A PROPOSED BIOLOGY TEACHER
TRAINING PROGRAM FOR
SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN THE
MEKONG DELTA REGION OF VIETNAM

 

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
PHUNG TI-II NGUYET HUNG
1973

 

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A PROPOSED BIOLOGY TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAM FOR

SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN THE MEKONG DELTA
*3 1‘ REGION OF VIETNAM

presented by
Nguyet-Hong Thi Phung

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for
Ph . D. degree in Education

 

  
 

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ABSTRACT

A PROPOSED BIOLOGY TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAM
FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN THE
MEKONG DELTA REGION OF VIETNAM

BY

Phung Thi Nguyet Hong

This study was undertaken to design a biology train-
ing program for secondary school teachers (grades six to
twelve) in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam, with the
major emphasis on the construction of courses and experi—
ences within the biological sciences.

The methods reported in this study consisted of the
following processes: First, an analysis was made of the
current biology training programs at Cantho University, with
reference to a new set of Vietnam school biology objectives
deve10ped in the 1970 curriculum revision. The revision
was made in response to new developments in biology educa-
tion, and called for changes both in content and teaching
methods, resulting in a demand for a different pattern of
teacher training. Second, a review of the modern develop—
ments in biology education and training programs in the
United States suggested guidelines for planning a curric-
ulum that would have a "modern" characteristic both in

content and in instructional methods. Third, an analysis

Phung Thi Nguyet Hong

of the socio-economic aspects of the Mekong Delta region
was made, to determine the needs and demands upon which
planning should be concentrated so that the selected biology
knowledge would have a direct appliCation to the immediate
environment. Public health, agriculture, and fisheries were
chosen asLareas of emphasis for the organization of the
major course content and experiences.

The criteria for planning an effective biology train-
ing program involved the following parameters: (1) The
training should be a four-year program; (2) Biology teachers
should have a broad minimum competency in related sciences;
and (3) Teachers should have sufficient training in their
major area to provide an understanding of the nature of the
discipline, its substance, and its methods.

From the preceding analysis and criteria, the biol-

ogy program was formulated and included three components:

Biology 40-45 Semester credits
Related Sciences 36-37 semester credits
Other Program Cemponents 58-64 semester credits

The biology program consists of two units: Introduc-

tory Biology and Advanced Biology. The Introductory Biology
program provides breadth of biological sciences with modern
concepts according to recent discoveries. Advanced Biology
gives depth on topics organized under three selected areas
of concentration: public health, agriculture, and fisheries.
The preposed program includes the major tepics for each unit;

a devised laboratory approach is also described.

Phung Thi Nguyet Hong

Recommendations for implementing the proposed pro-
gram were classified into four categories: recommendations
on location, on instructional materials, on staff formation,
and on administration.. Problems for further research were

also suggested.

A PROPOSED BIOLOGY TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAM
FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN THE

MEKONG DELTA REGION OF VIETNAM

BY

Phung Thi Nguyet Hong

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

1973

I
Kinh Tang
' I j. I
BA MA, cac ANH CHI, MINH va céc CHAU,
A’ a, «b ’ . ~
Sd hy-sinh, khuyen-khich va an ui da

ddng 96p vao thanh qua n39.

ii

Dedicated to
Professor Nguyen duy Xuan, who inspires me, and

Dr. Tran phuoc Duong, who gives me faith and encouragement.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my deep gratitude to my former
advisor, Dr. Wayne T. Taylor, for his enthusiasm and valuable
guidance most of my years at Michigan State University.

I am indebted to all who have contributed to the
completion of this work after the death of my advisor.
Without their help and understanding, this work could not
have been accomplished.

Special acknowledgment is due to Dr. Julian R.
Brandou, chairman of my committee, and Dr. Martin F.
Hetherington, who have spent much time and effort giving
guidance, suggestions, and correction throughout the dura—
tion of this study. Dr. Brandou provided a great deal of
direct assistance with the design and development of the
dissertation. I certainly appreciate his help.

Sincere thanks is also due to Dr. William B. Drew.
His concern and enthusiasm gave great support at the criti-
cal moments. I also thank him for help in editing my dis-
sertation.

Sincere appreciation is expressed to Dr. Alice M.
Davis and Dr. George R. Myers for serving as members of my
dissertation committee, and for their counsel and warmth.

Many thanks are also expressed to Mr. Pham van Dat,

Dar. Hang An, and Mr. John Witmer for providing valuable

iv

data, to all Science and Mathematics Teaching Center staff
for a joyful time, to Mrs. Sue Cooley for editing and typing
the final draft, and to my friends at Michigan State Uni-
versity, especially to Mr. Vu Quoc Thuy and Miss Le thi
Xuan, for bearing the hardships-~their friendship is unfor-
gettable.

Finally, I wish to express my thanks to Dr. Margaret

Felsinger for making this scholarship possible.

LIST OF

LIST OF

Chapter

I.

II.

III.

IV.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

FIGURES O O I O O O O O O O O O C 0

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . .
Background of the Study. . . . .
Need for the Study . .‘. . . . .
Related Studies. . . . . . . . .
Scope of the Study . . . . . . .
Procedures and Sources of Data .
Limitations of the Study . . . .
Definition of Terms. . . . . . .
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . .

THE STATUS OF BIOLOGY TEACHING AND
TRAINING OF BIOLOGY TEACHERS . . .

Background . . . . . . . . . . .
Biology Teaching in Vietnamese
Secondary Schools. . . . . . .
The Training of Biology Teachers
Summary of the Chapter . . . . .

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS AND NATURAL
RESOURCES OF THE REGION. . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . .
Economic Features. . . . . . . .
Social Concerns. . . . . . . . .
Implications and Conclusions . .
Summary of the Chapter . . . . .

TRENDS IN MODERN BIOLOGY EDUCATION

AND

THEIR IMPLICATIONS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . .
Trends in Modern Biology . . .
Teacher Preparation. . . . . . .

vi

Page
viii

ix

H

FJH
OCDK>m~dU1wFHFJ

H
(A)

13

15
29
44

45

45
45
57
62
63

64
64

64
71

Page

Biological Science in Southeast Asia . . . 82
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . 88

V. THE PROPOSED BIOLOGY TRAINING PROGRAM FOR
SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS OF THE MEKONG
DELTA REGION 0 I O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 8 9

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Considerations Regarding the Needs for

the Training Program of the Mekong

Delta Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Clarification of Objectives of the

Proposed Program for Secondary School

Biology Teachers in the Mekong Delta

Region 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 92
Considerations of Breadth, Depth,

and sequence 0 O O O O I O O O O O O O O 92

Proposed Program . . . . . . . .-. . . . . 95
Description of Biology Courses in

the Training Program . . . . . . . . . . ‘ 98

Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . 105

VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . 106

Summary of the Findings. . . . . . . . . . 106

Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Implications for Education . . . . . . . . 109

Problems for Further Research. . . . . . . 112

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . ll4

vii

Table

l.

10.
ll.
12.

13.

14.

LIST OF TABLES

Program of Study in Junior High School of
Franco-Vietnamese System. .'. . . . . .

Program of Study in Senior High School of
Franco-Vietnamese System. . . . . . . . . .

Program of Training in Science. . . . . . .

Number of High School Teachers Teaching
Biology in the Mekong Delta Region. . . . .

Number of Students by Provinces . . . . . .
Program of Training in Natural Sciences . .

Agricultural Crops: Cultivated Area
and Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rice: Cultivated Area and Production
Classified by Region. . . . . . . . . . .

Cultivated Area and Production of Rice

in Respect to the Whole Country and
Different Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total Fisheries Catch Classified by Region.
Total Fisheries Catch in 1969 by Categories
Population in 1970. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Requirements of the Proposed Program for
Secondary School Biology Teachers of the
Mekong Delta Region . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Proposed Four-Year Program for Secondary

School Biology Teachers of the Mekong
Delta Region. . . . . . . . . . . . .

viii

Page

19

20

31

36
37

39

47

48

49

50

50

58

96

97

LIST OF FIGURES

Page
The Mekong Delta Region Provinces . . . . . . 11
The Mekong River and the Mekong Delta
Region Rivers and Canals. . . . . . . . . . . 53
Different Emphasis in the BSCS Materials. . . 72
Distribution of Levels of Organization in
the BSCS and the Traditional Materials. . . . 73

ix

CHAPTER I

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Introduction

 

The fundamental problem to be treated here is the
construction of a biology teacher training curriculum for
the Mekong Delta region of South Vietnam. Major emphasis
is placed on the organization of courses and experiences
within the biological sciences, with less emphasis on
strictly pedagogical instruction.

This study reviews biology teaching and the training
programs for biology teachers in Vietnam; trends in biology
curriculum development at the high school and college
levels in the United States and in South East Asia; and the
unique needs of the Mekong Delta region. The formulation
of a locally based teacher training program is generated

on the basis of the analysis of these findings.

Background of the Study

 

Education, including higher education, is held in
high regard by the Vietnamese society. In fact, tremendous
increases in enrollments at all levels are apparent through-
out South East Asia. Based on the rising expectation that
education is the most effective way to approach a better

life, both socially and economically, there is a very real

"thirst for education"1 among the people. Furthermore, if
the country as a whole is to realize its productive poten-
tial, widespread educational opportunity seems a necessity.
Nguyen quang Quynh said: ". . . The strengthening of the pro-
ductive power of the people greatly depends on the educational
and cultural standard of the masses."2

The importance of education as an agent of change
in a deveIOping nation is recognized everywhere.3 And in
a war—torn country like Vietnam, education assumes an even
more important role in shaping the future. Philip Coombs
noted that ". . . A society can only achieve sustained econ-
omic growth and build viable social and political institu-
tions if it invests adequately and early in the development
of its people's talent."4

In addition, all of modern society is becoming
increasingly dependent upon science. There seems to be no
doubt of the value of science and its impact on social and

economic develOpment, and the awareness of this importance

has been recognized in school programs all over the world.

 

lVirginia Thompson, French Indochina (London: George
Allen and Union, Ltd., 1937), p. 286; see also "Forging a
New System of Education in Vietnam," Vietnam Feature Service,
Pub. 016 (Washington, D.C.: AID, n.d.), pp. 1-17. (Mimeo-
graphed.)

2Nguyen quang Quynh, "Education in Underdeveloped
Countries," Asian Culture, III, 1 (January—March, 1961), 85.

 

3Philip H. Coombs, "Education's Role in the Develop-
ing Nations," Saturday Review, August 17, 1953, p. 29.

4

 

Ibid.

Securing scientific knowledge and experience is largely
dependent upon the competency of science teachers and the
science materials used in the developing country. Conse-
quently, teachers apparently play a key role in the process
of change. Beeby spoke directly to this relationship when
he said, "It is only through them [the teachers] that it can
be reformed."1 In other words, to improve science instruc—
tion in the schools, it is necessary to improve the program

by which science teachers are prepared.

Need for the Study

In 1964, the first National Education Convention was
called in Vietnam. The participants included educators and
representatives of the general population, who discussed
possible directions for a national educational policy. The
most significant recommendation to come from the Convention
was the establishment of a curriculum differentiated accord-
ing to the needs of the four geographical regions of the
country.2 As a result, four separate types of curricula
were suggested for the city, delta, highland, and coastal
areas. The development of this new educational structure
was not realized until 1966. At that time, Cantho University

was founded in the Mekong Delta region and represented a new

 

1C. B. Beeby, Theguality of Education in Developing
Countries (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966), p. 37.

2UNESCO, "Education Development in 1964-1965,"
International Yearbook of Education, XXVII (1965), 399-403.

 

 

thrust in Vietnamese higher education in response to the
people's aspirations for the develOpment of their local
region.

The university began work on its curriculum at once.
At the beginning, primarily because of a lack of teaching
staff, the university was unable to carry out the specific
function of producing a local program, even though the man—
date clearly allowed that: "Subjects of regional charac—
teristics may be taught to local students in addition to
ordinary subjects, for example history may be specially
taught in Hue and agriculture in Cantho."l

Instead, the new university duplicated the same cur-
ricula as other state-financed universities. Recently,
its specific function was re-emphasized by the Rector on
the occasion of the first graduation ceremony as follows:
"Cantho University was established in respect to the aspir—
ation of pe0p1e living in this region. Therefore, it must
serve its peOple and improve its community."2

There has been actual progress in the biology cur-
riculum during the past academic year. For example, a

course in.Ichthyology3for biology majors has been added

 

l"Arts Colleges to Adapt New Curriculum,
Bulletin, III, 53 (October 1-15, 1969), 9.

Vietnam

2Nguyen duy Xuan, "Speech Given on the First Grad-
uation Ceremony at Cantho University," Dat Nhan, No. 2
(February, 1971), 5.

3University of Cantho, Handbook of the Faculty of
Science, 1971-1972, pp. 10-11.

because the fishing industry ranks second in importance
among products of the Mekong Delta region. Nevertheless,
the training program for biology teachers, which was not
being given much consideration, has received almost no
efforts toward the goal of serving the local region.

Thus, the present study is designed to suggest a
pattern of teacher training in biology for quality to meet

the needs and demands of the Mekong Delta region.

Related Studies

 

Although designed for a particular region of Vietnam,
this study is part of a larger multiple effort which has
been conducted in Vietnam and abroad and has involved both
short- and long~term training programs in cooperation with
several agencies. Through these training programs, there
has been a concerted attempt to increase the effectiveness
of science curriculum in schools and in colleges. The
Ohio University Contract Team, for example, has worked in
close c00peration with the secondary schools and the train-
ing centers in Vietnam in an effort to assist in the utili-
zation of the science laboratory and instructional media.1

The literature pertinent to this study includes the

following research:

 

1"Ohio University Contract, USAID/EDUCATION: Semi-
Annual Report" (Washington, D.C.: USAID Education Division,
Teacher Training). (Mimeographed.)

1. "Suggested Activities to Teach Biology in
Vietnamese High Schools,"1 in respect to teaching methods of
inquiry deveIOped by the Biological Science Curriculum Study
Project.

2. "Strategies for Improving Science Education
Practices in Vietnamese Secondary Schools,"2 which proposed
different techniques for modifying the science teaching in
secondary schools.

3. "A Macro-Design of an Operational Model for the
Development of the Chemistry Program in Vietnam: Implication
for Chemistry Education in Vietnamese Secondary Schools and
for the Pre-Service Education of Propsective Physics and
Chemistry Teachers in Vietnam,"3 which developed a chemistry
program for senior high schools and a proposed training pat—
tern to cepe with the new program.

4. "A Proposed Core Curriculum for the First Two

Undergraduate Years,"4 designed as a model of general

 

lNgo ngoc Anh, "Suggested Activities to Teach Biology
in Vietnamese High Schools" (unpublished M.A. thesis, The
Ohio State University, 1970).

2Nguyen thi Du, "Strategies for Improving Science
Education Practices in Vietnamese Secondary Schools" (unpub-
lished M.A. thesis, Michigan State University, 1971).

3Hua vang Loc, "A Macro-Design of an Operational
Model for the Development of the Chemistry Program in Vietnam:
Implication for Chemistry Education in Vietnamese Secondary
Schools and for the Pre-Service Education of Prospective
Physics and Chemistry Teachers in Vietnam" (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, Michigan State University, 1972).

4Nguyen van Thuy, "Proposal for a Model Core Curric—
ulum for the First Two Undergraduate Years in Institutions
of Higher Education in Vietnam" (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
Michigan State University, 1971).

education in providing basic knowledge and guidance prepara-
tion necessary before starting vocational and professional
skills.

5. "Proposal for a Model Program of Science Teacher
Education in Vietnam,"1 which was concerned with the general
and professional education for prospective teachers who
assume the task of modern science teaching in Vietnamese

secondary schools.

Scope of the Study

The development of a biology teacher training program

raises the following questions:

1. What are the content objectives of biology teach—
ing in Vietnamese secondary schools?

2. How well are the present teaching practices and
the teacher training programs in biology meeting
the current objectives of biology teaching in
Vietnamese secondary schools? What changes are
needed?

3. In light of the local natural resources, geo-
graphical location, and socio-economic struc-
ture, what types of biological concepts should
be developed in the training program for secon—
dary school biology teachers in the Mekong Delta

region?

 

lPhan My Linh, "Proposal for a Model Program of
Science Teacher Education in Vietnam" (unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, Michigan State University, 1971).

4. What do modern trends in international biology
education suggest for the teacher training
program?

5. Finally, what criteria have been developed in
previous studies to evaluate training programs

for prospective biology teachers?

