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This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

Educational ViewPoints: A Study of the Occupational
Ideology of Industrial Arts Teaching as Related to
Students in Training

presented by

Thomas T. Tsuji

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

M degree inlndnijial Education

‘, \ ' {£UUM85L I
‘ Major professor

   

 

Date May 16, 1967

0-169

ABSTRACT

EDUCATIONAL VIEWPOINTS: A STUDY OF THE OCCUPATIONAL
IDEOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHING AS
RELATED TO STUDENTS IN TRAINING

by Thomas T. Tsuji

Statement of the Problem
The investigation attempted to test the hypothesis:
Enrollment in an industrial arts curriculum by_stu-

dents involves the assimilation of educational view—
points advocated#by_the members of that occupational

91:01.12 .

Statistical hypotheses were formulated for selected factors
from a theoretical framework developed to explain occupa-
tional and nonoccupational factors concerned in the study.
General Procedure Employed
in the Study

The general procedure employed to test the hypoth-
eses included (1) operational definitions of educational
phiIOSOphies as related to industrial arts, (2) the develOp-
ment of instruments based on the definitions, (3) the selec—
tion and administration of the instruments to a selected
sample, (4) the analysis of the data, and (5) the interpre-
tation of the findings.

The definitions of philosophies, essentialism and

progressivism, as defined by Robert Swanson (l) were used as

Thomas T. Tsuji

the bases of the study. A third point of View was described
for the exploratory phase of the investigation. Instruments
from which information was gathered were (1) The Inventory
of Educational Viewpoints by Swansonl and (2) the Educa-
tional Viewpoints Inventory developed by the investigator.

A group of students majoring in industrial arts from
a college in New York State was selected as the sample.
Analyses of the data were made by both descriptive and in-

ferential methods .

C onc lus ions
The conclusions are listed as follows:

1.. Senior students enrolled in industrial arts programs
tend to manifest behavior more in keeping with the
vieWpoint of industrial arts teacher educators than
do freshmen and new transfers.

2.. There is a tendency for students scoring in the
extreme ends of the Swanson Inventory to be (1) gen-
eralists at the progressive end of the continuum and
(2) specialists at the less progressive end of the
continuum.

3.. Students who have memberships in two professional
industrial arts clubs tend to be proportionately
more progressive than nonmembers.

4;. All factors of membership-nonmembership in associa-
tions of the nonvocational subculture were not dif-
ferentiated by vieWpoints. The exception to this
was the factor of membership in religious organiza-
tions which is in need of further study before a
conclusive decision may be made.

 

1Robert S. Swanson, "The Operational Definition and

Measurement of Educational Philosophy" (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1955).

Thomas T. Tsuji

From the preceding statement it is claimed that the
instruments employed in this particular investiga-
tion did measure occupational ideology and that the
instruments were not able to differentiate students
on factors which were categorized nonvocational.

It was found that senior nontransfer students were
more progressive than senior transfer, Other trans-
fer, and Other nontransfer students groups. (The
capitalization of Other means that the group in-
cludes freshmen, new transfers, and possibly some
first semester sophomores.)

Senior transfer students were proportionately more
progressive than Other transfer and Other nontrans-
fer groups.

Recommendations

The following recommendations were advanced:

More extensive research concerning methods and clas—
sification of educational viewpoints should be
conducted.

Longitudinal studies should be undertaken to ascer-
tain whether differences in vieWpoints may be
attributed to change of viewpoints within individ-
uals and/or through other selective factors of the
educational system.

Studies over larger populations of potential teach-
ers, students in training, and teachers in the field
would result in more comprehensive generalizations
applicable to the occupation.

Further studies may be undertaken to determine rela-
tionships between (1) creativity and viewpoints of
education, (2) personal preferences to particular
curriculum patterns and educational viewpoints, and
(3) degree of specialization in industrial education
to educational viewpoints.

It is recommended that studies of educational view-
points be extended to other Industrial Arts under—
graduate programs to establish a broader base from
which evaluation may be made of such programs.

It is recommended that the definitions of VieWpoint
patterns be extended to more operational aspects of
education to enable the development of a more pre—
cise instrument.

EDUCATIONAL VIEWPOINTS: A STUDY OF THE OCCUPATIONAL
IDEOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHING AS

RELATED TO STUDENTS IN TRAINING

BY
..\
Thomas TS‘Tsuji

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

1967

twp"

0

/\

f

707

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This investigation could not have been completed
without the counsel and interest of many individuals. To
Dr. Lawrence Borosage, my thesis advisor, I owe a lifetime
of gratitude for the many hours he devoted to the endeavor
in form of suggestions, encouragement, and dialogue. My
deepest appreciation is extended to the members of the doc-
toral committee. Dr. John A. Jamrich, Dr. William Faunce,
and Dr. C. Blair MacLean are extended my respectful kudos
and their willingness to serve on the committee.

To the students and Industrial Arts staff at Oswego
who made this study a reality is extended my sincere appre-
ciation for their cooperation.

Gratitude is expressed to Dr. Robert S. Swanson of
Stout State University for his generosity regarding the use
and interpretation of his instrument.

To both my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Kyohei Tsuji, I
am indebted for their sacrifices, encouragement, and faith
enabling myself to acquire an education. To my children,
Robert and James, is extended appreciation for their
patience and humor during the period of study and writing.

In closing, I am deeply grateful to my wife, Jean,
for her constant interest, encouragement, and assistance in
this undertaking. Her devotion and unselfishness to carry
additional responsibilities to free time for me to pursue
this study was indeed the major factor enabling the comple-
tion of this investigation. Thus, I dedicate this work to
her.

ii

Chapter

I.

II.

III.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Statement of Problem . . . . . . . . . . .
Purposes of the Study . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . .
Delimitations of the Study . . . . . . . .
Definitions of Terms Peculiar to This Study
General Procedure of the Study . . . . . .
Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . .
Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . .

REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE . . . . . . . .

A

A

Review of Selected Literature Concerning
Membership in an Occupation as Related
to the Development of Occupational
Ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Review of Selected Literature Concerning
the Measurement of Educational Philos—
ophies of Students and Graduates in
Industrial Arts Education . . . . . . . .
Review of Selected Literature Concerning
the Measurement of Educational Viewpoints
Relevant to This Study . . . . . . . . .
Review of Studies and Literature Con-
cerning Student Groups in College as
Related to Attitudes and Values . . . . .

Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . .
Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . .

RESEARCH FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES OF THE

STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Campus as a Community . . . . . . . . . . .
Student Subcultures . . . . . . . . . . . .
Teaching as Vocational Subculture . . . .

Industrial Arts Education as Teaching-

Vocational Subculture . . . . . . . . . .

Educational Viewpoints as Occupational

Ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iii

Page

[—1

[—1
OkOCDQUlnPUJP-J

H
H

12

15

20

31
43
45

52
52
53
54
56
59

62

Chapter

Page
The Measurement of Educational Viewpoints . . 64
Categorization of Student Groups Into
Student Subcultures . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Hypotheses of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Patterns of Educational Viewpoint . . . . . . 75
Three Patterns of Educational VieWpoint . . . 77
Hypotheses Derived From Educational
VieWpoints Inventory Patterns . . . . . . . 89

Summary of Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

IV. INSTRUMENTS, THE SAMPLE, AND COLLECTION OF

DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Educational VieWpoints Inventory . . . . . . 99

Activities Profile Sheet . . . . . . . . . . 117
The Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Administration of the Inventories . . . . . . 122
Treatment of the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

V. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA OF A SAMPLING OF

STUDENTS MAJORING IN INDUSTRIAL ARTS
EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Phase I. Summary Statistics of the Data . . 128
Phase II. Part A; Tests of the Hypotheses . 136
Phase II. Part B; Subtests Controlling the

Factor of Class in College . . . . . . . . 178
Phase II. Part C; The Analysis of Data

Concerning Responses to the Educa—

tional Viewpoints Inventory . . . . . . . . 193
Summary of the Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 208

APPENDICES

Summary of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Recommendations and Implications . . . . . . 218
Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

iv

Table

10.

LIST OF TABLES

Hoyt's test for reliability of total score .

Probability of obtaining given deviations
from test to retest . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary data of sample used in the study of
educational vieWpoints of Industrial Arts
majors at State University College, Oswego,
New York, 1964—65 . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary data of responses of 346 students of
State University College, Oswego, New York
to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . .

Comparative summary statistics of (1) this
sample's responses, (2) teacher educator's
responses, and (3) graduate students'
responses to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . .

Summary statistics of data derived from the
responses to the Educational Viewpoints
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Description of responses to Educational
VieWpoints Inventory by frequency and
percentages on the basis of deviations . . .

Average probability figures derived from
comparisons for six items in terms of
deviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between seniors' and Others'
responses to Swanson's Inventory of
educational viewpoints . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between commuters' and non—
commuters' responses to Swanson's Inventory
of educational vieWpoints . . . . . . . . .

Page

113

115

128

131

132

133

133

135

137

138

Table

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Page

Median Test between commuters' and non—
commuters' responses to Swanson's Inventory
of educational vieWpoints . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Median Test between senior commuters and
senior noncommuters in response to
Swanson's Inventory of educational vieWpoints . 140

Median Test between Other commuters and Other
noncommuters in response to Swanson's
Inventory of educational VieWpoints . . . . . . 141

Median Test between veterans' and non-
veterans' responses to Swanson's Inventory
of educational VieWpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Median Test between transfer and nontransfer
student responses to Swanson's Inventory of
educational viewpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Median Test between "generalists" and
"less general" students' responses to
Swanson's Inventory of educational viewpoints . 145

Median Test between "extreme generalists"

and "extreme less generalists" regarding

responses to Swanson's Inventory of educa—

tional VieWpoints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Median Test between "single choice generalists"
and “single choice specialists" regarding
responses to Swanson's Inventory of vieWpoints . 148

Median Test between responses of "extreme

single choice generalists" and "extreme

single choice specialists" to Swanson's

Inventory of educational viewpoints . . . . . . 149

A list of calculated Chi-square figures
listed in order from the study of total
sampling to the study of extreme responses

Aof a selected sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

.Median Test between members and nonmembers of

clubs and activities regarding responses to
Swanson's Inventory of educational vieWpoints . 151

vi

Table

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

Nonmembers and members of clubs and
activities by number of activities . . . . .

Median Test between members of professional
organizations and nonmembers in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between members of professional

organizations and nonmembers using a selected
sample from the first and fourth quartiles in

response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . .

Summary Table for Chi-square of six subtests
of student nonmembers and members of profes-

sional organizations in response to Swanson's

Inventory 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I 0

Median Test between nonmembers and members of

academic honorary societies and fraternities
in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . .

Frequency of members and nonmembers of
Special interest clubs in terms of number
of memberships held . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between members of special clubs
and organizations and nonmembers in response
to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between members of intercolle-
giate athletic teams and nonmembers in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . .

Median Test between nonmembers and members
of musical organizations in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between members and nonmembers
of religious organizations for Oswego stu-
dents in response to Swanson's Inventory . .

Median Test between senior members of
fraternities and nonmembers in response
to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . .

Chi-square Test between senior nonmembers and

members of fraternities in response to Swan-
son's Inventory using a sample of extreme
quartile scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

Page

152

155

155

157

159

160

161

162

164

165

168

168

Table Page

33. Median Test between members of organizations
for publications and nonmembers in response
to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

34. Median Test between members of student
government and nonmembers in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

35. Median Test between senior members of student
government and senior nonmembers in response
to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

36. Frequency of members and nonmembers by
number of athletic activities participated in . 173

37. Median Test between nonmembers and members of
intramural athletics in response to Swanson's
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

38. Median Test between members of "other
organizations" and nonmembers in response
to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

39. Median Test between nonmembers and members
of off-campus clubs and activities in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 177

40. Summary data: Frequency and percentage of
students in one of four categories of
patterns based in educational vieWpoints
with class in college controlled . . . . . . . . 193

41. Test of Chi-square between progressive-
oriented seniors and progressive-oriented
Others in response to the Educational View-
points Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

42. Test of Chi-square between senior and Other
logical empiricist—oriented groups in
response to the Educational VieWpoints
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

43. Test of Chi-square between senior and Other
logical empiricist-oriented groups of more
predictable patterns in response to the
Educational Viewpoints Inventory . . . . . . . . 197

viii

Table

44.

45.

46.

Page

Test of Chi-square between Other and senior

logical empiricist-oriented groups of less
predictable patterns in response to the

Educational VieWpoints Inventory . . . . . . . . 198

Test of Chi-square between Other and senior
unclassified students in terms of patterns

derived from responses to the Educational

VieWpoints Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Summary Table: Patterns of educational

vieWpoints of seniors and Others controlling

the factor of transfer-nontransfer and

expressed in terms of frequency . . . . . . . . 200

ix

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Statement of Problem

 

The goal of teacher education programs is the devel—
opment of effective teachers. A number of studies in indus-
trial arts education have focused attention on the identifi—
cation of competent and effective teachers by a variety of
research methods. The normative-survey has been the predom—
inant investigative technique. Characteristics and factors
related to teachers rated "effective" and "competent" have
been used as criteria for the evaluation of potential and
practicing teachers.

Many attempts to develop criteria for evaluating
effective teachers have been based on factors such as (1)
grade point averages and (2) ratings from Opinions of super-
visors and principals. A perusal of the literature revealed
that educational vieWpoints held by individuals enrolled in
industrial education programs have not been utilized as
criteria to identify competent teachers.

On the other hand, studies of teacher characteris-
tics by some educators and social scientists have often

attempted to analyze the acculturation and/or enculturation

of students into the teaching profession. W. W. Charters,
Jr. (1:715-813) described the extent and orientations of
various research projects concerning teachers from sociolog-
ical points of view. Charters suggested value orientations
held by teachers were affected in part by the process of
attaining membership in the teacher profession. He con—
cluded that the period of occupational training and educa-
tion of the prOSpective teacher was crucial in terms of the
development of occupational attitudes and values.

One aspect of a teacher's belief and value system
which was likely to be affected during the period of train—
ing included the area of study underlying educational prac—

tice--educational_philosophy. Teacher education programs

 

generally have been premised upon either a phiIOSOphy or
philosophies of education. Points of view regarding educa-
tional issues have been of concern to many, if not most,
teacher educators.
This study attempted to measure the educational view-

points of (1) individuals in the early stages of training
and (2) individuals nearing the stage of completion of
teacher education for industrial arts. Specifically, the
hypothesis of this research was:

Enrollment in an industrial arts curriculum by students

involves the assimilation of educational vieWpoints
advocated by industrial arts teacher educators.

 

 

Purposes of the Study

 

The primary purpose of this study attempted to test
the hypothesis specified in the preceding paragraph. Re—
search hypotheses were generated prior to the development of
the instrument, the collection of the data, and the analysis
of the data.

The sub-purposes of this study were: (1) to extend
the research conducted by Swanson (6) to undergraduate stu-
dents majoring in industrial arts education; (2) to develop
and incorporate the research technique reported by Osgood
gt_al. (4) for further analytical purposes; and (3) to estab-
lish a theoretical framework based on educational vieWpoints
as the occupational ideology of teachers and students in the
area of industrial arts education.

The sub-purposes, (1) that of employing Swanson's
original instrument and (2) that of incorporating into the
study Osgood's Semantic Differential, were considered mechan—
ical aspects of the study. These sub-purposes were effected
in the segments of the investigation concerning the method
of research and the techniques employed in the analysis of
the data. The sub-purpose, to establish a foundation prem-
ised on the concept that educational vieWpoints are a part
of the occupational ideology of industrial arts teaching, is
described in detail in the chapter devoted to the research

framework and hypotheses of the study.

Basic Assumptions

 

A basic assumption of the study was the view that
undergraduate students majoring in industrial arts education
possessed vieWpoints regarding education. This meant that
students in teacher education programs possessed views
regarding educational theory and practice with or without
formal eXperiences in professional education courses. How-
ever, it was posited that through formal guidance in course-
work and the social press exerted by the educational system,
students in training closest to gaining formal recognition
of membership in the occupation, in this situation the act
of graduation, would manifest behavior more congruent with
that of industrial arts teacher educators when compared with
freshmen.

The works of social scientists reviewed suggested
that the values of American culture were transmitted in part
by the institution of education (2:11-43; 3:17-41; 5:132-
147). Most social scientists agreed that school activities
were part of the socializing process in American society.
Thus, it was assumed that students advancing through the
social system of the school would develop value orientations
concerning education. This assumption did not imply that
all students would develop consistent educational vieWpoints
as a result of socialization through the educational institu-

tion. The assumption intended to convey the idea that

students would engender value orientations concerning educa-
tional practices by simply being a member of the social
system.

The second assumption pertained to the rationale and
instrument developed by Swanson (6). He concluded that it
was possible to define educational philoSOphy in operational
form and to structure an instrument which would measure the
relative direction and intensity of responses on a bi-polar
continuum. The Operational definitions of educational phi-
lOSOphies included solutions to various problems in teaching
from the essentialist and progressivist points of view.
Swanson's claims described in the preceding sentences were
accepted for purposes of this investigation. Rejection of
Swanson's definitions and research methodology would have
necessitated the elimination of the sub—purpose to extend

this study to an undergraduate pOpulation.

Delimitation of the Study

The design of this study did not include informal
social relationships as a factor to be analyzed. Investiga—
tion was centered on variables of membership in student
associations recognized by the college community. In a num-
ber of instances the associations held official charters
from the college governing body and in some cases were con-

sidered part of the college program.

Measurement of viewpoints of education could have
meant a study concerning a number of areas of educational
theory and practice. For this reason the research conducted
by Swanson (6) was selected as the basis of the investiga-
tion. His study was delimited to the cognitive aspects of
professional development of teaching derived from a frame-
work of educational phiIOSOphy.

This investigation was limited to a sampling of
undergraduates enrolled in the industrial arts program at
State University College, Oswego, New York. The sample con-
sisted of freshmen, transfer students, and seniors. Non-
majors, part-time students, and extension students were not
asked to participate in the study.

The period under study was academic year 1964—65.

In addition to the delimiting factors concerning the sample
and time, the investigation followed the procedures of
Swanson's study (6). The reason prompting this decision was
the desire to replicate the procedure of Swanson's work, and
also, to extend the research to undergraduates. A change in
the basic instrument and/or the analytical techniques would

have contradicted a sub—purpose of this study.

hension

Definitions of Terms Peculiar
to This Study

 

 

The following terms are defined to facilitate compre-
of the report.

Educational Viewpoint: In this study the term means

 

the relative emphasis of philosophy, not necessarily
consistent, derived through a score as a result of
being administered an inventory which was developed
from an operational definition of educational philos-
Ophies.

College Group and Groups: Hereafter this term will

 

be used to designate student associations that have
been recognized officially by charter from the col-
lege community under study. Informal groups are not
included in this category.

Swanson's Inventory: The instrument used in this

 

study to measure extremeness and emphasis of educa-
tional philosophies. It was the primary instrument
of this investigation.

Educational Viewpoints Inventogy: The instrument

 

developed for this study by the investigator; and
based upon the techniques and theory set forth by
Osgood §£_al. (4) in the Semantic Differential.
This instrument was used primarily to identify

patterns of vieWpoints.

5. Others or Other Groups: As used in this investiga-
tion the term refers to students who are not classi-
fied as seniors. Freshmen and transfer students
dominated the category of Others. The term will be
written thus, Others, when reference is made to that

group.

General Procedure of the Study

 

The initial phase of the investigation was a review
of the selected literature concerning aspects thought to be
of importance to the problem. The review included: (1)
selected literature concerning the acceptance of the concept
stated in the hypothesis; (2) selected literature concerning
the measurement of vieWpoints of education in industrial
arts; (3) selected literature concerning viewpoints of educa-
tion by other educators; (4) selected literature concerning
selected factors of membership in college groups as related
to attitudes and values.

The second phase included the generating of a theo—
retical framework for research and the stating of hypotheses
from the review of literature. The method of investigation
was formulated and a timetable scheduled toward the end of
the second phase.

The third phase was directed to the construction and
pretesting of instruments. As the instrument was being

finalized the sample was identified and arrangements were

made to secure the data. The analysis of the data was made
immediately after the responses were systematized on tables.
The final phase dealt with the writing of this

report.

Summagy of the Chppter

 

Briefly, the material presented in this chapter
attempted to define the problem of the investigation which
was stated in the form of the hypothesis:

Enrollment in an industrial arts curriculum by students

involves the assimilation of educational vieWpoints
advocated by industrial arts teacher educators.

 

 

The purposes of the study, the dominant one being
the testing of the hypothesis, were discussed with three
sub—purposes. The sub-purposes were: (1) to extend the
study originated by Swanson (6), (2) to incorporate the
research technique developed by Osgood and associates (4)
within the framework of the study, and (3) to establish a
theoretical base from which to pursue research. Assumptions
underlying the investigation, limits of the study, and termi-
nology used in the research were discussed in the chapter.
The chapter was brought to a close with the section devoted

to the general procedure employed in the investigation.

S ELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Charters, W. W. "The Social Background of Teaching,"
Handbook of Research on Teaching. Edited by N. L.
Gage. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1963.
1218 pp.

 

Clark, Burton R. Educating the Expert Society.
San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1962.
301 pp.

 

Kneller, George F. Educational Anthropology: An
Introduction. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1965. 171 pp.

 

Osgood, Charles E., George J. Suci, and Percy H.
Tannenbaum. The Measurement of Meanipg. Urbana,
Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1957.
342 pp.

 

Spindler, George D. Education and Culture. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963. 571 pp.

 

Swanson, Robert S. "The Operational Definition and
Measurement of Educational Philosophy."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Minnesota, 1955.

10

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE

The review of selected literature for this investi—

gation included:

1.

studies concerning the membership in an occupation
as related to the development of occupational ideol—
ogy. Specific emphasis was placed on studies con-
cerned with occupational ideology of teachers.
studies concerning the measurement of educational
philosophies of students and teachers in industrial
arts education.

studies concerning the measurement of educational
vieWpoints applicable to this investigation.
studies concerning the effects of membership in
various college groups as related to attitudes and

values.

Basically, the review attempted to effect the follow-

ing purposes:

1.

to ascertain the appropriateness of the major hypoth-
esis in terms of existing theories.
to study the concepts underlying the measurement of

educational vieWpoints.

11

12

3. to ascertain the extent of conducted studies based
on measurement of philOSOphies of education.
4. to ascertain the methods and classifications used in
categorizing college students into referent groups.
A Review of Selected Literature Concerning
Membership_in an Occupation as

Related to the Development of
Occupational Ideology

 

 

 

 

The general hypothesis of this investigation was
derived from writings of a number of social scientists.
Dominant disciplines contributing concepts related to this
study were social psychology, sociology, and cultural
anthropology.

Becker and Carper (5:297). The "acquisition of
ideology" was included as one of the factors which enable
individuals to identify with an occupation. Becker and
Carper enumerated the following factors as being prevalent
in the process of occupational identification: (1) invest-
ment mechanisms, (2) development of interest and acquisition
of skill, (3) internalization of motives, and (4) sponsor-
ship (5:289-298). It was pointed out that individuals in
different occupations varied in the period of acquiring
ideologies.

E. C. Hughes_(27). The attitude of the individual
toward his occupation was classified as one of the units in

the scheme for analysis of personality types as related to

13

the division of labor. Hughes theorized that the socializa-
tion of candidates of professions and near-professions
required the "assimilation of the candidate to a set of
professional attitudes and controls, a professional con-
science and solidarity" (27:87). If Hughes was correct in
theory, it would be expected that members within an occupa—
tion would have value patterns peculiar to that calling.

Other writers. Writers concerned with occupational

 

attitude formation eXpressed views which substantiated
Hughes' hypothesis. Caplow (12) devoted a section of the

book, The Sociology of Work, to occupational attitudes. He

 

speculated that entry into occupations required the assimila-
tion of in-group behaviors both at the formal and informal
levels.

Sorokin described the relationship of occupation to
the behavior of the individual thus, "A durable occupational
work molds the body, mind, and behavior of its members . . ."
(57:211).

Occupational ideology of teaching. The work of

 

W. W. Charters (14:715-813) was most comprehensive and
elucidating regarding literature directed to the subject of
the socialization process of teachers. The major contribu-
tions of research concerning the value orientations of teach—
ers were summarized in the chapter titled "The Social Back-
ground of Teaching," which appeared in the Handbook of

Research on Teaching (14). Among the individuals cited in

14

the chapter were Spindler (58), Sims (56), and Terrien (65),
and studies emanating from the use of the Minnesota Teacher
Inventory (l7)(l6).

The article by Spindler was theoretical in nature
and represented effort to provide a framework for analysis
of value orientations of individuals as related to American
education. On the other hand, the research by Sims and the
individuals engaged in the MTAI studies were empirical by
comparison. However, the tenor of the articles reviewed
seemed to indicate the existence of a teaching ideology.

Charters eXpressed his sentiments concerning the
socialization of a teacher-to-be thus:

From the perspective of adult socialization and
role learning, the significant aspects of teacher—
training programs lie not so much in the formal pro—
grams and practices as in the ideology and value
systems to which the trainee is exposed, in the stu-
dent's informal relations with his peers, and in those
aSpects of his institutional eXperience which usually
are regarded as incidental to his training (14:750).

The review revealed the diversity of occupational
orientations of teaching as related to attitudes and values.
Simplistic eXplanations were considered to be unrealistic
and far from the truth. The complexity of attitudes and

values of teaching are evidenced by the many definitions of

acceptable behavior described by educational philOSOphers.

15

A Review of Selected Literature Concerning_the
Measurement of Educational Philospphies
Of Students and Graduates in
Industrial Arts Education

 

 

 

 

In recent years the quantity of philosophical studies
in industrial education has increased proportionately in com-
parison to other types of studies. A sampling of the studies
developed from a philosophical stance are the contributions
to the literature by Ferns (63), Baird (3), Svendsen (61),
and Stadt (59). A perusal of the literature of industrial
arts education revealed two studies concerned specifically
with measurement of philosophy Of education. The more
recent Of the studies was listed by title with the notation
that research was underway (50).

The Swanson study (62). The second study, the

 

research undertaken by Swanson, was documented in the form
of a doctoral dissertation. The investigation included (1)
the development Of an operational definition of two view-
points of American education and (2) the categorization Of
graduate students majoring in industrial education according
to responses to an inventory of educational vieWpoints based
upon the Operational definition.

The design of Swanson's Inventory enabled the differ—
entiation Of vieWpoints along a bi-polar continuum. The
idealized ends of the continuum represented the essentialist

and progressivist educational philosophies. A high-scaled

16

score in one direction was theorized to indicate an inclina-
tion of emphasis to a particular point of view.

Four general steps to fulfill the purposes of this
original investigation were as follows:

First, the literature dealing with teacher com—
petencies, educational philosophy, and methods of
attacking problems Of this type was reviewed.

Second, an Operational definition of educational
philosophy was proposed by listing teacher behavior
implicit in educational philosophy. The definition
was in outline form. The major headings listed five
general activities of teachers as teachers. Under
each major heading four sub-headings, representing
levels of complexity of behavior, were listed. Under
each sub-heading was listed a series of rather specific
statements of teacher behavior hypothesized to be based
in educational philOSOphy. Each of these statements
was further defined by stating behaviors characteristic
Of the essentialist and progressive viewpoints. This
Operational definition was presented to a group of
critics, nine teachers and graduate students in educa-
tional philosophy, for their evaluation of its complete—
ness, accuracy, and appropriateness. The statements
accepted by them constituted the criterion against
which to judge teachers' educational philOSOphies,
their extremeness and emphasis.

Third, the writer prepared an instrument, an
"Inventory Of Viewpoints on Education," to measure the
extremeness and emphases of teachers' educational phi-
losophies. The inventory consisted of sixty-five pairs
Of statements of beliefs, opinions, and proposed actions
based in educational philosophy. One statement Of each
pair generally represented the progressive vieWpoint and
the other the essentialist. Directions requested re—
spondents to select the statement of each pair most in
accord with their beliefs.

Fourth, the inventory was administered to three
hundred five graduate students in three colleges and
universities. Various status facts were collected from
each respondent such as highest degree held, major of
each degree held, number of years of teaching eXperience,
level Of teaching experience, and type of position held.
Relationships between the emphases and extremeness of
the viewpoints eXpressed and the various status facts
were investigated (62:128-29).

17

The following discussion is presented to further

clarify the nature of the development of Swanson's research.

The outline form which was used to describe the operational

definition is illustrated as follows:

I. THE TEACHER FORMULATES OR SELECTS OBJECTIVES

A. He will apply the tenets of his educational philos-
ophy to the problems of defining educational objec-

tives.

Essentialist: (1)

Progressive:

(2)

(3)

(l)

(2)

(3)

Objectives will be relatively
fixed.

Objectives will be developed
independent of experience.

Objectives will be considered
apart from the means of achiev-
ing them.

Objectives must be constantly
developing.

Means must be considered as
continuous with ends.

Participants must have a voice
in determining Objectives (62:
152).

The outline form incorporated ideas developed by a

number of persons.

The teacher behaviors were formulated by

Barr et a1. (4). Categories of teacher behavior were:

1. The teacher
teaching.

2. The teacher
pupils will
Objectives.

3. The teacher
eXperiences

formulates or selects objectives for

formulates experiences through which
undergo as a means of achieving their

arranges for the pupils to have the
formulated in step 2.

5‘

.v.

a

 

 

 

18

4. The teacher evaluates pupils' growth and achievement
Of the Objectives.

5. The teacher reappraises the Objectives and experi-
ences in light of the evaluations of pupil growth

and achievement (4:238-263).

The sub—classifications under each Of the general
headings, in this case the five categories of teacher behav—
ior, were statements based on four levels of a taxonomy of
cognitive behavior developed by Bloom g£_al. (6). Swanson
used the sub-headings of application, analysis, synthesis,
and evaluation. The sub-headings of knowledge and comprehen-
Sion of the Taxonomy were not used. In the example presented

on the preceding page, the category used was that Of applica-

tion.

 

Following the description in terms of one of the
Categories developed by Bloom et al., the definition was
eXtended to include statements based in metaphysics, episte-
Zmology, and ethics. The writings of Broudy (8), Brubacher
(9) . and Wild (69) provided the format for describing the
Statements on the three factors. The rationale for express—
ing’the teacher behaviors on this basis was explained by
SW‘E‘lnson thus:

Many educational problems are capable Of solution
at some level other than the philosophical. Problems
that cease to be controversial with the presence Of
Objective scientific data are not philosophical prob-
lems. The teacher behaviors listed in this study were
Concerned only with behaviors finding their bases rather

directly in educational philos0phy and its disciplines,
epistemology, metaphysics, and ethics (62:55).

 

19

The Operational definitions were described in terms
of implicit teacher behavior using two systems of philosoph-
ical positions. These were the essentialist and the progres-
sivist positions. It was assumed in employing this classifi-
cation that perennialism would be in the direction Of essen-
tialism and reconstructionism would be directed towards pro-
gressivism. Swanson rationalized his choice of classifica-

tion in these words:

Another reason for the choice of the familiar
educational classifications of philosophy was that
one of the eventual purposes Of this study was tO
develop an instrument to enable a teacher to place
himself along the continuum of philOSOphies of educa-
tion. For this purpose it was desirable to Obtain
classifications Offering a maximum contrast in posi-
tion on a wide variety of educational issues. The
essentialist—progressivist classification seemed to
Offer such a contrast.

It seemed, then, that the essentialist-progres—
sivist classification served the purposes of this
study best because it is a classification Of educa-
tional philosophies (62:58-59).

The statements incorporated into the Inventory of
Eggflflgpints on Education, the research instrument, were
deVeloped and selected from the outline. The instrument is
lncluded in the Appendix A1.

The instrument was administered to groups of graduate
Students from three institutions of higher education. Two Of
the Conclusions of the study were:

1. It is possible to define educational philosophy in a
practical and useful way by listing the teacher
behaviors based in, and indicative of, educational
philosophy. The educational philosophers cooperating

in this study agreed rather closely on such a defini-
tion.

20

It is possible to differentiate individuals pos-
sessing essentialist and progressive philosophies
by means of a written inventory based upon teacher
behaviors implicit in educational philosophy (62:
130). ' '

Included in the recommendations of the study were

the following statements:

a.

b.

teaCher

It is possible that the two philosophical posi-
tions used, essentialism and progressivism, are
too narrow. Further study with other methods Of
classification may reveal more useful descriptions.

A different form of responding to the inventory,
such as a free choice, may give scores capable Of
a different interpretation.

This study dealt entirely with students at the
graduate level. The value of the inventory for
use with students at various undergraduate levels
should be investigated (62:134).

The Swanson Inventory was administered to a group of

educators prior to the conference of the Mississippi

Valley Association in 1955 (63). In the report made by

SWanson and Micheels it was indicated that the responses of

the sampling Of teacher educators did not differ signifi-

cantly from the reSponses made by the original sample of

graduate students.

A Review of Selected Literature Concerning the

Measurement Of Educational Vieprints
Relevant to This Study

The review of literature included the following

readings .

21

The Ryans study (55). The project by Ryans employed

 

as part Of the instrumentation the Educational VieWpOints

Inquiry which was developed on the following rationale:

sis

The

Educational VieWpOints quite reasonably are pre-
sumed to be important factors in determining what
shall be taught in the schools of a particular com-
munity and how it shall be taught. The composite of
educational viewpoints, or the "educational philosophy,"
accepted by an administrator and his supervisory and
teaching staffs (presumably with approval Of the school
board and, in turn, the community) defines the Objectives
Of teaching to which a school system is committed. The
school system eXpects individual teachers to conduct
their classes in keeping with such defined objectives.

In practice, however, the educational vieWpoints
Of an individual teacher may or may not conform to
the Objectives Of the school system in which he is
employed. Furthermore, because Of lack of real under-
standing Of the implications of viewpoints held, or
inability to translate the vieWpOints into classroom
behavior (or perhaps because Of external pressures),
a teacher may not actually conduct his classes in
keeping with the vieWpOints he professes about educa-
tional matters. Nevertheless, one might expect a
teacher committed to a particular set of educational
vieWpOints to behave differently in specified school
situations from a teacher committed to some different
educational vieWpoint. Or, to put it briefly, it
seems reasonable to assume that teacher behavior is
influenced by the educational values held by the
individual teacher (55:146—48).

The instrument was organized to enable factor analy-
Of cluster of statements based in educational thought.
items sampled vieWpoints with respect to:

. . . (a) curricular organization and scope;
(b) course planning and classroom procedure (includ-
ing pupil participation in these activities); (c)
academic achievement standards; (d) division of
teaching and administrative responsibilities; and
(e) parent participation in the educational program
(55:149).

22

In the summer of 1950 the instrument was administered
to 213 elementary and 338 secondary teachers enrolled in
institutions of higher education. It should be noted here
ttmt inventory forms were different for elementary and
secondary school teachers; however, both tests were equiva-
lent in scoring. Analysis revealed three general factors.
These were (1) the academic-centered school program versus
the school program stressing other objectives; (2) teacher—
directed learning in traditional subject matter fields
versus learning directed by pupil interests and abilities;
and (3) rigid school programs versus flexible school pro—
grams (55:150-151).

Findings Of the study are summarized as follows:

(1) Secondary school teachers are more tradition-minded than
elementary school teachers; (2) Secondary school teachers
tended to be more subject—oriented, academic-centered, than
elementary school teachers; (3) Secondary school teachers
were less permissive than elementary school teachers; (4)

Men teachers tended to be more traditional than female
teachers; (5) Teachers at the secondary level with more than
fifteen years of teaching experience tended to be more tradi-
tional (55:152).

The Bruce study (10). Bruce employed the instrument,
"A Scale for Determining Teacher Beliefs," developed by
Kreitlow and Drier (36) to ascertain consistency of educa—

tional vieWpOints Of education students at Wayne State

23

University in Detroit, Michigan. The instrument items rep—
resented the following vieWpoints: (1) progressive, (2) com-
munity—centered, and (3) academic. It was noted that the
pnxnressive and community-centered points of view were dif-
ficult to differentiate.

An interesting finding by Bruce read: ”Sophomores,
juniors, and seniors were about equally inconsistent. At
all three levels of development, students were so very incon-
sistent by these measures that it may be questioned whether
they have any educational philOSOphies at all" (10:464).

The Ehrlich study (22). The study conducted by
Ehrlich employed the forced-choice method for securing data
on an instrument including statements from three philosoph—
ical positions. These positions were (1) essentialism, (2)
perennialism, and (3) progressivism.

The findings claimed one—eighth of the teachers were
not consistent in vieWpoint selection (22:3684). Also
Ehrlich noted that the majority of citizens, teachers, and
students selected statements representative of the progres-
sive view. As with most of the studies reviewed, it was
noted that citizens and students were more prone to be
inconsistent than teachers.

The Biggs study (7). The doctoral research under-
taken by Biggs was postulated on three vieWpOints of educa-
tion. These were isolated to be (1) truth-centered, (2)

individual-centered, and (3) society-centered. In respect

24

to educational philosophical positions, truth-centeredness
Would be similar to the realist position; the individual-
Centered position would be representative of the idealist
§>Osition; and the society—centered position would be repre-
sentative of the pragmatic or progressive viewpoint. Obvi-
ously, the isolated factors are not the definitions Of the
philosophic viewpoints discussed but resemble the listed
views. The instrument developed for the study was called
the Educational Viewpoints Inventory and consisted of 150
items.

The findings Of the study were reported thus:

The results indicated, first, adherents to the
Individual Centered vieWpoint do not tend to endorse
dogmatic statements nor traditional attitude state-
ments; also, they do not tend to endorse the role of
"Referrer." Second, adherents to the Truth Centered
viewpoint do not tend to endorse dogmatic statements;
they do tend to endorse the role of "Disciplinarian"
and reject the role of "Counselor." Third, adherents
to the Society Centered vieWpoint tend to endorse
dogmatic statements, Opinionated statements, and
statements which are supported by rationalizations.

In addition, they tend to endorse advice-giving and

information-giving roles (7:3200).

The Prince studies (48) (49). The work Of Prince

 

found its basis in the writings of Spindler (58:145—156).
The framework of research was based on the polar continuum,
one end described by traditional values and the opposite
extreme by emergent values. The instrument titled the
Differential Values Inventopy consisted of sixty-four
forced—choice items. Items were developed over the follow—

ing categories: "1) Puritan morality, 2) individualism,

25

3) vvork-success ethic, 4) future—time orientation . . .

(4123 :305) for the traditional pattern. The emergent pattern

included the following categories: "1) relativistic moral

attitudes, 2) conformity, 3) sociability, 4) present-time

or ientation" (48:305) . The categories are similar to the

15.8 1: described by Spindler (58) .
One Of the findings was that value judgments differed

Significantly between individuals attending—teaching in

religious and public schools (48:306-307) . Prince also

C laimed that intraschool patterns did not vary between

teachers, freshmen, and seniors. The interpretation given

to this phenomenon was that institutions perpetuate partic-
ular value patterns among its members, both teachers and
S't‘leents, through a process of self-selection.

The Prince studies were similar to Swanson's study

( 62) in scoring. Thus, there was no provision in ascertain-

lhg whether individual beliefs and values might lie outside
the continuum; nor does the instrument enable the investiga-
tor to identify individuals who may not have a consistent

i QWPOint .

The Pricert study (47). The study attempted by

Pricert tested the hypothesis that students majoring in

different disciplines would exhibit ethical and philosoph-
iqal patterns which could be identified and isolated. The
S‘illady was conducted on graduate students at the University

O
E California at Berkeley. Students from the following

 

26

disciplines were studied: (1) physics, (2) sociology, (3)
Iflriggfilish, and (4) mathematics. The instruments employed in
1:?163 study were: (1) an instrument concerning ethical atti-

tudes based in three positions of philosophy and (2) the

Crease-t of Philosophical Attitudes by Lodge (39:337-341). The

 

LolitiglOSOphic vieWpoints sampled were idealism, realism, and
pragmatism.
Pricert's findings led to the following conclusions:

1. Groups of student majors who participated in the
eXploratory study differed markedly in the amount
of philOSOphical and ethical attitudes accepted
in the tests.

2. Within groups Of student majors who participated
in the eXploratory study, marked relationships
existed in the amount of philOSOphical and ethical
attitudes accepted in the tests.

3. For the total group of student majors who partic—
ipated in the exploratory study, marked relation-
ships existed in the amount Of both philOSOphical
and ethical attitudes accepted in the tests (47:
121).

