*9 . gal-‘47 LI??? IRY Dr‘li‘ehigan State University 1- n.- ——-—— This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF THREE FACTORS-- PERCEIVED NEED DEFICIENCY, IMPORTANCE OF NEED FULFILLMENT, PERCEPTION OF EDUCATION AS A MOBILITY FACILITATOR --T0 PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES presented by Lowell Vincent LeCIair has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PhoDo degree in Education é? flpfi Date June 26, 1 0-169 ultimo IY " HMS & SINS’ 900K WUERY "It. :1 mm; B'UERS .-_..'.‘ IQ» Mi :5}: ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF THREE FACTORS - PERCEIVED NEED DEFICIENCY, IMPORTANCE OF NEED FULFILLMENT, PERCEPTION OF EDUCATION AS A MOBILITY FACILITATOR - TO PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES by Lowell V. LeCIair Variables influencing participative behavior can be categorized into psychological and situational or social forces. In Order to analyze reasons for participating in educational activities, methodology must be developed to look at variables within both dimensions. The primary pur- pose of this study was to use a model or theoretical framework to investi- gate the psychological forces. A measurement identified as perceived need deficiency was used to differentiate between industrial employees who attend classes of an institution of higher education and employees who do not attend. The model tested was based on an assumption that the higher an indi- vidual's position in an organization the better able he is to satisfy basic psychological needs. Thus, the factors in the model analyzed and used to differentiate the participant and non-participant were (1) per- ceived need deficiency in the job, (2) importance of need fulfillment and (3) whether study subjects saw participation in educational activities as a means to advance to higher level positions which have greater potential for need fulfillment. The non-participant p0pulation consisted of lh9 respondents that had not participated in a formal class situation at an institution of higher education during the last three years selected randomly from four Lowell LeClair companies located in Fort Wayne, Indiana. The participant group were 177 respondents of a sample of students from the same four companies attending selected classes at Purdue University, Fort Wayne Campus. The study showed that participants differed significantly from non- participants in two of the three factors of the model. Participants exhibited a greater perceived need deficiency than non-participants and also viewed enrolling in college courses as a help in advancing to higher level positions in the industrial hierarchy. The difference in importance attached to fulfillment of basic needs was not statistically significant but the results were in the anticipated direction and showed that partici- pants and non-participants differed on this variable also. Participants also differed significantly from non-participants in level of position in the industrial hierarchy (salary only), age, sex, marital status, number of children in family, length of time with present company, length of time in present job, commitment to present employer, perception of mobility opportunities within their present position, and importance to the indi- vidual of moving to a higher level position. The two gnoups did not differ in level of job in industrial hierarchy (hourly classifications), level of education attained, distance lived from a university or college offering educational opportunities, or number of jobs held with other companies prior to present job. Findings indicate that this model can be used to analyze the psycho- logical dimension of participative behavior, and that the dimension of perceived need deficiency must be considered when the causes of partici- pation are analyzed. They also show that industrial employees view con- tinuing education as a means to a higher level position or a means to an end; thus this concept as one of several universal properties of the act Lowell LeClair of participation should not be ignored. This study reports that the industrial employee who participates is usually salaried, young, married, dissatisfied with his position, has been with the company less than three years and in his present job less than a year, is not committed to his present employer and would leave for a better job, and feels it is impor- tant to move up in the organization. Thus, if universities want to attract more students to continuing education activities, promote programs for the population not now being reached, and better design programs for participants, in their research of clientele they must analyze psychological needs and possibility of need fulfillment. Also, the results of participation must change the situation in the original environment so that satisfaction of needs can take place. In the industrial situation, encouragement to participate should not be restricted to financial incentives but should focus on needed training for advancement in the hierarchy. Planning educational participation should involve career advancement and ultimate career goals, a procedure which suggests the importance of individual assessment, counseling, and the development of an individual plan for attainment of career goals. Furthermore, the counseling program should include older workers and those at the lower end of the industrial hierarchy, especially hourly employees. A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF THREE FACTORS - PERCEIVED NEED DEFICIENCY, IMPORTANCE OF NEED FULFILLMENT, - PERCEPTION OF EDUCATION AS A MOBILITY FACILITATOR - TO PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES By Lowell Vincent LeClair A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education College of Education 1969 (R L“ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express his sincere appreciation to the many individuals and organizations who have helped make this study possible. Particular acknowledgment is extended to Dr. Clyde Campbell, Dr. William Faunce and Dr. George Myer who served as members of the doctoral committee. Special appreciation is due Dr. Floyd Parker, Chairman, for his encouragement, patience and strong guidance during this experience. The writer is indebted to Dr. Armand Hunter and staff members of Continuing Education Services, Michigan State University; Mr. John Draper of the School for Advanced Study, Michigan State University; representa- tives and employees of cooperating industries in Fort Wayne, Indiana; and the administration and faculty of Purdue University, Fort Wayne Campus. In this regard, a special thanks goes to Dr. Sherwin Kepes and Dr. Michael Nigro who helped clarify initial thinking on the problem, and Dr. Donald Turner who reviewed the final copy of the study. Special appreciation is also due Mrs. Mildred Peterson for her assistance In preparing the manuscript. Finally, my deepest appreciation goes to my wife Sue and children, Craig, Shelley, Debbie, Lori, Leigh and Ken. It is only hoped that I can repay half of what they gave of themselves to me. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM . Purpose of the Study. Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . Hypotheses. . . . . . . . Significance. . . . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study. . . . . Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study. . II. THEORETICAL BASE. . . . . . . . . Sumary C O O O O O O O O 0 O O O 0 III. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. Literature Related to Methodology of Clientele Analysis . Studies of Clientele Analysis . . . Literature Related to Participation Workers in Educational Activities Summary of Related Literature . . . IV. DESIGN OF RESEARCH. . . . . . . . . . Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . Sample. . . . . . . . . . Preliminary Sample. . . . . . . . . of Industrial PAGE com: 10 11 1h 15 17 26 27 28 32 50 63 65‘ 65 65 CHAPTER Instrumentation . . . Hypotheses. . . . . . Method of Analysis. . V. ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS. . Procedure of Questionnaire Distribution . Questionnaire Response. . . Demographic Characteristics of Study Subjects Characteristics of Study Subjects Related to Mobility Findings Related to Major VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Purpose of Inquiry. . Research Design . . . Summary of Findings . Conclusions . . . . . Implications. . . . . Suggestions for Further Hypotheses. Research. Concluding Statement. . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY. APPENDICES. . A B n I O I I11 I Questionnaire and Accompanying Letter F0] ION-LIP POStca I’d. o e o o o o o o 0 Covering Letter Accompanying Second Questionnaire Letter Requesting Permission From Cooperating Industries. Letter Requesting Permission From University Authorities. PAGE 69 73 75 78 78 79 81 91 99 105 105 108 109 111 11k ll6 119 122 129 129 137 138 I39 1h0 TABLE IV. VI. VII. VIII. IX. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. LIST OF TABLES Questionnaire Distribution and Response . . . . . . . . . . . Total Number of Respondents in Each Group . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Respondents by Level in Industrial Organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Respondents by Education. . . . . . . . . . Classification of Respondents by Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Respondents by Sex. . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Respondents by Marital Status . . . . . . Classification of Respondents by Number of Children . . . . . Classification of Respondents by Distance Lived from a University or College That Offers Courses in Which They Could Enroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Participant (1) Respondents by Whether They Are Currently Enrolled in a Degree Program . . . . Classification of Participant (1) Respondents Who Are Currently Enrolled in a Degree Program by Degree Being Pursued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Respondents Not Currently Enrolled in a Degree Program by Whether They Are Planning to Enroll . . . Classification of Participant (1) Respondents by Number of Courses Taken at a University or College. . . . . . . . . Classification of Respondents by Length of Time with Present Company . . . . . . . . . PAGE 80 80 82 .83 85 86 87 87 88 89 9O 90 9I 92 TAB LE PAGE XV. Classification of Respondents by Tenure in Present Job . . . . . 93 XVI. Classification of Respondents by Number of Full-time Jobs Held with Other Companies Prior to Present Job . . . . . . . . 9h XVII. Classification of Respondents by Level of Commitment to Present Employer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 XVIII. Classification of Respondents by Perception of Mobility Chances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 XIX. Classification of Respondents by Importance of Moving to a Higher Level Position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 XX. Measurement of Perceived Deficiency in Psychological Need Fulfillment of Industrial Employees . . . . . . . . . . . 100 XXI. Statistical Analysis of Perceived Deficiency in Psychological Need Fulfillment of Industrial Employees . . . . . . . . . . . 100 XXII. Statistical Analysis of Perceived Deficiency in Psychological Need Fulfillment of Non-Participants and Participants (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 XXIII. Comparison of Perceived Need Deficiency of Non-Participants and Participants (1) Within Levels of Industrial Hierarchy . . . . 101 XXIV. Measurement of Importance to Industrial Employees of Psychological Need Fulfillment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 XXV. Statistical Analysis of Importance to Industrial Employees of Psychological Need Fulfillment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 XXVI. Classification of Respondents by Whether or Not They View Enrolling in a College Course as a Help in Moving to a Higher Level Position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10h LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. Two by Three Factorial Design with N Observations Per cell 0 O O O O I O 0 O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 76 2. Model of Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 CHAPTER I BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM A continuing concern of adult educators is the question of what motivates people to participate in continuing education activities. Since participation is a voluntary act and recruitment is vital to the success of most programs, the educator must understand what factors are involved in the decision to attend: . . . the decision to participate or not rests with the individual adult and is influenced by factors that are com- ponents of both the personality and social group life of the individual involved. Such personal independence in the matter of participation complicates the administrative function, frustrates the adult educator and inhibits achievement of the maximum effective role of adult education in society.1 Attracting adults to educational programs is not a new problem.' Knox pointed out, however, that it has been only during the past decade that adult education research categorized as clientele analysis has become a major segment of research in the field.2 Clientele analysis has become an important aspect of adult educa- tion research for these reasons: 1. Findings can indicate the degree to which target audiences are being reached. 2. The analysis can provide information for more effective counseling and teaching of adults being served. ICoolie Verner and John Newberry, ”The Nature of Adult Participation,” Adult Education, 9:208-22, Summer, 1958. 2Alan B. Knox, “Clientele Analysis,“ Review g£_Educational Research, 35:231-239. June, 1965. 3. It can assist in the development and promotion of effective programs for adults not being reached. 4. It can encourage interagency coordination by indicating how each can best complement the other's activities in terms of audience reached. Knox pointed out in another article that adult educators are faced not only with the problem of promotion but of interpretation as well. With a better understanding of the motivation of adults to participate, the institution can attract those students who will benefit most from its program.I+ Homer Kempfer confirms by saying, ''The voluntary nature of adult education necessitates classes that will attract and be closely aligned with students needs, interests and aspirations.”5 To summarize, clientele analysis reflects a concern from the point of view of achieving greater involvement as well as attracting the audience for which the program is intended. Industry has also been aware of the need to have employees continue their education. Proof of their concern and testifying to management's willingness to give attention to educational needs of employees is the widespread use of incentives such as tuition reimbursement. The concerns have been brought about by problems of accommodation to rapid technologi- cal and social changes. Science is causing change in industrial organi- zations, and companies want employees to be able to keep up with require- ments of technology. In fact, the demands for adequately prepared workers 3Ibid. “Alan 8. Knox, Douglas Siogren, ”Motivation to Participate and Learn in Adult Education,” Adult Education, 12:238- , Summer, 1962. SHomer Kempfer, Adult Education, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1955). pp. 61-62. generated by our highly industrialized and technologically sophisticated occupational system has been a major force behind the heavy participation of adults in educational activities.6 As Verner relates, the enormity of technological innovations exerts a major influence over the vocational life of an individual. They have rendered the old skills obsolete while creating a need for entirely new occupational skills.7 Also, skills that are needed are more verbal and conceptual than manual, and there is an increasing demand for more responsible work performance. Besides changes in the job itself, there have been many changes in the work force. There has been an upward shift in the occupational structure with reduction in the “blue collar“ work force and corresponding growth in clerical, service, professional and higher management positions.8 Older workers with no special training are being forced into early retirement with not much hope of re-entry into the job market without additional training. 0n the other end of the continuum, younger workers are needing more education before beginning their work experience. There is also the problem of increased leisure time, especially for that portion of society that has not made creative use of leisure time in the past. Expanded periods of leisure pnovide more time for personal 6John C. Johnstone and Ramon J. Rivera, Volunteers for Learning, (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1965), Preface. 7Coolie Verner, Alan Booth, Adult Education (Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc., 196A), p. 6. 8Seymour Wolfbein, ”Labor Trends, Manpower and Automation,” flag in g_WorId gj_Wg£k, Henry Borow (ed.), (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 193:), p. 161. growth and development as well as greater opportunities to assume an active role in the social and political life of society.9 In many cases, the present adult education programs of colleges and universities are not making much contribution to the alleviation of these problems. Participants in programs are not representative of all faction of society. Most reports and studies show that participants are better educated, more intelligent, have higher incomes, and come from white collar occupations.10 “A distinct minority of the adult population is involved and, as a result, adult education is widening the gap between the edu- cated and the educationally unprivileged.”1 The problem, therefore, is basic; how to attract to adult education programs those persons for whom it is intended and who are in the greatest need for its benefits? The focus is specific: on the industrial employee who has been most affected by technological developments. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY Many studies have discussed reasons adults attend school. However, as Miller points out: ”The research has been, almost without exception, completely empirical, gathering data from one body or another of adult parti- cipants and putting them in whatever order seems reasonable and interesting.”12 9Verner and Booth, 92, 913,, p. 6. 10John C. Johnstone, ”Adult Uses of Education: Fact and Forecast,” Sociolggjcal Backgrounds gj_Adults, Hobert Burns (ed.), (Chicago: Center ,for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1964). 1IVerner and Newberry, 22. cit., p. 208-222. 12I-Iarry Miller, Participation gt Adults _i_r_t_ Education, (Brookline, Mass.: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1967), p. 1. In a recent issue of Review gfi Educational Research, Knox relates that studies categorized as clientele analysis are usually a description of characteristics of participants in adult education pnograms of one or more agencies in comparison with characteristics of the general popula- tion who would potentially be served.13 Houle has put it this way: " . . . they all pursue a single general theme, the effort to discover the characteristics of those people who are served by one or more of the established educational institutions or associations. Who uses the public library? What kind of people go to the evening school, the evening college, the museum, the community center, the settlement course, or extension class?"I Characteristics most often identified include age, geographical distribution, proportion of men and women, level of education, program interests, marital status and occupation. Johnstone's monumental work exemplifies this type of study. It describes the participant: ” . . . is just as often a woman as a man, is typically under forty, has completed high school or more, enjoys an above average income, works full time and most often in a white collar occupation, is married and has children, lives in an urbanized area but more likely in a suburb than a large city, and more frequently in the west than in other regions.”15 Non-participants are described in much the same terms as partici- pants. They are likely to be over forty-five years of age, to have less than a high school education and are probably from the lower socio- economic levels, non-white and rural residents. The same kinds of 13Alan Knox, 92. £15., p. 231. 1liCyril Houle, The Inquiring Mind, (Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1961), p. 5. ‘5John C. Johnstone and Ramon Rivera, Volunteers for Learning, (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1965), p. 8. people who do not participate in formal community organizational life do not participate in continuing education activities.16 The problem then is one of validation of the approach itself. According to Miller: ”Whatever differences there may be among them, however, all such studies suffer from a lack of a guiding framework that would suggest in advance what phenomena we should be looking for. Without such a guide we are condemned forever to repeating status surveys and refining our empirical categories to a point of meaninglessness.”l7 The purpose of this study is to investigate the use of such a framework, to develop a model or theoretical framework for analyzing the psychological dimension of participation. The focus of the study will be on motivational characteristics of industrial employee partici- pants and non-participants. The method of inquiry developed by Porter will be the instrument used to investigate the psychological dimension.18 As Porter points out, studies of motivation have to face the problem of naming objectives and classifying various motives and needs. One such construct is Maslow's hierarchy of prepotency.19 This theory states that there are basic or primary needs of hunger, thirst, sex, that an individual must satisfy, after which he is driven to the satisfying of higher order needs such as 16Alan Booth, ”A Demographic Consideration of the Non-participant,” Adult Education, 9:223-29, Summer, 1961. 