Procedures and Sources of Data

Because of the insecurity of a war-time country and
the unstable and expensive mail service to Vietnam, this
study is entirely descriptive in nature and is basically
documentary research, which was conducted through the use
of the following sources:

In Vietnam:

- At the Ministry of Education: school programs,
syllabi, textbooks, research publications, and census and
statistical information.

- At Cantho University: The University Handbook
and the University magazine, Dat Nhan.

- At the National Geography Institute: geographi-
cal data.

In Southeast Asia:

Reports of the Asian Association for Biology Educa-
tnx1(AABE) and of the South East Asia Ministers of Educa-
tion Organization (SEAMEO) regarding the regional efforts

to improve school biology and the training of teachers.

In the United States:

- Research studies and reports published by the United
States Agency for International Development (AID), Mission to
Vietnam, Saigon.

- Publications of the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

- Publications of the Food and Agricultural Organi-
zation (FAO).

- Publications of the Educational Research Informa-
tion Center (ERIC).

- Finally, biology textbooks, materials, pamphlets,
reports of regional and national conferences, and related

literature pertaining to the research topic.

Limitations of the Study

The pre-service teaching training program assumes
two major components: academic requirements and profes-
sional education.

It is not within the scope of this study to deal with
professional education, which is the tOpic of the My Linh
study previously cited. Nevertheless, a methods course of
teaching a specific field, in this case biology, is suggested
as a result of the effective teaching and learning of modern
biology.

In terms of the geographical area, this study is

basically designed for the Mekong Delta region in regard to

10

the emphasis given to a training program which is locally

significant in that particular region.

Definition of Terms

 

To convey connotations used throughout this study,
several terms are defined as follows:

Mekong Delta region——A portion of the Delta lying

 

within Vietnam and considered to comprise sixteen southern
provinces or roughly the area lying south of West Vam Co
River.l Its soil, regularly enriched by the Mekong alluv-
ium, is drained by the Mekong River. The attached map
illustrates the description and boundaries of its enclosed
provinces (see Figure 1).

Secondary school—-Any institution in which the

 

program of instruction is from grade 6 to grade 12.

Secondary school teachers—~Those who teach in

 

secondary schools (grade 6 to grade 12).

Overview
In Chapter II, the origin of the school biology
program and current practice in light of the objectives of
secondary school biology teaching are discussed. Likewise,
teacher training programs are explored, with special ref-

erence to the biology training programs at Cantho University.

 

1Republic of Vietnam, Mekong Delta Development Pro—
gram (New York: Development and Resources Corporation,
1969)! pp. l-ll.

11

THE MEKONG DELTA REGION
PROVINCES

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: Republic of Vietnam, Map of Vietnam
(Dalat: National Geography Institute, 1966).

 

Figure l.-—The Mekong Delta region provinces.

12

In Chapter III, a survey of the socio—economic
aspects and natural resources of the region is used to
determine emphases to be considered in developing the train—
ing program.

Chapter IV contains a review of trends in biologi—
cal education regarding content and methodology at both
schools and colleges in the United States, and their impli—
cations for Southeast Asia.

Taking into account the findings in Chapter III
and the current trends in biological education, in Chapter V
the prOposed program is formulated with regard to suggested
criteria of an effective training program in biology.

In Chapter VI, conclusions of the study and recom-
mendations for implementation of the proposed program based

on the findings of the preceding chapters are set forth.

CHAPTER II

THE STATUS OF BIOLOGY TEACHING AND THE

TRAINING OF BIOLOGY TEACHERS

Background

 

The possession of a transistor radio and the effi-
cacy of modern medicaments have already been experienced by
most people, even those in the smallest villages of Vietnam.
That simply indicates their familiarity with modern tech-
nology. People are becoming aware of technological advances,
but most are only vaguely conscious that science has some-
thing to do with all this. An understanding of the prin-
ciples and theories ofscience which underlie these devel-
Opments is basically communicated through the educational
institutions of the societies. These institutions, there-
fore, determine the degree of scientific literacy of the
citizenry. In Vietnam, the teaching of science subjects
is of fairly recent origin in the school system. It began
when the fundamentally Western-based division into grade
levels and the distribution of learning experiences in each
grade was imposed, near the end of the nineteenth century,
upon the traditional system of education.

Previously, education had been patterned after the
Confucian-dominated system, which was exclusively a literate
program based upon the idea that moral principles and

13

14

virtuesl shaped a person's mind. Classics and the ethical
principles of the ancient sages of China were regarded as
perfect and final;2 other contemporary worlds and their
various cultures, as well as other realms of knowledge,
were disregarded. Uniform programs and textbooks were used
by all, regardless of their age, abilities, and interests.3
However, it is worth noting that there were very few illit-
erates under this traditional system of education.4

A modern educational system came along with coloni-
zation, and was forced to replace the traditional one.
Education was regarded as an effective tool to exploit the
natural resources of the colony, but neither to open the
minds of its peOple to a new world nor to convey notable
concepts of science. As a matter of fact, any educational
effort was confined to that which allowed better communica-
tion between the natives and the French. This policy pro—
duced an extremely high rate of illiteracy among the popu-
lation.

Massive efforts during recent decades have been

made to meet the rapid rise in school enrollments. The

 

lPike N. Edgar, "Public and Private Education in
Vietnam," Asian Culture, II, 2 (June, 1960), 80.

 

2Vu Tam Ich, "A Historical Survey of Educational
Deve10pment in Vietnam," Bulletin of the Bureau of School
Service, XXXII, 2 (December, 1959 , 28.

3For programs and textbooks under the traditional
education system, see Vu Tam Ich, Ibid., pp. 33-36.

 

4Pierre Pasquier, L'Annam d'Autrefois' (Paris:
Societe d'Editions Geographiques, 1930), p. 166.

 

15

demand for more available schooling is at a critical level.
In spite of this, we must not take only a quantitative view,
but also consider the quality of teaching and learning.

Both should progress concurrently for any desirable solu-
tion to the problem of the develOpment of an educational
system.

The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the present
status of biology teaching in the secondary schools and the
training of biology teachers for secondary education. An
attempt is made to determine the strengths and weaknesses
of the situation, with major emphasis on the needs in the

training courses in biology.

Biolognyeaching in Vietnamese Secondary Schools
This section is intended to explore the developmental
background of biology teaching in Vietnamese secondary
schools. The section is subdivided into phases, based upon
decisive modifications in the educational system of the
country: Phase l--Biology teaching under French control
and Phase II--Biology in national education.

Phase I: Biology Teaching
Under French Control

 

 

After the successful conquest of South Vietnam
with superior armed forces in 1861, the French needed to
establish a colonial administrative system. They had
acquired, in South Vietnam, one of the world's richest

rice reservoirs, a country already well organized by the

16

Chinese,1 and headquarters for further military expeditions
toward the northern regions. The first occupation trOOps
were faced with an immediate lack of understanding. The
country and its peOple were unfamiliar with white men and
the French language, just as the French were unacquainted
with the Vietnamese. Though it is obvious that the expan-
sion of Western education was not the primary ambition of
the invaders, education became a vital concern and the sole
instrument capable of resolving the communication problem.
A College of Interpreters was Opened immediately in 1861.2
The first public education system was soon initiated and
science subjects were taught to convey the basic rules of
hygiene.3 Naturally, French was the medium of instruction:
therefore, some schools were opened in 1869 to teach Viet-
namese adults the rudiments of French.4 The following state-
ment expresses the educational policy of the French at the
beginning:
Most authorities agreed that education in Indo-
china was diffuse and anarchic concentrating on pro-

viding native auxiliaries to the administration with
some notion of French.5

 

lThompson, Op. cit., p. 61.

2Joane Marie Coyle, "Indochinese Administration and
Education: French Policy and Practice" (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Fletcher School Of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts
University, 1963), p. 47.

3Thompson, Op. cit., p. 300.

4Coyle, Op. cit., p. 47.

51bid., p. 53.

17

Such an educational goal was not likely to be popu—
lar with the Vietnamese, so it was rarely admitted. The
high drop-out rate at the primary level and political unrest
were given as reasons for not providing a secondary educa—
tion for the natives.1 Of course, if they knew their French
and little else they could be more easily controlled. In
the orders given to the new Governor General Klobukowsky,2
France stressed "the need for more primary and professional
instruction and pointed definitely away from secondary edu—
cation On the ground that Vietnamese were not prepared for
it."3

Public secondary education for the natives was non-
existent at that time; however, to serve the French popula—
tion the first high school or more exactly the junior high
school--the College Indigene--was established in 1875.4
Designed primarily for French children, its curricula were
identical to the metropole schools in France. Beseiged by
ambitious students, the college was eventually opened to a
few natives.

It was not until 1906 that the first important modi-

fication in curriculum took place. The Council of the Local

 

1Ibid., p. 64.

2Governor General from September, 1908 to January,
1910, according to Joseph Buttinger, The Small Dragon
(New York: Frederic A. Praeger, 1958), p. 428.

 

3Thompson, Op. cit., p. 290.

4Edgar, Op. cit., p. 84.

18

Committee of Perfection of Native Education attempted to
review the curricula, set standards, and make recommenda-
tions. This Council agreed to add Western science to the
curricula1 because the natives were loudly demanding it
after the Japanese victory over the Russians in 1905.
Finally, the first secondary education for the natives was
created in 1912 with the junior level (Enseignement Comple—
mentaire Franco—Indigene) and in 1917, the senior high
(Enseignement Secondaire Locale) was established.2 Hence,

a coherent system Of modern education for the natives was
not fully instituted until 1918. After that, a parallel
education system of French education (for French children

in priority) and Franco—Vietnamese education (exclusively
for the natives) was operated concurrently. The latter paid
scant attention to the traditional Vietnamese culture, so it
was almost like the former in its curriculum.3 The Arretes

du 26 December 1924 promulgated the first universal program

 

Of secondary education for the natives (Tables 1 and 2).
It was comprised of two levels: the junior level of four

years (Enseignement Primaire Superieure Franco-Indigene)

 

lLe Thuoc, "L‘Enseignement des Characteres Chinois,"
Revue Indochinois, July-August, 1921, p. 109. See also

Thompson, Op. cit., p. 288.

 

2August Rivoalen, "L'Oeuvre Francaise d'Enseignement
au Vietnam," France Asie, XIII, 125-126-127 (1956), 405.

 

3Thompson, op. cit., p. 287.

19

Table 1.--Program Of study in junior high school of Franco—
Vietnamese system (per hour per week).

 

 

 

 

Boys Girls
Year Year
Subjects lst 2nd 3rd 4th lst 2nd 3rd 4th
French 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Morals 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
. l 1
History 2 2 1 l 15 15 1 l
l 1
Geography 1 1 2 2 l l I? 15
Vietnamese language 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
. l l 1 1
Mathematics 3 3 3 3 23 25 25 23
Geometric drawing 1 l l 1 O 0 0 0
. . l l
Phy51cs & chemistry 2 2 3 3 2 2 25 23
Natural sciences l l
and hygiene 2 2 l 1 15 15 1 1
A t 3 3 3 3 1-1- 1—1- 1-1- 1-1-
r S 2 2 2 2
Home economics 0 0 0 O 5 5 5 5
Physical education 2 2 2 2 l l l l
4 4 4 4

 

Source: Gouvernement General de l'Indochine, Direction de
l'Instruction Publique, Arretes du 26 December
1924 (Hanoi: Imprimerie d'Extreme Orient, 1924),
p. 4.

 

20

Table 2.--Program of study in senior high school of Franco-
Vietnamese system (per hour per week).

 

 

Subjects lst Year 2nd Year
French 7 6
Philosophy 2 3
History and geography 3 3
Mathematics 4 4
Geometric drawing 1—1/2 1-1/2
Physics and chemistry 4 4
Laboratory 1 1
Natural sciences 2 2
Chinese 1 1
Arts 1-1/2 1-1/2
Physical education 2 2

 

Source: Gouvernement General de l'Indochine, Direction de
l'Instruction Publique, Arretes du 26 December
1924 (Hanoi: Imprimerie d'Extreme Orient, 1924),
p. 52.

 

21

and the senior level of two years (Enseignement Secondaire
Franco—Indigene).l

Western science teaching was making its way into the
curriculum of the Franco-Vietnamese system and such subjects
as mathematics, physics, chimistry, and natural sciences
were included in response to the natives‘ demand for modern
science courses and the demand of powerful investments for
trained manpower in agriculture, industry, and commerce in
the colony.2 As a matter of fact, both scientific and
economic aspects were in evidence in the biology teaching
program. According to the instructional directions, biology
teaching had a practical purpose which concentrated on
acquainting the natives not only with plants and animals
found in their environment, but also with those of benefi—
cial and detrimental values. This economic aspect of biology
teaching in secondary schools Of the Franco-Vietnamese sys—
tem likely reflected the actual status of biology teaching
in Western countries,3 and was largely in harmony with the

colonial policy of the French in Indochina. Thus, if one

 

lGouvernement General de l‘Indochine, Direction de
l'Instruction Publique, Arretes du 26 December 1924 (Hanoi:
Imprimerie d'Extreme Orient, 1924), p. 4.

2"Enseignement Superieur Secondaire," Asie Francaiser
January-April, 1918, p. 29.

3O. W. Richards, "The Present Content of Biology in
Secondary Schools," School Review, XXXI (February, 1923),
43-36: Charles William Finley, Biology in Secondary_Schools
and the Training of Biology Teachers (New York: Teachers
College, Columbia University, 1926), pp. 1—16.

 

 

 

22

speaks in terms of the progress of biology teaching in
relation to the Western countries, the implemented goals
were not much out of step.

The content at the junior level included classifica-
tion and physiology as the main topics. Emphasis was given
to classification Of the animal and plant worlds on the
basis of their external characteristics. Local representa—
tions of animals and plants of economic importance were
mentioned. Few notions Of agriculture were given considera-
tion, even though Vietnam had an agriculture-dependent
economy. The description of anatomical structures of organs
and of functions was given in order to understand simple
mechanical movements and physiological phenomena in the
human body. Some widespread contagious diseases were given
attention also.

Biology teaching at the senior level resumed the
teaching of anatomy and physiology of plants and animals,
and included more details at the descriptive level. Again,
some applications for agriculture were included. Study of
the evolution of living things and of microbes and their
importance in industry and agriculture and as the causative
agents of infectious diseases were additions worth mention—
ing.l Instructional materials were scarce, and consisted
almost exclusively of a few biology texts written in French,

since French was the only foreign language understood.2

 

lArretes du 26 December 1924, op. cit., pp. 38-42,

 

78-82.
zThompson, Op. cit., p. 284.

23

The teaching methodology was primarily based on
observation techniques. Equipment was no doubt very limited
and scarce. The practice of dissecting and making careful
drawings was carried out as the means of observation and
illustration of whatever was published in the reading
texts.

Learning experiences were evenly spread in inter—
disciplinary sequences with other science subjects such as
mathematics, chemistry, and physics in each grade throughout
secondary schooling. Such an arrangement, if well-organized,
can greatly benefit the mutual understanding of the various
disciplines. Physics and chemistry, for example, can help
one understand the physiological phenomena. Mathematics
can contribute to an understanding of parametric measures
in biology. Poorly organized, this scheme merely lengthens
and splits the biology course into separate pieces of
knowledge. In such a situation, the nature Of biology
teaching can become largely dependent on the rote learning
of numerous structural terms and latinized names, with lit—
tle emphasis on the related science subjects.

In summary, the Vietnamese adopted the biology
teaching pattern of Western countries at that time. The
first biology programs for the secondary schools in Vietnam
were descriptive and taxonomic. Finley described the teach—
ing methods Of the day as “. . . memorization to be held as

a direct outcome of the systematic study of the subject

24

and the careful laboratory work with its attendant notes
and drawing."1

Legally laid down in 1924, these programs of study
remained functional until 1945, without any significant
modifications.

Phase II—-Biology Teaching
in National Education

 

 

The beginning of this period was marked by an impor-
tant change in the political setting, which was the first
achievement of independence.2 A very important modification
in education was carried out in the 1945 educational reform.
At that time, the Vietnamese language was substituted for
French at all levels Of the elementary and secondary schools.3
That action, more than any other, signified the beginnings of
a national education program.

Educational reform was effected earlier in the north
and central parts Of Vietnam.4 It was not until 1949 that
several governmental decrees proclaimed the organization of
the national education program as well as the curricula of
secondary education and all regions actually changed.5 Edu-

cation Objectives were first defined on the basis of three

 

lFinley, Op. cit., p. 4.

