THE EFFECTIVENESSOF VIDEOTAPE!) ‘ ENSFRUCTEON SN SUPERV!SORY COURSES ' FGR POST-SECONDARY VOCATIONAL ‘ AND {ECHNECAL STUDENTS AS COMPARE T9 CONVENTIONAL CLASSROOM METHOBOLGGY ‘ Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHGAN STATE UNIVERSITY. ELMER STANLEY IUNKER‘ 1973 LIB R A R Y Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VIDEOTAPED INSTRUCTION IN SUPERVISOR)! COURSES FOR POST-SECONDARY "VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL STUDENTS AS COMPARED TO CONVENTIONAL CLASS- ROOM METHODOLOGY presented by Elmer Stanley Junker has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. dpmmun Department of Secondar} Education and Cur- l riculum i .'< " flaww Major professor 0—7639 l -”.m‘~—:‘.‘fli r- llll AG &8 llllS' BllflK BINDERY lNC BRAHV BI IlNlflfl ABSTRACT THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VIDEOTAPED INSTRUCTION IN SUPERVISORY COURSES FOR POST-SECONDARY VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL STUDENTS AS COMPARED TO CONVENTIONAL CLASS- ROOM METHODOLOGY BY Elmer Stanley Junker The Problem The major purpose of this research was to deter- mine the effectiveness of videotaped instruction in supervisory courses for post-secondary vocational stu- dents as compared to conventional methodology in these courses. In order to do this, three hypotheses were tested. They were: Hypothesis 1: Students using videotapes in a classroom setting will have higher gains in achievement test scores than will the group receiving the same lessons with conventional instruction. Hypothesis 2: Students receiving instructions through videotapes in a small group setting will have higher gains in achievement test scores than will those in a large group receiving the same lessons on videotape. 153.11.. .11....» 5.33m... rt... 10‘. v V. V. 4 f0: 1e: {- \1 an“ Elmer Stanley Junker Hypothesis 3: There will be no variation in achievement by the type of lesson within the four videotaped lessons. The secondary purpose was to survey government institutions, business, and schools to determine the extent of their use of television and videotapes. Design and Procedure Students from various major fields in the School of Technical and Applied Arts of Ferris State College, Big Rapids, Michigan, enrolled in the Foremanship course during the fall and winter quarters of the 1971-72 school year. This class normally meets on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday or thirty sessions during each ten-week quarter. Each class was divided into groups for the Wednesday lesson during eight of the ten weeks. One group did not view any videotapes, one group viewed videotapes for four of the lessons in the regular class- room, and one group was divided into sections of two and three students for the four lessons. The division was made for comparison purposes for four lessons that did not involve videotapes. These lessons were: Communication, Job Analysis, Labor Laws, and Automation. The four lessons which were videotaped fibula . . .stn... . 5.154% .'v . . ext use Elmer Stanley Junker included: Training, Five Minute "How to . . . " Talks, Social Security, and Introduction to Critical Path Techniques (PERT). Ten question quizzes were developed for each of the lessons and these were used as a pretest on Monday, a posttest on Friday, and as part of the final exam during the last week. Two Adult Education classes took part in this study during the winter quarter. One received the con- ventional instruction and the other viewed videotapes in the classroom. The results were not considered sig— nificant because of the absences and the data have been placed in the Appendices. Students were given questionnaires in which they were asked to rate the eight lessons on interest, presen— tation, knowledge gained, and overall effectiveness. The groups that viewed the videotapes were asked to rate the effectiveness of its use. A survey was sent to government institutions, businesses, and schools. This was done to determine the extent of the use of television and locate reports on the use of television. Findings Two gain scores were calculated for use in this study. They were the post gain score or the difference between the pretest and the posttest, and the final gain .“ r a a bi- Elmer Stanley Junker score of the difference between the final score and the pretest. These scores were analyzed using a multivariate analysis of variance to determine if any of the inter- actions were significant. The items analyzed included the different terms, the different groups, the lessons, the measures, and the unit lessons. The interactions involving the lessons were the only ones found to be significant. The comparison of the overall mean gain scores indicated that the group which had videotapes in the classroom had the largest gain, the group that did not view any videotapes had the second largest gain, and the group that viewed videotapes in small sections had the lowest gain. There was no pattern that could be determined when comparing the ratings of the individual lessons or the gain scores on the lessons with the gain scores of the total lessons. The ratings concerning the use of television were inconclusive but all groups said that the amount of television used in the course was about right. This was in four of the twenty-three lessons. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VIDEOTAPED INSTRUCTION IN SUPERVISORY COURSES FOR POST-SECONDARY VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL STUDENTS AS COMPARED TO CONVENTIONAL CLASS- ROOM METHODOLOGY BY Elmer Stanley Junker A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1973 Copyright by ELMER STANLEY JUNKER 1973 DEDICATION This book is dedicated mainly to my wife, whom I was fortunate to marry when I was a senior in college, who has put up with.me for nearly twenty-six years while I worked at various positions and continued to work for advanced degrees, and who has made many sacrifices to help me finish this dissertation and this degree. It is also dedicated to my six children, Kathy, Peter, Dorothy Jean, Sally, Allen, and Gloria, who know what it means to have a father who is a part-time student, and have made many sacrifices, known and unknown; to my mother who started me on the road to my first degree; and to my mother-in-law. ii Dr1 (I) p) '"fi St l t'n ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The researcher wishes to acknowledge all of those who assisted in the development and completion of this project. Special recognition is due the guidance com— mittee including: Dr. Peter Haines, Chairman, for his help over the many hurdles; Dr. Rex Ray, who served as temporary chairman during Dr. Haines' sabbatical; Dr. J. Geoffrey Moore, for his wise counsel; Dr. Rollin Simonds, for his advice in the business areas; and, Dr. James Page, for his assistance in the audiovisual field. Mary Kennedy, of the Office of Research Consul- tation, is gratefully acknowledged for her assistance in the design of the study, for her work in obtaining the statistics, and for help in understanding the results. Mrs. Virginia Wiseman deserves recognition for her help through all the mazes. Recognition is also due to my colleagues at Ferris State College. This includes Ken McManis, Sidney Sytsma, Dr. Sanford Halperin, Dr. Allan Goodwin, members of the administration who permitted the experiment, members of the library staff who helped obtain documents, iii members of the audi-visual staff who provided valuable service, and most importantly the students who partici- pated in the experiments. Recognition and gratitude should be afforded to the persons who helped in the typing including two of my daughters, Dorothy Jean Rogers and Sally Junker, and Sherry Novak, Rita Walsh, and Marty North. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I I THE PROBLEM O O O O O O O Q 0 Q 0 O 1 Background and Need for the Study. . . . 1 Statement of the Problem. . . . . . . 4 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . 7 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . 9 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 General Studies. . . . . . . . . . 9 College Television Studies . . . . . . 13 Rochester Institute of Technology. . . 13 University of Maine . . . . . . . 14 University of Oklahoma . . . . . . 14 Chicago City Junior College. . . . . 15 Colorado State University . . . . . 16 Oregon State University . . . . . . 16 Colorado State College . . . . . l7 Ferris State College . . . . . . . 18 University of Minnesota . . . . . . 19 Michigan State University . . . . . 19 University of Nebraska at Omaha . . . 20 Iowa State University. . . . . . . 20 University of Akron . . . . . . . 21 Faculty and Student Attitudes Toward TeleViSion . o O o o o O O O 0 22 Student Attitudes . . . . . . . . 23 Instructor Attitudes . . . . . . . 24 Vocational and Technical Instruction. . . 27 Chapter III. IV. General Vocational Studies Career Education . . . Medical Education . . Vocational Agriculture . British Army . . . . United States Army. . . Research on Techniques of Television in Instruction . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . DESIGN AND PROCEDURE . . . . DESign. O O C O O O O Population . . . . . . Procedures for Acquiring Data Instructional Setting. . Evaluation of Achievement Student Questionnaires . Processing the Data . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . FINDINGS . . . . . . . . Part I Government Agencies . Content of Even-Numbered Lessons Scheduling of Groups and Lessons Technical Schools and Institutions Colleges and Universities . Business and Industry. . . Appliance Companies . . Chemical Companies. . . Insurance Companies . . Steel Companies. . . . Can Companies . . . . Vehicular Companies . . Summary . . . . . . . vi 0 0 O O Page 27 30 30 32 32 34 35 40 42 42 44 46 46 47 49 49 51 51 52 52 54 55 55 57 60 60 65 65 66 67 70 Chapter V. Part II Findings . . . . Effects on Achievement Variation by Term . Variation by Groups Variations by Tapes Variation by Measures Variations Involving Individual Overall Gain in Student Achievement Gain by Lessons. . Student Ratings of Videotaped Lessons Lessons. Attitudes of Students Toward Videotapes. Summary . . . . . SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Problem . . . . . Design. . . . . . Population . . . Description of Method. Lessons . . . . Measures . . . . Surveys . . . . Findings . . . . . Variations by Terms Variations by Groups Variations by Tapes Variations by Measures Variations Considering Overall Means of the Even Lessons. Gains on Videotaped Lessons. Student Ratings of the Videotaped Lessons . . . Individual Units. Attitudes Toward Videotapes. Survey on the Use of Television and Videotapes . . Conclusions and Implications Recommendations for Future Research vii Page 71 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 78 81 83 84 84 85 85 86 87 87 87 88 88 88 88 89 89 89 9O 90 91 91 92 95 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . APPENDICES Appendix A. Foremanship (G-l30) . B. Eight Quizzes . C. Student Survey . D. Survey on Use of Television. E. Adult Education. viii Page 96 102 103 111 112 114 LIST OF TABLES Page Scheduling of Groups . . . . . . . 50 Replies to Questionnaires . . . . . . 56 Interactions Involving Terms . . . . . 72 Interactions Involving Groups . . . . . 73 Interactions Involving Tapes . . . . . 74 Interaction Involving Measures. . . . . 75 Sources of Interactions Considering Units . 76 Overall Means of Groups . . . . . . 77 Means of Groups by Lessons . . . . . . 78 Lesson Number Two--Training. . . . . . 79 Lesson Number Four-—Five—Minute Talks . . 80 Lesson Number Six-—Social Security . . . 80 Lesson Number Eight—-PERT . . . . . . 81 Student Rating of Television . . . . . 82 Gain Scores (Adult Education) . . . . . . 116 Ratings of Videotaped Lessons (Adult Edu- Cation) o o o C o o o O 0 Q o o 116 ix CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM The growth of public television in this country has been remarkable. From a novelty at the neighborhood tavern in the forties, it has grown into a respectable family entertainment center in the seventies. Accompany- ing the growth in entertainment use has been a somewhat slower growth as a classroom device. The use of edu— cational television has been well publicized, with numerous reports written about it, yet; it is not used as extensively as it might be if its instructional effectiveness could be documented. The utilization of television in vocational education has grown even slower than in academic education. This dissertation centered on its use in the area of post-secondary vocational edu- cation. Background and Need for the Study Television has been used in technical education in some fashion almost from the first time it was introduced to the public. This investigator took part in experiments involving the teaching of electronic circuits on closed circuit television in the United States Army Signal School at Fort Monmouth in 1952. The military continued its experiments in a section dif— ferent from that in which the author taught. The school decided that the use of television was feasible, and by 1955, they had six channels operating through the use of coaxial cable. Most of the channels were used for show- ing motion pictures in the classrooms saving instructor time and equipment operator time. The class did not have to leave the classroom and no audiovisual personnel had to set up and operate the equipment. The schedule of movies to be shown was distributed to all interested personnel. Live television was used to bring maneuver areas into the Officers' School's classrooms. An article in Business Screenl tells of the progress made at Fort Monmouth by 1972. Twenty—three channels were in use with viewing possible in 500 class— rooms and conference rooms, in day rooms, in recreation areas, and theaters with large screen projectors. A survey of programs on Monday, March 6, 1972, listed sixty-four 16mm movies, twenty—one videotapes, fourteen kinescopes, and one live newscast. 