17Harry Miller, 92, 213,, p. I. 18Lyman Porter, ”Job Attitudes in Management: I. Perceived Deficiencies in Need Fulfillment as a Function of Job Level,” Journal 2: Applied Psychology, 96:375-38h, December, 1962. 19Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality, (New York: Harper, 195A), pp. 80-106. safety, social acceptance and esteem. Finally, if an individual gains some degree of fulfillment of these needs, he spends his effort on the satisfaction of the highest order need, self-actualization. The motiva— tion is strong to satisfy to some degree the needs at each level of the hierarchy before the individual can concentrate on succeedingly higher needs. Based on an assumption, originally made by Argyris, that the higher an individual is in an organization the more able he is to satisfy basic needs, especially those pertaining to self-actualization,20 this study will use the construct of a motivational hierarchy to analyze the perceived need fulfillment of industrial employees participating in a continuing education program at a university and a similar population of non- participants to determine whether there is a significant difference between the two groups in: (l) perceived need deficiency in the job, (2) importance they attribute to fulfilling basic needs and (3) whether they see participation in college courses as a vehicle for upward move- ment to jobs with greater need fulfillment potential. It will attempt to determine whether a relationship exists between the degree of impor- tance workers attribute to advancing to jobs with greater need satisfaction potential and participation in a training program of an institution of higher education. 20Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization, (New York: Harper, 1957), p. 99. ASSUMPTIONS The research is based on the following assumptions: 1. That a valid and reliable measurement can be made of per- ceived need fulfillment in the industrial job; 2. That an individual can make a judgement of need fulfillment that he should attain from his job; 3. That the difference between perceived need fulfillment and the judgement of how muCh need fulfillment the individual thinks should be connected with his job is perceived need deficiency; A. That, if it is important to the individual to fulfill need deficiency at work, he will take steps to do so; 5. That the industrial worker realizes a higher position in the industrial hierarchy has more potential for need fulfillment, and he will take steps to move to a higher level position; 6. That, if he sees participation in continuing education programs at an institution of higher education as a means to this end, he will take part in this activity; 7. That perceived need deficiency and importance of fulfillment of needs is related to motivation for participation in continuing education programs and participators and non-participators can be differentiated by these factors. HYPOTHESES The following hypotheses are derived from the above assumptions. It is hypothesized that: 1. participators will indicate greater perceived deficiencies in psychological need fulfillment than non-participators. 2. participators will attach more importance to the fulfill- ment of psychological needs than non-participators. These hypotheses are based on the assumption that if a person assigns importance to the fulfillment of security, belongingness, esteem, autonomy and self-actualization and these needs are not being fulfilled in his job, he will take steps to move to a job where they will more to likely be satisfied. One step to facilitate upward mobility in partici- pation in a continuing education program. The measurement of importance of need fulfillment is only signifi- cant, therefore, if the industrial employee sees participation in continu- ing education as a means to higher level positions which he thinks will satisfy higher order needs. 3. It is further hypothesized, therefore, that more participants than non-participants will view taking college courses as a help in advancing to a higher level position. SIGNIFICANCE As previously noted, this study is an attempt to develop a method- ology whereby the motivational characteristics of participators and non- participators can be compared. Human motivation is a complex concept. However, if we can use a fundamental and unchanging framework of motives with which to develop a motivational profile of the two groups, we will not have to rely on empirical reports of what people tell us about their motivation. And, as Miller relates: ”Until we begin a search for significant relationships instead of static categories, our data on motivations leave us helpless in the face of two necessary tasks: (1) making tentative predictions about future trends in participation, that is, stating that under certain conditions there ought to be a rise in participation in particular programs; and (2) developing plans for increasing partici- pation in desirable educational activities by indicating what changes we would have to make in the existing situation to achieve the increase.” Thus, by developing a method of analyzing this psychological dimen- sion, the author hopefully will contribute information that will be valu- able not only to those responsible for developing and implementing continu- ing education programs, but also to those who want to study further this area of participation and non—participation. ll DEFINITION OF TERMS Motivation. The concept of motivation is broad and complex. Theories present different theoretical positions ranging from biologi- cal determinants in which behavior derives from a series of inner drives or instinct to social psychological theories which suggest that behavior is totally a product of interaction with cultural forces. In this study, motivation is viewed as related to the energy drive directed toward gratification of unfulfilled needs, which encompasses the entire range from biological needs to self-actualization. Maslow's theory of motivation discussed extensively in Chapter II is used in this respect. Following are a variety of definitions taken from the literature. P. T. Young, in an attempt to narrow the concept of motivation to a meaningful theory, relates: 'The two most important aspects are the energetic aspect and regulation and direction. We may define the study of motivation broadly as a search for determinants (all determinants) of human and animal activity. Motivation is the process of arousing action, sustaining the activity in progress, and regulating the pattern of activity.”ZI D. O. Hebb discusses the concept in much the same terms: ”The term motivation refers (1) to the existence of an organized phase sequence, (2) to its direction or content, (3) to its persis- tence in a given direction or stability of control.‘'2 McClelland, as do many others, defines motivation in terms of goal seeking. 21P. T. Young, Motivation and Emotion: A_Survey g: the Determinants 2: Human and Animal Activity, (New York: Wiley, 1961), p. 2h. 220. O. Hebb, The Organization 2: Behavior, (New York: Wiley, 1949), p. 181. l2 ”A motive is a strong affective association, characterized by an anticipatory goal reaction and based on past association of certain cues with pleasure or pain.”23 As these definitions point out, motivation incorporates the con- cepts of cue, arousal and drive. However, to many psychologists, especi- ally those of the field theory group, these definitions are limited. They would contend that motivation is not limited to arousal of instinct through stimulus. It can also be aroused because of a disequilibrium within the organism. Cofer and Appley define motivation in these terms: ”The pattern presumably starts wherever disequilibrium of a system occurs and is followed by equilibrating responses, which in turn cease when a balanced state is achieved. This model in- cludes acquired states for which no physiological needs can be postulated, such as affiliation, love or esteem.“2 In this context, motivation is related to needs and drive. Needs can be both physiological, caused by bodily deficits, and psychological, which are deprivations of a social nature. Also, the drive for fulfill- ment is guided in a particular direction, toward the achievement of a state of equilibrium. Viteles defines motivation within this theoretical position. ” . . . the term motive is used to describe any condition of the organism which permits the appearance of such directed behavior.”25 Robert Dubin relates the concept to the work world. “Motivation starts and maintains an activity along a prescribed line, something that moves the person to action and continues him 23D. C. McClelland, Personality, (New York: William Sloane Assoc., Dryden Press, 1951), p. #66} 2“C. N. Cofer, M. H. Appley, Motivation: Theory and Research, (New York: Wiley and Sons, 196A), p. 810. 25Morris 5. Viteles, Motivation and Morale lg Industry, (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., Inc., 1953), p. 71. 13 in the course of action already initiated . . . motivation is part of an activity at work."2 Adult Education. Because of its general applicability, the definition of adult education conceived by Liveright is used in this study. ”Adult education is a process through which persons no longer attending school on a regular, full-time basis undertake activities with the conscious intention of bringing about changes in informa- tion, knowledge, understanding, skills, appreciation and 35titudes; or to identify and solve personal or community problems.” Adult education can encompass credit or non-credit courses, be applicable to a college degree or certificate, be taken for the purpose of acquiring an applied skill or general self-impnovement. However, for the purposes of this study, the additional factor of full-time employment is used to differentiate the adult learner included in the study. Industrial Employee. For the purpose of this investigation, an industrial employee is a full-time employee of a company. He works thirty-two or more hours per week and accrues a major portion of his income from this particular position. Participant refers to the person who takes part in an educational experience within a group context of an institution of higher education. Non;participant refers to a person who has not, in the past three years, engaged in any educational activity conducted by an institution of higher education. 26Robert Dubin, The Wbrld of Work, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 19585, p. 213. 27A. A. Liveright, A Study of Adult Education in the United States. (Boston: Center for the Study of Liberal Education -for Adults), p. 3. lh LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The limitations are related to the specific nature of the population included in the study, the limited number of companies from which the sample was drawn, a reliance on Maslow's theory of motivation, and the limitations of the questionnaire as a data-gathering instrument. The experimental group will be a sample of full-time industrial employees attending Purdue University at Fort Wayne, while the control group will be employees of selected area industries randomly selected from listings supplied by the companies. The methodOIOgy of the study is related specifically to analyzing motivations of these well-defined groups and may or may not be applicable to wider populations. The writer also acknowledges that participative behavior as dis- cussed in this study includes many levels and types of participation. This study does not differentiate between levels or types of participation but includes in one group all who satisfy the definition of participant. It is recognized, however, that participative behavior may be a continuum fnom occasional to continuous. The companies from which the sample was chosen cannot be viewed as representative of all types of industries since they are a small portion of the types of industries in the country. They were originally selected by number of employees, extensiveness of in-plant training opportunities,_ and similarity of tuition reimbursement policies. There was further self-selection when the companies were asked to give permission for their employees to particlpate in the study and several did not grant the permission. 15 The limitations of Maslow's hierarchy of prepotency as a theory of motivation related by Cofer and Appley are also noted.28 The use of a questionnaire for gathering data limits the information obtained to written responses to prearranged questions.29 The anonymity and difference in interpretation of written questionnaire items might also be considered a limitation.30 SUMMARY AND ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE STUDY In Chapter I, the backgnound and purpose were presented in detail. The assumptions and hypotheses developed from the assumptions were stated; and significance, definition of terms and limitations of the study were presented. Chapter II establishes the theoretical basis for the study. Maslow's hierarchy of need theory, Argyris' theory of need fulfillment potential at different levels of the industrial organization and Mahoney's path-goal approach are discussed in relation to the motivation of industrial employees to participate in continuing education programs. Chapter III reviews the literature pertaining to design of studies of participators in continuing education, motivational characteristics of participators and educational programs for industrial employees. 28C. H. Cofer and M. H. Appley, 92. gj£,, pp. 68h-685. 29Claire Selltiz £3 21., Research Methods ig_Social Relations, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), p. 238T, 3°lbid., p. 239. 16 Chapter IV describes the methodology used in the study including research design, method of gathering data and statistical approach. Chapter V includes the analysis of data and determination of significant correlations. Chapter VI consists of the summary, conclusions, implications and recommendations for further research. CHAPTER II THEORETICAL BASE The theoretical bases used in this study are derived from the con- cepts of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Argyris' potential for need fulfill- ment in higher level positions, and Georgopoulos', Mahoney's and Jones' path-goal approach to need satisfaction. This model can be illustrated by the following statement of the purpose of the study. The purpose is to investigate the use of a construCt of a hierarchy of prepotency to analyze motivational characteristics of a specific population - the industrial employee - in relation to participation in continuing education as a path to a higher level position where the potential is greater for needs to be satisfied. Maslow's hierarchy of prepotency theory is the construct used in the study. Porter summarizes this theory as follows: Such a theory states, in essence, that there are basic or primary needs such as those for food, water and sleep, that an individual satisfies (at least minimally) first, after which he turns to so-called higher order needs such as those for affilia- tion, nurturance, and esteem. Finally, if the individual has achieved some degree of satisfaction of these first order and middle order needs, he may then spend effort on trying to satisfy the highest order need, that of self-actualization. The desire for self fulfillment, namely the tendency for the person to become actualized in what he is potentially, the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything one is capable of becoming. 1Lyman Porter, ”A Study of Perceived Need Satisfactions in Bottom and Middle Management Jobs,’I Journal 9: Applied Psychology, “5:1-10, February, 1961. 18 As Porter stated, the primary needs are physiological and they are the most prepotent of all needs. A person who is lacking in all needs would attempt to satisfy these first. ”All capacities would be put into the service of hunger satisfaction, and the organization of these capacities is almost entirely determined by the one purpose of satisfying hunger.”2 Capacities used in the fulfillment of other needs would lie dormant. Maslow also points out that another characteristic of the organism dominated by a need is that the philosophy of the future is directed towards that need. If it is hungry, Utopia is a place with plenty of food.3 Anything else will be unimportant. When these basic needs are satisfied, higher needs emerge, and these, then, dominate the organism. This is what is meant by a hierarchy of prepotency.“ The next set of needs are the safety needs. Safety needs are expressed in such phenomena as a peaceful, smoothly running, good society, safe from animals, extremes of temperature, criminal assault, murder and tyranny. In the case of children, it would be shown in the preference for undisrupted routine or rhythm or, for small children, protection from loud noises, flashing lights or other sudden sensory stimulation.S 2Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality, (New York: Harper and Row, 195A), p. 82; A. H. Maslow, ”A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychological Review, 50:370-396, 19h3. 3|bid., p. 82. L'Ibid” p. 83. 5|bid., p. 85 19 For adults it may mean a preference for a job with tenure and protection, desire for a savings account, and for insurance of some kind.6 In a broader context, it means a preference for ”familiar rather than unfamil- iar things, or for the known rather than the unknown."7 ”If both the physiological and safety needs are gratified, there will emerge the love, affection and belongingness needs.“8 These refer to affectionate relations with people, although, as Maslow points out, love is not synonymous with sex. ”Sex may be studied as a purely physio- logical need.“9 It refers more to acceptance by a group, making of friends, closeness of fellow workers, or the relationship between parents and children. ”Not to be overlooked, however, is the fact that the love needs involve both giving and receiving love."10 The next step up the hierarchy is the desire for high evaluation of oneself - self-respect, self-esteem, and for esteem of others. Maslow classifies these needs into two sets. One is ”the desire for strength, achievement, adequacy, mastery and competence, confidence in the face of the world, and for independence and freedom.” Second is the desire for reputation or prestige, status, dominance, recognition, attention, impor- tance or appreciation,“li ”Satisfaction of the self-esteem need leads to feelings of self-confidence, worth, strength, capability, and adequacy, p. 87. 7Ibid., p. 88. 8|bid., p. 89. 9Ibid., p. 90. ‘°Ibid., p. 90. 20 of being useful and necessary in the world.“12 The reference is made to deserved respect from others rather than unwarranted adulation.‘3 The highest order need in Maslow's hierarchy is self-actualization. This is the need for a man to be what he must be, to become actualized in what he is potentially, to become everything one is capable of becoming.1 The hierarchy is summarized by Porter as follows: This hierarchy is not a rigid fixed order that is the same for all individuals. Especially in the middle order needs such as various social and esteem needs, the order varies somewhat from per- son to person. However, this theoretical approach to motivation clearly carries with it the idea that physiological and safety or security needs are the most prepotent needs and that self-actuali- zation needs are usually the least prepotent for most individuals.‘5 For the purpose of this study, the need category of autonomy was added. As Porter further explained, ”the items under this category of autonomy are ones that in Maslow's system would be included in the esteem category; there, however, these items have been put into a separate category since it seemed that they are logically distinct from other items that are more commonly associated with the term esteem. Therefore the autonomy need has been inserted in the hierarchical order of needs between the esteem category and the self-actualization category, to which they have some relation."16 Several other authors discussed the importance of this factor in influencing satisfactions received from the job. Vroom felt it was an 15Porter, (1961) gg, gig. “mm. L, Zl extremely important part of job content.I7 The opportunity for self- expression, control of freedoms and control of work methods are crucial determinants of job satisfaction. The motivational consequences of job satisfaction are assumed. Blauner reviewed the job satisfaction literature and indicated that control and independence at work was one of four factors that accounted for variations in the degree of job satisfaction. He related this to motivation and concluded: ”perhaps the need for autonomy and independence may be a more deep-seated motive than is recognized by those who characterize our society in terms of crowdlike conformity and the decline of individualism.“l Maslow's use of a motivational hierarchy of prepotency in explain- ing behavior is supported by other authors. Lindgren categorizes differ- ent level needs into maintenance and enhancement needs. The primary drives for food, sleep and other physiological needs are considered main- tenance while those of esteem and self-actualization are enhancement. Those needs at the middle levels - attention, love and belongingness - are sometimes maintenance and sometimes enhancement. He indicates that the lower level needs are relatively simple and individual-centered while those primarily concerned with enhancement are relatively complex, abstract and other-centered.19 17Victor Vroom, Work and Motivation, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1968), pp. 126-150. 