A .“
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THE NEED OF A PHOSPHDRUS
SUPPLEMENT WITH ALFALFA HAY
AS THE PRINCIPAL SOURCE OF
PROTEIN IN THE RATION 0F
DAIRY CATTLE

THESIS PUB THE DEGREE OF M. S.
Leland W. Lamb
1931

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THE NEED OF A PHOSPHORUS SUPPLEMENT WITH
ALFALFA HAY AS TEE PRINCIPAL SOURCE OF
PROTEIN IN THE RATION OF DAIRY CATTLE

EEK NEED OF A PHOSPHORUS SUPPLEMENT WITH
ALFALFA HAY AS THE PdINCIPAL SOUdCE OF
PROTEIN IN THE RATION OF DAIRY CATTLE

Thesis

Respectfully submitted to the Graduate
School ot‘Michigan State College of
Agriculture and Applied Science in par-
tial fulfillment of the requirements for

the degree onMaster of Science

by
Leland We LEE“)
M
1931

ACKNONLEDGEMENTS

The author of this thesis wishes to express
his sincere appreciation to Mr. O. F. Huffman, Re-
search Associate in Dairying, for his help in planning
and conducting this experiment. His unfailing interest
in the work and his timely suggestions have aided
materially in doing the work, and in compiling this
manuscript.

The author wishes to express his gratitude to
lir. E. 1.. Anthony, Professor of Dairy Husbandry, whose
'cooperation has made the writing of this thesis possible.

Appreciation is also expressed to Dr. 0. S.
Robinson, Experiment Station Chemist, and his associates
for their cooperation and work in making the chemical
determinations necessary in this work.

The writer also appreciates the work of Dr. E. T.
Hellman, Professor of Animal Pathology, and his associates,
who made the tests for B. Abortus infection.

102121

TABLE OF CONTEHTS

Page
A. Introduction 8
B. General Discussion and deview of Literature 1
I. Source of Phosphorus in a Dairy Ration l
a. Alfalfa Hay as a Source of Phos-
phorus 5
(1) Factors Affecting the Phos-
phorus Content in Alfalfa Hay 6
(a) Phosphoric Acid Content

of the Soil 6
(b) Rainfall 9
(c) The Cutting 11

(d) Maturity of the Plant

at Time of Cutting 12
(e) Qlality of the Hay‘ 13
(1) Damaged by Rain 13

(2) Leafiness of the Hay 14

II Amount of Phosphorus Required for
Normal Growth 16

III Amount of Phosphorus Required for
Milk Production 20

IV Calcium-Phosphorus Ratio for Normal

Growth 25
V Phosphorus Deficiency in the Ration 29
a. Types of Phosphorus Deficiency 30

Page
(1) Phosphorus Content Below Minimum 30

b. Evidences of Phosphorus Deficiency Bl
(1) Depraved Appetite 31
0. Effects of Phosphorus Deficiency '35

(1) Calcium and Phosphorus Content
of the Blood 36

(2) Reproduction on Phosphorus

Deficient Rations 59

(3) Osteoporosis 40

(4) Osteomalacia 41

(5) Styfziekte 42

(6) Lamziekte 43

(7) Rickets 45

VI. Summary of the Review of Literature 49
Experimental Work V 52
I. Object of the EXperiment 52
II. Original Plan of the EXperiment 63
a. Choice of Animals 53

b. Choice of Rations 53

0. Care and Feeding Methods 53

d.' Collection of EXperimental Data 54

(l) Weighing ' 55

(2) Feeds 55

(a) Chemical Analysis 55

(b) Nutrients Required and
Nutrients Consumed 55
(3) Feeding 55
h V (a) Plane of Nutrition 55

(b) Mineral Supplement
(0) Salt
(a) Water

(4) Measurement of Growth
(a) Height at Withers

(5) Health Observations
(a) General Appearance
(b) Appetite

(6) Heat Periods

(7) metabolism of Feeds

(8) Blood Analyses

(9) Photographs

(10) Autopsy of Dead Animals

III. Method of Procedure

a.
b.
c.
d.

Choice of Animals
Choice of Rations
Previous History of the Animals
Care and Feeding methods
Collection of Experimental Data
(1) Weighing
(2) Feeds

(a) Chemical Analyses

(b) Nutrients Required and

Nutrients Consumed

T3) Feeding

(a) Plane of Nutrition

(b) Mineral Supplement

Page
55
55
56
56
56
56
56
56
56
57
57
57
57
58
58
59
59
59
61
61
61
61

61
61
61
62

(0) Salt
(d) Blood Meal
(4) Measurement of Growth
(5) Health Observations
(a) General Appearance
(b) Appetite
(6) Reproduction
(a) Age at First Oestrum
(b) Heat Periods
(c) Number of Services for
Conception.
(d) Gestation Periods
(7) Metabolism of Feeds
(8) Blood Analyses
(9) Milk Production
(10) Butterfat Production
‘(a) Mbnthly Tests
(11) Photographs
(12) AutOpsy of Dead Animals

IV. Experimental Date

3e

b.

Oe~

d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.

D-Z
D-3
D-4
D-5
D-6
D-7
D-B
D-9
D-lO

Page
62
62
62
62
62
63
63
63
65

63
63
63
64

64

E

55
67
ee
'69
7o
71
72
74
75
76

J. D-ll
k. D-lz
l. D~13
m. D—14
n. D-l5
V. Discussion of Experimental Results
I. Period I. From 90 days of Age to
First Calving
a. Growth of the Animals
(1) Phosphorus Intake
(2) Phasphorus Requirement for
Growth
(5) Calcium Phosphorus natio
b. Health of the Animals
0. Reproduction
II. Period 11. First Lactation Period
a. Milk Production
(1) Phosphorus Intake
(2) Phosphorus Requirement for
Milk Production
(3) Calcium Phosphorus Ratio
b. Health of the Animals
0. Reproduction
D. Summary
E. Bibliography
F. Appendtx
a. Graphs
b. Tables

0. Plates

Page
77
78
79
79
80

82
82

86
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100
105
119a
120
135
165

INTRODUCTION

"Mbre Home Grown Dairy Feeds to Cut the Cost
of Milk Production", is a slogan which might be
accepted by all dairymen on farms in regions where
alfalfa hay can be economically grown.

Because of its palatability and high protein
content alfalfa hay is the most desirable roughage for
dairy cattle. For this reason it is assuming a posi-
tion of increasing importance in the rations of dairy
cattle.

Several investigators have reported that
rations consisting of alfalfa hay and the cereal
grains furnish sufficient protein and total digestible
nutrients for'the production of from 35 to 40 pounds
of milk a day. These reports have emphasized the im-
portance of alfalfa hay as a source of protein. They
have shown that for economical milk production less of
the protein-rich concentrates such as cottonseed meal,
linseed oil meal, corn gluten meal, and wheat bran
need be fed with alfalfa hay to properly balance the
ration.

Although alfalfa hay is the highest of the
roughages in protein content, it like all roughages,
is inherently low in phosphorus. The commonly used

protein-rich concentrates, howerver, are rich in phos-

phorus. Corn Silage, and the cereal grains, however,
are comparatively low in this element. With the
lessened amounts of the proteinsrich concentrates
needed to balance rations consisting of alfalfa, corn
silage and cereal grains, there follows a decrease in
the amount of phosphorus supplied by rations composed
of these home grown feeds.

In view of the low phosphorus content of rations
composed of alfalfa hay, corn silage and cereal grains,
a question.has arisen as to the ability of sudh rations
to meet the phosphorus requirements of growing dairy
heifers and lactating dairy cows which demand this
element in large amounts. This question seems an
especially pertinent one for Michigan dairymen since
analyses of samples of Michigan-grown alfalfa hay.have

revealed it to be comparatively low in phosphorus.

GENERAL DISCUSSION AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The dairy cow requires comparatively large
amounts of the mineral elements, calcium and phos-
phorua,for body maintenance and milk production. It
yields the greatest returns when a ration is fed which
is composed, as far as possible, of hmme grown feeds.

1 The standard method of feeding dairy cows during
the winter’months is to give a dry roughage such as hay;
a succulent roughage, the most common of which is corn
silage: and a grain.mixture.

With alfalfa hay as the dry roughage less of the
protein rich concentrates need be fed to provide a balanced
ration. These concentrates are high in phosphorus. The
question has arisen, therefore, as to the ability of alfal-
fa hay to provide for the mineral requirements of growing
dairy heifers and lactating dairy cows when home grown
rations are used. This is especially true in regions where

alfalfa is low in phosphorus.
iources of Phosphorus in a Dairy Ration

All roughages are, as a class of feeds, compara-
tively low in the element phosphorus. Grainssontain.much
larger quantities of phosphorus than roughages. Protein
supplements are, however, rich sources of phosphorus in

a dairy ration.

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The phosphorus canton of some of the more

common feeds as given by Ansby (ls) are as follows:

Hail

Alfalfa - case percent

Clover . 0.103
Timothy . 0.188
Soy Been - 0.837

Cereal Grains
Corn - 0.303
Oats - 0.484
Ihemt - 0.485

\

Succulent ' reeds
mgels «- 0.269 percent
30“ pulp " OeO" '

Protein Concentrates
meet bran - 1.833 percent
Linseed oil meal 0.706 "
Cottonseed meal - 1.09 "

Henry and Morrison (8) gave the phosphorus con-

tent of common barley and of corn silage as 0.371 percent

and 0.007 percent, respectively.

he more common feeding stuffs were classified by

Palmer (87) into phosphorus peer, medium phosphorus and

phosphorns‘rior ms folless:
IediemPhcsphcras Phcsflcms glen
All Cereal Grains meat Bran

Alfalfa Hay
Corn Stover

Phosphoggg Poor
Pearl Hominy

Polished die.
Beet Pulp-
Red Glover Hay

Timothy Hay
Cereal Straw

V

Corn Silage

sheet Iiddlings
Red Dog l'leur
Legume Seeds

Sweet "Clover Hay Cottonseed Heal
finch as:

Linseed Oil lesl

3
It is admitted that the content of any element
in any feed will vary from time to time. For this
reason.the above figures are not absolute. They do,
however, present the accepted idea as to the value of
the different feeds as sources of phosphorus in a dairy

mt ion.
Alfalfa Hg: as a Source of Phosphorus

Pram the foregoing tables it is seen that al-
though all roughages are low in phosphorus alfalfa is
the highest in this respect.

Figures from different investigators showed a
wide variation in the anount of phosphorus contained in
alfalfa hay obtained from different localities.

Huffman (3) reported an average phosphorus
analysis for nineteen samples chMichigan-grown alfalfa
hay as 0.178 percent. These samples were taken over a
five year pe riod.

Henderson.(4) working with dairy heifers in an
attempt to determine the effect of low phosphorus rations
on growth, used alfalfa hay purchased infiMichigan. It
contained an average of 0.159 percent phosphorus.

Amos and Bolts (5) in a study of the nitrogen and
mineral constituents of plants as affected by fertilisers
reported a large number ofsamples of alfalfa hay to have
an average of 0.254 percent phosphorus. These same in»
vestigators gave 0.2901 percent as the phosphorus content

of alfalfa hay when comparing it to other farm crops.

4

Huffman (3) found a variation in phosphorus of
from 0.120 percent to 0.250 percent.

Hell (74) studied alfalfa hay as the sole feed
for dairy stock. He found that dairy heifers from one
year to eighteen.months of age, and carried through one
and in some cases two lactaticns, made satisfactory
growth, and reproduced satisfactorily. He also found
that heifers fed alfalfa hay supplemented by a grain
mixture were slightly heavier at freshening time, and
produced more milk.and more butterfat than those which
did not receive grain. The increased milk.and butterfat
by grain feeding, however, barely paid for the grain.
These results speak well for alfalfa hay as a feed for
dairy cattle.

Praser (75) is a great exponent of alfalfa as a
feed for dairy cattle. He gave the phosphorus contact
of the hay as 0.20 pdrcent. He reported satisfactory
and economical production on alfalfa hay alone as a feed
for dairy cows.

Meigs (76), after comparing alfalfa hay to timothy
hay stated that alfalfa hay combined with a comparatively
simple mixture of concentrates made a complete or nearly
complete ration for dairy cows. In.his grain mixture,
however, he used corn meal, wheat bran, linseed oil meal
and cottonseed meal.

rorbes and co-workers (77) reported the following
analyses for alfalfa hay used in.their experiments con-

ducted while studying uthe mineral metabolism of the

A 5
Milch cow”: Percent phosphorus 0.169; 0.166; and 0.180.

Jones and Bullis (78) made a chemical study of
legumes and other forage crops of western Oregon. They
found that on an air dry basis alfalfa hay from the
valley section contained 0.221 percent phosphorus and
hay from Southern Oregon.contained 0.224 percent phosphorus.

Forbes and co-workers (79) reported alfalfa hay
as containing 0.221 percent phosphorus.

Bckles, Becker and Palmer (83), studying mineral
deficiencies in the ration of dairy cattle found that
less trouble was experienced when legume hay was fed in
the place of commonly used prairie hay, but the use of
home grown alfalfa hay by no means insured freedom.from
the trouble. They found one herd of cattle showing
especially severe symptoms of phosphorus deficiency,
‘including broken bones, which received alfalfa hay
regularly. .

Theiler and co-workers (49) in studying de-
praved appetite in range cattle stated that "supplementary
foodssueh.as maize and lucerne do not reduce osteophagia
(bone chewing) unless relatively rich in phosphorus and
fed in uneconomical amounts".

A review of the literature has not revealed a
figure lower’than.the 0.120 percent reported by Huffman
(3). His high figure, 0.250 percent, however, comes far
from being the math m percentage reported. Amos and
Bolts (5) gave 0.3415 percent phosphorus as the amount

contained in one of their series of samples.

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It is therefore evident that the amount of
phcsphorus in alfalfa hay may vary within a wide range.
flhus, fronts phosphorus standpoint at least,
some alfalfa hay may be two or three times as valuable

as some other hay made from the same plant.
Factors Affecting the Eercentage of Phosphorus in.A1falfa Hay

Phosphoric acid content of the soil. Ames and
Bolts (5) in showing the effect of phosphate fertilisers

 

on.the amount of phosphorus in.hay grown on such fertilized
soils, stated that hay from plots which received no ferti-
liser contained an.average of 0.2276 percent phosphorus.
fheir data for.hay sewn on plots which had received phos-
phate fertiliser showed an average phosphorus percentage

of 0.2601. In their work the amount of lime used with the
phosphate affected the phosphorus content of the hay. From
plots which received lune at the rate of 2500 pounds per
acre the phosphorus content averaged 0.2578 percent.

fhose plots which received lime at the rate of 6000 pounds
per’acre yielded an alfalfa with 0.2518 percent phosphorus.
fhese figures included plots which received no phosphate

as well as those which received a liberal application of
phosphate. fhe effect of lime en the phosphorus content

of the alfalfa when used with and without phosphate
fertilizer is as follows:

7
(2500 0.2133

Lime ( No Phosphate

(5000 0.2420

(2500 0.2665
Lime ( About 45 pounds phosphate per Acre

(5000 0.2538

Burke and co-workers (6) studied the effect of
fertilizing alfalfe plots with phosphate. In their work
the addition of 200 pounds of treble superphosphate per
acre increased the yield three percent and increased the
phosphorus content of the crop 10.41 percent in the first
cutting. The increase for the second cutting was, yield
3.1 pereent and phasphorus content 6.39 percent. They
stated that their results showed clearly that phOSphate
fertiliser could increase the phosphorus content of alfalfa,
clover, and timothy.

Price (7) fertilised alfalfa fields with limestone
and acid phosphate with the result that the yields as well
as the calcium and phosphorus contents of the hay were
increased. His data is rather striking.

Treatment First Cutting Second cutting
‘ Yield per A. % 0a. % P. Yield per A.% 0a. %P.

No treatment 728 pounds 0.66 0.054 500 pounds 1.52 0.259

2 tons limestone
per ‘Or. 972 n 2098 0e179 591 u 1.82 0e255

2 tons limestone
and 250 pounds

acid phosphate
pOr ‘Or. 1149 n 2e63 0e206 933 u 1.63 0.310

lather (8) analysed alfalfa hay from plots which
had been fertilized with phosphate fertilizers to determine

8
the particular fraction of the phosphorus which was in-
creased. His conclusions were that the increase in
phosphorus in alfalfa hay following the application of
fertilizers was practically all confined to the inorganic
fraction.

. Burke and co-workers (6) reported one case in
Cascade County, Mpntana where the application of phosphate
fertiliser increased the yield of alfalfa hay 12.5 percent
and the phosphorus content of the hay 21.09 percent. His
work with plots showed an.increase of 41.9 percent phos-
phorus in alfalfa, 50.6 percent in clover and 24 percent
in timothy. All plots yielded much greater growth than
the unfertilized plots.

2 Ames and Bolts (5) stated that the phosphorus
supply of the soil as increased by the addition of acid
phosphate was reflected by the phosphorus content of the
crop which followed the same order as theyields obtained.

Archibald and Nelson.(80) found that fertilizing
the soil with 55 pounds nitrogen, 55 pounds P205 and 67
DOInds of H20 per acre resulted in raising the phosphorus
content of the dry matter 10 percent over the unfertilized
check plot while the average total production of phosphorus
in six plots was 42 percent more per acre.

fheiler and cw-workers (49) reported the available
phosphoric acid content of the soil in the area of severe
phosphorus deficiency as 0.0005 percent. They stated after
experhmenting with fertilisers that acute bone chewing

9
practically disappeared when animals were turned on to
plots fertilized with high grade superphosphate.

Crawford (53) observed that the district which
showed the highest calcium and phosphorus soil contents
produced the best animals.

Theiler, Green and duToit (58) stated that their
eXperiments using plots for studying range vegetation
indicated that the phosphorus deficiency of the soil and
lack of rainfall were the two main:factors limiting the
carrying capacity of the ranges.