1"Training at Fort Monmouth," Business Screen: May/June, 1972, p. 24. This example was not typical of the growth of television in technical education or the academic world generally. Extensive use of television has often not been made unless developmental monies have been provided by a governmental agency or a fund. Ferris State College, Big Rapids, Michigan, which provides both academic and vocational education, reflects the general history. Television equipment was made available in 1965 in order to enable the instructors to gain experience in the use of equipment. In spite of awards given for the use of media in teaching, the use of the equipment did not increase rapidly. An audiovisual center with broadcast color television capability has been built and equipped and the use of television in instruction has increased somewhat. Cables are being run to other instructional buildings which should further increase the use of tele— vision. In an attempt to find research in the vocational and technical areas, especially in the supervisory field, a study was requested for University Microfilm to search for dissertations using the following key words: Fore— man, Foremanship, Supervision, Management, Vocational, Business, Distribution, along with Videotapes, Video- taped, Television, 2!! Training, and Teaching. A print— out of 286 titles of reports written before 1969 was produced. Only three pertained to the use of television in areas that could be considered vocational or technical education. Holmes,2 in his dissertation on television research, listed eighty-three reports for the period of 1954-1959 which were correlated in his study. Of these, ten related to military programs and two others might be considered vocational or technical. None of these pertained to supervisory training. The lack of many formal research reports in the vocational and technical area, especially as related to supervisory training indicates the need for a study of this type. Statement of the Problem The major purpose of this research was to deter- mine the effectiveness of videotaped instruction in supervisory courses for post—secondary vocational stu— dents as compared to conventional classroom methodology in these courses. The hypotheses to be treated were: Hypothesis 1: Students using videotapes in a classroom setting will have higher gains in achievement test scores than will the group receiving the same lessons with conventional instruction. 2Presley D. Holmes, Jr., "Television Research in the Teaching-Learning Process" (unpublished Ph.D. disser- tation, wayne State University, 1959), pp. 135—41. Hypothesis 2: Students receiving instructions through videotapes in a small group setting will have higher gains in achievement test scores than will those in a large group receiving the same lessons on videotapes. Hypothesis 3: There will be no variation in achievement by the type of lesson within the total four television lessons. These questions are restated in the null form in Chapter III for the purpose of the design of study and data analysis. The study also was designed to test the student opinion regarding the effectiveness of videotape lessons on factors such as: interest, presentation, and knowledge. The secondary purpose was to survey government, business, and schools and determine the extent of their use of television and videotape. Assumptions All the students enrolled in the investigator's sophomore—level classes at Ferris State College during the two quarters under test (Fall and Winter 1971-1972) were the subjects of the study. Assignments to subgroups were determined by which students had free periods when the equipment was available. The assumption that was made that the use of pretests and posttests would isolate any difference in backgrounds and partially overcome any possible lack of random selection. Another assumption that was made was that since the instructor and lesson plans would be the same for all sections of the classes, any difference would be as result of the treatments. It is also assumed that measurement of student achievement by achievement test scores is a valid measure of teaching effectiveness because course grades are determined on that basis. Definitions3 Audio-visual.--Concerning both hearing and vision. Cable television.--Use of cable systems licensed by the FCC. Closed circuit television (CCTV).—-Transmission of television not available to the general public. Educational television.——Any television pro- gramming with educational intent. Instructional television (ITV).——Any audio-motion— visual system used primarily for formal instruction. 3Based primarily on Rudy Bretz, A Taxonomy of Communication Media (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publications, 1971), pp. xiii-xxiv, and "Instructional Technology Subject Matter Descriptors: A Subset of the ERIC Thesaurus" (Stanford, Calif.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Media and Technology, 1971). Open circuit television.v—Receiving equipment and programs are available to the general public. Videotape.--Thin tape coated with magnetic material used to record, store, and playback video and audio information. Videotape cassettes.--Videotape used in a cart- ridge rather than reel—to-reel. Delimitations The sample was composed of all the students who enrolled in the author's Foremanship courses in the Fall and Winter quarters of the 1971-1972 school year and the results are limited to students in similar situations. This course was a required course for nine major fields in the School of Technical and Applied Arts of Ferris State College and was an elective for the rest of the fields. These students were generally in two-year pro- grams that led to Associate of Arts degrees. Limitations Students receiving one treatment were not com- pletely independent of those receiving other treatments because those in the same major field generally were enrolled in lecture and laboratory courses in their major and had some opportunity to interact about the Foremanship course. Students could not be assigned to the classes on a random basis as they were assigned by block scheduling in their major fields. The use of gain scores partially compensates for this possible nonrandomness. Overview Chapter II contains a review of literature which consists of general studies in the use of educational television and particular studies related to this experiment. The methods of setting up the groups, the treatments used, the tests given, the questionnaires completed, and the statistics used in interpreting the results will be found in Chapter III. A survey of the users of television in government institutions, colleges, universities, and industrial firms is included in Chapter IV as Part I. Part II of Chapter IV consists of an analysis of the gains between the pretest and the posttest and between the pretest and the final test and relating these to the hypotheses stated in null form. The summary, conclusions, and recommendations will be found in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Overview The use and accomplishments of educational tele— vision have been subject of many studies and reports. Some of the general ones are reported here as are those relating to training in specific areas, especially those dealing with vocational and technical matters. General Studies Perhaps the most critical of the studies of Edu- cational Television research was that done by Stickell.l He set up vigorous criteria and then proceeded to evaluate research in five areas: the comparability of the control and experimental subjects, the procedures used to assign students to groups, the comparability of the instructors of the various groups, the statistical assumption, and the adequacy of other controls used. He then applied these criteria to 250 comparisons of televised and 1David W. Stickell, "A Critical Review of the Methodology and the Results of Research Comparing Tele- vision and Face-to-Face Instruction" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University, 1963), p. 39. 10 face-to-face instruction and found 10 were interpretable, 23 partially interpretable, and 217 uninterpretable. The ten he felt were interpretable showed no significant difference, 20 of the 23 he felt were partially inter- pretable showed no significant differences. These 250 comparisons were found in 31 reports in the period of 1955-1960, early in the life of television. It did not include research being conducted at military institutions, one of the heaviest users of the time. Chu and Schramm took a different approach to the problem.2 They felt that rather than overlook the studies because they do not meet Stickell's rather rigid requirements for adequate experimental design we should accept them as research findings which may not meet rigorous standards but do provide information on a pertinent research problem. They felt that the schools have done the best they can under the circumstances. Also rigorous studies and nonrigorous studies have tended to get the same results. In an earlier study, Schramm3 gave the results of 393 comparisons. Of these 65 per cent showed no 2Goodwin C. Chu and Wilbur Schramm, Learning from Television: What the Research Says (California: Insti- tute for Communication Research, 1967), p. 5. 3Wilbur Schramm, "What We Know About Learning from Instructional Television," Educational Television: The Next Ten Years, prepared by the Institute for Communi— cation Research (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford, 1963), p. 53. 11 significant difference (NSD), 21 per cent favored tele— vision, and 14 per cent favored the nontelevision methods. This also showed that television was more effective at the grade school level and less effective at the college level. Chu and Schramm's 1967 report showed the same trend.4 Two hundred and seven studies involved 421 com- parisons showed the percentage favoring television at the elementary level was greater than that at the college level. They suggested three reasons for this. One was that feedback is lacking in this medium and that because of the complexity, lack of feedback is serious. The second was that younger children have been more exposed to television while growing up than have been college students. And third, it may be that younger students prefer television as a method and older students prefer face-to—face instruction. There have been various authors who have dis— cussed the NSD of television research. Carpenters in one article said that some of the problems came because television was not developed for educational uses but was adapted for that purpose and felt that in our anxiety to f (V 4Chu and Schramm, op. cit., p. 7. 5C. R. Carpenter, "A Perspective of Televised Instruction," in College Teaching by Television, ed. by John C. Adams, C. R. Carpenter, and Dorothy R. Smith (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1958), p. 15. 12 teach well we have failed to make students aware of their responsibilities in the learning process. Greenhill6 felt that if the results indicate NSD, it means that the administrator has alternative methods to use in teaching. Hoban7 said that we should expect television to be less effective because of the reduction in access to the teacher or in interaction between the student and the teacher. The fact that there is no loss in effectiveness, he considered a significant research finding. The question is not are two things equal or one better than the other, but what is best use of each medium or how can they be combined. Mielke8 said that if the teachers, instructional content, and students are held constant it may not be right to expect a change in learning from live settings to televised settings. Zigerell talked about criticism of instructional television including that of broadcasters and hostile faculty: "They scoff 6Leslie P. Greenhill, "Review of Trends in Research on Instructional Television and Film," in Research in Instructional Television: Summaries of Studies, ed. by J. Christopher Reid and Donald W. MacLennan (C51umbia, Missouri: Missouri University, 1967), p. 4. 7Charles F. Hoban, "Hope and Fulfillment in ETV Research," AV Communication Review, Winter, 1958, p. 168. 8Keith W. Mielke, "Evaluation of Learning from Televised Instruction," in Instructional Television, ed. by Richard C. Burke (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana Uni- versity Press, 1971), p. 103. 13 at the cult of 'insignificant differences‘ and insist that if it is to survive in education must teach better than the conventional means."9 While Stickell subjected research reports to strict criteria and found that the few that were acceptable generally showed no significant difference, later reporters examining more studies, found that the trend favored the use of television. Even those studies that found no significant difference were felt to show that the admin— istrator and teacher had a choice of methods. College Television Studies Rochester Institute of Tech— nology Richard Zakialo wrote a report on the use of television in an engineering course. The cost of a four— credit graduate level engineering course at an off—site industrial center was $11,000. When all costs of pro— duction and faculty salaries, and fringe benefits were considered, the cost of the original run plus three re-runs made the first cost $6,400. Generalized results 9James J. Zigerell, "Televised Instruction: Where Do We Go From Here," Educational Technology: September, 1969, p. 75. 