The Kerlinger studies (32)(33)(34). A series of
S tUdies by Kerlinger and associates have claimed progressiv—
:1‘531i1 and traditionalism are basic educational attitudes. The
technique used by Kerlinger was the Q-sort in ascertaining
the results. More important, the advantage of the Q-method—
Q:'~C>gy enables the isolation of inconsistent respondents,
those individuals who may have had consistent attitudes.

Among his conclusions were:

. . . the two studies seemed to identify two

independent factors behind educational attitudes,
"Progressivism" and "Traditionalism." It was also

 

27

found that the professors Of the two samples,
especially the education professors were mostly
"progressive" and that the laymen were mostly
"traditional." Further, the education professors
were very consistent; they clearly differentiated
between the restrictive—permissive dimensions of

the studies, and they leaned rather strongly toward
permissiveness. The liberal-arts professors, too,
tended to differentiate these two dimensions in the
permissive direction, if not so strongly as the edu-
cation professors. The laymen chosen for the studies
did not make this differentiation at all clearly;
they tended to be inconsistent and mixed up in their
educational attitudes.

These findings seem to indicate three important
things. First, progressivism and traditionalism in
education are "real" entities; they emerged as
rather clear—cut factors in the statistical analysis
Of both studies. But they are also probably real in
the practical sense that they influence behavior as
educators and as laymen. More accurately, they are
the action dispositions of philosophies Of education.

Second, if there is actually a large gap between
educators and laymen in their attitudes toward edu—
cation and, by implication, their knowledge of the
facts and their recognition of assumptions, espe-
cially by laymen, then education is faced with a
large communication problem.

Finally, the problem of progressivism versus
traditionalism, which we have talked about for so
many years, should be carefully, objectively, and
scientifically studied (32:90-91).

The Spindler formulation (58). The definitive formu-
lation of American education on a traditional-emergent con—
tinuum of values was included in this section of the review
because of the relevance of Spindler's theory to this inves—

tigation. It should be noted that Spindler did not test his

theory; however, Prince (48), cited earlier in this chapter,

 

n-o.

ta.
.

nu.

 

s
-n
.

 

 

28

utilized Spindler's model to study administrators and
students.

The model assumed that American society to be char-
acterized as a culture in the process of transformation; and
hence, American education was described in terms of "shifts
in values" (58:132). In brief, the shift within American
education was described within a framework of a polar-con—
tinuum, the ends being traditional and emergent values, with
the movement in the direction towards the emergent values.
Upon the traditional—emergent continuum the author theorized
various segments of the population could be placed. The fol-

lowing diagram was used to illustrate the theory (58:139).

 

TRADITIONAL VALUES EMERGENT VALUES
General Public School
and Parents Administrators Students
School Students Older Younger
Boards Teachers Teachers

The discussion accompanying the diagram read:

School boards are placed nearest the traditional
because such boards are usually composed of persons
representing the power, status—quo, elements of the
community, and of persons in the higher age ranges.
They are therefore people who have a stake in keeping
things as they are, who gained their successes within
the framework of the traditional value system and con-
sequently believe it to be good, and who, by virtue
of their age, grew up and acquired their value sets
during a period of time when American culture was
presumably more tradition-oriented than it is today.
They may be driven to extreme forms of traditionalism
as a response to the pressures mentioned previously.

29

The general public and parent group, of course,
contains many elements of varying value predilection.
It is therefore unrealistic to place this public at
any particular point in the value continuum. But I
hypothesize that the public tends to be more conser-
vative in its social philosophy than professional
educators are. The placement to the left of center
Of the continuum takes on further validity if it is
seen as a placement of that part of the public that
is most vocal in its criticism Of educators and edu-
cation-~since many of the criticisms made appear to
spring out Of value conflicts between traditionalist
and emergentist positions. Parents complain that their
children are not being taught the "three R's" (even
when they are), that educators want to "socialize"
the competitive system by eliminating report cards,
that children are not taught the meaning of hard work.
These all sound, irrespective of the question of their
justification or lack of it, like traditionalist
responses to change in an "emergent” direction.

Students are placed at two points on the trans-
formation line because it is clear that those coming
from traditionalist family environments will tend to
hold traditionalist values, but hold them less securely
than will their parents (if our hypothesis for over-
all change is valid), while other students who come
from emergent-oriented families will tend to place
even further, as a function of their age and peer
groups, towards the emergent end of the line than
their parents would. This is only partially true,
indeed, for such a rationale does not account for the
fact that Offspring in revolt (and many American chil-
dren from 6 to 16 are in a state of revolt against
parental dictums) may go to extremes in either direc-
tion.

School administrators, Older and younger teachers,
place at varying points on the emergent half Of the
transformation line. I have placed them there because
I believe that the professional education culture
(every institution has its own way of life, in this
sense) that they have acquired in the schools and
colleges Of education has a clear bias towards an
emergent-oriented ethos. Many Of my educationist
colleagues will reject this interpretation, and indeed,
such interpretations are always guilty of over-
generalization. My case must rest on contemporary
educational philosophy, theory, and practice. The
emphasis is on the "social adjustment" of the indi-
vidual, upon his role as a member of the group and

30

community.

Most of the values listed under the

emergent heading are explicitly stated in educa-

tional literature as goals

(58:139-141).

The traditional and emergent values of the polar

ends Of the continuum were defined thus (58:136-137):

TRADITIONAL VALUES

 

Puritan moralipy_(Respect—
ability, thrift, self-denial,
sexual constraint; a puritan
is someone who can have any~
thing he wants, as long as
he doesn't enjoy iti)

 

Work-success ethic (Suc—
cessful people worked hard
to become so. Anyone can get
to the top if he tries hard
enough. SO people who are
not successful are lazy, or
stupid, or both. People must
work desperately and contin-
uously to convince themselves
of their work.)

 

Individualism (The individ-
ual is sacred, and always more
important than the group. In
one extreme form, the value
sanctions egocentricity,
eXpediency, and disregard for
other people's rights. In its
healthier form the value sanc—
tions independence and origi-
nality.)

 

Achievement orientation
(Success is a constant goal.
There is no resting on past
glories. If one makes
$9,000 this year he must
make $10,000 next year.
Coupled with the work-suc—
cess ethic, this value keeps
people moving, and tense.

EMERGENT VALUES

 

Sociability (As described
above, one should like peOple
and get along well with them.
Suspicion of solitary activ—
ities is characteristic.)

 

Relativistic moral attitude
(Absolutes in right and wrong
are questionable. Morality
is what the group thinks is
right. Shame, rather than
guilt, is appropriate.)

 

Consideration for others
(Everything one does should
be done with regard for
others and their feelings.
The individual has a built-in
radar that alerts him to
other's feelings. Tolerance
for the other person's point
Of view and behaviors is
regarded as desirable, so
long as the harmony of the
group is not disrupted.)

 

Hedonistic,gpresent—time
orientation (No one can tell
what the future will hold,
therefore one should enjoy
the present—~but within the
limits of the well-rounded
personality and group.)

 

TRADITIONAL VALUES

 

Future-time orientation
(The future, not the past,
or even the present, is most
important. Time is valuable
and cannot be wasted. Pres—
ent needs must be denied for
satisfactions to be gained
in the future.)

 

31

EMERGENT VALUES

Conformity to the group
(Implied in the other emer-
gent values. Everything is
relative to the group.
Group harmony is the ulti—
mate goal. Leadership con-
sists Of group—machinery
lubrication.)

A Review of Studies and Literature Concerning
Student Groups in College as Related

 

to Attitudes and Values

 

Introduction.

 

The review commenced with the reading

Of the Jacob Report (30) which raised more questions than

answers. For example,

a portion Of his text read:

American college students today tend to think

alike,
dinary degree,

feel alike and behave alike.
their values are the same wherever

TO an extraor-

they may be studying and whatever the stage of their

careers.
mold,

The majority seem turned out of a common
so far as outlook on life and the standards of

conduct are concerned (30:12).

However, Jacob made this somewhat contradictory

remark elsewhere in the book

just a selection of courses,

influences in isolation,

institutional atmosphere

. But a look at whole college rather than

or other educational

reveals that sometimes a
combination Of factors can produce a distinctive

I

a

"climate of values,"

in which students are decisively influenced.

The incoming student is quick to sense "what

goes" on his particular campus.
along in the groove he finds,

He tends to follow
and in short order

the pattern of his beliefs and attitudes comes to

bear the stamp of his institution.
differences varies from place to place.

Individual
NO doubt,

institutional atmosphere is modified somewhat by
the incoming flow of new students and the attitudes

32

they bring with them. It isn't, in other words,

a static phenomenon. But there is a self—perpet-
uating force at work also. Many students (or their
parents) are attracted to a place whose atmosphere
they expect to be congenial to their previous
tastes (30:99).

The work by Eddy (21) supported in part the thesis
of Jacob of the general conformity Of college students in
the United States. However, Eddy declared that differences
might exist between students of the various campuses.

The Jacob report has been criticized by a number of

persons. Reisman (51) in the American Sociological Review

 

contended that Jacob's data was not differentiated suffi-
ciently. Another criticism related to what Reisman described
as a lack of emphasis in the report of two classic studies of
student behavior. He was referring to the work of Newcomb
(43) at Bennington and the Vassar studies (11). The criti—
cism read:

However, in Jacob's account these notable
studies carry hardly more weight than those studies
which make simplistic comparisons in terms Of pen-
and—pencil tests between students exposed and not
exposed to a particular course in human relations.
This may be one reason why his overall verdict as
to the effectiveness of college is so bleak. It
seems to me that the struggle which occurs in college
between the efforts of some of the faculty to social-
ize the students into scholarship or some comparable
ideal and the efforts of the rest of the culture
(including much of the faculty) to use college as
anticipatory socialization for middle class exis-
tence, cannot be understood purely in terms of the
trajectory of individuals; sociological and anthro-
pological concepts and methods are also required-—
concepts dealing with mutual acculturation, the
formation of subcultures and reference groups, and
the impact of mutual eXpectations and pluralistic
ignorances (51:733).

33

The findings of Davis (19) did not support Jacob's
contention of conformity among student bodies of colleges.
His evidence indicated that an ”intellectual climate" was
more evident at some institutions than at others. The
report of study was summarized:

1. High quality, private, small institutions,
have proportions of seniors endorsing intel-
lectual values, while lower quality, public
and larger institutions have lower proportions.
In addition technological schools are quite
low in intellectual values.

2. The perceived value climate is directly related
to the true value climate.

3. In terms of individual characteristics, students'
perceptions Of value climates are distorted
toward their own value positions, and students
with high grades tend tO give lower estimates
of the intellectuality of their campuses than
students with poorer grades.

4. In terms Of school characteristics, there is
a regional differential in the proportion Of
schools whose climates are seen by the seniors
to be more or less intellectual than the true
value distributions would predict.
5. All these findings are interpreted in terms of
the perceptual mechanisms of "assimilation" and
"contrast" (19:128).
The initial phase of review was followed by readings
Of selected works in the study of college students' attitudes
in terms of student subcultures. The study which seemed to
be most Often quoted was the work by Newcomb (43) conducted
at Bennington College during the 1930's.
The Newcomb study. The question posed by the re-

search read, "What kinds of personal characteristics, in any

34

student community, determine those social relationships
which in turn lead to varying reactions to proposed social
changes?" (43:12).

An important facet of the research endeavor was the
study of the students in terms of the college community as a
frame of reference (43:Chapter 7). The conclusions derived
from the findings verified the hypothesis that students
would tend to assimilate the patterns of behavior of the
college community. The findings of the Newcomb study dis-
closed the (l) tendency Of students to change attitudes to
that of the prevailing culture of the community; (2) senior
students as a group would eXpress attitudes and behaviors
which were closer to community norms than freshmen; (3)
students designated by their peers as being leaders held
views which were closer to the norms of the community; (4)
attitude-change was slightly related to courses Of study;
(5) students of higher socio-economic background tended to
change more in values; and (6) student leaders tended to be
quickly "sized-up" in terms of value orientations (43:146—
151).

Newcomb summarized the study in these words:

TO recapitulate, precollege and college com-
munity influences conspire to phrase approved
behaviors in terms of success in a very few areas.
Individuals thus come to view themselves as com-
munity participants in terms of a very few roles.

The possible degrees of success, particularly as
self-viewed, are limited. Individuals distribute

themselves among these limited roles not randomly,
but in accordance with already existing and currently

35

developing personality characteristics. These char-
acteristics which determine which of the possible
roles shall be played by the individual have here
been referred to as personality patterns. It is
the community role which mediates between social
attitudes and other personality characteristics.
It is the community's limitation of possible roles
that results in a limited number of personality
patterns--limited, that is, in respect to their
significance in determining social attitudes (43:
168-169).

The view of campus as a culture (67). Like Newcomb

 

tTIEE fOrmulation by Trow was based upon peer relationships Of

Students. The model developed by Trow defined four student

Slllacrultures which were named the collegiate, the academic,

trlfia ‘vocational, and the nonconformist (67:106). The de—

ta~illed descriptions of the four subcultures were as follows:
COLLEGIATE CULTURE'

The most widely held stereotype of "college
life" pictures the "collegiate culture," a world Of
football, fraternities, and sororities, dates, cars
and drinking, and campus fun. And a good deal Of
student life on many campuses revolves around the
collegiate culture; it provides both substance for
the stereotypes of movies and cartoons and models
itself on those stereotypes. Teachers and courses
and grades are in this picture, but somewhat dimly,
in the background. The fraternities have tO make
their grade point average, students have to hit the
books periodically if they are to get their diplomas,
gestures have to be made to the adult world of courses
and grades which provide the justification for the
collegiate round. In content, this system of values
and activities is not hostile to the colleges, to
which, in fact, it generates strong loyalties and
attachments. It is, however, indifferent and
resistant to serious demands emanating from the
faculty, or parts of it, for an involvement with
ideas and issues over and above that required to
gain the diploma. This culture is characteristi-
cally middle and upper middle class-—it takes money
and leisure to pursue the busy round of social
activities-—and flourishes on, though is by no

 

 

36

means confined to, the resident campuses of big
state universities. Part—time work, intense voca-
tional interest, an urban location, commuter stu-
dents, all work against the full flowering of a
collegiate subculture, as do student aspirations

for graduate or professional school, or more gener-
ally, serious intellectual or professional interests
on the part of students and faculty.

VOCATIONAL CULTURE

The countervailing forces of student poverty
and vocationalism, on the one hand, and serious
intellectual or academic interest on the other,
are strong enough on many American campuses which
differ in many other respects, to make the colle—
giate culture relatively weak. In the urban colleges
'which recruit the ambitious, mobility oriented sons
and daughters Of working and lower middle class homes,
there is simply not enough time or money to support
the eXpensive frivolities of the collegiate culture.
To these students, many of them married, most of them
‘working anywhere from 20 to 40 hours a week, college
is largely "off-the-job training," an organization
Of courses and credits leading to a diploma and a
better job than they could otherwise command. These
students have very little attachment to the college
where they buy their education somewhat as one buys
groceries. But like the collegiate culture, these
students, for whom college is an adjunct to the world
Of jobs, are also resistant to intellectual demands
on them beyond what is required to pass the courses.
TO many of these hard—driven students, ideas and
scholarship are as much a luxury (and distraction)
as are sports and fraternities. If the symbol of
the collegiate culture is the football and fraternity
weekend, the symbol Of this vocationally oriented
college culture is the student placement office.

ACADEMIC CULTURE

Present on every college campus, although dominant
on some while marginal and almost invisible on others,
is the subculture of serious students, the academic
culture. The essence Of this system of values is its
identification with the intellectual concerns Of the
serious faculty members. These are the students who
work hard, get the best grades, but also talk about
their course work outside of class and let the world

37

Of ideas and knowledge reach them in ways that neither
of the foregoing types do. Where participants in the
collegiate subculture pursue fun, and the job-oriented
pursue skills and a diploma, these students pursue
knowledge; their symbols are the library and laboratory
and seminar. If the faculty members who embody these
values also represent the college as a whole, then this
academic subculture is both identified with the college
and involved with learning. For these students, their
attachment to the college, which may be as strong as
among the collegiate crowd, is to the institution which
supports intellectual values and Opportunities for
learning; the emotional tie is through the faculty

to the college, and through the friends of similar
mind and temper made in college. This is the climate
encouraged at the academically strongest colleges, and
when colleges aim to upgrade themselves, it is the stu-
dents already oriented in this direction whom they seek
to recruit. The products Of this culture are typically
aiming at graduate and professional schools; it is not
surprising that they identify so strongly with the
faculty, and internalize the scholarly and scientific
habits of mind and work as part of their anticipatory
socialization to their future professional roles. These
students are Often oriented toward vocations, but not
so directly or narrowly as are the lower and lower-
middle class commuters who hold the "consumer—vocational"
values described above; they choose "a basic general
education and appreciation Of ideas" more often than
"provide vocational training" as the goal Of education
most important to them. (Goldsen, §E_dl., 1960) In any
case, it is not necessary to decide whether they are
concerned with their studies more because of their
career ambitions or for the sake Of learning. The
distinctive qualities of this group are (a) they are
seriously involved in their course work beyond the
minimum required for passing and graduation, and (b)
they identify themselves with their college and its
faculty.

NONC ONF ORMI ST CULTURE

It is in this latter respect, identification
with the college, that "nonconformist," "intellectual,"
"radical," "alienated" students differ from their
serious academic classmates. Some kind Of self-
consciously nonconformist student subculture exists
in many of the best small liberal arts colleges, and
among the undergraduates in the leading universities.

38

These students are Often deeply involved with ideas,
both the ideas they encounter in their classrooms, and
those that are current in the wider society of adult
art, literature, and politics. To a much greater degree
than their academically oriented classmates, these stu-
dents use Off-campus groups and currents of thought as
points of reference and criticism. The distinctive
quality of this student style is a rather aggressive
nonconformism, a critical detachment from the college
they attend and its faculty (though this often conceals
a strong ambivalence), and a generalized hostility to
the college administration. The forms this type takes
vary from campus to campus, but where it exists it has

a visibility and influence far beyond its usually tiny
and fluid "membership." Its chief significance is that
it Offers a genuine alternative (if only a temporary
one) to the rebellious student seeking a distinctive
identity in keeping with his own temperament and expe—
rience; in a sense it provides some intellectual content
and meaning to the idealism and rebelliousness generated
in adolescence in some parts of American society. Where
the preceding three types of students pursue fun, a
diploma, and knowledge respectively, these students
pursue an identity, not as a byproduct but as the pri-
mary and often self—conscious aim of their education.
And their symbol is a distinctive style—-of dress,
speech, attitude-—that itself represents the identity
they seek (67:107-110).

Trow suggested that some students manifested behavior
in more than one culture. He contended that in most colleges
and universities one or more of these generalized ideal cul-
tures could be identified and indicated that in some schools
one or more of the subcultures would be absent.

The Gottlieb-Hodgkins study (25). The Gottlieb-

 

Hodgkins study utilized the idea of subcultures advanced by
Trow (67). The study was conducted at a large midwestern

state university where the possibility for the existence of
the four subcultures was enhanced. The summary and discus-

Sion of the study was as follows:

39

Our concern in this paper centers on the influ-
ence of the college community upon student attitudes
and values. Working from the thesis that previous
studies had tended to ignore the social diversity Of
the student population being studied, an alternative
explanation was advanced utilizing the idea of stu—
dent subcultures. Positing the college community as
a unique sociocultural system existing with the larger
American society with a distinctive value orientation,
the development Of student subcultures was explained
as resulting from the interaction of this value orien-
tation with those held by the student upon entrance to
college. The social-psychological dynamics of the
process were eXplained in terms Of the individual's
need for cognitive consistency. To the extent that
this consistency was achieved through the process of
alienation from a particular part Of the college
communities' value orientation, three subcultures
evolved. A fourth subculture was identified that
held a value orientation closely similar to that Of
the college community.

To test the empirical validity Of our theoretical
construct and its usefulness in studying attitude
change, a large sample Of college students was given
paper-and-pencil items designed to gain a measure of
their social origins, their attitudes, and their
academic performance, as well as an indication Of
their subcultural classification. Within the context
Of the theoretical framework developed, knowledge of
previous research and logical reasoning led the authors
to several expectations regarding the social composi—
tion, attitudes, attitude changes, and academic per-
formance of the students in the subcultures identified.
Generally, the stated eXpectations were met in the
analysis of the data (25:285—286).

Riesman and Jencks_152). As part of a contribution

 

of collected papers in the book titled The American College
(52), David Riesman and Cristopher Jencks described various
images of institutions Of higher education. These images
could be considered to be equivalent to the concept of stu-
dent subcultures. The images described were the intellec—
tual, romantic, vocational, and the imageless colleges. The

intellectual image would correspond most closely with the

4O

academic subculture as defined by Trow (67) . The romantic

image finds its counterpart in the collegiate subculture,

and the vocational image corresponds to the vocational sub—

culture .
The method suggested by Reisman and Jencks to study

institutions was anthropological. Thus, first—hand eXperi-

ence within the college community being studied was consid-

ered to be invaluable. Their approach seemed to be premised

on the belief that it was necessary to study the students at

" first hand" before any explanation of the culture of the

institution be made.

The Bushnell study (11). The anthropological

approach in studying a college community was employed by

Bushnell. The depth study Of the college community was part

of the Vassar studies (11) . He concluded that there was a

coImmunity culture at Vassar and that there were subgroups

( Subcultures) within the community culture. These were the

ecluivalent to the types discussed by Trow. The subgroups

were (1) "super intellectual"-—-academic subcultures, (2)
ugood—time Charlies"-—-collegiate subculture, (3) "bohemians"

T‘nonconformists, and (4) the "normal group"——academic sub-

culture (11 :506-507) .

The Hughes, Becker, and Greer study (28:515-530).

This study is important in that a single vocational oriented

group was studied. The conclusions pointed out that the

41

subculture developed by students provided group solidarity
during the process Of occupational training.

The Pace study (46). Pace in a comprehensive
research studied a number Of colleges and universities using
the idea Of environmental press as a facet Of behavior forma-u
tion. The four emphases of environmental press were (1) the
intellectual, humanistic, esthetic and abbreviated IHE, (2)
the friendly, group welfare-—W, (3) the scientific indepen—o
dent-—SI, and (4) the practical, status——PS.

One Of the Observations made by the author read,
"Engineering, Education, Business, Nursing, and others
(which include one group each in Pharmacy, Journalism, Home
EC Onomics, Industrial Arts, and Health and Physical Educa-
tion) may be considered as vocational groups" (46:207) .
Thus, under two headings were teachers, especially potential
industrial arts teachers, categorized as being members of
the occupationally-oriented subculture.

The Earle study (20). This study conducted in
England revealed the technical and the arts and crafts stu-
ciehts in teacher education tended to participate in activ—
ities allied to their vocational choices. Earle noted such
students in training preferred to engage in activities Of
t1‘leir specialty rather than expand their interests in other
areas. He surmised that such students were (1) more self
Sufficient, (2) more solitary, and (3) less stable and

d . . . . .
01"I‘lllcnant 1n soc1a1 relationships.

42

Other studies reviewed. A number Of studies con-
cerning student attitudes and values were reviewed to gain
insights to the problem at hand. The work Of Angell (l) in
the 1920's revealed the problem Of understanding student
behavior is not a new concern. In fact, Angell's descrip—
tion Of the types Of college students were the (1) colle—
giate, (2) independent "barb," (3) the vocational-oriented,
and (4) the academic student. These are similar to types
described earlier.

Another study of interest was the report by D. L.
Thistlethwaite (66) concerning college life upon students'
aspirations. He concluded (1) that informal groups and roles
play a very important part in attitude formation of students
and (2) that seniors and juniors tended to participate in
different subcultures on a peer level than freshmen and
SOphomores.

A study by Bidwell et a1. (6) using Spindler's (58)
Semiprojective instrument disclosed some interesting results.
The emergent students were typified as generalists, as par-
ti(lipators in activities Of an expressive nature, and incon-
Sistent in terms of sequence of career performance. On the
c)ther hand, the traditional students were described as
Oriented towards specialization in academic studies, members
of extracurricular activities which included athletics,
pc51Litics, and student-service activities, and quite consis—

teht in patterns of career performance. This study was

”bolus-mph.”
. .. tn,
. - H. MIDI- ?

43

important to this investigator in that the thesis was sim-
i.ljar to that proposed for this investigation.

Many other studies were reviewed and the major find—
ings seemed to indicate the following:

1. Freshmen versus seniors: In most of the studies
reviewed seniors tended to be less dogmatic and more
liberal than freshmen (43)(2)(37).

2. Religion as a factor: In most of the studies the
members Of less fundamentalist religious sects were
more liberal (37).

3. Socio-economic class: Studies indicated that stu-
dents from the middle class and from classes at the
lower economic levels tended to be more conservative
than upper class students (43).

4. Vocationalism: Students from lower socio-economic
classes tended to stress vocational goals more Often

than students from upper classes (43).

Summagy of the Chapter

 

In review, the chapter was divided into four parts.
tPIIEB first part consisted of a review Of selected literature
<20ncerning ideology Of groups based on occupations. Many of
t1153 articles reviewed seemed to indicate that individuals
ijrlil tend to assimilate attitudes peculiar to the occupation

't , . .
I1533? are engaged 1n. A number of the artlcles studies were

44

directly related to the profession of teaching and the
belief patterns of teachers.

The second and third parts of the chapter were
devoted to the literature concerning the measurement of
educational vieWpOints. The study by Swanson (62) was found
to be most appropriate for purposes of this study. Other
attempts at measuring educational Vi€WpOintS were reviewed
and Spindler's (58) formulation was found to be practical
and relevant for this investigation.

Literature related to the effects of membership in
Various college groupings were reviewed in the last section.
The articles reviewed in most instances projected the idea
tIlat grouping of students into various categories was feasi—
ble for research purposes. The formulation for research in

the next chapter resulted from the literature reviewed.

lo

11.

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Mead, George H. Mind, Self, and Society. Edited, with
introduction, by C. W. Morris. Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press, 1934. 400 pp.

Newcomb, Theodore M., and Richard Flacks. "Deviant
Subcultures on a College Campus," Cooperative Re-
search Project Number 1926, University of Michigan.
105 pp.

. Personality and Social Change. New York:
Dryden Press, 1943. 225 pp.

. "Some Patterned Consequences of Membership
in a College Community," Readipgs in Social Psy-
chology. Editorial committee co-chairmen: T. M.
Newcomb and E. L. Hartley. New York: Henry Holt
and Company, 1947. Pp. 345-357.

. "The Influence of Attitude Climates Upon
Some Determinants of Information," Journal of Abnor-
mal and Social Psychology, XLI (1946), 291—302.

5Y7.

49

Pace, C. Robert. The Influence of Academic and Student
Subcultures in College and University Environments.
C00perative Research Project NUmber 1083, Univer-
sity of California, Los Angeles.

 

Pricert, Sheridan S. "Ethical and Philosophical Atti-

tude Patterns of Student Majors in Four Disciplines,"

California Journal of Educational Research, XV,
No. 2 (1964), 112-121.

Prince, Richard. "Student Value Judgments Do Differ in
Public, Religious, and Private Schools,“ Phi Delta
Kappan, XL (May, 1959), 305-307.

 

. "Values, Grades, Achievement, and Career

 

Choices of High-School Students,” Elementary School
Journal, LX (April, 1960), 367.

 

Research Studies in Education. Edited by Stanley Elam.

 

PrOposed title for Ph.D. dissertation by Harold S.

Kachel, ”An Identification of PhiloSOphical Beliefs
of Professional Leaders and Industrial Arts Teach~

ers." (Colorado State) Bloomington, Indiana: Phi

Delta Kappa, Inc., 1964. 203 pp.

Reisman, David. "The Jacob Report," American Sociolog-
ical Review, XXIII (1958), 732-738.

 

 

, and C. Jenks. "The Viability of the American

 

College,” The American College. Edited by N. San-
ford. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1962.
Pp. 74-192.

 

Rose, Peter I. "The Myth of Unanimity: Student Opin-
ions of Critical Issues," Sociology of Education,
LXIII, No. 37, 2 (Winter), 129-149.

 

Ross, E. A.- Social Psychology. New York: The
Macmillan Company, 1925. 371 pp.

 

Ryans, David G. Characteristics of Teachers. Washing-
ton, D.C.: American Council of Education, 1960.
416 pp.

 

Sims, V. M. "The Social-Class Affiliations of a Group
of Public School Teachers," The School Review,
LIX (1951), 331-338.

 

Sorokin, Pitrim A. SocieEY. Culture, and Personality:
Their Structure and Dynamics. New York: Cooper
Square Publishers, 1962. 742 pp.

 

 

50

Spindler, George D. ”Education in a Transforming
American Culture," The Harvard Educational Review,
XXV’(1955), 145-156.

 

Stadt, Ronald W. “A Method of Selecting Content for
Lending Intelligibility to Industry: A Critique
and Proposal." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Illinois, 1962.

Status of Research in Industrial Arts. Fifteenth Year-
book. Edited by J. D. Rowlett. American Council
of Industrial Arts Teacher Education, 1966. 176 pp.

Svendsen, Ethan A. T. l'The Matrix of a Philosophy for
Industrial Arts Education." Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1961.

Swanson, Robert S. "The Operational Definition and
Measurement of Educational Philosophy." Unpub-
lished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota,
1955.

, and William J. Micheels. "The Educational
Viewpoints of Fortybfive Members of the Industrial
Arts Conference Compared with the Educational View~
points of Industrial Education Graduate Students at
Three College and Universities," a duplicated report
given at the 1955 Industrial Arts Conference (Mis~
sissippi Valley Conference).

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook I:

 

Cognitive Domain. Edited by B. S. Bloom. New York:
David McKay Company, Inc., 1956 (reprinted April,
1965). 207 pp.

 

Terrien, F. W. ”The Occupational Roles of Teachers,"
Journal of Educational Sociology, XXIX (1955),
14—20.

Thistlethwaite, Donald L. Effects of College Upon
Student Aspirations. COOperative Research Project
Number D-098, Vanderbilt University. 189 pp.

 

Trow, Martin. "The Campus Viewed as a Culture,”
Research on College Students. Edited by H. T.
Sprague. Co-sponsored by The Western Interstate
Commission for Higher Education, Boulder, Colorado,
and The Center for Higher Education, Berkeley,
California, December, 1960, pp. 105-123.

51

68. Professionalization. Edited by H. M. Vollmer and D. L.

Mills. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1966. 365 pp.

69. Wild, John. "Education and Human Society: A Realistic
View," Modern Philosophies and Education. Edited
by N. B. Henry. Yearbook of the National Society
for the Study of Education, Part I. Chicago,

Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1955.
374 pp.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

Introduction

 

It is the intent of this chapter to present the
theoretical construct and hypotheses of the study. Much of
what is to follow is the synthesis of the material reviewed
in the previous chapter. The hypotheses generated for this
investigation will appear in two places. The first set of
hypotheses will follow the discussion of the categorization
of college students into the various student subcultures
within the institution of higher education; the second set
of hypotheses will be presented after the definitions of
three educational vieWpoints in terms of patterns are dis-
cussed.

The study was posited on the concepts that the
campus is a community and that students comprise the member—
Ship in one or more subcultures within that social system.
In the pages ahead an attempt will be made (1) to develop a

research rationale from the ideas of (a) the campus as a
community, (b) students as members of one or more subcul-
'tures within that system, and (c) teacher education students

as Inembers of the vocational subculture; and (2) to clarify

52

53

and justify the use of instruments based in educational
vieWpoints as a legitimate means to study a facet of student
behavior, specifically the vieWpoints of students majoring
in industrial arts education. Educational vieWpoints will

be viewed as part of the ideology of the teaching occupation.

Campus as a Community

 

The idea that the campus as a community has been
suggested by Newcomb (14), Pace (15), and Trow (19). As
with other communities in an industrial society, the college
community includes peOple who can be categorized into roles.
In all college communities there are students and faculty;
there is a smaller proportion of administrators, service per-
sonnel, and other "friends of the university." The propor-
tion of administrators and service personnel in the college
community depends upon the purposes and size of the academic
community. In addition to the above mentioned groups,
alumni, patrons, industries with vested interests, legisla—
tors, church groups, governmental agencies, foundations, and
philanthrOpic individuals and organizations affect in vary-
ing degrees the Operation and stance taken by the college
community.

In most cases, the role of the faculty is different
from that of the student. Students are "objects" of the
scxzialization process and the faculty the "manipulators."

Ekmnever, as Newcomb (l4) pointed out, a simplistic cause-

54

effect explanation cannot be given to the dynamics of stu-
dent behavior in the college community. All students would
develop into the image set forth by the faculty if it were
all that simple. Yet, the facts indicate that students are
different. The college community may be better understood
as being a somewhat fluid social body comprised of faculty,
students, and administrators with purposes sometimes at odds
with the major goals of the institution.

The college community differs in respect to other
types of communities in that the two most widely accepted
goals are (l) to perpetuate knowledge and (2) to educate
and/or train students. Obviously, the college community
engages in activities which in some respects are similar to
other types of communities. There are some similarities
between college communities as well as differences in char-
acteristics. A similar and dominant characteristic found in
college communities is the existence of the group of individ~

uals described as students.

Student Subcultures

 

In the preceding paragraphs, a subgroup within the
college community was identified as the student population.
Other subgroups having varying degrees of impact on the
community were isolated and categorized as faculty, adminis-
tration, alumni, service personnel, and patrons of the uni-

versity. This discussion will be directed to student

55

subcultures within the college environment. As with the

idea of the existence of student subcultures as part of the
college community, subcultures exist for the forementioned
groups. Such a View would enable research to be broadened

in numerous directions and perhaps be more definitive. Also,
a theoretical base from which to pursue research that would
lend itself to comparisons and explanations of the collegiate
culture would be thus established.

Student subcultures have been described by Trow (19),
Reisman-Jencks (16), Pace (15), and Gottlieb-Hodgkins (8).
From the review of literature, at least four student subcu1~
tures were identified. Using the classification devised by
Trow (19), these were the academic, the collegiate, the voca-
tional, and the non-conformist subcultures. A detailed
description may be read on pages 35 to 40 in the review of
literature. The academic subculture was defined to be that
which was representative of pppp the faculty and serious—
minded students. Stated differently, the models for behav-
ior for members of the academic student subculture were the
images portrayed by the faculty. Students in this subcul—
ture were described as holding values and attitudes which
were in many ways congruent with the faculty. The emergence
of student subcultures was explained in terms of "individual
need for self—consistency" by Gottlieb and Hodgkins (8).

The formation of other subcultures was eXplained thus:

56

By decreasing the importance of the dissonant
goals ascribed by the college, and by seeking support
from his family and college peers with similar values
as reinforcements of an existing value orientation,
he alienates himself effectively from that aspect of
the college orientation inconsistent with his own
(8:271).

This view incorporated the dissonance theory devel-

 

Oped by Festinger (3:73-80) to eXplain emergence of subcul-
tures. It is the above explanation that underlies this
particular research endeavor. It was theorized that the
members of the vocational, collegiate, and nonconformist
subcultures possessed values incongruent or dissonant with
the major proportion of the faculty. However, faculties in
specific colleges such as education, engineering, and medi-
cal schools were theorized to be oriented towards the voca-
tional subculture by virtue of the expressed purpose of

developing personnel for specific occupations.

Teaching_as Vocational Subculture

 

The findings of Pace (15) and Earle (4) tend to sub—
stantiate the theory that teacher education students lean
towards the vocational subculture. The emphases in teacher
education programs on (1) the methodology of teaching, (2)
the control of the teaching-learning process, and (3) the
organizing of the classroom environment to facilitate learn-
ing would tend to promote the development of vocationalism

at the eXpense of the academic style of life.

57

The dominance of the vocational subculture in
teacher education is perhaps indicative of the values and
attitudes that both faculty and students bring to the situa—
tion. The education faculty, who supposedly serve as models
of behavior for students, are theorized to be primarily the
products of teacher training programs where the emphasis has

been on how to teach rather than research. It is also

 

theorized that faculty in colleges of education have been
recruited from institutions stressing teacher training
rather than scholarly research. The faculties of similar
teacher normal schools and colleges fit this pattern of
recruitment more so than large universities. For this rea—
son, it should follow that faculties in colleges of educa-
tion ought to be less academic and more vocational—oriented
than the faculties of liberal arts colleges. If the social—
ization process is, in fact, true, a very large percentage
of the faculties in the various colleges of education should
manifest behavior appropriate to the vocational subculture.
Second, the major purpose of colleges of education
in most institutions of higher education is that of training
teachers. This emphasis may work against the development of
the academic subculture and perpetuate the vocational subcul-
ture. Obviously, in the larger universities, especially the
state universities, the emphasis would be less vocational-

CIriented, but in the small schools emerging from the normal

58

school status the dominant subculture is oftentimes that of
teacher preparation.

Third, students entering teacher education programs
bring to the situation attitudes and values which lend them-
selves to the crystallization of the teacher—vocational
subculture. Spindler (l8) theorized that teachers—to—be
have been nurtured in environments which are more tradition-
oriented than the emergent-oriented value systems repre—
sented by colleges of education. Thus, he claimed, con-
flicts arise as to assimilating an ideology concerning educa-
tional practices and philosophy. It was contended that the
tradition-oriented values characterized by the puritan ethic
of success by hard work fosters the development of a student
vocational subculture of teaching.

The economic situations in which many education stu-
dents find themselves are not favorable for the development
of the affluent collegiate subculture; and the middle class
values held by such students tend to preclude the formation
of the nonconformist subculture. This does not imply that
ill students enrolled in colleges of education are dedicated
to the vocational culture. Some students rebel, explained
by Gottlieb (8) in terms of dissonance, and transfer out of
teacher preparation; others are selected out by the intri-
cate process of occupational socialization; others adjust

minimumly and gain positions at the periphery of acceptable

59

behavior; but the bulk of graduating seniors find the voca—
tional culture suitable in terms of self-esteem.

It is theorized that more often than not the teach-
ing—vocational subculture is a less likely threat to the
values and attitudes that students bring with them. The
values and attitudes of members of the various teacher prep-
aration colleges, both faculty and students, complement each
other and tend to provide and extend group solidarity in
terms of occupations related to education.

Industrial Arts Education as
Teaching-Vocational Subculture

The discussion to follow was posited on the specula—
tion that teacher education students were attracted in large
proportions to the teaching-vocational subculture. It was
reasoned that students in industrial arts teacher prepara—
tion programs gravitated toward the same culture if the pre-
ceding assumption was "true." It was theorized that indus-
trial arts teacher education programs tended to be more con-
ducive to the development of a teacher-vocational subculture
than other programs in teacher education.

Some of the reasons for this position, although no
empirical evidence is as yet available, are as follows:
iFirst, the content of industrial arts as opposed to the pro-
fessional education and general education courses may be

(flmaracterized as occupationally derived. In many instances

thee "technical content" is similar to the body of knowledge

6O

accumulated by the various skilled trades; and such bodies
of knowledge are generally not associated with bodies of
knowledge developed in academic settings. Thus, oftentimes
theory has been given less emphasis than operations and
processes of the trades and occupations in classroom pre-
sentations.

Second, historically, industrial arts education con-
cerned itself with the psychomotor rather than the cognitive
aspects of learning. This emphasis in "doing" at the ex-
pense of "thinking" processes is interpreted as contributing
to the reinforcement of the vocational subculture. It is in
this area that efforts are presently being made to derive a
body of knowledge for the industrial arts as in the projects
by the Stout and Ohio State University (5)(ll).

Third, the faculty of industrial arts education pro-
grams have been inclined to be pragmatic--practica1, experi-
mental, and mechanical-oriented. Nelson (13) observed that
outstanding industrial arts teachers, the source of teacher
educators, were inclined to have interests closely related
to teaching and technical work. Interest in pedagogy and
technical work is not antithetical to the vocational subcul—
ture. On the contrary, it was surmised that industrial arts
faculty members project images which are more directed
towards the teaching-vocational subcultures than to the

other student subcultures.

61

A perusal of Who's Who in Industrial Arts Teacher

Education, 1953 (21» revealed a large number of members who

 

had previous eXperience as skilled tradesmen or who had
worked in industry for periods of time. Many of the leaders

identified in Who's Who in Industrial Arts Teacher Education,

 

1953, sustained interest in technical areas by maintaining
membership in various occupational associations and pursued
hobbies related to the content of industrial arts.