Rainfall

Fallon (9) stated as a result of studies on
irrigated alfalfa fields that in.Nevada irrigation in-
creased the phosphorus content of alfalfa hay. Hay from
fields which had not been irrigated for five years con-
tained 0.175 percent phosphorus on a dry matter basis,
while hay from similar fields which had been irrigated
frequently contained 0.220 percent phosphorus.

Widteoe and D‘tewart(10) studied the effect of
different amounts offlirrigation water on.the chemical
composition of crops. They stated that in general the
more water applied resulted in crops with higher ash
content. Their results were as follows:

Percent Ash in Alfalfa Whenggifferent Amounts of Water
Ire lsei W

Water in Inches First Crop Second Crop Third Crop

10.00 0.16
20.00 7.48 8.52 8.55
25.00 8.62 8.58 8.15

30000 8037 8056 "

10
Water in Inches First Crop Second Crop Third Crop
35.00 ” 8.79
50.00 12.28 9.16 8.55

Theiler and co-workers (49) reported a definite
connection between the rainfall and symptoms of phosphorus
deficiency. During May and June when these symptoms were
at their height the grass was old and dry and showed but
0.017 percent to 0.054percent phosphorus in the dry matter.
During October and November after the rains had come the
young grass showed fran 0.24 percent to 0.274 percent
phosphorus in the dry matter. Subsequent.to these rains
the bone chewing among the cattle ceased.

Comparing the composition of forage in areas in
which phosphorus deficiency was prevalent, with unaffected
areas, Scott (41) stated that soil analyses showed a
high calcium content and an apparently adequate phosphorus
content. He was at a loss to explain the fact that the
forage crops grown on these soils were deficient in
phosphorus. He inferred that the soil phosphorus was for
some reason notreadily available. He also stated that
the amount of precipitation during the years of his
investigation had no effect on the mineral content of the
grasses.

Welch (43) stated that in very dry years soils
containing plenty of minerals may produce forage deficient
in.mineral content as there is not enough moisture to
dissolve the soil constituents so that the plants could

take them up.

11

leidig, Icmle, and lagnuson (21) studied the
effects of sulfur, calcium, and phosphorus on the yield
and composition of alfalfa on six types of Idaho soils.
fhey found that the addition of phosphorus in the fan
of treble superphosphate increased the yield on all but
two cells. rho arid soils gave greater response to
applications of phosphate than did the humid seils. sh.
equivalent of 200 pounds of treble superphesphate per
core was used. In some cases, particularly lcscow loan,
the increase in yield was 71.3 percent.

Ickles, Becker and Palmer (83) found that in 1925
with 17.49 inches of rainfall the alfalfa hay contained
0.199 percent phosphorus, while in 1924 with 21.98 inches
precipitation the phosphorus was 0.221 percent.

It was the observation of all the investigators
studying phosphorus deficiency that the symptoms were
usually much more pronounced in dry years.

ghe Cutting

Kenn and lorrison (11) gave the percentage of
phosphorus in the different cuttings of alfalfa hay as
follows: first 0.256: second 0.256; third 0.232; fourth
0.214 percent.

lhe average percent of ash for the three cuttings
reported by Widtsoe and Stewart (10) were as follows:
first 9.19 percent; second 8.75 percent; third 8.40 percent.
In discussing ash percentages it is assumed that within
certain limits there is a correlation between the amount

of total ash and the phosphorus in samples of alfalfa hay.

12
lhe California Station (12) reported the

following figures of ashin the different cuttings: _
first 10.48 percent; second 7.99 percent: third 10.203
and fourth 9.57 percent.

Amos and Bolts (5) stated that the yields ob-v
tained from the first cuttings were always larger than
the second cuttings and that the percentages of nitrogen,
calcium and phosphorus and ptas'sium followed the yield.
The average phosphorus content for first cutting samples
was 0.2793 percent, while 0.2301 percent as the average
for second cutting samples.

naturitl of the Plant at grime of' Cutting

Swanson and Itatshaw (13) found that alfalfa out
at the bud stage yielded hay with the highest ash and
crude protein content. Widtsoe (14) analysed samples of
the alfalfa plant at intervals of a’week throughout the
growing season and found it to be highest in the bud stage.
They also found that the percentage of ash dropped quickly
as the plant reached the stage of medium bloom. Dinsmore
(15) reported findings similar to those of Swanson and
tan... (is) and met... (14). "

hem and sari-item. (16) tables showed that the
ash content of alfalfa decreased from 10.0 percent to 7.8
percent from the early bloom stage to the seed stage.

Orr (17) stated that young plants in the leafy
stage were much richer than old plants in mineral content.
Hence there was a seasonal variation, especially in the
percentage of calcium and phosphorus. These mineral

elements increased in the early part of the summer until

15

the plants were at the stage of maximum leaf and most
active growth. Shey then decreased as the plants
approached maturity.

iaee and Bolts (5) found that alfalfa cut in
tieoa contained the largest .aounts cf the more valuable
plant foods and nutritive constituents in the leaves.

W _

Quality of any kind of hay is influenced by many
factors. do the average dairyaan the most important of
these factors are those which affect palatability: namely,
color, leafiness and the absence of what is called
I'woodiness". the percentage of total digestible nutrients,
digestiblebrude protein, and the mineral centent are,
however, probably of acre importance in determining the
quality and feeding value of the hay.

the total digestible nutrients and the mineral
content of hay are affected by the maturity of the plant
when out according to Huffman (3),.0rr (17), and many others
who have studied this problem. ‘

he quality of hay is affected by the curing
process as shown by many investigators.

naaaggd 51 Rain. Huffman (a), Quoting findings
ef the Colorado Experiment St tion stated that whereas hay
which was cured without being damaged by rain showed an ash
content of 12.10 percent and a crude protein content of
10.71 percent, similar hay damaged by rain as found te
contain 12.71 percent ash and but 11.01 percent crude protein.

1d
Paturel (19) analysed damaged clover, alfalfa
and common hay which showdd a loss of from 15 to 35
percent in.dry matter. reading tests also showed a
proportionate loss in nutritive value for these roughages.

Beafiness of the §51;’fhe influence of the per-
centage of leaves on the quality of alfalfa hay is a
point often unappreciated. Swanson.and Latshaw (18) showed
that stems and leaves differ in the content of ash and that
leaves contain over two and one-half times as much crude
protein as the stems.

lender (20), working on the influence of soil type
on the magnesium and calcium contents of the alfalfa plant
stated that the ratio of stems to leaves was about equal on
the different soil types whidh he studied. rho average of
his ratio for six soil types was, leaves 60.81 percent to
stems 89.19 percent by weight.

fhat the percentage of leaves saved in curing
alfalfa hay may have a profound influence upon its mineral
content was shown by the following figures as given.by
Kenny and Morrison (16). Ash in alfalfa hay, 8.6 percent,
in alfalfa leaves, 13.6 percent and in alfalfa stuns 4.9.
percent.

Amos and Bolts (6) stated that considerable care
should betaken in harvesting the crop, since under most
favorable conditions the loss of leaves may amount to
about 15 percent of the crop. fheir figures on the
phosphorus content of the different parts of alfalfa plant

were as follows: seed, 0.5170 percent, stems, 0.2790 per-

15
'cent, and leaves 0.3780 percent.

These same authors (5) stated that rain removed
a considerable portion of the mineral and food elements
which are not securely combined in the alfalfa plant.
Results obtained by them in treating dried alfalfa with
water showed that 50 percent of the nitrogen and 75 per-
cent of the phosphorus were dissolved.

Hart and co-workers (81) found that the rate at
which calcimm was assimilated from hay depended very
largely on the manner in which the hay was treated after
being out. They secured positive calcium and phosphorus
balances in liberally lactating cows fed alfalfa hay
cured under caps. Ehe positive balances were increased
when fresh green alfalfa replaced the dry hay. These
workers suggested a relationship between calcium balances
in lactating cows when fed alfalfa hay and the quality of
the hay. By "quality" they referred to ”the relative
degree of destruction by curing process of the unknown
factors affecting calcium assimilation".

Hart and.associates (85) studied the influence
of method of curing upon the anti-rachitic properties of
hay by curing some hay in the dark and exposing other'hay
to ultra violet light during the curing process. They
fed these hays to goats. These investigators found that
the goats were in negative calcium balance when fed the
hay cured in the dark, but that the balances were changed
to positive when.they were fed the hay which had been ex-

lposedto ultra violet light. Hart and associates (85)

16
suggested a relationship between curing hay in the sun
and the value of the mineral elements in the hay. '

Amount of Phosphorus Required for Normal Growth

the literature on the amount of phosphorus re-
quired for normal growth in dairy calves is very meager.
fhe effects of feeding different amounts of calcium and
of phosphorus to different classes of animals, however,
have been the subject of countless investigations.

innsby (lb) stated that growth involves the
storage of matter in.a body, minerals being no exception.
These materials are not only combined into new tissue but
also may be stored in reserve for future use. While dis-
cussing total retention of phosphorus and calcium during
growth, he stated that the daily average retention was
0.071 grams calcium and 0.037 grams phosphorus per 1000
kilograms live weight the first year.

Soxhlet (95) stated that with calves the ash in
milk.was 53 percent digestible, calcium 97 percent and
phosphorus 72.5 percent digestible. Neumann,(97) working
with somewhat older calves secured the following results:
calcium was 45.3 percent and phosphorus 45.2 percent
digestible. these figures were obtained with skim.milk
diets.

Lehmann (98) and Weiske (99) both worked with
older calves cn.mixed rations. their results showed a
percentage availability of the phosphorus and calcium
fully as great as Neumann (97) obtained with skim milk.

17

Armsby (1d) concluded that the cause of the
lower'assimilation of phosphorus and calcium reported
by Neumann (97) was the lowered demand for these
elements in the body rather’than any lowered availabil-
ity of the elements themselves.

ringerling (100) has shown.that a variety of
organic phosphorus compounds may be quite completely
'assimilated from concentrated feeding stuffs. While
from.roughages he (101) observed an availability of
approximately 50 percent.

Kbllner (102) concluded that the feed should
contain from two to three times the amount of mineral
matter that would be stored. He came to this conclusion
as a result of esperiments which showed the phosphorus
in who feed to be from oneehalf to one-third available.

MbOollum and Simmonds (63b), working with low
calcium rickets stated that the rations used contained
"about an optimal amount of phosphorus (0.41 percent)".
' Osborne and lendel (22) have shown that the lack
of sufficient phosphorus in.the ration is promptly
characterized by a cessation.or a restriction of growth.
they stated that a shortage of an essential inorganic
element could be suitably remedied under ordinary condi-
tions by the use of its salts.

lbOollum and co-workers (23) in reporting on.a
study of the production of rickets in rats stated that
the absolute amount of phosphorus was not so important

as the ratio of calcium.to phosphorus in the ration.

18

Henderson and Weakley (24) worked with dairy
heifers in an attempt to show the effect of different
amounts of phosphorus in the ration on the growth and
development of the animals. They found 0.131 percent
phasphorus in the ration the second year lowered the
inorganic phosphorus of the blood below normal.

They also found that a ration below 0.20 per-
cent phosphorus gave rise to bone low in ash and there-
fore low in calcium and phosphorus.

McCollum (25) as a result of his studies con-
siders an optimal r2 05 content of the dry matter in a
ration to be 0.95 percent. Converted to phosphorus this
figure becomes 0.4148 percent.

That there is danger of a deficiency of phos-
phorus in the rations of cattle is shown by the re-
searches of many investigators. The review of their
findings will be made in the sections provided for
discussing the diseases produced by a phosphorus de-
ficiency.

Palmer (37) in a discussion of minerals for
fram animals stated, "It is somewhat difficult to fix
a limit for the phosphorus content of foods below which
the food can be said to be deficient. Nevertheless, .
'there seems to be good evidence that if the dry matter
of the food contains less than 0.20 percent of the
element, phosphorus, it may be classes as a phosphorus
deficient food, and ifomore than 0.50 percent phosphorus

it may be classed as phosphorus rich".

l9

Theiler, Green and duToit (64) in studying the
mineral requirmnents in cattle found that a ration
supplying 2.23 grams of phosphorus and 4.99 grams of
calcium per day was deficient. Animals frmn 12 to 18
months of age withstood this level of mineral intake for
from three to six months. They then showed symptoms of
mineral deficiency disease.

Theiler and co-workers (49) in discussing
osteOphagia, or bone chewing, in cattle grazed on.South
African veld stated that ”in.any given diet it is the
percentage of phosphorus in relation to the total feeding
value which is of importance in determing osteophagia.
The better the pasture the higher must be the percentage
of phosphorus in dry matter, and conversely the poorer
the pasture the lower need be its percentage of phosphorus,
since the cattle, by eating more of the poorer quality
vegetation thereby raise their absolute daily phosphorus
intake. For this reason cattle need not necessarily
develop marked osteophagia on a veld containing as little
as 0.07 percent phosphorus, in the dry matter, although
where it falls below 0.043 percent osteOphagia would be
expected even when.the nutritive value of the grass is so
low that the grazing consumption approaches the limit
of the digestive capacity of the cattle".

These same authors (49) found that. with cattle
grazing cn.the veld a daily consumption of about 11.79

grams of phosphorus was regarded as somewhere about the

' 20
point at which osteophagia could develop or disappear
in grazing cattle of 1000 pounds live weight.

They stated that for old oxen the intake of
11." grams of phosphorus per 1000 pounds was probably
more than enough to prevent osteophagia while for young
cattle or milk cows this intake was certainly too low.

Amount of Phosphorus Required for [ilk Production

The mineral metabolism of lactating dairy cove
has been the subject of numerous investigations. Re-
search workers, realizing the importance of minerals
in the ration of the dairy cow have attempted, not so
much to dotenaine the exact phosphorus requirements for
milk production, as to ascertain the value of certain
feeds for maintaining lactating cove in phosphorus
equilibrium.

Cases of cove on negative calcium and negative
phosphorus balances have been reported by Meigs and
associates (65), Hart and associates (81), Reed and
Huffman (72), Torbes and co-workers (ice) and a great
mam others. These investigators are agreed that such
negative mineral balances cannot continue indefinitely.
There is a certain point beyond which this depletion of
mineral stores cannot proceed. Thus, accoeding to these
authors, when a cow reaches this point in her mineral
metabolism she must diminish her milk flow so as not to
further deplete heroin supply.

21

Mineral requirements for maintenance have been
studied by several investigators. drmsby (1c) stated,
"that a supply of the so-called mineral or ash ingredients,
as well as of protein and the energy yielding materials,
is necessary for the maintenance and growth of animals,
has been fully recognized since the time of Liebig".
l'orster (104) in 1873 and Lunin (105) in 1881 demonstrated
that animals-could live longer without any food at all
than when fed ash-free diets.

Reasons given by Armsby (lo) for the necessity of
ash were, "their use in the skeleton and soft tissues:
specific uses of such elements as iron, fluorin, and
iodin; maintenance in the body fluids and tissues of (a)
normal osmotic pressure, (‘3) relative concentrations of
various irons, and (c) as a specific case of the latter,
the preservation» of neutrality".

Diakow's (106) and Cochrane's (107) experiments
more each worked with a single steer are of interest.
Diakow found that 52.2 grams calcium and 20.4 grams phos-
phorus in the feed per 1000 pounds live weight sufficied '
to support some gains by the body. Cochrane reported that a
minimum of 66.67 grams calcium per 1000 poundsresulted in
a gain while 17.6 grams was sufficient for maintenance.
Henneberg's (108) results showed that smaller amounts of
calcium and phosphorus would suffice. He reported that
40.8 grams calcium and 9.53 grams phosphorus were adequate

for maintenance of a 1000 pound animal.

22

Kcllner (102) computed the approximate require-
ments for calcium and phosphorus from the outgo in the
milk. He accepted Henneberg's (108) estimate of 71.4
grams calcium and 21.8 grams (phosphorus per 1000 kilo-
grams live weight for maintenance and added to these three
times the amount found in the milk, on the somewhat
questionable assumption that only one-third to one-half
the feed ash was available. Thus a .1000 pound cow giving
twenty pounds of milk would require 61 grams of calcium
and 25 grams of phosphorus for maintenance and milk
production.

Theiler (49) believed that for old oxen an intake
of 11.79 grams phosphorus per 1000 pounds as probably more
than enough for maintenance.

lieige and co-workers (65), in studying the calcium
and phosphorus metabolism of dairy cows reperted in the
first of two experiments that they found the calcium .
assimilation of cows was apt to be greatly interfered with
by any influence which tended to throw them even slightly
off feed. From their two emperiments they concluded that
cows usually assimilated about 20 percent of the intake
of the calcium from well cured hay.

Workers at the Vermont Agricultural Experiment
station (66) studied the maintenance requirements of daia
cows. Reporting on factors affecting these maintenance
requirements they stated that heavily milking cows, losing
both calcium and phosphorus on a ration of timothy hay,

'-

 

23
corn silage and a grain mixture showed decided storage
of both minerals when steamed bohe meal and ground lime-
stone were added. They found that dry cows on a winter
maintenance ration also assimilated calcium and phos-
phorus when.these minerals were fed. They also found
that exercise or lack of exercise might prove a vital
factor in the determination of mineral balances. In
their trials the retention of calcium and phosphorusinas
reduced when the cows were not exercised.

Rose (67) worked with a single cow, varying the
amounts of organic phosphorus in the ration. He fed
straw, polished rice, wheat gluten.and wheat bran (washed
or not). In this experiment, as in previous work there
was in all cases more inorganic phosphorus eliminated
tharihad been given in.the ration. This showed that the
end product of phosphorus metabolism is inorganic phos-
phate, which in herbivava is excreted chiefly by way of
the intestinal canal as salts of the alkali earths. He
quoted Berg as saying that this is chiefly tri-basic
calcium phosphate. He concluded that for maintenance of
phOSphorus equilibrium in this species of aniaml the re-
quirement would seem to be the amount of phosphorus
eliminated in the milk plus 26 milligrams per kilogram of
body weight; an excess over this amount resulting in
phosphorus retention, and smaller amounts resulting in
loss of phosphorus from the organism.