18Robert Blauner, ”Work Satisfaction and Industrial Trends in Modern Society,” Labor and Trade Unionism, W. Galens and S. Lipset (eds.), (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1960), p. 353; Arnold S. Tannenbaum, Social Psychology 2f the Work Ogganization, (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publi- shing Co., Inc., 1966), pp. 98-100; Joseph Tlffin, Ernest McCormick, Industrial Psychology, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 19E2). p. 357. I9Henry Clay Lindgren, Educational Psychology jg the Classroom, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967), pp. 31-3h. 22 Snygg also infers a motivational hierarchy when he states that ” . . . a large part of human behavior and even some animal behavior cannot be explained by or even reconciled with the purely physiological needs."20 He relates that, in looking for a conceptual system which will make human behavior more understandable, present-day psychologists are following a number of different leads. One is the concept of homeo- stasis. l'This concept enables us to visualize and use a completely different concept of living organisms from the machine concept of the stimulus-response theorists.“21 This different concept postulates the existence of additional nonorganic drive or needs, usually called psycho- logical needs.22 Cofer and Appley give qualified support to Maslow's hierarchy but point out that the literature authenticates that only certain kinds of drive states - the physiological and security needs - can under certain conditions dominate the organism's behavior.23 There is some question, however, that this concept of gratification extends up a hierarchy to self-actualization. The emphasis on self-actualization, in their opinion, suffers ” . . . from the vagueness of its concepts, the looseness of its language, and the inadequacy of the evidence related to its major con- tentions.”2“ 20Donald Snygg, ”The Psychological Bases of Human Values,“ Goals 9: Economic Life, E. Ward (ed.), (New York: Harper and Bros., 1953), p. 3&1. 2‘Ibid., p. 390. 22Ibid., p. 342. 23C. N. Cofer, M. H. Appley, Motivation: Theor and Research, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., l96h), p. 68 - 5. 2‘+Ibid., p. 692. 23 The second basic theory upon which this study is based is Argyris's assumption that the higher an individual is in an industrial organization the greater the opportunity to satisfy the needs of self-esteem, autonomy and self-actualization.25 For the purposes of this study, Argyris's concept establishes the idea of goal-setting, an essential element in motivation. Argyris refers to need satisfaction as psychological success. He discusses it as being synonymous with fulfillment of self-esteem and self-actualization needs. According to Argyris, to have ”psychological success'I an individual will need a world in which he can experience a significant degree of: 1. Self-responsibility and self-control (in order to define his own goals, paths to goals, etc.). 2. Commitment (to persevere to achieve the goals). 3. Productiveness and work (to achieve the goals). A. Utilization of his more important abilities. The probability of increasing self-esteem increases in a situation as the following factors increase: He is able to define his own goals. His goals are related to his central needs or values. He is able to define paths to those goals. Achievement of those goals reprgsents a realistic level of aspiration for the individual. FINN-d 25Chris Argyris, Integrating the Individual and the Olganization, (New York: Harper and Bros., 196h); Boris Blai, Jr., ”An Occupational Study of Job Satisfaction and Need Satisfaction,” Journal 9: Experimental Education, 1969, pp. 383-388; James V. Clark, ”Motivation in Work Groups: A Tentative View,“ Human Organization, 19:199-208. Winter, 1960; A. W. Kornhauser, Mental Health of the Industrial Worker: A Detroit Study, (New York: John Wiley, 1965), pp. 261, 275- -276'; Lyman W. Porter, (1961) _g.‘glt.; Lyman W. Porter, ”Perceived Deficiencies in Need Fulfillment as a Function of Job Level,” Journal gf_Applied Psycholggy, 96:375-38h, December, 1962. 26IbIcI., p. 27. 2h The individual assumes that the above conditions will be fulfilled at higher levels of the organization, and his goal is to_move to those levels. Argyris speaks of an incongruency between needs of individuals and the organization's needs. It is hypothesized by Argyris: ” . . . that if we select a given formal organization we will tend to find that on the average, due to the organizational struc- ture, managerial controls and directive leadership, the gap or conflict between the individual's needs and the organizational requirements tends to become worse as one goes down the chain of command and as the job exerts more control over the individual. Conversely, this gap or conflict decreases as one goes up the chain of command and as the individual is able to control requirements imposed upon him by the job.28 In an earlier work, Argyris points out that ”the employee will experience conflict to the extent that the demands made upon him by the organization are antagonistic to his needs. As the antagonism increases, the employee increasingly finds himself in the situation where fulfilling his needs frustrates the fulfillment of his formal organization requirements.“29 In this situation, the employee has several possibilities open to him. He could express his frustrations by: 1. Being absent an excessive amount. 2. Leaving the company. 3. Goldbricking, slowing down, stealing, cheating, causing waste and errors or other aggressive behavior which reduces the quality of production. Z7lbid., p. hi. 23Ibid., p. L12. 29Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization, (New York: Harper, 1957). P- 77. 25 4. Asking for increased compensation for the degree of dis- satisfaction, tension and stress experienced. 5. Working his way up the organizational ladder into posi- tions providing greater opportunity for need fulfillment.30 The final point of the above listing is directly related to the third theoretical concept upon which this study is based. The path goal hypothesis of Georgopoulos, Mohoney and Jones suggests that, if a worker sees participation in continuing education activities as a means to attain his personal goals, he will do so. Although the original concept of Georgopoulos, t g1, speaks in terms of high productivity as a path to satisfaction of goals, it is pointed out that the path to be followed in a given case will be a function of the perceptions of the individuai.3l If high productivity is perceived as the appropriate path, the individual should become a high producer.. For the purposes of this study, participation was substituted for productivity as the perceived path an individual could take to reach his goals. The idea that the act of participation is a means toward an end is also supported by Douglah.32 He contends that it is one of four “universal properties of participation,” and places emphasis on this one ”since researchers often investigate the phenomenon of participation as if it were an end in itself.”33 30Argyris, (19610 op. c_i_t.. p. 59. 31Georgopoulos, et al., “A Path- Goal Approach to Productivity, " Journal of Applied Psychology, h1:3AS- 353, December, 1957; also discussed in: Arthur H. Brayfield, Walter H. Crockett, ”Employee Attitudes and Employee Performance,” Pegple and Productivity, Robert Sutermeister (ed.), (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1963), pp. 105-113. 32Mohammad A. Douglah, ”Some Perspectives on the Phenomenon of Par- ticlpation," paper read at A.E.A. National Conference, Des Moines, Iowa, Novembe r, 1 968 . 33Ibid. 26 The article by Georgopoulos _t__l. further suggests that the choice of participation as a path to goal attainment depends on three conditions: (1) The path will be chosen if the individual's need is sufficiently high; (2) if no other more effective and economical paths are available to him; and (3) if there are no restraining forces or barriers blocking the desired path.3“ Thus participation in continuing education is seen as a function of path-goal perception, level of need and level of freedom. SUMMARY This chapter establishes the theoretical base for the study. It reviews (1) Maslow's concept of hierarchy of prepotency as the structure that will be used to analyze motivational characteristics of industrial employees in relation to participation in continuing education, (2) Argyris' theory of need fulfillment at different levels of the industrial organiza- tion, establishing the desire of moving to higher-level jobs that have greater need fulfillment potential as a possible goal of the industrial employee, and (3) the theory of Georgopoulous _t__l. regarding the path- goal approach to need satisfaction which suggests that participation for the industrial employee could be a means to the goal of attaining higher- level positions. 3AGeorgopoulous, t al., 22. cit. CHAPTER III REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter reviews Significant literature and research related to participation in continuing education. Because of the vast number of reports dealing with continuing education participation as well as allied areas such as social participation, the researcher attempted to limit this review to those studies which answered relevant questions and seemed necessary for background. With this objective in mind, the chapter has been organized into the following three areas. Section one pertains to the methodology of clientele analysis and reviews the types and limitations of studies that have been made in this area. Using critiques of other writers, it attempts to develop a justi- fication for the methodology of this particular study. Section two includes selected studies of participation. It includes: (1) general surveys which show trends and patterns of adult education participation, (2) studies that analyze characteristics of participators in specific programs and different types of programs, (3) studies that attempt to establish a relationship between a variety of social and personal factors and participation, and (4) studies that infer need satisfaction as a motivation to participation. Section three is devoted to studies of participation by industrial workers in educational activities. Those studies selected are related to 28 employee participation in educational activities of universities and colleges. A Specific look is taken at participation of blue collar employees in education activities; This review is not limited to discussion of empirical research, but attempts to cover quite extensively the literature of the field. LITERATURE RELATED TO METHODOLOGY OF CLIENTELE ANALYSIS Because one of the major objectives of this study is to investigate a methodology of analyzing motivations of persons who participate in continuing education activities, those studies that review what has been done and discuss limitations seem especially pertinent. As pointed out by Knox and Sjogren in their reporting of the 1962 National Seminar on Adult Education Research, adult educators are well aware of the need for research in the area of adult participation. It soon became apparent to the group, however, that the concept of motiva- tion is difficult to define and discuss.1 They observed that there were two facets of motivation: (I) The initial decision to participate and (2) motivation in the actual learning situation. These should not be considered a dichotomy but are highly related. In relation to the first of these points, the Seminar group formu- lated a list of questions that seemed relevant to the investigation of motivation to participate. The following was one that was particularly pertinent to this study. 1Alan Knox and Douglas Sjogren, ”Motivation to Participate and Learn in Adult Education,” Adult Education, Volume 12, Summer, 1962, p. 238+. 29 Do any psychological characteristics differentiate the par- ticipant in adult education from the non-participant? Some psychological characteristics that seem to be related to or are aspects of motivation which might be investigated are: attitudes toward aspects of educative activities; needs such as achievement, affiliation, power, security, control, etc.; anxiety level; and satisfaction level in life roles such as citizen, worker, home- maker, or user of leisure. Knox and Videbeck, as well as otherszr3sHs5 have reviewed this topic further and stated that most published studies of the characteristics and reasons for attendance of adult education students described participants in single agencies or programs. These studies have tended to be descriptive, identifying those personal characteristics which correlate with enrollment. Few of the relevant variables have been examined, with most studies concentrating on biographical data, personality characteristics, social roles and statuses, or general community and cultural characteristics. Knox and Videbeck contend that such emphases thwart a fuller understanding of the educative activities of adults. “It is in studies which compare the characteristics of participants and non-participants in adult education programs that relationships with the larger body of research in adult participation become clear.”6 2Mohammad A. Douglah, ”Some Perspectives on the Phenomenon of Par- ticipation,“ paper read at the Adult Education Association National Meeting, Des Moines, Iowa, November, 1968, pp. 5-6. 3Alan Knox, ”Clientele Analysis,” Review 2: Educational Research, 35:231, June, 1965. ifCyril Houle, The Inquiring Mind, (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1961), p. S. 5Edmund desBrunner, Ag_0verview g: Adu1t_Education figsearch, (Washington, D.C.: Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., 1959). p. 90. 6Alan B. Knox, Richard Videbeck, “Adult Education and Adult Life Cycle,” Adult Education, 13:102-121, Winter 1963. 3O Kreitlow, in his review of adult education research areas needing attention, makes this observation: While the concern for the problem of participation and for the values to accrue from the resolution of this problem are emphasized in the literature, actual participation studies have not often gone beyond the mere enumeration of gross participation. He supports the position of the above writers when he states that there has been an increase in participation studies of late, but these research approaches to participation of adults ”point up the lack of focus on how to obtain data on this vital subject.“8 Miller attempts to develop this focus in his paper dealing with the development of a method or conceptual framework for examination of moti- vation to participation.9 Miller points out that the research has been “almost without exception, completely empirical, gathering data from one body or another of adult participants and putting them in whatever order seems reasonable and interesting.” All such studies, he contends, “suffer from a lack of a guiding framework that would suggest in advance what phenomena we should be looking for."10 Miller offers Kurt LEWID'S force-field analysis as such a structural device. Lewin's suggestion that we look at such high-level abstractions as ”production,” ”consumption,” or ”participation" as an equilibrium 7Burton W. Kreitlow, Relating Adult Education t9 Other Disciplines, (Cooperative Research Project No. E-OIZ; Washington, D.C.: U.S. Depart- ment of Health, Education and Welfare, 1969), p. 73. 8Ibid., p. 73. _*_* _ Field Approach, (Brookline, Mass.: Center for the Study of Liberal Edu— cation for Adults at Boston University, 1967). I0iIaid., p. i. 31 that results from innumerable decisions of large numbers of individ- uals exactly fits the requirements of our present problem. His analysis of this equilibrium as a product of positive and negative forces, both psychological and situational, provides us with a use- ful tool for identifying the important variables in participative behavior and for estimating what changes we would have to make in those forces if we are to change the present equilibrium.“ Miller identifies the psychological force as a personal need and offers Maslow's conception of the need hierarchy as ”the explanation for the primary purposes which lead people to participate in voluntary pro- grams.” The situational forces are “social structures and forces of the human society.”12 He summarizes this approach to participation analysis in the following assumptions; 1. When strong social forces and strong personal needs move people toward a particular educational objective, the congruence should result in a high level of participation in programs rele- vant to that objective. 2. When strong personal needs among a particular group of people move them toward an educational objective, but there are no supporting or facilitating social forces, the participation level will be low generally, but erratically and spottily high. 3. When personal needs in a particular group are weak, but social forces are strong, participation originally will be fairly high, but may drop sharply after an initial period. 4. When personal needs and social forces conflict, the par- ticipation level will depend on the strength of the social force in the given situation, but there will be a considerable amount of tension within the program itself.l3 One more comment by Miller seemed important in justifying the approach used in this study. He relates that ”human motivation as an object of 32 study is made even more complex by our necessary reliance on verbal reports.” He doubts whether people are really aware of what motivates their behavior. His recommendation is to ”build a general framework for looking at educational program participation by starting not with empirical reports of what people tell us about their motivation, but with what we know more generally about the human animal and the society he lives in. The resulting model of how individuals ought to participate can then be tested against existing empirical data as well as used to suggest further investigation.”lh STUDIES OF CLIENTELE ANALYSIS As stated above, the typical study of participation has looked at characteristics of adult attending specific programs or variables related to participation in various types of adult programs. An example of these is the survey that shows the extent to which programs reach different segments of the population. A recent national survey and one that was well-accepted in the field was the NORC study conducted by Johnstone and Rivera.IS This investigation, conducted in 1962, had four distinct objectives. The authors referred to these as phases: Phase one of the study sought to provide a general descrip- tion of the nature and scope of adult participation in formal and informal educational pursuits of all kinds. Thus part one ”pre- sents a detailed behavioral inventory of the educational experi- ences of American adults over a twelve-month period. I‘Iibid., p. III. 15John C. Johnstone, Ramon J. Rivera, Volunteers for Learning, (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1965). 33 Phase two sought to assess attitudes and opinions held by adults concerning education. This section investigated the situations under which adults typically enter into formal learning pursuits, the reasons they have in mind when they enroll and the general impact of adult education experiences on their lives. Phase three considered the extent and nature of facilities for adult learning in typical urban communities. Phase four focused on adolescents and young adults between the ages of seventeen and twenty-four. The main purpose was to trace the educational and occupational experience of young people during the years immediately following termination of regular schooling by focusing on the readiness of out-of-school youth to seek further education.16 The sample included contacts with 11,957 households which netted information on 23,950 adults. In addition, 1,928 unmarried youths be- tween the ages of seventeen and twenty and 11,554 children between the ages of three and sixteen were included. For the second phase, personal interviews were conducted with 2,8h5 persons, of which 1,808 represented the total adult population of the United States, and 1,037 were a special subsample drawn to represent those who had participated in some type of educational activity during the previous year. The method of gathering data for phases three and four was through specialized field studies. Principal results of interest in this review are presented in answer to specific questions posed in the summary of the report: 1. How many adults engage in educational activities after they terminate their formal schooling? a. The answer hinges on the definition one applies to educational activity. b. When it is defined broadly as in this study, it is estimated that twenty-five million American adults are active in one or another form of learning during a twe'l ve -month pe riod . c. Fifteen percent or more than seventeen million per- sons were enrolled in courses on a part time basis. 16Ibid., pp. XXV and XXVI of general introduction. 5. interest 34 d. Twenty-five million were full-time students. e. Close to nine million engaged in independent study. f. Sixty-one percent of all adults interviewed had been involved in some form of learning activity, as defined by this study, sometime in their adult lives. What types of subjects do adults study? a. Studies were primarily non-credit with the subject matter overwhelmingly non-academic. b. Thirty-three percent of learning activities were vocational. c. Twenty percent were in recreational learning. d. Only twelve percent of studies were in academic subjects. What are adult participants like? a. They are younger than the average American adults. b. They are equally divided among men and women. c. Negroes are slightly under-represented but only because of poorer than average educational background. d. They are better educated than the average adult. e. They are more likely to hold white collar rather than blue collar jobs and have a higher than average family income. f. They are living in a suburb of a large metropolitan area and more likely in the West than in any other region of the country. Why do adults take courses? a. Younger adults more often take courses for job-centered reasons. b. Older persons more likely take courses simply for general knowledge. c. Leisure-centered reasons are also prevalent but the importance varies with different age groups. d. Women enroll more often in response to home and family life and leisure-time interests. e. In addition, women are more likely to take courses to meet new and interesting people. f. Some take courses simply to escape daily routine. What factors are associated with the persistence of learning during adult life? a. Learning interest fell off continuously in each older age group and the rate was an accelerating one. b. The effect of education on learning was equally dramatic with a sharp difference between those with little education and those who had attended sixteen years or more. c. Parents' educational attainment also influenced positively the interest of the person. 