Fourth, the student enrolled in industrial arts may
be characterized as coming from the lower-middle and lower
working classes. In all probability, a large proportion of
industrial arts students are science—mechanical-oriented
rather than verbal-idea-oriented. This point has been sub-
stantiated in part by the research by Nelson (13). He
claimed that industrial arts students, when asked to select
areas of teaching other than their major, were inclined to
omit subjects such as English, history, and social studies,
and preferred to pick subjects related to industrial arts—~
sciences and mathematics. It would seem likely that the
socio—economic origins of potential industrial arts teachers
impeded the cultivation of the "style of life" of the other
student subcultures because of finances, values, and the
press of the curriculum.

Finally, unlike other students majoring in secondary
education with emphasis in areas such as English, physical

sciences, languages, and history, the typical industrial

62

arts student devoted a large amount of time in a department
isolated from the rest of the college community. Isolation
in this form would tend to contribute to group identifica—
tion on the basis of occupation, the teaching of industrial
arts. Another related factor is the low status accorded to
industrial arts in the college community which would further
direct students to maintain self-esteem and group-solidarity
by directing interpersonal relationships within the depart-
ment of industrial education.

It is the investigator's contention that the preced-
ing factors plus the professional education courses tend to
solidify a teaching-vocational subculture for industrial
arts students.

Educational Viewpoints as
Occupational Ideology

In the previous paragraphs, argument was presented
concerning industrial arts students as part of a teaching
vocational subculture. On the basis of the review, it was
also ascertained that a characteristic of an occupation was
the formation and assimilation of an occupational ideology
by aspirants to and members of a particular profession.

It is the view of this investigator that educational
vieWpoints form in part the ideology associated with the
occupation of teaching, particularly in industrial arts

teaching. From educational philOSOphy or philosophies the

63

teacher, it is hoped, finds justification and direction for
his practices. Such concepts and theories as "child-cen—
teredness," "subject—oriented,‘I and ”sequential learning"
have been traced to philosophies of education.

Unlike some occupations, the range of acceptable
occupational ideologies in education has been broad for
teaChers during the past twenty years. More often than not,
teachers tend to select aspects from various points of view
in order to develop an ”eclectic" personal position. On the
other hand, in the past fifty years there have been dominant
vieWpoints concerning education in America. For example,
the tide of "instrumentalism" swept the country during the
1930's and 1940's, and the industrial arts literature of
that period reflected this emphasis.

It is contended that industrial arts teachers have
been inclined to justify practices in terms of educational
philOSOphy, especially in terms of the point of View in
vogue with educational leaders. It should be understood
that the articulation of a point of View does not mean that
"practices" are consistent with what is "preached"; nor does
the articulation of a point of view for justification pur-
poses of industrial arts programs mean that all members of
the profession believe in, much less understand, the points
of view advocated.

The theme of professionalism in thought and action

in colleges of education are indicative of the presence of

64

an ideology. "Professional attire," the specification of
dress becoming of a teacher, is but a symptom of values and
attitudes of the teaching profession. A striking example of
educational viewpoints as occupational ideology is the pro-
liferation of career in teaching and social foundations
courses, and the existence of various student clubs in educa—
tion, all of which attempt to cultivate values and attitudes
of "good teachers."

The growth in numbers of personnel within the col-
leges of education who are allocated time for the purpose of
developing and clarifying definitions within the discipline
of educational philosophy further strengthens the contention
that educational viewpoints to be a part of the occupational
ideology of teaching. If one of the criteria of occupational
professionalism is the development of an ideology based in a
sophisticated body of knowledge, this trend in education can

be best viewed in the efforts of educational philosophers.

The Measurement of Educational Viewpoints

 

The selection of a means for measuring vieWpoints of
students enrolled in industrial arts teacher training was
identified as the problem after theorizing educational view—
points to be the ideology of teaching. The instrument based
in philosophy of education and developed by Swanson (19) was
selected for this study. The reasons for this choice are

discussed below.

65

First, Swanson's instrument was derived from a
definition of educational philosophies. Thus, the instru-
ment was interpreted to be a measure of actions and outcomes
representative of educational points of View. Second, the
instrument developed by Swanson was designed for personnel
in industrial education, which meant that items on the
inventory would not have to be restructured. Third, the
instrument was easy to administer and score; this feature
was interpreted to mean that wider usage could be made by
interested individuals.

Fourth, the schema of the instrument included the
extremities of educational vieWpoints found in American
education. The work by Kneller (11) supports this position
by his description of the idealized poles of thought in
American education in terms of essentialism and progressiv-
ism. Fifth, the framework from which the instrumentation
described by Swanson closely resembles the formulation by
Spindler (18). Superimposing the essentialist-progressivist
continuum on the traditionalist-emergentist formulation
enables the researcher to state predictions concerning
viewpoints of various segments of society. In this partic-
ular case using the essentialist (traditionalist)—progressiv—
ist (emergentist) continuum would facilitate the generating
of directional hypotheses once the sample has been identi-

fied.

66

The measurement of vieWpoints of education in terms
of a continuum of essentialism—progressivism was thus
selected to study the occupational ideology of teaching.

Categorization of Student Groupg
Into Student Subcultures

 

 

The classification of college groups into the vari~
ous student subcultures was made to further refine the
investigation. At this stage of the investigation the sam-
ple, in this particular case the students in the industrial
arts program at Oswego, was identified. Various clubs and
organizations found on the campus were categorized into the
subcultures defined by Trow (21). This procedure was
employed for the following reasons.

It was theorized that the hypotheses concerning
membership-nonmembership within the vocational subculture
would show differences from the application of the instru-
ments as the operational definition was vocational-oriented.
It was recognized that the instruments might or might not
differentiate membership-nonmembership in groups of the
other subcultures. There exists one View that attitudes
and values are general patterns of behavior which ought to
result in differentiation regardless of the type of subcul—
ture under study. On the other hand, as the instruments
were vocational-oriented and developed from an Operational

definition of educational philosophy, it could be argued

67

that the instruments would not be sensitive in differentiat-
ing differences of membership—nonmembership of groups in the
other subcultures. The basis for this view is that in a
complex industrial society individuals play many roles and
keep such attitudes and values for the various roles sepa-
rated.

The classification of college groups was judged
arbitrarily as to the various subcultures. Groups were
classified into the collegiate, academic, nonconformist, and
vocational subcultures. In this investigation, most of the
college clubs were categorized into the collegiate subcul_
ture with a few organizations classified into the academic
subculture. The absence of nonconformist groups was theo—
rized to be related to the type of college under study.
Oswego College was essentially a teacher-training institu-
tion catering to students from social classes considered to
be more tradition-oriented. Furthermore, the conservative
nature of the college environment tended to select out stu-
dents deviating from the norms of behavior becoming of
future teachers.

The clubs, organizations, and factors believed to
fall within the vocational subculture were: (1) the senior-
freshmen factor, (2) the generalist-specialist factor with
emphasis of program within the field of study of industrial
arts, (3) membership-nonmembership in professional indus—

trial arts teaching organizations, and (4) membership-

68

nonmembership in honorary industrial arts organizations.
The generalist-specialist factor as used in this study

referred to generalists: those individuals majoring in

 

industrial arts who did not concentrate in a particular area
of study. For example, a generalist would tend to follow a
curriculum in which emphasis was placed on the study area
such as ceramics, transportation, metals, electricity, woods,
and drawing, with not much study in depth in any one of the
above.

The generalist-specialist factor as used in this

study referred to specialists: those individuals who indi-

 

cated preference in studying one or two areas in depth. For
example, the specialist would tend to follow a pattern in
curriculum which would allow him to take many courses in a
selected area such as woods and omitting other areas of
study. The specialist expects to teach in his specialty
area, in this case woods, after graduation and does not
intend to teach in a situation in which the approach to
industrial arts courses finds the teacher organizing a class
from a number of areas such as woods, metals, electricity,
ceramics, and drawing.

For purposes of this study the four subcultures were
collapsed into two categories. These were the vocational
subculture and the nonvocational subculture. Clubs and
organizations classified in the academic, nonconformist, and

collegiate subcultures were considered to be nonvocational.

69

The subcultures were collapsed into two categories because
the study intended to test the hypothesis concerning educa—

tional viewpoints as vocational ideology. Secondly, if

 

educational vieWpoints differentiated between members-non-
members of nonvocational and vocational clubs and organiza-
tions, it would mean that vieWpoints of education are of
generalized nature. Third, if educational vieWpoints did
not differentiate between the factors of membership-nonmem-
bership in vocational-oriented groups but differentiated
membership-nonmembership of nonvocational groups, it would
provide evidence that such viewpoints were not a part of the

ideology of teaching.

Hypotheses of the Study

Vocational Subculture. Hypotheses generated of

 

factors related to the vocational subculture of teaching are
as follows:

Hypothesis 1:

 

Senior students who have finished practice
teaching will tend to be more "progressive—
oriented” than Others when the sample includes
only industrial arts majors.

Rationale: The senior-Other classification
should produce differences in educational
vieWpoints as the seniors are nearing the
end of the initiation period before being
accepted into the occupation. The direction
of differences was based upon the continuum
described by Spindler (18) and the results
gained by Swanson (19).

7O

Hypothesis 2:

Students intending to become general indus—
trial arts teachers tend to respond towards
the progressive end of the continuum in
larger proportions than students who per-
ceive themselves as specialists or single
content area teachers.

Rationale: This hypothesis was based on the
common belief that specialists, especially

in subject matter areas, are less "progressive”
than the generalists. The generalists in
industrial arts have been associated with

ideas such as creativity, problem—solving,
“353., whereas the Specialists have been con-
sidered as subject-oriented teachers.

Hypothesis 3:

 

Members of industrial arts clubs which are
organized to foster interest and ideals of
the occupation will tend to be more progres-
sive in outlook than nonmembers.

Rationale: This hypothesis was developed

on the assumption that students in the
process of training who actively partici-
pate in activities sanctioned by the occupa—
tion will tend to manifest behavior of that
group. Thus, it was speculated that such
individuals would be more alike in viewpoints
with practicing teachers than students who
did not hold membership in professional clubs.

Hypothesis 4:

Members of honorary clubs in the field of
education and industrial arts will tend to
be more progressive in educational vieWpoints
than nonmembers.

Rationale: The members of honorary clubs
are usually chosen on the basis of a high
degree of accomplishment in the field of
education. These students represent the
elite of those seeking entrance into the
occupation of teaching. It was theorized
that such students would manifest behavior
which would be closer to the models of con—
duct valued by those in the profession.

71

Other subcultures. The hypotheses concerning fac-

 

tors relating to other subcultures were develOped for the

 

following reason: The decision was made to include hypoth—

eses based in factors related to the other subcultures to

 

ascertain whether the instruments would differentiate stu—
dents on the basis of membership-nonmembership. It was
theorized that the instruments would be measuring the
general attitudes and values in terms of an Operational
definition if the instruments differentiated students on
the basis of the description given above. On the other hand,
nondifferentiation of students would tend to reinforce the
claim that attitude and values are perhaps different for the
various roles played by individuals.

The hypotheses generated were:

Hypothesis 5:

 

Noncommuters will tend to be more progressive
than commuters in response to the Swanson's
Inventory of viewpoints.

Rationale: It was theorized that commuting
students tend to belong to social classes that
view college education as vocational training.
More important, such students have less oppor-
tunity to share ideas with their peers in the
college environment and perhaps change their
attitudes.

Hypothesis 6:

 

Veterans will tend to be more progressive than
nonveterans in educational outlook.

Rationale: A number of studies have shown
veteran students to be more Open-minded than
nonveteran students. A number of reasons have

72

been advanced to account for the differences;
however, as yet a definitive explanation has
not been accepted as universal.

Hypothesis 7:

Nontransfer students will tend to be more pro-
gressive in viewpoints than transfer students
enrolled in industrial arts.

Rationale: Nontransfer students would tend
to be more progressive because of their longer
tenure on the campus. It was felt that such
students would have had greater opportunity

in terms of the time factor to assimilate the
behavior of the culture.

Hypothesis 8:

Nonmembers of clubs and activities will tend
to be more progressive in educational view—
points than members of such organizations.

Rationale: This hypothesis was formulated
on the assumption that students who joined
clubs are those who (1) have a lot of free
time or (2) find it necessary to maintain
self-esteem by being involved in activities.
The latter reason seems more plausible in
this situation. It should be pointed out
that the gravitation to activities may be

in part a symptom of the inability of the
industrial arts curriculum to provide suffi-
cient visibility for all students.

Hypothesis 9:

 

Students with membership in special interest
organizations will tend to be less progres—
sive in viewpoint than nonmembers.

Rationale: it was theorized that the dis-
sonance factor (9) was Operative to a greater
degree among students who were members of
special interest clubs than nonmembers. It
was Speculated that students who did not hold
membership were more involved with activities
and schoolwork of the industrial arts curric-
ulum.

73

Hypothesis 10:

Students engaged in intercollegiate athletics
will tend to be less progressive in educa-
tional vieWpoint than nonparticipants.

Rationale: It was felt that students who
engaged in college athletics had less time
to spend in activities, especially extra-
curricular, of the industrial arts area.
Second, such students would by nature of
the activity of athletics be subjected to
influences involving directive—oriented
individuals.

Hypothesis ll:

Nonmembers of musical organizations will
tend to be more progressive in educational
vieWpoint than participants.

Rationale: Members of musical clubs in
this particular study were required to work
in a group and to discipline themselves in
the endeavor. It was speculated that mem-
bership in such groups would necessitate
high degree of directive relationships to
produce the sounds, egg,

Hyppthesis 12:

Members of art~oriented clubs will tend to
be more progressive in vieWpoint than non-
members.

Rationale: This hypothesis was generated on
the basis that the faculty connected with the
art organizations tended to eXpress views
which were progressive in nature. Thus, it
was theorized that students attracted to such
programs and clubs would hold similar views.

Bypothes is 13 :

Members of religious organizations will tend
to be less progressive in vieWpoints than
nonmembers.

Rationale: The basis for this hypothesis
comes from the theory that individuals who

are more religious tend to be more traditional
in outlook. It was felt that students who

74

sought membership in religious clubs on a
college campus were more committed to reli—
gion than nonmembers.

Hypothesis 14:

Members of service clubs will tend to be
more progressive in viewpoint than nonmembers.

Rationale: It was the opinion of this inves—
tigator that members of service clubs would
be more progressive than nonmembers for the
following reason: Service clubs tend to be
people-oriented which would lead one to
believe that emergent values would be domin-
ant among the members.

Hypothesis 15:

Members of fraternities and other social clubs
will tend to be less progressive in viewpoint
than nonmembers.

Rationale: This position was taken in View

of the writings which indicated that fraternity
membership was in large measure a part of the
collegiate subculture. It was theorized that
nonmembers would eXpend more energy in their
studies, in this case the industrial arts curric-
ular offerings, and thus be less prone to deviate

in behavior in the vocational subculture of teach—
ing.

Hypothesis 16:

Members of student publications activities
will tend to be more progressive in viewpoint
than nonmembers.

Rationale: The hypothesis was generated on the
assumption that students interested in journal-
ism tend to be liberals.

Iiypothesis 17:

Members of student government will tend to be
more progressive in viewpoint than nonmembers.

Rationale: The hypothesis as stated is some-
what contrary to literature reviewed. However,

75

it was felt that students of Oswego in stu-
dent government were the leaders in scholastic
pursuits; hence, these individuals would have
also been high achievers in the education-
dominated curriculum.

Hypothesis 18:

Nonmembers (nonparticipants) in intramural
athletics will tend to be more progressive
in viewpoint than members.

Rationale: Participants in intramural athlet-
ics were considered to be less closely asso-
ciated with industrial arts activities on the
basis of the dissonance theory.

Hypothesis 19:

Members of other organizations will tend to
be less progressive than nonmembers.

Rationale: Same reason as Hypothesis 8.

Hypothesis 20:

Members of Off—campus clubs and activities
will tend to be less progressive than non—
members.

Rationale: It was speculated that students

who elected to continue participating in off-
campus activities would be less prone to change
behavior in terms of viewpoints. In fact, mem-
bership in off—campus activities implies that
the student has not cut his precollege ties.

Patterns of Educational Viewpoint

Criticism of precedingyformulation. The hypotheses
fofinnulated in the preceding pages were based on the assump—
ticnl that p11 individuals reacting to an instrument to
measure VieWpoints of education would distribute themselves

al‘lrug the essentialist-progressivist continuum. Swanson's

76

Inventory, the primary instrument for gathering data from
which analysis of the hypotheses were made, was designed to
measure the relative direction and intensity of vieWpoints
of students and teachers. As was pointed out earlier, a
"more progressive" group would be characterized by scores
which tended to be closer to the progressive extremity. The
reverse would be indicative of the "more essentialist" stum
dents, This technique was believed to be adequate to ful—
fill the requirements and purposes of testing the stated
hypotheses.

However, criticism of the approach employed was made
from the following observation. The results of past applica—
tions of the instrument revealed that a majority of the
ScC‘JZ‘es fell about the mid-range of the continuum. This
Phenomenon was disturbing in that the claim could be made
that those who scored around the mid-range were "inconsis—
tent ." Further, the instrument developed by Swanson was not
designed to ascertain whether an individual scoring midway
be"-‘-V~7een the extremes was inconsistent or consistent. Thus,
a theoretical framework and a mode of analysis were devel-
Oped for possible study of the groups on the basis of defined

re SPense patterns .

77

Three Patterns of Educational Viewpoint

For purposes of this study three viewpoints of educa—
tion considered to be consistent were identified. These
points of view were (1) progressivism, (2) essentialism, and
(3) logical empiricism. In order to minimize discussion to
the essential features of the study the three positions will
be described briefly over the Operational teacher behaviors
utilized by Swanson.

Essentialism and_progressivism. This section will
be presented in the form of a summary of the two VieWpoints,
essentialism and progressivism, as described by Swanson (18).
The descriptions of the two positions will be written over
selected teacher behaviors plus the definition of the basis
of knowledge for each viewpoint.

Definition of the basis of knowledge:

1. Essentialist: Knowledge is thought of as a
revelation of the essentials. It is not a
creation but a revelation of the absolute,
the essential. Truth is tested in terms of
its conformance to reality. Knowledge is
internally consistent (18:150).

2. Progressivist: Truth is made by the process of
verification. It is dynamic and specific, rather
than stable and general. Reality exists in com-
munication. Information is differentiated from
knowledge. Information becomes knowledge when
it is judged relevant to the solution of a prob—
lem and this judgment is verified (18:151).

Description of the behavior: The teacher formulates

Qiiflfilects objectives (18:152).

78

l. Essentialist: The objectives will be viewed as
fixed, absolute, and stable. Aims of education
will include those Objectives which are funda-
mental and enduring. Objectives will be selected
on the basis of expert opinion, and thus, student
participation in the formulation of educational
aims is of no consequence (18:152-156).

2. Progressivist: The objectives will be viewed as
constantly developing, and means and ends are to
be considered as an emerging process. Students
and teachers ought to participate in the develop-
ment of objectives. Whereas the essentialist
position stresses goals in terms of the future,
the progressivist is concerned with proximate
goals (18:152-156).

Description of the behavior: The teacher formulates

 

or selects eXperiences which will facilitate the achievemepp

 

of the opjectives of education (18:156).

 

l. Essentialist: The curriculum will reflect the
view that content and subject matter be basic
and same for all people. Content for courses
will be selected by eXperts, and children's interw
ests will have little influence in the selection
of content (18:156—160).

2. Progressivist: The experiences will be chosen
to meet the changing conditions of society. The
curriculum will be developed to accommodate the
differences intrudent interests and abilities.
The value of courses will be measured in terms
of relevance of the material as viewed by the
learner (18:156-160).

Description of behavior: The teacher arranges for

 

the pupils to have the educational experiences leading to

the accomplishment of the objectives (18:160).

 

1. Essentialist: The organization of the eXperience
will stem from the logic of the content. The
teacher will be viewed as a dispenser of facts
and the method employed will be to facilitate the
learning of fundamentals. Interest of the sub-
ject will occur concurrently or after learning
takes place (18:160—165).

pupils'

79

Progressivist: Experiences will be organized to
accommodate for individual differences. Emphasis
will be placed on the development of skills to
solve problems and to view knowledge in terms of
testable hypotheses. The teacher's role will be
that of guide rather than dispenser of facts
(18:160-165).

Description of behavior: The teacher evaluates

 

ggowth toward the objectives of education (18:165).

 

Essentialist: In the evaluation of student growth
the aim will be to measure the possession of facts.
The technique employed will attempt to quantify
growth. Standards will be fixed and specific

items will reflect the facts related to the funda—
mentals learned. Tests will indicate the level of
competence of the student against the fixed norms
(18:165-169).

Progressivist: The evaluation will tend to be
subjective and a cooperative venture between
student and teacher. Standards will be developed
for each individual. Items in tests will reflect
an instrumental view of knowledge. Essay tests
with emphasis on application will be used more
often than recall or standardized tests (l8:l65~
169).

Description of behaviors: The teacher reappraises

 

Objectives, eXperiences, and his educational philosophy in

 

the light of pupils' growth (18:169).

 

l.

Essentialist: Essentials and/or fundamentals
are to be changed if original knowledge was
incorrect. Failure on part of students to grasp
essentials would necessitate the changing of
methods but not content (18:169-172).

Progressivist: The content should reflect a
changing view of knowledge. EXperiences which
students do not comprehend should be deleted and
meaningful experiences inserted into the program.
The educational process should enable students

to better COpe with their environment (18:169-170).

80

Logical empiricism. The definition of the third

 

viewpoint was develOped after examining the results of
previous applications of Swanson's Inventory. It was
noticed that the distribution of scores centered about the
mid-range of the essentialist—progressivist continuum and
for this reason a criterion for the selection of a third
vieWpoint was one which tended to eXpress a position midway
between the two poles. The viewpoint advocated by logical

empiricists was felt to fit best the above criterion. Feigl

 

gave some indication as to this moderate and definite posi-
tion thus:

From the trial-and-error aspect of learning we derive
the philosophical lesson that learning is most effec—
tive if we avoid the extremes of both the complete
rigidity of dogmatism and the utter fluidity of skepti-
cism. Only the golden mean of the critical attitude
will, in the long run, produce the best adaptations
(6:309).

The definitions to follow will be written over the
same teacher behaviors as was done earlier with the excep-
tion of evaluation of the total educational mission. Many
of the ideas presented may be found in the writings of
Feigl (6)(7).

Definition of the basis of knowledge:

Logical empiricist: ". . . cautiously works with the
truths that are sufficiently confirmed by the testimony
of experience and calls into serious doubt only those
which are poorly confirmed. But even the best general-
izations are held valid only 'until further notice';
they are kept open for revision in principle, no matter
how firmly we may rely upon them until such revision is
forced upon us" (6:309). This view tends to be relativ-
istic in attitude toward knowledge but with a commitment

81

to a theory on the basis of the "best available evi-
dence" at the operational level. Such a view does
not succumb to the pitfalls of absolutism nor the
aimlessness of extreme relativism.

Logical empiricists differ from progressivists in
that the logical structure and empirical validation
are the bases from which knowledge is defined. The
progressivists will tend to base knowledge from a
psychological point of view (7:339). Feigl stated
the difference thus:

However, Logical Empiricism as an approach in
the theory of knowledge is primarily concerned
with cognitive meanings. It avoids the errors
of the psychologistic approach by the sharp
distinction between the pictorial connotations
of words, i.e., the imagery that accompanies
their use, the syntactical-semantical rules
that govern their use (7:331).

 

Logical empiricists differ from essentialists concern-
ing essentialists by ". . . repudiating the existence
of synthetic a priori knowledge" (7:339).

The emphasis in the study of knowledge from the point
of view of logical empiricism is centered primarily in
the cognitive meanings of language as differentiated
from the noncognitive meanings. The process and pro-
cedures employed in making truth claims are viewed as
being important as the "end" or the object of the con-
firmation process. Explanations as well as description
Of "how things behave" becomes an aim of logical analy-
sis (7:349).

This position has contributed to methods in the clarifi-
cation of ideas and concepts. Precision and objectivity
in thought are earmarks of the endeavors of logical
empiricists.

Description of behavior: The teacher formulates or
selects objectives (18:152).

Logical empiricist: The basis for action stems from
taking a position at a given time although from the
statement made above the logical empiricist does con-
sider changing objectives when the evidence or situa-
tion warrants such a decision. This means that indi-
vidual teachers will formulate and/or select objectives
which can be tested or have been tested and which have

82

been found to be relevant to the society at a given
time. The selection of objectives will be made on
what is considered the best evidence available using
the techniques and procedures found to be most appro-
priate.

Unlike the progressivists, students need not be par-
ticipating members in the formulation of aims and
objectives; the difference between the logical empir—
icist and the essentialist lies in the attitude toward
absoluteness and the enduring qualities of aims and
Objectives of education, with the former groups refut-
ing such notions. The logical empiricist, sometimes
called the scientific humanist (6:331), concerns him—
self with objectives that will further develop the
rational and scientific attitudes of students (6:335-
336).

Operationally, the empiricist probably would have
experts develop the aims and Objectives of education
with evaluation and restatement of such goals by
responsible and reputable individuals. Reliance on
tested and relevant procedures in ascertaining appro-
priateness of educational goals and objectives rein-
forces the claim for the employment of experts to
formulate educational policy and aims.

Description of behavior: The teacher formulates or

 

selects experiences which will facilitate the achievement of

 

the objectives of education (18:165).

Logical empiricism: Conceptual development is the
major objective of this point of View. The eXperiences
selected to facilitate the effecting of the educational
Objectives will stem from the study of the conceptual
structure developed by eXperts from various disciplines.
The teacher will attempt to select eXperiences which
will enable students to understand the importance of
science, the methods employed in science, and the atti-
tude embraced by the movement of the advocates of the
unity of science. Experiences will be organized around
the concepts and content defined to be relevant by
experts. Method of instruction is viewed as being
distinct from the concepts and content of the course.

A common core of general studies will underlie the
educational program. These studies will include both
the cognitive and non-cognitive study of human eXperi-
ence (6:331). Effort will be made by the teacher to

the

83

differentiate the kinds of confirmation techniques

used in establishing truths—claims for the various
categories of meanings concerning knowledge. A common
core of eXperiences will be built around the sciences
(cognitive) and the arts and humanities (non-cognitive).

Special vocational programs will be built around the_
core of general studies (6:339).

One of the features of the logical empiricist's solu—
tion concerning experiences is the theme to unify the
concepts from the various disciplines. Attempts will
be made at various stages of the educational process

to enable students to cross discipline lines to develop
an awareness of common features between the various
fields of study (6:339-340).

The curriculum innovations described by Bruner (1) in
the report of the Woods Hole Conference approaches the
point of view of the logical empiricists.

Description of behavior: The teacher arranges for

 

pupils to have the educational eXperiences leading to

 

the

accomplishment of the objectives (18:156).

 

Logical empiricism: The content of courses will be
logically derived and tested empirically before orga-
nized for the teaching situation whenever possible.

The methods employed in the teaching-learning situa—
tion will attempt to "aid and encourage students to
rediscover for themselves some of the simpler and basic
facts of modern science" (6:337). The classroom experi—
ence will include learning by participation as well as
certain amounts of disciplined action on the intellec-
tual level (6:337).

The content at a particular grade level will be orga—
nized to facilitate learning at the maturity levels of
students. Like the progressivists the logical empiri-
cist attempts to make learning an enjoyable experience.
Feigl stated the sentiment thus:

It is my impression that the teaching of science
could be made ever so much more attractive, enjoy-
able, and generally profitable by the sort of
approach that is more frequently practiced in the
arts and the humanities (6:337).

84

The experiences in the classroom situation will be
structured to enable students to differentiate methods
of verifying the various types of information. Studies
will include eXperiences in the study of evaluative pro-
cedure concerning ethical decisions.

While the content of courses will more often than not

be developed by eXperts representing various disciplines,
the teacher will have available a number of alternative
methods to effect the goals of teaching to accommodate
for differences in students, teachers, and environment.

The theory of learning girding the position is based on
the work of scientists who view learning as some form
of stimuli-response. The concept of reinforcement is
one of theories subscribed by the logical empiricist
(6:309).

The ideals of scientific-humanism will prevail in the
environment of the classroom. Technological innovations
will characterize the teaching environment, especially
those which have been logically developed and empirically
tested. Reading sources will be developed to emphasize
the unity of science.

Another area of emphasis will be in languages. Effort
will be made to enable students to eXpress ideas with
clarity and precision.

Description of behavior: The teacher evaluates
pppils'_growth toward the objectives of education (18:165).

Logical empiricism: Evaluations will be in the form
of measuring growth in terms of possession and under-
standings of scientific procedures and concepts.
Attempts will be made to evaluate cognitive behavior
using logical and tested procedures. If at all pos-
sible, evaluation will be quantitative.

Subjective judgments will be made in the event that
evidence suggests objective means of evaluation are
not yet available. Students will be evaluated to
ascertain the degree to which they have "fuller under-
standing of the techniques of observation, definition,
explanation, and interpretation" (6:337) of modern
science.

The results of evaluation may be used to counsel stu-
dents, to change the method and techniques of teaching,
to restructure the learning environment to accommodate

85

for differences in pupils, and to evaluate the
effectiveness of the teacher.

Unlike the progressivists, the logical empiricists
will attempt to measure guantitatively as many
aspects of growth in the cognitive domain as pos-
sible. He differs from the essentialist in that he
views the evaluative process of affective (emotive)
aspects of human endeavor as being subjective and

not absolute. Thus, the logical empiricist varies
the evaluative procedure and techniques depending
upon the verifiability of the experience. The results
of evaluation will tend to be reported in terms of
probabilities. The cognitive evaluations will tend
to be described with greater probability figures than
noncognitive evaluations, if noncognitive evaluations
were to be reported in the manner described above.

The operational procedure may be in the form of

objective and subjective tests for evaluative purposes.

In The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives as developed

by Bloom et a1. (20) a degree represents efforts that

would be acceptable to logical empiricists.

The definitions presented were aimed at articulating

a definite position somewhat between essentialism and pro-
gressivism. This third vieWpoint of education was theorized
to be the position held by logical empiricists. Thus, the
behaviors were described in the terms of solutions or alter-
natives an empiricist would probably choose. Detailed dis-
cussion concerning the view proposed by the logical empir—
icists was not set forth because the intent was to formulate
an Operational definition over selected teacher behaviors.
However, the work by scholars in form of the Minnesota
Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Volume I (12) is

recommended for those needing elaboration of the point of

view used as the basis of the third position.

86

Patterns of vieypoints: A summary of three posi-

 

tions in terms of specific alternatives. In the preceding

pages ,

Operational definitions were discussed in terms of

teacher behaviors for three educational positions based in

philosophy.

The summary to follow attempts to simplify the

patterns based from the definitions.

II.

III.

In terms of teacher behaviors:

Concerning knowledge:

A.

 

as being relative and emerging. The pro-
gressivist and logical empiricist would by
definition select this view.

as being absolute, eternal, and fixed. The
essentialist by definition would be party
to this vieWpoint.

Concerning educational aims and objectives:

A.

B.

 

as relative and changing. Both progressiv-
ist and logical empiricist would subscribe

to this view. However, the logical empir-
icist would contend that because decisions
have to be made to actuate an objective, the
Operational aims may be fixed at a given time.

as absolute, fixed, and enduring. The essen-
tialist by definition would select this view.

Concerning the formulation and selection of experi-
ences to achieve objectives:

 

 

A.

as determined by cooperative efforts of

teachers, students, and other interested
individuals. The progressivist would be
more prone to accept this view.

as determined by eXperts from the disciplines.
The essentialist and logical empiricist would
foster such views. The logical empiricist
would tend to have experts develop the curric—
ulum and test such material for the classroom
eXperience. (Note: The logical empiricist
may have teachers and other qualified individ-
uals OOOperatively develop the curriculum.)

87

IV. Concerning the arrangement for pupils to have educa—
tional experiences:

 

 

A1

with the view that the teacher is a dissemi—
nator Of information. Both the essentialist
and logical empiricist fit this point of view.
The logical empiricist would perceive the
teacher's role as a dispenser of selected

basic information affecting the objectives of
fundamental learning on the part of the student.

with the view that the teacher is a guide and
partner in the educational endeavor. Both the
progressive and logical empiricist fit this
category. The logical empiricist would per-
ceive the teacher's role as including some of
the suggested practices of the progressivists
especially in the development of the more
sophisticated aspects of the cognitive domain.
Example: The development of problem solving
ability.

with the View of learning as being character—
ized by exercise, discipline, and drill. The
essentialist would by definition select this
View of learning. The logical empiricist would
arrange some experiences from this stance.
Logical empiricists would believe that some
discipline and exercise are necessary to

learn the fundamentals.

with the view of learning as being one of solv-
ing problems. The progressivist and logical
empiricist would be in agreement that learning
is in part enhanced by the ability to solve
problems. The progressivist would make the
develOpment of such skills an objective. The
logical empiricist would say that after the
basics have been developed, the problem-solv-
ing abilities of students should be challenged.

V. Concerning the evaluation of pppil growth toward
the objectives:

 

 

A.

with the view that tests will be characterized
by the measurement of facts and skills objec-
tively. The essentialist and logical empiri—
cist would by definition find this View compat—
ible. The logical empiricist would propose
that quantitative tests be used wherever pos-
sible.

88

B. with the view that tests will be character—
ized by the student's perception of the prob-
lem and solutions. The progressivist and
logical empiricist would probably suggest the
use of subjective evaluative methods. The
logical empiricist would use such tests to
ascertain the ability to synthesize, create,
and reformulate solutions using subjective
methods. The logical empiricist would use
such evaluative procedures in areas such as
aesthetics and ethical problems.

From the brief summary it should be evident that
students reacting toward the patterns of the essentialists
and progressivists by definition ought to react to only one
of the alternatives for each of the behaviors presented. On
the other hand, it was speculated that the patterns of logi-
cal empiricism would be one of selecting a specific position
concerning the behaviors Of knowledge and of educational
aims and objectives, and at the same time being ambivalent,
depending on the situation for the alternatives of the other

teacher behaviors.

Unclassified patterns. Response configurations

 

which did not coincide with the defined alternatives pre-
sented in the preceding pages were categorized as "unclassi-
fied." This group included response patterns which were (1)
inconsistent, and (2) representative of possible consistent

points of view which were not defined.

89

Hypotheses Derived From Educational
VieWpoints Inventory Patterns

 

 

The hypotheses generated from the definition of

viewpoint patterns controlled the factor of class in college,

the senior-other delineation. The hypotheses were stated in

the following form:

Progressivist Patterns: Hypothesis 21.

The proportion of progressivist-oriented seniors
is significantly larger than progressivist Others.

Rationale: The reasoning which decided the formu-
lation of the hypothesis as stated was similar to
the rationale used to justify the first hypothesis,
Hypothesis 1. Seniors theoretically would be more
progressive because this is the position advocated
by the industrial arts teacher educators.

Logical Empiricist Patterns: Hypothesis 22.

The proportion of logical empiricist-oriented
seniors is significantly larger than logical
empiricist Others.

Rationale: It was theorized that senior students
would have had more opportunity to move in the
direction of progressivism and, thus, a larger
proportion of students would have developed view-
points in the logical empiricist—oriented range
of predicted patterns.

Subtests of Hypothesis 22: Two subhypotheses were formu-
lated concerning the logical empiricist patterns.

a.

Statement of subhypothesis: The proportion of
logical empiricist-oriented seniors with predict-
able patterns is significantly larger than the
proportion of Other logical empiricists with
predictable patterns.

Rationale: The investigator theorized that seniors
would tend to score in configurations which were
predicted more often than Other students. Predicted
patterns were selected because such patterns devi-
ated less from the progressive pattern and it was

9O

Speculated that logical empiricists would more
Often follow one of the predicted logical empir-
icists patterns than other possible patterns.

Statement of subhypothesis: The proportion of
Other logical empiricists with less predictable
patterns is significantly larger than the propor-
tion of senior logical empiricists with similar
patterns.

Rationale: It was theorized that students of the
Other category would select patterns which were
more remote from the defined progressive pattern.
Such "less predictable” patterns were thought less
likely to be selected by students near completion
of the teacher training program. The assumption
was made that students closer to being formally
initiated into the occupation would be more artic-
ulate and possess views which were defined as
closely related to a position.

Essentialist Patterns: Hypothesis 23.

The proportion of Other students with essentialist
patterns is significantly larger than the propor—
tion of senior students with the same views.

Rationale: The position of essentialism was felt
to be less in keeping with the image in terms of
vieWpoints of the occupation. Thus, it was spec—
ulated that students closest to acceptance into

the occupation of industrial arts teaching would
not find such a vieWpOint as occupational ideology.
In view of the research by Swanson (18) the prob-
ability of students, both seniors and Others,
selecting this vieWpoint did not seem promising

in testing this particular hypothesis.

Unclassified Patterns: Hypothesis 24.

The proportion of Other students with unclassified
viewpoints is larger than the proportion of senior
students classified the same.

Rationale: This hypothesis was stated as such on
the basis that students categorized as Others

ought to be more likely to have larger proportions
with viewpoints which would fall outside the defined
patterns. It was speculated that students at the
initial stages of training would manifest viewpoints
more likely to be inconsistent.

91

Subtests controlling other factors. Extensive sub-

 

tests were not planned for this particular aspect of this
phase of the study was to be developmental in nature. How-
ever, subtests of senior and Others were made controlling
the factor of transfer-nontransfer. The results of the sub-
tests are discussed in Chapter V. All tested subhypotheses
were evolved from the statements of hypotheses made in the

preceding paragraphs.

Summapy of the Chapter

 

In review, the text of this chapter attempted to
explain the basic premise upon which the research was con—
ducted. The discussion began by forwarding the theory that
the academic environment was a community encompassing a num—
ber of subcultures. Further, it was argued that students
enrolled in industrial arts teacher education programs are
members of the vocational student subculture. The evidence
for advancing the preceding position was not made from
scientifically derived data; instead the assumption was made
by speculating from the results of readings concerning the
characteristics of members in the occupation, the methods of
training, and the body of knowledge associated with the
occupation.

The discussion then attempted to portray the rela-
tionship of educational viewpoints as being part of the

occupational ideology of teaching. Reasons for selecting

92

Swanson's Inventory were discussed and the classification of
student clubs into the vocational and nonvocational subcul-
tures followed.

A total of twenty hypotheses were developed for the
initial phase, Phase I, of the study. These included four
hypotheses to test the idea that educational viewpoints
could be used as a measure of the assimilation of occupa—
tional ideology by students in industrial arts teacher prep-
aration programs. Sixteen hypotheses were developed to
check whether an inventory of educational viewpoints could
differentiate membership-nonmembership in activities classi—
fied in nonvocational student subcultures.

The second phase, Phase II, was prompted on the
realization of definite disadvantages for interpretive
purposes of the technique employed by the first phase. Four
classifications of educational vieWpoints were identified in
terms of patterns and were categorized (1) progressivism,

(2) essentialism, (3) logical empiricism, and (4) an unclas-
sified category. Four hypotheses were developed for this
exploratory phase of the study. Basically, the hypotheses
contended that students closest to being accepted formally
into the occupation would manifest patterns of viewpoints
resembling members in the occupation. On the other hand, it
was theorized that freshmen and new transfer students begin-
ning the process of being socialized into the occupation
would tend to be more confused and distant in ideology than

seniors.

9.

S ELECTED B IBLIOGRAPHY

Action & Thought in Industrial Arts Education. Twelfth
yearbook, 1963. Edited by Ethan A. T. Svendsen.
American Council on Industrial Arts Teacher Educa-
tion. 136 pp.

 

Bruner, Jerome S. The Process of Education. New York:
Vintage Books, 1960. 97 pp.

 

Charters, W. W. "The Social Background of Teaching,"
Handbook of Research on Teaching. Edited by N. L.
Gage. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1963.
1218 pp.

 

Cohen, Arthur R. Attitude Change and Social Influence.
New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1964. 156 pp.

Earle, Frank M. "A Study of Attitudes and Interests,"
British Journal of Educational Studies, I (May,
1953), 154-163.?

 

Face, Wesley L., and Eugene R. F. Flug. "The Conceptual
Study of American Industry; A Progress Report,"
Improving Instruction in Industrial Education.

Report of 12th Annual Industrial Education Conference,
Stout State University, Menomonie, Wisconsin, October
15, 1965.