Reed and Huffman (72) found that a ration con-
sisting of timothy hay, corn silage and grain, with no

24
mineral supplement other than.common salt furnished
sufficient calcium and phosphorus for normal growth,
good reproduction and liberal milk production. Their
cows which received a mineral supplement of bone flour
were, however, reported to be in the best health of any
of the animals in their experiment. These investiga-
tors reported that cows getting bone flour increased in
milk production and produced larger calves as they be-
came older. 7

meigs and Woodward (70) believed from their
studies that standard rations without mineral supplements
did not supply sufficient calcium and phosphorus to main-
tain.high milk yield year after year. In their experi-
ments cows after having been fed in excess of the most
liberal feeding standard responsed to phosphate feeding by
increased milk production.

In discussing the mineral feed problem in.Wisconsin,
Hart, Steenbock and merrison (73) stated that the use of
wheat bran and certain other protein concentrates rich in
phosphorus would generally solve the phosphorus feeding
needs of growing and high producing livestock.

Forbes (103), meigs and Woodmard (70).and Hart and
co-workers (81), reported negative calcium-and phosphorus
balance as nearly universal in milking cows receiving
recognized standard rations without mineral supplements.

Huffman, dobinson and Winter (109), on the other

hand found that their cows were much more frequently in

25
positive calcium and phosphorus balance than was re-
ported by Forbes (103), Mei'gs and Woodward ('70), Hart
and co-workers (81). This apparent lack of agreement
as to the mineral needs of heavily milking cows may be
explained by the fact that Huffman and associates se-
cured much better utilization of calcium and phosphorus
than was reported by the other investigators.

Various authorities suggested different amounts
of mineral supplements to use under varying conditions.

While these recommendations are really nothing
more than opinions they reflect the beliefs of these
workers. Maynard (68) suggested equal parts of bone
meal and finely ground limestone when a mineral supple-
ment was needed. He recommended from 2 to 5 ounces of
this mixture per head a day.

Sctola and co-workers (69) recommended four
parts bone meal to one of salt for dairy cows. They
’ recommended from 2 to 5 percent of this mixture in the
grain.

Huffman and Reed (71) recommended free access
by cows getting a ration consisting of legumes and
cereal grains which may be deficient in phosphorus, to

a mixture of equal parts steamed bone meal and salt.

CalciumsThosphorus Ratio for'Hormal Growth

The calcium phosphorus ratio in the diet has

been the subject of many investigations.

26

Hccollum and co-wcrkers (26) showed the effect
of varying the rations between calcium and phosphorus
in.the diet on the histological picture of the bones.

- Small deviationsfrom the optimal composition of the
food, in certain cases, produced profound changes in
themsnner of organization of the finer structures of
the living tissues.

HoOollmn, Simmonds, shipley and Park (23) ob-
served that the ratio between the calcium and phosphorus
in.the diet, may within certain limits, be of greater
significance to the welfare of an animal than the abso-
lute amounts of these substances contained in the diet.

Hang and Palmer (27), after studying the effects
of variations in the proportions of calcium, magnesium
and phosphorus contained in the diets of rats, concluded
that the general trend of their results left no doubt
that a more or less balanced condition of calcium,
magnesium and phosphorus salts of the ration was essential
to normal growth and functioning.

Bethke and cc-workers (28), working with chickens
found that the optial, or near optimal, calcium phos-
phorus ratio lay between 3:1 and 4:1 and that requirements
of chickensfor the antirachitic factor were the lowest
when this calciumephosphorus ratio was maintained. They
observed as did.Hccollum (26) that within certain lhmits
of concentration, the ratio of calcium to phosphorus was
of greater significance in calcification and growth than

the absolute amounts of the elements in.the ration. Bethke

27

and co-workers presented data which showed that phos-
phorus may be as much of a limiting factor as calcium
in growth and bone formation.

Turner and Hartman (29) made a study of an
adequate ration for high producing cows and the effect
of exercise upon calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen
balances. Two cows giving from 27 to 29 killograms of
milk.daily were fed an excellent dairy ration with a
calcium-phosphorus ratio which varied from 1.09 to 1.19.
Both cows remained in negative calcium and negative
phosphorus balances during seven weeks on.metabolism test.

Tum, Harding and Hartman (30), working with two
cows found a better assimilation of calcium from alfalfa
hay than from clover. Their metabolism data suggested a
better assimilation of calcium and phosphorus when the
value of the calciumnphosphorus ratio was 1.25 than when
it was 2.5.

Shohl and Bennett (31) worked with rickets-
producing rations and studied their effects on dogs fed
a high calciumplow phosphorus diet. The calcium-phos-
phorus ratio was 0.66. This diet produced rickets-in ' .
less than 10 weeks.- The fastest growing dogs developed
the most severe rachitic lesions. They quoted Boas as
saying that the normal ratio between calcium and phos-
phorus retention in the rat is 1.58. They also stated
that data from many published articles on the normal ratio
for calcium phosphorus retention in the infant is the

same. It was their opinion that higher ratios represented

28
excess calcium retention while lower ratios represented
excess phosphorus retention. Shohl's rachitic dogs
showed a calcium-phosphorus retention ratio of from
9.0 to 2.4 and 9.8 to 00. The ratio between the two
elements in.his mildly rachitic dogs was from 2.7 to 1.9
and for.his normal dogs from 1.7 to 1.4.

Sherman and Quinn (32) demonstrated the inter-
dependence of calcium and phosphorus in the diet of white
rats by limiting the calcium intake. With deficient
calcium intake the percentage of phOSphorus in the body
of the rats was the same regardless of whether cod liver
oil was, or was not, supplied. They concluded that in
this work calcium was the limiting factor, for as soon
as it was increased in the food the storage of both
minerals increased. I

Shelling and co-workers (33) made studies upon
calcification in vitro by using rachitic and non-rachitic
human bodies. ri-‘hey found the ratio between calcium and
phosphorus to be very near that in Tri-calcium phosphate
or 1.93. They also found that when calcification did
occur the type of calcium-phosphorus compound laid down
appeared to be independent of the inorganic phosphorus
concentration of the blood serum. In.their work, the
ratio of calcium phosphate to calcium carbonate was
higher, however, the greater the inorganic phosphorus
concentration of the serum.

Meigs, and co-workers (34) using four lactating

cows, two in each of two experiments, concluded that

29
phosphorus assimilation may be interfered with by an
excess of calcium in the ration and that two parts or
more by weight of calcium to one of phosphorus con-
stituted an excess. '

Hc0011um and Simmonds (63a) found that for rats
the most favorable relationship between calcium and
phosphorus was ”a considerable excess of calcium over
phosphorus in percent of the diet".

Scott (41) found that the proportion of calcium
to phosphorus in the food supply was a factor in regula-
ting the amount of phosphorus retained by the growing
animal. He drew attention to the fact that on a tri-
calcium-phosphate basis the legumes have a large excess
of calcium over that required for chemical combination
with phosphorus. He also found that wild grasses from
areas from districts free from phosphorus deficiency
showed an excess of phosphorus over calcimn, but that
corresponding samples from districts in which phosphorus
deficiency occurred showed an excess of calcium. He made
these calculations to show that there is more pomdbility
of the phosphorus than of the calcium content of forage

from affected areas falling short of a combining proportion.

Ehosphorus Deficienqy in the Ration

Several workers have reported cases of phosphorus
deficiency in the diets of nearly all classes of animals.

There are apparently two types of phosphorus deficiency,

30
one being insufficient phosphorus in the diet, and the
other being an unbalanced condition existing between

the calcium and the phosphorus in the ration.
gypes of Phosphorus Deficiengy

Phosphorus Content Below Minimum. Just what is
the minimum content of phOSphorus in.the ration which
will give satisfactory results with dairy cattle is
still somewhat of an enigma.

Reports have come from all over the world of
certain "diseases" which have been attributed to a de-
ficiency of phosphorus in the rations of cattle in those
sections. These sc-called "diseases" have been cured by
various methods, all of which included the use of some
phosphorus-carrying substance. Theiler and associates
(49) fed bone meal, Eckles. Becker and Palmer (83) used
mono sodium phosphate.

Calcium - Phosphorus Ratio Upset. Cases of phos-
phorus deficiency caused by a lack of balance between the
calcium and the phosphorus in the ration of cattle were
not observed.

Concerning the mineral elements in animal nutri-
tion, Orr (35) states that "excess or deficiency of one
mineral element may interfere not only with the absorption,
but also with the utilization of another. So the ratios
of the different mherals to each other and to the organic
constituents are almost as important as their absolute

amounts".

31
Evidences of’Phosphorus Deficiency

Depraved Appetite. A depraved appetite is de-

 

fined as a craving or liking for substances not
ordinarily classed as foods. Cattle exhibit this
symptom under varying conditions. Taylor {36) Observed
that depraved appetite developed in calves fed on con-
centrates alone.

Since his grain mixture contained what would
ordinarily be considered an abundant supply of phosphorus
this condition obviously could not have been caused by a
deficiency of phosphorus. In cases of animals developing
depraved appetite while being fed concentrates alone he
found that cravings could be cured by feeding roughageo
In some cases the roughage used was timothy hay - in others
alfalfa. He ascribed the cure of the depraved appetite to
some "unknown factor" carried by the hay. He also stated
that thus factor was probably not a mineral since a
mineral mixture similar to the mineral combination found
in hay failed.to relieve the depraved appetite.

Cattle with depraved appetite chew sticks of
wood, bones. old pieces of leather, sacks or anything
available according to Pacer (37).

Environments causing depraved appetite to develop
in cattle under conditions other than those of the laboratory
are, according to Theiler, Green and duToit (38), a low

phosphorus content of the soil which results in a low per-

32
centage of phoSphorus in the herbage growing on that
soil. Such forage fails to meet the needs of the
animal with the result that it starts to chew bones,
wood, etc.

Reed and Huffman (39) attributed depraved
appetite to a deficiency of phosphorus in the ration.

Tuff (40) observed that it was only in certain
areas that cattle exhibited depraved appetite. Upon
analysing the soils in these areas he found them to
contain but 0.002 percent phosphorus, whereas in the
unaffected areas the soil contained 1.21 percent phos-
phorus. The; hay taken from the affected areas con-
tained 0.065 percent phosphorus contrasted to 0.19 per-
cent phosphorus in the hay from the unaffected areas.

Scott (41),studying phosphorus deficiency in
forage feeds of range cattle in.Montana found that in
areas of depraved appetite in cattle the phosphorus con-
tent of the forage was lower than in similar forage
from unaffected areas. ‘He found that wet, marshy
meadows were responsible in.a great many cases for
mineral nutrition disorders. In unaffected areas alfalfa
hay cantained 0.18 percent phosphorus while in affected
areas it contained 0.109 percent phosphorus.

Schmidt (42) found that osteophagia (bone chewing)
could be prevented or cured by feeding a mixture of three
parts bone meal and two parts salt to range cattle of fexas.

Welch (43), studying bone chewing in cattle found
that cattle confined to limited range and especially those

33
fed "wild hay! and uSuallythat grown on low ground, were
observed to chew bones. This condition developed in the
winter and lasted until well into the summer. He stated
that this tendency to chew bones was the first sign of a
mineral deficiency and that it was a deficiency of phos-
phate of lime in soils and grasses.

Hedlund (44) pointed out that depraved appetite
tended to develop in cattle fed on haycharacterized by
low alkalinity, the proportion of alkaline material to
the dry matter content of the plant being little larger
and sometimes even smaller than the proportion of chlorine
and sulfur. A high degree of alkalinity and a low crude
fiber content were regarded by this author as determining
the quality of hay.

hurray (45), describing depraved appetite in
cattle stated, "they have a capricious and variable
appetite as regards their ordinary feed, but evidence
strong desire to lick and eat substances for which healthy
cattle have no inclination”. He also stated, "this condi-
tion frequently precedes the condition in which the bones
of cattle become brittle and fracture easily, known as
cesteomalada".

Orr (46) was inclined to regard depraved appetite,
or "pica", and "osteomalacia" act as two separate "diseases",
but as different manifestations of the same disease. He
considered the pics as merely the outward manifestation
of an insttotive craving for some substance, the deficiency

of which was the cause of the lesions in the bones and the

accompanying symptoms of malnutrition found in
Osteomalacia.

Cauis and Bharucha (47) were inclined to think
after investigating the subject of earth eating and
salt licking among men and animals in India, that these
habits were due to a deficiency of one or more of the
following elements, calcium, phosphorus or iron. They
stated that salt licking was not due to a lack of sodium
chloride.

According to Hart and co-workers (48), the
symptoms of animals used insstudying phosphorus deficiency
were, extreme emaciation, stiffness intthe hind quarters,
and at times, in the front quarters, swollen joints,
harshness of coats, dull eyes, unthrifty condition.and
depraved appetites.

Marcq (50) stated that osteophagia (chewing of
bones) was proof of lack of phosphorus in the food.

theiler and co-dorkers (49), after a thorough
investigation of conditions of phosphorus deficiency ex-
isting in South Africa stated that the immediate cause
of bovine OsteOphagia was shown to be a deficiency of
phosphorus in the veld vegetation of soils very low in
phosphorus content. They also stated that the main im-
portance of osteophagia lies in the fact that it is the
precusor of the dreaded lamziekte. Discussing the subject
of osteophagia they made the following observation -
"although it has never been observed to pass over independ-
ently into a disease with an incidence of mortality of its

own, it is probably of importance in relationship to the

35
rate of growth of young stock and to the milk yield of
cows".

These same authors (49) produced osteophagia
experimentally by feeding cattle upon a phosphorus de-
ficient ration, and again removed it by the simple
addition of phosphoric acid to the diet. Continuing
their discussion they stated, "the relationship be-
tween the minimum phosphorus requirements for preven~
tion of osteophagia and the irreducible minimum physio-
logical requirements for life and health has not been
worked out. But the fact that cattle can show
ostecphagia for ten months of every year of their lives,
and still remain in good health and reproduce their.kind
suggests that osteOphagia is manifested before the point
at which continuous draining of the phosphorus from the

tissues begins".
Effects of Phosphorus Deficiengy

The effects of a phosphorus deficiency in the
ration may be divided into two classes, the visible
effects and the invisible effects. One of the first of
the visible effects, depraved appetite, has already been
discussed.

That pica,on depraved appetite, is the first
outward manifestation of a phosphorus deficiency was
stated by Orr (46), Theiler and co-workers (49) and
Marcq (50).

I‘vw

. .
. .
I a
7 l
i r
..
.
n' . .
a . - »
— - . . . . . .
, \A , -
‘ e
- . _
, .
a , <
v s‘ I .
- - o- - - _

 

_ w _ so

Among the unnoticed effects of phosphorus
deficiency may be the poorer utilization of their
feed by animals on a phosphorus deficient ration.

Eckles and Cullickscn (84) used cows taken from a

region where a phosphorus deficiency in the forage

was known to exist. These cows were continued on

the same ration and fed hay purchased from the de-
ficient region. This ration consisted of good quality
prairie hay and oats. cn.the basal ration the animals
remained in an unthrifty condition and in most cases
barely maintained their weight. ‘Under these conditions
six to fifteen pounds of digestible nutrients was re-
quired per pound of gain. When.phcsphorus in the form
of 083 (20413 or H332 to, was added the animals showed
improvement in condition within a walk. Within three
weeks the lameness, creaking of Joints and abnormal
appetites disappeared. Under these conditions it required
from one to three pounds of digestible nutrients to pro-
duce a pound of gain. They reported no improvement in
their*animals when fed CaCos in the ration. As a result
of their experiment they concluded that with phosphorus
on this level cows required at least 20 percent more
digestible nutrients than.when.a phosphorus supplement
was fed.

Calcium and Phosphorus Content of the Blood. Accord-
ing to Robinson.and Huffman (86) the amount of inorganic
phosphorus contained in 100 c.c. of normal beef blood is
5.98 milligrams. The amount of calcium in 100 0.0. was

given by them as 11.00 mg. These figures are the average

37
of over 100 samples.

Since the blood is the medium by which the food
elements are carried to the body tissues, any abnormality
in the blood should affect the tissues accordingly. Various
factors which might affect the composition of the blood
have been.the subject of much study. In this study the
concentration of calcium and of inorganic phosphorus have
been of main interest.

Meigs, Blatherwick.and Cary (87) stated that normal
blood plasma contained no phosphorus compounds at all ex-
cept phosphatides and inorganic phosphates, which certainly
comprised more than 97 percent of all the phosphorus that
existed in the plasma. They stated that the concentrations
of these fractions were highly variable, that both could be
made to vary by changing the amount of phosphorus supplied
by the rations though the inorganic phosphorus showed the
most marked variation. Both calcium and phosphorus under-
went variations as the animal grew older and during the
later stages of pregnancy.

malan, Green and duToit (88) found that the out-
standing characteristic of the blood of cattle grazing on
phosphorus deficient pasture was the low content of in-
organic phosphorus with a corresponding reduction of the
total phosphorus. In their work a normal content of in-
organic phosphorus was secured when a "small ration" of
bone meal was adddd. Heifers supplied-with bone meal
showed a normal phosphorus of 5 mg per 100 c.c. of blood,
while control animals showed only 2.3 mg. per 100 c.c.

They stated that in general low inorganic phosphorus con-

38
tent of the blood was associated with poor condition.

Palmer, Cunningham and Eckles (89) observed
that the inorganic blood phosphate in individual cattle
might vary markedly from day to day even when.the blood
was drawn under apparently identical conditions. They
also found that exercise caused marked changes in the
blood phosphorus. There was at first a rise followed by
a marked fall which persisted for several hours.