10Richard Zakia, "Closed Circuit Television at RIT Focuses on Low-Cost Production Without Blurring the Quality," College and University Business, October, 1972, p. 46. I? 14 were that the instructors and the students (ninety in three different videotapes courses) were highly favorable toward the use of televised instruction. University of Maine In the same magazine there was an article in which Philip Brockwayll discussed the use of videotapes in placement. One hundred students made lS—minute unrehearsed face-tvaace conversations. These were analyzed and then 75 students made tapes. These were sent out 283 times to prospective employees. Thirty— six of the students were placed and most received inquiries. University of Oklahoma Perry12 conducted an experiment using three groupings of students and treatments. Group A had face-to-face instruction by an instructor with pro— fessorial rank. Group B had pre-taped lectures with twenty minutes of interaction by special instructor. Group C had the professor using the traditional methods with viewing of videotapes on a selected basis. The ll"Videotaped Interviews Take Students to Busi— ness," College and University Business, October, 1972, p. 48. 12Billy Lee Perry, "The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Achievement," Dissertation Abstracts, XXXI (January, 1971), 3,256 A. 15 highest score was recorded by group B and the difference was significant. However, group A had their lectures in the television studios while the tape was being made. It may be possible that the change in environment and the distraction of the cameras may have reduced the scores of group A. Chicago City Junior College Many experiments have been conducted by Chicago City College.13 A variety of college-level courses was used in this study including English, social science, biology, political science, mathematics, physical science, accounting, shorthand, humanities, psychology, American literature, music, speech, astronomy, business law, and languages. The courses which reported NSD were four English courses, three social science courses, one political science course, one psychology course, one mathematics course, one accounting course, one shorthand course, and one humanities course. Television was favored by four biology courses, one humanity course, one social science course, one mathematics course, and one speech course. Face-to-face instruction was favored in one humanities course. The authors concluded that college could be successfully presented over open—circuit 13Clifford G. Erickson and Hyman M. Chausow, Chicago‘s TV_Co11ege: Final Report of a Three Year Experiment (Chicago: Chicaga City Junior College, 1960), p. 61. 16 television without adjustment of the primary objectives or learning materials. Their results would indicate that this type of instruction would succeed with the persons who tune in on televised courses. Colorado State University Neidtl4 reported on the use of television in teaching study skills. He had six conclusions: (1) students react favorably, (2) television is effective in the study skills area, (3) lower class students with average or lower achievement reflect the greatest bene— fit, (4) learning is enhanced when students are given meaningful assignments to perform in classroom following lectures, (5) lessons can be offered successfully through- out the day as well as during the evening hours, and (6) credit is not a necessary condition for successful skills experience. The results were better at the freshman and sophomore level than the junior and senior level. It may be that at the junior and senior level those students who would have benefited have left school. Oregon State University The use of cable television is growing throughout the country. With most systems providing a channel or l4U.S., Department of Health, Education, and Wel- fare, Office of Education, Bureau of Research, Use of Videotaped Instructional Television for Teaching Study Skills in a UnIVersity Setting, by Charles 0. Neidt (Washington,~D.C.: Gavernment Printing Office, 1966), p. 52. 17 more for education we can expect experiments on its use. Such is Johnson's15 report on Oregon State's presentation of scientific and engineering courses. The school felt that they could save money and classroom space through the use of cable television. The University of Oregon used the television to supplement and enrich live presen- 16 tations in the classroom. Appendix B of their report listed nineteen uses of cable television. Colorado State College McGrathl7 did research with beginning freshmen who were business education and business administration majors at Colorado State College. The research involved 369 students all taught directly or indirectly by McGrath. Two hundred and three watched closed-circuit television (CCTV) in seven rooms. Ninety-six students met in lecture sessions at 9 A.M. and 10 A.M. Five tests were given to these students with one showing a significant difference and this one favored television. This led McGrath to conclude that television would be effective. 15Leland L. Johnson, Cable Television and Higher Education: Two Contrasting Experiences (Santa Monica, Calif.: Rand Corporation, 1971), p. 67 16Ibid., p. 45. 17Harold Morris McGrath, "The Effectiveness of Closed-Circuit Television as an Instructional Medium for Lecture Presentation" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Colorado State College, 1964). 18 Ferris State College Goodwin18 used video tapes to help salesmanship students improve their presentations through self- evaluation. Eighty-three students were randomly assigned to four groups. The control group made pre- sentation in private and evaluated their own tapes. Group one had peer participation, instructor evalu- ation, and self-evaluation. Group two had instructor evaluation and self-evaluation. The presentations were given in private. Group three had peer participation and self-evaluation. As a final test, each student made a presentation selling disability income insurance policies to randomly assigned different types of prospects (five) and different conditions (twenty-one). The group with peer participation but without instructor evaluation was most effective. Based on the results of this study, Goodwin suggested a procedure for skill per— formance areas. First, place students in groups without instructor to evaluate performance. Second, practice and modify their performances. Third, pick each stu- dent's best tape to show to entire class and the instructor. The instructor's comments and suggestions would probably carry the greatest impact for the student at this point. l8Allan Goodwin, "An Experiment in the Use of Video Tape Recordings for Self-Evaluation in Salesmanship Training" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Temple Uni- versity, 1972), p. 16. 19 University of Minnesota A University of Minnesota study concerned the 19 They felt sharing of television among universities. that this approach is feasible and that students accept this, that faculty accept this but want participation in program develOpment, and increasing faculty partici- pation results in a more favorable attitude by faculty. The reasons for using televised instruction are also the reasons for sharing it. This includes: combatting high costs of instruction by extending the influence of good teacher and enriching classroom and out of classroom experiences. Michigan State University Davis and Johnson20 made the study for Michigan State University. Six thousand students were involved in eight different courses. Through use of tests, questionnaires, student interviews, and faculty inter— views, evaluation was conducted by a group not connected with the instruction or television production. The grades of students who saw lectures live showed NSD from students 9Minnesota Inter-Institutional Television Feasi- bility Study, FeasibilitygStudy of Inter—Institutional Television (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1967). 20Robert H. Davis and F. Craig Johnson, Final Report: Evaluation of Regular Classroom Lectures Dis- tributed by CCTV to Campus and Dormitory Classrooms (East Lansing, Mich.: Educational Development Program, Michigan State University, 1966), p. 31. 20 who saw the lectures on television. Students who entered CCTV experience with a negative attitude developed a more positive attitude after experience with it. None of the faculty interviewed felt personally threatened by CCTV. University of Nebraska at Omaha Grandgenett21 made a study at the University of Nebraska at Omaha. The purpose was to see if the infor- mation supplied by a videotape would affect ratings given to teacher candidates. The variation of ratings among the judges made it impossible to determine the effects of the use of videotapes. The author suggested various methods of redoing the study. Iowa State University Charles F. Townsend22 of Iowa State University sent a c0py of a study performed at his school. A course in statistics for engineers which was entitled "Indus- trial Engineering 362" was picked for the program. On- campus students received their teaching in the television 21Don J. Grandgenett, A Comparison of the Ratings Given Ten Teacher Applicants by Ten PuBlic Administrators afEer a Traditional Interview and a Video-Tape Teaching Demonstration (Omaha: University of Nebraska at Omaha, 1972). 22Iowa State University, "Final Report of Com- mittee to Investigate the Use of Video Tape for Off- Campus Instruction," July 26, 1968. 21 studios at the same time videotapes were made and shipped to the industrial sites. Forty-six employees of four industries in three towns were involved in the program. One method of providing feedback from the student was to provide a telephone hook—up from the student to the instructor at a pre—scheduled time. Another technique was to begin a new tape by answering questions telephoned or mailed to the instructor after viewing the last pro- gram. The number of students at a site ranged from ten to twenty. The on-campus students did not like the situ— ation where the television equipment was located in their midst. The Opinion of the off—campus group was favorable ranging from "it's OK" to "excellent." The instructor was generally pleased with the outcome. The results showed the on-campus students doing slightly better than the off-campus students, but the differences were not significant. University of Akron An interesting experiment was conducted at the University of Akron.23 Graduate and undergraduate stu- dents were involved in videotaping experiences. A teach-critique-reteach-critique sequence was followed involving the undergraduate student as teacher and the 23Isobel L. Pfeiffer and Rick Reighard, "Micro- Teaching Practicum in Teacher Education," Educational Technology, December, 1971, p. 42. 22 graduate student in supervision. The critique sessions were also videotaped. The result was experience that was valuable for both the graduate and undergraduate students. Television, especially with the introduction of videotape equipment, has been used in a variety of areas including engineering courses, academic courses, place- ment interviews, study skills, business education, sales- manship, and microteaching. These were presented over open-circuit television, CCTV, and cable television. These investigators showed areas in which television could be used successfully. Faculty and Student Attitudes Toward TeleviSion The effectiveness of televised instruction depends on the reception of student and instructors towards its use. Greenhill had these comments after looking at various studies concerning instructional television: "Negative attitudes of faculty in insti- tutions of higher learning have been the greatest imped- iment to the use of television, however, students‘ atti- tudes have not been a serious barrier to the use of instructional television."24 24Leslie P. Greenhill, "Review of Trends in Research on Instructional Television and Film," in Research in Instructional Television: Summaries of Studies, ed.IEy J. Christopher ReidIand Donald W. Mac Lennan (Columbia, Missouri: Missouri University, 1967), p. 12. 23 Student Attitudes Chu and Schramm summarized research on student attitudes as that students taught by television tend to miss personal teacher-student contact, but there is insufficient evidence to suggest that lack of such con— tact will impair learning from instructional television (ITV).25 They felt that students at the college level preferred small discussion classes to televised classes and televised classes to large lecture classes.26 They suggested that favorable attitudes were distributed widely enough among different televised courses to case doubt on the assumption that some academic subjects may be disliked as material for ITV. Among the factors that determined pupil's attitudes toward ITV were: (a) how much contact they think they will have with a teacher, (b) how they compare the relative abilities of the study and classroom teachers, (c) whether they find ITV boring or interesting, (d) the nature of the televised programs they have seen, and (e) the conditions of viewing.27 Greenhill reached this conclusion: "In most cases it would appear that students' attitudes have not been a serious barrier to the use of instructional tele- ‘ I 2 Vision." 8 25 26 Ibid., p. 97. Ibid., p. 119. 27 28 Ibid., p. 127. Ibid., p. 12. 