discussed, including sampling and statistical procedure. An analysis of data and discussion of results will be conducted in Chapter IV. Chapter V will contain a summary of results, conclusions, and implications. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction A study which purports to determine-differences which occur in the perception of elementary teacher personality structures held by various experience levels of that group would seem to demand a rather far ranging examination of literature and research. First, one could pr0perly investigate vocational theory in an attempt to find reasons _ why individuals choose a vocation. Second, since research to be carried on in this study is based to a degree on the premise that psychological needs are related to vocational choice, an investigation of this area is deemed cogent. Third, a reference point is needed when one discusses a particular occupational group: what does the literature have to say about teachers‘ characteristics, behavior, and personality structure? Fourth, since the study is concerned with perceptions, sometimes referred to as stereotypes, an investigation of what is known in relation to it, and the construction of a conceptual framework with which to study this phenomena is vital. One cannot do this without investigating the concept of role, with which a large part of the concept of stereotyping has become associated, and to which it is now inter-related. In this connection it will be seen that role and stereotype per- scription has much to say about teacher characteristics, behavior expectations, and competencies. All of these various areas must, of course, include that which is pertinent and known in relation to ele- mentary teachers, and education students. 10 Vocational Theory Historically, the usual approach to problems of a vocational nature has been the application of the psychology of individual differences. "Concurrent practices are based primarily on the-assumption that dif- fering abilities.and_interests are significant in determining;occupational choice~and success".6 .An early effective demonstration that occupational groups could be differentiated on the basis of intelligence was given by the Army Alpha Intelligence Test used in world war 1.7 It also illustrated.an-applica- tion of the psychology of individual differences. A later application of this thinking along another dimension is the Strong Vocational Interest Blank. Strong8 demonstrated that men successfully engaged in an occupation-could be differentiated from men in general on the basis of measured differences in interests. He found this to be equally true when applied from occupation to occupation. Variously, attempts have been made to relate other psychological characteristics, such as personality traits to-vocational occupants. Currently, vocational guidance dwells upon obtaining.varied.and extensive .information about an individual through tests and interviews,.and at- tempts to fit the individual to positional characteristics and requirements. 6Super, Donald, Vocational DeveloPment: A Framework if. Research. Career Pattern Study, Monograph 1 (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1957), p. 4. 7Cronbach, Lee J. Essentials 2; Psychological Testing (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950), p. 162. 8Ibid., pp. 406-427. 11 The application of the psychology of individual differences has been quite useful. It was felt by many theorists in this area, however, that alternative approaches were being neglected. Super1°.illustrates this thinking, in his prOposal that trends in development, particularly during adolescence should be given attention in addition to trait theory. Specifically he suggested a life history method similar to the "life stages" concept of Buehler whose descriptive designations were growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline. Super extends this concept by adding the possibility of describing and predicting behavior of a vocational nature which may be expected at each life-stage. He assumes that past behavior patterns are generally predictive of future themes and trends.11 He uses the term "vocational development" to describe this progression and sees work as one aspect of total personality manifestation and implementation-of one's self concept. Occupational choice "is one of the points in.life when an individual is called upon to state rather explicitly hid concept of hidpelf".12 Ginsberg13 who somewhat preceeded Super proposed that occupational choice begins at about age 6 and continues into early adult life. Research since that time suggests that the process begins earlier and may last longer for some individuals. An example-of research supporting 1°3uper,.gg,_g;5., p. 5. 11Super, Donald, "Career Patterns as a Basis for Vocational Counseling", Journal 2f_Counseling Psychology, 1:12419, 1954, p. 13. 128uper, Donald The Psychology 2; Cageers (Mew York: Harpers, 1957). p. 191. 13Ginsberg, Eli, et al. Occupational Choice:hén.épproach‘£g General Theogy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951). 12 this theory of earlier choice.is that of'Witty14 who shows that vocational interests are rather specific in pro-school children-and tend to remain relatively stable for both boys and girls through grade-six,‘with nurse and teacher being most preferred by girls at all levels. Ryane15 found that participation in school-like activities during childhood and adolescence.mayroffer significant clues to present characteristics-of teachers. Teachers who said they had read to children-or "taken-class for teachers" tended to score higher than others as "good" teachers on his measures. Tiedman and O'Hara16 add a-new.dimension to vocational theory with a recent paper in which they propose that research in career development must be on the perception a person has of himself in relation to work. This somewhat tempers, but is supportive of Bordin's proposal that occupational interests and commitment are primarily a reflection of the degree of an individual's acceptance-or rejection of an occupational stereotype.17 In this relation, Tiedman states "perception-of self and work thereby becomes intervening variables between circumstances and decision in-a particular situation of educa- tional or vocational choice".18 14Witty, Paul A. "Studies of Interests of Children", TherPacket, 16: 220-231, Winter 1961. VISRyans, David Characteristics 3; Teachers (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1960), p. 395. 16Tiedman, D. V. and O'Hara, R.P., Position Choices and Careegs: Elements 2; a_Theo§y'Harvard Studies in Career Development, No. 8, 1958. 17Bordin, E. C. "A Theory of Vocational Interests as Dynamic Phenomena", Educational and Psychological Measurement, 3:49-65, 1943. 18Tiedmanand O'Hara, 22, 215., p. 9. l3 ' Tiedman proposes a "systemof-data"19 as most important for pre- dicting career choice. These "system of data" are: (1) circumstances 'of child rearing, (2) stated preferences while.in school, (3) need patterns as they can be inferred from projective tests, (4) the in- dividuals existing career pattern. Another conception of occupations is that of a primary source-of need satisfaction. "In our society there is no single situation-which is potentially so capable of giving satisfaction at all levels of basic needs as is the occupation" is the way Roe20 conceptualizes this position. She agrees with Maslow'sz.1 arrangement of needs in a "hierarchy of prepotency" and incorporates this aspect of need theory in further elaborating upon the relationship of need to occupation. Her classifi- cations of "group" and."leve1" of.occupation-sharpens the relationship :of various aspects of personality and background choice. Roe finds that such factors as intelligence, education and socio-economic background seem related to "levels" of occupation (unskilled to professional- managerial continuum) while such factors as interest, attitude and personality characteristics seem related to "group" (service, business, science, arts, etc. areas). Nachman22 formulated hypotheses based on 19Ib1d., p. 27. 20Roe, Ann, "Early Determinants of Vocational Choice", Journal 2§,Counseling Psychology, 4:212-217, 1957. 21Maslow, A. H. Motivations and Personality (New‘York: Harper Inc., 1954). 22Nachman, Barbaga Childhgod Experiences and Vocatig_ngl Choice: _A_ Study - 2i: magmatiflts; "& Social Workers. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1957. 14 psychoanalytic theory regarding early childhood experiences which would account for adult occupation behavior. Her findings support the major assumption that different occupations afforded differing opportunities for expression of impulses and utilization-of defenses, and that occupational groups vary significantly from one another in important -personality characteristics. Witty's23 findings take on new meaning when viewed in this manner. Segal24 followed the-same.line in using psychoanalytic theory to demonstrate the role of personality in occupational choice-of creative writers and accountants. He found that creative writers showed greater tolerance for ambiguity, more evidence of expression-of hostility, and .1ess attempt at emotional control than did accountants. These findings add strength to the idea.that personality factors are important deter- minants.of vocational choice, and that personality theory can be.used to gain a better understanding of the effect of such factors. O'Hara25 adapted Roger's personality theory to an analysis of career development on the assumption that career is one aspect of the personality. He theorizes that self concept is a vital factor in an individuals vocational development, and that this follows the concept that one's idea of self is an important factor in personality develop- ment. He also proposes that concept of self and concept of occupational personality would likely be matched consciously or unconsciously. 23wmnzy, 22. gig. 24Segal, S. J. The Role 2; Personality Factors in,Vocational Choice: _A_ Study _o_f_ Accountants and Creative Writers. Doctoral Dis— sertation, University of Michigan, 1954. 25O'Hara, R. P. "On the Importance of the Self-Concept to a General Theory of Occupational Choice", Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1957. (unpublished paper). 15 Psychological Needs and Vocational Development From the previous discussion in the area of general vocational theory, of great importance to a consideration of the area of psycholo- gical needs, as it relates to vocational development, is Maslow's need .theory and Roe's development of it into a vocational theory. Following their lead, a review of additional material which attempts to use psychological needs or needs theory to investigate vocational develop- ment would seem pertinent. Of interest to this study is Walsh's26 investigation into the rela- tionship of Edwards Personal Preference Schedule manifest needs measure- ment, and satisfaction with actual occupational duties. His major hypothesis was that individuals would select as likes or dislike? the specific duties of a given occupation or position which are consistent - with their psychological needs. He found that those sampled with certain manifest needs tended to prefer duties associated with a given position which would fulfill psychological needs and reject those that did not. Shumaker27 in a report of a study to the 1960 meeting of the American Sociological Association regarding applicants to medical schools and senior medical school students lends further support to .26Walsh, R. P., "The Effect of Needs on Responees to Job Duties", Journal 2; Counseling Psychology, 6: 194-198, 1959. 27Schumaker, Charles F. "The Image of the Physician: A Study of Applicants to Medical School", Association of American Medical Colleges, 1960. (unpublished paper). l6 Walsh's findings. His purpose was to learn how the average medical school applicant views the physician in terms of certain personality characteristics, to relate this perception to the applicant's own personality traits and to the personality traits of senior medical students. He employed the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule findings, and also had the respondee rank in order five traits measured on the Edward's test which they felt were most desirable and the five least desirable traits for a physician. The subjects generally bowed to the "popular stereotype of the able self-sacrificing dedicated physician who behaves in a socially acceptable fashion and is not dependent on others"; i.e. high in achievement, abasement, exhibition, succorance and autonomy. Schumaker found, too, that personality traits of applicants to medical schools correlate well with this image and the personality patterns of senior medical students, as measured by the Edward's test, are even more closely related to these expectations. The welsh and Schumaker research support the proposition that occupations serve as a major outlet for satisfaction of psychological needs. Merwin and DiVesta28 relate career choice to need theory in their study of difference in need strength and need satisfaction of two groups of undergradhates, of which one indicated teaching as a preference and the second as other occupations. They theorized that the degree of acceptance or rejection of a career is "dependent upon the individual's perception that the career facilitates or hinders the satisfaction of his important needs". Achievement, dominance, exhibition, and affilia- 28Merwin, J. 0. and DiVesta, F. J., "A Study of Need Theory and Career Choice", Journal 2f.Counseling Psychology, 6: 302-308, 1959. 17 tion were deemed related to teaching. Stern's Activities Index was employed to measure these needs. They found those in the teaching group to have a statistically significant higher need for affiliation, while those in the non-teaching group were higher in dominance. They also found a higher need for achievement and exhibition by the "non- teachers" but not with statistical significance. Schaffer29 attempted to relate job satisfaction to need satisfaction. He found a positive correlation between-overall job satisfaction and mean satisfaction of the two higher needs of his subjects. In line with 30 studied three groups (chemists, ministers, and military this, Siegelman officers) to determine whether a pattern of basic needs could be distin- guished for each group. He constructed a model personality structure for each group on the basis of their job-role requirement. His inquiry was implemented with an Activities Index, sentence-completion, personal interviews, and a biographical data form. He found chemists were high in autonomy and low on affiliation, ministers high on affiliation, and military officers high on order. He concludes that matching of occupa- tions by an individual with personal need patterns is a major factor in vocational choice. Psychological Needs and the Teaching Profession Speaking directly to the psychological need structure of teachers is the report of a research by Jackson and Cuba.31 They employed the 29Schaffer, R. H., "Job Satisfaction as Related to Need Satisfaction in Work", Psychological Mono ra he, 67, No. 14, 1953. ,3OSiegelman, Marvin, "Personality Patterns in Three Vocational Groups", Dissertation Abstracts, 18: 2063-64, 1958. 31Jackson, P. W. and Cuba, Egon G., "The Need Structure of In- Service Teachers: An Occupational Analysis", The School Review, 65:2: ,176-92, 1957. 18 Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) to find the manifest needs, as measured by the test, for a sample of mid-western men elementary and secondary teachers, and mid-western women elementary and secondary teachers. An additional primary variable was teaching experience. In relation to the sex variable when compared with the EPPS norms, they found male high.schoo1 teachers scored significantly low on intra- ception and succorance, while the female high school teacher scored significantly low on change. This was not shared by any other group, however. Both elementary and secondary female teachers evinced one response not shared by males: a significantly low score on dominance. -All teachers tested scored high on order and endurance, and low on exhibition. They were also more deferent and_1ess heterosexual. Dif- ferences on nurturance, affiliation, and intraception were absent. One would expect that teachers would be high on these areas, since one thinks.of teachers in terms of aiding and assisting others, participa- ting in groups, and analyzing behavior of others. The lack of difference supports their contention and is consistent with other recent works in 32 as well as the area of teacher personality by Barr, Estice, and Noe Fulkerson.33 It is significant that an expected manifest need for nurturance, affiliation and intraspection are not present to any degree in the teachers in these studies. Early data from research carried on 32Barr, A. S., Eustice, D. E. and Noe, E. J., "The Measurement and Prediction of Teacher Efficiency", Review 2; Educational Research, '25:6:261-69, 1955. 33Fulkerson, Glen, "A Resume of Current Teacher Personnel Research", Journal 2; Educational Research, 47:5: 669-82, 1954. 19 in relation to the STEP program34 also tends to support the nurturance findings. Ryan's35 findings disagree. He states emphatically that his data show what might be expected, that teachers who say they entered the profession because of its intellectual nature, because they liked school, and because they liked the public and social service character of teaching scored higher on characteristics generally ascribed to "good" teaching both in his study and recent literature. Such findings, which indicate deviance from commonly held expecta- tions of personality structure of teachers, certainly bear further inquiry, and add weight to the need for the research in this study. In relation to the experience variable, Jackson and Guba divided their sample of teachers into groups of novice (0-3) years, inter- mediate (4-9) years, and experienced (10 years or more) for analysis. They found that for all needs in which teachers varied from the norms, teachers did so in increasing amounts regardless of sex or teaching level. They deem this to be "lessons to be learned" as the novice teacher moves through the intermediate steps to enter the ranks of the veterans. The writer agrees that the findings are valid, that they did indeed find differences in personality needs between novices and experienced teachers; but to agree that this sample of novice-teachers will be like the experienced group ten years or more hence, or conversely that the experienced group was like to present novice group ten years 34Student-Teacher Education Project at Michigan State University; an experimental intern-teacher preparation program. See Chapter I footnote 6 for details. 35Ryans, 22. cit., p. 395. 20 prior, is highly debatable. A longitudinal study is indicated here, and would be a real contribution to knowledge about the teaching pro- fession. The writer could find no such studies in the literature. Another recent research by Southworth36 dealt with the dimension of elementary education students' grade level differences in needs manifested by upper-elementary preference, and lower-elementary preference students. His sample of elementary-preference students taken as a whole had seven needs significantly different from the Edward's norm group. He found early-elementary preference students manifest more need for abasement, affiliation, succorance, and nurturance when compared with later- elementary-preference students. Later-elementary-preference students revealed higher manifest need for achievement, aggression, and exhibition. Another excellent study of major significance is Ryans study to which reference has previously been made. He reports a normative study which derived "a working model of teacher behavior". He couches this model in the framework of good or poor teaching based upon the behavior in the classroom and school setting. Three particular (patterns of behavior) appeared to stand out in separate factor analysis of ele- mentary and secondary teacher data: 1. warm, friendly, understanding bs. aloof, egocentric, restricted teacher behavior. (Pattern TCS X). 2. Responsible, business like, systematic vs. evading, unplanned, slipshod teacher behavior. (Pattern TCSY). 3. Stimulating, imaginative, surgent, vs. dull, routine teacher behavior. (Pattern TCS Z).37 36Southw'orth, Horton C. 5 Study of Certain Personality and Value Differences ig_Teacher Education Majors Preferring Early and Later Ele- mentary Teaching Levels. Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1962. 37Ryans, 22. cit., p. 382. 