Harvard and Easy (90) also studied the influence
of exercise on the inorganic phosphate of the blood. They
worked with the adult men whose exercise consisted of
running for varying lengths of time. Their results for
human blood corroborated the findings of Palmer and
associates (89).

Bethke and associates (90) found that in the
absence of normal growth.there was shown a general tendency
for reduced calcium content of the blood and ash content
of the bones. The phosphorus content of the blood was
found more constant, but apparently as the calcium in»
creased there was a tendency for the phosphorus to be
depressed.

These results are in contrast to those of Palmer
and associates (89), and to those of Meigs, Blatherwick
and Cary (87) who found that the concentration of calcium

was quite constant in.the blood plasma of the cow.

59 .

In an experiment to determine the effects of
phosphorus deficient rations on the blood composition
in cattle, Palmer and Eckles (92) worked with animals
reared in a phosphorus deficient region and under ex-
perimental observation for at least 75 days before the
first analysis. The calcium content of the ration was
not high, but apparently adequate. The ration of a dry
cow contained 0.08 percent phosphorus and 0.56 percent
calcium. Cows giving 12 pounds of milk received a
ration containing 0.15 percent phosphorus and 0.50 per~
cent calcium. Dry cows getting a phosphorus supplement
received a ration containing 0.28 percent phosphorus and
0.55 percent calcium. Their’animals showed low inorganic
phosphorus but normal calcium throughout. The product of
calcium times phosphorus, or the calcium phosphorus area,
for the low phosphorus animals was rarely above 50 and
sometimes below 20. This was in contrast to the area for

the group receiving NaHZPo which was from 50 to 75.

4

Reproduction on Phosphorus Deficient nations. Orr
(17a) stated that in areas where there was a general
poverty of minerals the rate of growth of the young animals
was slow, the milk yield of cows was low, and the fertility
of the females was also low.

Lindsey and Archibald (95), in studying the value
of calcium phosphate as a supplement to theration.of deny
cows, divided their whole herd into two groups as much
alike as possible. They fed one group steamed bone meal

as a supplement to a low calcium - low phosphorus ration.

40

They found no difference in the amount of breeding troubles
in the two groups. They reported, however, that the group
receiving no bone meal dropped a higher percentage of weak
or delicate calves.

Eckles, Becker and Palmer (85) found that cows in
the areas of phosphorus deficiency in Minnesota showed a
decided retardation of oestral period, some not showing
oestrum until a year after freshening. They gave this as
the cause of poor calf crcps in phosphorus deficient areas.
They found that in some cases after dry seasons the calf
crop was often.not more than fifty percent.

‘ Theiler and associates (94),after studying the
breeding of cows on phosphorus deficient pasture for two
years, found that in one lot not receiving any phosphorus
supplement to the veld only 51 percent of the cows calved
normally, as compared to 80 percent in the lot receiving
bone meal. Calves from cows receiving bone meal and them-
selves fed bone meal were far superior at one year of age
to those from control cows and themselves not receiving
bone meal after weaning.

Osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is defined by Dorland

 

(51) as abnormal porousness or rarification of bone by the
enlargement of its canals or the formation of abnormal
spaces.

Dr. Bitting (52) called a disease of.horses locally
known as "big head", "osteoporosis". It affected both
native and imported horses in Florida. It was evidenced

by a swelling of the Jaw bones. Other bones in the body

41
were often misshapen. The shoulders and legs were often
swollen and stiff. The bones were enlarged and cancellated.
Their surfaces covered by hard brittle emanences or pro—
liferations. The entire bone became porous, the marrow of
an albuminous consistency, cartilages reduced or worn away.
The roughening of the bony surface seemed to give the bones
strength.

Crawford (55) blamed mineral deficiencies in the
pasture of Ceylon for stunted growth, poor milkproduction,
sterility and poor development of tooth and horn in cattle,
for osteoporosis in horses, and for the inability of im-
ported animals to develop on pasture without supplementary
feeding.

McCollum and co-workers (25) stated that when both
calcium and phosphorus were low but in the correct proportion
to each other osteoporosis, and not rickets developed.

Osteomalacia. Another disturbance fellowing a

 

period of mineral deficiency is osteomalacia according to
Orr (17b). He gave the results of 22 investigations in
discussing hay which caused "brittle bone" or "osteomalacia".
The average phosphorus content of these hays was 0.09 per-
cent. He averaged the results of eleven investigators
working with hay fed to cattle which showed no symptoms of
mineral deficiency. The average was 0.229 percent. These
figures were on a dry matter basis. He stated that after
comparing the figures for calcium and phosphorus that they
showed a more definite correlation between low phosphorus
ration and osteomalacia than between low calcium.ration

and osteomalacia.

42

Dorland (51a) defined osteomalacia as a softening
of the bones. A disease marked by increasing softening
of the bones so that they became flexible and brittle. It
is attended by rheumatic pains. The patient becomes weak
and finally dies from exhaustion. It occurs chiefly in
adults.

This softening of the bones is accomplished by a
resorption of their mineral content whenever the food
supply is inadequate in.minerals according to Armsby (1f),
who regards the skeleton of the animal as a storehouse in
which, during periods of super abundance of calcium and
phosphorus, these elements are stored up for use during ‘
periods of inadequate supply of these elements.

Carry (54) reported a "deficiency disease" occuring
among cattle grazing on the coastal plains in Southern
Alabama. When grass became old and dry cattle exhibited
depraved appetite, chewed old bones, and some more said
to eat slugs or grasshoppers. Milking cows came down first.
They got very weak and lay down most of the time. Their
bones became soft and flexible. Pressure on the nerves
produced paralysis. In rare cases the bones of the
limbs and pelvis were fractured. They recovered quickly
when rains came and the grass began to grow or if '
turned into good fields of velvet beans or peas.

§tyfsiekte. The term styfziekte was found frequently
in the literature. It is, according to Theiler, Green and
duToit (64) a South African term which, when translated,
means stiff sickness. It showed itself in retardation of

growth and abnormal skeletal development, the most obvious

45
features of whidh were the thickening of the epiphyses of
the leg bones, most pronounced at the metacarpus and first
phalangeal Joints of the fore limbs. The head andilorns
were sometimes disproportionately long and the skeleton
was light. The disease resembled that referred to in
European Veterinary literature as osteomalacia.

These workers (64) produced two cases of typical
styfziekte by diets high in calcium but low in phosphorus.
They found that they could cure the naturally occurring
disease by supplementing the grazing areas in which it was
prevalent with phosphorus compounds only. The authors
concluded as a result of these investigations that it was
definitely established that the styfziekte of South
Africa was a straight aphcsphorosis.

They stated further (64) that they had produced
aphcsphorosis. or clinically recognizable phosphorus de-
ficiency experimentally and had shown it to be identical
with the naturally occurring South African disease "styfziekte".

Damsiekte. According to Dorland (510) lamziekte
is a disease affecting cattle, characterized by lameness,
humping of the back, and paralysis of the muscles of de-
glutition.

Theiler and cc-workers (49) stated that lamziekte
is the name originally given by the South African pioneering
farmers to a fatal disease of.cattle, characterized by
symptoms of paralysis and paresis, principally of the
locomotor system, but in many cases also of the muscles

of mastication and deglutiticn. Translated, lamziekte

44
means lame sickness. Hence there is an intimate connection
between the symptoms of the disease and its name.

Theiler and co-workers (49) gave the etiology of
the disease as follows. (1) Phosphorus deficiency of the
soil. (2) Consequent phoSphorus deficiency of the herbage
growin thereon. (5) Pica and more especially osteomagis
in cattle. (4) Eating carcass debris. (5) This debris in-
fested with a toxicogenic soprophite (parabotulinus bovis)
which formed a toxin. (6) Toxin caused lamziekte. He
stated that all six links in the chain.must be present to
produce lamziekte. Dow phosphorus herbage could be pre-
vented by phosphate manuring the soils deficient in that
element. Oste0phagia could be cured by feeding bone meal
or other phosphorus rich substances. Still lamziekte could
be prevented by removing carcass debris from the veld.

Theiler (49) made it plain that this disease is
specifically caused by the saprcphyte, parabotulinus bovis.

.Marcq (50) stated that lamziekte can only be con-
tracted by osteOphagy; that osteOphagy is certainly caused
by lack of phosphorus in the food; that it is more marked
on old grass and less accentuated on new grass richer in
phosphorus.

Schmidt (55) investigated a disease occurring among
the range cattle grazing on the costal plains of Texas. The
animals, apparently in good state of nutrition, would
suddenly show a complete breakdownof the organs of locomo-
tion. The disease was prevalent from May to Septemberand
attacked animals over 18 months of age. The animals lost

control of the loin muscles, went down and were unable to

45
rise. They seldom recovered if once down. He ascribed
(tentatively) the cause to toxins produced by bacterial
action in carcass material cn.the prairie and the consump-
tion of such putrid material by cattle. Sir Arnold Theiler
visited this region and stated that he considered this
disease as identical with lamziekte.

Rickets. Dorland (510) defined rickets as a
constitutional disease of childhood in which the bones be-
come soft and flexible from retarded ossification, due to
deficiency of the earthly salts. The disease is marked by
bending and distortion of the bones under muscular action.
by the formation of nodular enlargements on the ends and '
sides of the bones, by delayed closure of the frontenals,
pain in the muscles, sweating of the head and degeneration
of the liver and spleen. There are often nervous affections,
feverishness and convulsions.

The foregoing spmptoms of rickets are manifested
by rachitic infants. In calves rickets give somewhat the
same outward manifestation of the disease. There is a
swelling of the Joints, bending of the bones, softening
of the skeleton in general according to Huffman and co-
workers (56) who produced a rachitic condition in a bull
on a low calcium ration.

According to Huffman rickets may be produced in
calves when fed on concentrated alone. He found that the
calves appeared to be in an excellent state of nutrition.
The legs bent forward and outward. There Was swelling at
the Joints.) The eyes protruded. The head appeared too

large for the rest of the body. The animals were irritable.

46
If allowed to remain.on the rickets-producing ration
the animals finally lost the ability to get up from
the lying position.

Bergeim (58) stated that rickets could be produced
experimentally by a low calcium, high phosphorus ration or
by a low phosphorus, high calcium ration, this condition
involving a loss of calcium or phosphorus or both from the
body by way of the intestinal tract.

The relation of vitamin D to the prevention and
cure of rickets was proven by McCollum and co-workers (59)
when they used oxidized cod liver oil in their studies with
rats. The oxidized oils would not prevent nor cure
xerephthalmia but would aid in the deposition of calcium
salts thereby preventing and curing rickets. They stated
that this evidence demonstrated the existance of a fourth
vitamin whose specific prOperty "as far as we can.tdil is
to regulate the metabolhm.of the bones".

To go into an exhaustive review of the literature
on rickets is impossible in this thesis. There is, however,
a relationship between rickets and mineral nutrition. Hess
and Gutman (60) demonstrated the rickets curing prOperties
of sunlight with infants by placing babies showing symptoms
of rickets in direct sunlight for from thirty minutes to
several hours. They found that the normal phosphorus con-
tent of infants blood was approximately four mg. per 100 c.c.
By placing infants in direct sunlight as described they
were able to raise the phosphorus of the blood in five
infants from an average of 5.12 mg. par 100 cc. to 4.12 mg.

per 100 c.c. in three months. This showed, according to

47 _
the authors, that the sunlight not only brought about
a cure of the rachitic lesions but also occasioned
chemical changes in the blood similar to those brought
about by cod liver oil.

McCollum and co-workers (25) in 1921 produced
rickets with diets low in phosphorus and vitamin A. These
investigators showed that when a deficiency of phosphorus
was insufficiently supplied with vitamin.A rickets developed
only when calcium was present in a ratio considerably
higher than the optimal ratio for ossification.

Hart, McCollum and Fulle r (62) in 1909 produced
’ rickets in a lot of hogs on a lcwIphosphorus ration (1.12
g in 2.2 pounds feed). These hogs developed stiffness in
the hind legs and partial loss of their control. They be-
came stupefied in.actions and finally could not get to the
feed trough. They appeared to be in good flesh in spite
~of their inability to carry their weight. The bones from
one slaughtered animal were soft and spongy and appeared
combed almost to the outer surface. The authors called
it a case of extreme osteoporosis. They stated that the
skeleton lost its calcium and phosphorus probably as
Caz (P04)3 while the muscles and soft parts retained
their normal percentage of phosphorus.

licCollum and Simmonds (65a) drew attention to
the relationship between rickets and the prOper balance
of calcium and phosphorus in the ration when they stated
"the experimental studies on rickets and related condi-
tions have brought to light the great importance of having

a preper quantitative relationship between the calcium and

48

the phosphorus in the diet sinae such a relationship
greatly safeguards the developing skeleton".

' Hart, Steenbock and Morrison (82) found that
the mere supply of calcium or phosphorus in the ration
was not enough to prevent rickets, and stated that bone
formation required not only an ample supply of each of
these minerals but also a vitamin which assists in
assimilating calcium and phosphorus. They stated further
that without this vitamin only a limited use was made of
the calcium and phosphorus in the ration.

Huffman (57) found no beneficial effect of suné
light on calves which received roughage in their ration.
He did find, however, that when calves were fed on a
rachitic ration rickets developed when the calves were
deprived of sunlight. A check group of calves on the
same ration but turned into sunshine showed no signs of
rickets. This suggested to Huffman (57) a relationship
between roughage (in this case timothy hay) and vitamin D.

49

Summary of the Review of Literature

The importance of the mineral elements in the
nutrition of animals has been appreciated since the time
of Diebig. It was only within the past fifty years,
however, that the mineral requirements of the dairy cow
was made the object of extensive study.

An appreciation of the importance of phosphorus
in the mineral nutrition of dairy cows resulted from the
studies of calcium. Early investigators considered cal-
cium the limiting factor in milk production.

All roughages are, as a class of feeds, compara-
tively low in phosphorus. Thecereal grains,however,
contain much more of the element. The protein concen-
trates, such as bran, cottonseed meal, and linseed oil
meal are the feeds richest in phosphorus.

Alfalfa hay ranks first among the roughages in
phosphorus content. Different investigators showed that
. it may vary within a wide range in this respect. Factors
influencing such variations were shown to be; the phos-
phoric acid content of the soil, the rainfall, the stage
of maturity of the plant at time of cutting, the cutting
and the quality of the hay as determined by such factors
as leafiness, brightness, rain damage, and irradiation.
during the curing process.

The phosphorus requirements of growing dairy
heifers and lactating cows have not been definitely de-

termined by modern methods of investigation. The

50
quantitative relationship between the calcium and the
phosphorus was studied and found to be optimal near, or
greater than, the ratio found in bone which is 1.95.

For cattle, a deficiency of phosphorus in the
ration depends, to a certain extent, upon the character-
istics of the ration itself. The absolute, irreducible
amount of phosphorus that the dairy cow requires has not
been determined.

Phosphorus deficiency has been.observed by re-
search workers in practically every country in the world.
The first noticeable symptom of such a deficiency is a
craving on the part of the animal for bones, wood, old
rags, and in fact, anything available. These symptoms
were exhibited by dairy cows grazing on the best of sweet
clover pasture, and while being fed alfalfa hay.

The diseasea.cr conditions, which result from a
continued deficiency of phosphorus, are progressively;'
depraved appetite, and more specifically osteOphagia,
osteoporosis and osteomalacia if the animal is unable to
gain access to carcass debris or other putrifying, toxin-'
infested material. If animals with osteophagia have
access to carcass debris they will eat it. Theiler.has
demonstrated such deoris to be infested with a toxin
resulting from the presence within such debirs of a
saprcphyte, parabotulinus bovis which causes the dreaded
lamziekte.

Another disease associated with the mineral
metabolism of young animals is rickets. This disease

was demonstrated to be of little importance to cattle be-

51
cause of the nature of their feed. Hay apparently
carries enough vitamin D to insure proper calcification.

A review of the literature reveals the fact
that little is known regarding the phosphorus require-
ments of dairy cattle. In view of the low phosphorus
content of'Michigan alfalfa hay more knowledge of the
phosphorus needs of dairy cattle is desirable in order
that no mistake may be made in utilizing Michigan's

alfalfa crop.

52

EXPE RIMENTAL W0 3K

 

Object of the Experiment

Reports of depraved appetite in certain sections
of Michigan among cattle receiving alfalfa hay and a grain
mixture containingno phosphorus supplements have been
quite numerous. These reports point to a phosphorus de-
ficiency in.these sections.

Data on the mineral composition of several samples
of Michigan alfalfa hay show it to be lower in phosphorus
than.hay reported from other states.

In view of the low phosphorus content of alfalfa
hay grown in certain parts of’Michigan, and of the
prevalence of depraved appetite among cattle consuming
this roughage, it was deemed advisable to conduct an ex-
periment to ascertain the effect of adding phosphorus
supplement to alfalfa hay as the main source of protein
in a dairy ration.

An attempt will be made to secure alfalfa hay as
low as possible in phosphorus. The object will be to de-
tennine the effect of such a ration upon the growth,
health, and breeding ability of dairy heifers, and the
effect upon the health, development and milk production

of these animals after freshening.

53

Original Plan of the Experiment
Choice of Animals

For this experiment ten high grade Holstein
heifer calves will be used. They will be from similar
ancestry, and will be put on the experiment at ninety
days of age. They will be divided into two lots of five
animals each. An effort will be made to equalize the
lots as to size of animals, and as to their apparent

inheritance fortnilk production.
Choice of Rations

The rations to be used will consist as largely as
practicable of alfalfa hay. An effort will be made to
secure hay of good quality so that it will be consumed
readily. It will be ground to insure accuracy in weighing
as well as to aid in preventing waste. Corn silage will
be fed as the remainder of the roughage since it is a
common feed and relatively low in phosphorus. Corn will
be the only concentrate in the ration. It willbe used
largely to supply the required energy. Lot I will receive
enough steamed bone meal to bring the phosphorus content
of the ration up to McCollum's Optimum. Lot 11 will re-

deive no mineral supplement other than common salt.
Care and Feeding Methods

The heifers will be cared for by the herdsman
in charge of the experimental herd. Milk feeding will

be discontinued as soon as possible after the animals are

54
put on the experiment in order to keep at a minimum the
intake of phosphorus. silage will be fed early in the
morning. The corn will be given later in the morning
and the hay will be fed in theevening.