 

Feigl, Herbert. "Aims in Education for Our Age of
Science: Reflections of a Logical Empiricists,"
Modern Philosophies and Education. Edited by N. B.
Henry. Yearbook of the National Society for the
Study of Education, Part I. Chicago, Illinois:
University of Chicago Press, 1955. 374 pp.

 

. "Logical Empiricism," Living Schools of

 

Philosophy. Edited by D. D. Runes. Ames, Iowa:
Littlefield, Adams and Co., 1956. 500 pp.

 

Gottlieb, David, and Benjamin Hodgkins. "College
Student Subcultures: Their Structure and Character—
istics in Relation to Student Activity Change,"
School Review, Autumn, 1963, pp. 26—47.

 

93

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

94

James, William. Pragmatism, a New Name for Some Old
Ways of Thinking. New York: Longmans, Green, and
Co., 1908. 308 pp.

 

 

Kneller, George F. Educational AnthrOpology. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1965. 171 pp.

 

Lux, Donald, Willis E. Ray, and Edward R. Towers. New
Dimension in Industrial Arts Curriculum Development.
A brief description of the Industrial Arts Curricu—
lum Project, OE—5-85-O66. Ohio State University
and University of Illinois.

 

 

Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Vol. I,
The Foundations of Science and the Concepts of
Psychology and Psychoanalysis. Edited by H. Feigl
and M. Scriven. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University
of Minnesota Press, 1956. 346 pp.

 

Nelson, Howard F. ”Selection of Students," Essentials
of Preservice Preparation. Eleventh yearbook, 1962.
Edited by D. G. Lux. American Council on Industrial
Arts Teacher Education. Pp. 139-167.

 

 

Newcomb, Theodore M. Personality and Social Change.
New York: Dryden Press, 1943. 225 pp.

Pace, C. Robert. The Influence of Academic and Stu-
dent Subcultures in College and University Environ—
ments. COOperative Research Project Number 1083,
University of California, Los Angeles.

Reisman, David, and C. Jenks. "The Viability of the
American College," The American College. Edited
by N. Sanford. New York: John Wiley and Sons,
1962. Pp. 74-192.

 

Spindler, George D. "Education in a Transforming
American Culture," Education and Culture. Edited
by G. Spindler. Reprinted from the Harvard Educa-
tional Review, XXV (1955), 145-156. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963. 571 pp.

 

Swanson, Robert S. "The Operational Definition and
Measurement of Educational Philosophy." Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, University Of Minnesota, 1955.

Taxonomy of Educational opjectives. Handbook I: Cogni-
tive Domain. Edited by B. S. Bloom. New York:
David McKay Company, Inc., 1956 (reprinted April,
1965). 207 pp.

21.

22.

23.

95

Trow, Martin. "The Campus Viewed as a Culture,"

Research on College Students. Edited by H. T.
Sprague. Co-sponsored by The Western Interstate
Commission for Higher Education, Boulder, Colorado,
and The Center for Higher Education, Berkeley,
California, December, 1960. Pp. 105-123.

Veblen, Thorstein. The Higher Learning in America.

Stanford, California: Academic Reprints, 1954.
286 pp.

Who's Who in Industrial Arts Teacher Education. Year-

book Two, 1953. American Council on Industrial
Arts Teacher Education. Edited by W. R. Williams,
Jr., and R. F. Bergengren, Jr. 214 pp.

CHAPTER IV

INSTRUMENTS, THE SAMPLE, AND COLLECTION OF DATA

Introduction

 

The statement of hypotheses was followed by the
selection of two instruments. The major instrument selected
to provide data for testing hypotheses l to 20 was Swanson's
Inventory. The Educational VieWpoints Inventory developed
by this investigator was employed to study hypotheses 21 to

24.

Swanson's Inventory

General description. The Inventory of VieWpoints of

Education, Form A. Swanson's Inventory was the primary

 

instrument of the study. This inventory consisted of sixty-

five paired statements of educational situations and courses

of action based in the progressivist and essentialist philos-
Ophies of education.

Statements for the sixty—five items were derived
from operational definitions of what were considered to be
two extreme philosophical points of View written over
teacher behaviors. These behaviors as reported by Barr pp

1. (1) were described:

96

97

l. The teacher formulates or selects objectives for
teaching.

2. The teacher formulates experiences through which
pupils will undergo as a means of achieving their
objectives.

3. The teacher arranges for the pupils to have the
experiences formulated in step 2.

4. The teacher evaluates pupil growth and achievement
of the objectives.

5. The teacher reappraises the objectives and expe—
riences in light of the evaluations of pupil growth
and achievement (1:238-269).

The instrument used in the study was reproduced from

the original. See Appendix A1.

Method of scoripg. The scoring of the instrument

 

was made by awarding one point for each progressivist item
chosen and zero points for each essentialist item chosen.
It was thus possible to score 65 points (progressivist) or
zero points (essentialist). This instrument could be clas-
sified as a forced-choice inventory. It was necessary for
each respondent to make a choice on all sixty—five items.
The total score derived in the manner described was thought
to be indicative of a relative position on a bi—polar con-
tinuum of educational philosophy.

Reliability. In the original study Swanson computed

 

coefficients of consistency by the analysis of variance
technique developed by Hoyt (5:153-160). The results of
Swanson's calculations revealed the following coefficients

of consistency between items:

Nd
V-i

‘\

M.

l‘~

ll)

7 .

\.

J

98

1. rtt = .75 for 125 Industrial Education and Home
Economics graduate students at Stout
State College.

2. rtt = .73 for 103 graduate students in the College
of Education, University of Minnesota.
3. rtt = .72 for 77 Industrial Education graduate

students at the University of Missouri.
4. rtt = .71 for 305 graduate students at three
colleges and un1versrt1es (13:110).

A second type of reliability coefficient was com—
puted by Swanson. A coefficient of equivalence was computed
for a group of respondents by the test-retest method. A
coefficient r of .711 was derived by applying the Pearson
Product-Moment formula (3:110). However, no generalizations
were made concerning the significance of the coefficient of
equivalence as the sample did not meet the criterion of be-
ing randomly selected.

During the process Of conducting this investigation
no attempt was made to check and to extend the reliability
studies made by Swanson. Instead, the outcomes of the orig-
inal work were assumed to be adequate for purposes of this
investigation.

Relevance. The validity of the instrument was

 

claimed on the premise of logical relevance. Swanson's
evidence of relevance was based on two considerations: (1)
the care evidenced in the operational definition of educa-

tional philOSOphy prepared by the writer (Swanson) and

it.
—‘.

b)‘.

nae--

bib

9‘

b5

"‘u
n

"a.

up
( J

‘Ol

n.

 

3

r"

99

evaluated by the critics, and (2) the closeness of agreement
between the behaviors specified in the operational defini—
tion and the behaviors called for in the inventory (13:100-
101).

A detailed discussion of the nature of logical rele-
vance was presented by Cureton (8). The claim of relevance
by Swanson met the specifications described by Cureton as
follows: "The statement [the definition] must imply unambig-
uously or specify an area of behavior that is operationally

definable, operationally observable, and operationally

 

 

scorable" (8:650).

Educational Vieypoints Inventogy

Need for second instrument. In addition to having

 

some means to gather data for the testing of the stated
hypotheses, the employing of Swanson's Inventory was in-
tended to effect the purpose of extending the study of
viewpoints to an undergraduate sample. It may be said that
such a course of action could be described as a replication
study, the reuse of an instrumentzflmrresearch purposes. A
second cluster of hypotheses centered on the idea of identi-

fying patterns of responses concerning viewpoints of educa-

 

tion.
The Inventory developed by Swanson was based on
different assumptions and this was inadequate for the task

of identifying patterns of responses. It was necessary to

100

develop a second instrument which (1) would be related to
Swanson's Inventory in some respects and (2) would enable
the identification of the patterns defined in the previous

chapter. The patterns of vieWpoints were: progressivist,

 

logical empiricist, essentialist, and the unclassified group.

 

 

 

General description of the instrument. The Inven-
tory developed for this study incorporated most of the
features described by Osgood ep_gl. (9). In brief this
instrument was premised on the logic of the Semantic Differ-
ential which was explained as follows:

We begin by postulating a Semantic space, a region
of some unknown dimensionality and Euclidian in char-
acter. Each semantic scale, defined by a pair of polar
(opposite-in—meaning) adjectives, is assumed to repre-
sent a straight line function that passes through the
origin of this space, and a sample of such scales then
represents a multidimensional space. The larger or more
representative the sample, the better defined is the
space as a whole.

 

What is mean by "differentiating" the meaning of
a concept? When a subject judges a concept against a
series of scales, e.g.,

 

 

FATHER
happy 3 : : : : : : :sad
hard : : : : : : : :soft
slow : : : : : : : :fast, etc.,

 

each judgment represents a selection among a set of
given alternatives and serves to localize the concept
as a point in the semantic space. The larger the num-
ber of scales and the more representative the selection
of these scales, the more valid does this point in the
space represent the Operational meaning of the concept.
And conversely, of course: Given the location of such
a point in the space, the original judgments are repro-
ducible in that each point has an orthogonal projection
onto any line that passes through the origin of the

101

space, i.e., we mean the successive allocation of a
concept to a point in the multidimensional semantic
space by selection from among a set of given scaled
semantic alternatives. Difference in the meaning be—
tween two concepts is then merely a function of the
differences in their respective allocation within the
same space, i.e., it is a function of the multidimen-
sional distance between the two points (9:25-26).

As with other inventories and testing devices of
this variety there are some weaknesses both in the instru-
ment and the theoretical base from which the inventory was
derived. A critical account of the instrument was presented
by Remmers (10:334-339, 360-363) in a chapter devoted to the
review of rating methods of teachers' educational research.

The instrument developed for this particular study
consisted of items (concepts) representing educational prac-
tices or ideas which were found to be related by definition
to one of the two educational points of view described by
Swanson. Bi-polar scales were written over each item. The
instrument consisted of six items representing a point of
view; ten bi-polar scales written over each item; and the
patterns of viewpoints were determined on the basis of the
total configuration of six signs, + or -, for each item
determined from the scores of the ten scales.

Two forms of the Inventory were develOped. Form A
was used in this study. The difference between Form A and
Form B is that the items are the counterparts in description
of the concept as defined in the Operational definition.

Both forms of the Inventory are included in the.Appendix

A3 and A4.

o
F"
finl

‘V‘A
thy

IF!

1;!

l 'J

(.7)

102

Items used in the Inventory. The items used in the
Inventory were modifications from the form suggested by
(Osgood. The teacher behaviors were employed as criteria
from which items were selected, except in one case where the
item was chosen on the basis of a definition basic to a
philosophical position. Listed below are the items in the
manner of appearance on the instrument:

Form A and Form B (Form B items in parentheses)

1. In my opinion: EVOLVING AND EMERGING
Knowledge is (ABSOLUTE AND ETERNAL)

2. In my Opinion: REACTIVE AND CHANGING
Educational Aims (FIXED AND ETERNAL)

3. In my opinion: PUPIL AND INSTRUCTOR
Course Material (EXPERT PROFESSOR)
Organized by

4. In my opinion: EXERCISE, DRILL, AND
Learning is a DISCIPLINE
Process of (IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS)

5. In my Opinion: EXPLANATION OF SUBJECT
The Teachers' (GUIDING STUDENTS)

Primary Duty is

6. In my Opinion: STANDARDIZED AND OBJECTIVE

Tests that are (PRACTICAL AND SUBJECTIVE)

Item one (1) concerning knowledge was derived from
the definition of the epistemological theses, EVOLVING AND
EMERGING representing the pragmatic view and ABSOLUTE AND
ETERNAL being indicative of the essentialist pole. It was
assumed that a program of teacher education would have as an
objective the development of a consistent educational philos-

ophy on the part of each student. For this reason the item

103

concerning a definition of knowledge was included as an item
although the listed teaching behaviors did not include it
Specifically.

The item which refers to educational aims was based
in the behavior of "formulating or selects objectives of
learning" (13:54). Item three was thought to be closely
related to the definition of teaching behavior concerning
"formulating of eXperiences" (13:54); and item four was
chosen to be representative of the behavior in which the
"teacher arranges for the pupil's experiences" (13:54).

Item five was also thought to be related to the behavior of
arranging for pupils' eXperiences. Item six was felt to be
indicative of the behavior of evaluation.

Unlike the manner in which concepts are differenti—
ated in the Semantic Differential, this study used a state-
ment which was open-ended. However, precaution was taken to
keep syntax simple so as not to contaminate the descriptive
words representing the viewpoint on each item. Below each
set of descriptive words was a short phrase representing the
opposite vieWpoint. The descriptive words to be differenti-
ated and the short phrase of the opposite vieWpoint are
presented in the following example:

In my opinion: EVOLVING AND EMERGING

Knowledge is (As opposed to: Absolute
and Eternal)
It was felt that this information would enable the respon—

dents to make more precise judgments on the items.

104

The second Specification used in making decisions
concerning the feasibility and apprOpriateness of an item
was the requirement that items be representative of relative
positions on a polar scale, one extreme being abstract and

the other pperational. Items related to ”knowledge" and

 

"Educational aims" were considered to be relatively more
abstract than other items. The items designated to be less
abstract than the preceding two items were related to ”the
development of course material" and "the process of learn-
ing." The remaining two items, "teacher's primary duty" and
"tests," were considered more operational than the other
items. The preceding statements did not imply that overlap-
ping did not occur between items concerning positions on a
continuum and that one item was more or less abstract than
another item as viewed by all individuals.

The grounds for a course of action Of item selection
described above was the commitment to identify patterns of
educational viewpoints. Progressivist and essentialist-
oriented individuals would be identified by consistent-'
directional responses to the various items. Logical empir—
icist-oriented students were to be identified on the basis
of responses to Specific items. From the definition of
logical empiricism presented earlier it was expected that
the patterns would Show more affinity toward progressivism
on the abstract items and essentialism on the operational

items. In summary, items were selected to enable the

105

identification of individuals with patterns oriented to the
progressivist, logical empiricist, and essentialist views of
education. The remaining students with undefined patterns
were categorized as "unclassified."

Scales. In each form of the inventory Six items
were used. Ten scales were written over each item. Scales
were selected from the list appearing on pages 53 to 61 in
the research report concerning the Semantic Differential
(9:53-61). Further breakdown was made in the following
manner:

Of the ten scales for each item (9:62-63):

a. three scales represented the factor of Activity,
defined by Osgood et a1. (9:62—63);

b. three scales represented the factor of Potency;
and

c. four scales represented the factor of Evaluation.

The scales used in this study were isolated into the
three factors by research associates of Osgood from a sam~
pling of descriptive pairs of words from Roget's Thesaurus
(9:47). The logic underlying the use of scales representa-
tive of the three factors was the belief that the semantic
space would be more fully defined by measuring the meaning
of a concept on a number of dimensions rather than a Single
dimension. The bi-polar adjectives incorporated in this
study were selected on these criteria: (1) clarity of mean-
ing of the polar adjectives and (2) the appropriateness of

the adjectives to the items used in the inventory.

106

The former criterion was applied by subjecting a
number of scales to a pilot group. Scales with confusing
meanings and polar adjectives which were not a part of the
vocabulary of students were deleted.

The discrepancy of four evaluative scales compared
to three scales for each of the other two factors was the
result of a decision to award the evaluative factor a larger
proportion of the total score and to structure the number of
scales for each item in a manner that would facilitate com-
puting average item scores.

Listed below are the scales by factor and the

frequency of use in each form of the instrument.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Evaluative Factor Freqpenoy
1. Good-Bad . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2. Superior—Inferior . . . . . . . 4

3. Unsuccessful-Successful . . . . 1

4. Wise-Unwise . . . . . . . . . . 2

5. True-False . . . . . . . . . . 1

6. Educated—Ignorant . . . . . . . 3

7. Disreputable-Reputable . . . . 2

8. Right4Wrong . . . . . . . . . . 1

9. Wise-Foolish . . . . . . . . . 2
10. Harmful-Beneficial . . . . . . 2
Potency Factor Frequency
1. Weak-Strong . . . . . . . . . . 4

2. Potent—Important . . . . . . . 5

3. Free—Constrained . . . . . . . 3

4. Vigorous—Feeble . . . . . . . . 4

5. Prohibitive-Permissive . . . . 2
Activity Factor Frequency
1. Active-Passive . . . . . . . . 6

2. Complex-Simple . . . . . . . . 3

3. Motivated-Aimless . . . . . . . 5

4. Difficult-Easy . . . . . . . . l

\v-O-

~..b

u..-
a

u‘,‘

(1‘
(h

‘V.

.(1

(I)

107

 

 

Activity Factor (Continued) Fregpenoy
5. Energetic—Inert . . . . . . . . 1
6. Intentional-Unintentional . . . l
7. Moving-Still . . . . . . . . . l

Scales used more frequently than others were inserted
into the instrument on the basis of the research report that
such scales tended to have more consistent factor loadings
(9:62-63). Some scales were reversed in the inventory to
discourage inattentive marking of scales. Actual scales may
be seen in the Appendix, under the heading Viewpoint Inven~
tory, Form A and Form B.

Scoring. Every respondent was directed to mark an
X in a space on each of the ten scales that best described
the items. Directions for self—administering the inventory
and descriptions of the various spaces on the continuum were
part of the information on the cover sheet of the instrument.
See Appendix A3 for description.

Each set of polar adjectives was placed at the ex-
tremities of a continuum divided into seven equal spaces.

The Seven spaces, the Scaled portion of the inventory, are
shown in the following sample.
3915

Good 1

;
:J
L
:1
;

: 7 Bad

Thee numbers which appear in the example did not appear on
the scales used in the instruments. Spaces were designated

POintS from one to seven and were allocated thus:

108

A. Evaluative Scales: Numbering proceeded from either

 

the extreme right or left end describing the favor-
able meaning, e.g., good, beneficial, epg., with the
larger number or points awarded to the opposite
extreme.

B. Potency Scales: Allocations of points originated

 

from the potent end of the continuum, e.g., potent.
strong, 333., and terminated with a possible seven
points in the space adjoining the adjective at the
opposite extreme.

C. Activity Scales: The origination of points for the

 

spaces was at the active end of the scale, e.g.,
active, complex, etc., and seven points were awarded

to respondents marking the other extreme.

The example illustrated in the preceding paragraph
shows the sequential nature of point allocation to the
spaces.

The procedure for scoring was facilitated by employ-
ing transparent keys made by the Thermofax method of repro-
duction. Reversed scales were scored in the same operation
by using the Scoring device. Separate keys were made for
each of the three factors. This was done to build into the
scoring procedure some means by which a study of factor
loadings in items might be pursued. The determination of
individual total scores on the inventory was accomplished

in the following manner.

109

1. Sum all scores on evaluative scales for each item.
Repeat for every item.

2. Sum all scores on potency scales for each item.
Repeat for every item.

3. Sum all scores on activity scales for each item.
Repeat for every item.

4. Convert scores of essentialist items, of which
there were three in number, to reciprocal progres—
sive score for each factor. See Appendix A5 titled
Conversion Table.

5. Sum scores of three factors for each item.
Repeat for every item.

6. Sum the Six item scores. The resultant total is
the inventory total score.

This procedure was used to compile (1) item scores,
(2) factor scores, and (3) inventory total scores.

Patterns of viewpoints. Raw scores were designated

 

in two categories, + and —, in order to identify patterns of
viewPointS. All item scores equal to forty points or below
were assigned a minus Sign, -, and scores of forty-one or
more were symbolized as plus scores, +. The minus sign
meant that the total item score was in the progressive
direction; a plus Sign indicated the essentialist vieWpoint.
The designation of a + or — to an item and the fact
that the inventory consisted of six items were interpreted
to mean that a pattern for an individual could take the form
of one of Sixty-four alternatives. Patterns were isolated
for the various vieWpointS by subjecting the Operational
definitions to each item. Itemized below are the patterns

for the various vieWpoints.

110

Progressivist—oriented vieWpoint: Only one of Sixty-
four possible patterns met the specifications of the
Operational definition. The progressivist pattern
required all Signs for the items to be minuses. For
example:

Item number for_progressivist pattern:

 

1 2 3 4 5 6

.Signs:

Any deviation from the pattern described above would
have been inconsistent with the Operational defini-
tion.

Essentialist-oriented pattern: The essentialist
pattern required all signs to be pluses. Only one
of Sixty-four possible patterns fit the essentialist
definition. The essentialist position was similar
to the progressivist vieWpoint in terms of numbers
of patterns describing the position. An example of
the pattern is as follows:

Item number for essentialist pattern:

 

l 2 3 4 5 6
Signs:
+ + + + + +

Logical empiricist-oriented pattern: Fifteen pos-
sible patterns were selected to be representative of
the logical empiricist pattern. The patterns were

chosen on the following conditions:

111

1. All logical empiricist-oriented patterns would
have minus signs on the item concerning "knowl—
edge." This meant item number one for all
logical empiricist—oriented patterns would have
a — Sign.

2. All logical empiricist-oriented patterns would
have minus signs on the item concerning "aims
of education." This meant item number five for
all logical empiricist patterns would have a —
sign.

3. All other items in any of the fifteen patterns

could be + or -.

The conditions stated were based on the Operational
definition. Since "knowledge" and "aims" were defined as
being relative and emerging, the decision was made to have
these items marked with minus signs. At the level of Opera-
tion the signs were allowed to be + or - according to the
definition stated earlier. However, it was theorized that
frequencies of patterns marked with a plus (+) Sign would be
large for the item concerning the concept describing the
development of course material. The same prediction was
made with patterns marked with a plus for the item regarding
testing. The basis for this prediction was made in view of
tflke emphasis in recent educational practice. Further, in

botllthe preceding predictions the number of plus Signs

's' 31'. .

“3"
UV.

Ia a
-
Ob .

M.,.
h I
A,"

A~
gJ-A
.

112

would be few within a pattern, no more than two plus Signs
per pattern.

Listed below are the fifteen possible logical empir—
icist-oriented patterns; asterisks mark those patterns which
were predicted to receive high frequencies.

Item number

 

Logical empiricist patterns: 1 2 3 4 5 6
1* _ _ + _ _ _
2 — + — — — .—
3* _ _ _ + _ _
4 - - - - - +
5* — + + - - —
6* _ _ + + _ _
7* - - - + - +
8* - + — + - —
9 - + — - - +
10 - - + - - +
11 - - + + - +
12 — + + + — -
13 — + - + - +
14 — + + — — +
15 - + + + - +

D. Unclassified vieWpoints: Patterns which did not
conform to the specifications set forth in the pre-

ceding discussion were assigned the unclassified

113

category. NO prediction was made as to how and what
the patterns of the unclassified group would be.
However, it was intended in the analysis of the data

to study the group in terms of frequency.

Reliabilipy. Reliability of the instrument was

 

determined using two approaches:

A. Hoyt (6:756-758): The initial program was
planned to ascertain a reliability coefficient regarding the
consistency of items. The method employed was Hoyt's Analy—
sis of Variance Technique for unlimited scoring (6:756-758).
This technique was a modification of an earlier method of
analysis of variance develOped by Hoyt for estimating test
reliability (5:154-156).

The form from which r was computed is illustrated

tt
in Table 1 (6) .

Table l. Hoyt's test for reliability of total Score

 

 

 

 

 

Among individuals k - 1 A A'
.Among items n — l B B'
Residual (k — 1)(n - 1) C C'
Total kn - l T T'
_ AI _ Cl
rtt ‘ A'

SEmeasurement = nC'

114

Interpretation of the coefficient of correlation,
rtt' assumed that reliable tests would have rtts approaching

1.00 and inconsistent tests would have rtts that approached

.00. It was predicted that the rtt of this inventory would
not be extremely high, the .80 — .99 range; nor would the
coefficient be extremely low, the .00 - .29 range. The rea—
sons for theorizing a coefficient in the mid-range if

.40 — .60 was deduced from the manner in which the instru—
ment was intended to function.

The reasons were: (1) Progressivists, logical
empiricists, and essentialists would have patterns which
would indicate item differentiation of rather consistent
nature. The resulting coefficient of this group would tend
to raise the coefficient. And (2) on the other hand, the
proportion of unclassified students would have the opposite
effect. The fact is that this phase of the study was prem—
ised on the idea that there i§_a segment of the population
with viewpoints that would seem inconsistent in view of the
operational definition. This group would tend to contribute
a larger proportion of the residual sum of squares in the
analysis of variance which in turn would lower the rtt'
B. Osgood (9): The second method of studying the

reliability of the inventory was introduced by Osgood. The

method was described thus:

115

3. Probability limits. Perhaps the most useful way
of treating out test-retest data is in terms of
the number of responses which yield absolute
deviations of each given magnitude. If a subject-
item matrix is formed and the cells of this matrix
are filled with the obtained absolute deviations
of each subject on each item, the number of in-
stances of each Size deviation may be counted. If
subjects and items are considered to be representa—
tive, then statements regarding the probabilipy of
obtaining deviations of certain size can be made
(9:132).

 

 

Table 2 illustrates the form used by Osgood to convey reli-
ability in terms of probability limits. Osgood interpreted
the results on Table 2 with the following discussion:

The last column gives the proportion of time that
a deviation can be eXpected if subjects and items are
chosen at random. The values in this column corre-
spond to confidence levels; they are a gauge of the
degree of confidence with which an investigator can
conclude that a given change on an item is Significant.
Thus, a change of greater than two units on the aver-
age scale by the average subject would be eXpected to
occur less than 5 per cent of the time by chance (or
as a result of random errors of measurement)(9:l32).

Table 2. Probability of obtaining given deviations from
test to retest (date from Factor Analysis I, 40
items)*

 

 

 

Probability of Obtaining a
Absolute Per Cent of Deviation Equal To or
Deviation Responses Greater than Given Deviation

1.000
.460
.134
.048
.018
.006
.002

WU'I
l—‘UJCDNtP-

O‘mfile-‘O
NP-l—‘l—‘OWO‘O

*(9:132).

(I.

116

For purposes of this investigation the format used
by Osgood was employed. Whereas Osgood described probabil—
ity in integers of whole deviations, the plan for this study
was to describe per cent of responses and probability at .5
deviations. Also, the report of the reliability in terms of
probability was develOped to include the data from the first
three deviations and to exclude the figures for the remain-
ing three deviations, although the scales of the inventory
were structured in a manner allowing a maximum change of six
deviations.

The following types of test-retest comparisons were
made:

I. Item probability

a. Test-retest between identical forms:

 

1) Initial test (0) VS. nine weeks later (A)
2) Initial test (0) vs. ten weeks later (B)
3) A vs. B

b. Alternate form:
1) Alternate form (C) vs. 0, ten weeks
2) Alternate form (C) vs. A, one week
3) Alternate form (C) vs. B, one hour

c. Comparisons between Group I consisting of the
average probabilities from tests between the
Initial test (0) and A, B, C. Group II con-
sisting of the average probabilities after

summing the results of comparisons between A
vs. B, B vs. C, and A vs. C.

117

Tests for factor loading were made on each of the
three factors using the same format described above. The
results of the reliability studies on the basis of probabil—
ity were considered exploratory and developmental rather
than a source from which to make generalizations. A small
N was chosen for the study with selection based on favoring
the research in terms of error. This meant that the sam-
pling was selected from a group which theoretically had a
larger proportion of unclassified students.

Validity. The claim for validity was Similar to
that which was discussed for Swanson's Instrument. Rele—
vance of this instrument to the Operational definition was
the extent to which the items used in the inventory were

representative of the definitions.

Activities Profile Sheet

 

A form was developed to gather data about the
respondents. The information asked is outlined below and a
replica has been placed in Appendix A. Each student filled
in a data sheet prior to responding to the inventories. The
Sheets had Spaces for:

I. Name
II. Date
III. Information
A. Class in college

B. Transfer-nontransfer

118

C. Commuter-noncommuter

D. Military service

E. Interest area in industrial arts
F. Participation in on-campus clubs:

1. Industrial arts educational and professional
organizations

2. Honorary fraternities

3. Special interest clubs

4. Intercollegiate athletics
5. Music

6. Art organizations

7. Religious clubs

8. Service clubs

9. Social fraternities and clubs
10. Publications

11. Student government

12. Intramural athletics

13. Other organizations

G. Off-campus clubs and organizations

The Activities Profile Sheet was designed specifi-
cally for the sample studied. Names of clubs were listed
under the appropriate headings. The classification of clubs
into the various categories was made by referring to the

COllege catalogue.

119

The Sample

 

Reasons for selection of sample from Oswego. The
decision was made to select the sample from the Oswego
campus on the following points:

(1) A reason for selecting the sample from Oswego
was in part based on the assumption that the view of educa—
tion held by the faculty of the Industrial Arts Division at
Oswego was more representative of the pragmatic pole.
Rogers claimed that "no clearly defined philosophy inte-
grates the total college effort” (16:269). However, she
pointed out that the ideologies of education professed to
students "are often served up casseroles of warmed-over
Dewey, seasoned with ideological miscellany" (16:269). The
assumption that the faculty representing the Industrial Arts
Division were more representative of the progressivist view
was made because the alternative view of humanism was felt
less likely to be attractive to faculty members engaged in
the pragmatic activities found in the content of industrial
arts.

The writings of the faculty, past and present, would
tend to substantiate Rogers’ appraisal. Specifically, the
influence of Gordon Wilbur (15) and Donald Snygg (14) is
e‘Vident in the documents girding the aims and curriculum of
the Industrial Arts Division. More recent publications by

(kirbracht and Robinson (4), Shoemaker (12), and Devore (2)

120

tend to substantiate the assumption concerning the dominant
point of view held by the staff at Oswego.

What seems to be the point of View expressed by
members of the faculty of the Industrial Arts Division
(Since changed to Division of Industrial Arts and Technology)
does not imply that operational aspects of the program are
consistent with the articulated vieWpoints.

(2) A second reason for selecting the sample from
Oswego was the factor of obtaining an adequate sample from
within an institution. The number of students enrolled in
industrial arts education exceeded 500 undergraduates. On
the other hand, few schools throughout the country have stu-
dent enrollments in industrial arts which could have pro-
vided sufficient numbers for the research design of the type
used in this investigation.

Total enrollment in industrial arts was approximately
550 students for school year 1964-65. More important, the
senior class enrollment numbered over 100 and the freshman-
new transfer students totaled about 225. This number was
felt to be substantial for purposes of this study.

Geographical origins of the sample. Except for a
Small percentage of students the majority of the sample
listed a New York State residence. Out-of—state students
Were from Pennsylvania, Ohio, New Jersey, and Massachusetts.
‘A small number of students were from Canada. Non-residents

‘u3ta1ed no more than five per cent of the sample.

121

Of the ninety-five plus per cent of the students
from New York State the proportion of "downstaters" was
nearly equal to the "up-state" population. Students from
Long Island, New York City, and outlying districts of the
New YOrk MetrOpolitan Area were considered to be from "down—
state." A large proportion of the sampling claimed resi—
dence in the Mohawk Valley area, the Southern Tier, Northern
New YOrk State, Finger Lakes-Rochester area, and the area
around the city of Syracuse. Extreme western New York State
and the Buffalo area were not well represented.

General description of the respondents. The inven-

 

tories were administered to a group of about 360 undergrad-
uates majoring in industrial arts at State University Col-
lege at Oswego, New York. The respondents consisted of:

l. senior students with student teaching experience
completed

2. freshmen students in their first year at Oswego

3. transfer students entering Oswego College for the
first time and majoring in industrial arts.

The usable sample of senior students consisted of a
N of 133. This number almost coincides with the 132 grad-

uates for school year 1964-65 reported in the Industrial Arts

 

Teacher Education Directory (7:41). The number of usable

 

returns from incoming regular freshmen and transfers, here—
after the combined group will be referred to as Others, was
213. Of this group approximately 150 were regular freshmen

and 75 were transfers. It is a conservative estimate to

122

claim that eighty-five per cent of all available seniors,

freshmen, and transfers responded to the inventories.

Administration of the Inventories

 

The inventories were administered during the school
year of 1964-65. All seniors enrolled in a post-student
teaching seminar were asked to respond to the inventories.
During the fall semester, seniors who had eXperienced stu-
dent teaching during the spring semester of 1964 were admin-
istered the inventories; students who were student teaching
during the fall semester of school year 1964-65 were sampled
during the Spring semester of 1965. Most transfer seniors
practice-taught during the spring semester and thus were
sampled during the fall term.

Students classified as Others, freshmen and trans-
fers, were administered the inventories in a required class
in an industrial arts course in design. Approximately one-
half of the group were sampled each semester. The reason
for administering the inventories in the design classes was
the practice of scheduling concurrently into the student's
program the introductory course in the professional educa—
tion Sequence. Therefore, although freshmen and transfer
students sampled during the second semester would have had
an additional semester on campus, none of these students had
been exposed to the initial course in the professional educa-

tion Sequence. It should be pointed out that the Industrial

123

Arts Division was divided into two distinct areas, a depart-
ment concerned with the teaching of technical courses and
another department charged with teaching professional educa-
tion courses.

In most cases the inventories were administered
early in the semester during a scheduled class period. Stu—
dents were told that the information would be confidential
and the purpose of the study was to examine the relationship
between student activities and responses to the inventories.
The time taken to complete the inventories and data sheet
varied from forty-five minutes to an hour and fifteen min-
utes. No time limit was imposed on the students. Students
absent from classes during the administering of the instru-
ment were asked to respond to the inventories in the inves-

tigator's office.

Treatment of the Data

 

Data collected from the inventories were, at best,
ordinal in nature. Descriptive and inferential statistics
were incorporated into the plan for the analysis of the data.
The initial phase of the analysis of data employed descrip—
tive statistics.

Testing of the major hypotheses and subhypotheses of
the study was pursued using nonparametric statistics. The
Median Test of Chi—square was used to test the hypotheses

based on responses to Swanson's Inventory. Chi—square tests

124

of proportions were used to examine the hypotheses of the
developmental segment, the study of patterns of viewpoints.

Subtests were developed as outcomes warranted
further study or if sampling variables through the process
of inspection made further analysis profitable. Extensive
subtests were analyzed when the tests of hypotheses related
to responses to Swanson's Inventory exceeded the .001 level
Of significance.

Chi-square tests were corrected for continuity to
provide a margin of error on the Side of the research. This
meant that most of the derived Chi-square figures were
smaller than figures which would have been computed without
the correction. The .05 level of Significance was used
throughout the study. All calculations were made using a

Monroematic Calculator.

Summary of the Chapper

The text of the chapter included a discussion of the
two instruments employed in the investigation. Swanson's
Inventory (13) was described in terms of general description,
reliability, scoring, and logical relevance.

The second instrument entailed a more detailed
report because the instrument was developed as part of this
investigation. The instrument intended to measure patterns

of vieWpoints based on the technique by Osgood et al. (9).

'-
‘-u
.In‘

I
n 1 .

h J.

in

 

'40-

125

The instrument included Six items representing teacher
behaviors as defined by Swanson (13). Ten scales were
written over each item for the purpose of measuring patterns
of viewpoints. The methods used to ascertain reliability
were described in terms of probability and analysis of
variance.

The Activities Profile Sheet was described as the
major means of gathering data concerning membership-nonmem—
bership in the various organizations. The sample used in
the study were students at Oswego College and in most cases
residents of New York State.

Approximately 350 students were administered the
instruments during school year 1964—65. Students sampled
were seniors, freshmen, and new transfers majoring in indus-
trial arts. The data gathered were tabulated and subjected

to nonparametric tests.

10.

S ELECTED B IBLIOGRAPHY

Barr, A. S., et al. "Report of the Committee on the
Criteria of Teacher Effectiveness," Journal of
Educational Research, XXII (June, 1952), 238-263.

 

 

Devore, Paul. Technology, An Intellectual Discipline.
Bulletin No. 5. Washington, D.C.: American Indus-
trial Arts Association, 1964.

 

Downie, N. M., and R. W. Heath. Basic Statistical
Methods. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1959.
289 pp.

 

Gerbracht, Carl, and Frank E. Robinson. Understanding
America's Industries. Bloomington, Illinois:
McKnight and McKnight Publishing Company, 1962.
274 pp.

 

 

Hoyt, Cyril J. ”Test Reliability Estimated by Analysis
of Variance," Psychometrika, VI, No. 3 (June, 1941),
153-160. *

 

, and Clayton L. Stunkard. "Estimation of Test

Reliability for Unrestricted Item Scoring Methods,"

Educational and Ppychological Measurement, XII, No.
4 (Winter, 1952), 756-758.

 

Industrial Teacher Education Directory. Compiled by

 

G. 8. Wall. Sponsored by American Council on Indus-
trial Arts Teacher Education and National Association
of Industrial Teacher Educators, 1966.

Lindquist, E. F. (ed.). Educational Measurement.
Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education,
1951. 819 pp.

 

Osgood, Charles E., George J. Suci, and Percy Tannenbaum.
The Measurement of Meaning. Urbana, Illinois: Uni-
versity of Illinois Press, 1957. 342 pp.

Remmers, H. H. "Rating Methods in Research on Teaching,"
Handbook of Research on Teaching. Edited by N. L.
Gage. Chicago, Illinois: Rand McNally and Company,
1963.

 

126

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

127

ROgerS, Dorothy. Oswego: Fountainhead of Teacher
Education. New York: Appleton-Century—Crofts,
Inc., 1961. 305 pp.

 

Shoemaker, Charles. "Industrial Arts in Modern Educa-
tion," Planning Industrial Arts Facilities. Eighth
yearbook, 1959. Edited by Ralph K. Nair. American
Council on Industrial Arts Teacher Education.

Pp. 19-33.

Swanson, Robert S. "The Operational Definition and
Measurement of Educational Philosophy."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Minnesota, 1955.

Snygg, Donald, and Arthur W. Combs. Individual Behavior.
New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1949.
386 pp.

Wilbur, Gordon 0. Industrial Arts and General Education.
Scranton, Pennsylvania: International Textbook
Company, 1954. 362 pp.

CHAPTER V

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA OF A SAMPLING OF STUDENTS

MAJORING IN INDUSTRIAL ARTS EDUCATION

Introduction

 

The procedure of analysis of the data was divided
into two phases. In brief, the content of Phase I described
the data collected from reSponSeS to the research instrument,
and Phase II involved the testing of hypotheses from that

data.

Phase I: Summary Statistics of the Data

Summapy data of the sample. The sample from which

 

the analysis was made included 346 students enrolled in the
Industrial Arts curriculum at State University College,
Oswego, New YOrk. The frequency of usable returns on vari—

ous factors is enumerated on Table 3.

Table 3. Summary data of sample used in the study of
educational vieWpoints of Industrial Arts majors
at State University College, Oswego, New York,
1964—65
1. Total N Administered Instruments . . . . . . . 360 (approx.)

2. Total Usable N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

128

129

Table 3——Continued

 

Class in College
1) Seniors . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Others . . . . . . . . . . . .

Transfer-Nontransfer Students
1) Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Nontransfer . . . . . . . . . . .

Commuters-Noncommuters
1) Commuters . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Noncommuters . . . . . . . . . . .

Veterans—Nonveterans
1) Veterans . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2) Nonveterans . . . . . . . . . . .

Generalist—Specialist in
l) Generalist . . . . . . . . . .

a)
b)
C)
d)

Single choice . . . . . 62

Two choices . . . . . . 9
Three choices . . . . . 8
Four or more choices . . 7

2) Specialist . . . . . . . . .

a)
b)
C)
d)

Single choice . . . . . 124
Two choices . . . . . . 91
Three choices . . . . . 36
Four or more choices . . 9

Clubs and Activities
1) By Number of Activities

a)
b)
C)
d)
e)
f)

Nonmember . . . . . . . . . .
Member of one club . . . . . .
Member of two clubs . . . . .
Member of three clubs . . . .
Member of four clubs . . . . .
Member of five clubs or more .

2) By Types of Activities

a)

13)

Professional organizations

la Members . . . . . . . . .
2a Nonmembers . . . . . . . .
Honorary*

lb Members . . . . . . . . .
2b Nonmembers . . . . . . . .
Special interest organizations
1c Nonmembers . . . . . . . .
2c Single membership . . . .
3c Two memberships . . . . .
4c Three memberships . . . .