2For more details, see Vu Tam Ich, op. cit., Chapter X.

31bid., p. 103.

4UNESCO, World Surveyiof Education, Vol. III: Secon—
dary Education (New York: UNESCO Publications Center, 1961),
p. 1454.

 

 

51bid.

25

principles: Dan-toc, Khoa-hoc, Dai—chung (national, scien-
tific, popular),l emphasizing science and mathematics.
However, no revolutionary change was actually made in the
classroom, since the school system and the program of
studies were still basically patterned after the French.2

It was not until later, in 1953,3 that a reorgani—
zation of the structure and goals of secondary education
was undertaken. The new structure was designed around two
cycles. The first cycle, of four years' duration, was
planned to provide essential knowledge for those whose school—
ing would be terminal. The second cycle, of three years'
duration, was designed to provide specialized education4
and serve as a preparatory stage for college-bound students.
The educational objectives of the system twice were suc-
cessively redefined, in which processes the third principle
was changed from "popular" to "humanistic." The existing
educational Objectives endorsed by the Constitution consist

of three principles: Nhan-loai, Dan-toc, Khoa-hoc (human-

istic, national, scientific).

 

lDuong Thieu Tong, "A Proposal for the Comprehensive
Secondary School Curriculum in Vietnam" (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1968),
p. 32.

2Vu Tam Ich, Op. cit., p. 103.

3World Survey of Education, op. cit., p. 1454.

4D. C. Lavergne and Abul H. K. Sassani, Edugation in
yietnam_(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Edu-
cation and Welfare, Office of Education, Division of Inter-
national Education, 1955), P. 11.

 

26

Recently, a movement took place to realign the edu—
cational structure throughout the grades. Secondary educa-
tion was changed in form from a 6—12 plan, but its goals
remain the same as those stated in 1953. It still provides
general education in grades six through nine and a special—
ized education in grades ten through twelve.

Changes in educational organization and/or structure
have brought about a revision in the curriculum. Conse—
quently, secondary school biology has undergone two major
reforms--in 1964 and 1970. Attempts have been made to update
the curriculum in the face Of the explosion of scientific
knowledge, and to implement a laboratory program in biology
in the secondary schools, since the "natural sciences are
experimental sciences founded on Observation and practical
experiments."1

The Syllabus of 1970 indicates that the objectives
and the content Of biology for secondary education are as
follows:

The general Objectives are

- to provide essential knowledge of the living world,

- to Observe and to think scientifically, and

- to encourage the application of learning experi-

ences into routine living.
Teaching methodology should move

- to delete the memorization methods,

 

1Republic Of Vietnam, Ministry of Education, Secon—
dary Education Curriculum, 1966, p. 64.

 

27

~ to illustrate lectures with charts, models, or
experiments,

- to stimulate the students' participation in dis—
cussions and to maximize practice of laboratory
work, and

- to require teachers to up-date instruction with
scientific discoveries.

The program of study for the first two grades con—
centrates on the diversity of plants and animals in regard
to their habitats and living habits.

In the ninth grade, emphasis is given to a study of
the structures and functions of different organs in the human
body, along with hygiene. Early specialization takes place
at the senior high level, and a student chooses to major
either in natural sciences, mathematics, or literature. The
biology program provides a continuation of the study of
plants (with such topics as anatomy, nutrition, reproduction,
plants and environment, and Pasteur's work) and of animals
(with special consideration of anatomy and physiology,
reproduction, and heredity). This material is the core of
the eleventh and twelfth grade program for the natural
sciences major, and the two other majors are given summary
notions on fewer tOpics.1 Compared to the original Franco-
Vietnamese program, there have been remarkable changes in

the stated Objectives and recommended methodology. Content

 

1For more details, see Republic of Vietnam, Ministry
of Education, Secondary Education Curriculum, 1970, pp. 140-

163.

28

reform has been executed by eliminating some Obsolete prin-
ciples and by adding more advanced ideas to the program.

For example, in the Syllabus of 1970, information on DNA

and RNA is introduced in grade twelve; the topic "Plants and
Their Environment," which had been treated as an advanced
course in the undergraduate program is now partially imple-
mented in grade eleven. An analysis of the instructional
texts in use reveals that they primarily follow the old
curriculum and contain all the shortcomings associated with
a traditional biology course. For example:

1. Biology is presented as a body of knowledge, veri—
fied and certain, and as a list of isolated facts and basic
principles, without reference to the development of the
discipline nor to the state of the field.

2. The process of science and its human attributes are
neglected, both of which are the characteristic features of
scientific enterprise. Emphasis is upon describing what is
known rather than how it is known, and upon answering ques-
tions rather than deciding what questions should be asked.

3. Too many topics are covered, and consequently, no
tOpics are developed in depth.

4. Tissues and organs are the only two levels of
organization emphasized.

5. Descriptive material is the dominant content of the
course. A close look at the program of instruction in
grades six and seven, for example, reveals that it is largely

confined to a classification of multicellular plants and

29

animals, based on a description of morphology and struc-
tural anatomy which undoubtedly has little practical applica-
tion in routine living. A tendency to emphasize anatomy is
also found elsewhere in the program.

6. Efforts are apparent in the texts to change the
lecture-dominated teaching style by encouraging laboratory
practice and field work. Laboratory practice consists of
exercises for developing manipulatory skills and Obtaining
a right answer when all the directions are followed.

The authoritarian teaching style does predominate
in biology. The structure of the course content and the
laboratory approach do not encourage the development of
scientific thinking skills as an outcome of biology teach-
ing. The laboratory program is simply regarded as a means
Of lecture control. In summary, then, though the secondary
syllabus shows steady progress, there is little evidence of

real change in the classrooms or texts.

The Training of Biology Teachers

 

In this section, an attempt is made to present and
analyze the developmental background of the teacher training
programs:h1biology for secondary schools in Vietnam, with
special reference to the training program at Cantho Univer-
sity. The program is viewed in the light of the currently
stated Objectives Of biology teaching for Vietnamese secon-
dary schools and the needs of manpower training for the

Mekong Delta region.

30

The Original Training
Program in Science

 

 

Biology was introduced as a secondary school (6-12)
subject much earlier than a teacher education program at
that level. The preparation of teachers to teach biology
was started with the first higher education institution, the
University Of Hanoi, in 1907; however, this program was only
for the junior high level. Nineteen school teachers1 were
prepared by the end of the first year, when the University
was closed due tO political unrest. The University was
allowed to resume its activities in 1917, after a ten—year
suspension.2 The Higher School of Pedagogy (Ecole Superieur
de Pedagogy) continued the preparation programs. Overall
goals, admission criteria, and the program of studies were
reconsidered in an arrete issued in 1918.3

There were only two sections of study: one section
of literature and one of science. The admission require-
ments were junior high graduation, and the duration of
training was three years. A discussion Of the program of

training in science (Table 3) and the training courses in

biology follows.

 

lCoyle, Op. cit., p. 56.

2Albert Sarraut, "L'Indochine en 1917," Revue Indo-
chinois, XXVIII, 11-12 (November-December, 1917), 325.

 

3General Gouvernement de l'Indochine, Reglement
General de l'Enseignement Superieur, Arrete du 25 Decembre,
1918 (Hanoi-Haiphong: Imprimerie d'Extreme Orient, 1919),
pp. 73-76.

 

31

Table 3.--Program of training in science (per hour per week).

 

 

 

 

 

Years
Subjects lst 2nd 3rd

Academic requirements:

French 2 2 2
Mathematics 3 3 2
Physics 2 2 2
Chemistry 2 2 2
Natural history 2 l 1
Concepts Of agriculture 1 l 1
Drawing 2 2 2
Hygiene 1 l 1
Professional requirements:l

Psychology and morale

Pedagogy 3 3 3

 

1It was also noted that the students' presentations
in class, the methods of teaching, the instructional media,
and practice teaching were required during the third year.

Source: General Gouvernement de l'Indochine, Reglement
General de l'Enseignement Superieur, Arrete du 25
Decembre, 1918 (Hanoi-Haiphong: Imprimerie d'Extreme
Orient, 1919), PP. 73-76.

 

 

The training courses in biology:

First year: In—depth instruction on subjects taught in
the junior high grades.

Second year: Laboratory practice in botany and botany
field trips; preparation of plant collections. Students'
presentation on subjects taught at the first two years of
junior level.

Third year: Laboratory practice in zoology. Students'

presentation on subjects taught in ninth grade.

32

In addition, the concepts of agricultural economics
were also included to teach agricultural practices. It is
interesting to outline the major topics included in the
agriculture curriculum:

First year: General agriculture, considering concepts
necessary for and related to cultivation (soil, fertiliza—
tion, drainage, crOps, conservation of products, agricultural
economics, etc.).

Second year: Special agriculture—-special crops in the
colony, cultivation techniques, and agricultural industry.

Third year: Students' presentation of topics related to
the previous instruction with the teachers' guidance.

There was no statement of objectives for the train-
ing program. Instead, it was understood that a "teacher was
prepared to teach the curriculum" which made up the frame—
work of training courses. As a matter of fact, the training
program was an extension of biology teaching in junior high
school, being taught in more detail both in its content and
its methodology. Goals were stated as:

1. To understand beneficial and detrimental plants and
animals found in the living environment, and

2. TO develop observation skills.

Success in training qualified the prospective teach-
ers, with no discrimination as to teaching assignment, to

instruct any science subjects at the junior high level.

33

Modification in terms of admission standards was
made in 1930;1 from then on, high school graduation was an
admission requirement. The preparation of science teachers
at the senior high level was untouched, and principally
entrusted to the French teaching staff. At the onset of
the national education movement, those with bachelors
degrees in Natural Sciences from the Faculty of Science
were invited to fill senior high teaching positions. The
Higher School Of Pedagogy continued its procedure through-
out the period Of French control.2 Because of political
events, the institution of Pedagogy moved to Saigon in 1954,
and resumed its training for junior high schools.

A Complete Secondagy
Training in Biology

 

 

The year 1957 marked a turning point for higher
learning in Vietnam. The Higher School of Pedagogy changed
its status to the Faculty of Pedagogy attached to the Uni-
versity Of Saigon, and in 1959 adopted a three-year program
of specialization in the fields covered in the senior high

school curriculum.3 The length of the training period and

 

lCoyle, op. cit., p. 80.

21bid., pp. 82-83.

3Hattie Jarmonm, Ellsworth Gerritz, and William S.
Pattrick, Republic of Vietnam: A Study of the System of
Higher Education and Guide to the Admission and Academic
Placement of Vietnamese Studenps in Colleges and Universi-
ties in the U.S.A. (AACRAO, 1970), p. 44.

 

34

the admission requirements were subjected to change prior
to 1965.1 Actually, the training in biology for secondary
schools (grades six through twelve) has only been under—
taken at the Faculty of Pedagogy Of Saigon with three types
of programs: (1) the accelerated and (2) the regular pro—
grams of two years for training junior high school teachers,
and (3) the regular four-year program to train senior high
school teachers.2 The training in biology for senior high
teachers has also been provided by the Faculty of Pedagogy
of Hue and for the junior high by the Faculty of Pedagogy
of Cantho.

In general, having grown out of the original pattern
of training teachers capable of teaching various science
subjects, the actual preparation programs consist of special-
ized training in a single subject or a combination of sub—
jects such as in mathematics or in natural sciences (a com-
bination of biology and geology) for both junior and senior
high schools. Admission standards and academic and profes—
sional requirements are identical in accordance with the
training level at the three training centers in Saigon, Hue,
and Cantho.

It should be noted that beginning in 1960, private
universities (where students pay their own tuition) started

to grow. In 1971, a private university was opened in the

 

lIbid., p. 45.

2Phan My Linh, Op. cit., p. 56.

35

Mekong Delta. Currently, there are nine universities in
operation, including three public universities (where
tuition is nominal). A wide range Of subjects is Offered
to satisfy different interests. Nevertheless, teacher
training has not been taught at the private universities to
date. The reason for this might be because of difficulty
in getting jobs and low teachers' salaries. Therefore, the
teacher training program is exclusively executed by three
state-financed universities.

Case Study of Biology
Training in the Mekong Delta

 

§g§l§.-—Attached to the University of Cantho, the
first higher education institution in the Mekong Delta
region Opened in 1966. The Faculty of Pedagogy immediately
started programs to train teachers to instruct different
subjects covered in the junior high curriculum, because Of
a serious shortage of teachers in the region. Graduates of
the training centers of Saigon and Hue usually refuse appoint—
ments to cities in the Mekong Delta, due to poor transporta-
tion, lack Of accommodations, and insecurity.

Table 4 gives the actual numbers of qualified and
unqualified biology teachers in each province of the Mekong
Delta.1 Since the Opening Of the University of Cantho,

secondary school enrollments have steadily increased in

 

lQualified teachers are those who sucessfully
passed the training program at their training centers. The
unqualified are those who have not received such training.

36

each province of the region (Table 5), which simply indicates

larger demand in preparation.

Table 4.--Number of high school teachers teaching biology in
the Mekong Delta region.

 

 

 

 

Qualified Teachers Unqualified Teachers
Junior Senior Junior Senior

Province High High Total High High Total

1 An Giang 6 9 15 l 0 l
2 An Xuyen 0 0 0 3 0 3
3 Ba Xuyen 0 4 4 0 0 O
4 Bac Lieu 2 2 4 2 0 2
5 Chan Doc 5 3 8 3 0 3
6 Chuong Thien 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 Dinh Tuong 8 16 24 8 0 8
8 GO Cong 2 4 6 l 0 l
9 Kien Giang 2 5 7 3 0 3
10 Kien Hoa 8 6 l4 6 O 6
ll Kien Phong 2 3 5 1 0 1
12 Kien Tuong 0 2 2 1 0 l
13 Phong Dinh l 9 10 3 0 3
14 Sa Dec 8 4. 12 5 0 S
15 Vinh Binh l l 2 2 0 2
16 Vinh Long 6 4 _19 6 0 _6
Total 123 45

 

Source: Republic of Vietnam, Ministry of Education, List
of Employees and High School Teachers of Provinces
in the Mekong Delta Region, Directorate of Exami-
nation, March, 1972 (in press).

 

 

General admission and requirements.--Prospective

 

teachers are selected on the basis of high school graduation
and successfully passing a competitive entrance examination.
The training period is for two years. The number of stu-
dents to be admitted annually depends on the budget, and

has varied from twenty-five to forty for each training

subject. Faced with the increasing school enrollments in

37

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38

the Mekong Delta region, the Faculty last year adopted an
accelerated training program. This program is similar to
the regular program in terms of admission requirements
described above and also in its academic requirements

given in Table 6, unless the prospective teachers are fully
exposed to the practicing schools after their first train-
ing period of eight months.1 On the average, the Faculty
graduates about thirty-five to forty-five junior high school
biology teachers each year, who will be appointed to high
schools located in the Mekong Delta region. Selection of a
school location is determined by the students' achievement
during the final year.

Training courses in biology.——Six training courses

 

in biology are part of the training program of junior high
school teachers in natural sciences, including the methods
course for teaching this subject. They are:

1. Zoology for secondary school and laboratory

2. Botany for secondary school and laboratory

3. Introductory animal biology and laboratory

4. Fundamentals Of botany and laboratory

5. Animal physiology

6. Methods of teaching natural sciences

 

1University of Cantho, "Some Features Of the Faculty
of Pedagogy," Dat-Nhan (Attained Man), II, 1 (January-
February, 1972), 2.

39

Table 6.--Program of training in natural sciences.

 

Course Titles Hours/Week Credits

 

Freshman Year

 

Introductory Animal Biology 2
Introductory Animal Biology Lab. 3
Fundamentals of Botany 2
Fundamentals of Botany Lab. . 3
Fundamentals of Physics 2
Fundamentals of Physics Lab. 2
Fundamentals of Chemistry: General
and Inorganic Chemistry
Fundamentals of Chemistry: Organic
Chemistry
Fundamentals of Chemistry Lab.
Fundamentals of Mathematics
Introductory Geology
Introductory Geology Lab.
Foreign Language
Electives:
History of Science, or
Sociology

[.4
H kamranawro

I-‘OJNI—‘Nl-J

mheba rakawrakaw

”I
ores:

Sophomore Year

 

Educational Psychology
General Education
School Administration
Science Education
History and PhilOSOphy of Science
Methods of Teaching Natural Sciences
Practice Teaching of Physical Sciences
Practice Teaching of Natural Sciences
Zoology for Secondary School
Zoology for Secondary School Lab.
Botany for Secondary School
Botany for Secondary School Lab.
Animal Physiology
General Geology
General Geology Lab.
Electives:

Animal Physiology 2, or

Chemistry for Secondary School

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ll\
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Raw
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N

‘F‘H FJNBOFHHFJN

N
7JHFH
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N
N
k)
I
i—J
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R9

 

Source: Official data.