21 Ryans reports that among elementary school teachers the patterns, X., Y., and 2. were high intercorrelated, and seemed to be highly correlated with: pupil behavior in teacher's classes. Among secondary school teachers the intercorrelation of the patterns was less high; with pattern X. (friendly) and Y. (organized) being quite low. He also found the educational viewpoint of secondary teachers to be more learning-centered and traditional, while those of elementary teachers- leaned more toward permissiveness. Of particular interest to this study are variables he found sig- nificant. In this connection he found a tendency for science and mathematics teachers to be most traditional, and English and Social Studies teachers to be more permissive in their attitudes; In addition he found age to be a significant variable with experience being sub- stantially correlated with it. In relation to age, he found older teachers to be more systematic and business like (TCS Y), and more learning-centered. Ryans cautions that this phase of the study was cross-sectional, and rather than state, as Jackson and Guba did, changes that will or did take place, he simply states that he does not know whether these age differences are due to teacher's characteristics as they grow old, or cultural influences, or emphases in their training. Marital status was also a significant variable, with the married group being higher in factors of understanding, friendly, stimulating behavior, and having favorable attitudes toward public, and a child- centered viewpoint. This is not to say that single teachers did not , possess these qualities but that "marrieds" had these qualities in greater amounts. ‘ Size of community presented another important difference. The trend suggests that teachers from smaller communities attain lower ‘22 scores on positive TCS X, TCS Y and T08 2 (see 36 page 20), when compared with communities of increasingly larger size up to.a popula- tion of 1,000,000. Teachers in cities of this size and larger scored as low as teachers from the very small communities, with the exception of verbal-understanding. Taking these researches as a whole, we can conclude that teachers, as a group, do have measurable occupational distinctions in terms of manifest needs and behavior patterns. That the behavior pattern generally supports the picture of manifest needs sketched by researchers. Research involving teacher behavior seems to be at variance as to whether they have or lack needs for nurturance, affiliation, and intraception. These needs are, however, generally attributed to teacher's occupa- tional need patterns. Major variables of significance in these findings about teachers seem to be grade level (elementary, secondary, upper elementary, lower elementary), age and experience (closely correlated), marriage, size of community in which they teach, size of school, socio- economic status of school community, early experience with teaching, and academic success. Concept of Role One cannot proceed far in the literature without realizing that role theory is complex. In addition, one recognizes how extensively it is used as an analytical tool. Equally one realizes its relationship to theories of personality need and vocation which we have previously discussed. Solby38 recognizes the relationship of role and need structure in an article titled "Role Concept in Job Adjustment." 38Solby, Bruno, "The Role Concept in Job Adjustment", Sociometry, 7:222-229, 1944, p. 222. 23 Social saturation value, i.e., the value that a certain job has in helping the individual to experience a satur- ation of his emotional needs for interpersonal relation- ships; role value, which represents his financial compen- sation plus the various individual and cultural symbols he experiences in the job situation; and integration value, i.e., this part of the productivity value of a job which the individual experiences as ability to express his specific talents in productive-work. The concept of role is not new. Shakespeare's "all the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players" is an early verbalization of this idea. .It remained, however, for the social psychologist to develop the concept into a coherent whole, and present a highly useful tool and competual framework with which to regard behavior. Mead states the general position of most authorities-on the result of social interaction: we attempt. . . .to explain the conduct of the individual in terms of the organized conduct of the social group, rather than account for the organized conduct of the social _ group in terms of the conduct of the separate individuals ' belonging to it. For social psychology, the whole (society) is prior to the part or parts. The social act is not explained by building it separate of stimulus plus response; it must be taken as a dynamic whole -- as something going on -- no part of which can be considered or understood by it- self -- a complex organic rocess implied by each individual (behavior) involved in it. 9 Dewey placed a slightly different stress,.but touched on role as internal phenomena. He regarded a person's perception of reality to be a trans- action between the individual and his environment.40 waller's early .39Mead, G. H. Mind, Self, and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950), p. 231. 40Dewey, John How fig Think (Chicago: Heath and Company, 1933). 24 insight into role shows some of this influence in The Sociology of Teaching.41 1 The role that arises from that bipolar organization of the field of consciousness in which self and others real or imagined, are given over against each other in experi- ence. The action of the individual thus comes to be oriented with reference to an entire-situation of which the supposed attitude-of that other is a part. Thus, when one behaves in a social situation, he behaves self- consciously -- to some extent he plays a part. This behavior is always different from what it would be if another were not present. He continues: The role appears as an organization of the individual with reference to an entire situation -- some insight, correct or incorrect into the attitudes of others is implied. The insight may be entirely falacious, or it *may be incomplete, but to play a role is to regulate one's behavior by the imagined judgments of others. In other words, the actor's knowledge of role expectation may indeed be false or partially true, but he believes them to be the expected role and acts accordingly. There has been much research based upon the work of the fore- runners just mentioned in the development and application of role concept. Charters42 made a compilation of work in this field prior to 1952. He says: "The concept of role has become an analytical tool of central importance in many contemporary sociological and social psychological systems." Hereinforces waller in saying that an individual's behavior 41Waller, Willard The Sociology of Teaching (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1932), pp. 322-323. 42Charters, W. W. "The School as a Social System" , The Review of Educational Research, 22: 1-42, 1952, p. 2. 25 is influenced by the expectations which members of various important reference groups have-of him and his relationships with them. Brookover43 :summarizes and discusses subsequent research in teacher and administrator roles and underscores role concept as a valuable analytical tool. He indicates vagueness and looseness in the use-of the concept.44 Taking this lead, Doyle45 states that current definitions for the term.role range from use as a substitute for the concept "status" to‘a descriptive term for highly personalized styles of individual behavior, and reminds us of the need for careful analysis of the term. Gross, Mason and M’cEachern“6 preceding their research on the role of the superintendent, rlist three major categoriesof role definition. Their distinctions are quite useful and generally summarize the major role formulations in social science literature. The categories are (l) normative culture patterns (i.e. patterns of behavior which appear to be normal in'a given (culture), (2) personal interpretations, and (3) situational and insti- tutional. In other words, a person's role is defined to a degree in, .relation to the-expectations of his culture, the person's intellectual and emotional.response to it, and his response to the institutional version, another's version, his version, or a combination of all three. - 43Brookover, Wilbur, "Research on Teacher and Administrator Roles", Journal‘gf Educational Sociology, 29:9, 1955. _44Brookover, Wilbur, "Public Images and Expectations of Teachers", Collegepgf Education Quarterly, 3:7-12, Fall, 1957. 45Doyle, Louis "Convergence and Divergence in the Role Expecta- tions of Elementary Teachers", C01188€;2£ Education Quarterly, 4:3-8, Winter, 1958. ‘ 46Gross, Neil; ward, Mason; and McEachern, Alexander Explorations in_Role Analysis (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1958). 26 Another analysis of the pattern seems to have role theory concern itself with the situation as the person "sees it" in terms of role or status expectations, and mental involvement. It appears, too, that the job, position, or occupation is important to its consideration. 48 Hoffman's47 paraphrase of Brookover's conceptual framework of role development for a study of teachers, adds a final dimension to our generalization: 1. Members of any group have role expectations of an actor in a broadly defined situation. The general expectations which a group attributes to an occupant of a teaching position might be termed a first level of role expectation. 2. Members of any group have expectations of any actor in a particular situation. 3. Members of any group have expectations of a particular specific situation. These would be the expectations teachers at a particular school have of a particular teacher. The concern of this study is with the first of these formulations. As Brookover states,49 All teachers, parents, and students have general expectations of the teaching status. The general expectations are applied to any person occupying the status in all appropriate situa- tions. Such general expectations describe the group's defini- tion of normative behavior for persons occupying this position. Although we use the term general status, some researchers have used role to refer to the same thing. In other words, one should be able to find a general role expecta- tion for teachers held by teachers in general. But it isn't that simple. Not only is there disagreement on what is, but there is disagreement on what ought to be. There is even disagreement on the direction of change 47Hoffman, James D. A Stud y_ of Perception That Administrators, le- ggntary Teachers, Consultants, and _Sngcial Area_ Teachers Have of the Ele- mentary, Special Area Teacher and Consultant Role. Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1959. 483rookover, 92. _c_i_t_., p. 8. 49Ibid., p. 8. 27 that the professional role is taking in an increasingly dynamic and changing society. Perhaps the problem lies at the level of approach, i.e., teacher (general), teacher (secondary), teacher (elementary), teacher (X city), teacher (school X), or teacher (school X over time). As Brookover has indicated, there is little specificity as to which level of role is meant or intended. Perhaps it lies in the "what is - what should be" or "realist-idealist" continuum, since some see teachers as something just a "cut below the angels," which others view them.as "drab, gauch, and underpaid!" General Role Expectation of Teachers Perhaps the best way to highlight the conflict is to examine the work in recent years of the National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standard (TEPS Commission) of the National Education Association. This group has sponsored a number of conferences to examine the various dimensions of teacher competence-problems.50 In general, an examination of the result of these conferences shows that a particular set of role definitions emerged that can be summarized by a list of competencies developed by Kinney.51 Kinney isolated six major roles for all teachers, and sets up behavioral definitions of the factors of competence which would be needed for successful fulfillment of each of the separate roles. The six roles are: 50The Miami Conference 1953, The.Albany Conference 1954, and The DeKalb Conference in 1955 for example. 51Kinney, Lucien Measures of a Good Teacher (San Francisco: California Teachers.Association, 1953), pp. 16-17. 28 A Director of Learning. This is the most widely recog- nized role, requiring ability to plan, administer and evaluate learning activities. A Counselor and Guidance Worker. It is generally recog- nized today that, to the degree that the school has a counseling program, it is carried on largely by the teachers, and primarily in the classroom. A.Mediator of the Culture. Our civilization and culture depend on the effectiveness of our schools. They require citizens with the ideals and values peculiar to a demo- cracy, and skilled in the techniques of democratic procedure. In equipping her pupils with these-attitudes, ideals, and proficiencies the teacher becomes a mediator of the culture. A.Member of the School Community. In curriculum building, participating in the school government, extracurricular activities, and so-on, the teacher is sharing in the responsibilities of the school program. .A Liaison between School and Community. As a member of the community, the teacher has a responsibility to interpret the-educational program to the public. The effectiveness with which this is done determines, in large measure, the degree to which the public understands and cooperates in the educational program. A.Member of the Profession. Many of the important responsi- bilities are fulfilled by the teacher, not as an individual in the-classroom, but as a member of the organized profession. In general these include two general functions: Leadership in building the educational program in our society; and safeguarding the quality of membership and welfare of the members of the profession. Kinney prefaces his definitions by stating: ---the-answer to the question: What is a competent teacher is by nature a definition. It is required as a basis and frame of reference for research, but it cannot be derived as an outcome-of empirical research.52 521bid. Thomas, writing in The Educational Forum 29 53 sharply challenges Kinney and the point of view he represents. He maintains that there-are enough research data, empirically derived, to "startle the definers-of teacher competence into an enthusiastic reappraisal of the objects Of their attention."54 He continues with sixteen research derived generali- Azations about teachers, which, it would seem, cannot be-overlooked, "despite the lump of affection the reader may feel in his throat for the-school keepers of America: 1. 2. The typical American school teacher is a female entering middle age. (N.E.A.) The typical teacher"s origins are middle class, and she tends to remain in the middle classes. (Werner, Brookover, Davis) The typical teacher is married, as of 1957. But this has only become true of females in approximately the last ten years, and female teachers are still less married than other females in the total labor force. (N.E.A., Terrien) The typical teacher tends toward limited participation in the social and cultural life of the community; even this is a considerable increase in participation over ten or twenty years ago. (N.E.A., Terrien, Greenhoe) The typical teacher usually does not participate in any political activity except voting, and in recent years she has shifted to the feeling that teachers should NOT so participate. (N.E.A., Terrien). The typical teacher seems to prefer to refrain from any aggressive action to change her status or to change the institution of education. (Terrien, Brookover, Lieberman) The typical teacher seems to prefer conservative, quite ' leisure-time activities associated with the cultural pattern of the middle classes. (N.E.A., Terrien, Mills) 53Thomas, Donald R., "Our Professional Expectations of Teachers," 2h; EduCational Forum, 44:421-427, May 1960. 54Ib1d., p. 423. 30 8. The typical teacher is more highly trained than most other females in the total labor force, but she has had little experience outside her field. (Caplow, Terrien) 9. The typical teacher tends to be a home and car owner, and is considered careful with money. (Terrien) .10. The typical teacher tends to have a slightly higher average income than the average of all persons working for wages and salaries, as of 1955, but this is lower in comparative status to 1943, and she still tends to earn considerably less than professionals. (N.E.A., Hanner, Lieberman) 11. The typical teacher stereotype in the mind of the public seems to be one of a woman with a stern face and precise manners. (Terrien, Foff, McGill, Waller) 12. The typical teacher tends to accept a low status position in the hierarchy of the school organization. (Terrien, Lieberman, Grembs) 13. The typical teacher tends to be isolated from the other two social groups in the school, the administration and the students, since she must maintain social distance from the students, and the administration tends to face the power structure of the community rather than the teachers. (Becker, Brookover, Bush, Gordon) 14. The typical teacher usually ddes not have a continuous work experience. (Caplow)"55 The image seems on the one hand to be a somewhat ideal construct, or, as an alternative the behavior which is inferred by the fourteen research findings just reported as normative for teachers. The concern in this contrast is reflected by a recent letter to the editor of Newsweek quoted by 0“Dowd and Beardslee,56 "You certainly epitomized the popular notion about school teachers: drab, dreary, gauche, underpaid. Why should teachers, America's one stabilizing force, be the laughing stock of all professions and the most maligned?" 55Ib1d., p. 423-424. 56O'Dowd, Donald and Beardslee, David C., "The Student Image of the Teacher", Phi Delta Kappan, 42:250-251, March 1961, p. 250. 31 Perhaps studies and research will not resolve this paradox, but they should permit confirmation, refutation, or tempering of such polar findings. Earlier studies reported in this chapter show that teacher role expectations for teachers are changing. Perhaps one can detect this change and perhaps confirm its direction. In addition, one should be able to draw from such an investigation some generalization on role expectations for teachers which can be connected directly or indirectly with previous findings reported on needs and characteristics of teachers. An early study by WickmanS7 implied that teachers are likely to rate as more serious, those symptoms associated with noisier, more rebellious, and outgoing behavior that threatens the orderliness of their agency. His study was replicated in essence in 1955 by Stouffer and Owens,58 who show that there has been slight change in the original findings over time. This particular study is often cited by guidance workers who would have teachers espouse oppositve norms as being more appropriate. Supportive of Wickman and others in regard to teacher expectations of pupils is a recent study by Kaplan.59 He reports teachers were distressed by students' violation of the teacher's personal standards, or their role as leaders, disciplinarians, and instructor. S7Wickman, E. E. Children's Behavior and Teacher's Attitudes (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1928). 58Stouffer, George and Owens, Jennie, "Behavior Problems of Children as Identified by Today's Teachers as Compared with Those Reported by E. K. Wickman", Journal 2; Educational’Research, 48: 321-31, 1955. 59Kaplan, Louis, "The Annoyances of Elementary School Teachers", Journal‘gf Educational Research, 45: 649-65, 1952. 32 A number of studies have attempted to discover how parents and teachers view each other. Jenkins and Lippitt6O found that students and parents were not aware of the teacher's desire to be friendly, that students tended to view both parents and teachers as power figures, and finally that students did not recognize the interest of parents or teachers in their activities. Kaplan61 discovered three main areas of conflict between parents and teachers: disagreement over school program, a tendency for each to protect vested interests, and personal inadequacies of each in their own realm of activity. Sykes62 found important sources of stress to be lack of knowledge of childrens school environment by parents, teacher stereotype, and differential values between school and home. It appears then, from these studies, that teachers in dealing with parents_wou1d tend toward norms described by Edwards as somewhat aggressive, and dominant, which does not fit the pattern anticipated. The pattern with students for orderliness, and nurturance does fit, however. It is also significant that the generalized teacher image or stereotype seems to inhibit parent-teacher relationship.a 60Jenkins, David H., and Lippitt, Ronald Interpersonal Perceptions 2§_Teachers, Students and Parents (washington, D.C.: National Educational Association,p1951). 61Kaplan, Louis, "Tensions in Parent-Teacher Relationships", filamentary School Journal, 51: 190-95, 1950. 62Sykes, Gresham.M;, "P.T.A. and Parent-Teacher Conflicts", Harvard Education Revue, 23: No. 2, 86-92, 1953. 33 A review of studies about the view teachers have-of themselves 63 shows that 'produced valuable findings. Information reported by Hall men and women teachers are more liberal in their views than members of the public realize. He found their view's to range from extreme con- servatives to Communists. They selected teaching because of a desire (I) to be of service to children, (2) to take advantage of leadership opportunities, (3) to secure permanent employment, and (4) to take advantage of good working conditions in teaching. .Clarke and Burke64 conclude that those who entered teaching generally had lower needs or desire for prestige, income, professional recognition; lower levels of salary aspirations than non-teachers; and that.morale was found to be higher among elementary than secondary teachers. Becker65 agrees that teachers conceive themselves as professional with specialized knowledge. He reports they felt that parents lacked background, were unable to understand teachers' problems and that when parents entered the school scene, it spelled potential danger. . Brim's 66 work dealing with sociology and the field of educa- tion-summarizes the prescriptive aSpects of the teacher's classroom role as viewed by themselves. Teachers feel that: 63Hall, Robert K., et. al. The Year Book 2; Education (Chicago: Werld Book Company, 1953). 