The animals will be housed in individual stalls
in the Experimental Dairy Barn. Bedding will consist of
wood shavings. Each animal will be fed separately. The
feed will be weighed on scales accurate to a tenth of a
pound. A feed record will be kept in a book provided
for that purpose. The animals will be turned into a dry
lot for exercise. In summer they will rmnain in this
lot the entire time except for feeding when they will be
put into their stalls.

Collection of Experimental Data

Weighing

The animals willbe weighed at the end of each
ten day period. At the end of each thirty day period
they will be weighed three days in succession. The
average of these three weights will be taken.as the true
weight of the animal in each case. These weights will all
be taken early in the morning before the animals are fed.

The weights so secured will, in all cases, be
compared to the Eckles Normal to determine the value of
the ration for growth. These weights plus ten pounds, in
each case, will be used as the basis for computing the
rations for the animals. The ten pounds will be added
each time to make sure that the animals are receiving

sufficient feed to meet their requirements throughout the

55
entire ten day period

Feeds
Chemical Analysis. Each feed will be analysed

 

for calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen. An attempt will
be made to secure alfalfa hay as low in phosphorus as
possible.

Nutrients Required and Nutrients Consumed. The

 

nutrients required by the animals will be ascertained
at each weighing period and the feeds will be calcuhated
eccordingly. A record will be kept of the nutrients con-
sumed and this figure will be compared to the requirements.
Feeding
Ilane of Nutrition. The Armsby Feeding Standard

 

will be used in the experiment. The rations will be
edjusted at the close of each ten day period if the growth
of the animals warrants it. Due to the variation in the
phosphorus content of the alfalfa hay the average of the
ifliohigan.Experiment station analyses will be used in com-
puting the amount of bone meal to supplement the ration.
The average protein content and net energy values as given
by Henry and Morrison will be used in the ration.

Mineral Supplement. The mineral supplement will

 

be Odorless Steamed Bone Meal. It will be fed in amounts
sufficient to bring the phosphorus content of theration
up to McCollum's Optimum. It will be weighed on gram .
balances.

§gl£;_ Salt will be supplied to both lots. It
will beplaced in boxes so that it can be licked at will.

55
A record of the amount of salt fed will be kept.
Water. During cold weaher water will be
offered to the animals once per day in pails. During
the time the outdoor water tank is used they will get
their water from this tank.

Measurmnent of Growth

At the first of each.month the following measure-
ments will be taken; height at withers and at.rwmp; depth
of chest; width of chest, barrel, hooks, and thurls;
length of rump; length from point of shoulders to hook
bones; circumference of chest and of barrel.

Withers. Theheight of withers will be used to
compare the skeletal growth of the two groups. It will
also be used to compare the growth of each animal with
the Eckles Normal.

Health Observations

General Appearance. Note will be taken from
time to time of any peculiarities in the general appearance
of the animals in.the two groups.

Appetite. Any failure to eat their feed as well
as any abnormalities of appetite will be recorded.

The herdsman in charge will make note of any ab-

normalities that may develop.
Heat Periods

An accurate record of the heat periods shown by

all animals will be kept.

57
Metabolism of Feeds

The calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen balances of
all the animals will be ascertained by seven day tests.
These determinations will be conducted after the animals

have become one year of age.
Blood Analyses

To determine the effect of the two rations upon
the calcium.and phosphorus of the blood, samples will be
taken each month. These samples will be drawn from the
Jugular vein. They will be analysed by the staff of the
Chemistry Section of the Agricultural Experiment Station.

After the heifers reach eigmtmonths of age they
will be bled once each monthibr blood tests for B.
Abortus infection. These tests will be made bythe De-
partment of Animal Pathology.

Photographs

Pictures will be taken of the animals against a
neutral back gound at the time they are placed on the

experiment and at fifteen months of age.
Autopsy of Dead Animals

Any animals which may die on the experiment will
be autopsied by the Department of Animal Pathology.

58

Method of Procedure

It was originally planned to write this thesis
at the end of one year's time. That would have made it
possible to include only the data on the animals up un~
til the time the older nine were fifteen months of age.

Due to a change in plan, the writer was unable
to write this thesis at the intended time. It has been
possible, therefore, to include the data on the animals
up to March 1, 1931. This necessitated the inclusion
in.the thesis of data not orginally provided for. Hence
it was thought best to give an Outline of the method of

procedure.
Choice of Animals

The animals used in the experiment were high
grade Holstein.heifers taken from the experimental dairy
herd of this station. They were daughters of the cows
used on the Long Time Mineral Feeding Experiment then.in
progress. They were apparently normal in every respect
at the time they were placed on experiment. They were
all sired by the senior'Hclstein herd sire, Michigan
College Mutual Johan 421266, then in service in the
College dairy herd.

The first animal placed cn.the eXperiment developed
e severe lameness, the cause of which could not be
definitely diagnosed. It was considered that this lame-
ness was a result of an injury to her left hind leg

apparently received at birth. For this reason it was

59
drapped from the eXperiment.
A year after the work was started five more

heifers were added, making seven animals in each group.
Choice of Rations

The feeds used were as planned. The alfalfa
hay varied in phosphorus content more than was desired
due to the difficulty of securing sufficient quantities,
of the quality of hay desired, to last for any con-
siderable length of time. In all cases the hay used was
analysed before purchase and revealed a phosphorus content
below the average of the samples analysed at this station

in connection with the Long Time Mineral Feeding work.
Previous History of the Animals.

These heifers were fed on whole milk for forty-
five days. At forty-five days of age they were changed
to skim.milk. They received equal parts of whole corn
andwhole cats as soon as they would eat it. Ground alfalfa
hay was given from the time they first started to eat it.
They were continued on this ration of skim milk, corn and
oats, and alfalfa hay until they were placed on the ex-
perhnent at ninety days of age. In addition each animal
received ten c.c. of cod liver oil each day to ninety

days of age.
Care and Feeding Methods

The heifers were cared for as planned. On August

1, 1929, however, they were moved into what had previously

60
been the main dairy barn. At this time the nine older
heifers were put in stanchions. The five younger ones
were put in individual box stalls and kept in these
stalls until they were about eleven months of age. At
this time they were changed to the stanchion stalls, but
tied with chains. On September 18, 1930 the entire ex-
perimental herd was moved to the new experimental barn.
Here all the heifers were put in stanchions.
- iMilk was decreased at the end of ten days on the
experiment, and discontinued after twenty days. Thus,
from the age of 110 days the animals in.Lot I received,
until calving time, nothing but alfalfa hay, corn silage,
corn, bone meal and salt. Lot II received the same
ration without the bone meal. The bone silage was intro-
duced into the ration at the time the milk was discon-
tinued.

After the first freshening blood meal was added
to the ration to supply the necessary protein without
appreciably increasing the phosphorus intake.

It was found that the bone meal was eaten more
readily when stirred into the hay at time of feeding. It
was fed in this manner throughout the experiment.

As the animals reached ten months of age ground
corn was gradually substituted for the whole corn. Some
difficulty was experienced in getting the heifers to eat
the corn meal - approximately one week being required to

complete the change.

61
Water was offered as planned, except that when
the animals were placed in the stanchions they could
drink water at will, as the stalls were provided with
drinking cups. Water meters were installed on the
drinking cups and the water consumption was recorded in

gallons 0
Collection of Experimental Data

Weighing

' Weights were taken each ten days as planned until
the animals became fifteen months of ago. After this
thme they were weighed for three consecutive mornings at
the end of each thirty day period. In all cases the
weighing was done in the morning before feeding.

The weights were compared to the Eckles Normal.
Feeds

Chemical Analyses. The feeds were analysed for
calcium, phosphorus, and nitrogen as planned.

Nutrients Required and Nutrients Consumed. An
accurate record was kept of the amounts of feeds consumed.
The nutrients consumed were compared to the requirements

according to the Standard used.
Feeding

Plane of Nutrition; The Armsby Feeding standard
was used in computing the rations until the animals
freshened. After this time the lower limits of the

Morrison Feeding Standard were used. In some cases it

62

was necessary to supply some excess protein in order to
provide sufficient net energy during the growing period.
The rations were not always changed, as planned, at the
end of each ten, or thirty day period because of the
failure of some of the animals to gain sufficient weight
to require it.

Mineral Supplement. Bone Meal was used as the
phosphorus supplement as planned.

§§l§; Salt was provided as planned while the
animals were in the box stalls. After they were changed
to the stanchions salt was mixed with the corn ,one pound
of salt per hundred pounds of corn.

Blood Meal. After the heifers freshened it was

 

deemed advisable to furnish a protein supplement to balance
the ration. This was done by adding blood meal as this
feed would supply the necessary protein without appreoinly
increasing the phosphorus intake. It was added to the corn
and.mixed with it at the time of each feeding.

Measurement of Growth

Growth measurements were made as planned. Only
the height at withers, however, was used in this thesis
as a measurement of growth.

Comparisons of the height at withers to the Eckles

Normal were made as planned.
Health Observations

General Appearance. Notes were made from time to

time of the general appearance of the animals. These

63
observations are given for each animal in the section
provided for that purpose.

Appetite. The observations concerning the

 

appetite of the animals were made as planned. These notes

will be found for each animal in the individual sections.

Reproduction

Age at first Oestrum. The age of each animal at

the first observed heat period was recorded.

Heat Periodg; The heat periods were observed and

 

note made of each. It is felt that some of these periods
must have escaped observation since in some cases they
Wore so irregular.

Number of Services for Conception. Record was

 

made of the number of services required for conception.

In some cases the animals were bred after having conceived.

These services were not taken into consideration.
Gestation Periods. The length of the gestation

period for each animal was computed.
Metabolism of Feeds

Seven day calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen metabolism
tests were determined on the animals at various times.
Animals D 2 to 12 were placed on metabolism prior to first
freshening. All’the heifers except D14 were placed on
metabolism during high milk pr>duction. Metabolism tests

were also made on D 2, D 8, and D 9 during medium production.

64

Blood Analyses

It was decided that once each month was not
often enough to take blood samples so samples were
drawn each two weeks. Calcium, and phosphorus de-
terminations were made on these samples, as planned.

Blood samples for*B.Abortus infection de-
terminations were taken each month after the animals

became eight months of age, as planned.
Milk.Production

The milk production was recorded in pounds for

each animal starting the fourth day after calving.
Butter Fat Production

Monthly Tests. Monthly determinations of the
butterfat content of each animal's milk were made by
the Babcock Method from two day composite samples.

The percentage of butterfat in.the milk for each
month was applied to that month's milkproduction to de-

termine the butterfat production for that month.
Photographs

Photographs were taken as planned. In addition
pictures were made of each animal at two years of age,

and at freshening time for those that have freshened.
Autopsy of Dead Animals

None of the animals died.

65
Experimental an

The similarity of inheritance for milk production
of the animals used in this experiment is shown in Table
I. They were all daughters of one sire, and out of cows
.1 similar breeding.

The mlyses of feeds used in the rations are
shown in Table 11.

Tables II to XVI inclusive, show the average
void“ of esch animal for 3‘ ~ each thirty day period pre-
vious to calving, the feed consumed, the nutrients re--
quired and nutrients recs ived. salt consumption, uter
consumption, percentage of phosphorus in the dry matter
of the ration, and the average daily intake of phosphorus.

The monthly milk and butterfst production, feed
consumed, nutrients received, nutrients required, per-
centage of phosphorus in the ration, and average daily
intake of phosphorus are given in Tables XVII to WI.
inclusive.

stle lo. mil shows the reproduction date,
including age at first oestrum. number of services for
first conception, gestation period, age at first calving,
weight, sex and health of calf and the recovery of the
cow.

The metabolism of calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen
before first calving appear in Table mill.

The metsbolism of calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen
during high milk production appear in Table XXIX. This
table includes data on D 11, D 12, D 13, and D 15 mieh

a.
was secured after the taking of other data for this
thesis was discontinued. Ibis data is included in
order to give a more accurate comparison between the
two lots of animals. D 14 had not freshened at this
time. For that reason this animal does not appear in
this table.

It was planned to secure metabolism data on all
the animals during medium milk production. Due to un-
avoidable hindrances this was not possible for all the
animals. lor that reason Table m includes data on
but three animals.

Height at withers compared to lckles' Donal and
body weight compared to scuee' lormal appear in Graphs
I to v11. inclusive. '

Graph lo. VIII show body weights during the
first lactation period for animals D 2 to D 10, inclusive,
mich had been in milk for any considerable length of time.

Graphs II to XVI, inclusive, show the blood calcium
and inorganic bleed phosphorus from the time the animals
were placed on experiment until the data was compiled.

Health observations, appetites of the animals and
detailed. reproduction data are' shown for each animal in
the sections provided for each animal for that purpose.

feats for B. Abortus infection are not shown be-
cause of the fact that all the animals remained negative
throughout the experiment.

67
n-s

fhis heifer, born January 20, 1928 weighed 98
pounds at birth. It was a vigorous, thrifty calf when
put on the experiment at ninety days of age. It weighed
195 pounds and was placed in Lot I.

Dates and Observations. On June 24, it was ob-
served chewing wood in its stall. This was not observed
again until lovember 26 and December 9, and again on larch
7, 1929. At no time did it chew as ravenously as did the
animals in the low phosphorus group.

It continued to be nearly nomal throughout the
course of the expo riment.

Reproduct ion Record

Oestrous
cycle
Age at first heat period 318 days
d F second ' ” 339 ' 31 “"
iitmrei iv 3516 as-

i 5- fourth '5 n can '5 Bred 121 w *
Services for first'conception - l. I

Gestation period - 282 days.

Base of Parturation - calved normally.

mm of calf - strong - weight 93 pounds.

Recovery of cow - satisfactory - cleaned normally

Days until first heat period after freshening - 77.

" " second " " " ' - 98 3.13333? chb

éervices for second conception - l. ‘

"Intervening heat periods eseaped notice.

68
Du!

:his heifer was born on January 26,1928 and placed
on experhment at ninety days of age. It weighed 84 pounds
at birth and 165 pounds when started on the experiment in
Lot 11.

' I I lotes and Observations; rhroughout the experiment
this heifer was a poor feeder. l'rom the time milk was take:
from the ration it never att the alloted amount of feed. It
exhibited a slight depraved appetite by chewing wood and
hair’and by chewing bone placed in its stall. It also was
observed to eat dirt. the observation was made on June 15,
1925 that the low phosphorus group did not eat as well as
the others. .ss shown.by photographs it was a small underfed
looking individual throughout the experiment. fhis is solely
because of its pocr’appetite which became particularly
pronounced shortly after calving.

Reproduction Record

'Oestrous

cycle

Age at first heat period 5?5 days ,
' ' second ' ' 441 ' 65 days’
i 5' third '5 5' eac'i Bred fee" "

u r fourth'i * scar - :85
Services for conception.- 8. l ‘
Gestation period . 270 days.

Base of parturation - calved normally.

Health of calf - strong - weight 69 pounds.

Recovery of cow - satisfactory - cleaned normally.

Days until first heat period
after freshening 29 days

69
Days until second heat period

after freshening 48 days 19 days
Days until third heat period

after fresheing 11 " 28 "
bays until fourth heat period “ > ‘
after freshening 131 " bred 60 " “
Days until fifth heat period ‘ ‘
after freshening ‘ 157 " " 56 " "‘
Days until sixth heat period ' ‘ '

after freshening 20'! " " 20 "

Services tor second coneeption - s.’
’ One or two heat periods apparently unnoticed.

H
M was born January 31,1928. It weighed 82 pounds
at birth and 186 pounds when placed on experiment at ninety
days of age in Lot 1;.
lotes and Observations; It was observed chewing
wood in its stall on several occasions. This did not seem
to persist continually. D-d's appetite was good all the
time and there was nothing in its record to indicate any
abnormalities except for the fact that it required three
services for first conception. rhis irregularity, however,
may properly be blamed on the service bull because con-
siderable difficulty was experienced while using this bull.
Khan a different hull was put into service little more
difficulty was experienced in getting the cows with calf.
Baproduct ion Record

oestrous
~ , cycle
Age at first heat period 425 days
' ' second ' 7 add ' 20 days

i 5 third '5 '5 «Ii 21*

.eln

70
Age at fourth heat period 490 days Bred 25 days
' ' fifth " " 519 " " 29 "
e v sixth - w 581 a . 52 - *
services for conception - 5. I ‘
Gestation period - 268 days.
Ease of parturation «- calved normally.
Health of calf - strong - weighed 54 pounds.
hecovery of cow .. satisfactory - cleaned normally.

Days until first heat period t
after freshening 88 Bred

Services for second conception - 1.
" fwo heat periods apparently unnoticed.

this heifer was born January 31,1928. In spite of
the fact that it weighed but 70 pounds at birth it was con-
sidered best to put her in not II to balance the lots as to
sise. at ninety days of age it weighed 148 pounds.

Letes and Observations. As shown by the photograph
this animal continued to be a rough, thin looking individual
until first freshening. It exhibited a slightly depraved
appetite by chewizg wood and by chewing hair off the other
animals occasionally. this animal like D-B was a rather
poor eater. ‘fter freshening, however, it consumed suffi-
cient nutrients to meet the requiremants as computed by
the lower limits of the Harrison reeding standard. D-5 was
the best milk producer of Dot II and this may have accounted
for its better appetite.