40

The first two courses are the revision of materials
given in junior high school. The next three courses,
selected from among the academic requirements of the natu-
ral sciences majors, constitute the fundamental courses of

the training program and consist of the topics listed below.1

Description of the training courses:
Introductory Animal Biology
Part I: Cytology: -Methods of Observing cell
—Structure of cytOplasm constituents
-Nuc1eus and chromosomes 3
-Cell division
Developmental Stages of Animals:
-Spermatogenesis
-Parthenogenesis
-Experimental embryology
-Embryonic foldings
-Formation of different tissues
Part II: Heredity:-Discoveries of Mendel. Laws of
Mendel on heredity
-Chromosomic theories in heredity
-Linkage and crossing-over. Map of
chromosomes.
—Sex determination. Sex—linked
characteristics
-Mutation

~Heredity in man

 

1University of Cantho, Handbook of the Faculty of
Sciences, 1971-1972, Op. cit., pp. 16-17, 19, 27.

 

41

Classification:

-Genera1 classification of animal

phylum

-Summary notions of animal division

from protists to vertebrates

Morphology:

-Comparative study of vertebrates

Laboratory: Observe external and internal structures of
fish, frog, reptile, bird, rodent, cock-

roach, grasshopper, lobster, crab, and snail

Fundamentals of Botagy

 

Part I: -General characteristics of plants
—Plant cell (characteristics, anatomy, structure)
—Plant tissue (types, structure, function)
-Organs of functions: root, stem, leaves
Part II:-Sexua1 reproduction of angiosperms: flower,
fruit, seeds (its biology, morphology, growth)
—Reproduction Of gymnosperms, of ferns, and of
thallophytes. Life cycle of these groups
—Vegetative reproduction
—Taxonomy of angiosperms
Laboratory:
-Manipulation of microscope and binoculars
—Observation Of different structures of cells
and tissues

-Study of organs: stem, root, leaf, stamins,

42

ovary and floral analysis of monocotyledons
and dicotyledons
~Biology of fruit, seeds, germination

—Field trips for making plant collection

Animal Physiology

 

-Function of nutrition

-Digestion, circulation, excretion, respiration
and its physiology

-Blood coagulation

—Suffocation. Sweat excretion. Bile secretion

Analysis of the description Of these courses with reference
to the biology curriculum in junior high school indicates
that selection is made primarily with the intention of
providing breadth and depth for prospective teachers in
their training subjects (Part II of Introductory Animal
Biology, Part II of Fundamentals of Botany and Animal
Physiology). However, a duplication of lectures on the
fundamental or basic principles and concepts within the
first two courses cannot be avoided. The fundamental
courses provide basic biology instruction; however, they
fail to provide a scientific literacy to prospective teach-
ers, as the current status of biology is more advanced. On
the other hand, despite courses and accompanying laboratory
work which are designed for biology majors, the laboratory
work is basically illustrative and concentrates on develop-

ing Observation skills and on developing manipulatory skills

43

by practice of dissecting. As a matter of fact, different
components Of the process of science are not even fully
conveyed.

Teachers teach what they have been taught. Indeed,
biology teaching in secondary schools is conducted in the
same manner in which it has been taught at college. There—
fore, the methods of teaching natural sciences need to be
reoriented to enable the prospective teacher, whose knowl—
edge does not extend beyond his notes and who is unprepared,
to find references for information and to show him how to
get help. To become acquainted with various teaching
approaches, instructional materials, and equipment to carry
out the stated goals Of biology teaching in secondary
schools, these teachers will need assistance.

Although the goals Of Cantho University were explicitly
stated as to develop the Mekong Delta region and to serve
its people, the curriculum training does not reflect any
needs of the region, but rather a duplication of the train-
ing pattern from other training centers.

In short, the syllabus of secondary schools is
calling for innovations in its stated objectives and method-
ology Of biology teaching. Evidence Of change is minimal
and somewhat superficial, since the training program does
not provide the groundwork for change: the provision of
scientific literacy appears to be insufficient and inade-

quate. The process Of science is not likely to be fully

44

understood from the courses given, because it is not incor-

porated into them.

Summary of the Chapter

 

In this chapter, an attempt has been made to out-
line the evolution of biology education in the Vietnamese
schools through a presentation of the components of (l) biol-
ogy teaching in Vietnamese secondary schools and (2) the
training of biology teachers. Special reference is made
to the program for training biology teachers for secondary
schools, which is conducted at Cantho University, the first
higher education institution to assume a responsibility for
serving its local communities. The existing training pat—
tern has not achieved its goal, since it lacks both "local"
characteristics and a "modern" training program to enable
its prospective teachers to manage the innovative Objec-
tives that the syllabus has called for, in order to bring
real evidence of change into the classrooms. An effort is
made in the following chapters to investigate the prominent
features of the Mekong Delta region, which must be inter-
preted in a relevant training program. Also, a more effec-

tive approach for a modern training program is developed.

CHAPTER III

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS AND NATURAL RESOURCES

OF THE REGION

Introduction

 

It is apparent that socio-economic factors in any
country are likely to affect its people's welfare the most.
Thus, to construct a training program which has a practical
application to a community, the selection of a structure
for the training program upon which the major courses are
to be built should be derived from the socio—economic
structure of the community.

In this chapter, an attempt is made to identify
economic characteristics as well as significant social prob-
lems facing the peOple in the Mekong Delta region. A basic
structure for the training program of prospective biology

teachers will be formulated from these findings.

Economic Features

 

Most developing countries have an agriculture-based
economy; Vietnam belongs in this category. Not only do
agricultural products establish the principle assets in the

exchange market with foreign countries,1 but the majority

 

lThai van Kiem, Vietnam Past and Present (Saigon:
Ministry Of Education, 1957), p. 199.

45

46

Of them are also available for domestic consumption. Rice
is the leading crop (Table 7), and it has been the primary
export product in previous years, as Vietnam was one of the
most important rice—producing countries in Southeast Asia.1

Among the three regions—~the Central Highlands, the
Central Lowlands, and the Southern region—-divided for
administrative purposes, the largest amount of rice produc-
tion comes mainly from the Southern region (Table 8), in
which the Mekong Delta produces the most rice (Table 9).
Part of the production is sold for local consumption, while
the excess is distributed to other regions in the country.
The Mekong Delta region has long been justly regarded as
the "rice basket" of South Vietnam.

After rice cultivation, fisheries are second in
economic importance in the Mekong Delta region, including
both the inland and marine fisheries. The production Of
this region alone accounts for approximately 50 per cent of
the country's total production (Table 10). The inland
fishery is as important as the marine fishery (Table 11),
and both are still underexploited. The kinds of inland

fish are satisfactory for domestic consumption, whereas

the marine fish, especially the Polymenus sp., a kind of

 

sea fish exclusively exploited along the tip of Camau2 and

 

1James B. Hendry, The Study of a Vietnam Rural
Community: Economic Activity (East Lansing: Michigan State
University Vietnam Advisory Group, December, 1959), P. l.

 

2Republic of Vietnam, Agricultural Statistics Year-
book, 1970 (Saigon: Ministry of Land Reform, Agriculture,
Fishery and Animal Husbandry Development, October, 1971),
pp. 26-270

 

47

.o~-o~ .aa ..oooa .uonouoo .ucosaodm>oo
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"commumv coma .xoonuumw nufiumwuoum «cunuasuaum< .adcu0w> no Owanadox

.nocmcan mcwpsaoxm

 

 

a
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«mono peak
oeoa mood mood hood oooa opoa oooa oooa hood Good

 

Amcoa oHquzv newuospoum

 

Ammumuommv comm Omuu>uuwnu

 

.GOMDOOOOuQ Ocm noun Ouuo>uuanu

undone

«annuaaudum<nl.h manna

u ”Chaow

‘48

.oo .a ..oood .uofluuwuuum no
opossumcH Hmcofluez “possum. AH .Ho> .oooa xoonuoms Hausunauaum smcuofi> .eacuo«> mo ofiansmom "mousom

 

ooH.H ooo.a ~ ooo.mm a omm.oo N ooo.oo a ooo.oo mecmanmflm Hmuucoo
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ceamom cuocusom

 

 

 

 

moa.~ vaJ co." ooo.mma.m ooa 9.3.6:; ooa ooo.omv.~ co." coo.mmn.~ . 5:00.;
coma mood w chad a mmma a chad a mom."
m=NOHmww coHuosOOHm mend poun>fiuaso

 

.mmmum ucmummwflp can muucsoo maons may 0» uomdmou cw OOHH mo cofiuospoum can noun Ooum>wuasonn. Q manna

49

.qn .m .thaa .Hanmmoo.hwnm8doam>oo mumcmmmsm HdEms< can anonnwm .Ounuaaoaumd

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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mcoa Ofiuumz wmumuomm
Emcuow> cofimmm mocma3oq mvcmanmflm Emcuow> Omemm wccmasoq accmHnmam new»
cumnusom amuucou amuucoo cumnunom Hmuucwu Hmuucou
:OMDOOOOHA noun Omum>fluaau

 

.GOfimOH an umauammmHo noduoscoud can noun poun>wuaao

63.7-4 3.3.

50

Table 10.-—Tota1 fisheries catch classified by region (in
metric tons).

 

 

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969
Vietnam 205,384 357,519 398,200 403,000 458,844
Southern Region
Mekong Delta 104,334 165,152 155,000 158,479 184,346
Eastern Region 29,672 36,284 39,985 42,656 40,895
Central Lowlands 71,378 156,083 203,215 201,865 233,703

 

Source: Republic Of Vietnam, Vietnam Statistical Yearbook
1970, Vol. 17 (Saigon:

Statistics, 1970),

 

pp. 64-68.

National Institute of

Table lJ,--Total fisheries Catch in 1969 by categories (in
metric tons).

 

 

Cuttle
Marine Inland Shrimp Crab Fish
Vietnam 335,488 63,773 27,504 13,370 3,809
Southern Region .
Mekong Delta 61,530 56,798 17,853 10,045 9
Eastern Region 76,218 1,990 2,954 656 2,088
Central Lowlands 217,740 4,885 6,697 2,669 1,712

 

Source: Republic of Vietnam, Vietnam Statistical Yearbook
1970, Vol. 17 (Saigon:
Statistics, 1970), pp. 64-68.

National Institute of

51

a sizable quantity of frozen shrimp largely from the Mekong
Delta, continue to support the export balance of agricultural
products.

Significantly enough, the Mekong Delta region is
not only an important rice growing area but also a fishing
ground of great potential. Of utmost importance, rice is
the number one item in the Vietnamese diet. After rice,
fish is an indispensable element and the main source Of
animal protein. In fact, the Mekong Delta is actually the
principal source of the food supply in South Vietnam.

The two dominant economic activities and the related
activities of processing agricultural and fishery products
engage all of the Mekong Delta population, about six million
people or approximately one-third Of the population of South
Vietnam.1 Economically speaking, the living standard is
very low, characterized by a low per capita income of between
$90 and $150 per year.2 This is because agricultural and
fishery practices are basically primitive, although the
region possesses a significant potential supply of natural

resources in agriculture and fisheries.

 

1Republic of Vietnam, Vietnam Statistical Yearbook
1970, Vol. 17 (Saigon: National Institute of Statistics,
1970), pp. 380-381.

2Committee for the Coordination of Investigations
of the Lower Mekong Basin, Report on Indicative Basin Plan:
A PrOposed Framework for the Development of the Water and
Related Resougces of the Lower Mekong_Basin, E/CN.ll/WRD/
MKG/L.340, 1970, pp. 1-2.

 

52

The most significant resource is the Mekong River,
one of the longest and most powerful rivers in the world.
Rising in the perpetual snows of the Himalayan mountains in
China, the Mekong winds along the borders of Burma, Laos,
and Thailand, traversing central Cambodia where it divides
into two branches——the Mekong and Bassac. In South Vietnam,
the two rivers form a broad delta before emptying through
many mouths into the South China Sea below Saigon (see Fig-
ure 2). The Mekong annually floods and discharges its
overflow water, causing floods in large areas surrounding
the main stream and the Bassac and its tributaries. The
depth of water may rise to 2-3m,l or sometimes higher.

The flooding behavior of these rivers is beneficial
for the inland fisheries. In fact, it causes the enlargement
of the Great Lake in Cambodia, one of the most productive
bodies of water, which is connected with the Mekong by the
Tonle-Sap River. Fish follow the water into the rice fields
and numerous rivers and canals in the Delta when the Tonle-
Sap reverses its streams.2

The potential of marine fishing is also high, since
the region has a continuous, enclosed coastline facing the

Gulf Of Thailand to the west and the South China Sea to the

 

lIbid., pp. 14-60.

2Le van Dang, Present Situation and Possibilities
Of Postwar Development of Inland Fisheries in the Mekong
Delta, Joint Development Group, Working Paper No. 42
Saigon: November, 1968), pp. 5-20.

M—

53

THE MEKONG RIVER

 

 

 

 

 

 

."“‘-" " the mono nan REGON
: '5. . m m cm:
g .-. é ‘?
P.:... .
:’
E
O’.
'x-’
2.“...
mum i,
3
t
'6" 0...?
000....0Oo'°°¢. 0’ O 9 o
.... ._, . g
.' 1.
x mom ':
1 fig. é
:""'
{.0 c.
K ....‘o:0: .
worn-NAN) “m scum
\ CI-NA SEA

 

 

 

Source: Republic Of Vietnam, Map of Vietnam-
(Dalat: National Geography Institute, 1966).

Figure 2.--The Mekong River and the Mekong Delta
region rivers and canals.

54

south and the east (Figure 2). From 1959 to 1961, the Naga
Expedition conducted an experimental survey of "Ecology of
the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea" to investigate
the physical and biological factors contributing to the
development of marine fisheries, in response to the demands
made on the fisheries to provide protein in the face of
population increase.1 Brinton indicated in his report that
the coastal waters belonging to the Mekong region of South
Vietnam and bounding two special provinces of Kien-Giang
and An—xuyen yielded three to five times as much plankton
as the South China Sea.2 Of significant importance is a
positive correlation between the density of plankton and
the density of plankton-feeding fish pOpulation.3

On the other hand, compared to the Nile or the
Mississippi, the Mekong carries a relatively small quantity
of alluvium.4 Its sediments are deposited during the flood-
ing period in low—lying areas. The Mekong Delta region is

extremely flat, comprised of plains and lowlands under five

 

1Food Agriculture Organisation, Ecology of the Gulf
of Thailand and the South ChingrSea (La Jolla: Scripps
Institution of Oceanography, 1953).

 

2E. Brinton, "Zooplankton Abundance in the Gulf of
Thailand and the South China Sea," in Ecology of the Gulf
Of Thailand and the South China Sea (La Jolla: Scripps
Institution of Oceanography, 1963), p. 57.

3Tham Ah Kow, "The Role Of Planktonology in Fisheries
Development," in Symposium on Marine and Fresh Water Plankton
in the Indo-Pacifig (Bangkok: Indo—Pacific Fisheries Council,
January 25—26, 1954), p. 18.

 

 

4Thai cong Tung, Natural Environment and Land Use in
South Vietnam (Saigon: Ministry of Agriculture, Directorate
of Agriculture Research, October, 1967), p. 43.

 

55

meters above the sea level,1 except on the western end where
a few broken hills rise several hundred meters (Map 2).

Its soil has a recent origin as the result, in part, of rock
weathering of the substratum which is of basaltic—type sedi-
ment formed in the Quaternary Era,2 but, in larger part,
from the sedimentation of the detrital materials carried

by the rivers.

According to Thai cong Tung, there are four types Of
soils in the Mekong Delta region: alluvial soils, acid
soils, saline soils, and organic soils.3

The alluvial soils deposited along the river banks
are rich in nitrogen and potassium, but are poor in lime and
phosphorus;4 they are moderately productive. The saline
soils and the acid soils comprise most of the area,5 and
become highly productivecbnly after appropriate drainage.

In fact, the acid soils have been formed on brackish sedi-

ments containing iron sulfides, which are oxidized with the

 

1Joint Development Group, The Postwar Development
of the Republic of Vietnam: Policies and Programg, Vol. II
(Saigon: Postwar Planning Group, March, 1969), p. 507.