64Clarke, David L. and Burke, A. J., "Economic, Legal and Social Status of.Teachers", Revue of Education Research, 25:239-51, 1955. 65Becker, Howard, "The Téacher in the Authority System of the Public School," Journal gf_Educational Sociology, 27:128-41, 1953. 66Brim, Orville G. Sociology and the Field of Education (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1958), pp. 48-49. 34 1. Task orientation or socio-emotional orientation is equally acceptable, but slightly favor task-orientation. 2. They follow this at the expense of expressive considerations. 3. They gain respect but lose attraction in so doing. 4. Both teachers and students wish more attention were (or could be) given to eXpressive or social-emotional matters. 5. If they follow (4), learning (or task accomplishment) suffers. These generalizations point to a current feeling held by some educators and sociologists that the task-leader and socio-emotional-leader roles are incompatible and mutually exclusive; that they lead to Confusion, frustration and conflict for students and teachers alike. It also suggests that such conflicts are "built into" Kinney's definition referred to earlier in this section. There is some evidence to point to a change in role prescription. Stouffer's study on the change since the 1920's which show teachers to be more supportive of students and less emphatic toward task orienta- tion is a clue.. Riley, Suchman, and Jenkins and Lippitt previously cited show that a great majority of teachers were enthusiastic-over hearing what students think of their behavior and in learning how students want them to behave. Brim cites an unpublished study by. Price showing similar findings for college teachers, and in a retest confirmed significant changes by teachers in the direction of student prescription. 67 O'Dowd and Beardslee state that college students do not subscribe to the allegation that teachers (high school) are 'drab, dreary, 670'Dowd and Beardslee, op. cit., p. 254. 35 gauche'. Students, men and women in private and public colleges, all present a much more positive prescription than this. College faculty members are more prone to accept the dreary view.l An additional finding is the improved position that high-school teaching has in relation to ‘ occupational choice. Students do not rank teaching as high as medical practice-or law, but it is favored above such occupational roles as engineer, industrial manager, personnel director, and sales manager. "0f the many images studied in our research program the school teacher's image is the most hopeful."68 In a research completed in mid-1961 by Biddle69 and others, the authors attribute the following as cognition of teacher's roles: 1. Teachers dislike maintaining quiet, order and super- , vising students, but are aware of the necessity of having to do these to some degree. 2. Teachers saw their instructional task with the need for interest and practicality foremost, and experimentation to a much lesser degree. 3. Teachers saw their manner of behavior as verbalizing quietly, moving about quietly, being pleasant. 4. Teachers saw being dignified as a negative norm. 5. Teachers saw supporting and encouraging pupils (par- ticularly individuals) as important, as well as par- ticipation of pupils in various activities. 6. Teachers saw going to meetings, and participating in leisure activities and games as liked activities. 7., Teachers did not regard reading and study as a necessary activity. 68O'Dowd and Beardslee, loc. cit. 69Biddle, Bruce J., et a1. Th; Role‘gf the Teacher and Occupational Choice (Columbia, M0,: The University of Missouri, 1961), p. 84. 36 They found teachers' behavior patterns to be veridical with their cognitive expectations; i.e. that they behaved in congruence with expressed role definition. As compared with other research, the results seem to argue that change is taking place, and the direction of change is positive. The same researchers feel that their findings have significance for educational career patterns and occupational choice, which was a major concern of their study. As to recruitment, non-education students exPected teachers to be non-cooperative, non- participating, self-indulgent, noisy, and restrictive of pupils. "Thus, not only were they ignorant of matters educational, but the norms and expectations held would have tended to discourage their entrance into the profession of teacher."70 Biddle also maintains that it is beliefs not values that are keeping non-education students from considering careers, and that their norms about teachers is a reflection of stereotypic expectations. The existence, shown by this research, of many significant dif- ferences between education students and teachers is quite pertinent, especially to this study which will deal with this dimension. It points to difficulties in terms of role conflict and expectations which may exist for beginning teachers during the first year of teaching. Either they must work a change in the system, which is un- likely, or they must change their role expectations to become more veridical. Such distortion of role may be responsible for part of the drop-out rate during the first year of teaching. The findings point 70Biddle, loc. cit. 37 to the value of a fifth-year program or other arrangements where young teachers may receive on-the-job training and advice. Shaplin writing in Teacher Education _A_ Reappraisaln #— also supports this position when he lists as one of the four practices of primary important for pre- service teaching as "practice in the behavioral analysis of teaching and learning." He means by this, analysis of role as it is and as it is thought to be by role occupants, as well as what it can and should be. Without this dimension, role expectations and role performances will be an unchanging circle of selection, education, assimilation or rejection, and stabilization.72 If "teachers are operating with the traditional stereotype throughly in mind," as Doyle concludes, "and that they hold expectations for the (significant) others-which mirrored such a.stereotype",73 then powerful forces are at work to retard changes in teacher behavior. Doyle represents the point of view of the vast majority of writers and researchers when he states "if they (teachers) set out on a path leading to change, they do so with slacking, forward steps, and eyes turned backward".74 Perhaps it is theresearchers" eyes that are turned backward when previously cited recent research of Biddle, Ryans, O'Dowd and Beardslee, for example, imply a change is taking place in role expectations for teachers held not only by educa- tion students and teachers, but also by college students in general. 71Smith, Elmer R. (ed), Teacher Education A Reappraisali(New York: Harper and Bow, Publishers, 1962), pp. 88-91. 72Super, 22. cit., p. 19. 73Doyle, 22. cit., p. 9. 74;b1d., p. 8. 38 Concept of Stereotype The concept of role has been used in many ways by the social scientist, ranging from a substitute for the term status to idiosyn- cratic behavior in a particular role applied as part of a status. In order to sharpen and clarify the concept of role or status as a prerequisite to research, Brookover speaks of role-taking and.role behavior involving an actor in relation to others in social groups. In this relationship he detailed three types of role expectations ranging from general to particular which memberdfof a group may hold in interaction with an actor. While Brookover's first prescription (generalized role) will prove invaluable to this inquiry later, the main point here is the need he found to clarify the vagueness and assumptions, and provide a tight theoretical conceptualization of role theory with which to examine data. Just as Brookover found looseness, lack of definition and precision in the use of the concept of status and role, the use of the term stereotype is also mishandled. Doyle for example confuses role and stereotype. He meticulously defines and uses the term role, and then states, "it would appear that teachers were-Operating with the old traditional stereotype thoroughly in mind, and that they held expec- tations for the others which mirrored such a stereotype. The data indicate that administrators, school board members, and parents expected them to assume less restrictive roles"75 (underlining not in original 75Doy1e, 22, 235., p. 9. 39 quote). Ode does not quareel with.the content, only the confusion created by the interchangeable use of the terms Another research ~by Biddle76 and others confuses and uses the term.stereotype for generalized role expectations consistently. Terrien, Foff, McGill, and Waller inject something less than precision in the use-of the term in their studies and research. The concept of stereotype seems to be used by various writers interchangeably with generalized role prescrip- tion, generalized image, and with or without connection to concept of- role. As the relationship of vocational theory, psychological need, role concept and role expectations to the teaching profession are crucial to this study, so is the concept of stereotype pivotal. An inquiry into its nature, particularly in relation to the weaknesses already stated would appear to be necessary to this study. The term stereotype was introduced into psychology by Lippman,77 although the term.had been injected into psychiatry and psychology early in the twentieth century to describe repetitive motor behavior and expressions. Lippman describes it as "an ordered, more or less consistent picture of the world to which our habits, our capacities, .our cdmforts and our hopes have adjusted themselves -- it is a form .of perception which imposes a certain character on the data of our > senses before the data reachintelligence." He continues: "we pick what our culture has already defined for us and we tend to perceive that which we have picked out in the form-stereotyped for us by our 76Bidd1e, 22. figs, pps 89-100e 77Lippman, welter, Public Opinion (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1922), p. 440. 40 culture." Kimball Young78 summarized the use of the term as "images and ideas having group sanction." .A similar use is suggested by La Pierre-and Farnswerth79 who state that "in order to bridge the gap between inability to make accurate predictions of the behavior of others ---- and the necessity for so doing, the modern individual commonly resorts to stereotyping. Once we cast a person, we tend to keep him in this role, whether or not the role is correct." This.is paraphrased in popular jargon as good or bad "first impressions".' Stereotype for these writers seem to have above all an image or conception which "preceded the use-of reason", and was responsible for what Lippman called the "pseudo-environment", which is the perception of environment as it appears to an individual, as opposed to the actual environment. La Pierre and Farnsworth consider stereotype as essentially an individual psychological process. Lippman sees the origin to be both in social group and individual psychological processes. One thing that they have in common, however, is the concept of stereo- type as a constant unchanging impression, whatever the stimulus, so long as it refers to a certain category. Thus, with the possession of a stereotype "teacher" the individual will act in such a way that any "teacher", whatever his characteristics, will be perceived in.a way which is congruent with the stereotype. Stereotype has been regarded as an attitude. One group of writers state that: 78Young, Kit'ball Handbook 9_f_ Social Psychology (London: Routledge and Paul, 1960), p. 679. 79La Pierre, Richard 12., Farnsworth, Paul R. Social Psychology (New York: McCraw-Hill, Inc., 1948), p. 197. 41 "our attitude toward races, nations, flags, national anthems, and toward the words that crystallize around these generally accepted values such as freedom, honor, democracy, et cetera, tend in general to be imprinted upon us in more or less standardized form ---- it serves the purpose of all but the most sophisticated and care- ful forms of thought. Where no thought but only emotion is involved, stereotypes are infinite labor-savers."80 Allport81 extends the concept as an attitude when he suggests that stereotype can be regarded as an over-simplified experience resulting in attitude. He uses the concept to explain the nature-of prejudice particularly as it relates to minority groups. It is of some interest to note that Grambs,82 using Allport's approach makes a good case for regarding teachers as a minority group. In this context Allport lists several attributes of stereotypes and their growth: 1. It is possible for stereotype to grow in defiance of all (sic) evidence. 2. Most stereotypes have a "kernel of truth". 3. Some stereotypes are totally unsupported by facts. 4. Possession of stereotypes may interfere with the simplest rational judgment. 5. Stereotypes are not always negative. 6. Stereotypes act as a screening or selective device to maintain simplicity in perception and thinking. 7. We can distinguish between a valid generalization and a stereotype only if we have solid data concerning the exis- tence of (the possibility of) true group differences. 80Murphy, Gardner, Murphy, L. B., and Newcomb, T. M. Experimental Social Psychology (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1937), p. 371. .8LA11port, Gordon W. The Nature 2; Prejudice (New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1958), p. 184. 82Grambs, Jean, "Teachers as a Minority Group", Journal 2; Educational Sociology, 23:400-405, 1949. 42 8. Stereotypes are rather consistent over time. 9. Stereotypes are sustained by selective perception and selective forgetting. For another group of social scientists, stereotypes means the pre- valence of an image or idea among members of a social group. The work of Katz and Braly,83 and Seago84 fit this category. For them, stereotype is essentially a concept belonging to social rather than individual psychology. In other words, in so far as a person's precepts or concepts conform to the majority of the social group can he be described as holding a specific stereotype. The criteria of persistence, repetition, and invariability refers to the charac- teristics of a number of persons without response to time. It is as if rather than observing an individual over time, noting variations in thought and action, a number of persons arehobserved at one time and the degree-of uniformity or diversity of their feelings and reactions become the focus of attention. While the writers already mentioned give adequate treatment of these aspects of stereotype, they handle precepts, images, concepts, attitudes, prejudices, beliefs, et cetera, with looseness. In many cases they do not take them into account, or simply slurr over their differences. The looseness described at the outset in terms of status-role concepts are somewhat evident here. If one regards the various types of cognitions just mentioned as more or less identical, a greater consistency might be expected than we are 83Katz, D. and Braly, K., "Racial Stereotypes of 100 College Students" Journal 2; Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28:280-290, 1933. 84Seago, D. W., "Stereotypes Before Pearl Harbor and After", Journal of Psychology, 23:55-64, 1947. 43 likely to find. Indeed the muddiness would negate the very clarity of definition we seek. To differentiate in this area, investigation can begin with group concepts and group attitudes, since some clarity has been established to that point. By using the term group concept or attitudes, nothing more is meant than the presence of an idea or feeling among a majority-of members of a certain social group. It is by-means of members having a large number of similar thoughts and emotions that a group can and does act in a common and consistent manner. "Whrs could not be fought, nor revolutions staged, privations accepted, religions and social ceremonies performed, minorities persecuted, or heroes and leaders accepted, if this were not credible."85 In fact, the concept of culture and cultural patterns in part rests on the idea that people are-capable of sharing the same ideology and being active in its expression. It appears then that group concepts are-somewhat similar in function to beliefs in the individual; i.e. to facilitate action and behavior. In considering group concepts and attitudes, speculation-seems to be in order on how and by what means they are transmitted and diffused through a group. 'Educators, social anthropologists and others have been concerned with this problem. The question has been answered by the application of such psychological techniques as suggestion, and its chances of being effective gauged by the relative-social prestige of the suggestor, with the converse also being true. An emotionally charged atmosphere also aids the process. Imitation, elimination of 85Young, 22. _c__1_c_., p. 680. 44 doubt by repetition, and replacement of arguments by slogans also seems to have its place. In addition, there is threat to the non-conformdst of explusion from the group. Another means is appeal to existing emotion and sentiment.86 Lately this technique seems to have gained more importance as the individual is considered as inseparable part of his cultural milieu within which he interacts. It appears also that an inquiry into beliefs, attitudes, and prejudices stimulated researchers to examine-emotional and tempermental experiences to establish their commonalities and continuity beginning in early childhood. The fact that discontinuities of life patterns have been shown to exist has only changed the level and area in which these commonalities are expected to be found. Benedict, Mead, Linton, and Kardiner all stress the inter- dependence of personality and culture. If one accepts this view it would seem that in a certain group at a certain time, only those concepts and attitudes can be-established which generally conform to those already in existence, or that are being changed. Cultural lag is well known in the assimilation of new knowledge and behavior by social groups. It is found in social sub- groups called occupations. One speaks for example-of a lag of thirty to fifty years in the dissemination of an experimental finding to classroom practice in education. Spread of new ideas is a function, at least in part, of the size of the group and the means of communication. This spread is subject to many irrational, traditional and emotionally-held attitudes and 86Coleman, James W. Community Conflict (Chicago: The Free Press, 1955). 45 beliefs. One can add man's fear of social isolation if he expounds ideas that go at cross-grain with the entrenched. This he is not likely to do. ‘Even if he is a person familiar with new ideas, he is not likely to expound them. It is even conceivable that a role occupant then may be forced to act on the basis of a stereotype when neither the-group nor the individual no longer hold the stereotype. Schanck87 calls this pluralistic ignorance. He showed that under certain condition. the members of a.community might share a wholly mistaken view of the norms of the group. Gross,88 and Biddle, Rosencranz, and Rankin89 also-point up the difference of reality vs. perception; real as opposed to attributed expectation that school administrators and teachers have in relation to various important reference groups. Then, too, the needs of a social group may demand explanatory fictions, and existence of ideas and beliefs contradicted by fact and experience to maintain the status quo. Within the field of educa- tion we find public school teachers suspicious of administrators, and college teachers looking askance-at both. One wonders how rigidly held beliefs change at all in western culture unless we regard the advanced network of communication, and the leader who is willing to 37Schanck, R. C. "A Study-of a Community and Its Groups and Insti- tutions Conceived of as Behavior of Individuals". -Pszchological‘Mono- graphs No. 2, 1932. ' 386ross, Neal 332 Runs 935,8chools? (New York: Johns Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1958). agBiddle, Bruce J., 22, gig. 46 stand aloof and risk social ostracism. Fortunately, escape is permitted in a heterogeneous society into another sub-group. In light of this discussion then, the change in teacher status. tentative as the reported research findings are, should be\encouraging. This investigation has concerned itself with the problem.of the nature-of stereotypes, conditions which favor their production, establishment of a coherent definition of the term, and a relationship of the concept to the field of education. The essential characteristics-of stereotypes are their rigidity, resistance to-change, and tendency to persist in the face-of demands for modification made by objective facts and conditions. Stereotypes are not necessarily false or erroneous, since there are-correct stereotype‘constructs. Stereotyped constructs seems to be linked to the cognitive-process. They form part of the attempt to understand the situational setting, be they social objects: ego or alter; cultural objects: beliefs, sentiments, norms; or physical objects: natural or social. They are-of ten accepted by their possessors to be the results of. reason, logic-or "common sense". Upon examination, however, it appears that more often they are based upon emotion. Stereotyped mental constructs and judgments based upon them represent one of the conditions which impede a more true perception of the situation, in this case perception of the-occupational group of elementary teachers. Therefore any information which can be gathered to extend our knowledge-of such an important occupational group will be valuable in hastening the process of needed changes in beliefs by and 47 about elementary teachers, and perhaps help correct the dilemma presented earlier, that the popular notion of teachers is that they are "drab, dreary, gauch, underpaid. Why should America's one stabilizing force be the.laughing stock of all professions and the most maligned."90 Summary In summary, the study of differences which occur in the percep~ tion of elementary teacher personality structure as expressed by novice, and experienced elementary teachers, and beginning elementary educa- tion students requires an extensive-and far ranging investigation. The areas investigated were: vocational theory; psychological need; vocational development, and its relation to the teaching profession; characteristics and need structure-of teachers; concept of role; and concept of stereotype. 