71

Reproduction Record ‘
Oestrous

Age at first heat period 33‘ day. Cyale

' " second ' N 333 . 9 days
" " third - n 35. w as ,

'i " fourth ' n 373 .‘. 1. h

" * fifth - w are i Bred 160 . .

i * sixth * u see i I lit ' ‘
Services for first conception - 2. ‘
Gestation period - 262 days.

Base of parturation - posterior presentation - Calf had to
be pulled.

Health of calf - strong - weight 85 pounds.
Recovery of cow - satisfactory - cleaned normally.

Days until first heat period

after freshening 78 days

Days until second heat period

after freshening 95 ' Bred 22 days
Days until third heat period -

after freshening 115 " ' 2O '
Days until fourth heat period . l 1

after freshening 137 ' ' 22 '

Services for second conception - 3.

‘ Several heat periods apparently unnoticed.

‘

D-d
D~d was born February'4,l928, weight It pounds. Iron
an.apparent inheritance for milk production standpoint it was
considered best to put it in Let I. when started on the ex-
periment at ninety days of age it weighed 154 pounds.
lotes and Observations; lhis animal was observed

chewing wood in its stall a few times. It was never off food

 

72
and continued to grow at a rate close to normal. It
developed a hump on the back which could not be associated
in any way with nutrition. It must have been caused by
some unnoticed injury.

Repro duct ion Record

oestrous
Cycle
Age at first heat period 824 days
' ' second " ' 558 ' Bred 229 days‘
a v third I 8 are i - as -

'5 *fourth'ii 622* '5 46' '
services for concept ion ~ 3. ~ ‘
Gestation period - 277 dart.

Base of parturation «- calved normally.

Health of calf - strong-weight 73 pounds.

Recovery of cow - satisfactory - cleaned normally.

Days until first heat period

after freshening 31 days

Days until second heat period

after freshening 52 " 21 days
Days until third heat period ‘

after freshening 118 ' Bred 66 " "‘

Services for second concept ion - 1.
l'Intervening heat periods apparently unnoticed.

D-‘l
fhis heifer weighed 85 pounds mien born February 10,
1928. It was placed in Dot II at ninety days oflage. At
that tine it weighed 162 pounds.
lot" and observations. {this animal was the first
one noticed chewing wood. It showed strong evidence of de-

praved appetite throughout the experiment by chewing wood.

75
eating dirt, and by chewing heir. It's appetite was fair
up until Just before freshening. At this time the animal
went off feed and considerable difficulty was experienced
during lactation in getting it to eat. this anima1.went
dry at the end of 281 days lactation.

Reproduction Record

oestrous
Cycle
Age at first heat period 425 days
-F ' second ' ' 446 ' 25 days
'5 - third 5 '3 «s i Bred as -
5' "f fourth '3 " 499 i '- 31 i
'i a fifth 5' n no i '- 25 '3

Services for conception - 3.

Gestation period - 274 days.

Base of parturation - calved normally.

Health of calf - strong - weight 84 pounds.
Recovery of cow - satisfactory - cleaned normally.
Days until first heat period

after freshening 10 days
Days until second heat period

3 after freshening 30 " 20 days
Days until third heat period 1
after freshening 98 ' 68 ' ’
Days until fourth heat period “ ‘

after freshening 139 w 31 w

SerVices required for second conception .2.

‘ Apparently two heat periods were missed.

74
D~8

D-8 weighed 100 pounds at birth, February 11, 1928.
At ninety days of age it weighed 196 pounds when started
on the experiment. Placed in.Dot I.

Hotos and Observations. This heifer was not as
good a feeder as some of the other heifers in Lot 1. It
chewed wood to a slight extent. Body weight kept as close
to normal as any of the heifers. When eleven.months of age
this animal was observed to have a slight convulsion which
never occurred again. It went off feed twice during the
first lactation period, but came back.on feed very soon in
each case.

Reproduction Record

Oestrous
Cycle
Age at first heat period 374 days
" ' second ' ' 392 'v ' 18 days
- iv third * a 411 i 19 w
'5 i fourth 5' '5 431 '5. 20 s
u a fifth i .. , 451 i 20 i
' 5 sixth 7 " 470 5 Bred 19 5

” 7 seventh-" ' 503 ' 7 33 '
éervices for first conception -‘2. 7 7 ‘
Gestation period 278 days.

Ease of parturation - calved normally.

Health of calf - strong - weight 78 pounds.

Recovery of cow - satisfactory - cleaned normally.

75
Days until first heat period

after freshening 22 days

Days until second heat period

after freshening ' 40 " 18 days
Days until third heat period ‘ *

after freshening 82 " Bred 42 I

Services for second conception - l.
3 One heat period apparently escaped not ice.

D-9

D-9 was bom lebruary 18,‘l928,- weight 84 pounds
at birth. It was placed on experiment in Lot 11 at ninety
days of age, weighing 189 pounds.

Hotesand Observations. throughout the entire
experiment this animal was a very poor feeder. Depraved
appetite was shown about two months after being placed on
experiment. this depraved appetite continued and the
animal chewedlbones, sticks and ate dirt and was observed
chewing hair tr long periods at a time. After freshening
it was frequently offhed and would eat about half the
food requirements during the first part of the lactation.

RIproduction Record

Oestrous
cycle
Age at first heat period 433 days
' I second I " 455 " Bred 22 days
a I third I I tea I I 27 I

I I fourth I I cos I- I as I
Services for conception . 3. ‘ A ‘
Gestation period - 275 days.

Days until first heat period
after freshening 24 "

75

s until second.heat period

af er freshening 44 days 20 days
Days until third heat period
after freshening 104 " Bred 50 " "

VApparently two.heat periods were missed.

ID-lO

D-lO was born Hay 17, 1928. Weight 82 pounds.
Ilaced on.experiment in.Dot I at ninety days of age
weighing 190 pounds.

lotes and Observations. At different times it was
.noticed chewing wood to a limited extent. rhis annual did
not always consume sufficient nutrients to meet the re-
quirements. It was very nearly nonnal in weight throughout
the growing period. A little difficulty was experienced.
however, in getting this animal to»eat all of its required
feed for a few weeks after freshening. It started eating
well about six weeks after calving and has had a good
appetite since.

Reproduction Record

Oestrous
chle
[Age at first heat period 383 days
' ' second ' ' 411 " 28 days
I I third I I «e I ared so I
I I fourth I I 469 I I so I
I I fifth I I so! I I so I
s i .1133 e w 54. w s ‘1 .

dervices for conception o 4.
Gestation period - 268 days.

Base of parturation - calved normally.

77
Health of calf - strong - 59 pounds.
Recovery of cow - satisfactory - cleaned normally.

Days until first heat period

after freshening 25 days

Days until second heat period

after freshening 73 I 48 days“
Days until third heat period

after freshening 138 " Bred 65 I “

Services for second conception - l.
" Intervening heat periods escaped notice.

D-ll

this animal, born January 23, 1929, weight . 92
pounds, was placed in Lot II. It weighed 192 pounds at
ninety days of age when placed on the experiment.

my and observation?” Alqys a very nervous and
excitable individual this anhmal wasfrequently observed
not eating the feed readily. It exhibited a depraved.
appetite by eating dirt, chewing hair, bones and wood. It
remained undersised throughout the experiment.

Raproduct ion Record

Oestrous
cycle
Age at first heat period 402 days
' ' second I ' 424 I 24 days
I IthirdI I 451* soI
I i fourth I

I an I Bred as I
Service for conception «- _1 I I
Gestation period 275 days.

lase of parturation - required some help.

Health of calf - calf born dead - weight 85 pounds.

78

Recovery of cow . satisfactory - cleaned normally.

D-12
this heifer, born January 20, 1929 was placed in
Dot 1 to offset it's full sister, D-5, in Lot II. It
weighed on pounds at birth and 200 pounds when placed on
the experiment at ninety days of age.
gptes and Observations. It was observed a few times
chewing wood in it's stall. It continued to grow at a
nearly normal rate, never exhibiting any depraved appetite
after reaching the age of eleven months. Its appetite
was good throughout the experiment.
Reproduction Record

Oestrous
cycle
Age at first heat period 555 days
I I second I I 380 I 24 days
I I third I I 406 I so I
it I fourth I I eel I as I
I I fifth I I eeeI 21 I
I I sixth I I 484 I Bred as I

5ervioes for conception - 1.
Gestation period - are days.

Base of parturation.- posterior presentation.
calf had to be pulled.

health of calf ~ strong - weight 95 pounds.

Recovery of cow - satisfactory - cleaned normally.

79
D-13
D-13 was born January 26, 1929, weight 89 pounds.
It weighed 185 pounds when placed on the experiment in Lot
II at ninety days of age.

I Hotes and Observations. Like the other animals
in Lot II this heifer exhibited symptoms of depraved
appetite soon after being placed on the experimental
ration. It ate dirt, chewed wood badly, and chewed hair.
Its appetite us not of the best. I
I Reproduction Record

Oestrous
Cycle
Age at first heat period 481 days Brod
Services for conception - 1.
Gestation period - 280 days.
Base of parturation - calved normally.
Health of calf - strong - weight 85 pounds.

Recovery of cow - satisfactory - cleaned nomally.

D-ld

this heifer, a full sister to D-3, was placed in
hot 1 to offset no. It was born February 10,1929, weight
100 pounds, and weighed 205 pounds Imen placed on the ex-
periment at ninety days of age.

Mes and Obggrvations. It was observed chewing
wood a few times. This was the only manifestation of a
depraved appetite. It always was a good feeder and ate
the ration readily. ’

Oestrous
Cycle

Reproduction Record

Age at first heat period . 451 days

80
Age at second heat period 520 days Bred 69 days‘
I I mir‘ I I! 550 II I so I *
Services for conception - 2. I
Gestation period - had not freshened at time this data

was compiled.

"‘ Hissed the intervening heat periods.

D-l5
D-l5. Weighing 112 pounds at birth on February 17,
1929, this heifer completed Dot II. It was an exceptionally
large, growthy calf, and was considered a good test for the
ration fed Dot II. It weighed 225 pounds at ninety days
of age when placed on the experiment.
.Hrotes and Observaticng; As shown by Graph Ho. 7,
its body weight continued to increase at a normal rate .
longer than any of the other animals in Lot 11. It later
refused part of the feed and would not consume its re-
quirements until nearly two years of age. Itexhibited
pomsps the most pronounced symptoms of depraved appetite
of the group. It ate dirt, chewed wood and bones. It
dhewed hair from the other animals ravenously. As shown
by the pictures it assumed the rough, undernourished
appearace of the other heifers in the lot.
Reproduction Record

Oestrous
Cycle
Age at first heat period 418 days
" " second " I 438 I 20 days
I I third I I 450 I Bred a: I

Services for conception - l.

81

Gestation period - 279 days.
Base of parturation - calved normally.
Health of calf - strong - weight 94 pounds.

Recovery of cow - satisfacth - cleaned normally.

82

DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL 3331! TS

Period I. From 90 Days of Age to First Calving

In this investigation two lots of high grade
Holstein.heifers were placed on the eXperimental rations
at ninety days of age. The basal ration fed the animals
in Lot II, to first calving, consisted of alfalfa hay,
corn and corn silage. The alfalfa hay used was low in
phosphorus as shown by Table II. Let I received the
basal ration plus enough Steamed Bone Meal to bring the
phosphorus content of the ration up to approximately
0.41 percent of the dry matter.

Growth of the Animals

. The animus are compared to the Eckles Normal as
to height at withers in Graphs I to VII, inclusive,
which show that practically all of them were below the
Eckles Normal during the first year, but reached this
level shortly thereafter. As a group, the animals in
Lot II gained at a very similar rate to the animals in
Let I. During the growing period there was little
difference between the two groups in skeletal growth.

When comparing the two groups in respect to body
weight a decided difference is shown by Graphs I to VII.
inclusive, in favor of Lot 1. This difference may be

attributable to the greater feed consumption of the

83
animals in Lot I. Less than two months after the
animals were placed on the experimental rations all the
animals in the group receiving the basal ration started
refusing part of their feed. They continued to do this
throughout the growing period. The animals which re-
ceived the bone meal consumed their feed very readily,
and as a result their total feed intake was considerably
above that of the animals in Lot II. Tables III to XVI.
inclusive, show the feed consumption during the growing
period. These tables show that the crude digestible
protein and net energy intake of the animals in.Lot I
conformed more closely to the Armsby Standard than did
'the crude digestible protein and net energy intake of
the group on the basal ration.

Tables III to XVI. inclusive, show'a greater
water consumption by the animals receiving bone meal
than by those on the basal ration. It was not determined
whether or not this was due to the addition of the bone
meal, but the indications are that this is the case be-
cause during the periods when the animals in each of‘the
two groups were getting the same quantities of hay,
silage, and corn, the water consumption was greater for
the animals receiving bone meal. A seasonal variation
in water consumption is shown by Tables III to XVI, in-
clusive. The amount of water consumed increased in
.general as the weather became warmer. No attempt was
made to correlate water consumption to atmospheric

temperature.

84

Phosphorus Intake. As shown by Tables III to

 

XVI, inclusive, the phosphorus intake of the animals

in Lot II was below ten.grams per day during the first
year while that of the animals in.Lot I was approximately
twice as great. The percentage of phosphorus in the dry
matter of the ration was approximately 0.20 for‘the animals
in Lot II as compared to approximately 0.38 for the

animals in Let I.

During the second year the intake of phosphorus
gradually increased in both lots due to the greater feed
consumption. The percentages of phosphorus in the dry
matter continued to be very uniform up until about one
month before calving when the phosphorus was increased.
This was caused by the addition of more corn to the
ration to get the animals into a higher condition of
flesh at calving time.

Phosphorus Requirement for'Growth. The optimum

 

phosphorus content of the dry matter of a ration is _
given by McCollum as 0.4148. The rations of the animals
in.Lot I were adjusted to this figure by using 0.18 per-
cent as the phosphorus content of alfalfa hay. This
figure was given.by Reed and Huffman as the average of
19 samples of Michigan grown alfalfa hay. The tables
giving the feed consumption for the animals in Lot I
show the phosphorus content of the dry matter in their
rations to be slightly below this figure in most cases
because the alfalfa hay used was consistently below the

figure used for alfalfa hay in computing the phosphorus

85
furnished by the rations.

The tables giving the feed consumption for the
animals in Lot II show the percentage of phosphorus in
the dry matter of their rations to be very close to the
figure (0.20 percent phosphorus) which Palmer believes
to be the danger line below which figure a ration.may be
said to be phosphorus deficient.

Table No. XXVIII, giving the results of metabolism
tests made on eleven of the fourteen animals before calving
shows an average phosphorus utilization by the animals in
Lot I of 30 percent. This figure may be compared to 41.6
percent phosphorus utilization by the animals in Lot II
which received the low phosphorus ration. These figures
are in line with Kbllner's recommendation that an animal
should receive in its ration from two to three times the
amount of phosphorus stored by the body, because of his
belief that an animal could utilize but one-third to one-
half the amount of the element furnished by its ration.

From analyses of the bones of animals Kellner
computed the average daily retention of calcium and
phosphorus. He found that on this basis an animal stored
8.3 grams of phosphorus per day. Applying the utilization
percentages secured in this investigation to Kellner's
figure it is found that an animal should receive from
20.24 grams to 27.67 grams of phosphorus per day. Lot

I received almost this amount.

86
In as much as Lot I received very Close to the
percentage of phosphorus which MCCollum believes to be
Optimum, and in as much as the phOSphorus utilization
by these animals is shown to be lower than was secured
by Reed and Huffman, probably the animals received very
nearly an optimum amount of phosphorus.

Calcium-PhOSphorus Ratio. Table XXVIII shows that

 

during the metabolism tests made on the animals before
calving the calcium phosphorus ratio was quite wide. The
literature on the calcium phosphorus ratio for cattle is
not definite. The interdependence of the two elements
was demonstrated by Sherman and Quinn. Analyses of bones
have shown that the calcium and phosphorus are combined as
tri-calcium-phosphate. Besides the calcium combined with
phosphorus in this manner there is the calcium combined
with carbon and oxygen as calcium carbonate. The ratio of
calcium to phosphorus in tri-calcium-phosphate is 1.93.
Knowing that the ration must provide the calciwn for
combination into tri-calcium-phosphate as well as calcium
carbonate it is not unreasonable to assume that an optimum
calcium phosphorus ratio would be considerable in excess
of 1.93. In this investigation the animals in Let I re-
ceived a calcium-phosphorus ratio of 5.34 and those in
Lot II received a ratio of 4.77. The narrower ratio in
Let I is because of the influence of the bone meal added
to the ration. The difference in the utilization of
phosphorus by the two groups may not be significant, but
in this investigation the greater utilization was secured

with the wider ratio. This, however, may be a coincidence,

87
and merely due to the limited absolute intake of phos-
phorus by the animals in Lot II. EcCollum and Simmonds
stated that for rats a ration should provide calcimn
considerably in excess of phosphorus. It is logical to
assume that an optimal proportion of the two elements
would be as near as possible to the proportion in which
they are used in combination by the body. Therefore,
the combining proportion of the two elements for tri-
calcium-phosphate in ossification should be about 1.93.
Adding to this the amount of calcium needed for forming
calcium carbonate the ratio of calcium to phosphorus in
these two compounds is 2.14. Since these two compounds
comprise 95 percent of the inorganic content of bone a
combining proportion of the two elements calcium and
phosphorus should be close to two parts of calcium and
one part phosphorus. Obviously other factors enter into
the metabolism of the two elements and affect them so
that it is rather difficult to say how close the calcium-
phOSphorus ratios used in this investigation were to
Optimal. It is worthy of note that theratio of calcium
to phosphorus in the alfalfa hay used in this investigation
varied from 7:1 to more than 11:1.
Health of the Animals

The lack of appetite among all the animals in Lot
II was one of the outstanding features of this investigation.
As has been previously stated this condition was observed
less than two months after the animals were placed on the

experiment. It was a condition that persisted, as is shown

88
by the reductions of food intake which appeared from time
to time. A lack of appetite by animals on low phosphorus
rations was not mentioned in.the literature reviewed. Re-
ports of the refusal of dairy cows on fanns to eat alfalfa
hay of-apparent good quality have been quite frequent. There
is a possibility that a lack of phosphorus may be a con-
tributing factor in such instances.