24 Tam, Gilman, and Sullins29 have developed a very good form for measuring student attitudes. They have produced a 38-point Likert-like scale that could be used to produce quantitative findings of student evaluation on the use of television. Instructor Attitudes Lee30 in his book presented an interesting diagram or typology of users of instruction television. Replacement Replacing exploiter T- Replacing Innovator Exploitation :7 >7 Innovation Enriching exploiter i' Enriching Innovator Enrichment He defined the various terms as follows: the replacing exploiter who uses replacement applications which have the highest pay-off for time and effort involved;31 replacing innovator who has television as one item in his repertoire of teaching and is not afraid of it;32 29Peter T. K. Tam, David A. Gilman, and Walter L. Sullins, Measurement of Attitudes Towards Instructional Television (Terre Haute, Ind.: Indiana State University, 1971). 30John A. Lee, Test Pattern (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1971), p. 71. 31 32 Ibid., p. 72. Ibid., p. 73. 25 enriching exploiter who uses television as supplementary or as a frill but rarely even a half a period;33 and the enriching innovator who is sold on the use of television and makes his course more interesting and attention gett- ing.34 Tyler35 felt that acceptance and productive use of television depends upon a receptive attitude by pupils and teachers alike, especially by teachers since pupils tend to mirror the teacher's reactions. Bonnie Gilliom36 listed characteristics which she felt are necessary for success as a television teacher. Included in this list were willingness to learn new skills and a host of traits that would make a person a good teacher in any medium. Neidt and Sjorgren37 felt that a decline in attitudes toward any course over the period of the course can be expected if only one method of instruction is used. Variation of method is needed. 38 Schramm in an early study of research in instructional television felt that most persons who teach on television 33 34 Ibid., p. 74. Ibid., p. 75. 351. Keith Tyler, "The Impact of Instructional Television on Teaching Roles and Functions," Communi- cation Review, January-February, 1962, p. 51. 36Bonnie Gilliom, "The Television Teacher," in Instructional Television, ed. by Richard C. Burke (Bloom- ington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1971), p. 58. 37 38 Ibid. Ibid., p. 59. 26 come to like it, while those who do not, tend to be suspicious; and resistance to instructional television tends to center in college. This is concurred in by Greenhill39 who felt that the greatest impediment to the use of television in institutions of higher learning has been the negative attitudes of the faculty. Chu and Schramm made a few comments on instructor attitudes. They felt that administrators are more likely to be favorable toward instructional television than are teachers.40 They found five factors that determine a teacher's attitude to television.41 These were: (a) their perception of the degree of threat to the classroom teacher, (b) their estimate of the likelihood of mechanized instruction replacing direct contact with the students, (c) their estimate of the effectiveness of instructional television, (d) their understanding of the difficulties in using modern techniques, and (e) their conservative nature and trust or distrust of educational experimentation. Research has shown that the students prefer small group interaction with instructors but this preference has not affected their learning achievement. 39 4 Ibid., p. 16. oIbid. 4lIbid., p. 124. 27 Some faculty members have feared television but many have learned to make it a useful tool. Vocational and Technical Instruction General Vocational Studies Chu and Schramm had some findings that relate to technical instruction. In a general way they felt that there is no general area where television cannot be used 42 They felt that practice, efficiently to teach students. either by overt or covert response, will improve learning from instructional television if the practice is appro- priate to the learning task and is not an interference.43 Also the use of visual images can facilitate the associate process otherwise they may cause distraction and interfere with learning.44 Perlberg45 made a presentation to the 1968 Illinois Vocational Association Convention based on a paper he authored with others. This was a study on the uses of videotape in Illinois. They found that vocational and technical educators were skeptical of professional 42 43 Ibid., p. 17. Ibid., p. 101. 44Ibid., p. 162. 45Ayre Perlberg, et al., "The Use of Portable Video Tape Recorders and M1cro-Teaching Techniques to Improve Instruction in Vocational-Technical Programs in Illinois: A Pilot Study" (paper presented at the 1968 Illinois Vocational Association Convention, Chicago, Illinois), p. 2. 28 education and application in the classrooms but felt that videotape recording and micro-teaching may be more meaningful. Generally, they felt that favorable atti— tudes to media were increasing. Schaefer and Strong46 conducted an experiment in the use of television and reported them in a pamphlet. They felt that their experiments proved that the use of television has very real possibilities for the training of supervisory personnel. This was the opinion of those involved. Roberts47 studied the use of audio-visual materials in Detroit industrial concerns and his comments were not favorable. He said there was inadequate budgets, the personnel made little use of existing sources and did not know or use sources of audio—visual equipment. Simmons48 made suggestions for use of television in technical schools. These include: videotaped lectures and demonstrations, evaluation of speeches, school 46Carl J. Shaefer and Merle E. Strong, "Using Television for Industrial Supervisory Development," Effectively Sppaking (Columbus, Ohio: State Department of Education, 1959), p. 7. 47Thomas wright Roberts, Jr., "A Study of the Use of Audio-Visual Materials in the Training Programs of Selected Business and Industrial Concerns of Metropolitan Detroit," Dissertation Abstracts, XXVI ( ) 2,707 A. 48Cecilia M. Simmons, "Tailoring TV to the School- wide Needs of a Technical Institute," School Shop, April, 1968, p. 84. 29 assembly programs repeated, news bulletins, fire, safety and first aid demonstrations, evaluation of new processes in industry, and building a television library. The use of the instant replay technique was dis- cussed by Mchwen.49 He took thirty—two students and put them into four groups by random methods and then matched the groups. The method involved the stamping and carving of leather. First, the students viewed a film showing how to use the tools and then they stamped and carved patterns. Group A had a verbal critique from the instructor. Group B watched VTR critique. Group C had verbal critique plus they watched a VTR of their efforts which the instructor critiqued. Group D had a filmed critique, then watched the instructional film, and then they did the exercise again. The results were: audiovisual feedback was superior to videotape alone and repeated use of films. Verbal feedback alone was superior to visual feedback alone. Because of the time required to use the audiovisual method, the author recommended that it only be used with specific skills. 49R. Harold Mchwen, "Videotape 'instant replay' Instruction," Industrial Education, October, 1972, p. 66. 30 Career Education 50 talked of the use of video— Robert Hildebrandt tapes in career education. There are many reasons why students cannot go out into factories. Included are: lack of space for large meetings at the factories, stu- dents are too young to enter factories, and transpor- tation that is not always available. Hildebrandt then suggested that occupational representatives be put on tape or that the teacher make the tour and make video- tapes and then this could be polished for class presen— tation. He also gave some good "how to do" information. Medical Education Roth51 of California State College at Los Angeles made a study of the use of television in a college nursing program. This study had to do with improvement of collegiate nursing. In developing this program, a set of criteria was developed which Dr. Roth felt were appropriate and applicable regardless of subject matter or place of instruction. "Television is a two-channel medium and instructionally appropriate when both channels 50Robert Hildebrandt, "Let Video Tape Help You Explore Career Concepts," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, May/June, 1972, p. 27. 51Dorothea H. Roth, Improvement of Collegiate Nursing Education Through the Use of Closed Circuit Tele- vision Instruction (Los Angeles: California State Col— Iege, 1971), p. l. 31 are necessary to convey a message."52 The author felt that the conversion of a lecture to television would fail because it does not present information rapidly. The experiment was conducted with three graduate classes which were split randomly into two groups. One section viewed a videotape and the other heard the audio portion. Those who listen only would have to be given so much information that it would not be worthwhile to listen. One videotape had much classifactory material. One group viewed the tape and another read the script. There was no significant difference which would indicate the television alone did not contribute much. The result of this study was the development of programs of tele- vision that can be used in training of nurses in clinical instruction. Craig53 reported on the use of television in medical education. One effective system is the Medical Television of UCLA. They try to get learner involvement similar to that in the National Driver's Test. In 1971, they had 200,000 viewers at the cost of less than one dollar per viewing. 521bid., p. 22. 53Robert Craig, "What's New (and Not So New) in Medical Television Education," Educational and Industrial Television, November, 1972, p. 11. 32 Vocational Agriculture King54 felt that television could be used effec- tively in vocational agriculture. His report dealt with the training programs for salesmen of agricultural pro— ducts and ideas. Among his conclusions were these: (1) the method works best if programs are telecast on a concentrated basis over a short period, (2) the teachers who are going to use the videotapes should have the scripts one to two weeks prior to telecasts, and (3) before the program begins, there should be a television workshop and in-service training. British Army Major Clary55 made a study of CCTV materials from Britain and the United States. He reduced his studies to four areas: demonstrations, group-paced instruction, simulation, and immediacy. The first method was group—paced instruction in which the group carried on some operation by following the instructor. This was summarized as follows: learning 54Charles Edward King, "A Case Study of the Evaluation and Use of Special Television Programs as an Instructional Aid in Vocational Agriculture" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1955). 55D. W. Clary, "Initial Feasibility Trails into the Cost-effective Uses of CCTV in Army Training," in Aspects of Educational TechnologyygVolume IV, ed. by A. C. Bajpai and J. F. Leedham (London: Pitman Publish— ing, 1970): P. 161. 33 from CCTV is at least as good as from a conventional instruction; savings arise by replacing an instructor with a monitor, by replacing an able instructor with a less able one with a monitor, and by standardization of instruction in a shorter time; practical "follow—me" type is good instruction for CCTV; and, principles of programmed learning should be used. Tests were run on the costs of demonstration use of television. Based on cost, the use of the videotape made a profit on every showing after the fourth. Based solely on total man—hours saved, there was a cumulative saving of man-hours after the second showing. Tests were run on various methods of simulation.56 Clary felt that the cost effective applications are simi— lar to those of group-paced instruction and demonstrations provided the materials are selected carefully. They did not have any cost results on the immediacy factor, but Opinions were favorable as to its use. The British Army also made studies comparing the cost of making 16mm films with the cost of making video— 57 tapes. Black and white film cost 14,800 pounds per hour as compared with 589 pounds per hour for videotape. 56 57 Ibid., p. 164. Ibid., p. 165. 34 United States Army A prolific writer on the use of various audio- visual devices in the services is Kanner.58 In an article in 1958, he said that the use of television as an instructional tool was as effective as conventional instruction for a variety of subject matter; motor skills could be taught by television; intensive use eight hours a day for five days a week is possible; and kineSCOpes can replace or supplement classroom instruction. The schools developed techniques for training television instructors, saved money on training aids, and saved training time. Ten years later, Kanner59 had another report on the subject. The army had expanded its training through use of television through additional facilities including those at West Point. Mass television had been replaced by videotape, and instead of the school adapting to television, they are adapting television to their use. Exchanges of tapes between schools are held down by "Educational Nationalism." 58Joseph H. Kanner, "Teaching by Television in the Army-—An Overview," AV Communication Review, Winter, 1958, p. 172. 59Joseph H. Kanner, "Teaching by Television in the Army-~An Overview for 1968," AV Communication Review, Summer, 1968, p. 178. 