Industrial Arts

133
213

158
188

78
268

46
300

86

260

50
68
68
51
52
57

161
185

13
120

248
74
20

d)

f)

g)

h)

j)

k)

m)

130

Table 3-—Continued

 

Intercollegiate athletics

1d Members . . . . . .
2d Nonmembers . . . . .
Music

1e Members . . . . . .
2e Nonmembers . . . . .
Art organizations

1f Members . . . . . .
2f Nonmembers . . . . .
Religious organizations
lg Members . . . . . .
2g Nonmembers . . . . .
Service organizations

1h Members . . . . . .
2h Nonmembers . . . . .
Social organizations*

1i Members . . . . . .
2i Nonmembers . . . . .
Student government

lj Members . . . . . .
2j Nonmembers . . . . .
Student publications

1k Members . . . . . .
2k Nonmembers . . . . .
Intramural athletics

11 Nonmembers . . . . .

21 Members of one activity
31 Members of two activities
41 Members of three activities

Other organizations
1m Members . . . . . .
2m Nonmembers . . .

G. Members-Nonmembers Off—Campus
1) Members . . . . . . . . . .
2) Nonmembers . . . . . . . . .

*
The categories followed by an

Only seniors.

71
275

24

322

342

71

275

342

54
79

25
321

11
335

200
70
50
26

28
318

28
318

asterisk included

 

-.
(P

..n

to,
ow

I.) o

131

Summary data of responses to Swanson's Inventory.

 

The data tabulated from the application of Swanson's Inven-

tory are

described in Table 4.

directly from raw Scores.

Table 4.

the findings of (1)

Figures were computed

Summary data of responses of 346 students of State

University College,

Inventory

Total N.
Possible
Range of
Mean . .
Mode . .
Median .
Standard

Standard

Score . . .

Scores .

Error of Mean

Deviation

Oswego,

New York, to Swanson's

346

65

14-57
38.563

38

The data derived for this study are compared with

Swanson's original study with graduate

Students and (2) the responses of Industrial Arts teacher

educators participating in the Industrial Arts Conference

(Mississippi Valley Conference) in year 1955 (see Table 5).

No attempt was made in this investigation to ascer-

'tain.reliability by the test-retest method and the analysis

ofvariance method employed by Swanson.

132

Table 5. Comparative summary statistics of (1) this sample's
responses, (2) teacher educators' responses, and
(3) graduate students' responses to Swanson's

 

 

 

Inventory
This Teacher Graduate
Sample Educators** Students***
1. Number of cases 346 45 305
2. Possible score 65 65 65
3. Range 14—57 26-63 11-63
4. Median 38 41 41
5. Mean 38.56 41.93* 40.72
6. Standard Deviation 7.009 8.388* 6.97
7. Standard Error of
Mean 0.37 1.25* 0.39*

 

 

*Figures followed by an asterisk were computed by
the investigator of this study.

**(4).

***(5).

Summary data concerning the returns of the Educa—

 

tional Viewpoints Inventory. The treatment of data for
descriptive purposes was handled in the following manner.
First, scores in raw form were computed. Second, particular
scores were subjected to a conversion table to enable summa-
tion of scores. In the third step the Scores were summed
and divided by ten. For the final step apprOpriate computa-

tions were made. Table 6 depicts the results of the

133

Table 6. Summary statistics of data derived from the
reSponses to the Educational VieWpoints Inventory

1. Size of Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

2. Possible Score . . . . . . . 6.00 (low) —42.00 (high)
3. Range . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 —30.7

4. Theo. md, m, mode . . . . . . . . . . . 24

5. Mean of Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2187

6. Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . 3.388

7. Standard Error of Mean . . . . . . . . . 0.18

8. Median . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1

calculations. The categories of responses eXpressed by

deviations are shown on Table 7 by frequency and percentages.

Table 7. Description of responses to Educational VieWpoints
Inventory by frequency and percentages on the
basis of deviations

 

 

 

 

 

 

Frequency Percentages Total Percentage
by, Frequency
Dev. + - + - Theo. Total Theo.
+ l 134 113 38.00 32.00 34.00 247 70.0 68.00
i_2 33 45 9.5 13.00 13.59 78 22.5 27.18
:_3 12 4 3.49 2.15 0.13 16 5.6 0.26
+ 4 2 l

H'

«A

\U

:5
n d..-

|{|

ta

‘1‘

.t\

134

Reliability of Educational Viewpoints Inventory:
Analysis of variance technigue. The inventory reliability
score of rtt = .52+ with a SEmeasurement of 24.3+ using raw

scores was computed using Hoyt's technique (1). Summations

and computations are depicted below.

 

df 85
Between Individuals 345 85,571.40 248
Between Items 5 66,028.30 13,205.6'
Residual lylgé 204,214.30 118.3
Total 2,075 355,813.00 ........

rtt248 - 118.3/248 = .52+

SEmeasurement =V5(ll8.3) = 24.3

Reliability of Educational Viewpoints Inventory:

Item probability. The reliability in terms of probability

 

for Six items are included in the Appendix B (Tables B1 to
B6). Each table includes the data of the comparisons
described on page .

Table 8 depicts in summary form the average probabil-
ity for each item. The average probability figures were
1Laken from the column titled ggpgl found on Tables B1 to B6.

que figures Shown are carried out to the third decimal place.

135

Table 8. Average probability figures derived from compari-
sons for six items in terms of deviations*

 

 

Dev. Probability: Item Number Theo.
+ - 1 2 3 4 5 6 Prob.

 

0.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

0.5 .772 .812 .810 .792 .745 .774 .841
1.0 .552 .456 .529 .403 .403 .427 .423
1.5 .269 .292 .365 .248 .251 .272 .230
2.0 .164 .161 .237 .158 .164 .184 .071
2.5 .123 .126 .170 .123 .105 .137 .027
3.0 .068 .088 .097 .091 .079 .091 .002

L j1
___L :

 

*Probability derived from equivalent of 342 = N,
each person contributing Six comparisons except for few
cases in which comparisons were less than Six.

The results revealed that the item reliabilities
were not acceptable at the .05 level of Significance for Six
items. This may be attributed to the design of the instru-
ment and/or to inconsistency of vieWpoints on the part of
the students.

Probability figures for the three scales are shown
on Tables B7, B8, and B9 in Appendix B. Comparisons were
made following the format discussed earlier in Chapter V.
Table B7 describes probability for the evaluative scales;
Table B8, the potency scale; and Table B9, the activity

scales. In a majority of the comparisons the figures

136

revealed a high degree of consistency for the various scales
when averages were made over six items. This might be inter—
preted to mean that there was a "self correcting" tendency

of responses on the overall pattern in scoring.

Phase II: Part A; Tests of the Hypotheses

 

1
Others versus seniors. The data derived from the

 

application of Swanson's Inventory were used to test the
directional hypothesis that seniors would differ in view-
point from Others. The null and alternate hypotheses were
eXpressed as follows:

H : There would be no difference in proportion of

0 scores between Others and seniors as related to
educational viewpoints using the Median Test for
analysis.

H1: A larger proportion of Seniors would score in the

direction of the "progressive" end of the scale
than Others.

The data presented on Table 9 were recorded on a
2 X 2 contingency table and Chi-square was calculated using
the Median Test (2). The .05 level was used as the point of
significance. The results of calculation revealed a Chi—
square value of 18.152 which exceeded the 2.71 value at the
.05 level for a one-tailed test. A decision was made to
reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternate hypoth—

esis.

137

Table 9. Median test between seniors' and Others' responses
to Swanson's Inventory of educational vieWpointS

 

 

 

 

 

 

Others Seniors Totals
Less Progressive 126 47 173
More Progressive 87 86 173
Totals 213 133 346
df = 1
x2 = 18.152
Commuter versus noncommuters. The analysis of the

 

hypothesis comparing the educational VieWpOintS of commuters
and noncommuters was conducted through the application of
the Median Test. The hypothesis implied that there would be
differences between the two groups and that the direction
would be one in which the commuting students would tend to
be more progressive. The large proportion Of senior stu-
dents classified as commuters indicated the possibility for
need to further study the data, and as a result, two sub—
hypotheses were developed controlling class in college. The
two subhypotheses were intended to be tested only if the
null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis, H1, were rejected.
The null and alternate hypotheses were:
H : There is no Significant difference between the

medians of commuters and noncommuters in response
to Swanson's Inventory.

138

Commuters are less progressive than noncommuters in
response to Swanson's Inventory.

H2: Commuters are more progressive than noncommuters in
response to Swanson's Inventory.

Table 10 depicts the data in the form from which
Chi-square was calculated. The .05 level of Significance
with a 2.71 figure for a one—tailed test was chosen to test
the calculated figure. The Chi-square figure of 3.503 with
1 degree of freedom exceeded the .05 level of significance.
After examining the Chi-square table, the null and first
alternative hypotheses were rejected in favor of H

2.

Table 10. Median Test between commuters' and noncommuters'
responses to Swanson's Inventory of educational

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

vieWpoints
Commuters Noncommuters Totals
Less Progressive 31 141 172
More Progressive 47 127 174
Totals 78 268 346
df = 1
X2 = 3.503

In view of the rejection of Ho and H the analysis

1
was extended to the testing of the two subhypotheses which
‘Were generated as a result of the noticeable difference of

Plkrportion of seniors classified as commuters in relation to

139

Other students. The subhypotheses were stated in the form:

SHl: Senior commuters are more progressive than senior
noncommuters.

Rationale: Examination of the data revealed that
a disproportionate number of Senior commuting stu-
dents had been enrolled at the institution for a
longer period of time. Many of the commuting
seniors were residents of fraternity houses and
were technically commuters according to the col—
lege by-laws.

 

SH - There is no difference between commuting and non-
commuting students in the Other category regarding
vieWpoints.

Rationale: The majority of commuting and noncommut-
ing students had been associated with the Industrial
Arts program for a relatively short period of time
of less than one year. For this reason, it was
theorized that the commuters and noncommuters would
not differ as to medians holding particular view-
points.

 

The first test of a subhypothesis compared senior
commuters and senior noncommuters. The null and alternate
hypotheses are as follows:

H : There iS no difference between the medians of

o senior commuters and senior noncommuters in re—
sponse to Swanson's Inventory.
Hl: Mdnl (Commuters) > Mdn2 (Noncommuters)

The sampling included 133 Senior students with 49 catego-
rized as commuters and the remaining 84 students as noncom—
muters. The results of the Median Test on Table 11 indi-
cated that seniors under both classifications did not differ
significantly. Chi-square was found to be .478 which the
table of Chi-square (2:249) revealed a probability figure of

.50(.46) was exceeded but was less than a probability figure

140

Table 11. Median Test between senior commuters and senior
noncommuters in response to Swanson's Inventory
of educational vieWpoints

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Senior
Commuters Noncommuters Totals
Less Progressive 23 46 69
More Progressive 26 38 64
Totals 49 84 133
df = 1
X2 = .478

Of .30(l.07). The decision was made to accept the null
hypothesis.

Most of the students in the Other category were
freshmen and transfer students. The total number in the
sampling numbered 213 students with 21 commuters and 192
noncommuters. Analysis of the second subhypothesis was made
by testing the following null and alternate hypotheses.

H - There iS no difference between the medians of Other

0 commuters and Other noncommuters in response to
Swanson's Inventory.
H1: Mdnl (Commuters) Mdn2 (Noncommuters)

The data in Table 12 were used to determine Chi—
square with a level of significance of .05(3.84) for a non-
directional test. Calculations revealed a Chi—square value
of .153 from which a decision was made to accept the null

hypothesis and to reject the alternate hypothesis.

141

Table 12. Median Test between Other commuters and Other
noncommuters in response to Swanson's Inventory
of educational viewpoints

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other Other
Commuters Noncommuters Totals
Less Progressive 9 96 105
More Progressive 12 96 108
Totals 21 192 213
df = l
x2 = .153

The results of the test of the hypothesis and sub-
hypotheses concerning commuters and noncommuters indicated
that differences in medians of the groups could be attri—
buted in part to the larger proportion of Seniors living in
Off-campus housing.

Veterans versus nonveterans. The hypothesis gener-

 

ated for the study concerning vieWpoints held by veterans
and nonveterans read:

Veterans will tend to be more progressive than non-
veterans in educational outlook.

The null and alternate hypotheses of the investigation were
structured as follows:
H : There is no difference between the medians of

veterans and nonveterans in response to Swanson's
Inventory.

142

H - There is a significant difference between the
medians of veterans and nonveterans with the
responses of veterans more progressive.

Forty-Six of the total sample of 346 students were
classified as veterans while the remaining 300 students did
not have previous military eXperiences. The Median Test of
Chi-square with a figure of 2.71 at the .05 level of Signif-
icance for a directional test was employed for decision-
making purposes. The result of the calculations was derived
from the data on Table 13. It should be noted that there
was a larger proportion of veterans in the progressivist
category than nonveterans. However, the result of the
Median Test did not justify the rejection of the null hypoth-
esis in favor of the alternate hypothesis. Therefore, the

decision was made to accept the null hypothesis and to

reject the alternate hypothesis.

Table 13. Median Test between veterans' and nonveterans'
responses to Swanson's Inventory of educational

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

vieWpoints
Veterans Nonveterans Totals
Less Progressive 19 154 173
More Progressive 27 146 173
'Totals 46 _ 300 346
df = 1

X = 1.228

143

Transfer versus nontransfer. Table 14 includes the

 

data used to test the hypothesis concerning viewpoints of
education of transfer and nontransfer students. The hypoth-
esis was stated in the form:

Nontransfer students will tend to be more progres-
sive than transfer students in educational outlook.

For purposes of analysis, the null and alternate hypotheses
were:

H : There is no difference between the medians of

0 transfer and nontransfer students in response
to Swanson's Inventory.
Hl: Nontransfer students are more progressive than

transfer students regarding educational view—
points.

Table 14. Median Test between transfer and nontransfer
student responses to Swanson's Inventory of
educational viewpoints

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Transfer Nontransfer Totals
Less Progressive 78 94 172
More Progressive 8O 94 174
Totals , 158 188 346
df = l
X2 = .00008

The Median Test with a Significant level of .05 was
Chosen to test the hypothesis. The sample consisted of 158

t311‘ansfer students and 188 nontransfer students. The

144

calculated Chi-square figure of .00008 led to the decision
to reject the alternate hypothesis in favor of the null.
Thus, the original hypothesis implying difference of educa-
tional vieWpoints between transfer and nontransfer students
was rejected and replaced by the conclusion that the propor—
tion of vieWpointS between transfers and nontransfers did
not differ Significantly.

Generalist versus specialist. The Median Test was

 

applied to examine the hypothesis concerning the relation—
ship between the proportions of responses to Swanson's Inven-
tory of vieWpOintS and the degree of occupational Specializa—
tion within Industrial Arts. It was theorized that there
ought to be some degree of relationship between vieWpoints
of education and the intended occupational specialization of
the students. Specifically, the hypothesis read:

Students intending to become general Industrial Arts

teachers tend to respond towards the progressive end

of the continuum in larger proportions than students

who perceive themselves as Specialists or single con-

tent area teachers.

The following statements reveal the manner in which

the Operational hypotheses were stated:

H : There is no difference between the median scores

0 of students intending to become general Industrial
Arts teachers and students Signifying a desire to
Specialize in a Single area and/or a few areas on
a content basis.

H1: Students who see themselves as preparing to become

general Industrial Arts teachers will tend to be
more progressive than those students with orienta—
tion towards specialization.

145

Four separate Median Tests employing various combina-
tions of generalist-Specialist proportions were analyzed.
The initial test included all respondents to the instrument.
This number totaled 346 with 86 generalists and 260 consid-
ered as being "less general." Table 15 depicts the data
from which Chi-square was calculated with .05(2.71) with 1
df set as the point from which the acceptance—rejection
decision was made. Computation revealed a Chi—square figure
of .758 which was greater than .50(.455) but less than .30
(1.074) probability levels. The null hypothesis was accepted

upon examination of the table of Chi-square (2:249).

Table 15. Median Test between "generalists" and "less
general" students' responses to Swanson's Inven—
tory of educational viewpoints

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Generalist Less General Totals
Less Progressive 39 134 173
More Progressive 47 126 173
Totals 86 260 346
df = 1
X2 = .758

The second test in this section of the analysis of
the data included students who scored in the first and

fOurth quartiles on the Viewpoints of Education Inventory.

146

These students represented the extreme scores of the sample
studied in the preceding paragraphs. By examining the
extreme cases, it was hypothesized that "extreme generalists"
were more progressive than "extreme less general" students.
The null and alternate hypotheses were:

H : There is no difference between the medians of

o "extreme generalists" and "extreme less general"
students in response to Swanson's Inventory of
VieWpoints.

H1: The median of students classified as ”extreme

generalists" are more progressive than the median
score of students in the category of the "extreme
less general."

The results of calculations of the Median Test from
the data on Table 16 revealed a Chi-square figure of 1.655
which fell between the .10(l.64) and .05(2.71) levels of
probability for a directional test. The decision was made
to suspend judgment as the computed figure was considered to

be in the area of doubt. Further studies may shed a definite

answer to the problem.

Table 16. Median Test between "extreme generalists" and
"extreme less generalists" regarding responses to
Swanson's Inventory of educational vieWpointS

 

 

 

 

 

 

Extreme Extreme
Generalist Less Generalist Totals
Less Progressive 15 71 86
More Progressive 23 63 86
Totals 38 134 172
df = l
x2 = 1-655

147

The next test included students who were classified
as "single choice generalists" and "single choice Special—
ists." Specialists were considered those who marked one
area of content interest while generalists were classified
on the basis of a Single choice under the heading of general
Industrial Arts. The Selected sample consisted of 183 stu-
dents of which 62 fit the generalist classification and the
remaining 124 were categorized as specialists.

The null and alternate hypotheses were:

H : There iS no difference between the medians of
"Single choice generalists" and "Single choice
Specialists" regarding the responses to Swanson's
Inventory of Viewpoints.

The median of the "Single choice generalists" will

be more progressive than the median of the "Single
choice specialists."

Table 17 depicts the data from which Chi—square was
determined using the Median Test with a significance level
of .05(2.7l). The computed Chi-square figure of 1.185 fell
between the tabled figure of 1.07 and 1.64 with probability
levels of .20 and .10 respectively. The calculated Chi-
square figure prompted the decision to accept the null
hypothesis; however, it was recommended that further studies
be made.

The results of the preceding test suggested the idea
to extend the analysis of the data to include a selected
sample of extreme scores from the generalist—specialist

categories. For purposes of analysis the scores of students

148

Table 17. Median Test between "Single choice generalists”
and "Single choice Specialists" regarding
responses to Swanson's Inventory of viewpoints

 

 

Single Choice

 

 

 

 

 

Generalists Specialists Totals
Less Progressive 27 66 93
More Progressive 35 58 93
Totals 62 124 186
df = 1
X2 = 1.185

which fell in the first and fourth quartiles were combined
and the Median Test applied using the data on Table 18. The
two groups were designated the titles of "extreme single
choice generalists" (ESCG) and "extreme single choice Spe-
cialists" (ESCS) with a combined n of 92. Of this n of 92,
there were 28 ESCG and 64 ESCS.

A one-tailed test at the .05 level of significance
was chosen to test the null and alternate hypotheses which
were stated:

H : There is no difference between the medians of
ESCG and ESCS in response to Swanson's Inventory.

: The median score of the ESCG group is more pro-
gressive than the median score of the ESCS group
regarding response to the inventory.

149

Table 18. Median Test between responses of "extreme single
choice generalists" and "extreme Single choice
Specialists" to Swanson's Inventory of educational

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

vieWpointS
Extreme Single Choice
Generalists Specialists Totals

Less Progressive 10 36 46
More Progressive 18 28 46
Totals 28 64 92

df = 1

x2 = 8.804

Chi-square was calculated to be 8.804. The table of
Chi-square revealed that the computed figure to be Signif-
icant at the .05(2.71) level. The decision was made to
reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternate hypoth-
esis.

Briefly, the results of the four tests seemed to
indicate that the instrument differentiated between general—
ists and Specialists who scored at the extremities in rela—
tion to the distribution derived from responses to the
inventory. The table which follows depicts the Chi-square
figures of the four tests. On the basis of the information
on Table 19 it was hypothesized that the responses derived
from the instrument developed by Swanson reinforces the idea

that generalists tend to be more progressive than specialists.

150

Table 19. A list of calculated Chi-square figures listed in
order from the study of total sampling to the
study of extreme responses of a selected sampling

Chi-square Figure

 

1. Total N of 346 . . . . . . . . . . . . .758

2. First and fourth quartiles of
Total N of 346 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.655

3. Total N of 186: "Single Choice
generalists and specialists" . . . . . 1.185

4. First and fourth quartiles of
Total N of 186 . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.804*

*Significant at the .05 level.

Members versus nonmembers of clubs and activities:
Part I: By number of memberships in clubs and organizations
without differentiation byjtype of club or activities. The
content of the following paragraphs was the result of anal—
ysis to ascertain the effect of membership and nonmembership
in campus sanctioned club activities with regard to responses
to Swanson's Inventory. No attempt was made to differentiate
the types of activities and/or clubs in which the various
members of the sample participated.

There were 50 nonmembers and a total of 296 students
‘Who held membership and/or participated in one or more activ—
ities and clubs. The Median Test of Chi—square was the
Statistical treatment employed on the group of nonmembers
and the total group of joiners. The original hypothesis

read:

151

Nonmembers of clubs and activities will tend to be
more progressive in educational viewpoints than
members of such organizations.

For purposes of analysis the null and alternate hypotheses

were as follows:

H : There is no difference between the median scores
of members and nonmembers of activities and
clubs sanctioned by the college in response to
Swanson's Inventory.

H1: Nonmembers will be more progressive than stu-
dents who participated in clubs and activities.

The results of the calculated Chi-square from the
content on Table 20 was .923 with 1 degree of freedom and
with a Significance level of .05. In View of the findings,

the null hypothesis was accepted.

Table 20. Median Test between members and nonmembers of
clubs and activities regarding responses to
Swanson's Inventory of educational VieWpOintS

 

 

 

 

 

 

Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 149 24 173
More Progressive 147 26 173
Totals 296 50 346
df = l
2

X = .023

152

Further tests of Chi-square were made between mem—
bers and students classified into groups according to number
of activities and/or clubs indicated on the personal data
Sheets. Five groups ranging from a Single activity group to
students engaged in five or more activities and clubs were
categorized in addition to the groups of nonmembers. Table
21 depicts (l) the classification of groups by number of
activities, (2) the number of students in each category, and

(3) the median score for the various groups.

Table 21. Nonmembers and members of clubs and activities by
number of activities

 

 

 

Number of Activities Number of Students Median
Nonmembers--0 50 39
Members ----- 1 68 38
Members ----- 2 68 39
(Members ----- 3 51 38
Members ----- 4 52 39
Members ----- 5 or more 57 37

 

Chi—square tests were made to determine whether
significant differences existed in response to Swanson's
Inventory between the nonmembers and the five groups of mem-

bers. Tables C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5 in the Appendix are in

153

the 2 X 2 form from which calculations were made. It was
hypothesized that nonmembers would be more progressive than
members in all comparisons. Null and alternate hypotheses
were stated for each 2 X 2 table; and in all cases the
alternate hypotheses were rejected in favor of the null
hypotheses. Listed below are the Chi—Square figures for

the five comparisons.

l. Nonmembers versus membersl .326*
2. Nonmembers versus members2 .034*
3. Nonmembers versus members3 .088
4. Nonmembers versus members4 .000
5. Nonmembers versus members5+ .771

Members versus nonmembers of clubs and activities:

 

Part II: Byjtype of club or activity. A second category

 

for analytical purposes of studying members and nonmembers

on the basis of responses to Swanson's Inventory of view-
points was made by differentiating students by pype of activ—
ity and clubs in which there was indicated participation.
Type of activity or club implied a "kind" of student organi—
zation with Specific programs. In this phase of the inves—
tigation it was theorized that the type of clubs and/or

activities would attract particular groups of students.

 

*Prediction of hypothesis opposite from calculated
Chi—square figure.

154

A. Professional Educational Organizations

Of the activities and clubs open to student member—
ship there were some organizations which seemed to have
purpose similar to those of the Industrial Arts Division of
the College. Among the clubs were: SEANYS, the NEA afful-
iated campus organization for students in teacher education;
the Industrial Arts Club; members of the House of Delegates,
a governing body of students sponsored by the Industrial
Arts Division; and the Graphic Arts Club. The aims of each
club attempted to foster the teaching profession; thus, it
was theorized the members of these organizations would tend
to be more progressive as a group than nonmembers.

The statistical hypotheses were stated:

H : There is no difference between the medians of

members of professional organizations and non-

members in response to Swanson's Inventory.

Members of professional organizations are more
progressive than nonmembers.

l.._l

Tables 22 and 23 represent the data in the form from
which Chi-square figures were derived. The Median Test was
applied on the total sample of 346 students for the Chi—
square figure on Table 22; whereas, the Chi—square figure
on Table 23 was computed from a sampling of the first and
fourth quartiles of the initial group. In both cases, the
null and alternate hypotheses stated in the preceding para-

graph served as the hypotheses under test.

155

Table 22. Median Test between members
nizations and nonmembers in

of professional orga-
response to Swanson's

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inventory
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 99 74 173
More Progressive 86 87 173
Totals 185 161 346
df = 1

X2 = 1.6727

Table 23. Median Test between members of professional orga-
nizations and nonmembers using a selected sample
from the first and fourth quartiles in response

to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 49 37 86
More Progressive 46 40 86
Totals 95 77 172
df = l
X2 = .094

A Chi-square figure of 1.672 was found for the total

sampling and .094 was the calculated figure for the test on

the sample of students representing the extreme quartiles.

In both cases, the .05(2.71) level of significance was used

156

as a criterion for decision-making. The decision was made
to reject the alternate hypothesis in favor of the null in
both tests after examining the scores in relation to the
figures on the table of Chi—square (2:249).

Subtests of Chi-square were made to study whether
the quantity of indicated memberships in professional orga—
nizations had any bearing on educational vieWpointS between
nonmembers and members. Three sub-groups of members of pro»
fessional organizations were as follows: (1) those with
single membership, (2) those with two memberships, and (3)
those students with three or more memberships.

Tables C6, C7, C8, C9, C10, and C11 in the Appendix
are in the 2 X 2 form from which analysis was made. The
hypotheses for the comparisons of the three groups of mem-

bers versus the nonmembers were Similar to that which pre—

 

dicted members to be more progressive than nonmembers. For
the remaining three comparisons, the information on Tables
C9, C10, and C11, it was theorized that:

l. The group of students with three or more indicated
memberships in professional organizations would be
more progressive than those with memberships in
one or two clubs.

2. The students holding memberships in two clubs would
be more progressive than those holding single mem~
berships in professional organizations.

The calculated Chi-square figures for the six sub-

tests are in summary form on Table 24. The results dis-

CIOsed that there was a Significant difference between

157

Table 24. Summary Table for Chi-square of Six subtests of
student nonmembers and members of professional
organizations in response to Swanson's Inventory

Test Between Chi-square Figure

 

 

l. Nonmembers versus Members of
One Club . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.015

2. Nonmembers versus Members of
Two Clubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1716*

3. Nonmembers versus Members of
Three or More Clubs . . . . . . . . . . .214

4. Members of One Club versus
Members of Two Clubs . . . . . . . . . . 2.027**

5. Members of One Club versus
Members of Three or More Clubs . . . . . 1.092***

6. Members of Two Clubs versus
Members of Three or More Clubs . . . . . l.152***

*Significant at .05 level.
**Area of doubt.

***Direction of prediction reversed from outcome.

nonmembers and members in two clubs. In two cases the pre-
dictions of the hypotheses were in the opposite direction in
relation to the calculated figures. In both cases the group
with three or more memberships was involved. The Chi—square
figure approached the level of Significance but did not
equal or exceed the critical figure of 2.71 in the compari—
son between the Single membership group and the membership
in two clubs; thus, the decision was made to suspend judg—

ment concerning the particular comparison until further

158

evidence is made available. The null hypotheses were

accepted in the remaining four tests.

B. Honorary Organizations
The test of Chi—square between members and nonmem—
bers of honorary academic societies and fraternities was
limited to senior students. At the time of the administra—
tion of the instruments of the study, both first semester
transfer and regular freshmen students were not eligible for
membership. In most, if not all, instances members of scho-
lastic honorary societies invited students to membership
only after Spending a year or more on the Oswego campus.
The hypothesis regarding this aspect of the study
read:
Members of honorary clubs and societies in the field
of education and industrial arts will tend to be more
progressive in educational viewpoint than nonmembers.
For purposes of analysis, the null and alternate hypotheses
were stated in the following manner:
Ho: There is no difference between the median of
senior members of honorary academic soc1et1es

and the median of Senior nonmembers in response
to Swanson's Inventory.

Senior members of scholastic honorary societies

are more progressive than the senior nonmember
group in response to Swanson's Inventory.

Data on Table 25 from which the Chi-square figure
was calculated Shows 13 members from a group of 133 seniors.

The Median Test was used to compute Chi-square. Reference

to the Chi-square table indicated that the derived figure of

159

Table 25. Median Test between nonmembers and members of
academic honorary societies and fraternities in
response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 62 4 66
More Progressive 58 9 67
Totals 120 13 133
df = 1
x2 = 1.298

1.298 did not exceed the .05 level of significance for a
directional test with 1 degree of freedom. The result

warranted the decision to accept the null hypothesis.

C. Special Interest Organizations

The third grouping of clubs and activities based on
type was the classification of special interest organizations
and included areas such as riding, skiing, Swimming, drama,
flying, dancing, and judo. It was theorized that members in
these organizations would be less likely to hold and eXpress
vieWpoints of education advocated by the occupation of indus-
trial arts teaching than students who did not participate.

Data detailed on Table 26 portray the frequency of
nonmembers and members in terms of the number of memberships

held by individual students in Special interest clubs.

160

Table 26. Frequency of members and nonmembers of Special
interest clubs in terms of number of memberships

 

 

held
Number of Memberships Frequency
Nonmembers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Single Membership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Two Memberships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Three or More Memberships . . . . . . . . . . . . ___4
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

After reviewing the data on the preceding table, the
information was collapsed to form a 2 X 2 table for purposes
of analysis. Chi-square was determined from the content of
Table 27. The statistical hypotheses were:
H : There is no difference between the median of
members and Special interest clubs and the
median of nonmembers in response to Swanson's
Inventory.

: The median of members of Special interest clubs
will be less progressive than the median of non-
members.

The result of computation showed a Chi-square figure of .014.

It was concluded that the null hypothesis be accepted.

161

Table 27. Median Test between members of special clubs and
organizations and nonmembers in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 50 123 173
More Progressive 48 125 173
Totals 98 248 346
df = 1
x2 = .014

D. Intercollegiate Athletics
The examination of data concerning student partici-
pants in intercollegiate athletics and nonparticipants
stemmed from the following statement:
Students engaged in intercollegiate athletics will
tend to be less progressive in educational viewPoint
than members.
The null and alternate hypotheses were framed in the follow~

ing manner for purposes of testing:

H : There is no difference between the medians of

0 members of intercollegiate athletic teams and
nonmembers in response to Swanson's Inventory.
H1: Members of intercollegiate athletic teams will

be less progressive than nonmembers in response
to Swanson's Inventory.

Of the 346 students which comprised the Sampling, 71
indicated participation in intercollegiate athletics. It

Should be noted that a large percentage of the male

162

pOpulation of the college were enrolled in the Industrial
Arts Division. Forty-nine (49) were concentrating on one
sport, seventeen (17) were members Of two activities, and
five (5) students participated in three or more athletic
activities.

In Table 28 is recorded the data from which analysis
was made. The Median Test was applied to the total number
of participants and nonmembers. No attempt was made to
investigate whether differences existed between nonmembers
and members classified by the number of athletic activities
engaged in. Chi-square was found to be .637 with 1 degree
of freedom at the .05 level of significance. The decision
was made to reject the alternative hypothesis in favor of

the null after inspecting the results.

Table 28. Median Test between members of intercollegiate
athletic teams and nonmembers in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

Tfi—
1L fli

 

 

 

 

 

Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 39 134 173
More Progressive 32 141 173
Totals 71 275 346
df = 1
2

X = .637

163

E. Music Organizations
Twenty-four (24) students from the sample of 346
respondents specified participation in musical organizations
sponsored by the college. This investigation did not
attempt to ascertain membership in informal bands and
ensembles. The hypothesis in question read:
Nonmembers of musical organizations will tend to be
more progressive in educational viewpoint than mem-
bers.
The Median Test was used to determine whether the
groups differed significantly. The null and alternate

hypotheses were stated in the following manner:

H : The medians of nonmembers and members of musical

0 organizations will not differ Significantly in
response to Swanson's Inventory.
H1: The median of the nonmembers will differ Signif—

icantly in the direction of being more progres-
sive than the median of the musicians.

The data as presented on Table 29 was used to calcu-
late Chi—square. The derived figure of .044 did not exceed
the .05 level of Significance with 1 degree of freedom for
a directional test. Therefore, the alternate hypothesis was

rejected in favor of the null hypothesis.

164

Table 29. Median Test between nonmembers and members of
musical organizations in response to Swanson's

 

 

 

 

Inventory
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 160 13 173
More Progressive 162 11 173
Totals 322 24 346

 

 

F. Art Organizations

The test of hypothesis concerning student members of
art organizations and nonmembers could not be affected. Four
students from the population of 346 studied admitted to hav-
ing memberships in art-oriented clubs. This proportion of
students in art clubs did not provide an adequate sampling
for statistical testing. For this reason judgment regarding
the hypothesis:

Members of art-oriented clubs will tend to be more
progressive in viewpoint than nonmembers.

was suSpended for purposes of this study. The number of
industrial arts students of this sample indicating member-
ship in art clubs may be indicative of a pattern of noninter—
est on the part of the general body of industrial arts stu—

dents at Oswego towards the area of art.

165

G. Religious Organizations

The data to test the hypothesis concerning nonmem—
bers and members of religious organizations recognized by
the college as part of the extracurricular program were set

in the 2 X 2 table as follows.

Table 30. Median Test between members and nonmembers of
religious organizations for Oswego students in
response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 42 131 173
More Progressive 29 144 173
Totals 71 275 346
df = 1
x2 = 2.551

The hypothesis was recorded in an earlier chapter in
the following manner:

Members of religious organizations will tend to be
less progressive in viewpoints than nonmembers.

The Median Test of Chi-square was used to test the
null hypothesis; and the null and alternate hypotheses were
stated:

H : There is no difference between the median of mem-

bers of religious organizations and the median of
nonmembers in response to Swanson's Inventory.

166

H

The median of nonmembers is more progressive than
the median of members of religious organizations

in response to Swanson's Inventory.

Chi-square was found to be 2.551. The resultant figure was
found to be between the .10 and .05 level of probability;

thus, the decision was made to suspend judgment until fur-

ther conclusive evidence is made available.

H. Service Organizations

The proposed testing of the hypothesis concerning
members of service organizations and nonmembers did not
materialize. Four (4) out of the total sampling Of 346 stu-
dents indicated membership in service organizations. As in
the case of membership in art organizations, the small pro—
portion of students participating in service clubs was
theorized as being one of the activities in which industrial
arts students did not find personal satisfaction and recogni-

tion.

I. Social Organizations

Members of local fraternal groups, commonly called
"Greeks" on the Oswego campus, and members of other socially
oriented clubs were included under this classification.
Membership was not open to first semester freshmen and trans—
fer students at the time of the study. For this reason the
test of hypothesis included only senior students. However,

during the second semester a number of freshmen and transfers

167

had become eligible and had gained membership into social
fraternities.
The hypothesis under consideration was reformulated
from the original to read:
Senior members Of fraternities are less progressive
than senior nonmembers in response to Swanson's
Inventory.

The statistical hypotheses were:

H : There is no difference between the median of

o . .
senior nonmembers and members of SOClal fra-
ternities in response to Swanson's Inventory.

H1: Senior members of fraternities are less pro-

gressive than senior nonmembers.

Table 31 shows that of the 133 seniors, 54 belonged
to fraternities while the remaining 79 were considered non—
members. The calculated Chi-square revealed a figure of
.061 which prompted the decision to reject the alternate
hypothesis in favor of the null. A second test incorporat—
ing the data from the first and fourth quartiles of the
senior sampling resulted in Table 32. The computed Chi-
square figure was found to be .550. The statistical hypoth—
eses were similar to those employed in the preceding test.
However, in this particular Situation, the direction of the
calculated Chi-square figure was reversed from the predic-
tion. Again the null hypothesis was accepted as the com-

puted figure did not exceed the .05 level of significance.

168

Table 31. Median Test between senior members of frater—
nities and nonmembers in response to Swanson's

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inventory
Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 28 38 66
More Progressive 26 41 67
Totals 54 79 113
df = l
X2 = .061

Table 32. Chi-square Test between senior nonmembers and
members of fraternities in response to Swanson's
Inventory using a Sample of extreme quartile

 

 

 

 

 

 

scores
Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 13 20 33
(01)

More Progressive 17 16 33
Totals 30 36 66

df = l

2

X = .550

169

J. Publications

Eleven (11) out of 346 students of the sample
checked items concerning membership in student publications
activities. A 2 X 2 table was set up to test the hypothesis:

Members of student publications activities will tend
to be more progressive in vieWpoint than nonmembers,

although the number of reported members in organizations
with primary interests in publications was small. Null and
alternate hypotheses were stated as follows:

H : There is no difference between the median of

O . . . .
members of organizations for publications and
the median of nonmembers in response to Swanson's
Inventory.
H1: Members of organizations for publications are

more progressive than are nonmembers in response
to Swanson's Inventory.

Chi-square was found to be .037 from the application
of the Median Test to the data found on Table 33. The deci—
sion was made to reject the alternate hypothesis and to
accept the null after consulting the Table of Chi-square (2).
The resultant figure of Chi-square was in the opposite direc—

tion from that predicted in the hypothesis.

K. Student Government

Participants of student government numbered 25 stu-
dents out of the sampling of 346. Twenty (20) of those
classified as members were seniors while the remaining five
(5) were categorized as Others. Technically, all students

in the sampling were members of the student association;

170

Table 33. Median Test between members of organizations for
publications and nonmembers in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 7 166 173
More Progressive 4 169 173
Totals 11 335 346
df = l
X2 = .037

however, the students designated as members of student gov-
ernment were those who took active roles in the policy and
decision-making aspects of self-government.

The hypothesis read:

Members of student government will tend to be
more progressive in viewpoint than nonmembers.

The statistical hypotheses were phrased thus:

H : There is no difference between the median

o of members of student government and the
median of nonmembers in response to Swanson's
Inventory.

H1: Members of student government are more progres-

sive than nonmembers.

A 2 X 2 table was developed and the Median Test
applied to ascertain Chi-square. Table 34 Shows the data
in the form from which a Chi-square figure of .635 was cal—
culated. The decision was made to reject the alternate

hypothesis in favor of the null as a result of the findings.

171

Table 34. Median Test between members of student government
and nonmembers in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 9 162 173
More Progressive 14 159 173
Totals 25 321 346
df = l
X2 = .635

In view of the fact that a larger proportion of
seniors were categorized as members of student government,
a subtest was made to investigate the following subhypoth-
esis:

Senior members of student government are more
progressive than senior nonmembers in response
to Swanson's Inventory.
The statistical hypotheses were stated in this manner:
H : There is no difference between the median of
o senior members of student government and the

median of nonmembers in response to Swanson's
Inventory.

Senior members of student government are more
progressive than senior nonmembers.

The data on Table 35 was used to determine Chi-
square for the subhypothesis. The decision to reject the
alternate hypothesis in favor of the null was made after
ascertaining the level of significance was not exceeded by

the calculated figure.

172

Table 35. Median Test between senior members of student
government and Senior nonmembers in reSponse to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 7 59 66
More Progressive 13 54 67
Totals 20 112 133
df = l
X2 = 1.396

L. Intramural Athletics

Of the various activities in which students partic-
ipated, the intramural athletic program was checked by a
large proportion of the students. One hundred forty—Six
(146) of the sampling of 346 students were engaged in some
form of intracollege athletics. The table which follows
summarizes by number of athletic activities engaged in,the
frequency of the various groups.

The hypothesis under test implied that nonmembers
would be more progressive than members of intramural activ-
ities. The statistical hypotheses were structured thus:

H : There is no significant differences between the

o median of nonmembers and the median of members
Of intramural athletics in response to Swanson's
Inventory.
H1: The median of nonmembers will be more progressive

in direction than the median of members of intra-
mural athletics in response to Swanson's Inventory.