35 d. Among men, especially older and less educated respond- ents, learning interest was strongly related to whether or not the occupational future looked promising. e. Interest in learning was also related to expectations concerning residential mobility with those expecting to move in the near future having more interest. Another excellent study of the survey type, although not on a national scale, was that conducted by London, Wenkert and Hagstrom of a community in the western United States.18 The sample included 849 households in which 605 men between the ages of twenty and fifty-seven were located. Also included was a matched set of non-participators. It can be noted in the review of the major findings that much is con- sistent with the above reports. It is emphasized, however, that the three major and independent determinants of adult education participa- tion are age, style of life and amount of formal education.19 Major findings: 1. Half the respondents pursued programs on courses related to their occupational role. Vocational programs were more frequently sponsored by educational institutions. 2. Education is statistically the most important factor influencing the likelihood of participation. One surprising finding related to this point and especially rele- vant to this particular study was that when comparing participation rates by geographic area (low rental vs. high rental areas), it was found to be higher in the lower rental strata among the college educated, ‘7Ibid., pp. l-l4. 18Jack London, Robert Wenkert, Warren Hagstrom, Adult Education and Social Class, (Berkeley, Calif.: Survey Research Center, University of California, 1963). i9lbid., p. 149. 36 even higher than that at the same education level in the high rent district. An explanation, although admittedly unsatisfactory, offered by the author was: (1) Those who live in the less expensive housing areas are less successful in their status positions than those living in the more expen- sive parts of the city; (2) adult education is one possible channel for status advancement; (3) the less successful would be more likely to aspire to a higher status than those who have already achieved such status and therefore would be more likely to participate in adult education activities. 3. In addition to the effect of education, a second major vari- able influencing participation is age. At every level of education, the younger participate more than the older. 4. Participation in activities taken for vocational reasons decreases rapidly with age. However, the better educated continue to participate regardless of age. 5. As persons get older they tend to get into more general and liberal arts subjects. 6. There is not much difference in patterns of participation of whites and non-white except, as Negroes get older, there is a significant drOp in job-connected participation. 7. Persons with an active orientation toward life are more likely to participate than the passive individuals regardless of age or educational attainment. The types of activities they prefer are serious reading, art and music, formal organizations or informal' social activities. 8. Men with jobs requiring technical knowledge are twice as likely to participate than persons in non-technical occupations. 9.. The desire to change jobs is also an important indicator of the likelihood of participating. The expression of a desire to change jobs, coupled with dissatisfaction with one's present condi- tions of employment, is associated with participation. 10. A necessary condition for participating in adult education is awareness of existing opportunities. White collar and higher socio-economic participants get information more often from imper- sonal sources such as mass media. In contrast, personal sources such as neighbors and firends were the most frequent source for 37 blue collar workers - a highly unsatisfactory source since few of their friends participated in the first place.20 To summarize the two survey type studies presented here, it can be clearly seen that a good percentage of the adult population is aware of or has participated in some kind of educational activity, but the single characteristic of persons that all such studies emphasized as most likely to influence participation is amount of prior education. Examples of another type of study of participation, and typical of those that describe characteristics of students and review reasons for participating in specific programs, are those conducted by Nicholson and Dugger. Nicholson studied part-time students enrolled in evening schools, trade and business schools and day colleges.21 Besides ascertaining the reasons behind their attendance, he analyzed and classified the motives to discover how persons categorized into groups by sex, marital status and types of courses taken differ among themselves in regard to the purpose given for school attendance. Five thousand, two hundred eleven responses to a questionnaire were used in the study. The study revealed that three-fourths of the men respondents chose statements categorized in the economic-occupational area as the most compelling reasons for ,attending. The intellectual-cultural and personal-social reasons were much more significant in motivating women. Motives, as this study defined the term, also differed among the various age levels. For example, voca- tional objectives appealed to persons between the ages of twenty and forty 20Ibid.. pp. 142-147. 21David Nicholson, ”Why Adults Attend School,” Adult Education, August, 1949, pp. 172-177. 38 while older students were interested in cultural and recreational pur- poses. Also, workers in the most technical and rapidly changing occupa- tions were seeking vocational knowledge related to their work much more frequently than adults employed in more simple occupational areas. The author concluded that adults want a broad program in their evening classes. They want technical and specialized courses related to their occupations but also cultural and recreational subjects to broaden their horizons. They want to find interesting friends and mental stimulation but also a sense of human dignity from accomplishment. Dugger's study of motivation and other factors characterizing adult learners enrolled in evening classes at Drake University was quite similar to the above and another example of a study that focused on characteristics of participants in a particular program.22 The purpose was to explore the nature of students attending adult education courses in terms of data of a personal, social, economic and educational nature, and to determine by statistical methods whether there was a significant difference in reasons for enrolling among the different groups. Participants were asked to check from a list the most important reason for attending school. The largest percent chose preparation for a job or career advancement in their present occupation. The second largest group indicated preparation for a job not now held. Almost twice as many chose vocational oriented motives as chose socio-cultural motives. Some of the findings in regard to per- sonal characteristics were (1) A strong occupational motive to attend was- 22James Dugger, ”Motivation and Factors Characterizing Adult Learners Enrolled In Evening Courses at Drake University,” (Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, 1965). 39 indicated by those adult students employed full time. Unemployed adults chose socio-culturai motives more often. (2) Men were significantly more vocationally motivated than women. (3) Adult students in the age range from twenty to forty-nine were significantly more vocationally motivated than other age groups. (4) Those adult students with an income level of $4000 or less chose socio-cultural reasons for attending while those who earned $6000 or more were significantly more vocationally motivated. Dugger assumed from these findings that most adult learners are dissatisfied with their occupations. They participate because they want to feel vocationally secure, to have the freedom of greater voca- tional choice. The basic question asked in the study by S. R. Deane was, “Do differ- ent programs draw students with distinct backgrounds and purposes?”23 He sampled three different populations attending (1) great books and reading » groups with a public library, (2) non-credit evening students taking courses at Baltimore City College and a public high school and (3) college credit students registered with a college or special and continuation students at a university. He found that each program drew a truly unique group of students who stated different reasons for attending. For example, the college credit group reported they were encouraged to attend by their superiors or employers and frequently reported taking the course for voca- tional reasons. The great books group most frequently said they wanted cultural development and their life goals were concerned with altruistic aims. The motivation of the non-credit evening student was recreational 23S. R. Deane, “A Psychological Description of Adults Who Have Participated in Selected Activities,” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Maryland, 1949. 40 or a specific short range goal of high school completion. The study also looked at the differential responses for age, sex, socio-economic status, liberal attitude and marital status. To investigate further this question of uniqueness of participants in different pragrams, the study of Davis was reviewed in which he looks at participants of the Great Books program.27 The sample was a random selection of 1,909 adults from 172 Great Books discussion groups. The questions or factors included in the study were (1) social characteristics such as stage in life cycle, organizational memberships, institutional affiliations, self-concepts; (2) cultural abilities and interests; and (3) what they expected to get from the programs. The study showed that the participants were highly educated, most likely married, more often female, more likely professional men and wives of white collar husbands, less mobile than average Americans, younger than average and possibly disproportionally irreligious. The specific nature of the program probably accentuated those qualities that differentiated this group from the average pOpulation. Their reasons for attending were interest in content of the readings and hopes of meeting intellectual people in order to escape dull- ness of community or social world. Very few saw the Great Books program as a way of learning specific skills to apply in job or community organizations. Another type of study of which only a portion are reviewed here attempts to relate a variety of selected factors to participation. Douglah's research 2"*James A. Davis, A Study 9: Participants lg the Great Books Program, (Chicago: The Fund for Adult Education and National Opinion Research Center, 1957). 41 exemplifies this type.25 In his study, dimensions measured in relation to educational participation were categorized into personal and social characteristics and attitudes toward the community. He observed that, in three measures of community satisfaction outlined in the study, there seemed to be a consistent trend which indicated a higher percentage of those who were less satisfied with the community tended to participate to a greater extent than those who were more satisfied. For example, 30 percent of those who said the community was not a good place to live participated against 16 percent of those who said it was a good place to live. Nineteen percent who preferred to live someplace else partici- pated against 14 percent who preferred to stay in the present community, and 30 percent of those who thought their former place of residency was better participated compared to 14 percent who thought their present community was a better‘place to live. There was also a positive relation- ship at least for females between awareness of problems in the community and participation. For example, 25 percent of females who were able to identify three problems were high participators while 11 percent of females who did not identify any problems were high participators. Among females, there was also a relationship between participation and their perceived ability to bring about change in the community. The social characteristics that Douglah related to educational par- ticipation were (1) church membership, (2) church attendance, (3) Youth leadership status, (4) number of friends and neighbors with whom respondent 25Mohammad A. Douglah, ”Factors Affecting Adult Participation in Educational Activities and Voluntary Formal Organizations.“ (Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1967). 42 visits and (5) frequency of visits. Contrary to common belief, Douglah found that socially active men still find time to participate in educa- tional activities. Personal characteristics included were age, sex, formal educational, occupation, income, marital status, number of children, residence and religion. In another study Douglah, collaborating with Gwenna Moss, attempted to look at factors associated with participation within groups of low and high educational levels, thus controlling the level of education.26 Their rationale was the fact that the most consistent finding in partici- pation studies is the strong relationship between level of education and participation in educational activities. The factors were divided into two types: (1) positional or background factors which refer to positions persons occupy in the social structure, sex, age, employment status, level of occupation, level of income, marital status, family status and place of residence; and (2) psychological factors such as self-reliance, withdrawing tendencies, social skills and occupational relations. The data were obtained by interview responses of 611 housing units. Included were 128 persons defined as having high educational attainment and 274 with low educational attainment. It was concluded that differences in participation within the groups cannot be accounted for by a common set of factors. In the low education group participation seems to be influenced by age, employment status, income, family status andwithdrawing tendencies while in high education 26Mohammad Douglah, Gwenna Moss, ”Differential Participation Patterns of Adults of Low and High Educational Attainment,” Adult Education, 28:247- 259, Summer 1968. 43 participants, only one factor, social skills, was found to influence participation. In attempting to account for the phenomenon of partici- pation among adults of high and low education levels, the findings of this study as well as the results of other studies seem to suggest the existence of higher-order variables which might be termed economic orien- tation and self-actualization orientation. For example, income, employ- ment status and number of children, factors in the participation of the low attainment group, could be considered economically oriented while, among the highly educated, the primary determinants of participation, social skills, might be rooted in a movement toward self-actualization. This infers a differentiation of motives at different levels of the social hierarchy. Scharles used the Edward Personal Preference Schedule to find signifi- cant personality differences between participators and non-participators.27 His findings support the conclusion that personality needs of exhibition, intraception and abasement are related to participation in learning activities as well as to the extent of involvement and degree of achievement. Carson attempted to determine whether a relationship exists between certain socio-psychological factors and participation in continuing educa- tion.28 The factors included were mental ability, father's education, mother's education, educational aspiration, educational achievement, 27Henry Godfrey Scharles, Jr., ”The Relationship of Selected Person- ality Needs to Participation, Drop-out and Achievement Among Adult Learn- ers,” (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Florida State University, 1966). 28Raymond P. Carson, ”Factors Related to the Participation of Selected Young Adult Males in Continuing Education,” (Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1965). 44 father's occupation, vocational aspiration, employment when in high school, military service, number of siblings, number of siblings with college training and marital status. Surprisingly, he found no signifi- cant relationship between any of these factors and part-time participation in continuing education. The purpose of Wiegand's study was also to determine factors related to participation in continuing education. However, in this case it was among a selected group of graduate engineers.29 The study attempted to determine the extent of participation in continuing education over a sixteen-year period among those in the sample and to determine relation- ships between participation and specific characteristics of the partici- pants. The sample included engineering graduates of Georgia Institute of Technology from the classes of 1948 to 1963. From a total population of 8,636 persons, 831 were included in the sample. Questionnaires were returned from 550, or 66 percent. Characteristics of participants were categorized into: (1) educational background, (2) job related factors, (3) geographical factors and (4) personal factors. Participation was studied from the point of view of three major types of activity: (1) course work, (2) professional activities and (3) self-directed learning. Results showed significant relationships between participation in formal credit work and fifteen of the twenty-four variables or character- istics; these included three from educational background factors, five job-related factors, three from geographical factors and four from per- sonal factors. 29Richard Wiegand, ”Factors Related to Participation in Continuing Education Among a Selected Group of Graduate Engineers,“ (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1966). 45 Specifically, the significant factors were as follows: 1. Grade point average for undergraduate degree; i.e., 30 percent in lower third participated compared to 54 percent in upper third. 2. Major field of study; i.e., 70 percent of aerospace engineers participated compared to 33.9 percent of civil engineering graduates. 3. Year of graduation. Participation steadily increased from oldest classes to more recent ones. 4. Principal industry classification; i.e., 55 percent of respon- dents employed in aircraft industry participated while 30.8 percent employed in chemical processing, paper or textile industries partici- pated. 5. Principal job area; i.e., 64.9 percent of people in research and development participated compared to 16.7 percent who were in sales and service. 6. Time with company. There was a general decreasing of parti- cipation as time with company increased. 7. Company attitude toward continuing education; i.e., 48.5 per- cent of persons who were in an encouraging company atmosphere partici- pated as against 28.1 percent of persons who were not in such an atmosphere. 8. Company requirements of continuing education for advancement; i.e., 91 percent of those who said company required it participated compared to 41 percent of those whose company did not require it. 9. Section of the country, i.e., 57.1 percent who lived in northeast participated against 35.4 percent who lived in south. 10. College proximity, i.e., 45.7 percent who were near a college participated while 35.2 percent who were not participated. 11. Availability of college work in field, i.e., 50 percent of those with such courses available participated while 33.1 percent without such courses available participated. 12. Marital status, i.e., 66.7 percent of single persons partici- pated while 39.9 percent of married persons participated. 13. Attitude of spouse toward continuing education; i.e., 45.6 percent who had encouraging spouses participated while 28.1 percent of those whose spouses did not encourage participated. 14. Age, i.e., 56.3 percent of the under thirty group partici- pated with steadily decreasing'rates in each higher age group. 46 15. Personal views of importance of continuing education, i.e., 46.3 percent who felt it was important participated while 35.1 percent who felt it unimportant participated. Verner and Booth offer in their book, Adult Education, a discussion of the factors that influence participation in continuing education that effectively summarizes this portion of the review of literature. They maintain that the factors are components of both the personality and the social life of the individual.30 The personal characteristics have also been classified as intrinsic. They include: (1) physiological changes such as visual acuity, audio acuity and loss of energy; (2) social roles that tend to fit into the life cycle patterns of individuals; (3) levels of aspiration directly related to individual goals; (4) perception of the value of education either for solving specific problems or as a means to greater happiness and success; (5) attitudes toward education which in- fluence goals and levels of aspiration; (6) interests which cause an individual to be attracted to or repelled by education. Social characteristics or roles are those that related an individual to his social group. These include such factors as socio-economic level, educational level, age and marital status. The studies reviewed in this section show the variety of variables that researchers attempted to relate to participation. It is noted that none related basic motivations or even used a psychOIOQicaI orientation. As Verner and Booth clearly showed, the emphasis was on the personal and social components. In Miller's terms, reviewed previously in this chapter, all these studies fall into the category of research of the situational forces related to participation. 