In addition to the poor appetite for their feed, the
animals in Lot II showed depraved appetite by chewing their
stalls, eating dirt, and by chewing the hair from each
other. Such symptoms are, according to Theiler, Marcq,
Eckles and Becker, Reed and Huffman, Schmidt, Welch, and
many others, evidence of insufficient phosphorus in the
ration. Theiler, Palmer, and Welch specifically stated
that bone chewing by cattle is proof of a phOSphorus de-
ficiency. The animals used in this experiment were given
fresh bones to chew, but under the conditions of the ex-
periment they did not chew these bones to any appreciable
extent.

There was little difference in the general appearance
of the animals of the two groups at fifteen.months and at
two years of age as shown by the photographs. There was
a tendency, however, for the low phosphorus animals (Lot II)
to grow longer, rougher coats of hair in the winter than
were shown by those receiving optimal phosphorus in their

ration.

89

At no time were there symptoms of stiffness,
creaking of bones, and stilted gaits as reported by Eckles,
Becker and Palmer in investigating phosphorus deficiency
among.dairy cattle in Northern.Minnesota, or Hart and
co-workers, investigating the same problem in Door County,
Wisconsin. This fact suggests the possibility that under
the conditions of this experiment the phosphorus deficiency
did not become as severe as reported by the aforementioned
wo rke re.

The coats of hair on the animals in Lot II were
duller than on the anhnals in.Lct I. The eyes were some-
what sunken and rather dull in appearance.

Graphs IX to XV, inclusive, show the blood calciwn
and inorganic blood phosphorus of the animals from.the
time they were placed on the experiment until the data was
assembled. The effects on blood of the low~phOSphorus
ration supplied to Lot II are in accord with the results
of Henderson and Weakley, Eckles and Palmer, and Malan,
Green and duToit, all of whom reported low inorganic blood
phosphorus in animals on rations low in phosphorus.

Graphs IX to XV show that there was a drop in
inorganic blood phosphorus of the low-phosphorus group
soon after being placed on the basal ration. There was a
tendency for the inorganic phosphorus graphs to come
together*at from fifteen to eighteen months of age. In
both groups the inorganic blood phosphorus dropped prior
to calving. These graphs show a tendency of the blood

calcium to rise when the inorganic blood phosphorus drops.

90
Reproduction

The data secured in this investigation on age
at first oestrum and on the oestrual cycles of the
animals are not very complete. Probably in many cases
the oestrual periods were not observed due to the fact
that the animalswere stabled nearly all the time during
the period that they would normally start to show oestrual
periods. Table No. XXVII, giving the reproduction date
for the two groups shows that the low phosphorus group,
(Lot II) averaged 35 days older at first observed oestrual
period than the animals in Let I. This difference '18
probably insignificant in the light of the conditions of
the experiment. This is in contrast to the reports of
Eckles, Becker and Palmer, Welch, Hart and associates,
and Theiler and co-workers, all of whom have stated that
low phosphorus rations produce delayed oestrum in cattle.
Perhaps the phosphorus content of the ration used with.
Lot II in this investigation was not low enough to produce
the effects reported by theabove mentioned investigators.

Table XXVII, giving the gestation periods of the
cows, size, health, and weight of the calves, show no
difference between the two groups in.these respects. One
hundred percent reproduction was secured. In some cases
several services were required for conception. It is felt
that this difficulty was caused by the service bull, be-
capge, on changing bulls, little further difficulty was

eXperienced in.this respect.

91
Period II. First Lactation Period
Milk.Production

The records of milk production given in Table
XXVI show a significant difference in favor of Lot I
for those animals which were in milk for a complete
period. Two animals, D-2 and D-8 in Let I and three
animals, D-3, D-7 and D-9 completed an entire lactation
period. The period for D-7 is for 281 days instead of
305 days. This is because lactation ceased at the end
of this period. There was but one animal, D-5, in Lot
II which gave indication of production comparable to the
animals in Let I. Animals D-ll, D-12, D-l3 and D915 had
Just calved at the time of assembling this data and D-l4
had not yet calved.

The difference in milk production between the two
groups is probably attributable to the fact that with one
exception the low phosphorus group would not eat the amounts
of feed required by the standard used, whereas the group
receiving the phosphorus supplement consumed their feed
quite readily. This explanation is strengthened by the
fact that D-5 the only animal in Lot II to consume her
requirements of feed is the only animal in that group to
produce at a rate comparable with the animals in Lot I.

The lack of appetite among three of the four
. animals which have been in lactation in Lot II continued
as long as they were giving milk. As a result the animals
appeared gaunt and emaciated. They assumed somewhat of

the appearance of the animals described by Eckles, Becker,

92
and Palmer in reporting on phosphorus deficiency cons
diticns in.Ncrthern Minnesota, and by Hart and associates
in describing cattle found in Door County, Wisconsin. The
animals did not show the stiffness, creaking of joints and
inability to rise as described by Eckles and co-workers,
and Hart and associates, but their coats of hair were dull,
their eyes were sunken, and they seemed listless and dull.

The animals in Lot 1, on the other hand, appeared
normal throughout the lactation period, Very little
difficulty was experienced in getting these animals to eat
their'alloted rations.

A lack of appetite by animals on low phosphorus
rations was not reported by any of the investigators whose
work was reviewed. Theiler and co-workers, Eckles and
associates, Hart and associates, Forbes,and Meigs and
co-workers, all emphasized the fact that cows on phosphorus
deficient rations did not produce as well as cows fed the
same rations supplemented with phosphorus. None of these
investigators, however, made any mention of a lack of
appetite in lactating dairy cows fed phosphorus deficient
rations.

Phosphorus Intake. The feeds used in this investi-

 

gation during milk production were the same as were used
previous to the time the animals calved, with the exception
that, after calving, blood meal was added to the rations

in order to provide the necessary protein. This feed was
used because it is low in phosphorus in comparison to its
protein content. By using it the protein of the ration

was kept to the Lower Limits of the Morrison Feeding

93
Standard without appreciably increasing the phosphorus.
Tables XVII to XXV, inclusive, show that the animals in
Let I received approximately 0.41 percent phosphorus in
the dry matter of their ration as compared to from 0.23
to 0.26 percent for Lot II. The animals in Lot II would
have received approximately 0.23 percent phOSphorus had
they eaten their rations as computed acccrding to the
standard used. This fact is illustrated by Table XX which
shows the milk production and feed consumption for D-5, the
only animal in the low phoSphorus group which ate enough
feed to meet its requirements.

The intake of phosphorus by the animals in Let I
averaged 42.34 grams daily compared to 20.09 grams for
the low phosphorus group. Among the animals of the low
phosphorus group D-5 stands out as having averaged 25.42
grams of phosphorus intake daily. The amounts of phos-
phorus received at times when D-3, D-6, and D—9 were
practically in phosphorus equilibrium compared very
favorably with the results secured by Rose. In his work
a cow in phosphorus equilibrium received the amount of
phosphorus in her milk plus 26 milligrams of phosphorus
per kilogram of body weight.

Phosphorus Requirement for Milk Production. KB11ner
in computing the phosphorus requirement for milk production
accepted Henneberg's estimate of 21.8 grams of phosphorus
per 1000 kilograms of body weight and added to this
figure three times the amount of phosphorus eliminated

in the milk, on the assumption that from one-

94
third to one-half of the feed ash consumed was available.
Thus a 1000 pound cow giving 20 pounds of milk would re-
quire 25 grams of phosphorus per day.

In this investigation the animals varied in weight
from 650 pounds to 1100 pounds. The average daily milk
production varied from 20.4 pounds produced by D-3 to
32.7 pounds produced by D-2 during complete 305-day lacta-
tion periods. It is evident that the ration of Db3
which contained an average of 16.46 grams of phosphorus
per day, did not provide enough to meet its requirements.
This cow was barely in phosphorus equilibrium when
producing 17.6 pounds of milk. At that time it weighed
655 pa unds. D-2, however, which produced an average of
32.7 pounds of milk a day during the entire lactation
period received an average of 32.7 grams of phosphorus
per day, This animal was in positive phosphorus balance
while producing 35.3 pounds of milkper day during
metabolism test. At this time its body weight was 948
pounds. As shown by Table XXIX the results obtained
from D-2 on metabolism test are indicative of the animals
in Lot I. The results obtained from D-3 are not as
representative of the performance-of the animals in Lot
II because the metabolism test was made on this animal
later in lactation, at which time milk production had
decreased materially. Neither D-7 nor D-9 are considered

as nearly representative of the group as D-3.

95

The negative phosphorus balances secured on the
low phosphorus group are in accord with the results of
Forbes and associates, Hart and co-workers, and Meigs
and Woodward who found negative phosphorus balances almost
universal in cows receiving standard rations without
mineral supplements.

The phosphorus utilization shown by Table XXIX is
cansiderably higher in Lot II than in Lot I. Apparently
Let I received considerable excess phosphorus. The
utilization secured in both groups was higher than
Kellner's estimate. The higher utilization of phosphorus
by the animals in Lot II is in contrast to the work of
Eckles and Gullickson who found that animals on low
phosphorus rations did not make as good use of their
feed as animals on adequate rations.

The results secured indicate that the basal ration
was inadequate in phosphorus content for satisfactory
milk production. The lower utilisation of phosphorus by
the animals in Lot I combined with the positive phosphorus
balances indicate that these animals received enough, if
not a slight excess, of phosphorus. .

Calcium-Phosphorus Ratio. There was no evidence
in the literature reviewed to indicate that the optimal
calcium-phosphorus ratio for milk production should be
materially different from the ratio for growth. In this
investigation the average calciumsphosphorus ratio was
2.912 for the animals in.LOt I and 3,060 for the animals
in Lot II during lactation. This difference is insignifi-

96

cant. The results received with D-5, D-ll, D-13, and D-l5
in Lot II, however, show that the average calcium-phos-
phorus ratio would have been much higher (3.51) had all
the animals in the group conswmed their feed, as these
four animals were doing at the time of metabolism test.
The addition of the bone meal to the rations of Lot I
narrowed the calciwm-phoSphorus ratio for this group. The
results from these metabolism tests do not agree with the
results obtained by Turner, Harding and.Hartman who se-
cured better assimilation from rations showing a calcium-
phosphorus ratio of 1.25 tharithey did from rations with
a ratio of 2.50.

Health of Animals

The differences in general appearance observed in
the two groups of animals previous to calving were.
accentuated by milk production. The animals in Lot I
continued in normal condition. The animals in Lot II, to
the contrary, were frequently off feed. Allof them except
D-5 refused to eat more than one-half as much hay, and one-
half to two-thirds as much silage as the animals in Lot I.
Their coats were rough, eyes sunken, and they were somewhat
dull and listless.

The depraved appetites observed previous to calving
became much worse after calving.’ The animals would search
the exercise lot for material on which to chew. They
chewed the fences, chewed hair off each other, and were
frequently observed eating dirt. On one occassion D-5
got out of the stanchion during the night and chewed I

rubber hose into two pieces. Another time this same

97
animal chewed an extension cord almost beyond recognition.
These results agree with those of Ecnles, Becker. and
Palmer, and Theiler and associates.

As shown by Graph VIII the animals in Lot I main-
tained their body weights to a much better advantage than
did the animals in Lot II. The low phOSphorus group a>n~
tinued to lose weight much longer than.the animals in
Lot I. Graph VIII also shows that at any given time after
calving the animals in Lot I were heavier than those in
Lot II. D-7 is an exception in the low phosphorus group,
but she was fed far in excess of her requirements during
the latter part of her lactatinn period, in an effort
to induce greater milk production as indicated by Table
XXII.

’ The blood pictures of animals D-2 and D-lO inclusive,
which are shown by Grapsh XIX to XV, inclusive, show'e
decided drop in inorganic blood phosphorus in the group
receiving the low phosphorus ration immediately after
calving. The blood phosphorus of these animals remained
at a lower level than.that of the animals in Lot I. There
was one exception to this, the case of D-7 which received
nutrients far in excess of her requirements for the last
three months of her lactation periodl These low phos-
phorus percentages are in accord with the results of
Henderson and Weakley. In fact, they are more pronounced

than the results secured by these investigators. These

98
also agree with those secured by Palmer and Eckles and
Helen, Green, and duToit who worked with cattle fed on
phosphorus deficient rations.

Reproduction. At the time of assembling this

 

data none of the animals had calved the second time. After
reviewing the findings of Eckles, necker and Prlmer, and
Hart and associates, Theiler and co-workers, and Welch,

it was anticipated that delayed oestrum and difficulty in
conception would occur. The data on these subjects as
given below shows no significant differences between the
two groups as to time between calving and the first
oestrual period thereafter, regularity of oestrual periods
and number of services for second conception.

Reproduction Data for Second Conception

 

 

 

Animal Lot Days from Regularity of Services
Calving to Oestrual for each
First Oes- Periods Concep-
trual Per- tion
iod

D~2 I 77 Irregular '1

D-3 II 29 .. 3'

13-4 I 83 "v 1

13-5 II 75 "v a

13-6 I 51 i' 1

D-7 II 10 " l

D-B I 22 ' w 1

D-9 II 24 " l

D-lO I 25 " 1

Average for Lot I 48 IIrregular If

W H I! II 34 n 2

99
- Apparently the phosphorus content of the ration
fed Lot II was not low enough to produce the delayed
oestrwm and poor breeding ability of the cattle studied
by Eckles, Becker and Palmer, Hart and associates,

Theiler and co-workers, and Welch.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

100

SUMKAJY

Period I. From 90 Days of Age to First Calving.

The basal ration fed_Lot II, consisting of alfalfa
hay low in phosphorus, corn silage and corn,
supplemented with common salt, was adequate for
normal skeletal growth in dairy heifers. This
ration contained about 0.20 percent phosphorus on
the dry basis.

The basal ration, low in phosphorus, did not support
normal growth in body weight. The heifers receiving
the basal ration supplemented with enough bone meal
to bring the phosphorus content of the dry matter up
to 0.41 percent made greater gains in body weight
than those receiving the basal ration. ‘

The basal ration was responsible for the development
of poor appetites in the animals receiving it. This
resulted in a feed intake below that of the group
receiving the phosphorus supplement.

The low phosphorus content of the basal ration
produced rough, staring coats, dull eyes and a
general unthrifty appearance in the animals in Lot II.
Approximately 0.20 percent of phosphorus in the dry
matter, as provided by the basal ration, was not
sufficient to prevent the development of depraved

appetite.

6.

7.

l.

2.

3.

4.

5.

101

The phosphorus intake of the animals on the basal
ration was not sufficient to maintain their in-
organic blood phosphorus at a normal level.
There was no significant difference between the
twm groups of animals in the age at first oestrum,
number of services for conception, gestation period,
size and health of calves produced, or the recovery
of the cows after calving.

Period II. First Lactation Period
The basal ration plus enough blood meal to meet the
requirements of the lower limits of the Morrison
Feeding Standard did not support liberal milk
production.
The thin, emaciated condition of the animals in Lot
II and their failure to maintain their body weights
were a result of the low phosphorus content of the
basal ration.
The poor appetites shown before calving by the
animals receiving the basal ration were more pro-
nounced after lactation began and persisted during
the lactation period.
The depraved appetites which develOped before
lactation began, became more acute during lactation.
After calving, the inorganic blood phosphorus of the
group receiving the basal ration drOpped very

markedly and remained at a low level as long as

6.

102
lactation continued,indicating inadequate phos-
phorus in this ration.

The low phosphorus content of the basal ration
had no significant effect upcn the fecundity of .
the animals receiving it. These results indicate
that the basal ration was adequate in phosphorus

for normal reproduction.

1.

8.

5.

4.

5.

103

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_ _ i"
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t
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Heier, Hans, and Robinson, E. N.

1927

Harcq, J.
1925 '

Lanziekte (Parabotulism) in Cattle in
South Africa. I

11th and 12th Reports of the Director of
Veterinary Education and Reseach, Part II.
The Gov't. Printing and Stationery Office,
Pretoria.

Nutritive Value of Phosphorus in Cattle.
International Review Science and Practice

.1 Agriculture, Vol. 3, pp 68-64.

Dorland, W. A.. Neman,

1920

31“; m.‘. We
1894 I

cm'ford, H.
1927

The American Illustrated Medical
Dictionary

(a) p 721, (b) p 543, (o) p 880

W. 3. Saundere Company, Phila. and London.

Big Head
florida Agr. hpt. Stae. Me 35.

Tropical Agriculture (Ceylon), Vol. 68,
No. 6, pp 272-291 ’

Cited by Biol. Abstracts (1928) Vol. 2,
Nos. 9-ll, pp 1553.

54.

55.

56.

57.

Carry, C. A.

1919

Schmidt,
1924

Huffman,
1930

Huffman,
1931 .

Bergeim,
1926

H.

111

Deficiency Diseases
American Vet. Hod. Assoc. Jour.,66,

Series 9, p 609.

Field and Laboratory Notes on a' Fatal
Disease of Cattle Occurring on the
Costal Plains of Texas (Lain Disease)
Texas Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. No. 319.

C. F., dobinson,C.s., Winter, 0.3., and Larson,R.E.

0.1.

Olaf e

The Effect of Les Calcium, High Hagnesium
Diets on Growth and Metabolism of Calves.
Jour. 01 Nutrition, VOle II. HOe 5. p 471-483

Unpublished Data. Work in Progress at
Hichigan Agr'l. Expt. Sta., East Lansing.