35 Television has proven to be a useful tool in vocational and technical education but not too much has been done in research at the doctoral level. Many of the existing studies deal with the use in military training programs. Research on Technigges of Television in Instruction Previous research has a bearing on the techniques of instruction to be used in this study and what can be done with the data accumulated in order for the results to be valid. Chapman and Cariote6O reviewed the use of tele- vision. They said that television was first used for formal instruction in 1953; however, it was first used in general education in 1932 at State University of Iowa. By 1960, half a million students were receiving regular instruction by television. They felt that television will require more first-rate teachers as nothing shows up with greater impact on television than mediocre teachers. They stated: "The consensus of research in the past 15 years indicates that in the case of pro- grammed instructional information, a student responds 60Dave Chapman Inc. Industrial Design, Design for ETV: Plannipg for Schools with Television, rev1sed by Frank Carioti (New York: Educational Facilities Laboratories, 1968), p. 3. 36 and retains information presented on television as well as through the medium of traditional classroom presen— tation."61 Bretz62 listed the following five ways instruc— tional television can be superior to classroom lectures and more effective in producing learning: (1) it pro— vides audio-visual enrichment, (2) because of the large audience expected, more time can be put into prepar- ation, (3) levels of presentation can be raised by only keeping the best teachers, (4) since the lesson becomes public, teachers will work harder, and (5) teachers can be released for important functions. 63 wade found that teacher-tell is the least effective method of televised instruction and a method which encourages practice by the learner increases learning especially if feedback of correct response is 64 supplied. Greenhill contributed that the main variable 611bid., p. 22. 62Rudy Bretz, A Taxonomy of Communication Media (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational TechnoIOgy Puin— cations, 1971), p. 48. 63Serena E. Wade, The Effect of Different Tele- vision Utilization Procedures on Student Learning, Final Report of Santa Clara County Office of Educationi(Wash— ington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, U.S. Depart— ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Edu— cation, 1968), p. 24. 64Ibid., p. 3. 37 in many studies which is televised instruction versus direct instruction is often mixed with other variables such as different teachers and imply that this should be considered. Hoban65 said that the basic question is not which method is best, but how they can be combined to produce optimum results. Thorman and Amb66 compared methods at two schools. The videotape discussion method was used at North Dakota State University (NDSU) in Fargo, North Dakota and the lecture discussion method was used at Moorhead State College (MSC) at Moorhead, Minnesota. The two schools were five miles apart and drew from the same population. The students were not randomly assigned, but the authors felt that the groups had similar characteristics. The NDSU group had videotape recordings (VTR) every week for two of the three periods. Otherwise, the books and instructional materials were the same. The results favored the group that used VTR. The authors felt that videotape is effective in present— ing both the instructor and his material and in preserv— ing a positive attitude on the part of students. This small sample follows the pattern of other research they 65Ibid., p. 159. 66Joseph Thorman and Thomas Amb, "Videotape/ Discussion--Lecture/Discussion: A Comparison," Edu— cational and Industrial Television, November, 1972. 38 have done. However, it does not say if the same teacher taught both classes, but implies they are different. Copeland67 studied different techniques in the use of television. His four techniques were: (a) no talk back during television and no questions permitted, (b) the leader of the group could answer questions, (c) the students had two-way communication to the instructor, but no leader in class, and (d) the stu- dents had two-way communication to the instructor and the class had a leader. His results showed no signifi— cant difference among the groups which would indicate anyone of the methods would be feasible. The difference between the schools involved made further analysis dif- ficult. Burnham68 made a study of students in business education classes who viewed the course at home and at viewing centers. The results of this study involving 263 students showed NSD. The female groups were higher than the male group. He felt that upper-level students could handle the single—exposure, fixed-pace, no—review type presentation inherent in instruction broadcasts. 67Jimmy Bryant Copeland, "An Investigation of Four Television Feedback Techniques Via a Closed-Circuit System," Dissertation Abstracts, XXVII (1966), 533 A. 68Kent Richard Burnham, "The Effectiveness of Learning by Instructional Television in Community View- ing Centers and in the Home Environment," Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (November, 1971), 2,565 A. 39 Onah69 performed a related study in the use of audio-visual tutorial (AVT) systems. One hundred and six students started the course in Principles of Account- ing with sixty—two finishing. The experimental group used tapes and slides at carrels. His results indicated NSD between the experimental and control groups. He felt that AVT was as effective as the conventional system and the students, in general, liked the system. The results may not be accurate because of the high rate of drop—outs. Chu and Schramm had various conclusions that would apply. Test results comparing televised instruction and face-to-face instruction are valid if certain con— 70 They included random assignment of ditions are met. students, same content of lectures, and same learning environments. Also, television is most effective as a tool for learning with learning activities at the 71 Students will learn better when receiving end. visuals are presented in an order carefully planned by production people and the teacher.72 Problem solving instruction on television is more effective than 69Julius O. Onah, "An EXperimental Study Using the Audio-Visual Tutorial System to Teach Principles of Accounting 1 to Community College Students" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1971). 70 71 Ibid., p. 8. Ibid., p. 23. 72Ibid., p. 48. 40 lecturing.73 The students are likely to acquire the same amount of learning whether the materials are pre- sented as a lecture, in an interview, or in a panel dis- . 74 cu331on. Instructional television appears to be equally effective with small and large viewing groups.7S Liking television is not always correlated with learning from .76 Allen77 said that we must direct research to the it problem of putting together optimum instructional sys- tems for meeting different objectives. Summary Historically, research on the use of television in education began shortly after television became popu- lar. Stickell felt that the research done was not rigorous enough and those studies that were inter- pretable or partially significant showed no significant difference. Other authors differed on the standards needed and whether or not a NSD result still has meaning. They felt that the volume of studies coming after Stickell completed his research have indicated that television is a useful tool for teachers. 73 74 Ibid., p. 66. Ibid., p. 67. 75 76 Ibid., p. 75. Ibid., p. 133. 77William H. Allen, "Instructional Media Research: Past, Present, and Future," AV Communication Review, Spring, 1971, p. 15. 41 Studies have been done at the college level on a variety of courses, on campus or off, using various techniques and facilities. The results have led the investigators to conclude that television has a place in college-level academic courses. Research in the vocational and technical area is plentiful if you examine various pamphlets and magazines, but scarce in the area of doctoral studies. The organi— zations that have done the studies have concluded that there is value in the use of television and have con— tinued to do so. The attitudes of students have varied, but, generally they favored in person teaching, but the preference has not seemed to affect their achievement. Instructors have been fearful of television but those who try it become consistent users. Some work has been done to examine the studies done to see if the usefulness of television will vary with the content, the methodology, and the type of stu— dents. Much needs to be done in this area. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND PROCEDURE Design The design of this study is a variation of Design Ten of Campell and Stanley.1 Their design ten may be shown as follows: 0 represents observations 0 represents the treatment 00 00 This indicates that the first group had the pretest and the posttest and conventional treatment. The second group had the same pretests and posttests but had a different treatment, the one under study. The variation of the design used in this study may be shown as follows: ODD EVEN LESSONS LESSONS Groups 1, 4 01 X1 01 01 02 X4 02 02 Groups 2, 5 01 X2 01 01 02 X5 02 02 Groups 2, 6 01 X3 01 01 02 X6 02 02 1Donald T. Campell and Julian C. Stanley, Ex eri- mental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research (Ch1- cago: Rand? McNally and Company, 1966), p. 47. 42 43 Groups 1, 2, 3 met in the fall quarter. Groups 4, 5, 6 met in the winter quarter. No television was used during the odd-numbered X lessons so the symbols x and X represent the dif- l’ 2' 3 ferent physical arrangement, but with no difference in treatment. This was done for comparison purposes. X4 represents the conventional treatment. X5 represents the treatment using classroom videotapes. X6 represents the treatment where small groups viewed videotapes. The numbers of students involved in this study were forty—four in the fall quarter, thirty-seven in the winter quarter, forty-four in adult education. The students in the fall quarter were subdivided into the following subgroups: (1) Fifteen in the group that received no video— tapes; (2) Fifteen in the group that had videotapes in the regular classroom; and (3) Fourteen that viewed the videotapes in five small groups. The winter breakdown was as follows: (1) Twelve in the conventional classes; (2) Twelve in the classroom videotape group; and (3) Thirteen in the five small groups. 44 The totals for the regular students were as follows: (1) Twenty-seven in the conventional groups; (2) Twenty-seven in the classroom videotape groups; and (3) Twenty-seven in the ten small groups. The actual number of scores used was less in each group due to student absences. Population E'l _ I I- . I This study was concerned with the regular day— time students of the School of Technical and Applied Arts. At the time this study began, 9,161 students were enrolled in Ferris State College, with about 96 per cent being Michigan residents. Two-thirds of these stu- dents were in associate degree or certificate programs, usually two years or less. One thousand, eight hundred and twenty-six students were enrolled in major fields of the School of Technical and Applied Arts. Most of these students were male. Tests were given to all freshmen who enrolled including: School and College Ability Test (SCAT), Cooperative Mathematics Tests (Arithmetic and Algebra I), and Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB). These tests are not used as entrance tests, but serve to help stu- dents and advisors in program planning. Ferris State College entering freshmen generally score on an ability 45 level between the nation-wide sample of all high school graduates and students enrolling in four—year colleges based on their scores on SCAT. Students entering Ferris for baccalaureate programs average higher scores than those who enter for two-year programs. Technical students generally scored higher in the Mathematics section of F‘ SCAT than other students. Each major field includes a program of related academic courses which are conducted by members of the Specialized Education Division of the School of General B Education. One of these, Foremanship,2 is a required course for the following major fields: Auto Body, Auto Machine, Auto Service, Avionics, General Printing, Heavy Equipment Service, Machine Tool, Radio—Television Service, and Welding.3 Foremanship is strongly recommended by 2The catalog description was as follows: G-130. Foremanship Training. Three hours a week. This course is intendedrto teach the Trade and Industrial students the duties and responsibilities of foremen and the techniques which successful foremen use. The student learns what the typical foreman does, what problems he is confronted with and how he handles them so as to accomplish the task of getting the work out. He learns why the human—relations aspect of the foreman's job is so important. The students are given an opportunity to acquire some foremanship skills through the tech- nique of "role-playing." (Ferris State College, School Bulletin, 1972-1973 [Big Rapids, June 1972], p. 457i. 3Ibid., pp. 291—309. 