30Coolie Verner and Alan Booth, Adult Education, (Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Research in Education, 1964), pp. 18-24. 47 The question naturally arises whether any investigation has been done of the psychOIOgical forces, or more specifically, whether any studies used personal needs or the need hierarchy in relation to participation. As far as this writer's investigation went, no studies were found that used as a basis for participation the theoretical concept of a need hier- archy. Several studies are based on the assumption that adults enroll because doing so results in achieving some satisfaction of needs. The following studies illustrate that the needs vary from study to study with no consistent use of any specific theory. Also, it is assumed in each case that the individual expects to satisfy needs by the act of partici- pation and not by acquiring some skill or knowledge that he would take away to satisfy a need in his everyday life. Houle, for example, closely examined a group of twenty-two adults who were described as continuing learners.3I As he indicated, this was the only characteristic they had in common. Otherwise, they varied considerably in sex, race, age, national origin, social status, religion, marital condition and level of formal education. Within the group, Houle identified three subgroups: (1) goal oriented - those who use education as a means of accomplishing fairly clear-cut objectives; (2) activity oriented - those who take part because they find in the circumstances of the learning a meaning which has no necessary connection; and (3) learning oriented - those who seek knowledge for its own sake.32 In the discussion of reasons for attendance for each group, the fulfillment of needs is inferred. For example, with the goal-oriented group, the reasons for 3‘Houle, _p, 513., p. 13. 3zlbid., pp. 15-16. 43 attending were to fulfill personal weaknesses, to get ahead on the job, or to get information that would help in a specific situation. With the activity-oriented individual, the reasons were unrelated to content of the course but again fulfillment of personal needs was implied. Examples of reasons given were loneliness, meeting people and making friends, search for a social mileau, to find a mate, and seeking escape from a personal problem. The learning-oriented person attended because of a desire to know and to choose and make decisions in terms of potential for growth. The fact that one person of this group, when asked why she was a continu- ous learner, stated that she didn't know, she was ”driven,” suggests a drive precipitated by an unfulfilled basic need, e.g., fulfillment of self-actualization.33 Sheffield found basic substantiation of Houle's types, although he felt that two required greater specification, the goal-oriented dividing into personal goal and societal goal and activity-oriented into desire for sociability and need fulfillment.34 The research tested the hypothe- sis that a relationship exists between learning orientation of adults and the extent and continuity of activity which they exhibit as learners. The three orientations of Houle were specifically tested but the design of the instrument and the analysis techniques allowed other orientations to emerge as they may exist within the continuing learners themselves. Data were obtained from participants in four types of university confer- ences. A total of 453 adult conference participants from twenty conferences 33Ibid., pp. 16-25. 3h$henman B. Sheffield, ”The Orientations of Adult Continuing Learners,” The Continuing Learner, Daniel Solomon (ed.), (Chicago, Ill.: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults), pp. 1-22. 49 at eight universities were the sample. Through factor analysis and factor loadings the five learning orientations that were recognized were (1) learning orientation, (2) sociability orientation, (3) personal-goal orientation, (4) societal-goal orientation and (5) need-fulfillment orientation. The definition of these terms again, as with Houle, implies fulfillment of needs as reasons for attending. The related question of whether the fact of attendance will satisy an individual's need or whether what is learned thrOUgh participation is to be used by the individual in his environment to satisfy a need has still not been touched upon. The two positions can at least be illus- trated through the literature. Frank exemplifies one side when he says ” . . . that a person joins an organization because of his basic anxiety, his insecurity, his desire for powers or protection, as a sublimation of impulse which he cannot gratify directly but may release in symbolic form in an organization.“35 In other words, he joins to release tension which he cannot sustain. Brown, Knox and Grotueschen also support this position. They report that “although some adults engage in education as a way of satisfying occupational and degree objectives, this aim is not strongly or uniformly associated with the persister in adult education classes.” Findings from their study suggest that the adult who have completed more courses, who became continuing learners, are those for whom the skills, values and satisfactions which they derive from education result in participation in more education.36 35Lawrence K. Frank, "What Influences People to Join Organizations,” Adult Leadership, Volume 6, Number 8, February, 1958, pp. 196-200. 35M. Alan Brown, Alan B. Knox, Arden Grotueschen, ”Persistence in Uni- versity Adult Education Classes,” Adult Education, 16:101-114, Winter 1966. 50 On the other side, some doubt is cast on whether needs prevalent prior to participation can be fulfilled by participation. Ewigleben's study of adult high school students, for example, suggests that the need for affiliation might be an important motivating factor for participation but few were successful at achieving this goal. Although the majority of respondents in his study (90 percent) thought that all types of classes should provide opportunities to make new friends, few felt they had gained either a friend or acquaintance in the class and, from those that had, most had not seen those friends since taking the class and did not plan to do 50.37 Zander echoed the same point when he stated that, although one-third of the students in his study said they made at least one new friend in their group, apparently the friendships were not too strong since most indicated they had not seen those friends outside of class and were not planning to.38 Thus, those that expected to fulfill a need through the act of participation were not successful. LITERATURE RELATED TO PARTICIPATION OF INDUSTRIAL WORKERS IN EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES The first question to be addressed in this section is: How much are industries involved in educational programs, and what proportion of this involvement is with institutions of higher learning? Clarke and Sloan contend that a predominant number of large industrial corporations today 37Robert L. Ewigleben, ”The Identification and Analysis of the Factors Contributing to the Drop-out Rate Among Participants in Classes of the Lansing Adult School Programs,” (Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1959, p. 87). 38Alvin Zander, ”Student Motives and Teaching Methods in Four Informal Adult Classes,” Adult Education, 2:27-31, 1951. 51 conduct educational programs of some kind. Industry is supplying aid through planned systematic educational prOgrams.39 They reached these conclusions from a study of 482 large American corporations using questionnaires, personal conferences, brochures, cata- logues and announcements to gather information. Of those replying, 296 or 84.8 percent reported carrying on some sort of educational activity requiring attendance by participants. Of these activities, 28.3 percent were entirely in the company and only 1.6 percent exclusively in univer- sities and colleges. Most companies were involved in both types of programs. It was also reported that 97.5 percent of those reporting educational activities defrayed the expenses of their employees in whole or in part. The most common programs reported were (1) orientation, (2) managerial development, (3) human relations, (4) technical and professional, and (5) general education. In commenting on cooperation with formal educational institutions, the study points out that company-sponsored educational programs of the college level generally follow four over-all patterns: (1) courses offered on the company premises, (2) courses held on the college campus but attended exclusively or mainly by company personnel, (3) a coopera- tive arrangement whereby the student employee alternates between the college campus and company plant, spending a period of a few months at each and (4) tuition refunds applied to courses taken at night at local institutions or for an extended period of time under leave of absence. 39Harold F. Clark and Harold S. Sloan, Classrooms ithhe Factories, (New York: New York University Press, 1958), p. 13. 52 The most popular of these plans was to encourage employees to continue their formal education through tuition refunds. Plans for employee assistance in formal educational institutions below the college level follow much the same pattern but are not so generally available. Many companies restrict assistance to more advanced levels.“0 McKee, in his review of literature related to continuing education of engineers and engineering managers, notes the preponderance of articles and studies in management development and the dirth of studies of continu- ing education in the technical areas.41 This is not necessarily consis- tent with the needs or the programs offered. Dubin and Marlow, in their study of self-perceived needs of 2,090 practicing engineers employed in Pennsylvania industries, showed a high priority for computer technology and application, statistics, metallurgy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, electronics, and solid state physics.“2 Group interviews were conducted with managing engineers in fifty-one companies which included discussions on current and future technical and managerial problems. It was further noted that few desired humanities. Most engineers felt so pressed by demands of their work that they felt they scarcely had time to keep up with technical advances. In demand were courses that had immediate appli- cation to their work.‘+3 40Ibid., pp. 119-123. HICharles A. McKee, ”A Study of the Role of the Engineering Manager and His Continuing Education Requirements,” (Unpublished Ed.D. disser- tation, Michigan State University, 1967). hZSamuel S. Dubin, LeRoy H. Marlow, Research Report 2: Continuing Pro- fgssional Education for Engipeers jg Pennsylvania, (University Park, Pa.: The Pennsylvania State University, 1965), p. 88. “31bid., pp. 89-90. 53 Another objective of this study was to examine factors in the working environment that could affect their attitudes toward education. Among factors looked at was tuition reimbursement, and it was found that although 79 percent had educational assistance programs available to them in their companies, 74 percent indicated it had no effect on their participation. In other words, availability of reimbursement was not, in the opinion of the respondents, a stimulus to the majority of engineers.““ The study also concluded that most companies encourage but do not require their engineers to avail themselves of educational opportunities. Also, the fact that 22 percent of the respondents indicated that their company permitted them to attend college on company time further enforces the conclusion that companies encourage their engineers to enroll for advanced study.“5 It further pointed out, however, that 34 percent believed their immediate supervisors encouraged them to actively pursue education, while 64 percent felt supervisors were noncommittal, thus concluding that immediate supervisors were not aware of their responsibility for profes- sional development of their people.’46 This concern by companies for continuing education of engineers is relatively new in this country, claims Foecke.47 He states that it resulted from the rate of change in engineering practice that no longer permits a casual approach to keeping up to date. Foecke reports on a 't'thId., p. 74. 451bid., p. 73. “6Ibid., p. 76. H7Harold A. Foecke, ”Continuing Education for Engineers,” Science, 152:880-883, May 13, 1966. 54 study of a task force sponsored by the Engineering Council for Professional Development, the Engineers Joint Council, the American Society for Engi- neering Education, and the National Society of Professional Engineers, which considered activities and roles of industry, government, academic institutions and engineering societies in the task of continuing education. Among their findings were these: 1. Although industry is gradually accepting greater responsi- bility and translating this responsibility into action, it is mainly the larger companies doing the bulk of the activity. 2. Academic institutions, although changing, still do not recognize responsibilities in this matter as part of normal operation. Katz gave emphasis to these points in his article on guidelines for continuing engineering studies.’+8 After pointing out that over a three- year period, even with full-tuition refunds by employers, only 9 percent of local people who qualified to undertake continuing education beyond the bachelor's degree actually did so, Katz concluded that the keys to successful programs are enthusiastic encouragement by employers, availa- bility of significant learning opportunities matched to professional needs of practitioners at convenient times and places, instruction by experts who are themselves contributors to the technological advance, and sympa- thetic administration by an implementing agency skilled in the education of professionals. Chamberlain's article is typical of many that voice concern because of the attitude evident in the above studies.u9 He notes that spectacular “Slsrael Katz, ”Guidelines for Continuing Engineering Studies Programs in Urban Centers,” Journal gf_Engineering_Education. 57:561-566, April, 1967. “9Neil Chamberlain, ”Retooling the Mind,” The Atlantic, September, 1864, pp. 48-50. 55 developments of technology and accumulation of knowledge are taking place in engineering, physical science and other fields. Engineering graduates, for instance, have a half-life of about ten years since half of what they will need to know ten years from now is not known today. However, we are still operating as though a person can acquire the necessary knowledge in his first twenty years. Chamberlain asserts we must mobilize our educa- tional resources for adult education, capitalize on reduced work by adding study time, encourage wider use of educational leaves, and create special degrees to encourage a return to the classroom. The same concern for relevant continuing education programs for mana- gers is also prevalent. Some writers claim that the number of people who will be available for supervisory positions in the decade to come will not nearly satisfy the need. By use of the best possible estimates of the needs of business, Davis arrives at a management development need of over eight million per- sons by 1975, and thid does not count the necessary retraining and develop- ment training of existing managers.50 By his calculations, if we triple the number of 1957-58 graduates from schools of business and engineering, 57,000 and 53,000 respectively, we arrive at a total slightly more than four million for the entire period from 1957 to 1975, one-half of the needed total. Although his terminology is different, Malone's figures of 1.7 million additional managers and 4.6 million additional professionals needed by 1975 50Keith Davis, ”Management and Brain-Power Needs for the 1970's,” Journal 2: the Academy 9: Management, August, 1960, pp. 125-127. 56 in consistent with Davis.51 Industry, becoming concerned about this problem, is turning to universities for help with the solution. Malone goes on to say that the outlay by U.S. business for educational programs is reported to be approximately seventeen million dollars annually. House cites a Wall Street Journal article that United States compa- nies, in an effort to fight the increasing problem of management obsoles- cence, put some 500,000 executives through on-the-job training courses, management seminars and formal academic programs during 1966 alone.52 This total was nearly twice the number put through such programs in 1961. Today more than forty universities offer advanced management training programs, ranging in duration from several weeks to several months. A concern is voiced by House when he points out that studies demonstrate that, if development is to be successful, it must be geared not only to the participant's needs and learning abilities, but also to particular requirements and practices of the organization in which he manages. The same theme of rapid growth but concern for quality is apparent in Andrews' article on business education.53 The writer surveyed 124 schools and concluded that a very recent development has been the multi- plication of university sponsored educational programs for practicing executives. This great expansion follows from the belief in companies SIRobert L. Malone, ”Identifying and Developing In-House Personnel,” Training ig_Business and Industry, October, 1968, pp. 48-52+. 52Robert J. House, Management Development: Design, Evaluation and implementation, (Ann Arbor: Bureau of Industrial Relations, 1966), p. 9. 53Kenneth R. Andrews, ”University Programs for Practicing Executives, ” The Education of American Businessmen, Frank C. Pierson (ed. ), (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1959), pp. 577- 608. 57 that such programs justify the expense. Companies large and small have recognized the need for school-sponsored formal training in management. The main objective of such programs from the standpoint of the university is to help executives function in present positions and to help them pre- pare for promotion to greater responsibility. It is also the belief of those attending most programs that only a small percentage of men return to their jobs without being affected at all, but researchers find little scientific evidence of changed behavior and little visible change in efforts toward self-development. Thus, Andrews concludes, the urgent need by universities is for intelligent limitations that neither offend the business community nor blight aspiration of faculties. Schools must exhibit firmness and discrimination in regulating and economizing the effort. Oberg continued the same theme by expressing reservations about the diversion of university resources to such activities.57 He flatly states that programs have not been able to prove any measurable improvement of performance of average participants. With this in mind, he has attempted through survey to get reactions of ”buyers” of management programs rather than participants. This survey contacted presidents and others in charge of deciding whether or not to send company personnel of 750 of the largest corporations of the United States. The over-all attitude ran approximately two to one in favor of university programs. Of those that used such pro- grams, 73 percent were favorable while 14 percent were critical. On the other hand, 23 percent of non-users were favorable while 39 percent of non-users were unfavorable. Thus, there is indication that experience with programs leads to favorable attitude shifts. The study reviews the 54Winston Oberg, "Top Management Assesses University Executive Pro- grams,” Business Igpics, 11:9-27, Spring 1963. 58 many comments both pro and con. Among the critical comments from respon- dents was one that some programs are good but many weak universities are getting into the act for prestige purposes. There was a feeling, however, that university programs have a broadening effect on executives who attend and that such programs give them an opportunity to exchange ideas and match wits with professors and other managers, something they have little opportunity to do back in their own companies. Suggestions for improve- ment made by the decision-makers reflect the concern for lack of change in the individual upon return to the company. The list of SUggestions included the following: 1. Companies need to do a better job of picking men, picking programs and of matching men and programs. 2. Companies need to integrate the program into a man's total development needs. 