173

Table 36. Frequency of members and nonmembers by number of
athletic activities participated in

 

 

Categopy Freqpency
1. Nonmembers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
2. Members: One Activity (A) . . . . . . . . . 7O
3. Members: Two Activities (B) . . . . . . . . 50
4. Members: Three or More Activities (C) . . . __26

Total 346

The data on Table 37 was subjected to the Median
Test and the resultant Chi-square figure of .011 suggested

that the null hypothesis be accepted.

Table 37. Median Test between nonmembers and members of
intramural athletics in response to Swanson's

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inventory
Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 74 99 173
More Progressive 72 101 173
Totals 146 200 346
df = l

X = .001

174

A series of subtests were conducted to analyze the
data on Table 36. The initial tests of Chi-square compared
the groups of nonmembers and the three sub-classifications
of members. In all three cases analyzed the statistical
hypotheses read:

H : There is no difference between the medians of

0 members of athletics, in groups (A), (B), and
(C), and the median of the groups Of nonmembers
in response to Swanson's Inventory.

H1: The median of nonmembers is more progressive

than the medians of groups (A), (B), and (C),
in response to Swanson's Inventory.

The calculations from the data on Tables C12 and C13
found in Appendix C resulted in the decisions to reject the
alternate hypothesis in favor of the null in both cases.

The Chi-square figure for the data on Table C14 found in
Appendix C was followed by a similar conclusion except in
this case the prediction was in the opposite directions from
the results. The Chi-square figures were .091, .025, and
.391 for comparisons between nonmembers and groups (A), (B),
and (C) respectively.

Three additional Chi-square tests were made on the
data and concerned the study of the medians between groups
of participants in athletics. It was theorized that stu-
dents who took part in athletics to a lesser degree, meaning
in fewer number of sports, would be more progressive than
students engaged in more athletic activities. The statis-

tical hypotheses were in the form:

175

H : There is no difference between the medians of
students participating in less athletic activ-
ities and students grouped on the basis of
engaging in more intramural activities in
response to Swanson's Inventory.

H : The median of students classified in a group

of less athletic activities will be more pro-
gressive than students belonging to a category

of more athletic activities.

The data found on Tables C15, C16, and C17 in Appen—
dix C were used to compute the Chi-squares. In all three
cases the calculated figures warranted the rejection of the
alternate hypotheses and the acceptance of the null hypoth-
eses. The Chi—Square figures were .034, .474, and .526. In
two cases, the comparison of group (A) and group (B) and the

comparison between group (B) and group (C), the prediction

Of the subhypotheses were reversed from the computed figures.

M. Other Organizations

This classification covered organizations not in-
cluded in the preceding categories. Twenty-eight (28) stu-
dents checked the data sheet for this item. It was hypoth-
esized that members would be less progressive than nonmem-

bers. The statistical hypotheses were stated in the follow-

ing manner:

H : There is no difference between the median of
0 students holding memberships in the category
of "other organizations" and the median of the
nonmember group in response to Swanson's Inven-
tory.

The median of students grouped as nonmembers is
more progressive than the median of students with
memberships in "other organizations."

176

The Median Test was applied to the data to ascertain whether
significant difference was apparent between the two grOUps.
A 2 X 2 table was prepared and Chi-square was computed to be
.917. As shown in Table 38, the figure was well below the
.05 probability figure of 2.71, and as a consequence, the

null hypothesis was accepted.

Table 38. Median Test between members of "other organiza-
tions" and nonmembers in response to Swanson's

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inventory
Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 17 156 173
More Progressive 11 162 173
Totals 28 318 346
df = l
X2 = .971

Off-campus club membership versus nonmembership.
The final item of the data sheet attempted to test the
hypothesis which read thus:

Members of off-campus clubs and activities will
tend to be less progressive than nonmembers.

Sixty-one (61) of the 346 students revealed memberships in
activities and clubs not sponsored by the college. For
analytical purposes the statistical hypotheses were in the

form:

177

H : There is no difference between the median of

students with memberships in activities outside

the college environment and nonmembers in re-

sponse to Swanson's Inventory.

H1: The medians of nonmembers are more progressive

than the medians of members of clubs and activ-
ities that are classified as off-campus activities
Table 39 shows the data in the manner from which Chi—

square was calculated. The table of Chi-square revealed

that the derived .807 figure did not exceed the .05 level of

significance with 1 degree of freedom. Therefore, it was

concluded that the null hypothesis be accepted.

Table 39. Median Test between nonmembers and members of
off—campus clubs and activities in response to
Swanson's Inventory.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 34 139 173
More Progressive 27 148 173
Totals 61 287 346
df = l
2

X = .807

178

Phase II: Part B; Subtests Controlling
the Factor of Class in College

The findings of the initial phase of analysis was
followed by a detailed study controlling the factor of class
in college. This strategy was pursued after computations
revealed: (1) the Chi-square to be significant between
seniors and Other students, and (2) the Chi-square figures
for the remaining tests were $23 significant to warrant the
rejection of the null hypotheses. Throughout this section
of the examination of the data, the factor of class in col-
lege will be symbolized by the terms seniors and Others.

The term Others will include recent transfer students and
regular freshmen.

The purpose to analyze the data controlling class in
college was that of ascertaining whether differences would
turn up on the various factors when examined on an intra-
class basis. It was theorized that if no differences re—
sulted when analysis was made on intraclass examination on
the various factors this would further reinforce the claim
that the instruments were measuring the vocational ideology
of teaching. A second purpose was that of examining the
data controlling class in college was to ascertain whether
membership-nonmembership would result in significant differ—
ences between senior and Other groupings.

All predictions will be in the direction of groups

named first in the summary of comparisons.

179

Transfer versus nontransfer students. The tests

 

between transfers and nontransfers included six tests of
Chi-square. These tests attempted to compare transfer and
nontransfer students' responses to Swanson's Inventory con-
trolling the factor of class in college. Senior nontransfers
and Other nontransfers were those students who had enrolled
in the industrial arts program at Oswego as freshmen without
any previous experience in other institutions of higher edu-
cation. Senior transfers and Other transfers were students
who at one time gained credit at other institutions of
higher education and transferred into the College of Oswego.
Tables C18 to C23 found in Appendix C depict the
information from which the Chi-square figures were derived.
The list which follows summarizes the calculated figures of

the six comparisons.

1. Senior transfers versus senior nontransfers 1.379
2. Senior nontransfers versus Other nontransfers 7.682*
3. Senior nontransfers versus Other transfers 6.505*
4. Senior transfers versus Other nontransfers 6.649*
5. Senior transfers versus Other transfers 6.485*
6. Other nontransfers versus Other transfers 0.008

The findings of the computed Chi—square reinforced
the conclusion that differences exist in the sample between

senior students and Other students. In the cases where the

 

*Comparisons significant at the .05 level.

180

Median Test was applied between (1) senior transfer and
senior nontransfer students, and (2) Other nontransfer and
Other transfer groups, the resultant Chi—square figures did
not exceed the .05 level of significance.

Veterans versus nonveterans. In subjecting the data
to the tests between veterans and nonveterans class in col-
lege was controlled as was done in the preceding analysis.
Six tests were conducted to ascertain the Chi-square figures
found on Tables C24 to C29 in Appendix C.

The summary listing of Chi—square values which fol-

lows is similar to the pattern of the preceding set of

figures.
1. Senior veterans versus senior nonveterans 1.834
2. Senior veterans versus Other veterans 5.607*
3. Senior veterans versus Other nonveterans 3.303*
4. Senior nonveterans versus Other veterans 12.813*

5. Senior nonveterans versus Other nonveterans 10.386*

6. Other veterans versus Other nonveterans 0.0006

The resultant figures seem to indicate that differen~
tiation between the veteran and nonveteran groups was pro-
nounced when comparisons were made on interclass basis.
Examination of the data of this sampling showed no difference
between medians of veterans and nonveterans when analysis was

intraclass in nature.

 

*Comparisons significant at the .05 level.

181

The Chi—square figure between Other nonveterans and
Other veterans was in the Opposite direction from that which
was predicted. However, the figure of .006 warranted the
rejection of the alternate hypothesis in favor of the null.

Specialists versus generalists. The examination of

 

data in terms of emphasis in areas of study in industrial
arts education controlling the factor of class in college
included six tests of Chi—square.

The Median Test was employed to ascertain the Chi-
square figures. The Tables C30 to C35 in Appendix C are in
the form from which the computations were made. The results
are listed below:

1. Senior generalists versus senior specialists 1.971

2. Senior generalists versus Other specialists 11.101*

3. Senior generalists versus Other specialists 6.315*
4. Senior specialists versus Other generalists 5.944*
5. Senior specialists versus Other specialists 5.993*
6. Other generalists versus Other specialists 0.232

In summary, the resultant figures revealed senior
generalists and senior specialists when compared with Other
generalists and specialists differed significantly in all
four comparisons. The figures of Chi-square between: (1)
senior generalists versus senior specialists, and (2) Other

generalists versus Other specialists did not exceed the .05

 

*Comparisons significant at the .05 level.

182

level of significance; however, the 1.971 Chi—square figure
derived from the test between the senior groups was in the
area of doubt.

A second series of tests were developed to further
study the effects of degree of specialization in industrial
arts in response to Swanson's Inventory. Extreme special-
ists and extreme generalists were defined as individuals who
indicated a single area of specialization. For example, an
extreme specialist would have indicated such areas as metal,
woods, drawing, electricity, and ceramics as the preferred
area to teach in; whereas, an extreme generalist would have
selected general industrial arts as the area of concentra-
tion.

Median Tests were applied to the data found on
Tables C36 to C41 in the Appendix. The derived Chi-square
'figures are listed below:

1. Extreme senior generalist versus extreme
senior specialist . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.889

2. Extreme senior generalist versus extreme
Other generalist . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.560*

3. Extreme senior generalist versus extreme
Other specialist . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.852*

4. Extreme senior specialist versus extreme
Other generalist . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.100*

5. Extreme senior specialist versus extreme
Other specialist . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.386

6. Extreme Other generalist versus extreme
Other specialist . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.776

 

*Comparisons significant at .05 level.

183

Comparisons (2), (3), and (4) were significant at
the .05 level. The tests of Chi—square for (1) and (6)
followed the pattern of no significance as in the earlier
findings. The results of computation between extreme senior
specialists and extreme Other specialists necessitated a
decision to accept the null hypothesis. All results were
in the direction predicted in the hypotheses except for the
comparison between extreme Other generalists and extreme
Other Specialists.

Membership and nonmembership_in clubs and activities.
Subhypotheses were tested comparing members and nonmembers
of the various categories of clubs and activities while con-
trolling the factor of class in college. These subhypothe-
ses were formulated after the initial phase of testing of
the major hypotheses had been completed. Thus, the tests to
follow will analyze the data previously examined with the
added control of the factor of class in college, the factor
which contributed to significant differences between groups.

1) Professional Educational Organizations.

Six Chi-square tests were calculated for the analy—
sis. In all instances the .05 level was used with a direc-
tional prediction of a Chi-square figure of 2.71. See
Appendix C for calculations, Tables C42 to C47. Listed
below are the derived Chi-square figures in the order of

the preceding description of hypotheses.

184

1. Senior members versus senior nonmembers 0.063
2. Senior members versus Other members 3.354*
3. Senior members versus Other nonmembers 8.434*
4. Senior nonmembers versus Other members 3.526*
5. Senior nonmembers versus Other nonmembers 8.730*
6. Other members versus Other nonmembers 0.133

The outcomes were similar in all comparisons to
results reported previously. The Chi-square figures of com-
parisons (l) and (6) led to the decision of no differences
between medians of the respective groups. Significant dif-
ferences were ascertained for (2), (3), (4), and (5). It
was concluded that (a) class in college differentiated stu-
dent groups when analysis was focused on an interclass basis,
and (b) class in college did not differentiate between stu-
dent groups, members and nonmembers, when the examination

was intraclass in nature.

2) Honorary Organizations

Chi—square tests pertaining to honorary organizations
were not conducted in view of the procedure used to analyze
the original hypothesis. Further attempts to examine the
data using the format in this particular section of the in—
vestigation would have been redundant. Computations in the

initial phase of analysis revealed the medians of senior

 

*Comparisons significant at the .05 level.

185

members of honorary organizations and senior nonmembers did

not differ significantly.

3) Special Interest Clubs

Subtests examining the data with regards to member—
ship-nonmembership in special interest clubs controlling
class in college involved six Chi-square tests. Thirty-
eight of the 133 seniors were categorized as members while
the 95 remaining seniors indicated nonmembership. There
were 60 members and 153 nonmembers in the Other group. It
was theorized that:

A) Senior nonmembers are more progressive than
senior members, Other nonmembers, and Other

members.

B) Senior members are more progressive than Other
nonmembers and Other members.

C) Other nonmembers are more progressive than
Other members.

Information on Tables C48 to C53 in Appendix C was
used in the calculations of the various Chi—square figures.

Listed below are the results.

1. Senior nonmembers versus senior members 0.000
2. Senior nonmembers versus Other nonmembers 11.534*
3. Senior nonmembers versus Other members 3.526*
4. Senior members versus Other nonmembers 1.519
5. Senior members versus Other members 2.106
6. Other nonmembers versus Other members 0.007

 

*Comparisons significant at .05 level.

186

Comparisons between senior nonmembers and both the
Other nonmember and Other member groups were significant at
the .05 level of significance. In all remaining cases the
Chi-square figures did not equal or exceed the .05 level of
significance. The decision was made to suspend judgment
until further data is made available upon examination of the
results of comparisons between Senior members and the groups
of Other members and nonmembers. In both cases the error
in cell sizes were in favor of the research; for this reason,
the computed figures may have been low estimates of Chi-

square.

4) Intercollegiate Athletics

Comparisons were made between members of intercolle-
giate athletic teams and nonmembers in response to Swanson's
Inventory controlling class in college. Twenty-nine seniors
and forty-two Other students participated in intercollegiate
athletics. The remaining 275 students were considered non-
members. Of this total, there were 104 seniors and 171
Other students.

Tables CS4 to C59 in Appendix C are in the form from
which the Chi—square figures were tabulated. The .05 level
of significance with a 2.71 figure for a directional predic-
tion was used as the criterion for decisions. Listed below

are the derived Chi-square figures.

187

1. Senior nonmembers versus senior members 0.216
2. Senior nonmembers versus Other nonmembers 13.568*
3. Senior nonmembers versus Other members 4.044*
4. Senior members versus Other nonmembers 0.000
5. Senior members versus Other members 0.752
6. Other nonmembers versus Other members 0.303

Two comparisons, (2) and (3), were significant at
the .05 level. There were no differences between the medi-
ans of senior participants of athletics and the Other non—
member and member groups. The Median Test of Chi—square
also disclosed no significant differences between groups

when intraclass comparisons were made.

5) Musical Organizations

Three tests were made between members and nonmembers
of musical organizations controlling class in college. The
N of Other members in musical organizations was not suffi-
cient to warrant the application of the Median Test.

Chi-square figures listed below were calculated from
the data on Tables C60 to C62 found in Appendix C. For all
three comparisons the .05 level of significance with a fig-
ure of 2.71 for a one-tailed test was employed as the

critical limit for decision-making.

 

*Comparisons significant at .05 level.

188

1. Senior nonmembers versus senior members 1.271
2. Senior nonmembers versus Other nonmembers 17.335*
3. Senior members versus Other nonmembers 0.0003

The Chi—square figure followed by the asterisk was
significant at the .05 level. In the remaining cases, the
null hypotheses of no differences were accepted. It should
be noted that the large Chi-square figure between senior
nonmembers and Other nonmembers closely matched the figure
between Seniors and Others described in Phase I of the anal-
ysis of the data. The sample for the two groups analyzed in
this section was similar to the senior and Others groups
with the exception of 15 senior students and 9 Others who
were factored out by virtue of being members of musical

organizations.

6) Art Organizations
Sample sizes of members, both seniors and Others,
were insufficient to warrant application of the Median Test

of Chi-square.

7) Religious Organizations

From the total N of 346, tabulations revealed 19
seniors and 52 Others were members of religious organiza-
tions.

The computations were made from the data on the 2X22

forms found in Appendix C on Tables C63 to C68. In all

I"
.-

189

comparisons, the .05 level of significance was employed with
a Chi-square figure of 2.71 as the critical limit. The

resultant figures were:

1. Senior nonmembers versus senior members 0.281
2. Senior nonmembers versus Other nonmembers 7.643*
3. Senior nonmembers versus Other members 12.349*
4. Senior members versus Other nonmembers 0.0000
5. Senior members versus Other members 1.001
6. Other nonmembers versus Other members 0.699

In two comparisons, (2) and (3), the outcomes were
significant to advance a decision of acceptance of the
alternate hypotheses. In all other cases the alternate
hypotheses were rejected in favor of the nulls. The com-
puted Chi-square figures for all tests were in the direction

predicted.

8) Service Organizations
The number of students engaged in service clubs and

activities was inadequate for application of the Median Test.

9) Social Fraternities and Organizations
Analysis of the data may be studied by referring to
the discussion of members and nonmembers of fraternities

made earlier in this chapter.

 

*Comparisons significant at .05 level.

190

10) Publications

The number of students indicating membership with
class in college as controls was not sufficient for purposes
of analysis. The expected cell sizes were too small for

application of the Median Test of Chi—square.

11) Student Government
The discussion on pages 169 to 172 analyzed the data
concerning membership—nonmembership in offices of student

government.

12) Intramural Athletics
The results of calculation listed below were derived

from data found in Appendix C on Tables C69 to C74.

1. Senior nonmembers versus senior members 0.063
2. Senior nonmembers versus Other nonmembers 10.441*
3. Senior nonmembers versus Other members 9.011*
4. Senior members versus Other nonmembers 6.827*
5. Senior members versus Other members 4.781*
6. Other nonmembers versus Other members 0.131

Again the findings indicated that intergroup analy—
sis by class in college differentiated the population con-
cerning beliefs. Intraclass analyses of both the groups of
Seniors and Others led to the acceptance of the null hypoth-

esis in both instances. However, the calculated figure was

 

*Comparisons found to be significant at .05 level.

191

reversed in direction in the test between Other nonmembers

and Other members.

13) Other Organizations

The final set of tests included in the analysis of
members—nonmembers in on—campus clubs and activities was
performed on the data categorized "Other organizations."
Sixty-one students indicated membership in "Other organiza—
tions," of which 23 were seniors and the remaining 38 stu-
dents under the classification of Others.

Analysis consisted of the application of the Median
Test with 1 degree of freedom and .05 as the level of sig-
nificance. The data are recorded on the 2 X 2 tables,
Tables C75 to C80 in Appendix C. A summary of the resultant

Chi-square figures are entered below.

1. Senior nonmembers versus senior members 2.003
2. Senior nonmembers versus Other nonmembers 10.232*
3. Senior nonmembers versus Other members 5.129*
4. Senior members versus Other nonmembers .787
5. Senior members versus Other members .796
6. Other nonmembers versus Other members .304

The comparisons between senior nonmembers and senior
members resulted in a Chi—square figure of 2.003 which

warranted a decision to suspend judgment pending the

 

*Comparisons significant at .05 level.

192

availability of further evidence. In each of the remaining
cases, the alternate hypothesis was rejected in favor of the

null.

Off-campus clubs and activities. In the analysis of

 

membership—nonmembership in off—campus clubs and organiza-
tions controlling class in college there were twelve seniors
and sixteen Others who indicated active participation.
Tables C81 to C86 in Appendix C are the 2 X 2 form
from which the Chi-square figures were computed. Tests of
significance at the .05 level with 1 degree of freedom were
applied to all outcomes. The resultant figures which follow

are in the order of the listed subhypotheses.

1. Senior nonmembers versus senior members 0.874
2. Senior nonmembers versus Other nonmembers 12.006*
3. Senior nonmembers versus Other members 5.584*
4. Senior members versus Other nonmembers 0.000
5. Senior members versus Other members 1.312
6. Other nonmembers versus Other members 0.639

Comparisons between senior nonmembers and both Other
nonmembers and members resulted in Chi-square figures which
were significant at the .05 level. In all other comparisons

the null hypotheses were accepted.

 

*Comparisons significant at .05 level.

193

Phase II: Part C; The Analysis of Data
Concerning Responses to the
Educational VieWpoints
Inventory

 

 

Following the format developed in the preceding
chapter the discussion of this section will focus on the
analysis of the data related to the tests of hypotheses
regarding patterns of vieWpoints of education. Four cate-
gories were operationally identified. These were labeled:
(1) progressivist, (2) logical empiricist, (3) essentialist,
and (4) unclassified. Table 40 includes the summary data

from which Chi-square tests were computed.

Table 40. Summary data: Frequency and percentage of stu-
dents in one of four categories of patterns based
in educational viewpoints with class in college

 

 

 

controlled
Frequency and Percentage

Educational by Class in College

VieWpoint Others Seniors

Category Frequency % Frequency %
1. Progressivist 44 20.65 38 28.57
2. Logical Empiricist: .

a. High Estimate 109 51.17 54 40.60

b. Low Estimate 73 34.27 41 30.82
3. Essentialist 1 0.004 0 0.00
4. Unclassified 59 27.69 41 36.69

 

Totals . 213 133

 

 

194

A. Class in College Controlled

1) Progressive-oriented seniors versus progressive-

 

oriented Others. The analysis attempted to test the hypoth-
esis stated as follows:
The proportion of progressive-oriented seniors is
significantly larger than progressive-oriented
Others.

The statistical hypotheses used were:

H : There is no significant difference between the

o prOportions of progressive-oriented seniors and
progressive-oriented Others derived from the
Educational Viewpoints Inventory for the study
of patterns of responses.

H1: The proportion of progressive—oriented seniors

is significantly larger than the proportion of
progressive-oriented Others.

Data as shown on Table 41 were used in the computa-
tion of Chi-square. The resultant figure derived from the
calculations did not exceed the .05 probability level figure
of 2.71 but was greater than the .10 probability level fig-
ure of 1.6 with 1 degree of freedom. The decision was made
to suspend judgment until further evidence is made available.
It should be noted that the direction of the test result was
similar to the prediction made in the hypothesis. When Egg
corrected for continuity, the Chi—square figure equaled
2.814 which was significant at the .05 level for a direc-
tional test.

2) Logical empiricist-oriented seniors versus
logical empiricist-oriented Others. Three tests of Chi-
square were applied on the data for the hypotheses listed

below.

195

Table 41. Test of Chi-square between progressive-oriented

seniors and progressive-oriented Others in
response to the Educational VieWpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patterns Seniors Others Totals
Progressive-oriented 38 44 82
Other VieWpoints 95 169 264
Totals 133 213 346

df = l
X2 = 2.397

(2)

(3)

The proportion of logical empiricist-oriented
seniors is larger than the proportion of logical
empiricist-oriented Others.

The proportion of logical empiricist-oriented
seniors with predictable patterns is signifi—
cantly larger than the proportion of logical
empiricist-oriented Others.

The proportion of logical empiricist-oriented
Others with less predictable patterns is signif—
icantly larger than the proportion of logical
empiricist-oriented Others within the same
category.

The null and alternate statistical hypotheses for hypotheses

(l) and (2) of the above list were stated:

H

0

There is no significant difference between the
proportions of logical empiricist-oriented seniors
and logical empiricist-oriented Others derived
from responses to the Educational Viewpoints
Inventory for the study of vieWpoint patterning.

The proportion of logical empiricist-oriented
seniors is significantly larger than the propor—
tion of logical empiricist—oriented Others.

196

For the less predictable groups, hypotheses (3), the null
and alternate hypotheses were structured thus:

H : There is no significant difference in the pro-

0 portions of logical empiricist-oriented Others
and logical empiricist—oriented seniors with
less predictable patterns derived from responses
to the Educational Viewpoints Inventory.

H1: The proportion of logical empiricist-oriented

Others with less predictable patterns is larger
than the logical empiricist—oriented seniors
proportion.

Computations were made from the data as shown on
Tables 42 to 44. The .05 level of significance with 1
degree of freedom was used to interpret the Chi-square fig-
ures. The test revealed:

1. The Chi—square figure between senior and
Other logical empiricist—oriented groups was
significant at the .05 level. However, the
derived figure was opposite in direction from
the prediction.

2. The Chi—square figure between senior and
Other logical empiricist-oriented groups of
predictable patterns did not equal or exceed
the .05 level of significance. As a result,
the null hypothesis was accepted. The Chi-
square figure was .044.

3. The Chi—square figure between Other and
senior logical empiricist—oriented groups of
less predictable patterns exceeded the .05
level of significance. The alternate hypoth-
esis was accepted. Chi-square equaled 2.859.

Log:

'43

II

197

Table 42. Test of Chi-square between senior and Other
logical empiricist-oriented groups in response to
the Educational Viewpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patterns Seniors Others Totals
Logical Empiricist—oriented 54 109 163
Other VieWpoints 79 104 183
Totals 133 213 346

df = l

X2 = 3.260

Table 43. Test of Chi-square between senior and Other
logical empiricist-oriented groups of more pre-
dictable patterns in response to the Educational
Viewpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patterns Seniors Others Totals
Logical Empiricist-oriented 41 73 114
Other VieWpoints 72 140 232
Totals 133 213 346
df = 1
2

0.044

N
H

198

Table 44. Test of Chi-square between Other and senior
logical empiricist-oriented groups of less pre—
dictable patterns in response to the Educational
Viewpoints Inventory

 

 

Patterns Seniors Others Totals

 

Logical Empiricist-oriented

 

 

 

Less Predictable 13 36 49
Other Viewpoints 120 177 297
Totals 133 213 346

df = l
X2 = 2.859

3) Senior unclassified versus Other unclassified

students. The test between senior and Other students with

 

unclassified patterns was based on the hypothesis that the
proportion of unclassified seniors would be smaller than the
proportion of unclassified Other students. The following
alternate and null hypotheses were developed:

H : There is no significant difference between the
unclassified seniors and unclassified Others in
terms of patterns derived from responses to the
Educational VieWpoints Inventory.

H : There is a significant difference between the
proportion of unclassified Others and unclassi-

fied seniors with the proportion of the former
being larger.

The data from Table 45 were used to compute Chi-
square. The resultant figure did not equal nor exceed the

.05 level of significance with 1 degree of freedom.

199

Table 45. Test of’ Chi-square between Other and senior
unclassified students in terms of patterns
derived from responses to the Educational View-
points Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patterns Seniors Others Totals
Unclassified Students 41 59 100
Other VieWpoints 92 154 246
Totals 133 213 346

df = l
X2 = 0.252

Therefore, the alternate hypothesis was rejected in favor
of the null. The direction of the Chi-square figure was
reversed from the direction predicted in the hypothesis.

4) Essentialist-oriented seniors versus essential-

ist-oriented Others. Comparisons could not be made due to

 

insufficient data.

B. Analysis of Data of Senior and Other Students
Controlling the Factor of Transfer-Nontransfer

In this developmental phase of the investigation,
the patterns of vieWpoints of seniors and Others were sub-
jected to analysis by the additional control of the factor
specified as transfer-nontransfer status. The following

table depicts the frequencies of the various categories.

200

Table 46. Summary Table: Patterns of educational vieWpoints
of seniors and Others controlling the factor of
transfer-nontransfer and eXpressed in terms of

 

 

 

 

frequency
Seniors Others
Non- Non-
Patterns Transfer transfer Transfer transfer

1. Progressivism l9 19 14 30
2. Logical Empiricism 34 20 48 61
a. More Predictable 25 16 38 35

b. Less Predictable 9 4 10 26

3. Essentialism 0 0 l 0
4. Unclassified 28 l3 14 45
Totals 81 52 77 136

 

 

l) Progressive-oriented pattern comparisons. The
first set of comparisons attempted to ascertain whether dif-
ferences existed between the various groups of students with
progressive-oriented patterns. Tables D1 to D6 in Appendix
D depict the data in the form from which Chi-square figures
were calculated. Below is a list of the computed figures;
directional hypotheses favored the first named group of each
comparison.

1. Senior nontransfer versus senior transfer 2.053

2. Senior nontransfer versus Other transfer 4.572*

 

*Comparisons significant at the .05 level.

201

3. Senior nontransfer versus Other nontransfer 4.630*
4. Senior transfer versus Other transfer 0.346
5. Senior transfer versus Other nontransfer 0.004
6. Other transfer versus Other nontransfer 0.255

The results of the calculations revealed significant
differences between the proportions of progressive patterns
of senior nontransfer and both of the groups composed of
Other students. Comparison between the proportions of
senior transfers and senior nontransfers disclosed a Chi—
square figure greater than the figure for the .10 level but
less than that required for the .05 level of significance.
The decision was made to suspend judgment until additional
evidence is made available. In all other cases, the null
hypotheses were accepted.

2) Logical empiricist-oriented patterns comparisons.
The responses in the logical empiricist—oriented patterns
were subjected to six tests of Chi-square found on Tables D7

to D12 in Appendix D. The resultant Chi-square figures

were:
1. Senior nontransfers versus senior transfers 0.049
2. Senior nontransfers versus Other transfers 6.173*

3. Senior nontransfers versus Other nontransfers 0.391

4. Senior transfers versus Other transfers 5.766*

 

*Comparisons significant at the .05 level.

202

5. Senior transfers versus Other nontransfers 0.073

6. Other transfers versus Other nontransfers 5.336*

The findings of the analyses pointed out that the
comparisons between the proportions of logical empiricist-
oriented (l) senior transfers versus Other transfers, (2)
senior transfers versus Other transfers, and (3) Other non-
transfers versus Other transfers were significant at the
.05 level. In all cases, the proportions of logical empir-
icist-oriented Other transfers was larger than the compared
groups. Thus, in comparisons (2) and (4) the direction of
the outcome was reversed from that predicted. In all other
comparisons the null hypotheses of no differences were
accepted. However, the predicted direction was reversed in
the cases of (3) and (5).

Six additional tests were applied to the data con—
cerning the predictable-less predictable factor in response
to patterns of the logical empiricist-oriented group. The
predictable groups consisted of responses more easily iden—
tified through the Operational definition defined in an
earlier chapter. The less predictable group included indi-
viduals with patterns which were classified as logical
empiricists but with response patterns that were not antic-
ipated in the development of the models and/or without large

frequencies within a given pattern.

 

*Comparisons significant at the .05 level.

203

The data in Appendix D on Table D13 to D18 were
subjected to Chi-square analysis. In the six comparisons,
the .05 level of significance with 1 degree of freedom was
used for decision—making. The results of calculation are
listed below.

1. Senior nontransfers versus senior transfers 0.043
2. Senior nontransfers versus Other transfers 0.000

3. Senior nontransfers versus Other nontransfers 2.406

4. Senior transfers versus Other transfers 0.109
5. Senior transfers versus Other nontransfers 1.802
6. Other transfers versus Other nontransfers 4.822*

The derived figures indicated significant differences
to exist between the proportions of predictable logical
empiricist-oriented groups of Other transfers and Other non—
transfers. Reference to the Chi-square Table (2) resulted
in the decision to suspend judgment concerning the compari-
sons between (a) senior nontransfers and Other nontransfers
and (b) senior transfers and Other nontransfers. In the
remaining cases, the alternate hypotheses were rejected in
favor of the null. The computed Chi-square figure was
reversed from that made in the prediction for the test

between senior transfers and Other transfers.

 

*Comparisons significant at the .05 level.

204

3) Essentialist-oriented pattern comparisons. No

 

tests were made of the essentialist pattern. One student
from the total sampling of 346 was classified as essential-
ist-oriented. This number was inadequate for testing pur-
poses.

4) Unclassifiedgpatterns comparisons. The data
were compiled on 2 X 2 tables and are documented in Appendix
D, Tables D19 to D24. The .05 probability level with 1
degree of freedom was used in each case to determine signif-
icance. Summarized below are the Chi-square figures.

1. Other nontransfers versus Other transfers 4.735*
2. Other nontransfers versus senior transfers 0.056

3. Other nontransfers versus senior nontransfers 0.805

4. Other transfers versus senior transfers 2.378
5. Other transfers versus senior nontransfers 0.629
6. Senior transfers versus senior nontransfers 0.947

The null hypothesis was rejected in favor of the
alternate in the comparison between Other nontransfers and
Other transfers, and the direction of the calculated figure
was reversed from the prediction made in the hypothesis.
Comparisons (2), (4), and (5) were found to be in the oppo-
site direction from the predictions. The resultant figure
between Other transfers and senior transfers also indicated

the need to suspend judgment until further evidence is made

 

*
Comparisons significant at the .05 level.

205

available as the calculated Chi-square figure fell in the
area of doubt. Comparisons between the various groups in
(2), (3), (5), and (6) resulted in the decision to accept

the null hypothesis in all cases.

Summary of the Chapter

 

The text of the chapter conveyed the results of the
tests applied to the data. The format included: (1) the
presentation of the summary statistics of the data, and (2)
the results of the analysis of the data derived from the
tests of the hypotheses. The presentation of the summary
statistics was designated Phase I and included (a) the
enumeration of scores derived from the instruments into
various categories and (b) the calculation of reliability
figures for the Educational Viewpoints Inventory.

Phase II was divided into three parts to facilitate
reporting and reading of the content of the analysis of the
data. Part A consisted of the tests of hypotheses in terms
of membership-nonmembership in various activities on the
basis of scores derived from the application of Swanson's
Inventory. Part B included the subtests generated as a
result of significant findings revealed in Part A. The
factor of class in college, senior-Other, was controlled
in the analysis of data in this section. The final aspect

of the analysis of the data, Part C, focused discussion of

206

the exploratory examination of viewpoints in terms of
patterns from scores derived from the Educational VieWpoints
Inventory.

In brief, the analyzed data tended to substantiate
the hypothesis that students in training would manifest view-
points advocated by teacher educators. In this particular
case the best indicator, class in college, revealed signif-
icant differences between students being initiated into the

training program and those who were near completion of that

program.

SELECTED B IBLIOGRAPHY

Hoyt, Cyril J., and Clayton L. Stunkard. "Estimation of
Test Reliability for Unrestricted Item Scoring
Methods," Educational and Psychological Measurement,
XII, No. 4 (Winter, 1952), 756-758.

 

Siegel, Sidney. Nonparametric Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., 1956. 312 pp.

 

 

Swanson, Robert S. "The Operational Definition and
Measurement of Educational Philosophy." Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1955.

, and William J. Micheels. "The Educational

 

VieWpoints of Forty-five Members of the Industrial
Arts Conference Compared with the Educational View-
points of Industrial Education Graduate Students at
Three Colleges and Universities," a duplicated
report given at the 1955 Industrial Arts Conference
(Mississippi Valley Conference).

207

CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary of the Study

The investigation was formulated to test the
hypothesis: Enrollment in an industrial arts curriculum by
students involves the assimilation of educational viewpoints
advocated by industrial arts teacher educators. Sub-purposes
of the study were (1) to develop and incorporate the tech-
nique of research by Osgood into the investigation, (2) to
extend the research conducted by Swanson, and (3) to estab-
lish a theoretical base from which to do further research.

Two basic assumptions were posited for the study.
These were (1) that students enrolled in industrial arts
programs held views concerning the practice of teaching and
(2) that the framework of research and the technique of
analysis by Swanson did, in fact, measure educational view-
points.

A review of the literature included readings regard—
ing membership in groups as related to occupational behavior.
Emphasis was placed on studies and opinions concerning the

development of occupational ideology. The review also

208

209

embraced a perusal of literature concerning the measurement
of philosophy of education of students and graduates in
industrial arts programs. The readings revealed the study
undertaken by Swanson to be the single piece of research
which attempted to measure educational vieWpoints in indus-
trial education.

The paucity of reported studies of measurement of
educational viewpoints in industrial education necessitated
reading of reports of research in other educational areas to
supplement and clarify the position of research concerning
the measurement of educational viewpoints. Conclusions of
studies indicated that educational vieWpoints could be
measured on a bi—polar continuum. In some cases more than
two vieWpoints were defined for analytical purposes.

The final phase of the review of literature encom-
passed a study of college student attitudes and values as
related to membership in various groups. It was the opinion
of a substantial number of researchers that there is a rela-
tionship between membership in selected student subcultures
and viewpoints.

The report was next extended to a discussion of the
theoretical construct and hypotheses employed in this study.
Hypotheses to be tested were evolved from the construct
based on the theme that students are members of one or more

subcultures within the social system of the campus community.

210

It was theorized that students enrolled in industrial arts
programs were members of the vocational student subculture,
more specifically the vocational student teaching subculture.
Further, it was speculated that teacher education programs
foster the development of occupational ideologies or ideol-
ogy derived in part from philosophies of education.

Hypotheses related to the vocational subculture of
teaching were stated in the form:

Hypothesis 1:

Senior students who have finished practice

teaching will tend to be more progressive—

oriented than Others when the sample includes

only industrial arts majors.

Hypothesis 2:

 

Students intending to become general indus-
trial arts teachers tend to respond towards
the progressive end of the continuum in
larger proportions than students who per-
ceive themselves as specialists or single
content area teachers.

Hypothesis 3:
Members of industrial arts clubs which are
organized to foster interest and ideals of
the occupation will tend to be more progres-
sive in outlook than nonmembers.

Hypothesis 4:
Members of honorary clubs in the field of
education and industrial arts will tend to
be more progressive in educational vieWpoints
than nonmembers.

Other hypotheses were set forth to ascertain whether member-

ship-nonmembership in nonvocational clubs and organizations

211

would result in differences in educational vieWpoints held
by the various groups.

Apparent weakness in the method of analysis for
interpretive purposes prompted the extension of the study to
include a technique to study responses on the basis of pat-
terns of educational vieWpoints. Three patterns were iden-
tified and defined. These were: (1) progressivism, (2)
essentialism, and (3) logical empiricism. A fourth category
was termed "unclassified" and encompassed all students whose
response pattern did not fit the defined patterns of the
three vieWpoints.

The hypotheses for the developmental aspect of the
investigation were as follows:

Hypothesis 21:

The proportion of progressive-oriented seniors

is significantly larger than progressive-

oriented Others.

Hypothesis 22:

The proportion of logical empiricism-oriented

seniors is significantly larger than logical

empiricism-oriented Others.

Hypothesis 23:

The proportion of Other students with essential—
ism-oriented patterns is significantly larger
than the proportions of senior students with

the views.

Hypothesis 24:

 

The proportion of Other students with unclassi—
fied viewpoints is larger than the proportion
of senior students classified the same.

212

The techniques employed for conducting the research
were described after the hypotheses were stated. Two instru-
ments, Swanson's Inventory and the Educational VieWpoints
Inventory, were the primary instruments for data collection.
Swanson's Inventory was a force—choice instrument consisting
of sixty-five paired items based in an operational defini-
tion of educational philosophies.

The Educational VieWpoints Inventory intended to
identify students from their response patterns to selected
terminology associated with various educational practices
and stances. This second instrument was structured using
the technique described by Osgood et a1. Single patterns
were identified for both progressivists and essentialists.

A total of fifteen possible patterns were determined for the
logical empiricist—oriented position. Six of the fifteen
selected patterns of logical empiricism were theorized to
be the probable patterns of responses by students.

The Personal Data Sheet and the sample studied in
this investigation were described following the discussion
concerning instrumentation. The instruments were adminis-
tered to a sample of approximately 350 students majoring in
industrial arts education during the school year 1964-65 at
State University College, Oswego, New York. The data col-
lected was tabulated and subjected to Chi-square tests.

The report of the analysis of data consisted of two

major phases. Summary statistics were presented in the

213

initial phase. A total of 346 responses to the instruments
were found usable. Reliability for the Educational View—
points Inventory was calculated in terms of item probability.
Phase II was divided into three parts. Part A in-
cluded the analysis of the twenty hypotheses. The computa-
tions revealed the following Chi—square figures with one
degree of freedom for the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1 (see page 209) . . . . - 18.152
Hypothesis 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .758
Hypothesis 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.672
Hypothesis 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.298
From the list presented above it was surmised that the
senior-Other factor was the only category which differenti—
ated students on the basis of educational vieWpoints.
Membership in association classified under nonvoca—
tional student subcultures disclosed the following figures:
1. Commuters versus noncommuters . . . . 3.503
2. Veterans versus nonveterans . . . . . 1.228
3. Transfer versus nontransfer . . . . . 0.00008
4. Membership versus nonmembership:
a. by number of membership . . . . . 0.023
b. by specified club or group:
1) special interest groups . . . 0.014
2) intercollegiate athletics . . 0.637

3) musical organizations . . . . 0.044

4) art organizations . . . . . . No study

 

214

5) religious organizations . . . 2.551
6) service organizations . . . . No study

7) social organizations

(seniors only) . . . . . . . 0.061
8) publications . . . . . . . . 0.037
9) student government . . . . . 0.635
10) intramural athletics . . . . 0.011

11) other student organizations . 0.971

4. Off-campus clubs . . . . . . . . . . 0.807

All computed Chi-square figures revealed the re-
suzonses to Swanson's Inventory did not differentiate stu-
ckznts on the factor of membership-nonmembership in nonvoca-
tional associations with the exception of (l) commuter-
noncommuter and (2) membership—nonmembership in religious
organizations. The significance of the difference between
commuters-noncommuters was found to be affected by the large
prOportion of seniors in the commuting category. The large
Chi-square figure though not significant of the membership-
nonmembership in religious organizations may be a factor in
need for further study.