'Thosewho have propounded theories of occupational choice-seem to agree-that no~one.factor is the determinant of that choice. It appears . that a variety of factors and a variation in content of these factors influence career choice. -There also seems to be agreement that career choice-developes in stages which, generally, are continuous and ir- reversable. It is commonly held that career choice requires compromise and.some sort of identification of self. These identifications may be ~examined as traits and personality needs. .900'Dowd and Beardslee, loc. cit. I 48 Most writers agree that psychological needs can be related to -occupational groups and that teachers including elementary teachers have-a none too flattering characteristic need pattern. This pattern - is.generally regarded as a paradox in that education has high Value. while educators are given low value. The investigation of role concepts was a.priorstep and a useful tool upon.which to build a concept of stereotyping. It was found that as-role concepts had been confused and misused, so had the concept of stereotype. From Brookover's delineation of role, it was determined that generalized role provided the bridge between the two concepte. In this connection, it was also determined that role is a.rational consideration, while-stereotype could be rational or irrational, and more frequently the.latter. It was further determined that stereotypes are generalized, rigid, resistant to change, and tend to persist even in the face ofobjective facts and data, a condition which is hypothesized to exist and to which this study is part directs itself. It appears that most writing and research on.stereotypes with racial, ethnic, or national groups, and no writing was found that dealt with the stereotype-of elementary teachers except as itwes: confused with and made part of generalized role expectations or prescriptions. CHAPTER III METHODS OF PROCEDURE AND SOURCES OF DATA This chapter discusses the instruments used in the study, a description of the population and sampling routine, statistical procedures to be used in analysis of the data, and limitations of the study. Instruments The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule was selected for obtaining data.concerning need structure. Through its use, needs as calculated from the results of data obtained from elementary preference beginning education students, novice and experienced elementary teachers for their experience-level counterparts were measured. The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule is designed to measure fifteen manifest needs. The tests consists of 225 pairs of statements to which the individual responds on the basis of forced-choice tech- nique; i.e. choosing one of the pair of statements he considers most characteristic. The two statements forming each item have been matched for social desirability on the assumption that this reduces the pos- sibility that an individual would select an item for its social rather than descriptive value. Included is a consistenhy variable from which a consistency score can be obtained to determine whether a uniform.pat- terb.of answers was followed by the individual being tested. This adds an additional measure by which the results can be judged for reliability. 49 50 The Personal Preference Schedule purports to measure several normal personality variables. The variables were drawn from a list of manifest needs-originally.formulated by Murray.91 The fifteen needs measured are: Jachievement, deference, order exhibition, autonomy, affiliation, intra- l caption, succorance, dominance, abusement, nurturance, change, endurance, heterosexuality, and aggression. A complete description of these needs can be found in Appendix A. A.Personal Inventory was constructed. The items requested from the respondee on this Inventory can be found in the sample contained in ‘dppendix B and Appendix C. These items were arrived at through con- sultation with researchers at Michigan State University, and draw upon the-significant variables reported by Ryans92 whose work was discussed at length in Chapter II. The Sample and Sampling Procedure In order to fulfill the requirements demanded by the hypotheses, it was necessary to establish three-groups of potential or practicing educators. A sample of beginning elementary education students, another of elementary novice (beginning) teachers, and a final one of experienced elementary teachers. Each group was further subdivided into lower ele- mentary (grades K - 2) and upper elementary (grades 3 - 6) teaChers and lower and upper elementary preference education-students. .91Murray, B. As, et a1. Explorationsdin Personality (New York: Oxford University Press: 1938). 92Ryans, David 3., ’22. 535., pp. 389-397. 51 ~Thefsample of beginning elementary education students was drawn from the 1962 fall term Education 200 class, Individual and the School. at Michigan State University. This course is the first education class taught for prospective teachers and is taken by all education students without respect to elementary or secondary preference. In order to obtain the-sample, a packet of material was assembled and given to each class member. It contained.a brief statement concerning the study, an instruction-sheet, a Personal Inventory, and an Edwards Personal Preference Schedule and its attendant IBM-answer sheet. These items can be found in Appendix C. The instructions for the Personal Preference Schedule were altered for the purpose of this study, in that the-students were asked to react to the items on the Edward‘s PPS nottas they would answer, but as the typical teacher at the grade level they expect to teach would respond. In order to determine grade level choice, items-were included on the Personal Inventory to permit an indication of secondary and elementary level. preference. The elementary preference . item was further subdiVided into grades Kindergarten through 2, and 3 through 6. Of the 292 members of the class, 276-returned the completed material. 0f the 276, 96 indicated a preference for elementary teaching. Kindergarten through 2, and 55 students who preferred grades 3 through 6. From this group of 96 elementary preference students 3 were men, and they uniformly indicated a choice for grades 3 through 6. A persual of the 1961-62.school year enrollment in this course, based upon the 72 elementary code-prefix indicates the sample to be slightly differentrbut fairly typical as far as percentage-of elementary 52 preference students, and ratio-of elementary men to elementary women students. At this point it was decided to limit the study to women-elementary teachers for several reasons, the first of which was the inability to vobtain‘a.sample of men elementary education students. Three cases-out of 96 is hardly an adequate sample. A low men-women ratio was also ‘evident in the directories from which the teacher sample was drawn. Second, no men could be found teaching below 4th grade, and the 3 men elementary education students all indicated a preference for upper elementary teaching. 'Third, the stereotype of elementary teachers is that of a woman.. Fourth, Jackson and Guba93 find male elementary school teachers to be a somewhat aberrant group when compared with other groups-of teachers, and fit more closely the stereotype of the admdnistrator. They strongly suggest that they be eliminated from consideration in teacher studies. The novice and experienced teacher groups were derived from upper and lower grade elementary-teachers who were actually teaching during the-school year 1962-63. Again, grades kindergarten thru 2 were designated lower elementary, and grades 3 through 6 were designated as upper elementary to be consistent with the student sample. The novice teacher group was designated on the basis of O to 3 years teaching experiences, and the experienced teacher grouped on the basis of 4 or more years of teaching experience. 93Jackson, P. W. and Guba, E. G., "The Need Structure of In- Service Teachers: An Occupational Analysis", The School_Review, 65: 2: 176-92, 1957, p. 192. .53 To-sample the practicing teachers, directories were-obtained from .school districts which cosperate'with Michigan State University in its student teaching program. These districts represent a wide-range of variables including geographic, social, cultural, and economdc interests, and are-located in the lower penninsula of‘Hichigan. women ele- mentary teachers listed in these directories were numbered sequentially as to grades KrZ and 3-6, and a sample was drawn using a table of random numbers. Since it would haverbeen difficult to designate novice and experienced teachers, a group larger than needed were-sampled in -order to assure a sufficiently large number of each. In this case 140 were chosen-of whom 70 were lower elementary and 70 were upper elementaryteachers. A.packet of material was assembled consisting of a personal typewritten letter, an instrument sheet, an Edwards PPS and attendant IBM answer sheet, and a stamped pre-addressed return envelope. Again the instructions for taking the Edwards PPS were altered and respondees were requested to project their answers as they felt the typical teacher at their grade level would respond. This packet was mailed to the home address.of each member of the group in early danuary, 1963. After a twoeweek interval, a follow-up personal letter was sent to those who had not responded. Total usable responses numbered 114 or 81.3 per cent. Fifty- nine were upper elementary teachers, of whom 40 were experienced teachers and 19 were novices. Fifty-five were lower elementary teachers, of whom 38 were experienced teachers and 17 were novices. 54 In addition to the 114 responses, six teachers returned their material indicating an un-willingness to participate and three packets were returned to the writer as undeliverable. The material thus obtained for the six groups was coded and trans- ferred to IBM-data sheets and punch cards. The cells were then balanced by withdrawing cases randomly. The final sample is shown on Table 3.1. Table 3.1.--Basis matrix for analysis by experience and grade.1evel. v f Grade Level Experience Level. Grade Level Total f Beginning Ed. Students Novice Experienced Lower Elementary 30 .15 25 7O Upper Elementary '30 .15 25 , 7O Experience Level Totals 60 30 50 Grand Total 140 Statistical Procedure The basic variables for analysis were divided into two parts; those obtained from the Personal Inventory and those obtained from the Edwards PPS. The Personal Inventory variables were: experience, teaching level, age, residence, marital status, and tenure. The experience variable was further divided into beginning education students, novice and experienced teachers, while the grade level groups were designated as lower and 55 .elementary. Age was treated as actually reported. Residence was con- ‘sidered in terms of the school community in which the person sampled taught, or would like to teach in the case of beginning education students. Two categories for residence were established: rural to cities .of 100,000 and metropolitan areas of 100,000 or more. Original plans for use of four categories were changed when insufficient numbers were found in the rural group. Marital status was also treated in two categories of married, or never married, since so few cases of divorce or widowhood were found. The final variable of tenure was considered in two categories of O - 3, and 4 or more years. The Edwards PPS variables were the 15 manifest needs measured by the Edward's Personal Preference Schedule. These were listed previously in this chapter. A complete description of them can be found in ‘Appendix B. l The first step in analysis of the data was to establish certain correlations within the Personal Inventory variables, within the Edwards PPS variables, and between the Personal Inventory and Edwards PPS variables. The coded IBM data cards were submitted to the-computer center and an analysis was completed using library procedure K54M with the MISTIC computer. The independent variables of age and marital status for each experience level were computer independently by the writer and compared with the results received from the computer center. This was done to gain familiarity with the process and to randomly check the accuracy of the results obtained. The formula was: 56 _ n (SKY) - (:X) “Y) r - 4!! (115‘) - (€152 slanYz) - (2302 Where: r:coefficient of correlation nznumber of cases (Ithe sum of X and Y=the variables ~ The second part of the treatment of the data utilized analysis of variance. The variables found to be significantly correlated were subjected to this analysis. Analysis of variance is based upon the idea that the total sum of the squares of a set of measurements made up of several groups can be analyzed or broken down into specific parts, and that each part can be identified with a given source of variation. The total sum of the squares are analyzed in two parts: the sum of the squares based upon variatiOn within the several groups, and the sum of the squares based upon variations between the group means. From these two sums of squares, independent estimates of population variance can be computed. A test for interaction was also applied to identify the variable having the main effect on differences found by analysis of variance. It is assumed that the groups making up a total series of measurements are random samples from a common normal p0pu1ation, the two estimates of the pepulation variance may be expected to differ only within variance limits of random sampling.94 This is referred to as a 94Edwards, Allen L., Statistical Methods for the Behavior Samior (New York: Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1954), p. 316. 57 null hypotheses and may be tested by dividing the;larger variances by the smaller to get a variance ratio. The 5 and 1 percent points of the variance ratio are designated as F and have been tabled by Snedecor.95 These points indicates that there is 5 or'l chances out .of-100 that the pepulation is not common. If the value of F equals or exceeds the tabled value, then the null hypothesis that the-sample came from the same population must be rejected. If.rejected, this indicates the population from which the sample was drawn differs.in terms of means .or variance or both. If variances are approximately the-same, then it is the means that differ. An additional computation was the standard deviation permitted from.the obtained variance value. Any larger deviation on-either side of the variance value is considered excessive and must be taken into account in relation to F. The "t" test was also used. The major assumptions underlying this test are: (19 groups were randomly sampled, (2b means are independent, (3) variance was homogeneous, and (4) criterion measures were normally distributed.96 Assumption one is met to the-same extent that the F ‘test shows that groups are drawn at random from the same parent pepula- tion. The second is met by the manner in which the samples are ‘selected, and the.1ast two assumptions are accepted on the basis of visual inspection of the data. ,958nedecor, W. E. Statistical Methods (Ames Iowa:.Iowa State College Press, 1946). 96Monroney,‘Ml J. Facts from.Figgres (Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin Books, Inc., 1956), pp. 227-236. 58 The basic matrix for analysis is shown in Fig. 3.1., and the basic analysis was for these means for each of the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule measures. For the cases selected for analysis a simple corre- lation between the Edwards PPS and the Personal Inventory variables was done. If this correlation was not found to be-of practical significance the means in the matrix.were removed from the analysis. Practical significance was designated as a correlation of .6 or better. This ‘would mean that in 60 cases or more out of 100, variation would be due to the effect of the Personal Inventory variable being used against the Edward's scores. Of equal importance was the establishment of a statistical measure of stereotype. A statement concerning this can be found in the defini- tion of terms in Chapter I. If the mean scores on a particular measure were significantly different at the .05 level from the Edward's norms for the general women adult sample, a stereotype was said to exist for that particular manifest need for beginning education student, novice, and experienced elementary teachers. A "t" test was used to identify the measures which were significantly different. These then.were treated to a complete analysis. Limitations A researcher can legitimately look to population, sampling procedure, and the analysis process for sources of limitations in any study. Since a study is no better than the source of data upon which it is based, one should consider population initially. 59 It should be quite clear that the pepulation for this study is not a cross-section sample of teachers in general. First, they are women and exclusively elementary teachers. Second, the-samples were drawn fromiuichigan State University student teaching centers, located only in.uichigen. Since these centers are selected from school systems regarded as somewhat above average, it could be argued that the teachers in them.are therefore not typical. Third, the student sample consisted of education students in one university. As such they should be regarded as typical only of students enrolled in a college of education at a .large middwestern university. The sampling procedure also had limitations that need to be con- sidered. First, information was gathered in relation to age, marital status, tenure, residence, grade level and experience. Personality variables were limited to Murrays 15 manifest needs as measured by the Edward's Personal Preference Schedule. Second, the instructions were changed to have the respondees answer as they thought a typical teacher at their grade level would answer. It was assumed that the subjects would follow these directions; however, the study would be.limited in so far as they failed to comply. Third, the teachers and education. istudents do not constitute the entire papulation groups, but a random sample in which attempts were made at control only for those variables mentioned earlier in this paragraph. Fourth, this is a one-time sample since the study is not longitudinal in nature. That beginning education students sampled will be like the experienced teacher fifteen years hence, or that the experienced teachers sampled were like the beginning education students fifteen years prior would constitute a rather hazardous conclusion. 