46 the advisors as an elective in the other fields at Ferris. Therefore, all Foremanship classes include students from a variety of fields. These students are usually in the third to sixth terms of their program of studies. The sample in the study consisted of all of the KF. students who enrolled in Foremanship classes taught by the author in the fall and winter quarters of the 1971- 1972 school year. The students in these classes were typical of those who usually take the course, and there- llrl - fore, the results could be generalized for students of the School of Technical and Applied Arts. Results could also be generalized to students with similar backgrounds in technical institutions other than Ferris. Procedures for Acquiring Data Instructional Setting The Foremanship class normally meets three times a week or thirty times during the ten—week quarter. Classes are fifty minutes in length. The topics given on eight consecutive Wednesdays were used in this study. They were presented in the following order: (1) Com- munication, (2) Training, (3) Job Analysis, (4) Five Minute "How to . . . " Talks, (5) Labor Laws, (6) Social Security, (7) Automation, and (8) Introduction to Critical Path Techniques. No videotape was used during the odd 47 numbered lessons. Some groups received the videotape treatment during the even-numbered lessons. The schedule is Appendix A. For purposes of varying treatment, each group was divided into seven subgroups. The first large subgroup received no videotape. The second large subgroup viewed videotapes in their regular classroom. The other five subgroups consisted of two or three students in a relaxed, informal atmosphere with the instructor involved to the extent of starting and st0pping the tape. This arrangement was used for the eight lessons under test. The class was combined for the remainder of the lessons. This meant that each class was together for the first and last weeks of the course and for the Monday and Friday of each of the middle eight weeks. This was done for two quarters to insure sufficient number of subjects. A discussion of the even-numbered or videotaped lessons will follow. Content of Even—Numbered Lessons Lesson Number Two-—Training.--This videotape was Primarily a lecture using a wide variety of training aids to illustrate the lecture and demonstrate their use. Topics included were methods of instruction, materials, training aids, and sources of information to be used by a foreman in conducting training. 48 Lesson Number Four——Five Minute "How to . . . " Talk§.-—The purpose of this lesson was to simulate the type of talks a foreman would give in carrying out his training responsibility. The students were taught how to evaluate talks and were given experience in making talks. The lesson began with an explanation by the author of the rating forms to be used and points to be ___“_11 observed during the talks. This was followed by a number of five-minute talks given by students. The groups receiving the conventional instruction had this done i-mf‘u- live in the classroom, the others viewed videotapes. Because the content of the student talks varied from group to group, the tests in this unit evaluated the use of rating forms. Lesson Number Six—~Social Security.—-The Assistant Director of the Regional Office of Social Security made a presentation. This was followed by a question—and- answer session with a panel of students. The program was put on videotape. The author made the presentation in the conventional groups using the notes of the Assis- tant Director and incorporated the students' questions and the Assistant Director's answers. Lesson Number Eight-~Introduction to Critical Path Techniques (PERT).-—This was a lecture-demonstration lesson in which the instructor gave some general 49 information about the system and then worked out a problem. The students followed the program on work- sheets. The same lesson plan and materials were used in the classes receiving conventional instruction. Scheduling of Groups and Lessons 1 The following table demonstrates the type of scheduling necessary to meet all the groups. Because not enough equipment was available, some groups met on Thursday instead of Wednesday. Evaluation of Achievement The author has taught over seventy sections of this course with nearly 2,000 students since coming to Ferris State College in the fall of 1964. A bank of questions has been developed from which the questions used in this study were chosen. Quizzes consisting of ten items were made for each of the eight lessons. This test was given at the end of class on Monday as a pretest, at the beginning of class on Friday as a posttest, and in the last week of the course as part of the final exam. Since these scores have been used as part of the final grade given to the students, they are valid measures of teaching effectiveness. This follows the ideas advanced by Cornfield and Tukey.4 The quizzes are in Appendix B. 4J. Cornfield and J. Tukey, "Average Values of Mean Squares Factorials," Annals of Mathematicsl Statis- tics, XXVII (1956), 913. 50 mB> MB> MB> mB> mHSSB me> oz me> oz me> oz me> oz ze Ha mB> MB> MB> mB> mHDQB ze> oz me> oz me> oz me> oz re m mB> mB> mB> mB> mHSfiB me> oz ze> oz me> oz me> oz ea m MB> MB> mB> MB> 603 mB> OZ MB> OZ mB> OZ mB> OZ Em H mB> MB> MB> mB> CO3 me> oz ze> oz me> oz me> oz re Ha mmoouo HHmEm mB> mB> m8> m8> DOB me> oz me> oz ze> oz me> oz ze m mB> mB> mB> MB> mB> m8> me> MB> 603 OZ OZ OZ OZ OZ OZ OZ OZ Ed m BmHm ceaumeouoe mufluoowm msmq memwz mwmwamcd madcamna mcoHDMOHGSEEou . Hmwoom uoomq Im>aw non . . . . museum mo mafiaopmeomli.aim mamma 51 Student Questionnaires A questionnaire was given to all students to determine their opinion of the effectiveness of the instruction in the lessons under test, and the Opinion of the effectiveness Of videotapes by the groups that viewed it. A copy of the questionnaire is in Appendix C. r—Aq Processing the Data The data used consisted of the change in achieve— ment scores between the pretest and the posttest and between the pretest and the final test for the lessons singly and collectively. Because of the many possible interactions, a computer program for the multi-variate analysis of variance developed by Jeremy D. Finn was used.5 Studies were made of all possible interactions caused by the different quarters, different treatments, and different measures used and assignment to different groups. The use of analysis of variance determined which ixuzeractions were significant. The mean of the gain scores in each cell under test was used to determine which cell showed the greatest achievement. 5Jeremy D. Finn, "Multivariance-Univariate and MultiJLariate Analysis of Variance and Covariance: A Fortran IV Program," Occasional Paper Number 9 (College of amication, Michigan State University, March, 1970). Use Of? Michigan State University computing facilities was.made possible through support, in part, from the Nat1ona1 Science Foundation. 52 Hypotheses The data assembled and processed were used to test the hypotheses. These stated in a null form are as follows: Hypothesis 1: NO difference will be found in the gains in achieve— ment test scores between the group receiving video- taped instruction in the classroom and the group receiving the same lessons with conventional instruction. Hypothesis 2: NO difference will be found in the gain in achieve— ment test scores between the small groups receiving videotaped instruction and the group receiving videotaped instruction in the regular classroom. Hypothesis 3: There will be no pattern of relationship between the gains on the four individual videotaped lessons and the total scores for the overall lessons. Summary The design of the study was to use a pretest, posttest, and a final test on eight groups of students over eight different lessons. Some of these lessons used videotape to vary the treatment. The purpose was to determine if the differences were significant, and if so, which treatment and which type of lesson is sig- nificantly better than the rest. To do this a multi- variate analysis of variance was used. 53 A student questionnaire was used to determine the effectiveness of videotape and the student's atti- tudes toward its use. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS Part I This part Of the chapter includes the results ; Of questionnaires sent to Federal government agencies, schools, and businesses. The organizations chosen were ‘I". institutional members of the American Society for Train- ing and Development, American Technical Education Association, and Michigan Business Education Association who were believed to have training groups large enough to support an undertaking using television or videotapes. In addition, questionnaires were sent to technical schools approximately the same size as Ferris State College. After the letters were sent out, a copy of the membership list Of the National Industrial Television Association, dated November, 1971, was sent by one of the correspondents. Sixteen companies, with employees who are members of NITA, did not answer the request for information. 54 55 The purposes were to get an indication Of the use Of the equipment and locate articles describing the use. A copy of the survey is included as Appendix D. A total Of 451 questionnaires was mailed. The numerical survey of answers is shown in Table 4-1. Government Agencies» r‘ An unsigned letter was received from the Bureau of Indian Affairs of the Department of the Interior regarding their use Of television. The reactions of the students were good, and the faculty, excellent to a L course in which 250 people were trained. One-fourth of the course time was spent using television. Video was used to present skits showing management styles and to record and evaluate group dynamics——individually and on a group basis. Other U.S. government agencies that have some use of television include the Veterans Administration, the Central Intelligence Agency, the Internal Revenue Ser- vice, and the Department of Housing and Urban Develop— ment. Technical Schools and Institutions The four schools that answered in this category either have not used television or videotapes or do not have data available. 56 TABLE 4—l.-—Replies to questionnaires _ Colleges . p~ Govern Technical and Bu51ness ment Schools Universi— and Totals - Agencies . Industry . ties . Mailed 27 45 194 185 451 j NO Answer 20 41 161 150 372 ; e Television Not used or No Infor- mation 3 4 14 13 34 Used in Super— vision 6 0 12 16 34 Other Uses 2 0 17 12 31 Note: Numbers do not add up because of more than one use. 57 Colleges and Universities Most of the schools which answered the survey used television in three related methods. One was in micro-teaching. The prospective teachers prepared a lesson and taught while a tape was being made. This was played back and evaluated. The second method involved role-playing of salesmanship students as cus- tomer and salesperson. This was played back and evalu— ated. Other uses included making videotapes Of student performance in various management areas for playback and evaluation. Television was also used for enrichment of courses. The wide range of possible use was pointed out in a letter from James M. Murdock of the University of Hartford dated February 3, 1972.1 The use of videotapes at that school ranged from teacher evaluation in the teacher corps program to role playing in business games to teller and officer training for local bank groups. A variation of micro-teaching was mentioned in a letter from Jim O'Dell, Assistant Dean of Instruction, Tarrant Junior College, Hurst, Texas, dated February 23, 1972. During their regularly scheduled Department Chair- man's meeting, they have four to five micro-teaching sessions going on at one time. They used tapes 1On this and succeeding pages in this chapter, reference to the source of data obtained by letter or phone call is shown in the text rather in a footnote. 