Intestinal ChemistryJII The Absorption
of Calcium and Phosphorus in the Small
and Large Intestines.

Jour. Biol. Chem. LXI. PD 29-47.

HcCollum, H.Y., Simmonds, N., Becker, J.E., and Shipley, P.G.

1922

An Experimental Demonstration on the
Existanee of a Vitamin which Promotes
Calcium Deposition.

Jour. Biol. Chem. LIII, p 293.

50a

62.

53a

“a

65.
66.

57e

112

Hess, A. 2., and Gutman, P. -

1921 The Cure of Infantile Rickets by Sunlight
as Demonstrated by a Chemical Alteration
of the Blood.

Soc. Expt. Biol. and lied. Proc.,Vol. 19,
no. I, pp 31-24.

Hart, 3. 3., NoCollum, ii3.9., and Puller, J. G.

1909 The Role of Inorganic Phosphorus in the
Nutrition of Animals.

Wisconsin Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. I.

HoCollum, E.v., and Simmonds, x. '

1925 ' The-Newer Knowledge of Nutrition. Third Edition
The Hacaillan Compaq, New York
(63a) p 622, (63b) p 395.

Theiler, A., Green, H.H., and duToit, P. J.

1927 Hinimum lineral Requirements in Cattle.
Jour. Ag. Sx., Vol. 17, p 291.

Same reference as No. 34. '

ferment Agr. Experiment Station

1926 Haintenance Requiments of Dairy Cows
Vt. Agr. Expt. Sta. 39th Ann. Rept., p 11.

Rose, A. R.

1913 ' 1 Study of the Hetabolisn and Physiological
Effects of Certain Phosphorus Compounds
with Hilch Cows II.

New York Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. No. 20.

ll.!’illllli

58a ,

69e

70e

71a

72.

73.

74a

75.

113

naynsrd, L. A.

1926 The Mineral Nutrition of Pam Animals.
Cornell Extenstion Bul. No. 130.

Sotola, J.,Smith, R. T., Nllington,D.V., and Cassel, L. W.

1924 ' Hineral Feeds for Pam Animals. .
lash. Agr. Expt. Sta. Popular Bulletin No.127.

leigs, E. B., and Woodward, T. E.

1921 The Influence of Calcium and Phosphorus in
the Peed on the [ilk Yield of Dairy Cows.
U. S. D. A. Bill. so. 946.

Huffman, c. 1., and so... 0. r.

1930 Results of . Long Time Hineral Feeding
hporimont with Dairy Cattle.
Hich. Agr. Expt. Sta. Cir. Bul. lo. 129.

Reed, 0. 1., and Huffman, c. r. '

1930 The Results of a Long Time Mineral Feeding
Experiment with Dairy Cattle.
lich. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. No. 105.

Hart, E. B., st..nboor.‘n.. and Harrison, 1. B.

1927 ' ' The Nineral Peed Problem in Wisconsin
Wise. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. No. 390.

Well, 1'. w. ‘ ' '

1916 . Alfalfa as the Sole reed Tor Daim Stock
Jour. Dairy Soil, 7.1. 1, lo. 5, pp 447-461.

Praser, Wilber, J.

1930 " Dairy I. Farming, p 126.
John wilsy and Sons, New York.

L

 

76.

77.

78.

79e

00.

Ole

114;

Heigs, E. B.

1923 The Relation Between the Quantity and
Availability of Calcium in the Ration
and the Milk Yield of Dairy Cows.

Proc. World's Dairy Congress, 1923,
v.1 II, pp 1046-1053.
Perbes, 3.3., Deegle, 1.11., urgan, L. 3., and Rhue, 8.1!.
1917 The Hineral Netabolism in the Nilch*Cow.
Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. No. 300.

Jon-08, ’0 SO. and 331113. D. E.

1923 ' ' A chemical Study of Legumes and Other
Forage Crops of Western Oregon.
Oregon egr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 197, pp 3-24.

Porbes, R. B., Beagle, 3.11., and Mensching, J. 3.

1913 Hineral and Organic Analysis of Foods.
Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 256, pp 225-231.

Archibald, J. 8., and Nelson, P. R.

1929 . mi. Hineral composition of or... from
Plots Pertilised and Grased Intensively.
Jour. Am. Soc. Agronomy, Vol. 21,» 686-699.

Hart, 3.3., Steenbock, R., Hoppert, C.A., and Humphrey, 0.0.

1922 a ” The Comparative Efficiency of Dry and
Green Alfalfa in Iaintaining Calcium and
Phosphorus. lquilibrium in Milking Cows.
Jour. Biol. Chem. LIII. pp 21-30.

82a

83.

04.

85.

87.

115

Hart, 3. B., Steenbock, R., and Harrison, 1". B.
1923 ‘ Hinerals for Livestock
Wise. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. No. 350.
Eckles, C. 3., Becker, R. B., and Palmer, L. 3.,
1926 A Hineral Deficiency in the Nations of
Cattle. '
Iinn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. No. 229.
Eckles, C. H., and Gullickson, T. W.
1927 The Relation of Phosphorus Deficiency
to the Utilization of roads.
Proc. Am. Soc. Am. Prod., pp 16-21.
Hunt, 3. B., Steenbock, H., Hletzien, S.W., Halpin, J.G.,
and Johnson, 0.N. '
1929' Hay Curing and Anti-Rachitic Properties
Wise. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. No. 396, pp42-43.
Robinson, c.s., and Huffman, c. r.
1926 Studies on the Chemical Composition of
3eaf Blood. 1 The Concentrations of Certain
Constituents in Normal Beef Plasma.
Jour. Biol. Chem. LXVII, pp 246-266.
Heigs, 3. B., Blatherwick, N.R., and Cory, C. A.
1919 Contributions to the Physiology of
Phosphorus and Calcium Metabolism as
Related to Hilk Secretion.
Jour. Biol. Chem. xxxvn. p 52.

.92; .0d .inc . ‘ .:1hu t‘Z‘ -””1E

. .T . - " 1's has ..d .0 ,aeiiol

gnuslollef dHI“JT\Oi€ to stir ’i. on? 9291
.2505; 331': iii! H'.’ 91.; 0.7
.IS‘QI Ill! e-b'n enlal ."Q- .mA atria:

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.8.0 .noannoL bus

seizueq02i oltknua;-ltci Ln» guinru {an 6891
.Cé-Srqq .398 .51 .Int .-:i .342: .zpa .621}

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to noitlaoqnob I cinsflo and no aeibuth 0391
-- 21291.0 to uncleartneocou on! I .hoeld teed
.snesl‘i leeE Issue}: 111 23119231981109
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: f To (gniolatni .n: o? anoltsdlrtnoo .191

    

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.nclteteet 1113 e: 6939108

e33 q .[IVJ‘J-l .medO e101“ eiflflt

88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

93.

116

Halan, A. L, Green, H.H., and duToit, P. J.

1928 Studies on Mineral Metabolism 7.
Composition of Bovine Blood on
Phosphorus Deficient Pasture.

Jour. Ag. Science, Vol. XVIII, pp 376-383.

Palmer, 1.. 3., Cunningham, 77.3., and Eckles, 0.3.

1930 ' Normal Variations in.the Inorganic Phos-
phorus of the Blood of Dairy Cattle.

Jour. Dairy Science, Vol. 13, No.3,pp 174-195.

Harvard, R. B., and Easy, 0. A.

1926 The Influence of Exercise on the Inorganic
Phosphates of the Blood and Urine.

’ Jour. Physiology, Vol. 61, pp 35-48.

Bethke, R.N., Steenbock, H., and Nelson, Mariana, T.

1923 ' Calcium and Phosphorus Relations to
Growth and Composition of Blood and Bone
with Varying Vitamin Intake.

Jour. Biol. Chem. LVIII, p 71.

Palmer, L.S., and Eckles, 0.3.

1927 Effect of'Phosphorus Deficient Rations on
Blood Composition in Cattle.

Proc. Soc. for.Exp. Biol. and Chem.
XXIV, pp 5-7-509.
Lindsey, J. B., and.Archibald, J. G.

1925 The Valu. of Calcium.)hosphate as .

Supplement to the Ration of Dairy Cows.
Jour. ‘Se ROS. m1. ”Ce 8, pp 771-791.

94.

96.

97.

98.

117

Theiler, A., Green, H. H., and duToit, 1’. J.

1928
Eckles , C. H.
1920

Soxhlet
1917

Neumann

1893

Lehman
1559

We iske
1873

Studies in Mineral Metabolism III. Breeding
of Cattle on Phosphorus Deficient Pasture.
Jour. A8. 30161100. V01e XVIII. pp 359-371e

1110 Nonal Growth 01 Daim Cattle.
Io. ‘Sre EXpte Sta. BBSe Bale Ho. 56a

1 or her. Versuch - Station Wien, pp. 101-155
Cited by Amsby, H.P., The Nutrition of Pam
Animals, p 419. ' '

The Macmillan Company, New York.

Jour. Landw. 41, p 343

Cited by Armsby, H.P., 1917, The Nutrition
of Farm Animals, p 419.

The Macmillan Company, New York.

Lands. Yers. Stat. I. p 68.

Cited by Armsby,‘H.P. 1917, The Nutrition
of Pan Animals. p 419.

The Macmillan Company, New York.

Jour. Landw. 21, p 139.

Cited by Armsby,iH.P. 1917, The Nutrition
of Farm Animals, p 419.

The Macmillan Company, New York.

100.

101.

102.

103.

104.

Pings r1 ing
1913 and 1916

Pings r1 ing
1911

Kellne r, O.

118

Landw. Vers. Stat. 79-80, p 847; 86, p.75.
Cited by Amsby, 11.2.. 1917. The Nutrition
of 1i'arm Animals, p 419.

The "Macmillan Company, New York.

Biechem. Ztschr. 37, p 266.

Cited by Armsby, H.P., 1917, The Nutrition
of Fan Animals, p 420.

The Macmillan Company, New York.

Ernahrung landw. Nutztiere, 6th edition.
p 696. Cited by Armsby, H.P., 1917, The
Nutrition of Fan Animals, p 520.
The Macmillan Gompany, New York.

IOIbGB. EeBepBGOSIC. reMe. Pritz,C.M., Morgan, LOEO. and

Rhue, S.N.
1916 '

Po rater

1873

0

The Mineral Metabolism of the Milch Cow.
Seoom Paper
Ohio Agr. prt. Sta. Bul. No. 295.

Btschr, 3101.. 9, p 297. Cited by
Armsby, E.P., 1917, The Nutrition of
Pan Animals, p 332.

The Macmillan Company, New York.

105 .

106.

107.

108.

109.

Lunin
1881

Diakow
1913

00 chrane

Henneberg,

1860

119

2tschr. Physiol. Chem., 6 p 31.

Cited by Armsby, H. P., 1917,The
Nutrition of Fan Animals, p 332.
The Macmillan Company, New York.

Lanai. Jahrb. 44, p 833.

cited by Armsby, H. 2., 1917, ch.
Nutrition of Farm Animals, p 345.
The Macmillan Company, New York.

Penn. Inst. of Animal Nutrition, Un-
published results, cited by Armsby,
H. P., 1917, The Nutrition of Pan
Animals, p 346.

The Macmillan Company, New You.

Beitrage, etc., Heft. I, p 113.

Cited by Armsby,H.P., 1917, The
Nutrition of Farm. Animals, p 520.
The Macmillan Company, New York.

Huffman, C. F., dobinson, 0.3., and Winter, 0.3.

1930

The C:alcium and Phosphorus Metabolism
of Heavily Milking cows.

Jour. Dairy Sci., 701. XIII, No. 6,
pp 433-448. -

APPENDIX

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ms. 90 Dnyso 01 A30
Basal Rationrtltaltt Hay,Corn Silago,cozn

PLAT] II

 

D-2. 90 Days of £30..
Banal Ration Plus Steamed Bonn I'll.

166

PLATE III

,.

 

p.50 90 Day. Of ‘80.
Buaal Rationrtlralta lay.corn Silage.Corn.

PBAII IV

20
- I30

I60 <

140 '

 

Blsal Ration Plus steamol Bone no.1

167

PLATE V

 

D-7 o 90 Days of Age
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay,Com 511330.00111.

PLATE VI

 

 

 

” D-é. 90 Days of A30
Bun]. Ration Plu- Steamol Bone 1031.

168

PLATE VII

 

.. n . 7,, 177' 7 .<._,

D-s. 90 Days or 130
Basal Ration-Altar: Hay,corn 31.139.001.11.

 

PLATE VIII

 

D-8. 90 Days of A30
Basal RAtlon Plus Stoned Bonn Ilsa].

169

 

 

 

 

 

 

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D-ll. 90 Days of Age
Ban]. Ratlon-Alfalia Hay,corn Silage,00m.

PLATE 1

      

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D-l'D. 90 Days of 13.
Ban]. Ration Plus Steamed none In].

 

 

170

PLATE XI

 

D-13 90 Ddys of Age
Basel Rationsdlfslts Hay,corn Silage.corn.

PLATE XII

 

D-12 90 Days of Age.
Basal Rstion Plus Steamed Bone Heal

 

171
mm x111 -

 

D-15. 90 Days of Age -
Blsal Rationpdlfalfs Hay.Corn Silage, Corn.

PLATE XIV

 

A“ :J".

D-ld. 90 Days of Age
Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone Meal.

172

PLATE XV

   

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n-z. 15 Ionths at Age
Basal Ration-Alralrafiay.corn Silage, Corn

PLATE XVI

20 40 60 80 I00 I20 mu *‘r
1 . q . 1

 

 

 

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'13+2'. 15 113111115 of Age
Basal dation Plus Steamed Bone Meal

 

 

 

PLATE XVII 173

 

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FED :1 a

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1M. 15 1:611:33 if: 15’
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay, Corn Silage, Corn

PLATE XVIII

 

Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone .

174.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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D-V. 15 months of Age
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay, Corn silage, corn
PLATE XX.

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Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone Meal.

175

PLATE XXI

  
 
 

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13-9. 15 Months of Age
Basal Ration-Aliens Hay.corn Silage,com
PLATE XXII

40 on 80 mm
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D-B. 15 tenths of Age
Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone Meal

 

 

176

PLATE XIII

 

_,_ 13-11. 15 Ionths at Age
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay,Oom Silage,Com

PLATE XXIV

 

D-lO. 15 Ionths of Age
Basal Ration Plus steamed Bone Heal

177

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PLATE XXV
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D-13. 15 Months of Age
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay,Corn Silage. Corn

PLATE HVI

 

13-12. 15 lonths of Age
Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone Heal.

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PLATE XXVI I

 

D-15. 16 tenths of Age
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay,Corn Silage. Com

EVIII

 

D-14. 15 Ionthe of Age
Basal nation Plus Steamed Bone Heal

179

PLATE XXIX

-

 

3. Two Years of Age
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay.Corn Silage. Corn

PLATEXXX

 

BBB. Two Years of Age
Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone Meal

180

PLATE XXII

 

D-5. Two Years of Age
Basal Ration-Alfalfa an,00m Silage. Com

 

D-4. Two Years of Age
Basal dation Plus steamed Bone Meal

PLATE XXXIII 181

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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D-7 . Two Years of Age
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay. Corn Silage, Corn

PLATE XXXIV

IOO I20

 

1177,

D-6. Iwo Years of Age
Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone Meal

182

 

 

 

 

PLATE XXXV
180' 3.9., so__ so, _a'o lop Iz'o,_-Ioro..loo
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D-9. Two Years of Age
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay, Corn Silage, Corn

PLATE XXXVI

 

D-B. Two Years of Age
Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone Meal

 

D-11.7 1» Years 01A Ago
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay, Corn Silage,cozn

PLATE XXXNIII

2o 40 so so I00 no mo |60 7184077720!) 229 240 726

 

D-lo. Two Years of Age
Basal Ration Plus steamed Bone Meal

184

PLATE XXXIX

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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D-lz. Two Years of Age
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D-12. Two Years of Age
Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone Neal.

185

 

 

 

 

 

D-15. Two Years of Age
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay, Corn.Silage, Corn

PLATE XLII

, ..6 .7 in,
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D-l4. Two Years of Age
Basal nation Plus Steamed Bone Neal

 

 

PLATE_XL'11 I

D-3 and First Calf
Basal RationpAlfalfa Hay, Corn Silage,

Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone Meal.

Corn

186

 

187

PLATE XLVL

     

A 1 A ', .3. 77,7'U-- , ‘1 , "1 , . », . ,
D-6.and First Cal!
Basal RationPAlfalta Hay, Corn Silage.corn

PLATE XLVIZ

 

D-4 and First Cal!
Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone Heal

188

PLATE XLVIIL

I

 

 

D-7 and First Calf
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay,corn Silage, Corn

PLATE

v

slam“ mats: ’
Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone Heal

189

PLATE XLIX

 

f, 1 ‘ 1,». . 7' I i, i_p,.1;_-
D-9 and First calf
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay,Corn Silage,Corn

PLATE L;

 

D-8 and First Cali
Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone Heal

 

190

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Dbll at First Calving. Calf Born Dead.
Basal Ration-Alfalfa Hay, Corn Silage. Corn.

PLATE LII

 

 

D—lo and first calf
Basal Ration-Plus Steamed Bone Meal.

191
PLATE LIII

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

    

n-15 .Ina In rat Gal! ' 7
Basal RationrAlfalta Hay, Corn Silage, Corn

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

PLATE IIV
I 20 ,40 60 BO IOC‘ I20 I40 I6 I50 200 "‘
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n—iz and Pirst Calf
Basal Ration Plus Steamed Bone Baal

192

PLATE LV

 

I60 20 4O 60 BO IOO |2TO I40 I60 I60 200 220 2‘

 

 

 

 

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Basal Listion Plus Steamed Bone Meal.

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