60 Injected into the analysis of the data was one major limitation: specification of stereotype. By definition, this was described statistically as a particular Edward's Personal Preference Schedule measure differing in significance at the 5 percent level from the mean of the women-in-general norms as established for the same test. Summary This chapter has discussed the instruments used in the study. ,They were the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, and the Personal Inventory which were used to gather the data. The population upon which the study was based was specified as women elementary teachers in public school systems used at a_Michigan State University Student Teaching center and beginning elementary preference education-students at Huchigan State University. Some time was spent indicating how the-sampling routine was carried out, and the analysis procedure was discussed at some length. Finally, the limitations inherent in the study were set forth. In the next chapter the data collected through the procedures described will be analyzed and discussed. CHAPTER IV mans IS or m om Data from the adninistration of the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS), and a.specially constructed Personal Inventory were -obtained from sixty undergraduate elementary education preference women, thirty novice elementary women teachers, and fifty experienced elementary women teachers. The results obtained through an analysis of these data are reported in this chapter. These data are arranged in four types of tables: (1) means, variance, and standard deviations of Edwards characteristics for each ' variable, (2) analysis of variance of group means for each variable, (3) correlations (r) within experience groups by grade level for variables of tenure, school-community, age, and marriage against the Edwards characteristics, and (4) "t" scores for significant differences. Since analysis of data is organized around each.hypothesis, the tables anddata.are displayed as they are necessary and appropriate to the analysis. Hypothes is I Hypothesis I states that there are stereotypes of the-personality structure of elementary teachers held by beginning elementaryeducation' students, and elementary teachers. This hypothesis is intentionally general. It specifies only that a stereotype exists. It does not anticipate direction, or the nature of the stereotype. While general, it is quite pivotal and central to this study. Since as this hypbthesis‘ is confirmed, more differences would be indicated which could be refined, 61 62 detailed, and applied to the hypotheses that follow: If rejected, there would be no basis for continuing the study. The statistical definition of stereotype is a significant differences at the 5% (.05) level between means on a given EPPS measure that respondents hold for elementary women teachers at their grade and ex- perience level with that held by EPPS norm groups for women in general. In order to determine whether this condition existed, the means, variance, and standard deviations were first calculated for each EPPS measure. They are presented in table 4.1. With these factors calculated, it was then possible to complete an "F" test for each of the EPPS variables to determine whether any 'were sources of variation at the 5 percent level (F>.05) for each of the experience and grade level groups. These data are presented in table 4.2. and it can be seen rather quickly that there are significant F;’.05 for ten of the fifteen Edwards characteristics: "achievement," "deference," "order," "exhibition," "autonomy," "intraception," "dominance," "abasement," "endurance," and "heterosexuality."97 Hypothesis I therefore is confirmed. Hypothesis II Hypothesis II states that there is a difference in the stereotype of the personality structure of elementary teachers held by beginning .97Quotation marks are used around the personality characteristics wherever used in this chapter to remind the reader they are representa- tive words and not full explanations. Complete descriptions can be found in Appendix As 63 Hoops b.~.nxzeoo. anemones one unopened eoewomwoo mos «causes worsens oranonnmnwenwnm. } unmnoowom necomnwoo mucosa" ll“ ,zocfino decodes mxomnwoonoe newness roams canon roman doom” boson doves . n55. mama. «Hos. Mama. Mums. 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Table 4.2 presents data on the Edwards characteristics found to be statistically significant, and is arranged so that experience levels as stated in the hypothesis can be seen. In all, "deference," "order," "autonomy," "intraception," "dominance," "abasement" and "endurance" had significant F1>.05 which substantiates the hypothesis. However, seeking to substantiate the existence of the stereotype more sharply, the results of the more probing "t" technique as shown in table 4.3 will also be cited. In relation to the characteristic of "achievement" there is a dif- ference in stereotype P)>.01 for exPerienced teachers. Beginning education students hold a stereotype varying from P:>.05 and P=>.01, as do experienced teachers, for the characteristic of "deference," while novice teachers have no such perception. Experience groups of beginning education students and novice teachers hold stereotypes of P:>.Ol in regards to the characteristic of "order" and "exhibition" while experienced teachers do not share this view. 'The characteristic of "autonomy" finds only beginning educa- tion students holding this view at P)>.01 while this experience group, and novice teachers hold such a perception of "endurance," "dominance," and "intraception" at P:’.Ol and PEVnOS reapectively. A stereotype in relation to "abasement" is held by all these groups with students and novices at Pi’iol and exPerienced teachers holding less of a stereotype 68 Hm00m 0.0.:10050mn0005 Om mgzmnmm Bowen awn: muocw aomsm 00H museum ormnmnnmn0mn0om om mommnmooo onemu mxr000n005 menosoaw msecnmooo mummmamon moawomonm 0onnmnm0n0oo mor0m¢noooaw 00mm u0.000 n0.0 . .00 -0.0 0 .00 0 .000 :n: nN.000*x u .00020 u .N0020 -0.00020 0 .00020 0 .00020 msecnmnnm 00mm u0.000 n0.000 u0.000 -N.000 00.0 0 .0N :n: u0.000*x -0.000x* -N.000* -N.000x 00.00020 0 .0NN20 >0mmmam5n 0000 n0.0N0 -0.0N0 -0.N0. -0.0N0 -N.N0 u0.00 :n: u0.000*$ a0.0N0ax -0.0N0sr -0.000»x uN.000» n0.000» coBHSNsom . 0000 00.000 00.N0 0N.00 u .000 u .00 00.0 :n: 00.000»* 00.00%» 0N.000» u .00020 n .00N20 0N.00N» 69 Honnmnoun0o= 0000 00.0N0 00.NNO 00.000 0N.000 0 .000 0 .000 :n: 00.0N0w» 00.0N0*$ 0N.000* 00.00020 0 .00020 0 .00020 >nwwmhr0menososw A-0 * msacumsnm 0:0 » Auv * Au0 x 0-0 x >vmmmamsn A-0 » A-0 » A-0 * A-0 » A-0 x A-0 x casesmnom A00 » A00 » A00 » A00 0 HomecomvnHOs A00 * A00 * A00 * mmanOmmxcm00nw A00 0 A00 0 A00 0 A00 x N0500nmnmm m unmemon<0m mxwmnm mn use .00 0m.05. Table 4.4 further illustrates these differences in relation to experience level and also grade level which will be analyzed in the next hypothesis. . With this number of demonstrated differences existing by experience levels, there is no question that the hypothesis is upheld. Hypothesis III Hypothesis III concerns itself with grade level, which in this study is the companion variable to experiente discussed in hypothesds II. In connection with grade level, it was hypothesized that dif- ferences in stereotype would be held by lower elementary preference education students, novice and experienced elementary teachers when compared with upper elementary preference education students, novice and experienced teacher stereotypes. To substantiate this hypothesis, the previous hypotheses were "built on" statistically. The first hypothesis indicated a stereotype to exist, and the second indicates which Edwards characteristics were significantly related to experience levels. By regrouping the experience level study population on the basis of grade level groups of upper and lower elementary, and subjecting the data obtained to analysis of variance and "t" test, difference attributable to grade level could be specified as to existence of stereotypes. The data as displayed in tables 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4 indicated that grade level accounted for only two significant F3>.05 for "exhibition" and "achievement". The sharper "t" test, however, indicates that lower grade beginning education students have a stereotype for eight of the Edwards characteristics held by the total group excepting the charac- 72 teristics of "order" and "achievement", while their counterparts in the upper grade preference group also have stereotypes for eight of the ten characteristics by excluding "autonomy" as well as "achievement". A differences of degree of stereotype can also be seen in that lower grade elementary education students see elementary teachers as more different P) .01 as against P >.05 for upper grade education students. Novice elementary teachers, regardless of grade level hold stereotypes for Edwards characteristics of "endurance", "abasementf and "heterosexuality", with no difference of degree of stereotype in these areas. Lower grade novice teachers hold stereotypes of "dominance" and "intraception", while upper grade teachers hold stereotypes of "order" and "exhibition". The difference further substantiate hypothesized grade level differences. Both upper and lower grade experienced elementary teachers hold stereotypes for characteristic of "deference" and ”abasement", while the upper grade group holds a stereotype of "dominance" at P:>.05 and a strong stereotype of "achievement" at P:>.Ol. These differences are enough to substantiate the hypothesis in regard to grade level dif- ferences for experienced elementary teachers. Since we have noted differences between grade groups at various experience levels we can conclude that the hypothesis is upheld, but not too strongly. Hypothesis IV Hypothesis IV predicts that stereotypes will be held by experienced levels of beginning education students, novice and experienced teachers, as well as upper and lower grade divisions of the same group. It does not assign the stereotype to be held by these levels and divisions, but 73 asserts that as a total group they will hold stereotypes of elementary teachers personality structure in relation to the Edwards characterise tics of high "deference", "orderliness", and "endurance", and low "exhibition" and "heterosexuality". It does predict the direction of the stereotype as indicated by the general quantification of high and low-~high and low being a difference at the P:>.05 level of significance or better, with high being a positive "t" value and low a negative "t" value. Tables 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 display this information. Table 4.3 indicates that "deference" is held as a stereotype by beginning education students, and that the lower elementary education students hold a stronger stereotype P37.Ol than upper elementary education students. Novice teachers do not hold this view either at upper or lower grade levels. Experienced teachers share the same stereotype as beginning elementary education students. Table 4.2 further substantiates these findings in that experience level F>.Ol indicates a strong difference which is substantiated by the effect of novice teachers holding a non-significant low value as Opposed to the highly significant "F" of the beginning elementary education students and experienced teachers. We can also see that although there are grade level differences between P>.05 and P >.Ol the "F" comparison for grade level as well as the "F" test for interaction as indicated in Table 4.2 show grade level not to be significant statistically. The direction as hypothesized is substantiated in Table 4.3 for beginning elementary education students and experienced teachers in that the direction of the "t" is {P >.05 or better in each case, indicating that these two experience groups regard elementary teachers as highly "deferent", while the novice teachers see them as no different than women in general for this characteristic. 74 "Orderliness" is held as a stereotype at FI>.01 for experience levels but not grade level according to Table 4.2. This is further borne out by a non-significant ”F" test for interactions between groups. Table 4.3 indicates this to be true, in that beginning elementary education students and novice teachers experience groups hold a stereotype of significance while experienced teachers do not. While lower elementary novice teachers and beginning education students lack of stereotype would seem to indicate that a grade level difference exists, in that they do share the stereotype of their experience level counterparts, one can see that their "t” values are close to the 1.96 value needed for significance. The differences between these values is however statistically non-significant. "Order" when regarded in light of ”t" test directions on table 4.3 indicate a negative or low stereotype of this characteristic, which is in exactly the opposite direction from that predicted. We can conclude then that upper elementary beginning education students and novice teachers hold a stereotype of elementary teachers of low "orderliness", their lower elementary counterparts come close but do not statistically share this view, and experienced elementary teachers see elementary teachers as no different than women in general. "Endurance" was predicted to be a stereotyped function of grade level and experience, as well as another area of high need. Looking first at table 4.2, we see an interaction of F2>.Ol which means that both grade level and experiences are effecting the variations to be found. However, when these two "F's" are compared, we find that grade level has little to do with the result, since it has a non-significant F. The main effect is related quite highly to experience with F:>.Ol. 75 The "t" scores on table 4.3 corroborated experience as the deter-, miner of differences. Beginning elementary education students at both upper and. lower grade levels have P7 .01, novice teachers in both upper and lower grades have P:>.05, and experienced elementary teachers in both upper and_lower grades have a non-significant "t". The difference which indicated interaction between grade level and experience on table 4.2 was probably due to the differences between upper and lower grade experienced elementary teacher group which is apparent when the more refined "t" statistic is applied. Direction in regard to this characteristic as indicated on table 4.3 reveals beginning elementary education students and novice teachers to have a stereotype of elementary teachers as low on "endurance". This is exactly the opposite direction from that predicted. While not significant statistically it is interesting to note that experienced elementary teachers have a reversal of direction from the less exper- ienced groups studied for this characteristic. we must conclude then, that so much of the hypothesis dealing with the stereotype of the characteristic "endurance" must be completely rejected. "Exhibition" as a stereotype was hypothesized as being a function of grade level and experience and being low for each of these groups and divisions. A high Ff’ZOI on interactions indicates that there are definite interrelations, and the grade level area on table 4.2 indicates IFJ>.01 which attributes the main effect to grade level. Experience, while not significant, has a high value and comes close to an F§>.OS, indicating that both of these factors must be kept in mind when the "t" values on table 4.3 are investigated for "exhibition". 76 Grade level differences on table 4.3 are apparent. Beginning elementary education students with lower grade preference rate P:?.01 as do their upper grade counterparts, but novice lower grade elementary teachers drop to a non-significant figure while their upper grade counterparts remain at P>.01. Experienced teachers continue this trend, in that lower grade experienced teachers evince a 0 value, while upper grade experienced teachers have a rather high value though non-significant of 1.587. This corroborates the grade level main effect, and the experience effect can be attributed to the drop in value from novice to experienced teachers groups. Direction, again, is Opposite from that hypothesized, with all stereotypes ranging from no difference from women in general for experienced teachers to } P7>.Ol for novice upper grade teachers and beginning upper and lower grade preference beginning education students. For "exhibition", then, that part of the hypothesis must be rejected. As this section is reviewed, it can be seen that the data analysis was rather devastating in refuting this hypothesis. In fact, the only part that can be accepted is the view held by beginning elementary education students and experienced teachers that elementary teachers are "deferent". In conclusion, then, it has been-shown that table 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4 portray an almost entirely different image held by elementary education teachers and students for their occupational group than studies have purported them to hold in "reality". In addition, to the hypothesized stereotyped personality needs, five other Edwards characteristics were shown to be significant in at least one relationship: "autonomy", "abasement", "dominance", "intra- ception", and "achievement". These also must be accounted for in a final discussion of the findings. 77 Introductory Note to Hypotheses V Through VIII In discussing hypotheses I through III, the fact that a stereotype did exist, and that differences existed between grade level and exper- ience groups in relation to various stereotypes of teacher personality structure was established. In hypothesis IV, differences in specific personality variables for which stereotypes existed and their direction were isolated, confirmed or refuted, and related to various grade level and experience variables. It remains in the last four hypotheses to link the factors of age, school-community, marital status, and tenure to the major variables of experience and grade level to see if differences found in stereotypes could be attributed to these four anticipated sources of variation. This was accomplished by: (l) establishing the presence or absence of correlations (r) within experience groups of beginning ele- mentary education students, novice, and experienced teachers for each of the four factors, (2) applying an analysis of variance to experience groups (and grade groups where necessary) for each of the factors, and (3) applying a "t" test to further analyze and refine the factors having a significant F in step (2). Table 4.5 presents the data on step (1), table 4.7 presents the data derived in (2), and table 4.8 information on the "t" tests in step (3). In establishing the correlations in step (1), an (4) level of .60 or 60% within experience groups was selected as a minimum level with which to be concerned. Any correlation above this level within the experience groups would have indicated that that particular experience group was not made up of a homogeneous "papulation" in relation to the 78 Table 4.5.--Correlation between factors of age marital status school- community and tenure with Edwards characteristics within grade level and experience groups Characteristic Age Residence Marital Status 1 Tenure Achievement l-l {.250 -.014 *.000 .000 71-2 .000 {.066 *.000 .000 2-1 —.413 {.108 -.005 .000 2-2 {.192 -.467 -.434 .000 3—1 {.030 -.391 -.028 {.198 3-2 -.127 {.345 -.294 -.324 Deference 1-1 -.l46 {.060 *.000 .000 1-2 .000 -.025 *.000 .000 2-1 -.049 -.185 -.011 .000 2-2 {.253 {.089 4.496 ' .000 3-1 {.240 -.300 -.216 {.329 3-2 -.148 -.259 {.237 {.383 Order l-l -.204 -.164 .000 .000 1-2 .000 {.084 ..000 .000 2-1 {.089 -.213 -.101 .000 2-2 {.218 {.129 {.266 .000 3-1 -.158 -.512 7-.189 {.000 3-2 {.406 -.351 {.342 {.394 Exhibition 1-1 -.011 -.l48 *.000 .000 1-2 .000 {.097 *.000 ' .000 2-1 {.083 {.317 -.022 .000 2-2 -.073 -.039 -.281 .000 3-1 -.534 -.388 {.028 -.574 3—2 -.035 {.158 -.006 -.184 Autonomy 1-1 {.199 -.006 .000 .000 1-2 .000 {.232 .000 .000 2-1 {.372 {.140 -.152 .000 2-2 -.354 -.219 -.279 .000 3-1 -.219 -.319 -.006 -.129 3-2 -.028 -.094 -.155 -.213 Affiliation 1-1 {.044 {.248 .000 .000 1-2 .000 -.162 .000 .000 2-1 {.026 -.257 -.369 .000 2-2 -.093 -.331 {.112 .000 3-1 {.034 -.447 -.170 -.002 3-2 {.132 -.090 -.081 {.049 Table 4.5.--Continued Characteristic Marital Status Age Residence Tenure Intraception l-l -.016 -.292 .000 .000 1-2 .000 -.282 .000 .000 2-1 -.008 -.181 {.461 .000 2-2 -.024 -.l69 -.073 .000 3-1 {.012 -.261 {.161 {.238 3-2 -.191 {.032 {.144 {.050 Succorance 1-1 {.144 {.167 .000 .000 1-2 .000 {.251 .000 .000 2-1 {.346 -.157 -.346 .000 2-2 -.027 {.211 {.073 .000 3-1 {.031 -.240 -.338 -.231 3-2 {.236 -.432 {.228 {.244 Dominance 1-1 {.192 -.007 .000 .000 1-2 .000 —.391 .000 ..000 2-1 -.118 -.085 -.350 .000 2-2 -.028 {.097 -.262 .000 3-1 -.386 -.259 {.265 -.233 3-2 -.l42 —.242 -.180 -.197 Abasement 1-1 -.060 —.061 .000 .000 1-2 .000 {.208 .000 .000 2-1 {.001 {.238 {.199 .000 2-2 {.202 -.153 {.357 .000 3-1 {.186 -.247 -.361 {.038 3-2 -.035 {.041 -.022 {.301 Nurturance 1-1 -.271 {.241 .000 .000 ,1-2 .000 -.098 .000 .000 2-1 {.031 -.059 {.343 .000 2-2 -.264 -.044 {.246 .000 3-1 {.180 -.280 -.059 9.189 3-2 {.266 -.078 {.259 -.029 Change 1-1 {.092 -.097 .000 .000 1-2 ..000 {.021 .000 .000 2-1 {.200 {.121 {.092 .000 2-2 -.311 -.459 {.320 .000 3-1 {.054 -.077 -.298 {.052 3-2 -.439 {.478 -.270 -.382 Table 4.5.