2The Engineer Agency for Resources Inventories and
the Tennessee Valley Authority, Atlas of Physical, Economic
and Social Resources of the Lower Mekong Basin (New York:
United Nations, September, 196BI: P. 18.

 

 

 

3Thai cong Tung, Op. cit., p. 43.

4F. R. Moorman, The Soils of the Republic of Vietnam
(Saigon: Ministry Of Agriculture, 1961), p. 3.

5Joint Development Group, op. cit., p. 511.

56

formation of sulfuric acid when the sediments dry out.1

The pH may drop even below three2 and the soils become
unproductive for crops. Fresh water drains the elements Of
acid to improve the acid soils. Therefore, hydrology becomes
the dominant factor affecting the exploitation of soils in
the Mekong Delta.

The Mekong is the significant water supply resource,

3 water

as each year an average of more than 475,000 million m
flows.3 In addition, the region is governed by the monsoon
winds, with the rainy season lasting for six months and the

4 In fact, there is

annual rainfall averaging about 1800mm.
more water than needed by crOps during the rainy season,
due to intensive precipitation and flood waters discharged
by the Mekong. What cannot be stored runs off the land.
During the dry season, however, the water becomes so short
in supply that most lands are left uncultivated. Since
farmers are unable to control the water, rice cultivation
yields a single crop each year.

The Mekong River, as a substantial natural resource

of the Mekong Delta region, is the subject of several com-

prehensive national and international projects5 aimed at

 

lMoorman, Op. cit., p. 3.

2Thai cong Tung, Op. cit., p. 44.
3Indicative Basin Plan, Op. cit., p. 1.
4Vietnam Statistical Yearbook 1970, op. cit.

5Embassy of Vietnam, "Vietnam Agriculture," Vietnam
Bulletin, XLIV (March, 1971). In addition to international
projects cited in the above references are the Engineer
Agency for Resources Inventories, the Joint Development
Group, and the Indicative Basin Plan.

57

realizing the full crop production potential of the Mekong
Delta in reSponse to increasing domestic and export require—
ments.

In any case, if resources such as water and land are
essential natural ingredients for regional development, it
is the human resources that constitute the active force of

any such development.

Social Concerns

 

The Mekong Delta region is comprised of sixteen
provinces, encompassing almost six million inhabitants. It
is the second most densely populated area in South Vietnam
(Table 12). Serving as a center of commerce, each province
capitol is usually crowded; in fact, some large provincial
cities may contain a pOpulation of 50,000 to 100,000.1 How-
ever, the larger part of the population, over 80 per cent,2
is scattered throughout the countryside in hamlets or vil—
lages.

A large system of rivers and canals connects with
the Mekong tributaries, running across the cities and the
countryside and providing sites for houses or hamlets that
are preferably grouped along the river banks. If water is

indispensable for maintaining life, then the water supply

for routine living in the Mekong Delta is a matter of real

 

1Report on Indicative Basin Plan, op. cit., pp. II—
8-9.

2Harvey Meyerson, Vinh Long (Boston: Houghton-
Mifflin, 1970), p. 3.

 

58

concern. In fact, even in large cities, a system of running
water is still limited and not considered safe for drinking
purposes. Entire hamlets and villages have no water system
at all. A few families collect rain water in large cisterns
or earthen jars for drinking, principally during the dry
season. The majority, when running water is in short supply
or unavailable, are virtually dependent on water from rivers,

ditches, canals, or even shallow pools.

Table 12.--POpu1ation in 1970.

 

 

Regions Area (ka) Population % Density
Vietnam 174,289 17,333,388 100 99
Southern Region

Mekong Delta 37,229 5,978,883 35 160
Eastern Region 31,943 5,232,163 30 164
Central Lowlands 55,705 5,215,653 30 94
Central Highlands 50,412 906,689 5 18

 

Source: Republic of Vietnam, Vietnam Statigtical Yearbook
1970, Vol. 17 (Saigon: National Institute of
Statistics, 1970): P. 380.

The untreated water is also used for bathing, laun-
dering clothes, and washing animals. Incidentally, water
courses are also used for waste disposal. Since garbage

collection services are irregular and confined to main

streets in towns, waste is discharged in the water courses.

 

1The Engineer Agency for Resources Inventories,
OE. Cite, pp. 126”].280

59

Such practices lead to major water-borne diseases; in addi-
tion, the incidence of skin diseases and intestinal para-
sites is very common. Hickey, a sociologist and also an
anthropologist, made the following Observating during his
study of a rural community in the Mekong Delta:
In the course of carrying out field research in
Khanh—Hau, practically every house was visited. . . .
In most of these houses, there were individuals who
complained of some ailment, and in some houses, there
were people who were seriously ill. . . . There were
many complaints of gastro-intestinal upsets. A number
of children were suffering from skin eruptions of var-

ious kinds and many were debilitated by periodic
diarrhea.

In connection with water-borne disease, infection
with other types of parasites is almost universal. Rounds
worm, hookworm, and tapeworm are common,2 partially as a
result of consumption Of vegetables fertilized with animal
manures, including human wastes, which are dissolved in
water and applied directly to the plantules to provide

organic matter lacking in the soil.3

 

lGerald C. Hickey, A Study of a Vietnamese Rural
Community: Sociology (East Lansing: Michigan State Univer-
sity Vietnam Advisory Group, January, 1960), p. 224.

 

2George L. Harris and others, U.S. Army Area Hand-
book for Vietnam (Washington, D.C.: The American Univer—
sity, 1962): p. 181.

3M. Y. Nuttonson, The Physical Environment and
Agriculture of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia (Washington, D.C.:
American Institute of Crop Ecology, 1963), p. 27. The
practice Of using animal manures is still in existence;
chemical fertilizers have already been introduced but are
expensive. To compromise the insufficient income of far-
mers and the need to enrich the organic matter of the soil,
increased cultivation of green manures (hemp, azolla) was
suggested as an effective treatment. Evidence of scientific
significance which has recently been found by Tran phuoc

 

 

 

 

60

Finally, epidemics Of germ diseases such as tuber—
culosis, cholera, malaria, and tetanus still remain the most
serious menace to human health in the Mekong Delta1 and
cause a heavy death toll.2

On the other hand, causes of ill health are con-
sidered as misfortunes attributed to evil spirits3 of
various kinds abundant in nature, of dead persons without
cults in their honors, and of inanimate Objects. It is
believed that these spirits have their own mystical power,
which may alter the order of nature and cause disasters on
the earth such as drought, flood, famine, and even illness.
Hickey noted that:

Children who appear to be suffering from chicken

pox or small pox are permitted to mix freely with

other children. The villagers believe that the skin
pustules are caused by the wind. . . .4

 

Duong in "Nitrogen Fixation and Productivity in a Eutrophic
Hard—Water Lake: In-Situ and Laboratory Studies" (unpub-
lished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972),
pp. 133-148, supports the economical values of green manures.
In fact, several identified green algae encysted in duckweeds
(lemna and cfiher genera) are capable of fixing nitrogen
from the air. Hence the duckweeds can be used for a dual
purpose--to enrich the nitrogen nutrient in the fields as
well as the organic matter of the soil through the decompo—
sition process of their living cells. Duong also proposed
the use of duckweeds in the sewage treatment cycle.

N

1The Engineer Agency for Resources Inventories,

Op. cit.

2"Public Health in Vietnam," Vietnam Feature Service
(Pubs -095) (Washington, D.C.: AID, May, 1971), PP. 24-26.

3Hickey, Op. cit., p. 224.

41bid., p. 226.

61

Cooke had the same Observation on this problem, and remarked
on people's attitude toward the effectiveness of modern
medicine in the following words:

. . . Even when modern medicines are used to

cure illness, the farmers do not believe germs have
been killed, but that Ehe medicines have helped chase
the eVil spirits away.

Analysis of the major health problems, their causes,
and people's beliefs and attitudes implies a lack of knowl-
edge and understanding Of the basis of illness. In spite of
substantial medical care programs, which concentrate mainly
on curative services,2 the widespread occurrence Of germ
diseases and water-borne diseases does not show any sign of
declining. Health education is needed as much as material
assistance, to provide basic and proper information to allow
healthy living conditions for individuals and their commu-
nities.

The medical beliefs, myths, and practices covered in
the preceding section may account for the routine living
practices of the majority of the population, which cause a
heavy toll Of infectious diseases and pollute the environ-
ment as a result. Regarding the polluted environment, the
use of various kinds of chemical sprays in controlling dis-

ease as well as in the recent warfare should be noted. In

fact, a tremendous amount of DDT has been used in living

 

lDavis C. Cooke, Vietnam: The Country, the People
(New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1968), p. 56.

2Public Health in Vietnam, Op. cit., p. 29.

 

62

areas and in the stagnant waters and swamps which prevail

in the Mekong Delta region, in the program to eradicate
malaria. However, application of DDT may cause additional
environmental pollution. Evidence Of DDT has been found

to have an effect upon wild life, especially birds1 and fish,2
so that reproduction is seriously affected. Another inci—
dence of chemical pollution is the Spraying of chemical
defoliates, which has been done intensively for military
purposes since 1961.3 The spraying Of herbicides is a sub-

ject of much controversy, and the side effects of herbicide

residues upon humans' welfare is under investigation.

Implications and Conclusions

 

The analysis of the socio-economic factors in the
Mekong Delta indicates that:
1. It is a region comprising the most important agri-
cultural sector in South Vietnam.

2. Rice growing and fisheries are the two dominant

 

lRoy T. Barker, "Notes on Some Ecological Effects
of DDT Sprayed on Elms," Journal of Wildlife Management,
xx, 3 (1958), 269-274.

 

2Howard E. Johnson and Robert C. Ball, "Organic
Pesticide in an Aquatic Environment," Advances in Chemistry
Series, NO. III (1972), 1-10.

3Sheldon Novick, "Chemical War," Environment, XIII, 2
(March, 1971), 45—46.

4Arthur H. Westing, "Herbicides in War: Current
Status and Future Doubt," Biological Conservation, IV, 5
(October, 1972), 326.

 

 

63

economic activities, which engage the majority of the
population and thus affect their living standard.

3. Again, agriculture and fisheries are the major
target of economic development projects in this region,
based upon significant natural resources and production
potentials of the area.

4. People living in this region, on the other hand,
need health education emphasizing basic information on
illness and reduction of superstition.

5. Information about ecological problems such as the
use of animal wastes as fertilizers, the use of DDT sprays
for malaria, and possible pollution of the environment must
be imparted.

6. The pOpulation of the Mekong Delta region is second

only to the major cities of Vietnam.

Summary of the Chgpter

 

In this chapter, an analysis Of the socio-economic
concerns in the Mekong Delta region was made. Findings sug-
gest desirable experiences are needed, based on the economic
and social needs and demands of this particular geographical
region. Experiences will be considered as the major empha-
sis in organizing the course content of the training program

in biology.

CHAPTER IV

TRENDS IN MODERN BIOLOGY EDUCATION AND

THEIR IMPLICATIONS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Introduction

 

This chapter deals with recent efforts to improve
biology education. Included in the review are changes in
content, instructional methods, and teacher training pro-
grams. Most of the data come from works done in the United
States, which appears to be a leading country in terms of
the develOpment of new techniques and equipment for biology
education. The investigation is also extended to explore
implications in several recent meetings and conferences
undertaken in Southeast Asia on biology education.

On the basis of the above considerations, an attempt
is made to derive a set of modern materials and methodology
for biology instruction. These will become part of the pro-
posed program and give it "modern" as well as "local" char-

acteristics related to the Mekong Delta region.

 

Trends in Modern Biology

The Curriculum Reform Movement

 

Curriculum reform has long been a slow process. The
movement to reform biology education came in response to sev—

eral recognized problems. In science, the explosive growth

64

65

of scientific knowledge due to advanced techniques and new
research tools1 was a major factor. In education, the
development Of new tools in the social sciences (sociology,
educational psychology); pressure on the curriculum to serve
a broader range of student abilities, interests, and back-
grounds; and the need to train better teachers2 were impor—
tant issues.

The movement progressed through several national and
regional conferences concerned with improving biology edu-
cation and the training of biology teachers.3 These prep-
aratory steps, however, did not come to public recognition
until the launching of the first Russian Sputnik in 1957.
This eventstimulated action on numerous science curriculum
projects in the United States.

In biology education, the first comprehensive pro-
ject was the Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS).
Concurrently, there were also a number of curriculum seg-

ments consisting of a new set Of laboratory experiments,

 

lPaul Dehart Hurd, Biological Education in American
Secondary Schools, 1890-1960, Biological Science Curriculum
Study (BSCS) Bulletin NO. 1 (Baltimore: Wavely Press, Inc.,
1961): Pp. 108-109.

 

2Joseph J. Schwab, Biology Teacher's Handbook (New
York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963), pp. 3-8.

3Hurd, op. cit., pp. 111-118; John Breukelman and
Richard Armacost, "Report of the Southeastern Conference on
Biology Teaching," The American Biology Teacher, XVII, 1
(1955), 4-45; Richard Armacost and Paul Klinge, "Report of
the North Central Conference on Biology Teaching," Egg
American Biology Teacher, XVIII, l (1956), 4-72; Thomas S.
Hall, Chairman, Improving Collegg Biology Teaching, National
Academy of Science--National Research Council, Publication
505 (Washington, D.C., June, 1957), pp. 2-22.

 

66

some units of written instructions1 and later several pro-
jects carried out on a smaller scale as an outgrowth of the
BSCS Project.2 In the present study, only the BSCS program
is taken into consideration as a representative of the inno-
vative trend in modern biology education. It has not only
gained nationwide appreciation, but has also achieved inter—
national recognition.

Biological Science
Curriculum Study TBSCS)

 

 

The BSCS project represents the first concerted
effort in which working scientists, high school teachers,
and educators cooperatively developed instructional mate-
rials for improving biology education in the high schools.
In fact, the project was intended "to close the widening gap
which more and more threatens to separate the classroom and
the sources of increasing knowledge in the biological sci-
ences."3 The BSCS project sought answers to the following

questions:

 

1Paul Dehart Hurd, New Directions in Teaching Secon-
dary School Science (Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1969),
p. 131.

 

2William H. Gregory and Edward H. Goldman, Biological

 

Science for High School (Boston: Ginn and Company, 1965) .
Also accompanied the Laboratory Manual and the Teacher's
Edition by W.H. Gregory; G. Congdon Wood, ed., Biology Exper-
iments for High School Students (New York: American Cancer
Society, Inc., 1964.

3BSCS Newsletter, No. 3, May, 1960, p. 3.

 

67

1. What is the significant knowledge of living things
as it is known in modern biology?

2. What attitudes and skills relevent to modern
biology will contribute the most to the students'
personal lives and to the execution of their
responsibilities as men and citizens?1

Nine major conceptual themes were defined to provide
a framework for responding to the two questions:
Change of living things through time: evolution
Diversity of type and unity of pattern in living things
The genetic continuity of life
The complimentarity Of organism and environment
The biological roots of behavior
The complimentarity of structure and function
Regulation and homeostasis: Preservation of life in the
face of change
Science as inquiry .
The history of biological concepts2
Considered as essential content, these concepts are
not used as major topics, but rather as "a warp binding the
fabric of biology together,"3 which permeates every chapter
and underlies every discussion. The first seven themes
define the content of the BSCS materials, and the last two
convey the nature of science. The latter gives BSCS its
innovative approach, in which biology is shown as a means of
acquiring significant knowledge in science. This differs

from the approach used in traditional biology teaching, where

biology is shown only as a body of knowledge to be learned.

 

lHurd, New Directions in Teaching Secondary School

Science, OE; cit., p. 154.

 

 

2Schwab, Op. cit., p. 31.

3Bently Glass, "The PhilOSOphy of a Curriculum,"

BSCS Newsletter, NO. 37, November, 1969, p. 2.