3. Men should be sent to these programs only when they are about to be shifted to other jobs. 4. Programs should not be used for remedial purposes. These studies raise a doubt whether participation in educational pro- grams facilitates upward mobility in the industrial organization. Hamelman and Silverman deal specifically with this question. Paul Hamelman, in a study of career patterns of 400 managers culmi- nating in the position of plant manager, concluded that only one manager in three thought that successful completion of a training program was a significant factor in promotion. It was also pointed out that lower level ”induction” programs were generally evaluated as being more effective than executive programs (at a university for example) for middle managers. ”It was also observed that the better educated the man, the less effective he thought the training.”55 55Paul W. Hamelman, ”Career Development Patterns of Plant Managers,” 59 Silverman, on the other hand, in his study of executives in the food industry, concluded that attendance in education programs does influence upward occupational mobility.56 Only four percent of those who partici- pated were given a higher position. The study showed that experience alone is not a significantly determining factor of a man's career pattern, but when education is combined with experience, occupational mobility is greatly enhanced. Whether or not conclusive evidence is available concerning effective- ness of educational programs, all studies agree that managers, professional and other white collar workers are taking advantage of educational oppor- tunities in increasing numbers. The facts are also plain that blue collar workers are much less likely to participate, especially at institutions of higher education. Several studies addressed themselves to this question. Herbert Hyman, in establishing the theoretical basis of this question, reviewed the literature concerned with beliefs and values of the lower class and the relationship between low position and lack of aspiration for upward mobility.57 ”The findings show that lower class individuals empha- size those factors which would lead them to strive for careers which would be less high in the economic structure.“ Consequently, the lower class' placing less value on higher education would constitute an aspect of a larger value system detrimental to their advancement. Industrial Management Review, Fall, 1966, p. 80. 56Lawrence Silverman, "Executive Education, Growth and Mobility: An Analysis of a University Program for a Food Industry Career Oriented Group,“ (Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1963), p. 124. 57Herbert H. Hyman, ”The Value Systems of Different Classes,” Class, Status and Power, Reinhard Bendix and Seymour Lipset (eds.), (New York: The Free Press, 1966), pp. 488-499. 60 London and Wenkert also point out that myths about the learning process and about the character of blue-collar groups held by adult teachers and administrators result in ”unimaginative programming” for this group.58 I For example, it is believed that blue-collar workers are naturally apathetic and uninterested in the larger society. This assumes that no amount of effort will succeed in bringing working-class adults into adult education proportional to their numbers in the population. These authors point out that administrators and teachers of adult education are predomi- nantly middle class and their incapacity to understand workers' perspec- tives restricts their ability to organize activities which would appeal. They have a tendency to find fault with the potential clientele rather than with their serving institutions. Another myth, also a middle-class orientation, is that workers are not capable of sustained intellectual effort and therefore not able to benefit from continuing education. Thirdly, the blue-collar group do not have an interest in or appre- ciation of the value of education. However, the authors contend, if they are negative it is most likely with regard to schools rather than educa- tion itself. The negative experiences in school affect, at least indirectly, participation in continuing education. A fourth myth is that intellectual ability is demonstrated early in life. If it does not appear then it never will. Thus early school failure tends to follow a person throughout his lifetime. 58Jack London, Robert Wenkert, ”Obstacles to Blue Collar Participation in Adult Education,“ Blue Collar World, Arthur Shostack and William Gom- berg (eds.), (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964), pp. 445- I, 61 London and Wenkert also identified obstacles to participation through a study reported on earlier in this chapter. In this article they have identified and focused on some of the life situations faced by the blue- collar groups which tend to detract from educational objectives. Some of these follow: 1. Individuals will not participate in adult education unless they know that opportunities exist and that there are organizations which sponsor activities to meet their interests and needs. Unskilled and semi-skilled workers were not aware of adult education opportuni- tieis available to them. 2. The sources of information about adult education of this group are usually personal sources such as friends, neighbors and acquaintances. Also, they tend to participate with their friends. Thus, because few of their friends participate, they are less likely to have good information about opportunities. 3. Many blue-collar participants felt they could not afford to pay the cost of further education even though they were unaware of exact cost. Reports and arguments in the mass media about aid to education give them the idea that education is costly. 4. Many reported they did not participate because they felt tired at the end of the day, and they also use the excuse of being ”too old to go back to school” or feel ”childish.” Many reported that fellow workers ”kidded“ them about attending. Questions also included in the study concerned reasons why partici- pants enrolled in classes. About half of those interviewed enrolled for non-vocational reasons with the proportion being higher among the lower strata. They were relatively over-represented, however, in religious and citizenship courses. Blue-collar groups are more likely to partici- pate in order to get a new job compared to white-collar who are more interested in training for their present jobs. Also, low-skilled workers who do not indicate a desire to change jobs are least likely to have participated in education of any sort in the past five years. It is also true, the study contends, that a considerable number of workers who desire to secure another job are not participating in adult 62 education. The opinion was expressed by London and Wenkert that this may be partly caused by the fact that adult education courses are not clearly ”meshed” with Openings in the labor market. Finally, the authors point out that men take courses to help them on their jobs if they hold positions which require continuing education; this is not very often the case in blue-collar occupations but is found more in the professions. It was emphasized that worker participation would increase substantially if labor unions were persuaded to bargain for inclusion of worker education in labor contracts. Why haven't union leaders showed more leadership in encouraging worker education? Linton partially answers this in his historical exami- nation of the education program of the United Automobile Workers.59 He pointed out that unions were reluctant to develop relationships with public institutions even to the degree of not hiring academically trained teachers in their programs. The author contends they did not want an “objective“ presentation of the issues. The leaders were inclined to assume that they knew which social and political answers were correct and preferred. Also, selection of teachers among the secondary leadership gave them prestige. ”This same attitude appeared to be present in the union's lack of involvement in the areas of public school or college adult education or apprenticeship training. Even though many public programs, being tax- supported, were of lower cost, the international organization did not 59Thomas E. Linton, An Historical Examination of the Purposes and Practices of the Education Program_ of the United Automobile Wbrkers gf_ America, 1936- -1959, (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan School of Education, 1965), pp. 301-302. 63 have a continuous relationship with school authorities. In the main, the union's relationship was marked by what appeared to be avoidance of contact.“ There are many institutions which have developed on-going programs with unions, but in general the programs are geared for union leaders, not the rank and file. The result of this and of other factors as pointed out in the study by London and Wenkert is little participation by blue- collar workers in educational activities. SUMMARY OF RELATED LITERATURE 0n the basis of literature cited, the following can be considered major points and generalizations: 1. Writers have been somewhat critical of clientele analysis studies, stating that they tend to be descriptive of specific programs with few relevant variables identified. 2. Recommendations emphasize that participants and non-participants ought to be compared in both situational and psychological factors. Psycho- logical factors refer to basic motivational theory such as a hierarchy of personal needs. 3. General survey studies point up the increased participation of adults in educational activities. The trend is toward a greater percent of the population taking part in adult education every year. The popu- lation being reached, however, continues to be upper middle class, better educated, younger adults. 4. When adults are asked the reasons for their participation, they indicate economic-occupational reasons the majority of the time. Reasons 64 vary somewhat, however, when groups are categorized by sex, age and marital status, and when students from different types of programs are analyzed. 5. A number of studies attempted to determine whether a relation- ship exists between selected factors and participation. A large variety of variables have been tested although all could be categorized as situa- tional or social factors. There seemed to be no pattern in those variables related to participation except when age, education and socio-economic level were included. 6. Several studies do infer that satisfaction of basic needs is the motivating force for participation. They indicate, however, that needs individuals attempt to satisfy by the act of participation vary with each individual, and a hierarchy of needs was not used in the investigations. Also, studies point up a suspicion as to whether needs can actually be fulfilled by the act of participation or whether an individual's position in the environment where the need originated must be altered before satis- faction can be obtained. 7. Industry is increasingly turning to institutions of higher educa- tion to fulfill their educational needs. Technological change has made it necessary for individual and company alike to be concerned about combating obsolescence. Special efforts are being made to provide continuing educa- tion experiences for professionals, managers, engineers and other white- collar occupations. This has not resulted, however, in a substantial increase in interest among blue-collar workers. The value orientation of the worker as well as beliefs held by the population in general tend to discourage participation of this particular group. Also, attitudes held by union leaders have not encouraged participation by the rank and file. CHAPTER IV DESIGN OF RESEARCH INTRODUCTION The primary purpose of this study is to compare on the following factors the industrial employee who participates in educational activi- ties at an institution of higher education with the industrial employee who does not participate: 1. Perceived need deficiency in the job. 2. Importance of need fulfillment. 3. Whether they see continuing education as a means to advance to a higher level position which has greater potential for need fulfill- ment. The intent of the method is to gather data of a latent type, probing an individual's private motivations and attitudes not readily revealed. A secondary purpose is to compare the two groups on a variety of other variables. SAMPLE The group defined as participators were full-time employees of selected area industries who were attending classes at the Fort Wayne Campus of Purdue University. The industries were initially selected by size, as defined by 66 number of employees, in-plant training opportunities and similarity of tuition reimbursement policies. The purpose of establishing these a priori criteria was to minimize the variable of attendance being influe enced by specific company policy. Also, it was assumed that the larger companies had a variety of training programs available to employees and that workers would attend university classes because of choice rather than because it was the only educational opportunity available. There was further selection when several on the original list would not give permission to have employees participate in the study. Others were deleted when it was determined that very few if any of their employees were attending classes at the Regional Campus. All students of selected companies who were students in specified classes were included in the participant group. The classes selected were those that had a high probability of having a large number of students who were employed full time and thus were likely to have a good representation of employees from selected industries. All classes had a vocational orientation. Non-participators were chosen by random sampling from employee lists provided by the companies. To increase efficiency of estimation, a proportional stratified sampling was used.1 From a preliminary survey, administered at the Fort Wayne Campus in 1967, of full-time industrial employees attending classes, it was determined that approximately twenty-five percent of the total were hourly employees. Thus, in 1Morris James Slonim, Sampling, (New York: Simon 8 Schuster, 1960), p. 49. 67 establishing the ratio between the two strata in the sample, approximately twenty-five percent of those chosen were from the available source of hourly employees. The pre-study was also used as a guide in determining what pro- portion of the sample should come from each industry. Within each of the two strata and from each company a specified number of employees were systematically selected with a random start by using the table of random numbers.2 It was assumed that there would be no systematic relationship from the alphabetical order of the lists from which the sample was chosen. It was felt that selecting every nth person would not give a biased sample where i/n was the fraction of the population which was to be included in the sample. It was also assumed that all had an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. Three hundred eight were chosen from a total of 20,530 employees in four companies. The only basis for substitution was unavailability of the individual initially selected. When a person had left the company or an address was not available, others were chosen from the same strata as the individual whom they replaced, using the same method of random selection. It is noted that the samples of participants and non-participants were gathered in different manners. Participants were identified by selecting directly from a college class and non-participants were selected randomly from company rosters. It was felt that no sample bias would result since in both cases the intent was to select a representative of the whole according to pre-determined criteria of 2|bid., p. 57. 68 full-time employment in specified industries. Furthermore, it was deter- mined that from a random sampling within the industry it would not be possible to obtain a large enough participant group with which to make significant comparisons. The limitations of drawing inferences from the technique described above are noted. PRELIMINARY SAMPLE A preliminary sampling, noted above, of students at the Fort Wanye Campus of Purdue University who were also full-time industrial employees was undertaken for the following reasons: 1. To determine whether selected classes would yield a sufficient number of people from specific industries to consti- tute a sample of participants. 2. To determine what proportion of participators in con- tinuing education activities were from each industry in relation to the total number of industrial employees from the selected industries. 3. To determine the ratio between hourly and salary employees in the participator group. 4. To test the clarity and adaptability of that portion of the questionnaire which requested respondents to indicate at which level of the industrial hierarchy their present job was positioned. 5. To test questions related to demographic factors for clarity and usefulness of obtained information. Because the purpose of the first portion of the questionnaire used in pre-testing was to develop a profile of motivational characteristics of participators It was determined inappropriate for analyzing moti- vations of non-participators. Thus, it was necessary to investigate another Instrument adaptable to both groups. Porter's instrunent as refined by Mauer, described in the following section, appeared to be what was needed for investigating the motivational elements of this study. 69 INSTRUMENTATION Section one of the questionnaire used in this study has sixteen questions related to five motivational categories. It is an adaptation of Lyman Porter's instrument which he designed to measure perceived deficiency in need satisfaction derived from the job and importance to the individual of need satisfaction.3 This adaptation was used by Mauer in a study which investigated the nature of the relationship between work role involvement and the degree of importance assigned to certain job characteristics with higher-order need satisfaction potential, as well as the nature of the relationship between work role involvement and the degree of perceived deficiency in the fulfillment of these job characteristics.“ Mauer did considerable rewording of Porter's items and it was determined that the revised edition was more suitable for this study. The categories of needs and the questions related to each are as . follows: A. Security 6. The feeling of security in my job.5 9. The amount of money my job provides for food, clothing, shelter, and other basic necessities of life for myself and my family. 3Lyman Porter, ”A Study of Perceived Need Satisfactions in Botton and Middle Management Jobs.“ Journal gj Applied Psychology, February, 1961, p. 3. “John Mauer, ”The Relationship of Work Role Involvement to Job Characteristics with Higher Order Need Satisfaction Potential." (Unpub- lished Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1967.) 5The number is consistent with the questionnaire numbers. See Appendix A. 7O 14. The feeling of being certain of a steady and continuing income a person gets from being in my job. B. Social 11. The opportunity in my job to give help to other people. 15. The Opportunity to develop close friendships in my job. 16. The feeling of belonging with and acceptance by work associates a person gets from being in my job. C. Esteem 1. The feeling of self-respect a person gets from having my job. 4. The prestige of my job inside the company (that is, the respect received from others in the company). 8. The prestige of my job outside the company (that is, the respect received from others not in the company). 0. Autonomy 2. The authority connected with my job. 5. The opportunity for independent thought and action in my job. 12. The opportunity in my job to participate in the setting of goals. 13. The opportunity in my job to participate in the determi- nation of methods and procedures. E. Self-actualization 3. The opportunity to grow and develop in my job. 7. The feeling of self-fulfillment a person gets from having my job (that is, the feeling of being able to use one's own unique abilities, realizing one's potentialities). 10. The feeling of worthwhile accomplishment in my job. The five items, although arranged randomly in the questionnaire, are listed here according to the hierarchy with the lowest order (most prepotent) to the highest order (lease prepotent), following Maslow's 71 classification system.6 Several modifications were made. His first category of physiological needs was eliminated since it was assumed not to be a factor with this particular group. (Mauer added one item directed specifically to physiological needs but it was dropped in this study.) Secondly, as noted on page twenty the category of autonomy or independence was added.7 Each item pertaining to basic needs in the questionnaire is followed by three questions: a. How much of the characteristic is there now connected with your job? b. How much of the characteristic do you think should be connected with your job? ' c. How important is this job characteristic to you? Scoring of the responses to the above statements was identical to Porter and Mauer's method. For each item a rating was made on a seven- point scale. The appropriate number on the scale representing the amount of characteristic being rated was circled. Low numbers repre- sented low or minimum amounts. The number circled for (b) minus the number circled for (a) yields a number assumed to measure the degree of perceived deficiency in ful- fillment. The number circled for (c) measures the importance of need fulfillment to the individual. In discussing his measurement device, Porter commented as follows: This method has two presumed advantages. (a) The subject is not asked directly concerning his satisfaction. Therefore any 6Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality, (New York: Harper, 1954), p. 80. 7Porter, (1961) _p, glt., p. 3. 