Subtests revealed significant Chi-square figures in
many'instances between seniors and Others on the factors
listed above. More important the analysis substantiated the
theory of the development of occupational ideology when sig—

nificant differences in viewpoint were not apparent with any

215

degree of consistency when intraclass analyses were made for
the various factors.

The analysis of data for hypotheses of Phase II,
Part C disclosed the following Chi-square figures:

Hypothesis 21:

 

The proportion of progressive-oriented seniors is
significantly larger than progressive—oriented
Other students.

Chi—square figure corrected for continuity. 2.397
Not corrected for continuity. . . . . . . . 2.814

Hypothesis 22:

 

The proportion of logical empiricism-oriented
seniors is significantly larger than logical
empiricism-oriented Others.

Chi-square figure corrected for continuity. 3.600*
Hypothesis 23:
The proportion of Other students with essential—
ism-oriented patterns is significantly larger
than the proportions of senior students with
the same views.
No test was made due to insufficient sampling
of the essentialist-oriented pattern for both
groups.
Hypothesis 24:
The proportion of Other students with unclassi—
fied viewPoints is larger than the proportion

of senior students classified the same.

Chi-square figure corrected for continuity. 0.252*

 

*The calculated figure was reversed from the pre-
dicted direction.

216

Tests were also calculated controlling the transfer-
nontransfer status between senior and Other students. Some
significant figures were derived which indicated senior non-
transfer students to be proportionately larger as a progres-
sive group. Secondly, both senior transfers and nontransfers
and Other nontransfer students were found to be less logical
empiricist-oriented than Other transfer students. No signif-
icant differences were found between Other nontransfer and
both senior groups for the unclassified patterns. However,

a Chi-square figure of 2.378 between Other transfers and
senior transfers prompted the decision to suspend judgment
until further evidence is made available. In the preceding
case the predicted direction was reversed from the calculated
figure. A significant Chi—square figure was obtained between
Other transfer and Other nontransfer groups with the prOpor-
tion of unclassified students being larger for the nontrans-

fer group.

Conclusions

The findings derived through the analysis of the
data supported the following conclusions. These conclusions
apply only to the sample studied for school year 1964-65.

It would be prudent to interpret the conclusions as prelim-
inary work to the elusive and difficult task of assessing
the belief patterns of undergraduate students in industrial

arts education.

a

10.

217

Senior students enrolled in industrial arts programs
tend to manifest behavior more in keeping with the
vieWpoint of Industrial Arts Teacher Educators than
do freshmen and new transfers.

There is a tendency for students scoring in the
extreme ends of the Swanson Inventory to be (1)
generalists at the progressive end of the continuum
and (2) specialists at the less progressive end of
the continuum.

Students who have memberships in two professional
industrial arts clubs tend to be proportionately
more progressive than nonmembers.

All factors of membership-nonmembership in associa-
tions of the nonvocational subculture were not dif-
ferentiated by viewpoints. The exception to this
was the factor of membership in religious organiza-
tions which is in need of further study before a
conclusive decision may be made.

From the preceding statement it is claimed that the
instruments employed in this particular investiga-
tion did measure occupational ideology and that the
instruments were not able to differentiate students
on factors which were categorized nonvocational.

It was found that senior nontransfer students were
more progressive than senior transfer, Other trans-
fer, and Other nontransfer student groups.

Senior transfer students were proportionately more
progressive than Other transfer and Other nontrans-
fer groups.

The two preceding conclusions further indicate that
students with more time on campus and being in the
program of training longer, tend to be closer in
vieWpoint of Industrial Arts teacher educators.

Membership in religious organizations tended to be

less progressive than nonmembers. However, as with
other findings of the study, the largest difference
was between senior nonmembers and Other members.

Senior students tended to have proportionately more
progressive patterns than Other students.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

218

The students in the category of Others were found
to have a larger proportion of students with less
predictable logical empiricist-oriented viewpoints
in terms of patterning.

The factor of membership-nonmembership in honorary
scholastic organizations did not differentiate stu-
dents by educational viewpoint.

The exploratory reliability studies of items indi—
cated some stability of educational vieWpoint re-
sponses in terms of patterning.

The summary statistics disclosed the computed fig-
ures and those reported by Swanson to be distributed
similarly. As expected the figures derived by Swan-
son for graduate students and teachers were more
progressive than that which was gathered for this
study.

The findings from the analysis of data support the
claim made by Bruce (1) who indicated that there was

a sizable percentage of students with inconsistent
viewpoints.

Recommendations and Implications

Recommendations of the study. The recommendations

 

to follow stem from the findings and problems encountered in

the process of the investigation.

1.

The inventories ought to be part of the evaluative
battery for pre— and/or post—student teaching
evaluation.

a. It is recommended that the inventories be used
in conjunction with other evaluative devices in
assessing student teaching competency.

b. The student's responses should be interpreted to

to the individual.

219

The following recommendations are made for further

study of the problem concerning the measurement of

educational vieWpoints of individuals who are pre-

paring to become industrial arts teachers.

a.

More extensive research concerning methods and
classification of educational viewpoints should
be conducted.

Recently developed techniques of research and
other methods of collection and analysis of data
may reveal significant new interpretations in
studies of educational viewpoints.

Longitudinal studies should be undertaken to
ascertain whether differences in vieWpoints may
be attributed to changes of vieWpoints within
individuals and/or through other selective fac-
tors of the educational system.

Item analysis should be extended to enable
strengthening the Educational Viewpoints Inven—
tory. Also, further studies should be under-
taken to establish the reliability of the Educa-
tional Viewpoints Inventory.

Extensive studies over larger populations of
potential teachers, students in training, and
teachers in the field should result in more com-
prehensive generalizations applicable to the

occupation.

220

Further studies should be undertaken to deter—
mine relationships between (1) creativity and
vieWpoints of education, (2) personal preferences
to particular curriculum patterns and educational
viewpoints, and (3) degree of specialization in
industrial education to educational viewpoints.
It is recommended that studies of educational
viewpoints be extended to other undergraduates
programs to establish a broader base from which
evaluation of teaching may be made of such
programs.

Studies should be undertaken to assay the prob-
able proportions of students and teachers with
inconsistent and/or consistent vieWpoints which
were not defined in the study.

The relationship between the factor of member—
ship-nonmembership in religious organizations
in relationship to educational viewpoints ought
to be studied in detail.

It is recommended that the definitions of view-
point patterns be extended to more operational

aspects of education to enable the development

of a more precise instrument.

221

Implications of the study. The conclusions of the

 

investigation were instrumental in the outgrowth of some
fundamental questions. One of the concerns emanating from
the findings was the degree of appropriateness of classify-
ing the vieWpoints of industrial arts teachers and teacher
educators into the classic categories of essentialism and
progressivism. The results of the investigation suggest
that pure-typed essentialists are few in number compared to
students holding other viewpoints. Swanson's distribution
of graduate students and practicing teachers also reflects
a paucity of essentialists among personnel engaged in indus-
trial education activities. The tentative results of the
develOpmental aspect of patterning of viewpoints further
substantiates the hypothesis that essentialists constitute
a small minority of the total number of students in the
training process.

The results of analysis indicates that the essential—
ist-progressivist continuum does not apply in relation to
the distribution of responses of educational viewpoints of
industrial arts teachers. A more precise categorization of
vieWpoint types seems to be between progressivists on the
one hand, and logical empiricists on the other. It is also
emphasized that the number of individuals with unconfirmed
vieWpoints is substantial among undergraduates and perhaps a

third category could encompass the unclassified group.

222

The implication concerning recent trends in curric-
ulum research is the seeming disproportionate emphasis of
studies based in the logical empiricist point of view. For
example, the two large scale curriculum projects at Stout
State University (2) and Ohio State-Illinois Universities
(3) are representative of the research based in logical
empiricism. The emphasis on (1) hypothetico-empirical con-
structs, (2) the concern of definitions characterized by
clarity and conciseness, and (3) the delineation of cogni-
tive elements of knowledge from methodology of teaching are
the hallmarks of solving educational problems yia empiricism.

On the basis of the findings it is suggested that
curriculum research from other points of View be instigated
to accommodate individuals who may 32E agree with the tenets
of the above points of view. Second, the participants of
curriculum research ought to specify the vieWpoint on which
the research endeavor is premised. Too often research in
industrial arts tends to be studied from positions which are
not made explicit and/or are based in somewhat inconsistent
thought. It is recommended that curriculum problems be
attacked from a number of viewpoints to accommodate as many
individuals with varying vieWpoints. It is the writer's
Opinion that the very structure of industrial arts curric-
ulum as it now stands selects out individuals who deviate
in viewpoint from the dominant positions of progressivism

and logical empiricism.

223

Another implication of the study suggests that
assessment of student vieWpoints may assist in the evalua-
tion of industrial arts teacher education programs. The
lack of difference in proportions of seniors and Others
under the classification of "unclassified" might be inter-
preted to mean that the industrial arts teacher education
program does not succeed in changing the student's point of
view regarding education. If a program is committed to a
particular point of view, it could be theorized that the
goal of four years of industrial teacher education courses
ought to diminish the proportion of unclassified students
and to enlarge the proportion of students in the category of
the advocated viewpoint reflected by the curriculum.

An implication expressed,in form of questions may be
asked as to the difference in proportions between the seniors
and Others concerning the logical empiricist and progressive
groups. Why do students in the senior category seem to be
more progressive than Other students; and is the change of
proportions based in a shift from logical empiricism to
progressivism? It is hypothesized that teacher training
institutions tend to favor the progressivist position.

Those students who do shift are those who have not solidi-
fied a point of view but in the same vein are oriented to
logical empiricism and progressivism.

From the preceding discussion it is suggested that

teacher educators examine the issue whether a program in

224

industrial arts ought to pursue a single viewpoint or whether
it is more appropriate for students to experience the alter-
native possibilities of curriculum structuring. The case

may be made for either position regarding the issue at hand
but it is the writer's feeling that too often in industrial
arts education the potential teacher is not given the oppor—
tunity to examine questions concerning the rationale behind
the structuring of content for teaching purposes. Attendant
to this opinion is the belief that the organization of indus~
trial arts programs at the undergraduate level limits inquiry,
dialogue, and criticism of views other than those which are
not a parcel to the program in question.

The final implication of the investigation suggests
the need for more attempts of research in the area of educa-
tional viewPoints as related to industrial arts. The review
of literature revealed that the relationship between the
evaluation of Operational aspects of industrial arts and
philOSOphical positions have been neglected. In this inves-
tigator's judgment (1) the interpretive historical studies,
(2) the studies of curriculum, and (3) the research concern—
ing methodology and psychology of teaching are of lesser
quality because of the lack of more precise operational defi-
nitions of various philosophical views which gird the educaw
tional arena.

The lack of sufficient definitions of philosophy in

terms of industrial arts has negated the growth increment of

225

of new knowledge from different perspectives. For example,
there ought to be an operational definition of existential-
ism as related to industrial arts. From such an operational
definition might arise studies of curriculum, history, and
methodology with a different flavor. The danger accompanying
the neglect of identifying relationships between philosophy
and practices is that the fund of knowledge derived may be
inapprOpriate and irrelevant to the teaching—learning situa-
tion as viewed by the teacher.

In closing, the findings, conclusions, and recommen-
dations ought to be viewed as developmental. It was intended
that the content of this report be viewed as an attempt to
extend research of industrial arts in the direction where
practices of the teaching situation could be equated with
particular vieWpoints. Thus viewpoints, being part of the
occupational ideology of industrial arts teaching, would
lend itself in the evaluating process of students and

teachers.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bruce, Joyce. "An Orientation Towards Values in Teacher
Education," The Journal of Teacher Education, XII,
No. 4, 463—465.

Face, Wesley L., and Eugene R. F. Flug. "The Conceptual
Study of American Industry," a progress report.
Improving Instruction in Industrial Education.
Report of 12th Annual Industrial Education Confer-
ence, Stout State University, Menomonie, Wisconsin,
October 15, 1965.

Lux, Donald, Willis E. Ray, and Edward R. Towers. N231
Dimension in Industrial Arts Curriculum Development.
A brief description of the Industrial Arts Curric-
ulum Project, OE-5-85-066. Ohio State University
and University of Illinois.

Swanson, Robert S. "The Operational Definition and

Measurement of Educational PhilosoPhy." Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1955.

226

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Number Page

Al. INVENTORY OF VIEWPOINTS ON EDUCATION:
Form A by Robert S. Swanson, Stout State
College, Menomonie, Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . 229

A2. ANSWER AND ACTIVITIES PROFILE SHEET:
Activities Profile Sheet develOped by this
investigator; and answer sheet Swanson's
Inventory of Viewpoints Inventory . . . . . . . 231

A3. VIEWPOINT INVENTORY: Form A by this inves—
tigator. Referred to in this report as the
Educational Viewpoints Inventory . . . . . . . 232

A4. VIEWPOINT INVENTORY: Form B by this inves-
tigator. Referred to in this report as the
alternate form of the Educational Viewpoints
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

A5. CONVERSION TABLE: Educational VieWpoints
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

228

229

APPENDIX A1

INVENTORY OF VIEWPOINTS
ON EDUCATION

FORM A

' ROBERT SWANSON

STOUT STATE COLLEGE, MENOMONIE, WISCONSIN

DIRECTIONS: This inventory consists of a series of pairs of statements of opinions, beliefs,
and proposed actions in educational situations. Read each pair carefully. You may not fully
agree or disagree with either statement. The choice that you generally accept may represent
a more extreme viewpoint than you would propose. Decide which statement represents an
emphasis most nearly like yours. Then, on the answer sheet, blacken the letter (a or b) that
corresponds to your choice. Some of the statements may seem ambiguous; interpret them
for the general situation and in a sense most logical to you. Please react to all items.

a.

b.

l
The elements of content in a subject area remain
about the same, regardless of course objectives.
The objectives for a course determine what should
be considered elements of subject matter.

2

. The teacher should serve as an authority in his

subjects. It is his job to bring facts and skills to
the student.

The teacher should serve as a fellow investigator,
though perhaps as a leader in the investigation.

3

. The subjects of science, math, English, and his-

tory are basically more valuable than vocational
subjects.

. The high school has a duty to offer vocational

preparation even at the expense of some science.
math, English, and history.

A beginning course must include the same funda—
mentals regardless of whether it is a terminal
course or one preparing for further work in the
subject.

. The content of a course for terminal purposes

should be basically different from that of a course
preparing for further work.

5

. Objectives should not be claimed unless it can be

shown that they can be achieved.

Objectives are something to be striven toward:
they derive value independently of students’ at-
tainment of them.

. Content most immediately useful to students in

solving their problems should be taught first.

. Content found to be most frequently useful in

later learning should be taught first.

. Problem solving is impossible without the posses-

sion of certain knowledges and skills; the princi-
pal job of the school is to build these basic ele-
ments.

. Problem solving is possible and desirable at all

levels of learning because it is the problems that
indicate the elements to be taught.

. Objectives require constant re-evaluation against

changing conditions.

. Constant restatement of objectives is often a

waste of time; it would be better to spend the
time in a more careful study of the content and
new scientific developments in it.

. Knowledge of educational psychology is import-

ant in determining objectives.

. Educational psychology is important in selecting

teaching methods but not particularly in specify-
ing objectives.

10

. There should be relatively fixed standards to be

attained before issuing a high school diploma.

. Even minimum standards are not desirable be-

cause of the varying needs and abilities of stu-
dents.

11

. Facts and skills are either correct or incorrect.
. What is regarded as correct is determined some-

what by the use that is to be made of facts and
skills.

12

. Objectives serve as general guides to the selec-

tion of content, but specific items of content are.
determined from within the content itself.

. Objecti‘ves function in determining what should

be taught and how it should be taught.
13

. Standards based upon group achievement. even of

large groups, are basically unsound; standards
must come from a scientific study of the subject
matter.

. Standards must be based on the use to be made of

the subject matter.

14

. Student interest should be exploited in selecting

teaching methods but little in content selection.

. Student interest is a rather large factor in select-

ing content.

15

. A comprehensive evaluation program can be a

valuable aid to revising both objectives and con-
tent.

An evaluation program tells only what the stu-
dent learned, not what he should learn.

16

. In a good test the answers will be definitely either

“right” or “wrong.”

. One ‘fanswer key” cannot be used to mark all

tests if the materials are at all complicated.

I?

. The score on an evaluative device should in no

way reflect the personal opinion of the teacher.

. There should be subjectivity to evaluation; it is

just a question of how much.

18

. Honest student opinion of achievement is at least

as valuable as teacher evaluation because the stu-
dent can judge in terms of his needs and interests.

. Even conscientious self-evaluation by the student

has questionable value because the student is not
in the “expert” position of the teacher.

19

. Uniform standards of achievement throughout a

school are desirable.

. Uniform standards are neither desirable nor prac-

tical because of the individual needs and abilities
of the students.

. The most efficient evaluation of student achieve-

ment will be in terms of ability to recall import-
ant facts and skills.

. Facts and skills have little meaning and value

outside of their use in solving problems.

21

. Individual differences among students call for

variation in teaching methods but not in the basic
content and objectives.

. The same content and objectives cannot apply for

all students or even for a large majority of them.

. After the basic skills of reading, writing, and

arithmetic have been taught, practically all other
content should be organized in terms of problems
to be solved.

. The most efficient way to teach (and learn) is to

analyze the basic essentials and teach them, drill
them if necessary.
23

. The elective system allows each student to select

a program suited to his needs.

. The elective system has merit largely because it

increases student interest; otherwise it would be
just as well to have a carefully planned curricu
lum for all.

24

. The main worth of the school’s content is in solv-

ing life problems.

. There is some very “impractical” content that

should be included in the curriculum.

25

. A curriculum based on a careful study of the

needs of youth twenty years ago would probably
be quite different from a curriculum based on a
careful study of the needs of youth today.

. A study of the needs of youth today may reveal

new approaches to teaching and new problems to
be solved but the fundamentals of subject matter
would probably not be changed much.

. The best way to improve teaching is to give teach-

ers more advanced work in their subject fields
even to the elimination of many of the “education”
courses.

. Study of ways of teaching and organizing subject

matter is more fruitful in improving teaching
than increased formal study of subject matter.

27

. That which is easiest to learn should be taught

first.

. What should be taught first must be determined

by the subject matter.
28

. If artificial incentives, such as marks, contests,

etc., aid the student to master the fundamentals
they should be employed.

. Ordinarily, it will not be necessary to employ art-

ificial incentives if the content is worthwhile.

. Content that cannot be shown to be useful rather

immediately should be dropped.

. Much worthwhile content cannot be shown to be

useful, at least very directly.

a.

a.
b.

30
With most subjects, after a teacher has taught
a course several times few changes will be needed
in content and organization though new illus-
trations and problems should be incorporated.

. Variable needs and conditions call for frequent

changes in content and organization in most cour-
ses nearly every time they are taught.

31

. Knowledge has no inherent “alue; its value is de-

termined. by its usefulness.

. Usefulness is no index of the worth of knowledge;

knowledge is either true or false.

32

. Except for the cost, it would be a good idea to

have a different curriculum for almost every stu-
dent.

. The school should act as a stabilizing influence

by giving students a common background.

33

. High school objectives in California should be

quite similar to those in Maine or Wisconsin.

. Different localities may require different sets of

educational objectives.

34

It is inefficient for students to work out “solu-
tions" to problems if the answers are known; the
teacher should teach what is correct and make
sure that the students learn it.

Many important objectives are attained by work-
ing out problem solutions even if fewer facts are
learned.

35
Modernizing a curriculum is mainly a process of
incorporating current problems as devices to il-
lustrate the fundamentals.
The "essentials” to be taught change with chang-
ing conditions.

Even though perfectly objective methods of eval-
ualting the “intangible" objectives are not avail-
able, attempts should be made to evaluate their
attainment and they should be factors in marking.
It is more justifiable to mark almost entirely on
the basis of facts and skills learned.

37

A periodic reappraisal of objectives and content
is necessary not so much because the basic ele-
ments have changed but because our knowledge
of them has been refined and extended through
scientific discovery.

A periodic reappraisal of objectives and content
is necessary because the needs of students and
society may have changed and altered the pur-
poses served by the school.

38
Science functions mainly to uncover knowledge.
Science, by opening new avenues to learning, ac-
tually aids in the creation of knowledge.

230

a

39

. Objectives must keep close pace with social de-

velopment.

. The important objectives of education do not

change with changing conditions.

40

. Authorities on subject matter cannot do a good

job of specifying content if they are not aware of
the nature of the learners.

. The selection of course content is a technical job,

requiring a subject matter export; a knowledge
of the learner affects method of teaching, how-
ever.

41

. Conscientious adult opinion is an important factor

in revising objectives and content for a school
system.

. Revisions of any scope must be the products of

careful scieJtific investigaalon by experts: public
relations should be considered in reviewing com-
munity opinion, however.

42

. Though students lack knowledge of subject mat-

ter they do know their needs and interests and
therefore should have a Significant voice in the
selection of what should constitute a course.

. There are certain basic elements that must be

taught; there is little point in student selection of
content if they are unfamiliar with the elements.

43

. It is possible to know something without neces-

sarily being able to make use of it.

. What the student knows and what use he can make

of his knowledge are practically the same thing.

44

. Amount of content may be reduced if it is found

that students are not mastering it, but the stand-
ards of attainment should remain the same.

. Standards must vary with the needs and abilities

of the learner.

45
Much student investigation of problems tends to
lead students to doubt the existence of facts;
whatever works is true.

. Students should question “facts" because what

can be considered a fact depends upon the use to
which it is put.

46
Readiness of the student to learn is a very import-
ant factor in deciding what should be taught.
Learner readiness is important, but it is a factor
in the method of teaching rather than in the sc-
lection of content.

47
Marks should take into account the relationship
between students’ abilities and their achieve-
ments.
Marks should be calculated against rather fixed
standards; otherwise they have no meaning.

48

' . Individual differences are best handled by provid-

ing for student selection of content with the guid-
ance of the teacher.

. Individual differences are better handled by elec-

tive subjects; what is included in the electives
should be decided by authorities in the field.

49

. A follow-up of students should have a large part

in revising a school’s objectives.

. The basic skills and knowledges do not change

over a period of time; a follow-up does not
change objectives.

50

. Problems should be used as the bases for select-

ing and organizing content.

. Problems are too numerous and specific to form

the bases for organizing content; content must be
reduced to fundamental skills and knowledges.

51

. The main job of the school is to build a founda-

tion of basic skills and knowledges.

. The school must concern itself with present prob-

lems for they determine what should be taught.

52

. After the skills of communication in a field have

been taught, the remaining content should be con-
ceived as a series of hypotheses to be proposed
and tested.

. Most subject matter is composed of elements of

skill and knowledge; once these have been mas-
tered it is a matter of applying them to problem
situations.

53

. There is a satisfaction which comes from knowl-

edge for its own sake; the school should build on
this kind of satisfaction.

. There is little value in knowledge outside of the

use that can be made of it.

54

. The only kind of investigation worthy of the name

is factual scientific experimentation.

. There is much in education that should be investi-

gated in a “practical” sense, i.e., does it work ?

55

. Good moral habits should be “drilled into” stu-

dents without always analyzing the reasons for
them.

. Good moral habits cannot be acquired effectively

without an understanding of the reasons for
them; if the reasons change, the habits should be
changed.

58

. Teachers should teach students, not subject mat-

ter.

. The former is largely a glib statement; unless

the teacher imparts subject matter he has taught
nothing.

5']

. It motivates students to allow them to explore

subject areas even if they do not discover the es-
sential elements; however, the teacher should
make sure that the essentials are pointed out and
learned before the subject is left.

.The importance of exploration is to develop

methous and habits of investigation; the facts
uncovered are of lesser importance.

58

. In order to make objectives more explicit and use-

ful it is necessary to state the kinds of behavior
that will characterize the student who achieves
them.

. A more useful method of defining objectives is to

list the content that must be covered to attain the
objectives.

58

. A carefully prepared textbook provides an excel-

lent basis for organizing and teaching a course.

. At best, books are never more than references be-

cause each class is different.

. Complexity of subject matter determines what

should be taught first; simple, elemental units
must precede the more complex. ‘

. Complexity of subject matter is determined from

within the student; what is complex for one stu-
dent may be simple for another.

61

. Vocational specialization can best be achieved in

a vocational school or on the job; the high school
should offer a common core of general subjects.

. The high school must provide for some degree of

specialization.

62

. Psychological factors within the student are the

best determiners of the order of instruction.

. The content itself determines largely what should

be taught first; it is the teacher’s job to prepare
the learner for what is to be taught.

83

. Students should be encouraged to critically eval-

uate content against individual and social needs.

. There is an inherent value to some content that

cannot be determined by its use, at least very
directly.

84

. Objectives should be developed by the persons

who are to use them, teachers and pupils.

. Objectives should be derived by careful study by

experts.

85

. Subject matter should be organized around prob-

lems, each requiring a different structure of facts
for its solution.

. Most sub ject matter is built of progressively more

complex elements, each related to the previous.

 

231.

APPENDIX A2
ANSWER AND ACTIVITIES PROFILE SHEET

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Name _____ ____ ~ w Date Number _
1. Class: Fr Soph Jr Sr Grad Other__ __._._
2. Transfer: Yes No 3. Commuter: Yes No
b. Veteran Non-Veteran
3. Interest area in Industrial Arts:
a. wood d. textiles g. drawing
b. electricity' e. metals h. ceramics
c. transportation f. graphic arts i. general industrial arts

Check spaces if you actively participate in the following onrcampus clubs:

a. Professional Organizations

1.
2.
3.
h.

b.

SEANYS

Industrial Arts Club
House of Delegates
Graphic Arts Club
Other:

13. Henorary:

l.
2.

 

 

Kappa Delta Pi
Epsilon Pi Tan

0. Special Interest

 

bowl-4
.00

CW (334 O‘U"l:"
e

H

 

Bit and Spur

Catalina Club

Dance Club

Ski Club

Judo Club

Amateur Radio Club

flying Club

Blackrriars

Debate

International Relations Club

(1. Intercollegiate Athletics

1.

Name sports

 

 

 

 

 

 

f.

g.

h.

i.

k.

1.

3.

 

Art Organizations (Name organization)
1.
2.

 

Religious (Name club)

2.

 

Service
1.
2.

Alpha Phi Omega
Other:

 

 

Social
1. Greek fraternity
2. Other:

 

w

Publications
1. Ontarian
2. Oswegonian
Other:

30

 

Student Government
1. CUB
2. Interfraternity

 

Intramural.Athletics

 

 

——-'

Other Organizations

 

 

 

 

 

v w.

a. _g___
b.
c. .—
2. Block "O"
a. Music (Name club)
1.
2. ‘_
(Dir-campus Clubs, Organizations, etc. in.which I actively'participate:
1.
2. ‘r"'

 

u._

 

INVENTORY ON VIEWPOINTS ON EDUCATION

ANSWER SHEET - Form A

51.

26.

27.

l.

52.

53.
Sh.
SS.

28.

29.

30.

b.

560

31.
32.

57.
58.

7.

33.
3h.
35 .

59.

b

a

9.

10.

61.

36.
37.
38.
39.
ho.

ll.

62.

12.

63.
6h.
65 .

13.

b

a

15 .

111.

16.

1:2.

17.

18.

19.

20.

a b

1:6.
117 .

21.

22.
23.
2b,.
25.

1:8.

19.

b

a

SO.

‘nJ‘s

APPENDIX A3
VIEWPOINT INVENTORY

gigflIONS: The purpose of this study is to measure the meanings of specific ideas
by judging them against a series of descriptive scales. In taking this
inventory, please make your judgments on the basis of what these things
mean to 23. On each page of this booklet you will find two concepts to
be judged and beneath each a set of scales. You are to rate the concept
on all scales.

EXAMPLE:

In my opinion:
the automobile MUSTANG is:
(as opposed to: GMC truck)

 

 

graceful : : : : : : ugly
strong : : : : : : weak
fast - : : : : : : slow

 

If you feel that the concept is very closely related to one end of the scale, place
your mark as follows:

gracele

graceful

_ : : : ugly
R
: : : X ugly

If you feel that the concept is quite closely related to one end or another of the
scale (but not extremely), you should place your mark as follows:

000

graceful : X : : : : ugly

: : X : ugly

If the concept seems onl sli htl related to one side as opposed to the other side
(but not really neutralS, place your mark as follows:

graceful : :

graceful : : X : : : ugly

5i“
: : X : : ugly

The direction toward which you check, of course, depends upon which of the two ends
of the scale seem most characteristic of the thing you're judging.

graceful

If you consider the concept to be neutral on the scale, both sides of the scale equally
associated with the concept, or if the scale is completely irrelevant, unrelated to the
concept, then you should place your mark in the middle space.

graceful : : : X: : : ugly

IMPORTANT: (1) Place your check-marks in the middle of spaces, not on the
boundaries:
this not this
graceful : X : : : X : ugly

(2) Be sure you check every scale for every concept - do not omit any.
(3) Never put more than one check-mark on a single scale.

(It) Hake each item a separate and independent judgment.

(5) There are no right or wrong answers.

In my Opinion:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Educational aims FIXED AND ETERNAL
that are: (As opposed to: Relative and Changing)
GOOD : : : : : : BAD
ENERGETIC : ' : ' ' INERT
AIMLESS : : : : : : mTIVATED
VIGOROUS : : : : : FEEBLE
EDUCATED : : : : : : IGNORAN‘I'
DISREPUTABLE A : : : : : : REPUTABLE
UNWISE : : : : : : WISE
PRmIBITIVE : : : : : : PERMISSIVE
ACTIVE : : : : : PASSIVE
POTENT : : : : : : IM’OTENT
In my Opinion
The teacher's GUIDING STUDENTS
primary dUt)’ is: (As Opposed to: Explanation of Subject)
SINPLE : : : : CGPLEX
PRaiIBITIVE : : : :i : : PERMISSIVE
GOOD : : : ° : : BAD
IGNORANT : : : ° : : EDUCATED
PASSIVE : : : : : ACTIVE
RIGHT : : : : ° WRONG
VIGOROUS : : : : : : FEEBLE
INPOTENT : ' ° : . : : POTENT
[NINTENTIONAL : : : : : : INTENTIcNAL

 

REPUI‘ABLE : : : : : : _ DISREPUTABLE

 

233

In my opinion
Course Material
Organized by:

EXPERT PROFEsz
(As Opposed to: Pupil and Instructor)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

C(M’LEX : : SIMPLE
WEAK : ' : : : STRONG
SUPERIOR ' : : : : : INFERIOR
UNSUCIZESSFUL : ° : : : SUCCESSFUL
WISE : : : : : FOOLISH
IWO'I‘ENT : : : POTENT
ACTIVATED : : : : : AIMLESS
GOOD ' : : : : : BAD
FREE ° : : : : : C(NSTRAINED
ACTIVE : ' : : : : PASSIVE
In my opinion PRACTICAL AND SUBJECT IVE
Tests that are: (As Opposed to: Standardized and Objective)
STRONG : ° : : : : WEAK
TRUE : : : : : : FALSE
EASY. ' ' : : : : DIFFICULT
AIMLESS : : : : : : mTIVATED
INFERIOR : ° : : : : SUPERIOR
GOG) : ' : : : : BAD
FREE : : : : : : CONSTRAINED
ACTIVE : ° : : : : PASSIVE
POI'ENT : : : : : : IMPOTENT
EDUCATED : : : : : : IGNORANT

 

In my opinion ~350er AND ETERNAL

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Knowledge is: (As Opposed to: Evolving and Emerging)
GOOD : : : : : : BAD
FEEBLE : : : : : : VIGOROUS
PASSIVE : : : : : : ACTIVE
ACTIVATED : : : : : ' AIMESS
INFERIOR : : : : : : SUPERIOR
WISE : : : : : : FOOLISH
smmc : : : : : : WEAK
SIMPLE : : : : ° : C(M’LEX
FREE : : : : : : C(NSTRAINED
BENEFICIAL : : : ° : ' HARMFUL
In my Opinion
Learning is a IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS
Process of: (As opposed to: Exercise, Drill, P. Discipline)
ACVING : : ° : : ° STILL
AIMLESS : : : : : : ACTIVATED
UNWISE : : : : : : WISE
GOOD : : : : : : BAD
POTENT : : : : : : IWOTENT
WEAK : : : : : - STRING
HARMFUL : : : : : : BENEFICIAL
ACTIVE : : : : : ° PASSIVE
SUPERIOR : ° ° : : : INFERIOR
FEEBLE : : : : : : VIGOROUS

 

AJ‘I-

APPENDIX A4
VIEWPOINT INVENTORY

visscTIONS: The purpose of this study is to measure the meanings of specific ideas
by judging them against a series of descriptive scales. In taking this
inventogy, please make your judgments on the basis of what these things
mean to ygg, On each page of this booklet you will find two concepts to
be judged and beneath each a set of scales. You are to rate the concept
on Si]; scales.

EXAMPLE:

In my opinion:
the automobile MUSTANG is:
(as opposed to: GMC truck)

 

 

graceful : : : : : : ugly
strong : : : : : : weak
fast : : : : : : slow

 

If you feel that the concept is very closely related to one end of the scale, place
your mark as follows:

graceful X : : : ugly

: : : X ugly

If you feel that the concept is quite closely related to one end or another of the
scale (but not extremely), you should place your mark as follows:

.0 0 so
poi

graceful : :

graceful :X : : : : ugly

: : X : ugly

If the concept seems only slightly related to one side as opposed to the other side
(but not really neutral), place your mark as follows:

graceful :

 

graceful : :X : : : : ugly
OR
graceful : : : :X = = “815'

The direction toward which you check, of course, depends upon which of the two ends
of the scale seem most characteristic of the thing you're judging.

If you consider the concept to be neutral on the scale, both sides of the scale equally
associated with the concept, or if the scale is completely irrelevant, unrelated to the
concept, then you should place your mark in the middle space.

graceful : : : X : : : ugly

IMPORTANT: (1) Place your check-marks in the middle of spaces, not on the
boundaries:
this not this
graceful :X : : : X : ugly

(2) Be sure you check every scale for every concept - do not omit any.
(3) Never put more than one check-mark on a single scale.

(It) Hake each item a separate and independent judgment.

(5) There are no flat or wrong answers.

In my Opinion

Course Material

Organized by:

COMPLEX
WEAK
SUPERIOR
UNSUCCESSFUL
WISE
IMPOTENT
AKHIVATED

GOOD

PUPIL AND INSTRUCTOR
(As Opposed to: EXpert Professor)

SIMPLE
STRONG
INFERIOR
SUCCESSFUL
FOOLISH
POTENT
AIMLESS
BAD

 

FREE

CONSTRAINED

 

ACTIVE

PASSIVE

 

In my Opinion

Tests that are:

STRONG

STANDARDIZED AND OBJECTIVE

(As opposed to:

Practical and Subjective)

WEAK

 

TRUE

FALSE

 

EASY
AIMLESS
INFERIOR

GOOD

DIFFICULT'
IKHTVATED
SUPERIOR

BAD

 

FREE

CONSTRAINED

 

ACTIVE

PASSIVE

 

POTENT
EDUCATED

IMPOTENT
IGNORANT

2355
III my Opinion:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Educational aims RELATIVE AND CHANGING
that are: (As Opposed to: Fixed and Eternal)
GOOD BAD
ENERGETIC INERT
AIMLESS : : : : MOTIVATED
VIGOROUS FEEBLE
EDUCATED : : : : IGNORANT
DISREPUTABLE REPUTABLE
UNWISE : : : : : WISE
PROHIBITIVE PERMISSIVE
ACTIVE : : : : PASSIVE
POTENT : : : : : IMPOTENT
In my opinion
'The teacher's EXPLANATION OF SUBJECT
primary dUt)’ is: (As Opposed to: Guiding Students)
SIMPLE COMPLEX
PROHIBITIVE PERMISSIVE
GOOD : : : : : BAD
IGNORANT EDUCATED
PASSIVE ACTIVE
RIGHT WRONG
VIGOROUS : : : : : FEEBLE
IMPOTENT POTENT
UNINTENTIONAL INTENTIONAL
REPUTABLE DISREPUTABLE

 

In my Opinion
Knowledge is:

GOOD
FEEBLE
PASSIVE
AIHTVATED
INFERIOR
WISE
STRONG
SIMPLE

FREE

EVOLVING AND EMERGING

(As Opposed to:

Absolute and Eternal

BAD
VIGOROUS
ACTIVE
AIMLESS
SUPERIOR
FOOLISH
WEAK
COMPLEX
CONSTRAINED

 

BENEFICIAL

HARMFUL

 

In my Opinion
Learning is a
Process Of:

MOVING
AIMLESS
UNWISE
GOOD
POTENT
WEAK
HARMFUL
ACTIVE
SUPERIOR

FEEBLE

EXERCISE, DRILL, & DISCIPLINE

(As Opposed to:

Identifying Problems)

STILL
AKHTVATED
WISE

BAD
IMPOTENT
STRONG
BENEFICIAL
PASSIVE
INFERIOR
VIGOROUS

 

236

APPENDIX A5

CONVERSION TABLE: EDUCATIONAL VIEWPOINTS INVENTORY

 

 

Evaluative Items Potengy and Activity_1tems
Raw Converted Raw Converted
Score: Score: Score: Score:
28 4 21 3
27 5 20 4
26 6 l9 5
25 7 18 6
24 8 l7 7
23 9 l6 8
22 10 15 9
21 11 14 10
20 12 13 11
l9 13 12 12
18 14 ll 13
17 15 10 14
16 16 9 15
15 17 8 16
14 18 7 17
13 19 6 18
12 20 5 19
ll 21 4 20
10 22 3 21

bmmqooto
N
O)

APPENDIX B

Number Page

Bl. Item number one: Knowledge. Probability
figures for nine comparisons . . . . . . . . . 238

B2. Item number two: Learning. Probability
figures for nine comparisons . . . . . . . . . 239

B3. Item number three: Course Material.
Probability figures for nine comparisons . . . 240

B4. Item number four: Tests. Probability
figures for nine comparisons . . . . . . . . . 241

BS. Item number five: Educational Aims.
Probability figures for nine comparisons . . . 242

B6. Item number six: Teacher‘s Duty.
Probability figures for nine comparisons . . . 243

B7. Evaluative scales for six items:
Probability figures for nine comparisons . . . 244

B8. Potency scales for six items: Probability
figures for nine comparisons . . . . . . . . . 245

B9. Activity scales for six items: Probability
figures for nine comparisons . . . . . . . . . 246

237

238

 

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Number

10.

APPENDIX C

Page
Median Test between nonmembers and members of
one club or activity in response to Swanson's
Inventory 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 255
Median Test between nonmembers and members of
two clubs or activities in response to Swan-
son's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Median Test between nonmembers and members of
three clubs or activities in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Median Test between nonmembers and members of
four clubs or activities in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

Median Test between nonmembers and members of
five or more clubs and/or activities in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 257

Median Test between single—choice members of
professional organizations and nonmembers in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 257

Median Test between members of two profes-
sional organizations and nonmembers in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 258

Median Test between members of three or more
professional organizations and nonmembers in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 258

Median Test between single choice members and
members of two professional organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 259

Median Test between single choice members and

members of three or more professional organi-
zations in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . 259

247

Number

11.

12.

l3.

14.