 

68

Such a new approach is, in fact, described in BSCS
materials, both in theory and in practice. In theory,
efforts are made to convey how scientific knowledge is gen-
erated by giving a narrative of the whole process of inquiry
and by indicating the limitations, the uncertainties, and
the incompleteness of science by the "liberal use of expres-
sions" such as "we do not know" or "the evidence about this
is contradictory," etc.1 In practice, the most striking
characteristic of the BSCS project is its emphasis on the
laboratory, which is intended "to lead to an understanding
of scientific inquiry and investigation."2 The textbook is
supplementary to learning. Schwab said, "Mere telling is not
effective; the need is to exhibit science in Operation, not
Only to talk about science."3 Consequently, to convey a
sense of scientific inquiry is to provide opportunities to
engage in the procedures by which scientists manage to dis-
cover knowledge. It is felt that:

The laboratory is where the work of science is done,
where its Spirit lives within the person who works
there, where its methods are transmitted from one gen—
eration to the next. One does not learn science from
books; one learns science by asking nature the right
questions. And the laboratory is the place where one

learns most rapidly what questions can be asked fruit-
fully and how they must be put. It is where one learns

 

1Paul D. Hurd and Elra Palmer, "The BSCS Approach
to High School Biology," in BSCS Implementations in the
Schools, BSCS Bulletin NO. 3, 1964, p. 4.

2BSCS, The Teacher and BSCS Special Materials,
BSCS Special Publication NO. 4, 1966, p. 4.

3

 

Schwab, op. cit., p. 46.

69

why science insists on precise measurement, accurate

observation, and conciseness and clarity of observa—

tion.1

Thus, the BSCS laboratory is experimental and quan-

titative by design, which involves the application of the
related sciences throughout the course of an investigation.
In addition, the BSCS program has focused on providing mul-
tiple varieties of laboratory materials. The general pat-
tern Of the BSCS investigative exercises is as follows:
From a given problem, students proceed to get acquainted
with different experimental procedures; they manipulate
instruments, collect and record data, and make Observations.
This activity phase is followed by a guided discussion for
the attainment of biological concepts. Plans for the activity
phase are given as laboratory exercises included in the
text and as laboratory blocks, which are longer and may be
chosen for an in—depth exploration of a fundamental topic.2
Equally important to the inquiry approach is the guided dis-
cussion, designed to help direct the thinking of the student
as he attempts to see how a scientist might approach the
unraveling of various unsolved problems and to become better

able to react scientifically to many new problems.3 This

 

1Bentley Glass, High School Biology, Blue Version,
The Laboratory, Part One, 1960, p. ix.

2BSCS, Laboratory Blocks in Teaching Biology, BSCS
Special Publication NO. 5 (Boulder: University of Colorado,
1964), p. 4.

3Alfred S. Sussman, A Laboratory Block, Microbes:
Their Growth, Nutrition and Interaction (Boston: D. C. Heath
and Company, 1964), p. 18.

 

 

 

70

particular function is promoted through the use of "Invi-
tations to Inquiry" as follows:
An investigator was interested in the conditions

under which seeds would best germinate. He placed sev—
eral grains of corn on moist blotting paper in each of

two glass dishes. He then placed one of these dishes in

a room from which light was excluded. The other was
placed in a well-lighted room. Both rooms were kept at

the same temperature. After four days, the investigator

examined the grains. He found that all the seeds in
both dishes had germinated.

1. What interpretation would you make of the data
from this experiment? Do not include facts that you
may have obtained elsewhere, but restrict your inter-
pretation to those from this experiment alone.

2. What factor was clearly different in the sur—
roundings of the two dishes? In view Of your answer,
remembering that this was a deliberately planned exper—
iment,state as precisely as you can the specific prob-
lem that led to this particular plan of experiment.

3. In view of the problem you have stated, look at
the data again. What interpretation would you make?

4. Granting that light is not necessary for the
germination of the corn seeds, different amounts of
light may speed up or slow down germination. How might
the experimenter check on this possibility?

5. Now that you have learned to test for the role
that light plays in seed germination, plan an experi-
ment in which you test the effect of temperature on
seed germination.

The BSCS also makes extensive use of visual aids2

as a supplementary approach to convey the methods Of inquiry.

In addition to introducing a new teaching approach,
the BSCS also presents a modern content which attempts to
reflect the present state of biological knowledge.3 Indeed,
with the development Of biochemistry and biophysics, biology

has entered the era of the molecular level, which has helped

 

lSchwab, op. cit., pp. 57-59.

2 u

"BSCS Single Topic Films,‘ BSCS Newsletter, No. 32,

 

3"Inquiry Slides Series," BSCS Newsletter, No. 36, po

 

7.

71

to uncover hidden biological problems. As a result, not
only has more new knowledge been discovered, but also many
older ideas have necessarily been redefined. Thus, our
organized knowledge about living things has undergone a
reformation. This reshaping is recognized in the BSCS
materials, which shift the amount of emphasis placed on
various levels of biological organization. The three BSCS
versions themselves differ in the changed emphasis on dif—
ferent levels. The following figures illustrate the varia-
tion in the BSCS materials and the distribution of the dif-
ferent levels of organization in the BSCS materials and in
traditional texts. (See Figures 3 and 4.)

In conclusion, a new content of biology curriculum
is develOped on the basis of various conceptual themes. The
new content represents a shift of emphasis on levels of
biological organization. In addition, the BSCS materials
place great emphasis on producing a laboratory program
that emphasizes the inquiry approach as a means to increase
participation and to promote thinking ability.

The departure from common biology teaching repre-
sented by the BSCS approach requires necessary teacher train-

ing; this will be dealt with in the next section.

Teacher Preparation

 

The BSCS Training Programs

 

Parallel to the development of new materials, the

preparation Of biology teachers is also an integral part of

72

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74

the BSCS project. Such preparation is imperative, since the
BSCS has introduced a new teaching technique and a modern
body of biological knowledge involving background in var-
ious disciplines that are not included in the traditional
texts and may not have been included in the teacher's
academic preparation. The primary concern has largely been
dedicated to in-service training to update the content knowl—
edge of present science teachers who plan to implement this

. 1
new curriculum.

Several studies have been conducted, and their find—
ings indicate that to achieve the Optimum effectiveness in
teaching these materials, attention must be given to BSCS
philOSOphy, strategies, and techniques.2 Along the same
line of thought, Schwab expressed the belief that:

The notion of coverage, of conveying the current
knowledge of a field which was once the essence of
science teaching is called into question. It means that
authoritative possession of a body of knowledge about a
subject matter is no longer enough to qualify men as the
best teachers of science. It means that the education

of the science teacher must be something more than,
perhaps something different from the inculcation of

 

lBSCS, BSCS Materials for Preparation of In-Service

Teachers of Biology, BSCS Special Publication NO. 3, ed. by
Ted F. Andrews (1964), pp. 9-68.

 

 

2Lehman W. Barnes, "The Nature and Extent of Lab-
oratory Instruction in Selected Modern High School Biology
Classes (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The University of
Texas, Austin, 1966); Leonard H. Kochendorfer, "A Compara-
tive Study of the Teaching Rationale and Methods of High
School Biology Teachers Using Different Curriculum Materials"
(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Texas,
Austin, 1966).

75
conclusions, training in ways and means to pass
them on. . . .

"Something different," according to Schwab, implies
the inquiry approach, which has been suggested as important
to any training program:

The primary Objective of any training program

(pre- and in-service) must be to develop a dedica-
tion to the investigation and inquiry approach in
teaching biology.2
Behaviors to be performed as indicative of inquiry activities
are also recommended:
1. An increased use of questions and a reduction in
expository remarks.
2. Stating hypotheses and participating in suggest-
ing experiments to test the hypotheses.
3. Criticizing experiments.
4. Drawing conclusions that are tentative rather than
final or absolute.
5. Increased expression of observations regarding
phenomena and events.3
In short, inquiry plays a central role in teaching

modern biology. Thus, it has been suggested that in any

training program, whether it be pre- or in-service, science

 

1J. J. Schwab, "Inquiry, The Science Teachers and

the Educators," The School Review (Summer, 1960), p. 180.

2BSCS, New Materials and Technigues in the Prepara-
tion of High School Biology Teachers, BSCS Special Publica-
tion NO. 6, ed. by Glen E. Peterson (1969), p. 97.

31bid.

76

teachers must grasp the real significance of the process of
inquiry by active involvement in the use of the laboratory
"as the heart of the investigative approach leading to
inquiry teaching." The pattern of inquiry developed by
the BSCS places major emphasis on asking a "right question"

in a given situation.

The CUEBS Training Program

 

In the same movement for reform, in 1963, the Com-
mission on Undergraduate Education in Biological Sciences
(CUEBS) was organized. As its name implies, the functions
of the Commission were described as follows:

The primary concern Of the Commission is to help
close the gap between the recent major advances in
biological research and the content of undergraduate
courses in biology. Consequently, the initial empha-
sis has been 03 courses and curriculum improvement and
modernisation.

Hence, the Commission arranged a number of confer-
ences of biologists representing all types and sizes of
universities from all regions of the country, and delin-
eated areas of biological education in which CUEBS could
help with improvements. The pre-service aspects of a teacher
training program are found in almost all college and univer-

sity curricula. As a result, a total program for the pre—

service preparation of secondary school teachers was

 

lTed F. Andrews, CUEBS and the Preparation of
Biology Teachers, CUEBS Publication NO. 13, October, 1965,
p. 1.

 

 

77

suggested, which encompassed two concentrations: the biology

core and the professional educational area.1

The biology core constitutes the basic academic
requirement in biology, involving a body of knowledge essen-
tial for all students majoring in biology. It has generally

been contended that:

All students specializing in biology, including
potential teachers, would be expected to take the same
core. . . . Specialisation beyond the core will differ,
depending upon the professional goals of students.

However, a single pattern for the biology core content was
not identified.3 Instead, in 1967, the Commission identi-
fied important trends in organizing the biology core:

First, increasing emphasis is being put on prep-
aration in mathematics, physics, and chemistry to allow
the introduction of more SOphisticated quantitative
material and symbolic analysis into undergraduate
biology instruction.

Second, emphasis is increasing on the molecular
and cellular levels of organisation at the relative
expense of courses in morphology and systematics.

Third, as an organizing principle in biology in-
struction the phylogenetic approach has been largely
replaced by heredity, the cell, development, mechanisms
of integration and evolutionary dynamics. In the pro—
cess, there is less emphasis on the variety of organisms
and more emphasis on general phenomena illustrated by
the most appropriate organism.

Fourth, there is a noticeable tendency toward
greater emphasis on the biology of population, . . .

 

1CUEBS, The Pre-Service Preparation of Secondary
School Biology Teachers, CUEBS Publication No. 25, ed. by
Addison E. Lee (June, 1967), p. 7.

 

2Benson E. Ginsburg, "Preparing the Modern Biology
Teachers," Bioscience, XV, 12 (December, 1965), 769.

 

3Clifford Grobstein, "Defining the Core of a Sci-
ence," The American Biology Teacher, December, 1966,
pp. 804-808.

 

 

If

78

though not nearly so impressive quantitatively as the
shift toward molecular and cell biology.

Recently, serious attention is given to the ecologi-
cal aSpects of biology education, to cope with the growing
environmental problems (pesticides, pollution, conserva-

. 2 . . .
tion). Different areas are also suggested for inclu51on as

follows:

1. Molecular Topics. Elementary biochemistry, DNA struc-
ture and function, protein synthesis and regulation,
properties Of enzymes, biochemical synthetic path-
ways and energy metabolism.

2. Cellular Biology. Cell structure and function: gross
and fine structure, physico-chemical organization,
energetics, transport, mobility, homeostatic mech—
anisms. Cell growth and division. Cell differen-
tiation and transformations; clonal variation and
development. Evolutionary potential of cells; pro-
tistan evolution, origin of multicellularity.

3. Genetics. Mendelism--historical aspects: discovery
and rediscovery of laws and modifications, linkage.
Cytological basis of inheritance: meiosis, mitosis,
non-disjunction. Molecular genetics: physical basis
of the gene; gene action and regulation; homeostasis,
integration in steady-state. Cytoplasmic inheri-
tance: genes and development. Mutation: chromo-
somal aberration, effects of radiation. Genes in
pOpulations: evolution (speciation).

4. Developmental Biology. Plant and animal ontogeny
(molecular to gross structural levels); experimen-
tal investigation of plant and animal development.
Problems: Aggregation (molecular, cellular, multi-
cellular). Directive aspects (induction, regula-
tion, differentiation). Evolutionary aspects.

5. Organismic Biology. Structural and functional organ—
ization Of selected higher plants and animals; a
modern synthesis including (1) facts about the com-
plications of organization of higher organisms, and
(2) contemporary heuristic topics such as biological
clocks, photo-induction of flowering, electro-
physiology, neurosecretion, immune and self-
recognition mechanisms.

 

 

1CUEBS, Content_of Core Curricula in Biology, CUEBS
publication NO. 18, 1967, p. 28.

2CUEBS News, v1, 3 (March, 1970).

 

79

6. Population and Community. Structure and dynamics.
Environmental action and internal reactions; sym-
bioses and competition. Energy flow, homeostasis
and succession. Ecological aspects of natural
selection.

7. Evolution. Present as a recurrent theme in each of
the preceding. In most, cores will also receive
independent, synthetic treatment as well.

 

 

Emphasis on levels may be different, depending upon
the institutional capabilities. All biology majors, irres—
pective of their professional intentions, are expected to
be exposed to the same core, which is extended over a mini-
mum of two years.2

Biology is taught with the conviction that it has
relevance throughout the student's life.3 Nevertheless,
the theoretical structure in which concepts, generaliza—
tions, and theories are emphasized involves some arbitrary
selection, which makes it always insufficient and inadequate.
Hence, the need was felt to develop attitudes toward the
certainty of data, the utility of science, the real meaning
of scientific hypothesis, and the strengths and limitations
of the scientific approach. These attributes are associated

"more with the process of science, with its modes of genera—

tion, than with its theoretical structure."4 On the other

 

1Thomas S. Hall, "Core Studies for Undergraduate
Majors," Bioscience, XIV, 8 (August, 1964), 27—28.

 

2Content of Core Curricula in Biology, Op. cit.,
p. 31.

3C. E. Holt, P. Abramoff, L. V. Wilcox, Jr., and
D. L. Abell, "Investigative Laboratory Program in Biology,"
Bioscience, XIX, 12 (1969), 1105.

4

 

Ibid.

80

hand, in identifying the functions traditionally assigned to
the laboratory, illustration, technique training, develOp-
ing appreciation for biology and for living things, and
stimulating discussion,1 it is imperative to suggest that
"the best use of the laboratory in undergraduate instruc—

tion is to engage the student in the process of active

investigation."2

CUEBS analyzed the existing undergraduate programs,
and found that the investigative role is almost universally
neglected. Consequently, guidelines for an investigative
laboratory were proposed for those attempting to teach
investigation, and had the following characteristics:

1. Students are made aware from the beginning that the
purpose of the course is to engage them in an inves-
tigation of their Own choosing.

2. The laboratory begins with a series of activities
which are carefully designed to prepare the student
for investigative activities. During this stage,
students are introduced to both cognitive and manip-
ulative [activities] which can be used in the inves-
tigative process. This initial phase may benefit
from the use Of film loops, guided readings, audio-
tutorial exercises, "dry" laboratories, tours of
research and library facilities, programmed instruc-
tion, open-ended exercises, and inquiry role tech-
niques. This phase of the course ends when the
student has developed sufficient competence and
confidence to identify a problem and design an
attack on it. The length of this phase varies with
ability of the students involved and the subject
area and level in which the course is Offered.

3. In consultation with the teacher, each student for-
mulates a problem and investigative procedure for
resolving it. Frequently, written or oral proposals
are submitted for criticism by the instructor and

 

lIbid., p. 1104.

21bid.

81

other students. Problem selection is, of course,
limited by the natural constraints of available
time, space, equipment, and supplies.

4. Experimental and Observational work is carried out
over a period of time sufficiently long that experi-
ments can be repeated and the direction of the work
can be modified if necessary. It is not unusual
for students to make use Of physical and human
resources outside both the course and the college
during this phase of the program.

5. The laboratory terminates with the submission of
written and/or oral reports by each student.1
Laboratory activities are presumably incorporated

within the curriculum structure, but college instructors are
urged to give greater emphasis to the laboratory—-not in the
Old style of making the laboratory a set of exercises with
low priority, but rather with major emphasis on student
activity so that, as Murray said, "the laboratory has become
a sole entity unto itself."2
Since curricular reorganization was already active
in the secondary schools through the advent of BSCS, an
immediate need to revise their curricula faced the colleges.
Evidence of change toward the adoption of the core program
was reported in curricular revision of forty—seven colleges
and universities throughout the United States.3 Although

the pattern of an investigative laboratory engages students

in a research-type situation that requires much of their

 

lCUEBS, The Laboratory: A Place to Investigate,

Publication No. 33, ed. by John W. Thornton (April, 1972),
p. 27.