--Continued Characteristic Age Residence Marital Status Tenure Endurance 1-1 {.084 -.260 .000 .000 1-2 .000 -.157 .000 .000 2-1 -.137 -.111 {.367 .000 2-2 {.178 {.323 {.467 .000 3—1 -.164 -.277 {.030 {.411 3-2 {.111 {.220 {.043 -.020 Heterosexuality l-l {.237 -.087 .000 .000 l-2 .000 {.130 .000 .000 2-1 -.309 {.173 {.064 .000 2-2 -.164 {.428 {.188 .000 3-1 -.535 -.062 -.158 -.236 3-2 {.236 {.311 -.102 -.313 Aggression 1-1 {.167 {.462 .000 .000 .1-2 .000 {.229 .000 .000 2-1 {.021 -.091 -.060 .000 2&2 ’-.281 {.368 -.318 .000 391 .276 -.l63 {.082 -.l45 3-2 {.376 -.362 {.023 {.367 1-1 Beginning education preference Experienced teacher Experienced teacher 1 2 Beginning education 2 1 Novice teacher with 2-2 Novice teacher with 3 l 3 2 student with grade Kindergarten through 2 student with grade 3 through 6 preference grade Kindergarten through 2 preference grade 3 through 6 preference with grade Kindergarten through 2 preference with grade 3 through 6 preference 81 factor being analyzed. If that condition was found to exist, the "popula- tion" would have had to be weighted.statistically or subjected to analysis of covariance to remove the effect of heterogeneity of that particular "population". ("Population" taken here to mean respondees within a particular experience group). The level of 60% correlation within the groups for a given variable was arrived at intuitively in consultation with researchers at Michigan State University, and indicates that in 6 cases out of 10 we can assume that variation is due to an interaction of the factors being analyzed within a given group. In-order to reduce repetition in the hypotheses V through VIII we can establish that in all cases for each of the factors of age, school- community, marriage and tenure the populations were homogeneous within experience groups. Table 4.5 indicates that the data obtained for age shows only two cases reaching a correlation of 53%, three cases at 40 to 43%, and the remaining ninety possibilities below 30%. Marriage indicates four correlation from 40 to 50%, and the remaining 91 cases below 40%. School-community correlation had one at 51.5% with other correlations falling consistently well below this figure. Tenure has one group close to significance at 57.6%, one at 41.1%, with 94 cases out of 96 falling well below the 40% figure. The population within each experience group was therefore deemed homogeneous, no weighting or analysis of covariance was necessary and step (2) and (3) were instituted. Hypotheses V through VIII will be discussed in relation to these steps only. 82 Hypothesis V Hypothesis V predicted that there is a difference of stereotype of _ elementary teacher personality structure attributable to the school- community in which the practitioner taught, and in which the beginning elementary education student indicated she would like to teach. An analysis of variance for this factor on table 4.7 indicates statistically non-significant F between groups; however the score is quite close to F>.05 missing by, only .04 of a point. Interaction is non-significant, meaning that either grade level or experience groups are the source of variation between groups for the school-community variable. Experience level is significant at the F>.05 level according to table 4.7 indicating this variable to be the source. After subject- ing school-community to a "t" test for experience level, we find that the experienced elementary teacher group when compared with the beginning elementary education group have a significantly different stereotype at the P>.05 level attributable to school-community. A check of the means on table 4.6 bears out this difference, in that beginning elementary education students indicate a more rural to small city school-community preference, and experienced teachers in this sample were drawn from a group teaching in school communities of a metrOpolitan nature. It is quite interesting to note that a difference in stereotype though not strong can be attributed to this factor, and that more metropolitan school-community teachers have a different stereotype of the personality structure-of elementary teachers than more rural-small city preference school-community education students. One could speculate whether this 83 Table 4.6.--Mean variance and standard deviation for age marital status school-community and tenure by experience level. Beginning Education Novice Experienced Variable Student Teacher Teacher Age Means 19.7 23.766 48.300 S.D. .313 1.840 9.792 Variation .974 3.368 96.321 *Marital Status Means 3.000 2.266 1.640 S.D. .000 .95 .580 Variation .000 .960 3344 **Tenure Means .000 1.000 3.7 S.D. .000 .000 .630 Variation .000 .000 .418 ***School-Community Means 1.350 1.500 1.600 S.D. .45 .52 ..62 Variation .231 .258 .367 * coded in two classifications: married. ** coded in four classifications: *** coded in two classifications: 1 for married, 3 for never 1 - 0 to 3 years 2 - 4 to 6 years 3 - 7 to 9 years 4 - 10 or more years 1 - rural to city of less than 100,000 population 2 - city of 100,000 to metro- politan area 84 same condition would hold if experienced rural and experienced metro- politan schooldcommunity teachers were compared. On the basis of the analysis, the hypothesis holds to a limited degree. Hypothesis VI Hypothesis VI states that beginning elementary education students, novice, and experienced teachers would hold a different stereotype of elementary teachers depending upon age. The data for the studquere obtained in actual age in years, and to increase the sharpness of the analysis it was not coded. ’ Table 4.7 gives a very high F:>.Ol with59.365 difference between the sums and mean squares where only 3.16 was needed. Interactions were significant, as was grade level F value. Experience can be seen to be contributing the source of variation in relation to age with a value of 145.500 against a needed value of 4.77 to qualify for F >.01. An inspection of table 4.8 indicates a significant P:>.05 between beginning elementary education students and novice teachers, and a highly significant P:>.Ol between beginning elementary education students and experienced teachers. Novice teachers compared with experienced teachers on the age variable also indicate P:>.01. When the means on table 4 and differences on 4.8 for this variable are examined these findings should be expected. Beginning elementary education students mean age was 19.7, novice elementary teachers mean age was 23.766, and experienced teachers had 48.3 as a mean age. Thxr means represent a difference between beginning ele- mentary education students and novice teachers of 4.066 years, 28.6 years between the student group and experienced teachers, and 24.534 years between novice and experienced teachers. 85 awuHm e.u.uu>busmHm om emnwwsnm om «Hosp sense on fine asHHan unmade morooH- 0033:5Hnw one mosses we memes HmeoH can sxvmnHmsom. mocunm on zen: mocnom om dmnHMnHos antenna a.m. encmnme w meowmoHHHnw mxfionwoano Hedee >mm Nkao.Hom N HNome.uoo .Hew.uoo m .0H zwuwan mnsHse mo.uma N Nm.uum ow.ebm w .oH mnvooHunoaBannw .H.uwm N .mmm w.HNN w .ou Houses mm».wNN N HoN.HoH wu>.emN w .OH memes rmde bmc uu.ooo H uuaooo .eNH 2m zwnwan mnmucm .Nuu H .Nuu .aeN 2m morooHIOOBBCSHnw .bmu H .emu H.obu 2m Houses H.wou H H.umm m.ucb w .ou anmnmonHos >mm bmw.mmb N NHm.bbN N.oeH 2m :wHHan mnmnce HN.eNm N m.uHN NH.Nmo w .oH morooHunoaacoHnw .oNo N ..bob H.mmm 2m Honcho He.NoH N u.Hco w.mmo w .om monsoon meocue . >mm NeowN.omm u eowN.mou wo.u¢m w .oH ZMHHHmH mnmnce ob.bum u Hw.mmu ww.u¢H w .oH moropooBBchnu~ w . HNN u . N» N . Nab 2m Houses NVH.ema m ub.Noo New.How m .0H anrHu fleeces >mo zmHHan menace morooHunoaacoHnw fiestas 86 Hoane >mo zmHHancmnmnce morooHuoochswnw Houses HHHwb.ouw mw.wow ww.uub uw.wwo kuNm.muo HNN.Hbu bo.mu¢ bop.mNN zone" W1.Ol is apparent and an interaction F >.05 indicates the pos- sibility that both variables may be significantly related to tenure. Further inspection shows that while the main effect of variation is related to experience F:>.Ol, grade level is also a possible sig- nificant source of variation F)>.05 and must be taken into account when "t" scores were computed. Taking tenure in relation to experience, we should expect the two to be highly correlated, and the "t" scores differences between each experience group of PLFKOl substantiate this. The means of zero (no 89 Table 4.9.--Tenure and grade level comparison by experience level. V7 r— ‘Novice Elementary Experienced Elementary Teachers. Teachers Grade k-2 Grade 3-6 Grade K-Z Grade 3-6 N=15 N315 N-25 N=25 Presently Teaching 15 15 25 25 Majority at Different Grades 0 O 0 1 experience) for students, 1 (0-3 years experience) for novice, and 3.7 (8.6 years of experience) for experienced teachers would demand a highly significant "t" between these groups. Grade level variation, however, is different than experience in relation to the tenure variable. This situation was not hypothesized, but must be accounted for due to the F;7.05 finding. A further search of the data indicates there is a coded mean difference of .110 between the lower grade and upper grade groups as shown in table 4.10. This is the only source of variation that could be found, and amounted to a mean difference of .2 of one year experience, the upper grade experienced teacher group having 8.3 years and the experienced lower grade group having 8.1 years of tenure.‘ This small difference when Subjected to the sharper ”t" technique as shown in table 4.11 indicates the mean difference to be insignificant therefore grade level can be disregarded as a source of variation. 90 Table 4.10.--Comparison of tenure mean SD and variation by grade and experience levels* ‘Novice Elementary Experienced Elementary Tenure Teachers Teachers Grades K-2 means 1.000 3.640 SD .000 2.394 variation .000 1.607 Grades 3-6 means 1.000 3.760 SD .000 2.733 variation .000 1.705 *Beginning Education students not shown since they have no tenure. Table 4.ll.--Comparison of grade level means with tenure. Variables Lower Elementary Upper Elementary Tenure means 5.142 5.357 difference - .215 "t" - .723NS ' Hypothesis VII, therefore, is upheld. It can be seen that experience and tenure variables are highly correlated. Hypothesis VIII Hypothesis VIII states: it is hypothesized that beginning ele- mentary education students, novice and experienced teachers hold different stereotypes of the personality of elementary teachers depending upon marital status. .Data in relation to this hypothesis were gathered 91 in four categories: married, divorced, widowed, and single. When tabulated, it became apparent that there were not enough cases in each of these categories for analysis. The beginning elementary students were all single, and out of 80 novice and experienced elementary teachers, there were only 5 widows and 1 case of divorce reported by the-respondees. It was felt that the categories should be collapsed into two groups for analysis: married at some time, or never married, and were coded l or 3 respectively. The analysis of variance in relation to married is shown in table 4.7. A high between group F>-.01 is indicated as well as an interaction F;>.01 making a need to inspect both grade and experience levels as possible sources of variation. The main effect is evidently due to experience with F77.01, while grade level is non- significant and not really close to the needed value. A check of the means shows novice upper grade teachers to have a slightly higher number of married members than novice lower grade teachers. This is the only variation, and is not sizable enough to be considered important intuitively or statistically. The "t" tests as reported on table 4.8 bear out the close experience - marriage relationship, since each difference is F;>.Ol. It appears that as the group becomes more experienced, it contains more married members, at least for the sample being studied. With marriage closely related to experience (tables 4.3 and 4.4), we can conclude that hypothesis VIII is upheld. 92 Summary Chapter IV has presented an analysis of data obtained from the administration of the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS), and a specially constructed Personal Inventory. These data were procured from sixty undergraduate elementary education preference women, thirty novice elementary women teachers, and fifty experienced elementary women teachers. The data were subjected to analysis of variance for factors of marriage, age, tenure, school-community, and the fifteen Edwards characteristics by experience groups mentioned in the previous paragraph, and grade level groups of lower elementary (grades Kindergarten through 2) and upper elementary (grades 3 through 6). The "t" test for significant mean differences was also applied to the variables just mentioned. Correlation statistic (r) was applied to variables of marriage, age, tenure, and school-community within grade level and experience groups in relation to the fifteen Edwards characteristics to validate the existence, as was found, of a homo- genous study population, thus diapensing with the need of weighting or subjecting the data to analysis of covariation. The findings were reported in relation to each hypothesis. Hypothesis I established that there were stereotypes of elementary teachers personality held by the education student, and elementary teacher groups. Hypothesis II and III were upheld thus establishing a difference between groups for experience and grade level delineations respectively. Hypothesis IV, which specified differences and direction of Edwards characteristics of high "order", "deference", and "endurance", and low "exhibition" by grade level and experience groups, was found to 93 be almost totally disproved. "Deference" only upheld as a stereotype for beginning elementary education students and experienced elementary teachers eXperienced groups. It was not upheld on a grade level basis. Hypotheses V through VIII stated that school-community (hypothesis V), age (hypothesis VI), tenure (hypothesis VIII), and marital status (hypothesis VIII) would be variables effecting the stereotype-of elementary teachers held by beginning education students, novice, and experienced teacher groups. Grade level was not specified nor found to be a significant factor. Each of the hypotheses were upheld in entirety, except V which dealt with school-community, and this was upheld in relation to students versus experienced teacher groups. In Chapter V the implications of these data and findings will be discussed, conclusions drawn, and the study summarized. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Chapter V is organized in four sections. Section one contains a Imarrative description of the stereotype of elementary teachers based upon - (l) the perceptions held in common by the study population, (2) 'the likeness and differences attributable to grade level division, and (3) likeness and difference attributable to experience groups. Section one also discusses pertinent research cited in Chapter II vflnich relates to findings of the study. Section two states alternative assumptions based upon the rationale astated in Chapter I and from the data. From each of these assumptions certain implications are drawn. Section three discusses needed additional research as indicated lxy'the study, and section four contains conclusions derived from the s tudy . Elementary Teacher Perceptions of Elementary Teachers Common Perceptions. The study has established that the one c<3nmmon distinquishing stereotype of the total study group regardless (’i5 experience or grade level centered around the trait of "abasement". »TP11£3 direction of this stereotype was in a negative direction meaning 'tllert the group saw elementary teachers as being low in this personality ITrait. To paraphrase the Edwards description, the study group saw ele- me-I1tary teachers as not feeling guilty when things go wrong, nor to aQCept blame, avoiding punishment, to feel better when having one's 94 95 own way, not to feel depressedeby inability to handle situations, to feel at ease and [confident in the presence of superiors, and not to feel inferior to others. Differences by Grade Level and Experience Differences exist between beginning elementary education students, novice and experienced teachers on the trait of "deference". The beginning elementary education students see teachers as being low in this trait, novice teachers see them as no different from women in general, and experienced teachers see teachers as being high on this need. Elementary teachers are seen by experienced elementary teachers as taking instructions from others, following instructions, doing what is expected, accepting leadership, letting others make the decision; in other words, being followers. Elementary education students hold the Opposite and see teachers as leaders, while novice elementary teachers hold no stereotype at all. Positive Differences. "Order" is not held by any of the groups as a stereotype in the manner which was anticipated. All lower grade grOups saw elementary teachers as no different from women in general for this personality factor. Upper grade beginning elementary educa- tion students and novices saw them as just the Opposite from that expected, however. For them, elementary teachers are not interested in neat, orderly work, preplanning, a definite schedule, and having things arranged so that they run smoothly. 96 "Exhibition” as a stereotype was held by the upper and lower grade elementary education students group and novice teachers. For them, elementary teachers were prone to say clever and witty things, be the center of attention and talk about‘themselves. Lower grade novice and both groups of experienced teachers saw elementary teachers as no different than women in general. In terms of "autonomy" all groups but one saw elementary teachers as no different than women in general. Lower elementary beginning education students saw elementary teachers as not being independent, conforming, and assuming responsibilities. "Endurance" found experienced teachers believing that elementary teachers are no different than women in general for this factor. Surprisingly, both novice teachers and education students saw elementary teachers as the opposite of that expected: not staying at a job or Working hard at a task, keeping at a problem until solved, or to put in 10ng hours of work without distraction. That women elementary teachers are high on theaneed for "dominance" is the view held by all beginning education students and lower grade nOvice teachers. To them elementary teachers would be leaders in groups, be appointed or elected chairmen of groups, persuade and influence others, and supervise and direct the action of others. Experienced teachers andupper grade novice teachers saw elementary teachers as no different than any other women for this characteristic. "Intraception" was strongly held as a stereotype of elementary teachers by beginning elementary education students, and to some extent 1Ower elementary novice teachers. They see elementary teachers as able to observe others, understand and judge them, analyze their behavior, and predict others actions. 97 A stereotype regarding "heterosexuality" was evinced by beginning _education students and novice teachers in a positive direction. They see elementary teachers characterized by engaging in social activities with members of the Opposite sex and regard them as physically attrac- tive. Significantly, eXperienced teachers see their counterparts as ‘ no different than women in general. "Achievement" was regarded as a stereotype of elementary teachers by experienced upper elementary teachers only. These characteristics based upon the Edwards descriptions that are eXplained in full in Appendix A, are best presented in Tables 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3. Table 5.1.--Beginning elementary education student stereotype of elementary teachers ¥ 4 ¥ Lower Elementary Upper Elementary :5 f . Dependence on others 1. Dependence on others .2. 2. Tendency to be disorderly £3. Inclination to manifest 3. Inclination to manifest <1. Inclination to be self— 4. assured £5. Inclination to dislike 5. Inclination to dislike routine routine (5. Inclination to have a 6. Inclination to have a confident attitude confident attitude 7?. Inclination to be assertive 7. Inclination to be assertive £3. Ability to empathize 8. Ability to empathize (S). Interest in Opposite sex 9. Interest in Opposite sex ?L(). 10. *Note: In Tables 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3, numbers 1 through 10 are identi- cal. They;indicate the following Edwards characteristics: . deference 6. abasement . order 7. dominance . exhibition 8. intraception . autonomy 9. heterosexuality endurance 10. achievement LBJ-\UDNH 98 ‘Table 5.2.--Novice elementary teacher stereotype of elementary teachers Lower Elementary 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. JInclination to distraction 6. Inclination to have a confident attitude 7. Inclination to be assertive 8. Ability to empathize 9. Interest in Opposite sex 10. Table 5.3.--Experienced elementary teacher teachers Lower Elementary 1. Tendency to accept direction and be dependent Inclination to have a confident attitude oomu ompr H I oxth-‘wN H 00 so 0 OOmN Upper Elementary Tendency to be disorderly Tendency to be witty and manifest exhibition Inclination on to distraction Inclination to have a confident attitude Interest in Opposite sex stereotype of elementary Upper Elementary Tendency to accept direction and be dependent Inclination to have a confident attitude Comparisons with Related Research Findings While one could pr0perly compare the findings of this study with £111 of the research reported in Chapter II, certain studies bear more clirectly on the central emphasis of this inquiry. This purpose is to 99 determine the likeness and differences which occur in the perception of elementary teacher personality structures held by various experience and grade levels of that group. 98 99 In this category are the studies of Jackson and Guba, 101 102 Ryans, Southworth,100 Thomas, and O'Dowd and Beardslee. The research of Jackson and Guba relates in that they report actual personality structure of elementary teachers based upon the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, described teachers in terms of Edwards characteristics, and sampled teachers in states neighboring" Michigan. Their findings portray the elementary woman teacher regardless of experience levels as having high needs of "deference", "order", and "endurance”, and low needs of "exhibition", "dominance", and "heterosexuality". They also state that significant by their absence are personality traits of "nurturance", "affiliation", and "intraception" which they reason, one‘would expect elementary teachers to possess, since the teaching task is frequently couched in terms of 98Jackson, P. W. and Guba, E. G., "The Need Structure of In- Service Teachers, and Occupational Analysis", The School Review 65: Summer, 1957, pp. 176-192. 99Ryans, David Characteristics 2; Teachers (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1960), p. 395. 100Southworth, Horton C. "A Study of Certain Personality and Value Differences in Teacher Education Majors Preferring Early and Later Elementary Teaching Levels". Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1962. 101Thomas, Donald R., "Our Professional Expectations of Teachers", The Education Forum; 44:421-427, May 1960. 1sz'Dowd, Donald and Beardslee, David C., "The Student Image of the Teacher", Phi Delta Kappan, 42:250-251, March 1961, p. 250. 