72 tendency for a simple response ”set” to determine his expression of satisfaction is probably reduced somewhat. It is more diffi- cult, although by no means impossible, for the respondent to manipulate his satisfaction measure to conform to what he thinks he “ought“ to put down versus what he actually feels to be the situation. (b) Secondly, this method of measuring need fulfill- ment is a more conservative measure than would be a single question concerning simple obtained satisfaction. It takes into account the fact that higher level positions should be expected to pro- vide more rewards because it utilizes the difference between obtained and expected satisfaction. Thus, because the instrument discourages the development of a response ”set” and also discourages the manufacturing of responses, as Porter points out, it tends to be a more conservative measure of job satisfaction. Robinson, Athanasiou and Head, in their review of Porter's instru- ment, comment on the validity of the instrument: The nature of the study in which this questionnaire was used was more heuristic than validity-oriented. The author, therefore, chooses to rely on the face validity of the instrument. They also note that ”Porter's intention was not so much to construct a valid, reliable scale as it was to collect data to test hypotheses about need hierarchies.”10 Section Two of the instrument requests each individual to place his present position in ajob classification or skill level of the industrial hierarchy. This classification was developed through interviews with company personnel. An original listing was made with the help of a 8Lyman Porter, “Job Attitudes in Management: I. Perceived Defici- encies in Need Fulfillment as a Function of Job Level,” Journal gf_Applied Psychology, 46:375-384, December, 1962. 9John P. Robinson, Robert Athanasiou, Kendra 8. Head, Measures gt Occupational Characteristics, (Ann Arbor: Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1909), p. 149. IOIoid., p. 150. 73 representative of one of the larger companies and modified through dis- cussion with persons from other companies until each felt it could apply to his situation. This classification is as follows: Salaried Personnel 1. Department or executive management (head of department, division, or at the vice-presidential level) 2. Middle management (supervisor of salaried personnel) 3. Front line management (supervisor of hourly personnel, section supervisor, foreman) 4. Professional salaried (employees who do not manage, not Paid for overtime) 5. Non-professional salaried (salaried but paid for overtime) Hourly Personnel 1. Skilled (skilled tradesmen) 2. Semi-skilled (works with machines, tools; needs some on-the-job training) Section Three requests respondents to complete questions related to age, education, employment history, mobility attitudes, whether the indi- vidual sees participation in college courses as a means to higher level positions, and other items that could be perceived as influential factors in attending college classes. The purpose for collecting such data is to obtain information about the nature of the study subjects. Also, it may be that differences in these variables will be related to variables measured in Section One. HYPOTHESES The hierarchy of an industrial organization consists of positions at different levels of a structure that constitutes a specific environment for the individual. Each position has a different potential for fulfill- ment of basic needs and each individual has a different level of concern about the fulfillment of need. In other words, one person may be well 74 satisfied with his station in an organization while another with a similar position will be quite dissatisfied. This dissatisfaction raises an anxiety or disequilibrium that the individual attempts to alleviate. Thus, a need deficiency that motivates behavior is perceived within the environment. ,Therefore, it is the major premise of this study that the needs of the individual are related to the environment and his participation in educational activities is precipitated by a desire to satisfy these needs by changing his position in the original environment. Participation in continuing education is a means to an end and not an end in itself. The act of participation will not permanently satisfy the needs that are created in the original environment. Only change in that environment will accomplish this goal. The conditions important to participation, then, are need deficiencies that motivate behavior which the individual sees as~a means to change the situation in order to satisfy needs. From this premise the following hypotheses were drawn. The major hypotheses tested, stated here in null form, were: 1. that there will be no significant difference between partici- pators and non-participators in perceived deficiencies in need ful- fillment from their job. 2. that there will be no significant difference between partici- pators and non-participators in importance they attach to fulfillment of basic needs. 3. that participators and non-participators will not differ significantly in their view of whether enrolling in college courses is a help in advancing to a higher level position in the industrial hierarchy. Additional variables investigated and used in comparing participators and non-participators were: 1. Level of education 2. Age 3. Sex 75 4. Marital status 5. Number of children 6. DiStance from college or university that offers educational opportunity 7. Length of service with present company 8. Length of service in present job 9. Number of jobs held with other companies 0. Organizational commitmentlI Perception of mobility chances12 Importance to the individual of upward mobility‘3 d‘d 1 2 Also, to further characterize participators, they were asked to furnish information concerning: whether they are currently enrolled in a degree program and . if they are, for what degree? I 2 3. If not, are they planning to enroll in a degree program? 4 Total number of courses taken at a university or college. METHOD OF ANALYSIS Responses to questions in the questionnaire were coded for key- punching and computer processing. Total scores of the computation for Part One of the questionnaire as outlined on pages seventy-one and seventy-two were obtained for participators and non-participators. The design of the study turns out to be a two by three factorial design with all levels crossed. A factor is defined as a series of related classifications arranged in columns and rows. ”The dimensions of a factorial design are indicated by the number of factors and number of levels of each factor.”“'I In this study the dimensions include '98. J. Winer, Statistical Principles in Experimental Desi Ign, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962), pp. —141 -142. 76 (1) three populations of participators, non-participators and those in the random sample that indicated attendance at an institution of higher education during the last three years, thus disqualifying them from the non-participant group, and (2) salaried and hourly employees. Figure 1 illustrates the experimental design. Non-P P1 P2 Non-P P1 P2 Salary Salary Salary Salary NOD-P P1 P2 Hourly , Hourly Hourly Hourly i FIGURE l TWO BY THREE FACTORIAL DESIGN WITH N OBSERVATIONS PER CELL The analysis of the data was made by using a two by three two-way analysis of variance. An .05 level of confidence was used in this statistical analysis. Wert g; l. notes that ”underlying the application of the analyses of variance are several assumptions upon which the development of this method has been based.” These assumptions are: I. The observation within each category must be random samples. 2. The variance within the subgroups are homogeneous, i.e. they are data from a single normally distributed population. ”Fnom theoretical considerations the foregoing assumptions must be satisfied before the application of the analyses of vari- ance ls appropriate. However, it is becoming more apparent that the analysis of variance technique is sufficiently satisfactory even when there is considerable departure from strict fulfillment 77 of the assumptions. Recent evidence suggests that the limits of tolerance within which the assumptions must be approximated are wider than originally thought.“15 The deviation of the design of this study from the assumptions was noted above. Since the data collected in regard to hypothesis three fulfill the following restrictions, the chi square will be used to analyze the results. 1. Frequency data must be used (not scaled scores). 2. The expected value in any cell will never be less than five. 3. The sum of the observed frequencies is equal to the sum of the expected frequencies. 4. Each score is independent of every other. (No person will appear in more than one cell.)1 Section Three of the questionnaire asks respondents to supply infor- mation using a variety of quatitative scales. With those variables where a comparison between participators and non-participators was made, and the data collected satisfies conditions noted above, the chi square test was used to determine whether the differences are statistically significant. 15James E. Wert, Charles 0. Neidt, and J. Stanley Ahmann, Statistical Methods 12_Educational and Psychological Research, (New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, Inc., 195A), p. 183. 16Robert K. Young, Donald J. Veldman, Introductory Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955), pp. 330-33‘0 CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS This chapter presents findings related to demographic characteris- tics of study subjects, their mobility traits, perceptions of mobility opportunities, commitment to present employer, and importance of moving to a higher level position. Also, the analysis of data for the three major hypotheses is presented. Initially, however, it would seem appropriate to review question- naire distribution procedures and levels of response. PROCEDURE OF QUESTIONNAIRE DISTRIBUTION As reported in Chapter Four, participants and non-participants were sampled by different methods. The non-participant group was identified by a random sampling of employees from four companies located in Fort Wayne, Indiana. A questionnaire and covering letter (see Appendix A) and self-addressed stamped envelope were mailed or distributed through company distribution services to selected individuals. The initial mailing took place between February 19 and February 21, 1969. Question- naires were number coded so non-respondents could be identified. After approximately ten days, on March A, 1969, a follow-up postcard (see Appendix B) was mailed to non-respondents. Subsequently, on March 17, 1969, a second questionnaire with covering letter (see Appendix C) was mailed to those who still had not responded. 79 It should be noted that a certain percent of the respondents of the random sampling indicated that they had participated in a course at a university or college during the past three years. Thus, by definition, they were disqualified from the non-participant group. Also, because the nature of their participants was not clarified they were not included in the participant group but were treated as a third group and identified as participants (2). This group was used only for comparison purposes and conclusions from statistical analysis were not drawn. Concurrent to the above procedures, questionnaires were distributed by the writer to employees of the same four companies attending selected classes at the Fort Wayne Campus of Purdue University. These persons constituted the participant (1) gnoup of the study. In this case, follow-up of non-respondents was accomplished by requesting class instruc- tors to remind students to return questionnaires. QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSE By the cut-off date of March 29, I969, 210 usable questionnaires were received as a result of the random sampling in industry and 177 from sampling at the University, representing a total return of 67 percent. Included were 117 salary and 32 hourly employees in the non-participant group, 150 salary and 27 hourly in the participant (1) group, and 52 salary and 9 hourly in the participant (2) group. 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For this ITSason, other psychological theories should be used to develop a frame- ME>rk with which to investigate motivational characteristics. Motivation 15 a complex and multi-faceted concept, and questions being investigated irvvolving motivation need to be approached from various directions. Each Sftudy undertaken in this area will contribute to a greater understanding 13f the cause and effect relationships. 5. This study does not attempt to differentiate or analyze which needs of Maslow's hierarchy predominate or produce a greater perceived deficiency with persons at various levels of the industrial organization. 118 The measurement used for comparing participants and non-participants was the sum of all needs. Thus is raised the question of whether participa- tors are motivated by perceived deficiency in higher order needs or whether non-participators realize greater satisfaction with lower order needs and do not feel it important to satisfy higher order needs. This understanding relates to the point of whether it is a desire to fulfill lower or higher order needs that initiates participative behavior. 6. Although this study establishes a relationship between mobility orientation of the individual and participation in educational activities, it assumes that a relationship exists between perceived need deficiency and mobility orientation. This assumption needs empirical analysis, and the question investigated of whether mobility orientation is equated with desire to fulfill higher psychological needs. This hypothesis lnfers that the desire to move to higher level positions is not simply for more income or security but to fulfill needs of esteem, autonomy and self- actualization. 7. It also should be noted that job satisfaction is a complicated area of study and the factors that result in job satisfaction are many. Job Satisfaction differs with individuals in the same job, and different jobs provide equal satisfaction. Also, some persons do not feel job satisfaction is important and find means to fulfill needs off the job. Thus, conclusions must be qualified Concerning participation and need satisfaction. A microcosmic follow-up study to analyze several individ- uals in different vocational situations, their need deficiency in these positions and their participative behavior could contribute to a clearer understanding of these relationships. In connection with this undertaking, we must also ask the question, ”How is technOIOgical development changing 119 the structure of jobs, and what is the resulting influence on need fulfillment and participative behavior?” 8. The measurement of perceived need deficiency should also be analyzed in connection with different types of participation. For example, is there a relationship between level of perceived need defic- iency and degree of participation? 15 perceived deficiency in higher order needs related to a different type of participation than deficiency in lower order needs? Are there group characteristics in perceived need deficiency, and are these characteristics related to types of group par- ticipation? The relationship of perceived need deficiency and attendance in certain types of courses, e.g., liberal versus vocational, can also be analyzed. 9. Finally, further research should take into consideration the limitations of this study. These include the method of selecting the sample, the limited nature of the sample, the use of a questionnaire for gathering data, and the limitations of Porter's instrument, especially in respect to use with hourly employees. CONCLUDING STATEMENT It is vital to the success of continuing education programs that greater numbers of people be recruited to participate. The adult educator must be concerned with expanding participation to those audiences not now being reached and for which continuation of their education is important to successful living. An understanding by the adult educator of the forces that precipitate motivation is necessary. Thus, it is hoped that 120 this study will make a contribution for the practitioner who is respon- sible for developing and implementing continuing education programs as well as for the researcher who wants to probe this area of participation further. BIBLIOGRAPHY 122 BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Andrews, Kenneth R. ”University Programs for Practicing Executives, ” The Education of American Businessmen, Frank C. Pierson, Editor. New York. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1959. Argyris, Chris. Integrating the Individual and the Organization. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964. Argyris, Chris. Personality and Organization. New York: Harper, 1957. Blauner, Robert. ”Work Satisfaction and Industrial Trends in Modern Society,‘' Labor and Trade Unionism, W. Galenson and S. Lipset, Editors. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1960. Brayfield, Arthur H., Walter H. Crockett. “Employee Attitudes and Employee Performance,‘I People and Productivity, Robert Sutermeister, Editor. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1963. Clark, Harold F., Harold S. Sloan. Classrooms jg the Factories. New York: New York University Press, 1958. ‘ Cofer, Charles N., Mortimer H. Appley. Motivation: Theogy and Research. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964. Davis, James A. A Study of Participants in the Great Books Program. Chicago: The Fund for Adult Education and National Opinion Research Center, 1957. des Brunner, Edmund. Ag Overview of Adult Education Research. Washington, D.C.: Adult Education Association of the U.S.A., 1959. Dubin, Robert. The World _f_Work. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1958. Dubin, Samuel S., LeRoy H. Marlow. Research Report 9: Continuing Profes- sional Education for Engineers jfl_Penn§ylvania. University Park, Pa.: The Pennsylvania State University, 1965. Dyer, John P. ”Evening Extension Programs in Business,” The Education 9: American Businessmen, Frank C. Pierson, Editor. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, Inc., 1959. 123 Haber, William, Louis A. Ferman, James R. Hudson. The Impact gprechno- logical Change. Kalamazoo, Michigan: W. E. Upjohn Institute Employment Research, 1963. Houk, Cyril. The Inquiring Mind. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1961. House, Robert J. Management and Develgpment: Design, Evaluation and Implementation. Ann Arbor: Bureau of Industrial Relations, University of Michigan, 1967. Hyman, Herbert H. ”The Value Systems of Different Classes,“ Class, Status and Power, Reinhard Bendix and Seymour Lipset, Editors. New York: The Free Press, 1966. Johnstone, John C. “Adult Uses of Education: Fact and Forecast,“ Sociolggical Backgrounds gfi Adults, Hobert Burns, Editor. Chicago: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1964. Johnstone, John C., Ramon J. Rivera. Volunteers for Learning. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1965. Kempfer, Homer. Adult Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1955. Knox, Alan. The Audience for Liberal Adult Education. Chicago: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1962. Kornhauser, Arthur William. Mental Health gf_the Industrial Worker: A Detroit Stud . New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1965. Kreitlow, Burton W. Relating Adult Education to Other Discipjines. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1964. Krum, James R. Continuigngechnical Education Needs gf_Scientists and Engineers jfl_Northern Delaware. Newark, Delaware: Bureau of Economic and Business Research, University of Delaware, 1969. Lindgren, Henry Clay. Educational Egychology Ln the Classroom. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967. Linton, Thomas E. An Historical Examination of the Pu_poses and Practices of the Education Program of the United Automobile Workers of America, 1936-1952. Ann Arbor. The University of Michigan School of Education, 19 5 Liveright, A. A. A Stud 2 of Adult Education Ln the United States. Boston: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1968. London, Jack, Robert Wenkert, “Obstacles to Blue-collar Participation in Adult Education,“ Blue Collar World, Arthur Shostack and William Gomberg, Editors. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964. 12h London, Jack, Robert Wenkert, Warren Hagstrom. Adult Education and Social Class. Berkeley, Calif.: Survey Research Center, University of California, 1963. McClelland, David C. Personality, New York: William Sloane Associates, Dryden Press, 1951. Maslow, Abraham. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row, 1959. Miller, Harry L. Partic_pation Lf Adults Ln Education. Brookline, Mass.: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1967. Morris, James Stonim. Sampling. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1960. Robinson, John P., Robert Athanusiou, Kendra B. Head. Measures 2: Occupational Attitudes and Dccgpational Characteristics. Ann Arbor: Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1969. Selltiz, Claire, Marie Jahoda, Morton Deutsch, Stuart Cook. Research Methods jg_Socia1 Relations. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. Sheffield, Sherman B. I'The Orientations of Adult Continuing Learners,” The Continuigg_Learner, Daniel Solomon, Editor. Chicago: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 196A. Snygg, Donald. “The Psychological Bases of Human Values,” Goals Lf Economic Life, E. Ward, Editor. New York: Harper and Bros., —1953. Tannenbaum, Arnold S. Social E_ychologerf Work Organization. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1966. Tlffin, Joseph, Ernest McCormick. Industrial Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., I9h2. Verner, Coolie, Alan Booth. Adult Education. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Research in Education, 1964. Viteles, Morris. Motivation and Morale ifl_lndustry.' New York: W. W. Morton and Company, 1953. Vroom, Victor. Work and Motivation. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964. Wert, James E., Charles 0. Neidt, J. Stanby Ahmann. Statistical Methods Ln Educational and Psychological Research. New York: Appleton- Century- Crofts, Inc., 195h. Wilensky, Harold. ”Work as a Social Problem,” Social Problems a Modern Aegggggh, Howard Becker, Editor. New York: Wiley and Sons, 1966. 125 Winer, B. J. Statistical Principles ig_Experimental Design. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962. Wolfbern, Seymour. ”Labor Trends, Manpower and Automation,“ Mag_ig_a_ 1 World Lf Work, Henry Barrow, Editor. Boston: Houghton-Mi f in Co., 196A. Young, P. T. Motivation and Emotion: A Survey gf the Determinants gfi Human and Animal Activity. New York: Wiley, 1961. Young, Robert K., Donald J. Veldman. Introductory Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. PERIODICALS Axford, Roger, Robert Schultz. ”A Yearning to Learning While Earning.” Training and Development Journal, Volume 23, Number 3, March, 1969. Booth, Alan. ”A Demographic Consideration of the Nonparticipant.” Adult Education, Volume 9, Summer 1961. Brown, M. Alan, Alan B. Knox, Arden Grotueschen. ”Persistence in Univer- sity Adult Education Classes.” Adult Education, Volume 16, Winter 1966. Blai, Boris Jr. ”An Occupational Study of Job Satisfaction and Need Satisfaction.” Journal 2: Experimental Education, Volume 32, Number A, 1964. Chamberlain, Neil. ”Retooling the Mind.” The Atlantic, September, 1964. Clark, James V. ”Motivation in Work Groups: A Tentative View.“ Human Organization, Volume 19, Winter 1960-61. Davis, Keith. ”Management and Brain-Power Needs for the l97O's.’I Journal 9: the Academy 9: Management, August, 1960. Dean, Stephen R. ”Who Seeks Adult Education and Why.” Adult Education, Volume 1, October, 1950. Douglah, Mohammad and Gwenna Moss. ”Differential Participation Patterns of Adults of Low and High Educational Attainment.” Adult Education, Volume 28, Summer 1968. Foecke, Harold A. ”Continuing Education fOr Engineers.” Science, Volume 152, May 13, 1966. Foreman, Wayne J. “Management Training in Large Corporations.“ Training and Development Journal, Volume 21, May, 1967. 126 Frank, Lwrence K. ”What Influences People to Join Organizations.” Adult Leadership, Volume 6, Number 8, February, 1958. Georgopoulos, Basil 5., Gerald M. Mohoney, Nyle W. Jones. ”A Path-Goal Approach to Productivity.” Journal gf_Applied Psychology, Volume hi, Number 6, December, 1957. Hamelman, Paul W. ”Career Development Patterns of Plant Managers.” Industrial Management Review, Volume 8, Number 1, Fall 1966. Hendrickson, Andrew, ”Adult Learning and the Adult Learner.” Adult Leadership, Volume 14, February, 1966. Holden, John B. ”A Survey of Participation in Adult Education Classes.” Adult Leadership, April, 1958. Katz, Israel. ”Guidelines for Continuing Engineering Studies Programs in Urban Centers.” Journal 9: Engineering Education, Volume 52, Number 8, April, 1967. Knox, Alan. ”Clientele Analysis.” Review gnyducational Research, Volume 35, June, 1965. Knox, Alan, Douglas Sjogren. ”Motivation to Participate and Learn in Adult Education.” Adult Education, Volume 12, Summer 1962. Knox, Alan, Richard Videbeck. “Adult Education and Adult Life Cycle.” Adult Education, Volume 13, Winter 1963. Lawler, Edward, Lyman Porter. “The Effect of Performance on Job Satis- faction.” Industrial Relations, Volume 7, Number I, October, 1967. Malone, Robert. “Identifying and Developing In-house Personnel.” Training ig_Business and Industry, Volume 5, October, 1968. Maslow, Abraham H. ”A Theory of Human Motivation.“ Psychological Review, Volume 50, July, 19h3. Murgo, John. ”Education and First-Line Supervisors.” Adult Leadership, Volume 12, Number 6, December, 1963. Nicholson, David H. ”Why Adults Attend School.” Adult Education Bulletin, Volume 13, August, 19h9. . Oberg, Winston. “Top Management Assesses University Executive Programs.” Business Topics, Volume 11, Spring I963. Porter, Lyman. ”A Study of Perceived Need Satisfactions in Bottom and Middle Management Jobs.“ Journal g£_Applied Psychology, Volume 45, February, 1961. Porter, Lyman. ”Job Attitudes in Management: I. Perceived Deficiencies in Need Fulfillment as a Function of Job Level.” Journal g[_Applied Psychology, Volume #6, December, 1962. 127 Verner, Coolie, John Newberry. ”The Nature of Adult Participation.” Adult Education, Volume 9, Summer 1958. Zander, Alvin. ”Student Motives and Teaching Methods in Four Informal Adult Classes.” Adult Education, Volume 2, October, 1951. UNPUBLISHED MATERIAL Carson, Raymond P. “Factors Related to the Participation of Selected Young Adult Males in Continuing Education.“ Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1965. Dean, Stephen R. ”A Psychological Description of Adults Who Have Participated in Selected Activities.’l Unpublished Ph.D. disser- tation, University of Maryland, 19h9. Douglah, Mohammad A. ”Factors Affecting Adult Participation in Educa- tional Activities and Voluntary Formal Organization.“ Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1967. Draper, James Anson. ”A Study of Participant Objectives in Selected Management Institute Programs.” Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1964. Dugger, James. ”Motivation and Factors Characterizing Adult Learners Enrolled in Evening Courses at Drake University.“ Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, I965. Ewigleben, Robert L. ”The Identification and Analysis of the Factors Contributing to the Drop Out Rate Among Participants in Classes of the Lansing Adult School Programs.” Unpublished Ed.D. disser- tation, Michigan State University, 1959. McKee, Charles A. ”A Study of the Role of the Engineering Manager and His Continuing Education Requirements.” Unpublished Ed.D. disser- tation, Michigan State University, 1967. Mauer, John. ”The Relationship of Work Role Involvement to Job Charac- teristics with Higher Order Need Satisfaction Potential.” Unpub- lished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1967. Moss, Gwenna. ”Factors Associated with the Educational and Organizational Participation of Adults of High and Low Educational Attainment.“ Unpublished M.S. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1968. Scharles, Henry Godfrey, Jr. ”The Relationship of Selected Personality Needs to Participation, Drop-out, and Achievement Among Adult Learners.” Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State Univer- sity, 1966. 128 Silverman, Lawrence, ”Executive Education, Growth and Mobility; An Analysis of a University Program for a Food Industry Career Oriented Group.‘I Michigan State University, 1963. Wiegand, Richard. ”Factors Related to Participation in Continuing Education Among a Selected Group of Graduate Engineers.” Unpub- lished Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1966. RE PORTS Douglah, Mohammad A. ”Some Perspectives on the Phenomenon of Partici- pation.“ Paper read at A.E.A. National Conference, Des Moines, Iowa, November, 1968. APPENDIX A Questionnaire and Accompanying Letter 129 PURDUE UNIVERSITY FORT WAYNE CAMPUS 2I0I EAST u, s. so FORT WAYNE. INDIANA 46805 We are conducting a study of job attitudes and their relation to partici- pation in educational activities to help the University provide more effective education programs, particularly for employees of area industry. In this study we are interested in what your job and what work in general means to you. Your company has given me permission to ask you to participate in this study. Whether vou do participate is entirely up to you. There is no obligation nor should you feel any pressure to do so. However. a limited number of companies and employees were selected to participate and it is very important that we receive your completed survey. The success of this research effort is totally dependent on your cooperation. Your response is of great importance if schools and colleges are to advance the knowledge of how people feel about education. It will take vou approximately fifteen minutes to complete the questionnaire. We assure you the replies will be treated confidentially. No names of firms will be identified in reporting the results of the study. In appreciation of your participation, a summary of results will be made available upon request. We appreciate your cooperation. {Ml/085%“ Lowell V. LeClair Assistant Dean (on leave) Fort Wayne Campus LVL:mp I‘D-s l-I-PL - n Al 4: I30 Section I PLEASE READ INSTRUCTION CAREFULLY AND COMPLETELY. Instructions: Sixteen characteristics connected with your job are listed on the following pages. For each characteristic, please rate: a. How much of the characteristic is there now connected with your job? b. How much of the characteristic do you think should be connected with your job? c. How important is this job characteristic to you? Each rating will be on a seven-point scale, which will look like this: (minimum) 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 (maximum) Circle the appropriate numeral on the scale that represents the amount of the characteristic being rated. Low numerals represent low or minimum amounts. If you think there is ”very little” or “none” of the character- istic in your job, circle numeral 1. If you think there is “just a little,“ circle numeral 2, and so on. If you think there is ”a great deal but not a maximum amount,“ circle numeral 6. Circle numeral 7 if you think there is a ”maximum” amount. CIRCLE ONLY ONE NUMERAL FOR EACH SEVEN-POINT SCALE, AND DO NOT OMIT ANY SCALES. I. The feeling of self-respect a person gets from having my job: (a) How much is there now? (min.) I 2 3 h S 6 7 (max.) (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 h 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? 1 2 3 h 5 6 7 2. The authority connected with my job: (a) How much is there now? 1 2 3 h 5 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 4 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? I 2 3 h 5 6 7 3. The opportunity to grow and develop in my job: (a) How much is there now? I 2 3 H 5 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 131 The prestige of my job inside the company (that is, the respect received from others in the company): (a) How much is there now? I 2 3 h S 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 h 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? I 2 3 h S 6 7 The opportunity for independent thought and action in my job: (a) How much is there now? I 2 3 h 5 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 h 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? I 2 3 4 S 6 7 The feeling of security in my job: (a) How much is there now? I 2 3 4 5 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 4 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 The feeling of self-fulfillment a person gets from having my job (that is, the feeling of being able to use one's own unique abili- ties, realizing one's potentialities): (a) How much is there now? I 2 3 4 S 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 4 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? I 2 3 h 5 6 7 The prestige of my job outside the company (that is, the respect received from others not in the company): (a) How much is there now? I 2 3 u 5 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 The amount of money my job provides for food, clothing, shelter, and other basic necessities of life for myself and my family: (a) How much is there now? I 2 3 h 5 6 7 10. 11. 12. 13. IA. (b) How'much should there be? 1 2 3 A 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? I 2 3 A S 6 7 The feeling of worthwhile accomplishment in my job: (a) How much is there now? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 The opportunity in my job to give help to other people: (a) How much is there now? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 The opportunity in my job to participate in the setting of goals: (a) How much is there now? 1 2 3 A 5 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 The opportunity in my job to participate in the degermination of methods and procedures: (a) How much is there now? 1 2 3 A 5 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 The feeling of being certain of a steady and continuing income a person gets from being in my job: (a) How much is there now? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? 1 2 3 A S 6 7 132 133 15. The opportunity to develop close friendships in my job: (a) How much is there now? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? 1 2 3 A 5 6 7 16. The feeling of belonging with and acceptance by work associates a person gets from being in my job: (a) How much is there now? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (b) How much should there be? I 2 3 A 5 6 7 (c) How important is this to me? 1 2 3 A 5 6 7 Section II Instructions: Please indicate your present job classification level. If you are a salaried employee answer question number 17. If you are an hourly employee answer question number 18. Do not answer both questions. 17. Salaried Personnel 1. Department or executive management (Head of department, division, or at the vice-presidential level) 2. Middle management (Supervisor of salaried personnel) 3. Front line management (Supervisor of hourly personnel, section supervisor, foreman) A. Professional salaried (Employees who do not manage, not paid for overtime) 5. Non-professional salaried (Salaried but paid for overtime) 18. Hourly Personnel 1. Skilled (Skilled tradesman) 2. Semi-skilled (Works with machines, tools. Nees some on-the-job training) 13A Section III Instructions: The following information would be of value for purposes of cross tabulation and analysis of data in this research study. 1£_will not p§_used 13 any other way. Please circle the numeral preceding the appropriate answer. 19. What is the highest level of education which you have completed? 1. Grade eight A. Bachelor's degree 2. High school 5. Master's degree or beyond 3. Two year of college 20. Which one of the following indicates your age group? I. 20 or younger A. Al-SO inclusive 2. 21-30 inclusive 5. 51 or older 3. 31-AO inclusive 21. Sex 1. Male 2. Female 22. Marital status 1. Single 3. Divorced 2. Married A. Divorced and remarried 23. Number of children in family 1. None A. Three 2. One 5. Four 3. Two 6. Five or more 2A. How long have you been with your present company? 1. Less than a year A. 7 to 9 years 2. l to 3 years 5. More than 10 years 3. A to 6 years 25. How long have you been in your present job with this company? 1. 3 months or less A. S to 9 years 2. A months to 1 year 5. More than 9 years 3. 1 to A years 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 135 Before you got this job, how many full-time jobs had you held with other companies? (Do not count those held less than three months.) 1. None A. Three 2. One 5. Four or more 3. Two How long would you like to stay with your present employer? 1. I would like to stay for as long as I can work. 2. I would like to stay as long as I can work unless things around here change too much. 3. I would like to stay but I would leave for a better job. A. I would like to leave. 5. I am planning to leave. 6. I will definitely leave as soon as I can. Do you consider your position as: (circle one) I. basically a permanent position with little or no chance of movement to a higher level job. 2. basically a permanent position with a medium chance of move- ment to a higher level job. 3. basically a permanent position with a large chance of move- ment to a higher level job. A. a training position for movement to a higher level job. How important is it to you to move to a higher level position? I. Not at all important 3. Somewhat important 2. Slightly important A. Very important Have you taken a course at a college or a university in the past three years? (Includes any course - credit or non-credit) I. Yes 2. No If you answered Yes to question 30, do you think enrolling in college courses will help you move to a higher level position? I. Yes 2. No If you answered Ag to question 30, do you think enrolling in college courses would help you move to a higher level position? 1. Yes 2. No 33. 3A. 35. 36. 37. For what company do you work? 136 Are you currently enrolled in a degree program? I. Yes 2. No If Yes to question 33, for what degree are you working? 1. Certificate A. Master's degree 2. Associate degree 5. Doctoral degree 3. Bachelor's degree If A9 to question 33, are you planning to enroll in a degree program? I. Yes 2. No 3. Not certain at this time How many courses have you taken at a university or college? (credit and non-credit) 1. None A. 5 to 8 2. One course only 5. More than 8 3. 2 to A inclusive How far do you live from a university or college that offers courses in which you can enroll? I. O - 5 miles A. Over 20 miles 2. 6 - 10 miles 5. Don't know 3. ll - 20 miles THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION APPENDIX B Follow-up Postcard Follow-up Postcard A week ago a questionnaire was sent to you In relation to a study of job attitudes as related to participation in continuing education programs. As of March i, I had not received your completed questionnaire. It is hoped that the Information from this study will be of value in planning programs for employees of area industry. Therefore, it is important that we have all questionnaires returned. We would appreciate your help. Please take the few minutes necessary to fill out the questionnaire and return It. We assure you your reply will be confidential. Thank you, 137 APPENDIX C Covering Letter Accompanying Second Quest ionnai re I38 PURDUE UNIVERSITY FORT WAYNE CAMPUS eIOI east u. s so FORT WAYNE. iNDIANA 46605 Several weeks aoo a questionnaire was sent to you for a study of job attitudes and their relation to participation in educational activities. As of Friday, March 14th, I had not received a completed questionnaire froniyou. You were randomly selected from employees of your company to partici- pate in this study. As we emphasized in our first letter, whether you participate or not is entirely up to you, but it is very important to the success of the study that we get as many replies as possible. To illustrate the importance of receiving your reply. we have sent you another questionnaire. Please take a few minutes to complete and return it in the self-addFessed stamped envelope. Your reply will be confidential. No one will see the returns except the writer. and no individuals or companies will be identified in reporting the results of the study. we would appreciate having your reply by march 22. Thank you for your c00peration. ..> 'v ' "I‘ I ‘ Lowell V. LeClair Assistant Dean (on leave) Fort Wayne Campus LVL:mp WWW APPENDIX D Letter Requesting Permission From Cooperating Industries 133 la’LIFIEDIJ E: [J hi1 V'EiFlESI'T‘Y FORT WAYNE CAMPUS anI IAST u. s. so FORT WAYNE. INDIANA 46005 September 6, 1968 Mr. John Doe Executive Cooperating Industry Fort Wayne, Indiana Dear Mr. Doe: To enable the Continuing Education Department of Purdue University to better develop and implement Continuing Education Programs for the Fort Wayne Campus, arrangements are being made to conduct a study of ”Motivational Factors Effecting Participation of Industrial Employees in Continuing Education Programs.” The study will evaluate motivational characteristics of students attending classes at Purdue University at Fort Wayne. Another important phase of the study will be to compare with a control group of employees from the same companies that have not participated in formal education courses during the last three years. Since your company has many employees taking advantage of the opportuni- ties at Purdue University, it would be desirable to be able to select a sample of eligible employees from your Industry to Include in the control group. Please accept this as,a request to have (company name) employees participate in this study. The information needed includes home addresses of employees selected from different job classifications of the company. Responses will be confidential. No company or individual will be identified in the study. Those employees selected will be contacted through the mail at their home address and it is not planned to approach any employee in the plant or on company time. A copy of the completed study will be available upon request. Would you please respond at your earliest convenience to the above address. If you have further questions, I would be very happy to stop by your office and discuss the project with you. Your cooperation is very much appreciated. Sincerely, Lowell V. LeClair . Assistant Dean for Administration LVL:kr P.S. If this request should have been directed to another office, please forward. Thank you. 100 mm fill AI 40(11an APPENDIX E Letter Requesting Permission From University Authorities 1A0 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EAST LANSING - MICHIGAN man CONTINUING EDUCATION SIzIWIct - KELLOGG CENTER - Room 25 February A, 1969 Dean and Director Fort Wayne Regional Campus Purdue University 2iOi U.S. 3O Bypass Fort Wayne, Indiana A6807 Dear Dean: You may or may not recall that my dissertation will be a survey of motivational characteristics of industrial employees who are particip- pating in classes at a college in contrast with a similar group from area industries who are not taking classes. It requires the collec- tion of data from a group of students, and I would like to select students from the Fort Wayne Campus. In complying with Executive Memorandum A-28O and the Vice President's Administrative Memorandum No. 153. I am filing a copy of the ques- tionnaire with you and requesting permission to move forward in securing the information. I will be very happy to keep the Assistant Dean for Academic Affairs informed of my activities and work through the Section Chairmen. Actually, a similar questionnaire was administered in several classes during past years, and the faculty and Section Chairmen were most cooperative. Naturally, I would not plan to go into any classes where the instructors object. The type of classes I need to approach are predominantly evening, credit and non-credit, that include a large number of students who are working full time. To keep on schedule, I would like to conduct this survey during the month of February. I will be in town of Friday, February 7, and will check with your office. Your support of this project would be appreciated. Sincerely, Lowell V. LeClair LVL:mp Enclosure mllllllllililiilllil Illiillliliilll Ill Willis 3 1293 03085 7373