2Darrel L. Murray, "The Laboratory: A Place for
Investigation," CUEBS News, VI, 2 (December, 1969), 4.

 

3"The Ever-Changing Curriculum," CUEBS News, V, 3

 

82

time and energy, as well as making extra demands on faculty
and the physical facilities, such efforts have been made at
several institutions, and the results have been reported with
much enthusiasm and satisfaction.1 Students in these inves-
tigative laboratory programs expressed the feeling that

". . . the most significant aspect of this whole experience

was the challenge of selecting and formulating a problem of

interest."2

Biological Science in Southeast Asia

Report of the First Asian Regional
Conference on School Biology

Stimulated by curriculum improvement projects,
especially BSCS and the Nuffield project, a number Of
countries in Asia have become interested in adapting these
materials for use in school biology curricula. The Philip-
pines and Taiwan are the countries in Southeast Asia that
have led in the adaptation of the BSCS versions for school
programs. Since these first efforts, there has been a grow-
ing tendency to revise school biology programs in different

countries in Southeast Asia.

 

1John W. Thornton, "An Investigative Laboratory in
Cell Biology," CUEBS News, VII, 1 (October, 1970), 7-10;
Robert G. Thompson, "The Investigative Laboratory in an Intro-
ductory Course for Nonscience Majors at Marquette University,"
CUEBS News, VII, 3 (February, 1971), 5-8; Ann M. Lacy and
Helen B. Funk, "The Investigative Laboratory in an Introduc-
tory Biology Course," CUEBS News, VII, 2 (December, 1970),
12-15.

 

 

 

2Darrel L. Murray, "The Investigative Laboratory:
Selection and Formulation of a Problem," CUEBS News, VI, 5
(June, 1970), 8.

83

This Conference gave representative leaders an

Opportunity to share their experiences with those who were

attempting to initiate curriculum revisions.

The report of the Conference consists of three

sections:

A survey of biology teaching in high schools in par-
ticipating countries, prepared by each country.
Contribution papers of the project leaders on BSCS,

Nuffield, and the adaptation projects of the first

Reports of the five major discussion sections. One
Of these sections was related directly to teaching
methods and teacher training. The recommendations

from this discussion are of importance to this study,

Biology must be taught as a science, thus scien-
tific inquiry should be the basis of this teaching.
A background knowledge of chemistry, physics and
other related sciences is necessary for teaching

Practical applications Of biological principles

Local materials and specimens should be utilised

1.
2.
countries in Asia.
3.
and were as follows:
1.
2.
modern biology properly.
3.
should be brought to focus.
4.
as much as possible.1
Reports Of the SEAMEO Regional
Seminar on Science and Mathematics

 

 

In 1967, the First Regional Seminar including members

Of six countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines:

 

lAsian Association for Biology Education, First

Asian Regional Conference on School Biology (Philippines:

Science

Education Center, University Of Philippines,

December, 1966), p. 307.

84

Singapore, Thailand, and the Republic of Vietnam) was con—
vened to discuss and identify problems and needs relating
to the teaching of science and mathematics within the par-
ticipating countries in Southeast Asia, and concurrently to
obtain information and current data on scientific projects
already under way.1 Five subject areaswere included:
biology, chemistry, elementary science, mathematics, and
physics. In each subject area, four functional areas were
taken into consideration, involving:
1. Training to include both content and methodology of
science teaching.
2. Research and development of new syllabi, instruc—
tional materials, teaching aids, and other equipment.
3. Special services to include improvisation of equip—
ment, development of manuals, etc.
4. Deve10pment of an information center for relevant
data on science and mathematics.

Specific problems in each functional area were iden-
tified by participants in a working group; their main task
was to produce "a definitive set of plan projects," including
a series of suggested courses for SEAMEO, which would enable
them to plan a long-range training program for key personnel
from the participating countries. The basic objectives of

the SEAMEO training program were stated as follows:

 

1Southeast Asia Ministers of Education Organisation
(SEAMEO), Roport of the SEAMEO Regional Seminar on Science
and Mathematics, September 12-14, 1967, p. l.

 

85

1. To train leaders and teacher—training specialists
in secondary school education who can play primary
roles in introducing modern secondary education
methods and appropriate content in science to their
countries and prepare teachers to implement new
methods and curricula that will meet their national
needs.

2. To provide them with sufficient experiences in the
study, selection and adaptation of content and
activities in secondary science; a good understand-
ing into modern child—learning theory and a clear
understanding Of the modern methods of teaching and
evaluating secondary science in order that they can
play a key role in curriculum development.

3. To enable them to obtain a sound understanding of
the urgent needs of the secondary schools in terms
of the professional preparation of prospective
teachers for modern science teaching in order to
perform leadership role in pre-service training of
science teachers.

4. TO provide them with opportunities to study differ—
ent types of in—service training activities that have
been carried out in different countries, their mer-
its and shortcomings and other associated activities
such as improvisation of science apparatus and use
Of local materials.

5. To expose participants to modern science education
philOSOphies, methodology, content as exemplified
in a variety of curriculum materials from various
countries and regions.

6. To conduct and present the course in a manner that
should serve as a model of the way that participants
should carry out when implementing national programs
on their return.

In the biology subject area,2 the courses were
designed to acquaint participants with the BSCS materials
and the Nuffield series, in order to develop an understand-

ing of modern biology education. In addition to promoting

 

1Southeast Asia Ministers of Education Organisation
(SEAMEO), Proceedings of the Seminar on Science Curriculum
Development and Evolution in Southeast Asia: Final Report,
Vol. I (September, 1970), p. 5.

2Report of the SEAMEO Regional Seminar, op. cit.,
p. 36; Seminar on Science Curriculum Development and Evolu-
tion, op. cit., pp. 77-84.

 

 

86

the pedagogical skills of biology teaching, opportunities
were provided to select and practice investigative experi-
ments underlying the modern teaching approach that character-
izes the current trend of biology education.

As a result of these conferences, there is a grow-
ing awareness Of the modern teaching projects in biology
education in Southeast Asian countries, and some implemen-
tations of modern biology teaching have been stimulated by
SEAMEO in-service training efforts. On the other hand, no
attempt has been made to modify the pre-service training of
secondary school biology teachers in accordance with these

new develOpments.

Conclusions

 

The review of the literature on biology education
at the secondary school and college level in the United
States revealed the following:
1. There is a reduction in morphology and taxonomy
content.
2. There is a reduction in the "rhetoric of conclusions."
3. There is increased preparation in mathematics,
physics, and biochemistry as biology has become a
more experimental and quantitative science involving
these related sciences.

4. There is an effort to organize biology content around

unifying conceptual schemes and principles.

87

5. There is a shift Of emphasis on levels of biologi—
cal organization, with preference on the molecular,
cellular, and population levels.

6. There is a greater emphasis on the process of
science as a method of teaching and learning
biology.

7. There is a need to provide an organization Of the
biology curriculum that secures continuity and
cohesion.

Southeast Asia shares with the United States a great
interest in new trends to improve biology education. In
Vietnam, action in response to new developments has been
evidenced by the restating of the biology teaching Objec-
tives for secondary schools and by providing more labora—
tory work even though this still continues traditional
functions.

This chapter has made an effort to describe care—
fully the laboratory programs developed by BSCS and CUEBS
for teaching and training in modern biology. Although the
two programs are different in form, both aim at teaching the
processes of science, since it is by the processes that
scientific knowledge grows, and scientific facts are gen—
erated at such a rapid rate that they alone cannot sustain
a functional program. Furthermore, the processes of science
are becoming an integral part of teaching and learning

modern science.

88

Summary of the Chapter

In this chapter were presented trends in modern
biology education in terms of changes in content, instruc—
tional methods and the teacher preparation in the United
States, and an investigation of biology education in Southeast
Asia in the face of these new developments. The review of
the literature on biology education serves as a useful guide—
line to develOp a modified scheme for Vietnam that (1) moves
forward from present teaching as described in Chapter II,
(2) focuses on local situations as described in Chapter III,
and (3) incorporates the findings of this chapter to produce
a modern biology education program to meet the needs of
peOple for literacy and facility with the processes of sci-
ence. This program, of necessity, will be structured
differently--in both content and methods—-from previous

efforts.

CHAPTER V

THE PROPOSED BIOLOGY TRAINING PROGRAM FOR SECONDARY

SCHOOL TEACHERS OF THE MEKONG DELTA REGION

Introduction

 

This chapter contains a description of a proposed
biology training program for secondary school teachers of
the Mekong Delta region. The first part of the chapter is
concerned with the essential foundations for an effective
training program in biology. Taking into account findings
of the previous chapters, the second part of this chapter
contains a proposal of a four-year program and its compon-
ents.

Considerations Regarding the Needs for the
Training Program of the Mekong Delta Region

 

The 1970 revision of the Vietnam biology curriculum
suggested Specific changes in the content and teaching
methods for biology as follows:

A. The program should

- provide essential knowledge of the living world.

- help learners to Observe and to think scientif-

ically.

- encourage the application of learning experiences

to everyday life.

89

90

B. Methodology should change

- to delete dependence on memorization methods.

- to increase illustration of lectures with charts,

models, or experiments.

- to stimulate student participation in discussions.

- to maximize the practice of laboratory work.

— to utilize recent scientific discoveries in

instruction.

The new emphasis was on develOping critical and
scientific thinking as the major outcomes Of the learning
process. It was recognized that this would require a
different pattern of teacher preparation and a new set of
instructional practices.

The analysis of the biology training program at
Cantho University indicated that it does not meet the Objec—
tives which lead to the modern teaching approach, demanded
by the new developments in biology education. In fact,
the review of modern trends in biology education revealed
that emphasis should be on teaching concepts and principles,
not on the acquisition Of factual information, and on teach—
ing the processes of science. This latter idea may be
achieved by engaging the student in different steps which
lead toward the solving Of problems by doing. Approaching
the doing of science requires the acquisition of certain
skills, among which is skill in the use of the library.
Thomas Kirk mentioned three functional roles of the library

in an investigative laboratory: (1) exploration of scientific

91

literature, (2) reservoir of information, and (3) choice
for appropriate techniques and methods through prior works.1

The analysis of the local community led to the
formulation of a functional goal for biology teacher train—
ing. To serve the local community, one must be able to
use its great potential in agriculture and fisheries.
Teachers need to understand the geographic location, the
natural resources, and the human resources which support
the economic development of the Mekong Delta region. Pub—
lic health problems have been a continuing threat to the
labor force, primarily because of the lack of education for
the common man. The training program for biology teachers
should include a response to their needs and demands.

The prOposed program is an attempt to realize the
needs and the demands Of the Mekong Delta region and to
bring them together in a training program for prospective
biology teachers which embodies a modern training pattern.
How will the Objectives of the training program for the
Mekong Delta region be structured? How do the generally
accepted factors of curriculum planning (such as breadth,
depth, and sequence) apply to teacher training in biology?

The following section deals with these questions.

 

1Thomas G. Kirk, "The Role of the Library in an
Investigative Laboratory," in The Laboratory: A Place to
Investigate, op. cit., pp. 122-123.

 

92

Clarification of Objectives of the Proposed Program
for Secondary School Biology Teachers in
the Mekong Delta Region
The Objectives Of the training program for secondary
school biology teachers in the Mekong Delta region may be
described as follows:

1. To provide prospective teachers with a basic level
Of biological literacy necessary to teach for intelligent
citizenship in today's world.

2. To provide prospective teachers with an under-
standing Of the broad conceptual schemes Of modern biology
that are essential for the growth of biology teaching and
self-development.

3. To develop in prospective teachers biological con-
cepts that have appropriate implications to their immediate
environment.

4. To give prospective teachers an understanding of
the interrelatedness of biology and other sciences and
mathematics, and to demonstrate that biology is no longer
a descriptive science but is quantitative.

5. TO develop in prospective teachers critical thinking
and problem-solving ability by providing them with a knowl—
edge Of scientific methods and skills.

Considerationsof Breadth,
DepthL and Sequence
This section presents guidelines and recommendations
regarding the breadth, depth, and sequence suggested by

various authorities for a teacher education program. These

93

suggestions will be used as a framework to design a bal-
anced training program in biology.
It has been recommended that:

l. The preparation of prospective biology teachers
should comprise approximately one-half of the four-year
college program (equivalent to a minimum of 140 semester
hours). This preparation should include the teaching area
and the related sciences that are considered most applicable
to the major.1

2. Teachers should attain broad minimum competencies
in several fields of science.2 The needed breadth can also
function to stimulate students3 and help them understand
the interrelationships within and among various fields and
the significance Of science as a human activity.4

For biology majors, breadth implies:

 

1Alfred B. Garrett, et al., "Recommendation for the
Preparation of High School Teachers of Science and Mathe-
matics," School Science and Mathematics, XLIX, 4 (April,
1969), 283.

2National Association of State Directors of Teacher
Education and Certification, Guidelines and Standards for
the Education of SecondaryASchool Teachers Of Science and
Mathematics (Washington, D.C.: American Association for
the Advancement of Science, 1971): P. 13.

3John S. Richardson, et al., "The Education of
Science Teachers," Rethinking Science Education, The 59th
Yearbook of NSSE (Chicago: The University Of Chicago
Press, 1966), p. 266.

 

4National Association of State Directors of Teacher
Education and Certification, Guidelines for Preparation
Programs of Teachers of Secondary School Science and Mathe-
matics (Washington, D.C.: American Association for the
Advancement of Science, 1961), p. 4.

94

2a. One year of college physics together with one
year of college chemistry, including an introduction to
organic chemistry and biochemistry,1 with an emphasis on
biomolecules and metabolic activities of living things.

2b. At least the minimal mathematical competen-
cies2 of an acquaintance with basic principles of differen-
tial and integral calculus, and some knowledge of probabil-
ity and statistics.3 Any mathematics course for biology
teachers should have appropriate application to biology,
so that the mathematical preparation can become a functional
tool that will enable biology teachers to guide students to
formulate and to explain scientific phenomena.

3. These supporting courses should be included as early
in the pre-service program as possible, and courses in edu—
cation should be deferred until the foundation in the
subject-matter field is well-established.4

4. PrOSpective secondary school biology teachers should
have a college major (i.e., a minimum of twenty—four semester
hours) in the biological sciences, including one year of gen-

eral biology.5

 

lIbid., p. 9.

2Guidelines and Standards, op. cit., p. 19.
3Ibid.

4William M. Merrill, t al., "Recommendations:
Academic Preparation of Secondary School Earth Science
Teachers," Journal of Geology Education, XIV, 1 (February,
1966): 31.

5"Problems Related to the Teaching of Biology,"
American Biology Teacher, XVII, 1 (January, 1955), 42.

 

 

95

5. The biology program should provide Opportunities
for prospective teachers to gain insight into the intellec-
tual and philOSOphical nature of biology.1 A biology
teacher should thoroughly understand the history of his
subject, its philOSOphical nature, its conceptual struc-
ture, and its investigative methods.

6. “The depth of training for a biology teacher must
be sufficient for him to understand the nature Of the dis-
cipline, its substance and its methods. He must have some
insight into the problems at the frontiers of biology and
possess an understanding of the events that caused these
problems to emerge. His training must be such that he is
qualified to do graduate work in biology and to participate

O I I O I 2
in curriculum 1mprovement in biology."

Proposed Program

 

This proposed program is designed in accordance
with the framework laid out above, and encompasses 40-45
semester credits Of the total preparation in biology during
the four—year training program.

The pattern of the proposed program will be struc—

tured as shown in Tables 13 and 14,

 

lIbid., pp. 16 and 21.

2Paul DeHart Hurd, "The Education of Secondary
School Biology Teachers," American Biology Teacher, XXIV
(May, 1962), 329.

96

Table l3.--Requirements Of the proposed program for secondary
school biology teachers of the Mekong Delta region.

 

 

 

Courses No. of Credits
Biology: Introductory Biology 10 cr.
Advanced Biology 30-35 cr.
40-45 cr.

Related Sciences:

Physics: Mechanics, Heat & Thermodynamics

and Quantum Physics 12 cr.
Chemistry: General and Organic Chemistry 8-9 cr.
Biochemistry 5 cr.

Mathematics: Algebra, Calculus,

 

Statistics, and Probability 11 cr.
36-37 cr.
Other Program Components: 58-64 or.