100 aiding and assisting others, participating in friendly groups, analyzing the behavior of others. A The findings of this study indicate "deference" as the only trait upon which there is agreement between these studies. This perception is held by the experienced teacher and beginning elementary education students groups. Jackson and Guba also maintain that through par- ticipation in the occupational activity of teaching, teachers appear over time and experience to take on the characteristics of the stereo- typic model of teachers: "sexually impotent, obsequious, eternally patient, painstakingly demanding, and social inept".103 Elementary teachers do not share this perception. It appears that the only perception such participation imparts to experienced elementary teachers is that they are no different than women in general. The group in this study as in the Jackson and Guba study do not see elementary teachers as being "nurturant", "affiliative", and "introspective". It must be pounted out that neither are they low on this need. Though these traits are desirable, this condition is certainly not disabling. The difference between the positive perception (this study) and actual (Jackson and Guba) personality structure seems to be quite wide and quite encouraging. In line with teacher characteristics, but taking a different tack is Ryans104 study which pointed out that ''good" teachers have the following personality patterns: 103Jackson, P. W., and Cuba, E. G., gp. cit., p. 189. 104Ryans, David, pp. cit., p. 382. 101 TCS X warm, understanding, friendly vs aloof, egocentric, restricted behavior TCS Y responsible, businesslike, systematic vs evading, unplanned, slipshod behavior TCS Z stimulating, imaginative, surgent vs dull, routine behavior In looking at the personality profile projected in Table 5.1 it is apparent that beginning elementary education students see teachers as having some positive and negative characteristics when compared with Ryan's model. In relation to TCS X, they see elementary teachers as warm, understanding, and friendly (8),105 and also possessing perceptions of aloofness. In the other areas they appear to have a neutral view in relation to this pattern. Perceptions of elementary teachers personality structure by novice elementary teachers, is much the same pattern for TCS X as education students hold: somewhat friendly, warm, and understanding (8). They do not hold the view that teachers are aloof or egocentric. Experienced teachers seem.to hold no view which would confirm or support TCS X. The relationship of this study to TCS X then is rather inconclusive. TCS Y finds the beginning education students and novice teachers as perceiving teachers as somewhat disorderly (2) and low on endurance (5). This certainly is not a perception of elementary teachers as a responsible or businesslike group, and constitutes a negative stereotype in relation to this pattern. Again, experienced teachers seem to hold no view in either direction on this pattern. 105See note on Table 5.1. lO2 TCS 2 indicates novice teachers and beginning education students perceive teachers as stimulating and imaginative (3) and do not frequently engage in dull, routine behavior (1, 5, 6). Experienced teachers are perceived to accept direction and be dependent (l) but are low on abasement (6). The relationship to each of these patterns is quite inconclusive and not too satisfactory. This is due possibly to the difficulty Of translating and relating the TCS patterns to the Edwards characteris- tics. There also seems to be, for example, disagreement-between Jackson and Guba, who used Edwards terms, and Ryans on the characteris- tic of "order": responsible, businesslike, systematic is termed eternally patient, and painstakingly demanding by Jackson and Cuba. In TCS X it was difficult to find an equivalent for aloof and egocentric; and in TCS Y an equivalent for evading, unplanned, slipshod. The difference may be attributed to different measures used. ' Ryans couched his terminology along observable behavioral lines, and Edwards characteristics are based upon needs which are essentially an internal phenomenon.. While it is difficult to understand how a need is known to exist in another person, except in terms of patterns of -behavior which suggest an individual is fulfilling a particular need, still the difference-of approach and terminology presents barriers to an easy interplay between the studies. A.greater degree-of success is enjoyed when comparing variables of grade level, experience, age, marriage, and school-community, since this study draws on Ryans work in selecting these factors as possible important sources of variation. Grade level was significant to only a 103 limited degree in this study. Ryans found differences, but for levels of elementary teachers as a general group, as compared with secondary teachers which is beyond the scope of this study. Experience and age were found by Ryans to be highly correlated and also related to teacher characteristics. This also was a finding of this study (Table 4.7) and corroborates Ryans research. Marital status was found by Ryans to be relatively insignificant in relation to differences of married versus single teaching behavior. It was, however, related to eXperience. Again, this was a finding in this study. School-community was found to be related to teacher behavior by Ryans. He found teachers from smaller communities had lower "good teacher" scores than those from larger communities. This study indicates some differences but only as related to experience groups (Table 4.5). Differences due to experience then is the one positive finding from this study which is highly congruent with Ryans findings. Dif- ferences in experiences it seems are accompanied by differences in teaching behavior. Southworth106 found grade level differences between lower and upper elementary preference women education students on actual personality need structure on eight of the fifteen characteristics measured by the Edwards test. The projection of elementary teachers personality structure by a comparable group used in this study, indicates they hold a stereotype of elementary teachers which is 106Southworth, Horton 0., 0p. cit., p. 59. 104 quite consistent with little difference attributable to grade level. Whether these differences are due to differences in the sampled group of STEP (see footnote, page 6) students who are not "typical" as Opposed to "typical" elementary education students, or on an incomplete or nebulous view of grade level differences, accountable to lack of knowledge due to inexperience with elementary teachers, is difficult to say. Whatever the cause the group of beginning elementary education students in this study showed little differences (Table 5.1) in their stereotype of elementary teachers. 107 Attention will now be directed to Thomas's article, and par- ticularly the section which summarizes research derived generalizations about teachers (see Chapter II, page 31 & 32). The generalizations that are tempered or substantiated by the findings of this study are: 1. The typical American school teacher is a female entering middle age. Substantiated 1a.The typical elementary school teacher is a female with a mean age of 48.3 years (Table 4.8). 2. The typical teacher is married, as of 1957. Substnatiated 2a.The typical teacher is married in 73.2% of the 'cases in this study (Table 4.8). 3. The typical teacher seems to prefer to refrain from any aggressive action to change her status or to change the institution of education. Tempered 3a.The typical teacher in this study perceives ele- mentary teachers to be no different than other women in relation to characteristics that would change her status or that of education, and feels that teachers are not timid in the presence of superiors, nor do they feel inferior to others. H 107Thomas, Donald R., 22. cit., p. 423-424. 105 4. The typical teacher tends to accept a low status position in the hierarchy of the school organization. Tempered 4a.The typical teacher in this study perceives that elementary teachers do what is expected, accept leadership, conform to custom and avoid unconven- tional. At the-same-time they see elementary teachers as not timid with superiors and do not feel inferior. 5. The typical teacher does not have a continuous work experience. Tempered 5a.Tenure is highly correlated with experience (F .01) and experience with age (F 01). ' These findings temper three important statements related to teacher personality. While the findings are not conclusive in themselves, they do indicate differences in a positive direction In general then, the findings of this study are polar in many respects to the findings of actual elementary teachers personality structure reported by Jackson and Guba. In some ways the personality structure of Ryans' "good" teacher model is in agreement with findings of this study, but generally the comparison is inconclusive. There is agreement on some significant variables: experience and age were found to be related to teacher characteristics. Southworth's findings of grade level differences in actual personality structure of elementary education students did not fit with the model projected by the beginning elementary education students, and only eight grade level differences showed up in relation to this stereotypic view. Research synthesized by Thomas was tempered to some degree, and changes, though slight, were indicated to be in a positive direction. Assumption Underlying Implications In drawing appropriate implications, one faces the difficulty of the existence of several interpretive assumptions that are credible. 106 When one regards the findings in relation to the purposes of the study, however, the assumptions can be drawn more easily and focused more sharply. These purposes are to gain a better understanding of the problems of recruitment, selection, education, and guidance of teacher candidates and practicing teachers. Implications will be drawn, stated in terms of these purposes, and applied to the assumptions as appropriate. Assumption I. The stereotype of the personality structure of elementary teachers held by professional elementary teachers is affected very little by grade level difference. This is equally true for begin- ning elementary education students in relation to grade level preference. However, experience levels of beginning elementary education students, novice, and experienced teachers are highly related to personality structure stereotype of elementary teachers held by each of these groups. Assumption II. The stereotype of the personality structure of ele- mentary teachers held by beginning elementary education students, novice, and experienced teachers is different from and more favorable than the portrait generally found in the literature. Assumption III. Factors of age, tenure, marital status, and ‘school-community are significantly related to experience level and to the stereotype of the elementary teachers held by beginning elementary education students, novice, and experienCed teacher groups. Implications: Based Upon Assumption I Implication 1. In relation to recruitment of teachers, the lack of stereotyping by grade level should ease a confounding variable; that of having to be concerned with proepective elementary teachers on the ‘basis of two personality types rather than one appropriate personality 8 tructure . 107 Implication 2. Lack of grade level stereotype should ease the problem of applying varying criteria in terms of personality to selection of prospective elementary teachers. Placement of teachers in various grade levels based upon this finding should ease staffing problems, and provide for greater flexibility of school programs. Implication 3. While studies exist that show actual personality differences by grade level, and it is widely assumed that a dif- ferent personality structure is needed in lower and upper grade elementary teachers (some extended this also to preschool and kin- dergarten teachers as a group), one wonders why this is necessary when actual practioners do not perceive this difference to exist. Indeed, it lends weight to a program of common professional education for elementary teachers. Implication 4. In terms of the previous implications, guidance in respect to each of those areas should be simplified. If one can recruit teachers on the basis of fewer suitable personality types one Opens the field to a more heterogeneous group. If one can select teachers on the basis of a personality type of wider applicability, fewer criteria need be applied, and, finally, the pressure of educating students in varying ways is eased when fewer differences are added to desired outcomes of that education. Implication 5. The problem of dealing with varying views of teaching personality is indicated by experience level differences. It has already been indicated that the evidence obtained from a one time study will not support the contention that the present beginning ele- mentary education students will be like the experienced teacher group when they are of equivalent age. However, if their views remain the same or only change in part, communities, present school personnel, 108 and professional education groups must be ready to accept the fact that the teacher of tomorrow will be different than the teacher of today. Implication 6. With fewer differences existing on a grade level basis, articulation of the various curricular areas, at least from Kindergarten through sixth grade should not be impeded by personality differences. Implication 7. School curriculum, study and various other com- mittees should be easier to Constitute by leaving, generally, fewer personality variables with which to contend. Between the poles of vocational continuum of recruitment and practice, selection and education procedures must also be geared to deal with people whose personality perception of their occupational group is different than commonly assumed. The question arises as to whether the groups charged with the various facets of recruitment, selection, education, and guidance of teaChers will capitalize on these differences or attempt to continue an obsolete mold. Implications Based Upon Assumption II Implication 1. Present views held by-many writers of elementary teachers personality are not shared by elementary teachers themselves. If we accept the idea that an individual Operates upon the view he has of himself, and that this view is derived at least in part by the stereotype expectations generated from memberships or expected member- ships in an occupational group, then we should expect different behavior on the part of elementary teachers than the weight of previous research reports. .109 Implication 2. It is apparent from this study that beginning ele- mentary education students see the-personality structure of elementary teachers in a very positive light. ‘If they possess or are attempting to match their personality to this stereotype, then "better" students are currently being recruited in elementary education. A Implication 3. Novice teachers continue the pattern as stated in implication 2, with changes of perception of elementary teachers being no more negative than seeing certain traits of elementary teachers the same as women in general. Implication 4. As teachers are recruited and assigned to various public school positions, a balance of novice and experienced teachers should be maintained. This balance will capitalize on the positive but somewhat impetuous personality of the novice teacher and the positive but steadying influence of experienced teachers. Implication 5. As various committees are constituted within schools and school systems, implication 4 should be a factor in such deliberations. Indeed, the positive projection should lose the qualms of those inclined to agree with the negative personality statements regarding teacher competence, and deny teachers a stronger voice in planning, organizing, evaluating, and carrying out the goals and objectives of the public schools. Implications Based Upon Assumption III Implication 1. One would expect that as one grows older, he would have more experience in a given occupation, and this research supports this contention. Researchers in education generally do not agree with this finding in relation to teachers, indicating rather that 110 teachers do not have a continuous work experience. Unfortunately the coding in this study for experience prevents a sharp comparison of age and experience. However, the experienced elementary teacher group posseSses a mean age of 48.3 years and a standard deviation of 9.792 years. This experience group has a coded experience level of 3.7. The code indicates nearly all have 10 years or more experience. The standard deviation for age permits the inclusion of those 38.3 to 58.3 years of age, and seems quite representative of experienced women in any occupational group. Some support is given therefore to a more continuous work experience than other research has shown. Implication 2. Tenure in terms of the number of years in a given grade level was highly correlated. It was also related to experience, which gives weight to implication l; i.e., a continuous work experience. This finding also underscores the fact that teachers are rather permanently placed either by those controlling placement or by their own desire, in lower or upper elementary grades. Elementary teachers do not perceive a personality structure in elementary teachers that demands this. This implication gives support also to those stated earlier in relation to assumption 1. Implication 3. The stereotype of the unmarried school teacher is shown to be inappropriate to elementary school teachers, and adds confirmation to the trend reported in the related research that the present majority of experienced teachers is married. While no evidence is at hand to support this, one could speculate whether the negative stereotype of teachers originated during the period when married ele- mentary women teachers were practically unemployable. It would appear, 111 too, that more attention should be given to the reason why more married teachers are in classrooms, and the conditions surrounding this factor. Implication 4. School-community was not a particularly significant factor in terms of stereotype. This finding would tend to support the lack of rural-urban differences being reported by many sociologists. Implication 5. With findings to support longer and more continuous tenure and experiences, school administrators and researchers might turn their attention to the conditions that effect retention of teachers within the profession and within the school system. This could be even more useful than the massive efforts expended each year in the recruit- ment of additional and replacement personnel. Recommendations of Areas for Further Research 1. Although many studies have been made of the personality structure of elementary teachers, the differences found in this research and in some of the more recent related research indicates more study is needed to confirm, refute, and establish the nature and direction of these changes if such is the case. 2. More research is needed to confirm or refute grade level differences in-personality structure which may exist between various grade level groups of teachers. 3. This writer agrees with Ryans that a longitudinal study of changes which take place due to experience in the occupational group of teacher is needed at all levels. The writer could find no such studies in the literature and much speculation based upon projection of one time studies. 112 4. That a.statistical stereotype has been shown to exist should stimulate others to apply this conceptual tool in various areas. This study for example should be replicated on a larger papulation and applied to other grade-level groups and areas of teaching such as subject matter groups. 5. The stereotype of various groups of teachers held by the public should be carefully investigated. Only sketchy evidence is available in this area. 6. The seeming lack of effect of school-community on teaching personality needs further inquiry. Intuitive studies which indicates this difference are presently not adequate. 7. Possible existence of and effect of "built-in" role conflict engendered by various definitions of "good" teacher behavior, personality, et cetera should be investigated and brought into focus. Conclusions 1. Perhaps the most significant finding was the positive nature of the stereotype held by teachensand and the departure from the negative reports in the literature as a whole on "actual" teacher personality structure. Only high "deference" was upheld as hypothesized for begin- ning elementary education women, students, and experienced teachers. Lower grade beginning elementary education students scored elementary teachers high on Edwards characteristics of "deference", "exhibition", "intraception", "dominance" and "heterosexuality", and low for "autonomy", "endurance", and "abasement". The upper grade division of this source group perceived elementary teachers the same way except for low "order", and "autonomy" as for women in general. In all other Edwards needs the scores were the same as for women in general for each group. 