58 extensively on their campus and felt that the use Of tapes has been well accepted by their staff and students. In the spring Of 1971, the education department of the University of Nebraska at Omaha sent a question- naire to members of the department about the desirability Of having a micro—teaching laboratory. Don J. Grandgenett of that school supplied a copy Of the results in a letter dated February 10, 1972. The faculty was in favor of the laboratory and made suggestions as to its use. The laboratory was established as the result of the question- naire. Another school that made extensive use of tele- vision or videotape was Kilgore College at Kilgore, Texas. This was described in a letter from Gerald W. Pinson. Some of their uses include: videotapes for student use; videotape recorder in the classroom; television studio for more sophisticated recording; retrieval system in the Learning Resource Center; a telebeam for large groups; and a videotape recorder for in-service training. Dr. Pinson wrote, "I feel that there is great value in the use of videotape--if it is used properly. If misused, it can be just as ineffective as any other teaching tool which is used improperly." Marquette University used television in speech courses and the results were forwarded by Joseph M. Staudacher in a letter dated February, 1972. The study 59 was conducted in 1967 and involved 7 researchers and 600 students. One-half of the students were in a large auditorium and the other half were in small groups of 24. The students disliked lectures but liked demonstrations Of discussion, debate, and parliamentary procedure. The faculty decided that the value of television was excel- lent if presented in classrooms and not in large halls, and if time was spent in rehearsing and producing the ; tapes with professional help and good equipment. The value was poor if these criteria were not met as this caused faculty unrest and student disappointment. Delta College of University Center, Michigan, has transmitted courses over its television station to plants, hospitals, etc. Over a 7-year period, 10,000 to 15,000 persons received training. Favorable comments were received from students and staff as reported in a letter from William J. Ballard, station manager. The Dow Leadership Conference Center of Hillsdale College, Hillsdale, Michigan, used television in their manager training seminars. The two seminars—-Se1f— Analysis for Managers and Manager Development-—are each given five times a year. Self-Analysis for Managers involves a client/consultant situation which is video- taped and played back. Included in Manager Development is a three-minute speech presentation. Normally eighteen to twenty managers attend each seminar. Manager training 60 sessions for various companies involved the use of videotapes. Most of the conferees felt that the use of television is valuable. This was reported in a letter from John Collins dated February 29, 1972. Mr. Jacalyn Robinson, AV Coordinator reported in a letter dated February 7, 1972, that the Mid-Management Coordinator at Carl Sandburg College, Galesburg, Illinois, used a portable videotape to record student‘s "intern- ship" experiences and also for role playing in Super— vision classes. The tapes were played back for evalu- ation. Business and Industry Thirty-five companies answered the questionnaire. People in industry have a tendency to try something and continue it if it will work. They will drop the idea if it does not seem to work. SO it was with television. Appliance Companies General Electric had a management practices course for the first-time manager. An unsigned note from General Electric told that 1,700 people had taken this 44-hour course. The 4 hours of television were rated of high value and among the most useful. This program was discussed in a bulletin Of the Bureau of 61 National Affairs.2 One activity that made use of video- tape was reported. Four-man groups demonstrated their communication skills in interviewing and data-gathering by simulating an exercise which is videotaped. The tape was played back for evaluation. The trainees rotated among positions of interviewer, interviewee, and the Observers who commented on the activities. This course was presented at various locations that had the space, five television sets, and other audio- visual equipment. ! r Reliance Electric Company's interesting program was described by John N. McCormick, Jr., the Assistant Personnel Manager. This is one of the companies that takes part in the Television Training Institute of Television Channel 25, WVIZ, Of Cleveland. Participant ratings were included in the letter of February 28, 1972. The ratings on the television sections of the courses were good to excellent. McCormick felt that they would continue to use the satellite training as long as there is a need among management personnel. James M. Murdock of the University of Hartford forwarded information regarding training conducted when he was the manager Of the Education Center of Royal Typewriter. His letter was dated February 3, 1972. They 2The Bureau Of National Affairs Inc., "Case Study: Private Sector," Mappewer Information Service, March 10, 1971, p. 305. 62 had started with management conferences and typewriter assembly training in 1959. In 1965, they had added sales training interviewing and role playing. Jack Kaull of the Hazeltine Company summarized his company's use of videotapes in a letter received in March, 1972. Seventy-five people were trained in a course that used videotapes for one-half of the training time. Videotape included all the lectures and demon- strations, student presentations, and semi-final exams. The final exams were live sales experiences with a real customer in the market-place. The faculty rated the use Of videotape excellent and the students rated it good to excellent. Max Fuller, Director of Field Education, responded for the Maytag Company on March 1, 1972. They have been using videotape equipment in sales and marketing training programs since August of 1968 and found that this made training more meaningful and also provided a very effec- tive method for self-evaluation. One use was role-playing for selling retail or wholesale. It was also used to supplement training such as tape on the co-op advertising program which the trainee may view many times, disassembly of company or competitors' products at national or regional sales meetings, special presentations by key marketing personnel, and a special course in oral com- munication. They found that, rather than be adversely 63 affected by the use Of television, students look forward to seeing themselves on screen. Chemical Companies William R. Risk Of Union Carbide in an undated response answered the questionnaire and sent reprints \ Of articles about training that appeared in various pub- tm‘ lications including Sony's Application Bulletin, Chemical ; week, Industry Week, and Business Week. 1 Union Carbide called the training group the personnel development laboratory. During the training program, new salesmen received courses entitled "Intro- duction to Carbide," "Communication Skills Development," and "Selling Skills Development I." After one year in the field, the salesmen may come back to take "Selling Skills Development II." Much of these courses consisted Of role playing. "Selling Skills Development II" was part of the series Of continuing education programs which were designed to up-grade the men. Management programs and marketing management programs were also part of the series. These courses which used videotapes and tele- vision 30 to 50 per cent of the time were continuously evaluated. Instructors and staff felt that these 64 courses were valuable and the center has continued to grow. Approximately 400 students took the course each year. The Dow Chemical Company used videotape programs put on air by Delta College and followed these with dis— cussion groups. Approximately 700 supervisory people at various levels have received the various programs. Material was well received if presented at the proper level but adversely received if "Mickey Mouse" or some specific habit, speech pattern, or mannerism of the speaker was distracting. They also used videotape in recording and playing back various supervisory skills and in teaching correct maintenance and operating pro- cedures. Dow felt that the use Of videotape saves training time, gets better understanding, and better involvement of the group as reported in the letter of January 31, 1972, written by M. A. Storr. Howard A. Hart wrote of the program of ESB Inc. in a note dated January 26, 1972. They used CCTV for a prerecorded welcome for new employees from the president, for training in interviewing, and for messages to employees in areas such as United Fund, Saving Bonds, and Equal Employment. The employees regarded its use as novel and believable. 65 Insurance Companies Pat Campbell, manager Of programmer training, reported on the use of videotape by the Nationwide Insurance Company. The company purchased several courses and trained 150 persons who were to use the new computer facilities. Ninety per cent of the course time was spent using television. The students felt the use of television was excellent and very effective. Crum and Forster Insurance Companies have used videotapes in training approximately 100 supervisors over two years of time. George Shusta, Jr., Vice President, Manpower Development of that company, in his letter of June 27, 1972, said that ten hours or 1/3 of the program time was spent in teaching the supervisory skills Of employee interviewing and counseling. Stu- dents and staff liked the method so that the company planned to expand its use into other areas. Steel Companies Michael P. Soltys, Management Development Repre- sentative, in his letter of January 28, 1972, discussed the use of videotape at Bethlehem Steel Corporation. Bethlehem‘s main uses were improving the speech and mannerisms of the salesmen and tOp executives the interviewing skills of college recruition. They also used video playbacks to improve skills of super- visors in conducting performance appraisals. Another 66 use was in a business writing seminar which makes use of videotapes. Bethlehem Steel has not conducted any con- trolled experiments, but the participants have received the use Of videotape well. Dr. Soltys was the author of an article in the Journal of College Placement in which he discussed the use of videotapes.3 The use Of videotapes to record and play back interviews and role-playing may help the student improve his performance in job interviews. Don Greenwood of U.S. Steel Corporation responded to the questionnaire by a telephone call in which he reported on the use of television. In five years, they have had fifty—five to sixty playbacks. Tapes included those on motivation, steel in the seventies, organization, participative selling, effective writing, and steel making. Programs included tapes, textbooks, and quizzes. Seventy per cent of the participants answered surveys and most responded favorably. Unfavorable responses were due to electronics or the mechanics of the showing. Can Compenies Another user of television was the American Can Company as reported by P. J. Kirby in a letter dated January 27, 1972. Approximately 400 supervisors were 3Michael P. Soltys, "An Important Adjunct for Counselors-~Video-Taped Role Playing," Journal of College Placement (February—March, 1971), 305. 67 trained in thirty classes primarily in areas of communi- cations, discipline, interviewing, and counseling. The participants in the program identified the video taping as the highlight of the program. Mr. Kirby said, " . . . the kind of behavior-improvements we saw, and the commit— ment the supervisors evidenced following this training was proof enough to us that it is a very worthwhile technique." Continental Can Company's use of television was reported by J. J. Pexco, Regional Supervisor of Training and Management Development in a letter dated January 28, 1972. Videotapes have been used in the instructor institute to record and playback, had just been initiated in management training, and had been used in technical training. The results have been excellent both in under- standing and relention. Vehicular Companies R. R. Miller, Manager of Training Services, reported on the programs in the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company on February 10, 1972. Approximately one—half dozen videotapes have been used in various training pro- grams for persons from first-line supervisors to plant manager. These are used all over the United States. Feedback from participants indicates that when the information is relevant and deals with their problems, 68 they are receptive. Where the subject matter is on something that they think they do not, or cannot, con- trol, they are not very interested. Chrysler‘s program was described in a letter from George L. Lumsden, Manager of Sales Training, dated February 3, 1972. Among their uses were speech coaching, case study--role playing, monitoring, role playing on the management level, and as a rehearsal medium for 16 mm films. The film cost $100 per running foot com- pared to $1,000 per running foot for usual motion film production. Chrysler found videotape useful in making tapes Of typical situations. During the discussion parts of the tapes can be replayed. Two thousand retail salesmen received this type of training in the field. Video tapes in training and as a management com- munications tool began in 1968 at Deere and Company as reported by D. C. Patterson, Video Coordinator, on February 9, 1972. Various management and technical groups have made use of videotapes. A course which formerly required forty hours of an instructor‘s time now can be given to six students at a time requiring a student manual, seven hours of video tape, and a part- time instructor. Video tape was used because it conveys a consistent message and does not eat, sleep, nor require expensive travel accommodations. The company felt the 69 capabilities of videotape are established and is con- sidering new ways to use it. R. L. Swain of the Ford Motor Company in a letter dated January 26, 1972, sent a brochure describ- ing a training program entitled "Interpersonal Skills DevelOpment." Management and consultants identify dif— ficult person-to-person problems, short videotapes are made, workshops are held where searches are made for alternate solutions, solutions are tried out, and then the workshop is evaluated. The brochures related that 1,500 foremen, staff supervisors, and customer relations personnel have taken the course. Evaluation showed the following results: grievances decreased, better relations between foremen and general foremen, fewer meetings of staff supervisors because of better communication, and personnel developed more willingness to listen and work out alternative solutions with peers and subordinates. As video-cassettes become standardized and more available, we can expect wider use of videotape in industry. Ken Winslow, in his article in Videoplay Magezine, discussed standardization agreed to by Sony, Matsushisita (Panasonic), and the Victor Company of Japan.4 As an example of the future, he points out 4Ken Winslow, "Theme and Variations on the 3/4 U Format," Videoplay Magazine, October, 1972, p. 10. This is an insert of EducaEiOnal and Industrial Television, October, 1972, p. 10. 