15.

l6.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

248

Page
Median Test between members of two profes-
sional organizations and members of three
or more professional organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 260

Median Test between nonmembers and members of
a single activity in intramural athletics in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 260

Median Test between nonmembers and members of
two activities in intramural athletics in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 261

Median Test between nonmembers and members of
three or more activities in intramural athletics
in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . 261

Median Test between students with single mem—
bership and students with two memberships in
intramural athletics in response to Swanson's
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Median Test between students with single mem—
bership and students with three or more member—

ships in intramural athletics in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Median Test between students with two member—
ships and students with three or more member-
ships in intramural athletics in response tO
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Median Test between senior transfer and senior
nontransfer students in response to Swanson's
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Median Test between senior nontransfer and
Other nontransfer students in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Median Test between senior nontransfer and
Other transfer students in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Median Test between senior transfer and Other
nontransfer students in response to Swanson‘s
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

 

Number

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

249

Page
Median Test between senior transfer and Other
transfer students in response to Swanson's
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Median Test between Other nontransfer and Other
transfer students in response to Swanson's
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Median Test between senior veterans and senior
nonveterans in response to Swanson's Inventory . 266

Median Test between senior veterans and Other
veterans in response to Swanson's Inventory . . 267

Median Test between senior veterans and Other
nonveterans in response to Swanson's Inventory . 267

Median Test between senior nonveterans and
Other veterans in response to Swanson's
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Median Test between senior nonveterans and
Other nonveterans in response to Swanson's
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Median Test between Other veterans and Other
nonveterans in response to Swanson's Inventory . 269

Median Test between senior generalists and
senior specialists in response to Swanson's
Inventory 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 269

Median Test between senior generalists and
Other generalists in response to Swanson's
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

Median Test between senior generalists and
Other specialists in response to Swanson's
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

Median Test between senior specialists and
Other generalists in response to Swanson's
Inventory 0 O O O O O O O O I O O O O C O O O O 271

Median Test between senior specialists and
Other specialists in response to Swanson's
Inventory 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 271

 

Number

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

250

Median Test between Other generalists and
Other specialists in reSponse to Swanson's
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between extreme senior generalists
and extreme senior specialists in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between extreme senior generalists
and extreme Other generalists in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between extreme senior generalists
and extreme Other specialists in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between extreme senior specialists
and extreme Other generalists in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between extreme senior Specialists
and extreme Other specialists in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between extreme Other generalists
and extreme Other specialists in response to
Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between senior members and senior
nonmembers of professional educational orga-
nizations in response to Swanson's Inventory . .

Median Test between senior members and Other
members of professional educational organiza—
tions in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . .

Median Test between senior members and Other
nonmembers of professional educational orga—
nizations in response to Swanson's Inventory . .

Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
members of professional educational organiza—
tions in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . .

Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
nonmembers of professional educational organiza—
tions in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . .

Page

272

272

273

273

274

274

275

275

276

276

277

277

 

F"!

251

Number Page

47. Median Test between Other members and Other
nonmembers of professional educational orga-
nizations in response to Swanson's Inventory . . 278

48. Median Test between senior nonmembers and
senior members of special interest organiza-
tions in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . 278

49. Median Test between senior nonmembers and
Other nonmembers of special interest orga-
nizations in response to Swanson's Inventory . . 279

50. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
members of special interest organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 279

 

51. Median Test between senior members and Other
nonmembers of special interest organizations
in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . 280

52. Median Test between senior members and Other
members of special interest organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 280

53. Median Test between Other members and Other
nonmembers of special interest organizations
in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . 281

54. Median Test between senior nonmembers and
senior members of intercollegiate athletics
in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . 281

55. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
nonmembers of intercollegiate athletics in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 282

56. Median Test between senior nonmembers and
Other members of intercollegiate athletics
in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . 282

57. Median Test between senior members and Other
nonmembers of intercollegiate athletics in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 283

58. Median Test between senior members and Other
members of intercollegiate athletics in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 283

Number

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

252

Median Test between Other nonmembers and
Other members of intercollegiate athletics
in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . .

Median Test between senior nonmembers and
senior members of musical organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . .

Median Test between senior nonmembers and
Other nonmembers of musical organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . .

Median Test between senior members and Other
members of musical organizations in response
to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between senior members and senior
nonmembers of religious organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . .

Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
nonmembers of religious organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . .

Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
members of religious organizations in response
to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Median Test between senior members and Other
nonmembers of religious organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . .

Median Test between senior members and Other
members of religious organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . .

Median Test between Other nonmembers and
Other members of religious organizations
in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . .

Median Test between senior nonmembers and
senior members of intramural athletics in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . .

Median Test between senior nonmembers and
Other nonmembers of intramural athletics in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . .

Page

284

284

285

285

286

286

287

287

288

288

289

289

 

Number

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

253

Page

Median Test between senior nonmembers and
Other members of intramural athletics in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 290

Median Test between senior members and Other
nonmembers of intramural athletics in response
to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

Median Test between senior members and Other
members of intramural athletics in response
to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Median Test between Other nonmembers and
Other members of intramural athletics in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 291

Median Test between senior nonmembers and
senior members of "other organizations” in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 292

Median Test between senior nonmembers and
Other nonmembers of "other organizations" in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 292

Median Test between senior nonmembers and
Other members of "other organizations" in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 293

.Median Test between senior members and

Other nonmembers of "other organizations”
in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . 293

Median Test between senior members and
Other members of "other organizations” in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 294

Median Test between Other nonmembers and
Other members of "other organizations” in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 294

Median Test between senior nonmembers and
senior members of off-campus organizations
in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . 295

Median Test between senior nonmembers and
Other nonmembers of off-campus organizations
in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . 295

254

Number Page

83. Median Test between senior nonmembers and
Other members of off-campus organizations
in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . 296

84. Median Test between senior members and Other
nonmembers of off-campus organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 296

85. Median Test between senior members and Other
members of off-campus organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . . 297

86. Median Test between Other nonmembers and
Other members of off—campus organizations
in response to Swanson's Inventory . . . . . . . 297

255

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table Cl. Median Test between nonmembers and members
of one club or activity in response to
Swanson's Inventory
Non- Members of
members One Club Totals
Less Progressive 23 36 59
More Progressive 27 32 59
Totals 50 68 118
df = l
X2 = .326
Table C2. Median Test between nonmembers and members
of two clubs or activities in reSponse to
Swanson's Inventory
Non- Members of
members Two Clubs Totals
Less Progressive 26 33 59
More Progressive 24 35 59
Totals 50 68 118
df = l
x2 = .034

256

Table C3. Median Test between nonmembers and members
of three clubs or activities in response
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Non— Members of
members Three Clubs Totals
Less Progressive 24 27 51
More Progressive 26 24 50
Totals 50 51 101
df = 1
X2 = .088

Table C4. Median Test between nonmembers and members
of four clubs or activities in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Non- Members of
members Four Clubs Totals
Less Progressive 25 26 51
More Progressive 25 26 51
Totals 50 52 102

 

 

df

ll
H

X = .000

257

Table C5. Median Test between nonmembers and members
of five or more clubs and/or activities in
response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Members of
Non- Five or More
members Clubs Totals
Less Progressive 22 31 53
More Progressive 28 26 54
Totals 50 57 107
df = l
x2 = .771

Table C6. Median Test between single-choice members
of professional organizations and nonmembers
in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Single-Choice Non-
rMembers members Totals
Less Progressive 99 46 145
More Progressive 86 53 139
Totals 185 99 284

 

 

df = 1

1.015

X
H

258

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table C7. Median Test between members of two profes-
sional Organizations and nonmembers
in response to Swanson's Inventory
Two-Choice Non-
Members members Totals
Less Progressive 15 99 114
More Progressive 26 86 112
Totals 41 185 226
df = l
x2 = 3.171
Table C8. Median Test between members of three or more
professional organizations and nonmembers in
response to Swanson's Inventory
Three or
More Choices: Non-
Members members Totals
Less Progressive 12 91 103
More Progressive 9 94 103
Totals 21 185 206
df = l
X2 = .214

259

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table C9. Median Test between single choice members
and members of two professional organizations
in reSponse to Swanson's Inventory

Members of Members of
One Club Two Clubs Totals

Less Progressive 54 16 70

More Progressive 45 25 70

Totals 99 41 140

df = 1

X2 = 2.207

Table C10. Median Test between single choice members
and members of three or more professional
organizations in response to Swanson's
Inventory
Three or
Members of More Choices:
One Club Members Totals

Less Progressive 46 13 59

More Progressive 53 8 61

Totals 99 21 120

df = l
X2 = 1.092

260

Table C11. Median Test between members of two profes-
sional organizations and members of three
or more professional organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Three or
Members of More Choices:
Two Clubs Members Totals
Less Progressive 18 13 31
More Progressive 23 8 31
Totals 41 21 62
df = 1
x2 = 1.152

Table C12. Median Test between nonmembers and members
of a single activity in intramural athletics
in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Non- Members of
members Single Activity Totals
Less Progressive 99 36 135
More Progressive 101 34 135
Totals 200 70 270
df = l
2

X = .019

261

Table C13. Median Test between nonmembers and members of
two activities in intramural athletics in
response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Non- Members of
members Two Activities Totals
Less Progressive 99 26 125
More Progressive 101 24 125
Totals 200 50 250

 

 

Table C14. Median Test between nonmembers and members of
three or more activities in intramural
athletics in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Members of

 

 

 

 

Non- Three or More
members Activities Totals
Less Progressive 102 11 113
More Progressive 98 15 113
Totals 200 26 226
df = l
2

X = .391

262

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table C15. Median'Test between students with single
membership and students with two memberships
in intramural athletics in response to
Swanson's Inventory

Membershipgin:
One Two
Activity Activities Totals

Less Progressive 34 26 60

More Progressive 36 24 60

Totals 70 50 120

df = 1
X2 .034

Table C16. Median.Test between students with single
membership and students with three or more
memberships in intramural athletics in
response to Swanson's Inventory

Members of:
One Three or More
Activity Activities Totals

Less Progressive 37 11 48

More Progressive . 33 15 48

Totals 70 26 96

df l
X2 .474

263

Table C17. Median Test between students with two member—
ships and students with three or more member—
ships in intramural athletics in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

Members of:

 

 

 

 

 

Two Three or More Totals
Activities Activities
Less Progressive 27 11 38
More Progressive 23 15 38
Totals 50 26 76
df = l
x2 = .526

Table C18. Median Test between senior transfer and
senior nontransfer students in reSponse to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior
Transfer Nontransfer Totals
Less Progressive 44 22 66
More Progressive 37 30 67
Totals 81 52 133
df = l
2

X = 1.379

264

Table C19. Median Test between senior nontransfer and
Other nontransfer students in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nontransfer Nontransfer Totals
Less Progressive 17 77 94
More Progressive 35 59 94
Totals 52 136 188

 

 

df

II
[—J

X = 7.682

Table C20. Median Test between senior nontransfer and Other
transfer students in response to Swanson's

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inventory
Senior Other
Nontransfer Transfer Totals
Less Progressive 19 47 65
More Progressive 33 3O 64
Totals 52 77 129
df = l

X = 6.505

Table C21. Median Test between senior transfer and Other
nontransfer students in response to Swanson's

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inventory
Senior Other
Transfer Nontransfer Totals

Less Progressive 31 78 109
More Progressive 50 58 108
Totals 81 136 217

df = 1

X2 = 6.649

Table C22. Median Test between senior transfer and Other
transfer students in response to Swanson‘s

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inventory
Senior Other
Transfer Transfer Totals
Less Progressive 32 47 79
More Progressive 49 30 79
Totals 81 77 158
df = 1
x2 = 6.485

266

Table C23. Median Test between Other nontransfer and Other
transfer students in response to Swanson's

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inventory
Other Other
Nontransfer Transfer Totals
Less Progressive 39 68 107
More Progressive 38 68 106
Totals 77 136 213
df = l
X2 = 0.008 Note: Not corrected for continuity.

Table C24. Median Tbst between senior veterans and senior
nonveterans in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Senior
Veterans Nonveterans Totals
Less Progressive 8 58 66
More Progressive 13 54 67
Totals 21 112 133

 

 

X = .834

267

Table C25. Median Test between senior veterans and Other
veterans in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Veterans Veterans Totals
Less Progressive 6 17 23
More Progressive 15 8 23
Totals 21 25 46
df = 1
X2 = 5.607

Table C26. Median Test between senior veterans and Other
nonveterans in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Veterans Nonveterans Totals
Less Progressive 6 98 104
More Progressive 15 90 105
Totals 21 188 209

 

df

ll
l—J

X = 3.303

268

Table C27. Median Test between senior nonveterans and Other
veterans in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nonveterans Veterans Totals
Less Progressive 47 21 68
More Progressive 65 4 69
Totals 112 25 137
df = 1
X2 = 12.813

Table C28. Median Test between senior nonveterans and Other
nonveterans in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nonveterans Nonveterans Totals
Less Progressive 42 108 150
More Progressive 7O 80 150
Totals 112 188 300
df = l
x2 = 10.386

269

Table C29. Median Test between Other veterans and Other
nonveterans in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other Other
Veterans Nonveterans Totals
Less Progressive 13 93 106
More Progressive 12 95 107
Totals 25 188 213
df = l
X2 = .0006

Table C30. Median Test between senior generalists and
senior specialists in response to Swanson's

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inventory
Senior Senior
Generalists Specialists Totals
Less Progressive 18 48 66
More Progressive 27 40 67
Totals 45 88 133
df = l
X2 = 1.971

270

Table C31. Median Test between senior generalists and Other
generalists in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Generalists Generalists Totals
Less Progressive 14 3O 44
More Progressive 31 12 43
Totals 45 42 87
df = l
x2 = 11.101

Table C32. Median Test between senior generalists and Other
specialists in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Generalists Specialists Totals
Less Progressive 14 94 108
More Progressive 31 77 108
Totals 45 171 216
df = 1
2

X = 6.315

271

Table C33. Median Test between senior Specialists and Other
generalists in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

.77

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Specialists Generalists Totals
Less Progressive 37 28 65
More Progressive 51 14 65
Totals 88 42 130
df = 1
X2 = 5.944

Table C34. Median Tbst between senior specialists and Other
specialists in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Specialists Specialists Totals
Less Progressive 34 95 129
More Progressive 54 76 130
Totals 88 171 259

 

 

X = 5.993

272

Table C35. Median Test between Other generalists and Other
Specialists in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other Other
Generalists Specialists Totals
Less Progressive 23 84 107
More Progressive 19 87 106
Totals 42 171 213
df = l
X2 = 0.232

Table C36. Median Test between extreme senior generalists
and extreme senior Specialists in reSponse to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Extreme
Senior Senior
Generalists Specialists Totals

Less Progressive 15 21 36
More Progressive 20 16 36
Totals 35 37 72

df = 1

x2 = 0.889

273

Table C37. Median Test between extreme senior generalists
and extreme Other generalists in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Extreme
Senior Other
Generalists Generalists Totals

Less Progressive 12 19 31
More Progressive 23 8 31
Totals 35 27 62

df = l

X2 = 6.560

Table C38. Median Test between extreme senior generalists
and extreme Other specialists in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

Extreme
Senior Other
Generalists Specialists Totals
Less Progressive 10 51 61
More Progressive 25 36 61
Totals 35 87 122

¥

 

 

 

df = 1

7.852

N
ll

274

Table C39. Median Test between extreme senior specialists
and extreme Other generalists in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Extreme
Senior Other
Specialists Generalists Totals
Less Progressive 14 18 32
More Progressive 23 9 32
Totals 37 27 64

 

 

X = 4.100

Table C40. Median Test between extreme senior Specialists
and extreme Other specialists in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Extreme
Senior Other
Specialists Specialists Totals
Less Progressive 15 47 62
More Progressive 22 4O 62
Totals 37 87 124

 

 

 

df

II
F

X = 1.386

Table C41. Median Test between extreme Other generalists
and extreme Other specialists in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Extreme
Other Other
Generalists Specialists Totals

Less Progressive 16 41 57
More Progressive 11 46 57
Totals 27 87 114

df = l

X2 = 0.776

Table C42. Median Test between senior members and senior
nonmembers of professional educational organiza-
tions in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Senior
Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 36 3O 66
More Progressive 39 28 67
Totals 75 58 133
df = l
X2 = 0.630

276

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table C43. Median Test between senior members and Other
members of professional educational organizations
in reSponse to Swanson's Inventory

Senior Other
Members Members Totals

Less Progressive 31 48 79

More Progressive 44 36 80

Totals 75 84 159

df = l
X2 = 3.354

Table C44. Median Test between senior members and Other
nonmembers of professional educational organiza—
tions in response to Swanson's Inventory

Senior Other
Members Nonmembers Totals

Less Progressive 27 75 102

More Progressive 48 54 102

Totals 75 129 204

df = l
X2 = 8.434

277

Table C45. Median'Test between senior nonmembers and Other
members of professional educational organizations
in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 23 48 71
More Progressive 35 36 71
Totals 58 84 142
df = l
X2 = 3.526

Table C46. Median'Test between senior nonmembers and Other
nonmembers of professional educational organiza—
tions in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nonmembers Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 19 74 93
More Progressive 39 55 94
Totals 58 129 187

 

 

df

H
H

8.730

N
ll

278

Table C47. Median Test between Other members and Other non-
members of professional educational organizations
in response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other Other
Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 40 66 106
More Progressive 44 63 107
Totals 84 129 213
df = 1
x2 = 0.133

Table C48. Median Test between senior nonmembers and senior
members of Special interest organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Senior
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 47 19 66
More Progressive 48 19 67
Totals 95 38 133
df = l
2

X = 0.000

279

Table C49. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
nonmembers of Special interest organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior , Other
Nonmembers Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 34 90 124
More Progressive 61 63 124
Totals 95 153 248
df = 1
X2 = 11.534

Table C50. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
members of Special interest organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 41 36 77
More Progressive 54 24 78
Totals 95 60 155

 

 

df

ll
H

X = 3.526

280

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table C51. Median Test between senior members and Other
nonmembers of special interest organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory

Senior Other
Members Nonmembers Totals

Less Progressive 15 85 100

More Progressive 23 68 101

Totals 38 153 201

df = l
X2 = 0.974

Table C52. Median Test between senior members and Other
members of Special interest organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory

Senior Other
Members Members Totals

Less Progressive 15 34 49

More Progressive 23 26 49

Totals 38 60 98

df = 1
x2 = 2.106

281

Table C53. Median Test between Other members and Other non-
members of special interest organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other Other
Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 31 75 106
More Progressive 29 78 107
Totals 60 - 153 213
df = l
X2 = 0.037

Table C54. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Senior
members of intercollegiate athletics in response
to Swanson's Inventory '

 

 

 

 

Senior Senior
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 50 16 66
More Progressive 54 13 67
Totals 104 29 133

 

 

0.216

X
ll

282

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table C55. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
nonmembers of intercollegiate athletics in
response to Swanson's Inventory

Senior Other
Nonmembers Nonmembers Totals

Less Progressive 37 100 137

More Progressive 67 71 138

Totals 104 171 275

df = l
x2 = 13.568

Table C56. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
members of intercollegiate athletics in response
to Swanson's Inventory

Senior Other
Nonmembers Members Totals

Less Progressive 46 27 73

More Progressive 58 15 73

Totals 104 42 146

df = 1
X2 = 4.044

283

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table C57. Median Test between senior members and Other
nonmembers of intercollegiate athletics in
response to Swanson's Inventory

Senior Other
Members Nonmembers Totals

Less Progressive 14 86 100

More Progressive 15 85 100

Totals 29 171 200

df = l
x2 = 0.000

Table C58. Median Test between senior members and Other
members of intercollegiate athletics in response
to Swanson's Inventory

Senior Other
Members Members Totals

Less Progressive 12 23 35

More Progressive l7 19 36

Totals 29 42 71

df = 1
X2 = 0.752

284

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table C59. Median Test between Other nonmembers and Other
members of intercollegiate athletics in response
to Swanson's Inventory

Other Other
Nonmembers Members Totals

Less Progressive 23 83 106

More Progressive 19 88 107

Totals 42 171 213

df = 1
X2 = 0.303

Table C60. Median Test between senior nonmembers and senior
members of musical organizations in response to
Swanson's Inventory

Senior Senior
Nonmembers Members Totals

Less Progressive 10 56 66

More Progressive 5 62 67

Totals 15 118 133

df = l
X2 = 1.271

285

Table C61. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
nonmembers of musical organizations in response
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nonmembers Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 41 120 161
More Progressive 77 84 161
Totals 118 204 322

 

 

df 1

17.335

><
II

Table C62. Median Test between senior members and Other
members of musical organizations in response
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Senior Other

Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 8 101 109
More Progressive 7 103 110
Totals 15 204 219

 

 

df = 1

0.0003

>4
ll

286

Table C63. Median Test between senior members and Senior
nonmembers of religious organizations in response
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Senior Senior
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 55 ll 66 I1
More Progressive 59 8 67
L i.
Totals 114 19 133 '

 

 

 

df

II
P

0.281

X
II

Table C64. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
nonmembers of religious organizations in response
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nonmembers Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 45 92 137
More Progressive 69 69 138
Totals 114 161 275

 

 

 

df = 1

7.643

N
ll

287

Table C65. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
members of religious organizations in response
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 46 37 83
More Progressive 68 15 83
Totals 114 52 166

 

 

df = 1

12.349

>4
II

Table C66. Median Tbst between senior members and Other
nonmembers of religious organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Senior Other

Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 9 81 90
More Progressive 10 80 90
Totals 19 161 180

 

 

df = 1

X = 0.000

288

Table C67. Median Test between senior members and Other
members of religious organizations in reSponse
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Members Members Totals
Less Progressive 7 28 35
More Progressive 12 24 36
Totals 19 52 71
df = 1
x2 = 1.001

Table C68. Median.Test between Other nonmembers and Other
members of religious organizations in reSponse
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other Other
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 77 29 106
More Progressive 84 23 107
Totals 161 52 213
df = 1
2

X = 0.699

289

Table C69. Median Test between senior nonmembers and senior
members of intramural athletics in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Senior
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 35 31 66
More Progressive 38 29 67
Totals 73 60 133
df = l
X2 = 0.063

Table C70. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
nonmembers of intramural athletics in response
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nonmembers Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 25 75 100
More Progressive 48 52 100
Totals 73 127 200
df = l
2

X = 10.441

290

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table C71. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
members of intramural athletics in response to
Swanson's Inventory
Senior Other
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 31 53 84
More Progressive 52 33 85
Totals 83 86 169
df = 1
x2 = 9.011
Table C72. Median Test between senior members and Other
nonmembers of intramural athletics in response
to Swanson's Inventory
Senior Other
Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 21 72 93
More Progressive 39 55 94
Totals 60 127 187
df = 1
X2 = 6.827

291

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table C73. Median Test between senior members and Other
members of intramural athletics in response to
Swanson's Inventory
Senior Other
Members Members Totals
Less Progressive 23 50 73 |
More Progressive 37 36 73
Totals 60 86 146
df = 1
X2 = 4.781
Table C74. Median Tbst between Other nonmembers and Other
members of intramural athletics in response to
Swanson's Inventory
Other Other
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 65 41 106
More Progressive 62 45 107
Totals 127 86 213
df = l
x2 = 0.131

292

Table C75. Median Test between senior nonmembers and senior
members of "other organizations" in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Senior
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 51 15 66
More Progressive 59 8 67
Totals 110 23 133
df = 1
X2 = 2.003

Table C76. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
nonmembers of "other organizations" in response
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nonmembers Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 45 97 142
More Progressive 65 78 143
Totals 110 175 285

 

 

df = 1

5.129

X
ll

293

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table C77. Median Test between senior nonmembers and.Other
members of "other organizations" in response to
Swanson's Inventory
Senior Other
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 46 28 74
More Progressive 64 10 74
Totals 110 38 148
df = 1
X2 = 10.232
Table C78. Median Test between senior members and Other
nonmembers of "other organizations" in response
to Swanson's Inventory
Senior Other
Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 9 90 99
More Progressive 14 85 99
Totals 23 175 198
df = 1
X2 = 0.787

294

Table C79. Median Test between senior members and Other
members of "other organizations" in response
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Members Members Totals
Less Progressive 9 22 31
More Progressive 14 16 30
Totals 23 38 61
df = 1
x2 = 0.796

Table C80. Median Test between Other nonmembers and Other
members of "other organizations" in response to
Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other Other
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 85 21 106
More Progressive 9O 17 107
Totals 175 38 213
df = l
x2 = 0.304

295

Table C81. Median Test between senior nonmembers and senior
members of off-campus organizations in response
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Senior
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 58 8 66
More Progressive 63 4 67
Totals 121 12 133
df = l
X2 = 0.874

Table C82. Median Test between senior nonmembers and<3ther
nonmembers of off-campus organizations in
reSponse to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nonmembers Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 45 114 159
More Progressive 76 83 159
Totals 121 197 318
df = l
X2 = 12.006

296

Table C83. Median Test between senior nonmembers and Other
members of off-campus organizations in response
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 56 13 69
More Progressive 65 3 68
Totals 121 16 137
df = 1
x2 = 5.584

Table C84. Median Test between Senior members and other
nonmembers of off—campus organizations in
response to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Members Nonmembers Totals
Less Progressive 6 98 104
More Progressive 6 99 105
Totals 12 197 209
df = 1
X2 = 0.000

297

Table C85. Median Test between senior members and.0ther
members of off-campus organizations in response
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Members Members Totals
Less Progressive 4 10 14
More Progressive 8 6 14
Totals 12 16 28
df = 1
x2 = 1.312

Table C86. Median Test between Other nonmembers and Other
members of off—campus organizations in response
to Swanson's Inventory

 

 

 

 

Other Other
Nonmembers Members Totals
Less Progressive 96 . 10 106
More Progressive 101 6 107
Totals 197 16 213

 

 

df

ll
H

X = 0.639

Number

APPENDIX D

Chi—square Test between the proportions of
senior nontransfer and senior transfer groups
with progressive-oriented patterns in response
to the Educational VieWpoints Inventory . . .

Chi-square Test between the proportions of

senior nontransfer and Other transfer students
with progressive-oriented patterns in response
to the Educational VieWpointS Inventory . . .

Chi-square Test between the proportions of
senior nontransfer and Other nontransfer
students with progressive-oriented patterns
in response to the Educational VieWpointS
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chi-square Test between the proportions of
senior transfer and Other transfer students
with progressive-oriented patterns in reSponse
to the Educational Viewpoints Inventory . . .

Chi-square Test between the prOportionS of
senior transfer and Other nontransfer stu-
dents with progressive-oriented patterns in
reSponse to the Educational ViewPointS
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chi-square Test between the proportions of
Other transfer and Other nontransfer students
with progressive-oriented patterns in response
to the Educational Viewpoints Inventory . . .

Chi—square Test between the proportions of
senior nontransfer and senior transfer stu-
dents with logical empiricist—oriented
patterns in response to the Educational
ViewPoints Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chi-square Test between the proportions of
senior nontransfer and Other transfer students
with logical empiricist-oriented patterns in
response to the Educational VieWpoints
Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

298

Page

301

301

302

302

303

303

304

304

Number

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

299

Page

Chi—square Test between the proportions of

senior nontransfer and Other nontransfer

students with logical empiricist—oriented

patterns in response to the Educational

VieWpointS Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

Chi-square Test between the proportion of

senior transfer and Other transfer students

with logical empiricist-oriented patterns

in response to the Educational Viewpoints

Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

Chi—square Test between the proportions

of senior transfer and Other nontransfer

students with logical empiricist—oriented

patterns in response to the Educational

Viewpoints Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

Chi-square Test between the proportions

of Other nontransfer and Other transfer

students with logical empiricist-oriented

patterns in response to the Educational

VieWpoints Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

Chi-square Test between the proportions

of senior nontransfer and senior transfer

students with predictable logical empiricist—
oriented patterns in response to the

Educational Viewpoints Inventory . . . . . . . . 307

Chi-square Test between the proportions

of senior nontransfer and Other transfer

students with predictable logical empiricist-
oriented patterns in response to the Educa—

tional Viewpoints Inventory . . . . . . . . . . 307

Chi-square Test between the proportions of

senior nontransfer and Other nontransfer

students with predictable logical empiricist-
oriented patterns in response to the

Educational VieWpointS Inventory . . . . . . . . 308

Chi—square Test between the proportions of

senior transfer and Other transfer students

with predictable logical empiricist—

oriented patterns in response to the

Educational ViewPoints Inventory . . . . . . . . 308

 

Number

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

300

Page

Chi-square Test between the proportions of
Senior transfer and Other nontransfer stu-
dents with predictable logical empiricist-
oriented patterns in response to the Educa—
tional VieWpointS Inventory . . . . . . . . . . 309

Chi—square Test between the proportions of

Other transfer and Other nontransfer stu-

dents with predictable logical empiricist-

oriented patterns in response to the

Educational VieWpoints Inventory . . . . . . . . 309

Chi—square Test between the proportions of

Other nontransfer and Other transfer students

with unclassified patterns in response to the
Educational VieWpointS Inventory . . . . . . . . 310

Chi—square Test between the proportions of

Other nontransfer and senior transfer students

with unclassified patterns in response to the
Educational VieWpointS Inventory . . . . . . . . 310

Chi-Square Test between the proportions of

Other nontransfer and senior nontransfer

students with unclassified patterns in

response to the Educational VieWpointS

Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Chi-square Test between the proportions of

Other transfer and senior transfer students

with unclassified patterns in response to the
Educational VieWpoints Inventory . . . . . . . . 311

Chi—square Test between the proportions of

Other transfer and senior nontransfer students

with unclassified patterns in response to the
Educational VieWpointS Inventory . . . . . . . . 312

Chi-square Test between the proportions of

senior transfer and senior nontransfer students

with unclassified patterns in response to the
Educational VieWpoints Inventory . . . . . . . . 312

 

301

Table D1. Chi-square Test between the proportions of senior
nontransfer and senior transfer groups with pro-
gressive-oriented patterns in response to the
Educational Viewpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Senior
Nontransfers Transfers Totals
Progressive Pattern 19 19 38
Other Patterns 33 62 95
Totals 52 81 133
df = 1
X2 = 2.053

Table D2. Chi-Square Test between the proportions of senior
nontransfer and Other transfer students with pro-
gressive-oriented patterns in response to the
Educational VieWpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nontransfers Transfers Totals
Progressive Patterns 19 14 33
Other Patterns 33 63 96
Totals 52 77 129
df = 1
X2 = 4.572

302

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table D3. Chi-Square Test between the proportions of senior
nontransfer and Other nontransfer students with
progressive-oriented patterns in response to the
Educational VieWpoints Inventory

Senior Other
Nontransfers Nontransfers Totals

Progressive Patterns 19 30 49

Other Patterns 33 106 139

Totals 52 136 288

df = 1
X2 = 4.630

Table D4. Chi—square Test between the proportions of senior
transfer and Other transfer students with progres—
sive-oriented patterns in response to the Educa-
tional VieWpoints Inventory

Senior Other
Transfers Transfers Totals

Progressive Patterns 19 14 33

Other Patterns 62 63 125

Totals 81 77 217

df = 1
X2 = 0.346

 

303

Table D5. Chi-square Test between the proportions of senior
transfer and Other nontransfer students with pro-
gressive-oriented patterns in response to the
Educational VieWpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Transfers Nontransfers Totals
Progressive Patterns 19 30 49
Other Patterns 62 106 168
Totals 81 136 217
df = l
X2 = 0.004

Table D6. Chi—square Test between the prOportionS of Other
transfer and Other nontransfer students with pro-
gressive—oriented patterns in response to the
Educational VieWpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other Other
Transfers Nontransfers Totals
Progressive Patterns 14 30 44
Other Patterns 63 106 169
Totals 77 136 213
df = 1
2

X = 0.255

304

Table D7. Chi—square Test between the proportions of senior
nontransfer and senior transfer students with
logical empiricist-oriented patterns in response
to the Educational VieWpointS Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Senior
Nontransfers Transfers Totals
Logical Empiricism
Patterns 20 34 54
Other Patterns 32 47 79
Totals 52 81 133
df = 1
x2 = 0.049

Table D8. Chi-square Test between the proportions of senior
nontransfer and Other transfer students with
logical empiricist-oriented patterns in response
to the Educational VieWpointS Inventory

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nontransfers Transfers Totals
Logical Empiricism
Patterns 20 48 68
Other Patterns 32 29 61
Totals 52 77 129

 

 

df

ll
H

X = 6.173

305

Table D9. Chi—square Test between the proportions of senior
nontransfer and Other nontransfer students with
logical empiricist-oriented patterns in response
to the Educational VieWpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Nontransfers Nontransfers Totals
Logical Empiricism
Patterns 20 61 81
Other Patterns 32 75 107
Totals 52 136 188
df = l
X2 = 0.391

Table D10. Chi-square Test between the proportions of
senior transfer and Other transfer students with
logical empiricist-oriented patterns in response
to the Educational Viewpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Transfers Transfers Totals
Logical Empiricism
Patterns 34 48 82
Other Patterns 47 29 76
Totals 81 77 158
df = l
X2 = 5.766

306

Table D11. Chi—square Test between the proportions of senior
transfer and Other nontransfer students with
logical empiricist-oriented patterns in response
to the Educational VieWpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Other
Transfers Nontransfers Totals
Logical Empiricism
Patterns 34 61 95
Other Patterns 47 75 122
Totals 81 136 217
df = 1
X2 = 0.073

Table D12. Chi-Square Test between the proportions of Other
nontransfer and Other transfer students with
logical empiricist-oriented patterns in reSponse
to the Educational VieWpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

Other Other
Transfers Nontransfers Totals
Logical Empiricism
Patterns 48 61 109
Other Patterns 29 75 104
Totals 77 136 213

 

 

X = 5.336

307

Table D13. Chi-square Test between the proportions of
senior nontransfer and senior transfer students
with predictable logical empiricist-oriented
patterns in response to the Educational View—
points Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patterns: Senior Senior
Logical Empiricism Nontransfers Transfers Totals
More Predictable 16 25 41
Less Predictable 4 9 13
Totals 20 34 54
df = l
X2 = 0.043

Table D14. Chi—square Test between the proportions of senior
nontransfer and.0ther transfer students with
predictable logical empiricist-oriented patterns
in response to the Educational VieWpointS

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inventory
Patterns: Senior Other
Logical Empiricism Nontransfers Transfers Totals
More Predictable 16 38 54
Less Predictable 4 10 14
Totals 20 48 68
df = 1

X = 0.000

308

Table D15. Chi-square Test between the proportions of
senior nontransfer and Other nontransfer stu—
dents with predictable logical empiricist-
oriented patterns in reSponse to the Educational
VieWpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patterns: Senior Other
Logical Empiricism Nontransfers Nontransfers Totals
More Predictable 16 35 51
Less Predictable 4 26 30
Totals 20 61 81
df = 1
X2 = 2.406

Table D16. Chi-square Test between the proportions of
senior transfer and Other transfer students with
predictable logical empiricist-oriented patterns
in response to the Educational Viewpoints

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inventory
Patterns: Senior Other
Logical Empiricism Transfers Transfers Totals
More Predictable 25 38 63
Less Predictable 9 10 19
Totals 34 48 82
df = 1
2

X = 0.109

309

Table D17. Chi-Square Test between the proportions of
senior transfer and Other nontransfer students
with predictable logical empiricist-oriented
patterns in response to the Educational View-
points Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Patterns: Senior Other
Logical Empiricism Transfers Nontransfers Totals
More Predictable 25 35 60
Less Predictable 9 26 35
Totals 34 61 95
df = 1
x2 = 1.802

Table D18. Chi—square Test between the proportions of Other
transfer and Other nontransfer students with
predictable logical empiricist—oriented patterns
in reSponse to the Educational ViewPoints

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inventory
Patterns: Other Other
Logical Empiricism Transfers Nontransfers Totals
More Predictable 38 35 73
Less Predictable 10 26 36
Totals 48 61 109
df = 1

4.822

M
II

 

310

Table D19. Chi-square Test between the prOportionS of Other
nontransfer and Other transfer students with
unclassified patterns in response to the Educa-
tional Viewpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

Other Other
Nontransfers Transfers Totals
Unclassified Patterns 45 14 59
Other Patterns 91 63 154
Totals 136 77 213

 

 

X = 4.735

Table D20. Chi—square Test between the proportions of Other
nontransfer and senior transfer students with
unclassified patterns in response to the Educa-
tional Viewpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other Senior
Nontransfers Transfers Totals
Unclassified Patterns 45 28 73
Other Patterns 91 53 144
Totals 136 81 217
df = 1
X2 = 0.054

311

Table D21. Chi-square Test between the proportions of Other
nontransfer and Senior nontransfer students with
unclassified patterns in reSponse to the Educa-
tional Viewpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

Other Senior
Nontransfers Nontransfers Totals
Unclassified Patterns 45 13 58
Other Patterns 91 39 130
Totals 136 52 188

 

 

df

ll
H

X = 0.805

Table D22. Chi-Square Test between the proportions of Other
transfer and senior transfer students with
unclassified patterns in response to the Educa—
tional VieWpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

Other Senior
Transfers Transfers Totals
Unclassified Patterns 14 28 42
Other Patterns 53 53 106
Totals 77 81 148

 

 

X = 2.378

312

Table D23. Chi-square Test between the proportions of Other
transfer and senior nontransfer students with
unclassified patterns in response to the Educa-
tional VieWpoints Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

Other Senior
Transfers Nontransfers Totals
Unclassified Patterns 14 13 27
Other Patterns 63 39 102
Totals 77 52 129
df = 1
X2 = 0.629

Table D24. Chi-square Test between the proportions of
senior transfer and senior nontransfer students
with unclassified patterns in response to the
Educational ViewPointS Inventory

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Senior Senior
Transfers Nontransfers Totals
Unclassified Patterns 28 13 41
Other Patterns 53 39 92
Totals 81 52 133
dfsl
x2 = 0.947

APPENDIX E

Information included from the research report titled:

"The Operational Definition and Measurement of
Educational PhilosoPhy." Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1955.
By Swanson, Robert S.

Definition of Essentialism and Progressivism in Terms
of the Epistemological, Metaphysical, and Ethical Theses.

Panel of EXpertS Who Criticized and Contributed to the

Formulation of the Operational Definition Developed by
Swanson.

313

314

APPENDIX E1

DEFINITION OF ESSENTIALISM AND PROGRESSIVISM IN
TERMS OF THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL, METAPHYSICAL,
AND ETHICAL THESES

Essentialism was defined thus:

The epistemological thesis. Knowledge is
thought of as revelation of ultimate reality.
It is not a creation but a realization of the
absolute, the essential. Truth is tested in
terms of its conformance to reality, sometimes
scientific reality. Knowledge is internally
consistent.

 

The metaphysical thesis. Ultimate reality
is composed of rather fixed entities. They
derive from some primary authority, religious
or scientific, and are independent of the
learner or the learning Situation.

 

The ethical thesis. Values are objective;
they derive from their designer rather than
from their user. Instrumental values may exist
but are of lower level. Values are based in a
supreme authority, sometimes religious, some-
times scientific (62, 59-60).

 

Progressivism was defined thus:

The epistemological thesis. Truth is made
by the process of verification. It is dynamic
and Specific, rather than stable and general.
Information becomes knowledge when it is judged
to be relevant to the solution of a problem and
this judgment is verified.

 

The metgphysical thesis. Reality is made
up of dynamic ever-evolving entities. It must
be defined at a particular point in time. The
conception of reality by the individual deter—
mines, in part, its nature. Novelty is genuine,
rather than the revelation of an antecedently
complete reality.

 

The ethical thesis. Values are subjective
and instrumental. Values have worth insofar as
they are good for something. They are tentative
and ever-developing. The hierarchy of values is
determined instrumentally (60—61).

 

 

315

APPENDIX E2

PANEL OF EXPERTS WHO CRITICIZED AND CONTRIBUTED TO
THE FORMULATION OF THE OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
DEVELOPED BY SWANSON

Dr. Robert H. Beck, Professor of History and Philosophy of
Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Minnesota.

Dr. Robert L. Brackenbury, Head, Department of History and
Philosophy of Education, University of Southern
California, Los Angeles, California.

Dr. Hugh C. Black, Associate Professor of Philosophy and
Education, The Rice Institute, Houston, Texas.

Dr. John S. Brubacher, Professor of Education, Yale
University, New Haven, Connecticut.

Miss Mary Corcoran, Ph.D. Candidate, College of Education,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Mr. Adrian Dupuis, Teacher of PhiloSOphy of Education and
Director of Student Teaching, College of St. Teresa,
Winona, Minnesota.

Mr. M. M. Price, Dean of Men, Associate Professor of
Education, Stout State College, Menomonie, Wisconsin.

Mr. Ethan Svendsen, Ph.D. Candidate, College of Education,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Dr. Lawrence Thomas, Associate Professor of Education,
Stanford University, Stanford, California (86-87).