113 Novice elementary women teachers projected a stereotype of low "endurance", "abasement", and high "heterosexuality". Upper grade novices projected an elementary teacher need for low "order" and high "exhibition", while their lower grade counterparts evinced high "dominance" and "intraception". All other scores were the same as for women in general. Experienced elementary women teachers at upper and lower grade levels view elementary teachers as highly "deferent" and low on needs of "abasement". One difference occurred: upper grade experienced teachers projected a high need for "achievement". Otherwise they view elementary teachers as no different than women in general. 2. The stereotype of the personality structure of elementary teachers was shown to be held by experience groups of beginning ele- mentary education women students, novice and experienced women teachers. This stereotype varies only slightly when these same groups are compared by lower and upper grade differences. 3. Age, tenure, marriage and school-community were found to be correlated with experience and thus related to differences of stereo- type ascribed to the experience groups of beginning elementary educa- tion women students, novice and experienced teachers. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Allport, Gordon W. Th§_Nature pf Prejudice (New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc.), 1958. Biddle, Bruce J. et. al. ,The Role of the Teacher and Occupational Choice (Columbia, Mo. :The University of Missouri, 1961). Brim, Orville C. Sociology and the Field 2; Education (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1958). Coreman, James W. Community Conflict (Chicago: The Free Press, 1955). Cronbach, Lee J. Essentials of Psycholpgical Testing (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950). Dewey, John prflflg Think (Chicago: Heath and Company, 1933). J—__—m York: Rinehart and Company, Inc. , 1954). English, Horace B. and English, Ava C. A.Comparative Dictionary of ngchological and Psychoanalytical Terms. (New York: Longmans, Green and Co. , 1958). Gingsberg, Eli, et a1. Occupational Choice: Ap Approach £p_General Theory (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951). Gross, Neal W 2 Runs Our Schools? (New York: Johns Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1958). Gross, Neal, Ward, Mason, and Alexander McEachern Explorations in Role Malysis (New York. John Wiley and Sons, 1958). Hall, Robert K., et al. The Year Book'pf Education (Chicago: Werld Book Company, 1953). Jenkins, David H., and Lippitt, Ronald Interpersonal Perceptions pf Teachers, Students and Parents (Washington, D.C., National Educational Association, 1951). Kinnery, Lucien Measures of a Good Teacher (San Francisco: California Teachers Association, 1953). La Pierre, Richard T., Farnsworth, Paul R. Social Psychology (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1948). 114 115 Leiberman, Myron Education §g_§ Profession (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1956). Lippman, Walter Public Opinion (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, .1922). Maslow, A. H. Motivations and Personalipy (New York: Harper Inc., 1954). Mead, C. H. Mind, Self, ppd Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950). Monnoney, ML. J. Facts from Figures (Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin Books, Inc., 1956). Murphy, Gardner, Murphy, L. B., and Newcomb, T. Ms Experimental Social Psychology (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1937). Murray, Henry A, Exploration ip_Personality. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1938). Ryans, David Characteristics_p§ Teachers (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1960). Smith, Elmer R. (ed) Teacher Education A Reappraisal (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1962). Snedecor, W. E. Statistical Methods (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State College Press, 1946). Super, Donald Thp Psychology p§_Careers (New York: Harpers, 1957). Super, Donald Vocational Development. A Framework of Research, Career Pattern Study, Monograph_ 1 (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1957). Waller, Willard The Sociology_ of Teaching (New York. John Wiley and Sons, 1932). Wickman, E. E. Children's Behavior and Teacher's Attitudes (New York: ' Commonwealth Fund, 1928). Young, Kimball Handbook pf Social Psychology (London: Routledge-and Paul, 1960). ARTICLES Barr, A., Eustice, D. E. and Noe, E. J., "The Measurement and Prediction of Teacher Efficiency", Review pf Educational Research, 25:6:261-69, 1955. Becker, Howard, "The Teacher in the Authority System of the Public School", Journal pf Educational Sociology, 27:128-41, 1953. 116 Bordin, E. C., "A Theory of Vocational Interests as Dynamic Phenomena", Educational and Psychological Mgasurement, 3:49-65, 1943. Brookover, Wilbur, "Public Images and Expectations of Teachers", College ggrEducaEion Qggrterly, 3:7—12, Fall, 1957 Brookover, Wilbur, "Research on Teacher and Administrator Roles", Journal g£_Educational Sociology, 29:9, 1955. Charters, W. W., "The School as a Social System", The Review 2g Educational Research, 22:1-42, 1952, p. 2. Clarke, David L. and Burke, A. J., "Economic, Legal and Social Status of Teachers", Revue g£_Education Research, 25:239-51, 1955. Doyle, Louis, "Convergence and Divergence in the Role Expectations of Elementary Thachers", College g£_Education Quarterly, 4:3-8, Winter, 1958. Fulkerson, Glen, "A Resume of Current Teacher Personnel Research", Journal g£_Education Research, 47:5, 669-82, 1954. Grambs, Jean, "Teachers as a Minority Group", Journal 2; Educational (Sociology, 23:400-405, 1949. Jackson, P. W. and Cuba, Egon G., "The Need Structure of In-Service Teachers: An Occupational Analysis", The School Review, 65:2: 176-92, 1957. Kaplan, Louis, "Tens ions in Parent-Teacher Relationship", Elementary School Journal, 51:190-95, 1950. Kaplan, Louis, "The Annoyances of Elementary School Teachers", Journal 2; Educationa1_Research, 45:649-65, 1952. Katz, D. and Braly, K., "Racial Stereotypes of 100 College Students", Journal‘gg Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28:280-290, 1933. Merwin, J. C. and DiVesta, F.J., "A.Study of Need Theory and Career Choice", Journal‘gg Counseling Psychology, 6: 302-308, 1959. O'Dowd, Donald and Beardslee, David C., "The Student Image of the Teacher", Phi Belta Kappan, 42: 250-251, March 1961, p. 250. Roe, Ann, "Early Determinants of Vocational Choice", Journal 2; Counseling Psychology, 4:212-217, 1957. Schaffer, R. H., "Job Statisfaction as Related to Need Satisfaction in WOrk", Psychological Monoggaphs, 67, No. 14, 1953, 117 Schanck, R. A,, "A Study of a Community and Its Groups and Institutions Conceived of as Behavior of Individuals". Psychological Monographs No. 2, 1932. Seago, D. W., "Stereotypes Before Pearl Harbor and After", Journal 2; Psychology, 23: 55-64, 1947. Solby, Bruno, "The Role Concept in Job Adjustment", Sociometry, 7:222-229, 1944. Stouffer, George and Owens, Jennie, "Behavior Problems of Children as Identified by Today's Teachers as Compared with Those Reported; by E. K. Wickman", Journal pf Educational Research, 48:321-31, 1953. Super, Donald, "Career Patterns with a Basis for Vocational Counseling", Journal p£_Counseling Psychology, 1:12-19, 1954. Sykes, Gresham.Mm, "P.T.A; and Parent-Teacher Conflicts", Harvard Educatiog_Revue, 23: No. 2, 86-92, 1953. Thomas, Donald R., "Our Professional Expectations of Teachers," Th; Educational Forum, 44:421-427, May 1960. Whlsh, R. P., "The Effect of Needs on Responses to Job Duties", Journal‘pf Counseling Psychology, 6: 194-198, 1959. Witty, Paul A., "Studies of Interests of Children", Thg_Packet, 16:220-231, Winter 1961. UNPUBLISHED MATERIAL Hoffman, James D., "A Study of Perception That Administrators, Ele- mentary Teachers, Consultants, and Special Area Teachers Have of the Elementary, Special Area Teacher and Consultant Role". Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1959. Nachman, Barbara, "Childhood Experiences and Vocational Choice: A Study of Lawyers, Dentists, and Social Workers". Doctoral Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1957. Schumaker, Charles F. "The Image of the Physician: A Study of Ap- plicants to Medical School", Association of American Medical Colleges, 1960, (unpublished paper). O'Hara, R. P. "On the Importance of the Self-Concept to a General Theory of Occupational Choice", Harvard Graduate School of Educa- tion, 1957, (unpublished paper). Segal, S. J. "The Role of Personality Factors in Vocational Choice: A Study of Accountants and Creative Writers". Doctoral Dis- sertation, University of Michigan, 1954. 118 Siegleman, Marvin, "Personality Patterns in Three Vocational Groups", Dissertation Abstracts, 18: 2063-64, 1958. Southworth, Horton C., "A.Study of Certain Personality and Value Dif- ferences in Teacher Education Majors Preferring Early and Later Elementary Teaching Levels." Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1962. OTHER SOURCES Edwards, Allen L., Manual Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1959), p. 11. Tiedman, D. V. and O'Hara, R. P., Position Choices gpd Careers: Elements pf‘g Theory, Harvard Studies in Career Development, No. 8, 1958. APPENDICES APPENDIX A DESCRIPTIONS OF EDWARDS PERSONAL PREFERENCE SCHEDULE EDWARDS PERSONAL PREFERENCE SCHEDULE The-major personality instrument utilized in the study was the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, a paired-comparison type quest- ionnaire which purportstx>measure a number of normal personality [variables based upon the list of manifest needs proposed by H. A. Murray. Briefly, these needs may be summarized as follows: "ACHIEVEMENT": To do one's best, to be successful, to accomplish tasks requiring skill and effort, to be a recognized authority, to accomplish something of great significance, to do a difficult job well, to solve difficult problems and puzzles, to be able to do things better than others, to write a great novel or play. "DEFERENCE": To get suggestions from others, to find out what others think, to follow instructions and do what is expected, to praise others, to tell others that they have done a good job, to accept the leadership of others, to read about great men, to conform to custom and avoid the unconventional, to let others make decisions. "ORDER": To have written work neat and organized, to make plans before starting on a difficult task, to have things organized, to keep things neat and orderly, to make advance plans when taking a trip, to organize details of work, to keep letters and files according to some system, to have meals organized and a definite time for eating, to have things arranged so that they run smoothly without change. "EXHIBITION": To say witty and clever things, to tell amusing jokes and stories, to talk about personal adventures and experiences, .to have others notice and comment upon one's appearance, to say things just to see what effect it will have on others, to talk about personal achievement, to be the center of attention, to use words that others do not know the meaning of, to ask questions others cannot answer. "AUTONOMY": To be able to come and go as desired, to say what one thinks about things, to be independent of others in making decisions, to feel free to do what one wants, to do things that are unconventional, to avoid situations where one is expected to conform, to do things with- out regard to what others may think, to criticize those in positions of authority, to avoid reaponsibilities and obligations. "AFFILIATION": To be loyal to friends, to participate in friendly groups, to do things for friends, to form new friendships, to make as many friends as possible, to share things with friends rather than alone, to form strong attachments, to write letters to friends. 119 120 "INTRACEPTION": To analyze one's motives and feelings, to observe others, to understand how others feel about problems, to put one's self in another's place, to judge peeple by why they do things rather than by what they do, to analyze the motives of others, to analyze how others will act. "SUCCORANCE": To have others provide help when in trouble, to seek encouragement from others, to have others be kindly, to have others be sympathetic and understanding about personal problems, to receive a great deal of affection from others, to have others do favors cheerfully, to be helped by others when depressed, to have others feel sorry when one is sick, to have a fuss made over one when hurt. "DOMINANCE": To argue for one's point'of view, to be a leader in groups to which-one belongs, to be regarded by others as a leader, to be elected or appointed chairman of committees, to make group decisions, to settle arguments and diSputes between others, to persuade and influence others to do what one wants, to supervise and direct the action of others, to tell others to do their jobs. "ABASEMENT": To feel guilty when one does something wrong, to accept blame when things do not go right, to feel that personal pain and misery suffered does more good than harm, to feel the need for punishment for wrong doing, to feel better when giving in and avoiding a fight than when having one's own way, to feel the need for confession of errors, to feel depressed by inability to handle situations, to feel timid in the presence of superiors, to feel inferior to others in most reapects. "NURTURANCE": To help others when they are in trouble, to assist others less fortunate, to treat others with kindness and sympathy, to forgive others, to do small favors for others, to be generous with others, to sympathize with others who are hurt or sick, to show a great deal of affection toward others, to have others confide in one about personal problems. "CHANGE": To do new and different things, to travel, to meet new peOple, to experience novelty and change in daily routine, to experiment and try new things, to eat in new and different places, to try new and different jobs, to move about the country and live in different places, to participate in new fads and fashions. "ENDURANCE": To keep at a job until it is finished, to complete any job undertaken, to work hard at a task, to keep at a puzzle or problem until it is solved, to work at a single job before taking others, to stay up late in order to get a job done, to put in long hours or work without distraction, to stick at a problem even though it may seem as if no progress is being made, to avoid being interrupted while at work. 121 "HETEROSEXUALITY": To go out with members of the Opposite sex, to engage in social activities with Opposite sex, to be in love with someone of the Opposite sex, to kiss those of the Opposite sex, to be regarded as physically attractive by those of the Opposite sex, to participate in discussions about sex, to read books and plays involving sex, to listen to or tell jokes involving sex, to become sexually excited. "AGGRESSION": To attack contrary points of view, to tell others what one things about them, to criticize-others publicly, to make fun of others, to tell others off when disagreeing with them, to get revenge for insults, to become angry, to blame others when things go wrong, to read newspaper accounts of violence.10 108Edwards, Allen L., Manual Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1959), p. 11. APPENDIX B INSTRUCTION SHEET, PERSONAL INVENTORY AND LETTERS SENT TO NOVICE AND EXPERIENCED ELEMENTARY WOMEN TEACHERS 122 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY East Lansing College of Education January 10, 1963 Dorothy Jones .929 Jones Lane East Lansing, Michigan Dear Dorothy: You have been chosen to help in a study about teachers and the teaching profession. As you know, our profession is a vital one, and one that we are constantly striving to improve by our own efforts guided by ~research findings and other sources of information. In this study we hope to add more knowledge about what teacher candidates and members of the teaching profession think teachers are like. This added in- formation will be very useful in education, selection, and guidance of members and potential members of the profession. In order to get at the problem stated above, you are requested to complete the enclosed material. It will take about an hour of your time to complete, and your answers will be held in strict confidence. Follow the steps on the instruction sheet. We sincerely hope you will take time from your busy schedule to com- plete these forms. We cannot complete the study without your help. Sincerely, Earl Hogan Coordinator Student Teaching Program Battle Creek Center EH/ss Enclosure 1. 123 INSTRUCTION SHEET Fill out the "Personal Inventory". Imagine that a thousand teachers have taken the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule which you have in the envelope, and that the majority of them have answered in the same way. With this idea in mind, we would like you to read the directions.on the cover of the Edwards test, and then reapond to the questions NOT AS YOU WOULD, BUT AS THE TYPICAL TEACHER AT YOUR GRADE LEVEL WOULD RESPOND. Be sure to use the Special pencil and answer sheet enclosed. Place all materials in the stamped,pre-addressed envelope and mail promptly. 124 PERSONAL INVENTORY YOur Name (last) (first) Address (street or RFD) (city) A. IMale_____Fema1e_____ B. .Age at last birthday C. Marriedy____Divorced_____Single_____Widow_____ D. Teaching experience years E. Majority of years at what level K.- 2_____3 — 6 F. In what type school community do you teach (check only one) ____AA community of rural to 20,000 population more than 50 miles from a city such as Kalamazoo-or Bay City. ____;A community of rural to 20,000 pOpulation less than 50 miles from a city such as Kalamazoo or Bay City. '____pA large city area of 100,000 papulation such as Detroit, Flint, or Grand Rapids area. _____A.commmnity about the size of Kalamazoo or Bay City. C. At what grade level do you now teach (check only one) _____Grades Kindergarten through 2 _____Grades 3 through 6 H. Do you want a summary of the findings of this study? ‘_____yes no exp nov 125 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY East Lansing College of Education January 27, 1963 Dorothy Jones 929 Jones Lane East Lansing, Michigan Dear Dorothy: Due to a misunderstanding with the Post Office Department, and the recent raise in postal rates, the research material which you received from us about two weeks ago may have had postage due on it. In addi- tion, you may have tried to return the material to us only to have it come back for postage due. we hoPe you will understand that the error was unintentional, and in order to "make it right" we are enclosing two 5c stamps. We have assumed that this may be one of the reasons you have not re- turned the research material to us. However, since you were selected as one in a randomly drawn sample, we are dependent upon your response if our results are to have meaning. Thus, our analysis has come to a halt. Would you please, therefore, complete the personal inventory and return it to us. If the form has been miSplaced please let us know immediately and we shall send you a second copy of the EPPS. The M.S.U. Coordinator in your area will be glad to answer any questions you may have about this study. Sincerely, Earl Hogan Coordinator Student Teaching Program Battle Creek Center EH/ss Enclosure APPENDIX C INSTRUCTION SHEET AND PERSONAL INVENTORY USED WITH WOMEN BEGINNING ELEMENTARY WOMEN STUDENTS 126 INSTRUCTION SHEET You have been chosen to help in a study about teachers and the teaching profession. As you know, our profession is a vital one, and one that we constantly are striving to improve by our own efforts guided by research findings and other sources of information. In this study we hOpe to add more knowledge about what teacher candidates and members of the teaching profession think teachers are like. This added information will be very useful in selection, education, and guidance of members and potential members of the profession. In order to get at the problem stated above, you are requested to complete the enclosed material. It will take about an hour of your time to complete and your answers will be held in strict confidence. Follow these steps: 1. Fill out the "Personal Inventory". 2. Imagine that a thousand teachers have taken the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule and the majority of them have answered the same way. With this idea in mind, we would like you to read the directions on the cover of the Edwards Test and then reSpond to the questions NOT A§ YOU WOULD, BUT AS THE TYPICAL TEACHER AT_THE GRADE LEVEL AT WHICH YOU EXPECT TQLIEACH WOULD RESPOND. 3. Be sure to use the special pencil and answer sheet . enclosed. 4. Return the envelope to your instructor at the next class session. You may seal it if you wish. we cannot complete the study without your help. Your time and effort are appreciated. 127 PERSONAL INVENTORY Your name . (last) (first) Campus Address A. Male Female B. Age at last birthday C. At what grade level do you expect to start teaching (check only one) _____Grades Kindergarten through 2 _____Grades 3 through 6 _____Grades 10 through 12 If you checked grades 10 through 12 what one major subject do you expect to teach. * D. In what type of school community do you want to teach? (check only one) A community of rural to 20,000 population more than 50 miles from a city such as Kalamazoo or Bay City. A community of rural to 20,000 population less than 50 miles from a city such as Kalamazoo or Bay City. A community about the size of Kalamazoo or Bay City. A large city area of 100,000 or more population such as Detroit, Flint, or Grand Rapids area. E. Do you want a summary of the findings of this study? Yes No 7) s 4 -..” 1 ' ' I." '3. o) - pa. p-o.-._q——’»-v— v - —o.-“ ‘k- ~4 *4 "' t ‘1‘! , ‘ I... ~ . , ‘