Professional Preparation

Courses in General Education other than
Biology, Mathematics, Physics, and
Chemistry

Electives

 

97

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How Honuo HOmum
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Howie Honuo HON
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moo» ocooom
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HOv moflfimcmpoEHoze a Doom uncooked Mom
hmoHOHm ca apomuo>oo "mmoaofim Hoe

 

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anuwHEonOOHm
moommnm Educmso "mowmwnm
mmoHoAm OH muons "wooaoflm

 

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98

Description of Biology Courses in
the Training Program

 

 

The biology program for prospective secondary school
teachers in the Mekong Delta will consist of two units:

Introductory Biology and Advanced Biology.

Introductory Biology

 

Introductory Biology attempts to provide a broad
perspective and to allow subsequent courses to be intermed-
iate. Students will be exposed to the breadth of biological
topics; recent developments will be included, since biology
is a dynamic and growing field.

This introductory program involves two sequential
teaching subunits--the Diversity in Biology and the cor-
responding Unity of Biology-~and will be taken for two con-
secutive semesters of five credits each.

General tOpics to be included in the two subunits
are outlined as follows:

Only the Introductory program will be given in
detail, with suggested readings of parallel research included
under each tOpic. This has a primary importance in an
attempt to introduce to the students how biological knowl-
edge is generated, to point which direction it is going,
and finally to make use of primary and secondary source
materials for Obtaining information. Nevertheless, the

selection is almost entirely confined to the Scientific

 

American and Science magazines. The reason for this is

that these magazines may possibly be more accessible back

99

home; on the other hand, the language is written for the
general population.

First Course: Diversity in Biology.--Comparative
morphology and physiology, adaptation and ecosystems.

. Topics to be included.--Comparative morphology and
physiology Of representative organisms from each of the
major groups Of plants, animals, and microorganisms.
Adaptation. Ecosystems: Food chain—«Energy flow-—
Biogeochemical cycles-~Environmental influenceSH—Biological
clocks.

Suggested parallel readings of related research.--

Arnon, Daniel I., "The Role of Light in Photosynthesis,"
Scientific American, CIII, 5 (November, 1960), 104.

 

Eiseley, Loren, "Charles Darwin," Scientific American,
CXCV, 2 (February, 1956), 62.

 

Holt, S. J., "Food Resources of the Ocean," goientific
American, CIZXXI, 3 (September, 1969) , 178.

 

Irving, Lawrence, "Adaptations to Cold," Scientific American,
CCXIV, 1 (January, 1966), 94.

 

Levine, L. P., "The Mechanism of Photosynthesis," Scientific
American, CCXXI, 6 (December, 1969), 58.

 

Mazia, Daniel, "How Cells Divide," Scientific American,
CCV, 3 (September, 1961), 100.

Wessell, Norman K., and Rutter, William J. "Phases in Cell
Differentiation," Scientific American, CCXX, 3
(March, 1969), 36.

 

Wigglesworth, V. B., "Metamorphosis, Polymorphism, Differ—
entiation," Scientific American, CC, 2 (February,
1959), 106.

 

Woodwell, G. M., "Toxic Substances and Ecological Cycles,"
Scientific American, CCXVI, 3 (March, 1967), 24.

 

Wynne-Edwards, V. C., "Habitat Selection," Scientific Ameri-
can, CCXI, 2 (August, 1964), 68.

100

Second Course: Unity in Biology.—-Cellular, molecu-
lar, and genetic biology.

Cellular Biology

 

Topics to be included.--Fine structure and function

 

of the cell, transfer of energy within cells, enzymes and
enzymatic actions.

Suggestedrparallel readings of related research.--

 

Blair, P. V., et al., "Isolation of the Unit of Electron
Transfer,“ Biochemistry, XX, 576 (1963).

 

Brachet, J., "The Living Cell," Scientific American, CCV,
3 (September, 1961), 50.

Chance, B., and Williams, G. R., "The Respiratory Chain and
oxidative Phosphorilation," Adv. in Enzymology,
XVII, 65 (1956).

Green, David E., "The Mitochondrion," Scientific American,
CCX, 1 (January, 1964), 78.

Lehninger, A., "How Cells Transform Energy," Scientific
American, XXV, 3 (September, 1961), 62.

 

Robertson, David, "The Membrane Of the Living Cell,"
Scientific American, CCVI, 4 (April, 1962), 64.

 

Molecular Biology

 

Topics to be included.--Nucleic acids: Discovery--

 

Nucleotides as basic units of nucleic acid--Biological func-
tions Of nucleic acids. Watson and Crick Model of DNA
molecules-~Replication of DNA. Biological code-—The syn-
thesis Of proteins.

Suggested parallel readings of related research.--
Allfrey, V. G., and Mirsky, A. B., "How Cells Make Mole—

cules," Scientific American, CCV, 3 (September,
1961), 74.

 

101

Benzer, Seymour, "The Find Structure of the Gene," Scien-
tific American, CCVII, 1 (July, 1962), 70.

 

Boyes, B. C., "The Impact of Mendel," Bioscience, February,
1966, p. 85.

 

Crow, James F., "Ionizing Radiation and Evolution," Scien-
tific American, CCI, 3 (September, 1959), 138.

 

Hotchkiss, Rollin D., and Weiss, Esther, "Transformed Bac-
teria," Scientific American, CXCV, 5 (November,
1956), 48.

Sager, Ruth, "Genes Outside the Chromosomes," Scientific
American, CCXII, 1 (January, 1965), 70.

 

Wills, ChristOpher, "Genetic Load," Scientific American,
CCXXII, 3 (March, 1970), 98.

 

Advanced Biology

 

Advanced Biology provides intensive training in
those areas which were previously determined to underlie
the socio-economic needs of the Mekong Delta. Three areas--
health, agriculture, and fishery--have been selected as the
themes of concentration, upon which subsequent courses will
be develOped in relation to modern biological information.
More depth will be expected in these courses.

The advanced training is comprised of 30—35 semester
hours; there are eight courses to be developed under the
three themes, namely: Microbiology, Parasitology, Human
Nutrition, Genetics, Entomology, Soil Biology, Aquatic
Biology, and Fishery Science.

This advanced unit follows the introductory sequence
with three consecutive semesters, and will be accomplished
by the end of the junior year. This unit allows the stu-

dent greater flexibility in his course sequence. In fact,

102

it is perceived that Microbiology should precede Parasit-
ology and Soil Biology; likewise, Aquatic Biology should be
taken before Fishery Science. Therefore, possible combi-
nations in this unit are significant.

General tOpics for each course are described as
follows:

Microbiology

 

Principles of microbiology: nutrition, growth,
distribution, and activities of microorganisms

Organisms causing infections commonly found in the
Mekong Delta region: skin rupture, ringworms, diarrhea,
tuberculosis.

Causes of infections

Methods of controlling microorganisms

Parasitology
Characteristics of parasites: general consideration
Of parasitism, kinds of parasites, form and life cycle of
parasites.
Sources of infections: polluted water, waste dis-
Posal , food , soil
Means of transmission

Methods of control

Human nutrition
Metabolic machinery of the body
Nutrient requirements of the body

Significance of vitamins in metabolism

 

 

 

103

Significance of minerals in metabolism

Importance of balanced diets for human health
Genetics

Principles of genetics: hybrids of desired char-
acteristics
Breeding of crops:
Deve10pment of rice varieties and other crops
Development of better—producing crops that are
resistant to plant diseases and insects, and have

better flavor and even higher protein content
Entomology

Biological relationships Of insects

Insect behavior, ecology, development, and
metamorphosis

Important insect pests in the Mekong Delta

Control of insects (related to health, also)

Soil Biology
Structure and prOperties Of soils
Fauna and flora in soil. Significance of soil
microorganisms in nitrogen fixation in relation to soil
productivity. Supply Of higher plants to soil fertility
Fertilizers and crops. Use of "natural" sources of

green manures as fertilizers

Biological effects of pesticides and other chem-

ical Spraying in soils

104

Aguatic Biology
Freshwaters
Physical features: floods, silt load, chemistry
Biology: emphasis on freshwater plankton, fish
fauna in natural waters of rivers, swamps, crustaceans

Marine waters

 

Estuary habitats: characteristics and biology

Shore and coastal habitats: characteristics and
biology including marine plankton and its seasonal
distribution. Value of seaweed as human food and

manure

FisheryrScience

 

Fishing catch: seasonal variation in species

Conservation of young fish

Diseases of fish: microbial diseases, parasitic
diseases, and toxic accumulation due to chemically polluted
bodies of water

Fish processing and industry

Laboratory Approach

 

In allowing 40-45 semester hours for the entire
biology program, the laboratory practices are actually
included and may involve laboratory work and/or field exper-
iences, which could be assigned from 1-2 semester credits
for each course.

The nature of the laboratory work is to engage

students in the process of science. First, students

105

participate in the search for an answer to a given problem.
Simple experiments of this kind could be adopted from the
BSCS materials SO that common laboratory techniques neces-
sary for each unit can be acquired concurrently. This
initial stage will be concluded by designing a project
under teacher guidance, in which the student will choose a
topic and devise a suitable technique according to the
availability of facilities (references, specimens, equip-

ment, time, or any improvisation, if necessary).

Summary of the Chapter

 

In this chapter, a biology training program for
secondary school teachers in the Mekong Delta region was
prOposed. This program is relevant to modern trends in
biology education, and meets the needs of economic develop-
ment and social problems in this particular region.

The chapter included the following components:

(1) considerations of needs for the biology training program
of the Mekong Delta region, (2) a statement of objectives,
(3) assumptions for planning an effective biology curric—
ulum, and (4) the prOposed program, including its require-

ments, the prOposed four-year program, description of

training courses, and the laboratory approach.

CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter provides a general summary of the study,
the conclusions drawn, and recommendations related to the

implementation Of the proposed biology teacher training

program in the Mekong Delta region.

Summary of the Findiags

 

The purpose of this study was to construct a biology
teacher training curriculum for the Mekong Delta region,
with the major emphasis on the organization of courses and
experiences within the biological sciences.

First, an analysis of current practices at Cantho
University was made, Since this is the only higher education
institution Offering a biology teacher training program
that provides service for the whole region. The analysis
was made with reference to the new set of Vietnam school
biology Objectives develOped in the 1970 curriculum revision.
The revision was made in response to new developments in
biology education, and called for changes in both content and
teaching methods, resulting in a demand for a different pat-
tern of teacher training.

An intensive study of international trends in modern
biology education and in the training of biology teachers

106

107

suggested guidelines for planning a curriculum which would
have "modern" characteristics, both in content and instruc-
tional methods. This modern teaching and training approach
was oriented to include:
1. a reduction in the amount of emphasis on morphology
and taxonomy.
2. a reduction in the "rhetoric of conclusion“ style.
3. increased preparation in related sciences such as
chemistry, physics, and mathematics.
4. an emphasis on teaching concepts and principles
rather than on mere information accretion.
5. a shift Of emphasis toward discussions on the molec-
ular, cellular, and pOpulation levels.
6. a greater emphasis on the process of science and
the associated process Skills.

The curriculum is also designed to have a "local"
characteristic, that is to organize a body of biological
knowledge in relation to the immediate environment. Analy—
sis Of the socio-economic factors Of the Mekong Delta sug—
gested the needs and the demands upon which the planning
should be concentrated so that the selected biological
knowledge would have direct application to people in this
region. Three important areas were selected for emphasis:

public health, agriculture, and fisheries.

108

Conclusions

 

Taking into consideration the modern biology
approach, as well as the needs and demands of the post-war
economic develOpment and social problems of the Mekong
Delta region, the training program was formulated in accor-
dance with the following parameters: (1) The training should
be a four-year program; (2) Biology teachers should have a
broad minimum competency in related sciences; (3) Sufficient
training should be provided in the student's major area to
permit an understanding of the nature of the discipline,
its substance, and its methods; and (4) The plan of the
program should emphasize the inquiry/laboratory approach to
learning the processes of science.

The prOposed program for secondary school biology

teachers in the Mekong Delta region consists of three com-

ponents:
Biology 40-45 credits
Related Sciences 36-37 credits
Other Program Components 58-64 credits

The biology program includes two units: Introductory
Biology and Advanced Biology. The Introductory Biology
program provides breadth of biological topics, and Advanced
Biology is intended to give depth on the topics organized
under the three themes or concentrations: public health,
agriculture, and fisheries. Course descriptions for each

unit are also included. The necessary laboratory approach,

109

which attempts to teach for the processes of science, is

also described. .

Implications for Education
Recommendations for the implementation of the pro—
posed program can be classified into four categories:
recommendations on location, on instructional materials,

on staff formation, and on administration.

Recommendation on Location
Currently, in the Mekong Delta there are two insti—
tutions in addition to Cantho University--Hoa-Hao university
(two years old) and My-tho Junior College (in the process
of being established). Cantho University is considered to
be the best equipped in terms of staff, buildings, library,
and laboratory facilities. The university also has a
teaching staff, who have recently received training in sev—
eral countries in different areas of biology, biochemistry,
geology, physics, agriculture, and library management.
Finally, the science laboratories are being equipped with
assistance from foreign aid to make them the most modern
laboratories in Southeast Asia.
Recommendation 1: On the basis of the situation, it
seems advisable to initiate the
proposed program at Cantho Uni-

versity.

110

Recommendations on
Instructional Materials

 

Some research has been conducted on science instruc—
tion in the Mekong Delta (some of which was cited in Chapter
III), and other investigations are presently in process (The
United Nations' Agricultural Project for the Mekong Delta
Region, An Investigation of Herbicide Residues on Crops and
Human Health). This work is partially available in pub-
lished form, and the rest exists as unpublished papers
scattered throughout Vietnam and in foreign countries. In
order to make the findings useful, they should be gathered
and classified under one bibliography.

Recommendation 2: A systematic effort should be made
to gather related reSearch documents
and to prepare a bibliography and
reprint as necessary. A

More research, even in the areas cOvered, is needed;
the information should be supplemented by further research
in the Mekong Delta. Such research should be encouraged by
providing grants to the university and to qualified stu-
dents. Funds might come from the government, foreign aid,
or local firms and businessmen whose activities are affected
by conditions in the Mekong Delta.

Recommendation 3: A program should be undertaken to
seek support for and encourage new
research on biology education and bio-

logical conditions in the Mekong Delta.

111

Living organisms are numerous and their population
distribution varies with the seasons. Therefore, a labor—
atory approach should be devised according to the seasons to
make use of local living organisms for teaching and research,
as there is no access to a biological supply house. Empha—
sis also should be placed on equipment that can be purchased
locally or improvised if necessary.

Recommendation 4: A laboratory sequence Should be devel—
Oped, according to the seasonal dis-
tribution of living organisms, and
dependent on locally available
equipment.

Recommendations on
Staff Formation

 

 

The presently available staff is indeed insufficient
to accomplish the full development of a program in biology
education. Possible measures which could be undertaken are
providing grants or scholarships for graduates who are
interested in the described areas, inviting researchers who
have done research in related fields to lecture or to give
seminars on their research problems, or hiring temporary
staff from other universities and foreign countries, where—
ever possible.

Recommendation 5: Ways to supplement the present staff
with researchers and other university
faculty should be sought, at least as

a temporary measure.

112

Recommendation 6: In the long run, permanent staff must
be developed by attracting graduate
students to undertake further study

in selected areas.

Recommendation on Administration
To organize materials, plan for the implementation
of the proposed program, and later provide continuous assis—
tance to in-service school teachers on innovations, simple
equipment, and implementation, and to encourage project
work for school students, a science center available to the
Faculty of Pedagogy should be established. The center can
provide resources and facilities for the long—range redevelOp-
ment of biology education.
Recommendation 7: Establishment of a science center
for Cantho University should be given

high priority.

Problems for Further Research

 

A massive curriculum change such as that prOposed
will undoubtedly produce changes at the secondary school and
college levels. The most significant problems for research
may be classified into four groups:

1. Studies should be conducted to estimate the cost and
benefit relationships for the implementation of the prOposed
program. It is important to be able to weight expenditures

for planning the new courses, hiring and training new staff,

113

and developing the instructional materials against how many
people may benefit from the program.

2. Follow-up studies should be conducted to determine
the impact of the proposed program on the socio-economic
structure Of the Mekong Delta region: improvement of pub-
lic health (evidence of decrease of infectious diseases,
water-borne diseases, water pollution), rise in income, and
efficiency of agricultural production or fisheries manage-
ment.

3. Studies should be conducted to investigate obstacles
(administrative, political, religious) which hamper the
implementation of the proposed program.

4. Research Should be conducted to investigate the
teachers' performance in classrooms, students' interest in
biology, and behavior in comparison to the Old curriculum.
Pretests and posttests could easily be conducted to yield

insight into this change.

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114

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