70 that Sony has delivered between 30,000 and 40,000 machines with Ford‘s acquisition of 4,000 machines being probably the largest single order in history for any kind Of videotape machine. Other companies will follow Ford's example. Ford's program is discussed further in an article which is written as a dialogue between the Ford Company and the Video Pleyer Magazine.5 Before inStalling the system, Ford did two years of research using seventy black and white sets in Lincoln-Mercury rimm— district Office. Now, 4,100 systems have been purchased for use in the United States and Canada. Thirteen tapes have been prepared for training and thirteen for mer- chandising. The small dealers without a large inventory Of cars can use the videotapes for demonstration. This indicates a growing use that will be made of the new training tool. Summary The pattern followed by many industrial firms is to try a new method or new hardware in their training and if it seems to work they will continue to use it; if not, it is discarded. This is done without the 5"The Ford Video Network," Video Plgyerr October, 1972, p. 10. 71 rigorous, controlled research of a dissertation although they Often rely on the advice of persons with a Ph.D. or a Ed.D. Many reports have been made in the areas of vocational and technical training. Most have not met the standards of a doctor's dissertation much less Stickell's standards, but organizations that made the studies felt that television was worthwhile. Government training groups and industry training groups have felt that expenditure of funds on television groups is well worth the time and money. Part II Findings The first section Of this part will deal with a study of the various sources of variation to see what effect the different conditions had on the means of the gain scores. The second section will deal with the data that result from the student opinion survey. Effects on Achievement The study design attempted to measure the gain in student achievement and analyze this gain according to the possible sources of interaction. A multivariate analysis of variance was used to check the various interactions. The items considered were the two terms, 72 three types of groups, the odd and the even lessons, and the measures used. Variation by Term The two terms involved in this study were the fall and winter terms Of the 1971-72 school year. Dif- ferent interactions were tested that involved terms. The main effect was tested to see if there was a significant difference between the fall and winter term. With one degree of freedom, the F score was 2.3151 and the P score was .1358 or no significant difference at the .05 level. TABLE 4-2.--Interactions involving terms Degrees of Type Freedom F P Two way (terms X groups) 2 .1759 .8394 Two way (terms X tapes) 1 .3839 .5390 Two way (terms X measures) 1 .5401 .4666 Three way (terms X groups X tapes) 2 1.3570 .2688 Three way (terms X groups X measures) 2 .1536 .8582 Three way (terms X tapes X measures) 1 .0009 .9769 Four way (terms X groups X tapes X measures) 2 .9616 .3908 None of these interactions which involve terms are sig— nificant at the .05 level of significance. This means that it made no difference in which term the students took the course. fil 73 Variation by Groups The three groups involved were the one that received conventional instruction in the classroom, the group that had videotapes shown in the classroom, and the group that viewed videotapes in small sections. The main effect was tested to see if there was a significant difference between the three types of groups. With 2 degrees of freedom, the F score was .6981 and the P score was .5034 or no significant difference at the .05 level. TABLE 4-3.--Interactions involving groups Degrees of Type Freedom F P Two way (terms X groups) 2 .1759 .8394 Two way (groups X tapes) 2 3.5279 .0386a Two way (groups X measures) 2 .7083 .4985 Three way (terms X groups X tapes) 2 1.3570 .2688 Three way (groups X tapes) X measures) 2 .1536 .8582 Three way (terms X groups X measures) 2 .6070 .5499 Four way (terms X groups X tapes X measures) 2 .9161 .3908 aResults significant at the .05 level will be marked with asterisks. Only one of the interactions was significant at the .05 level of significance. This was the interaction of 74 groups and tapes. This means that it makes no difference as to the group the student is in except when tapes are involved. Variations by Tapee In this lesson the interactions involving the Odd lessons which used no videotapes for any treatments and the even lessons which included videotapes for two of the treatments were considered. The main effect or difference among the odd and even lessons was tested. With one degree of freedom, the F score was 82.3138 and the P score was .0001. This was significant at the .05 level. TABLE 4-4.--Interactions involving tapes :1 Degrees of Type Freedom F P Two way (terms X tapes) 1 .3839 .5390 Two way (groups X tapes) 1 3.5279 .0386* Two way (tapes X measures) 1 .2705 .6058 Three way (terms X groups X tapes) 2 1.3570 .2688 Three way (terms X tapes X measures) 1 .0009 .9769 Three way (groups X tapes X measures) 2 .6070 .5499 Four way (terms X groups X tapes X measures) 2 .9616 .3908 One of the interactions was significant at the .05 level of significance. This was the two-way interaction between { —lu_, 75 groups and tapes. This interaction has a bearing on the hypotheses and will be discussed in more detail later. Variation by Measures The measures considered in this group of inter- action were the difference between the pretest and the . posttest and the difference between the pretest and the final test. The difference between the post gain and the final gain was tested. With 1 degree of freedom, the F score was 4.9572. The P score was .0316 with 1 degree of freedom. This was significant at the .05 level. TABLE 4-5.-—Interaction involving measures Degrees of Type Freedom F P Two way (terms X measures) 1 .5401 .4666 Two way (groups X measures) 2 .7083 .4985 Two way (tapes X measures) 1 .2705 .6058 Three way (terms X groups X measures) 2 .1536 .8582 Three way (terms X tapes X measures) 1 .0009 .9769 Three way (groups X tapes X measures) 2 .6070 .5499 Four way (terms X groups X tapes X measures) 2 .9616 .3908 None Of these interactions were significant at the .05 level of significance. 76 Variations InvolvingIndi— vidual Lessons This group Of interactions involved the eight lessons or units that are nested in the odd and even lessons. These were previously considered as a group. The main effect considering units within tapes with ‘ 6 degrees of freedom was a F statistic of 13.4874 and a P statistic of .0001. This is significant at the .05 level. TABLE 4-6.—-Sources of interactions considering units Degrees of Freedom F P Terms X Units: Tape 6 1.2462 .3065 Groups X Units: Tape 6 .6290 .8108 Units: Tapes X Measures 6 2.0114 .0896 Terms X Units: Tape X * Measures 6 3.5720 .0071 Group X Units: Tape X Measures 12 1.2186 .2876 Term X Group X Units: Tape X Measure 12 .6641 .7796 Term X Group X Units: Tape 12 .6004 .8349 This shows that the interactions involving the units are consistent with previous interactions considering the lessons in total. 77 Overall Gain in Student Achievement The overall effect of the instruction upon achievement was tested by means of two hypotheses: Hypothesis 1: No difference will be found in the gains in achieve- ment test scores between the group receiving video- taped instruction in the classroom and the group receiving the same lessons with conventional instruction. — mum‘fl Hypothesis 2: No difference will be found in the gain in achieve- 4 ment test scores between the small groups receiving videotaped instruction and the group receiving videotaped instruction in the regular classroom. TABLE 4-7.--Overall means of groups Odd Lessons Even Lessons Groups 1 and 4 (no videotapes) 1.46 2.50 Groups 2 and 5 (classroom videotapes) 1.68 2.72 Groups 3 and 6 (small group videotapes) 1.20 2.38 As shown in Table 4-7, the groups that had the classroom videotapes had the highest mean gain scores, the groups that had no videotapes had the second highest mean gain score, and the groups that viewed videotapes as small groups had the lowest score. Therefore, H and 1 H2 are rejected. 78 Gain by Lessons The effect on achievement upon the individual lessons was tested by the hypothesis following: Hypothesis 3: There will be no pattern of relationship between the ‘ gain on the individual lessons that were videotaped _ and the total scores for the overall lessons. TABLE 4-8.--Means of groups by lessons No Videotapes Videotapes Included m , c 0 Groups :3 c 3 m o 9 O U) -r-i U1 Q >1 -H -a u c -H u :2 U) (U "-4 E H "-1 5 >. u E c I m M$4 E r4 0:0 o -H QLM was B .n m .n 3 u m >r4 ()0 m o 0:: m m c H -H m o m m U hrfi A.q m B fiaB 03m m l and 4 .50 .72 2.19 2.45 .45 1.00 2.79 5.78 2 and 5 .94 1.89 1.36 2.55 1.53 1.58 3.11 4.73 3 and 6 1.33 .97 1.29 1.22 .97 .69 2.31 5.54 There is no pattern so Hypothesis 3 is accepted. Student Ratings of Videotaped Lessons The results of the student surveys are presented by lessons. Only the videotaped lessons, or even- numbered lessons, will be discussed. The scale used on this part of the questionnaire was one to five, with.one being the highest rating and five being the lowest. 79 TABLE 4-9.--Lesson number two——training Method of Held Knowledge Presen- . Overall Interest tation Gained Overall Mean 2.32 2.54 2.50 2.48 F Statistic .141 .918 .664 1.370 Significance .995 .497 .702 .227 Fall #1 no TV 2.33 2.42 2.50 2.58 #2 class TV 2.40 2.36 2.27 2.58 #3 small group TV 2.33 2.83 2.73 2.25 Winter #4 no TV 2.39 2.62 2.62 2.54 #5 class TV 2.27 2.55 2.64 2.73 #6 small group TV 2.42 2.83 2.58 2.58 Although variations in scores exist, none are significant at the .05 level of significance. In Table 4-10, only the overall ratings were significant at the .05 level of significance. Each term showed a different pattern, but the highest average rating was given by the group with no videotape. The second highest was given by the group with classroom videotape, and the lowest by the small groups. The variation in results (Table 4—11) was not significant. 80 TABLE 4-10.--Lesson number four—-five-minute talks Presen- Interest tation Knowledge Overall Overall Mean 2.58 2.94 2.77 2.84 F Statistic .541 .954 .720 3.07 Significance .881 .471 .655 .007* Fall r— #1 2.91 3.18 2.82 3.87 i #2 2.70 3.50 3.20 3.50 ' #3 2.46 3.00 2.90 2.50 Winter . #4 2.33 2.58 2.42 2.85 E #5 2.89 3.11 2.78 2.73 1‘ #6 2.71 2.57 2.57 3.08 TABLE 4-ll.--Lesson number six--social security Presen- Interest tation Knowledge Overall Overall Mean 2.27 2.35 2.37 2.64 F Statistic 1.309 .319 .638 1.44 Significance .255 .944 .723 .200 Fall #1 2.33 2.33 2.33 2.67 #2 2.17 2.08 2.08 2.42 #3 2.00 2.25 2.18 2.55 Winter #4 2.54 2.54 2.62 3.35 #5 2.82 2.46 2.73 2.82 #6 2.42 2.33 2.50 3.00 81 TABLE 4-12.--Lesson number eight-~PERT Presen- Interest tation Knowledge Overall Overall Mean 2.20 2.47 2.37 2.53 F Statistic .322 1.141 .544 2.952* Significance .942 .346 .799 .027 Fall 5mg; #1 2.50 2.42 2.25 ————— #2 2.17 2.08 2.08 2.17 #3 2.09 2.18 2.20 2.67 Winter #4 2.00 2.33 2.33 ----- #5 2.40 2.30 2.40 2.18 #6 2.44 2.33 2.89 2.75 Some data are missing because not enough students answered this part. The results were significant where complete. In both the fall and winter, the small group ranked the videotape lessons lowest. Attitudes of Students Toward Videotapes The second part of the survey was only answered by students who had television training since it con— cerned the use of television.6 The survey will be repeated here with the numbers in parenthesis being the weight assigned to that answer. 6The results given here use the word "television" instead of "videotape" because that is the way the questionnaire was worded. 82 TABLE 4-13.——Student rating of television Opinion of Television Did Television Amount of As Used in the Course Help you Learn? Television A B C Fall #2 2.2 2.3 2.1 ' #3 2.7 1.9 2.0 Winter #5 2.2 2.2 2.2 #6 2.8 1.9 1.8 Overall 2.5 2.0 N O O mar—.1 Column A lists the ratings of the student's opinions of the use of television in the course. A weight of l was given to "disliked it," 2 to “indifferent to it," and 3 to "enjoyed it." The small section group gave the highest rating. Column B shows the results when the students were asked if television helped them learn. A score of l meant "much help," 2 meant "helped some," and 3 meant "didn't help much." Again the small section group gave the highest rating. The students were asked about the amount of television used in the course. Four of the twenty-three lessons were on videotape. A weight of l was given to 83 "too little," 2 to "about right," and 3 to "too much." The scores indicate that all groups thought that the amount was "about right." Summary The group with videotape in the classroom had the ( highest average gain in achievement therefore the first 7“ null hypothesis was rejected. This was: Hypothesis 1: No difference will be found in the gains in achieve- ment test scores between the groups receiving video— taped instruction in the classroom and the groups receiving the same instruction with conventional instruction. The small group section had the lowest average gain scores of all groups. Thereby rejecting the second null hypothesis. This was: Hypothesis 2: No difference will be found in achievement test scores between the small groups receiving videotaped instruction and the groups receiving videotaped instruction in the regular classroom. There was no pattern among the gain scores for the individual lessons so the following null hypothesis was accepted: Hypothesis 3: There will be no pattern of relationship between the gain on the individual lessons that were videotaped and the total scores for the individual lessons. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS The growth of public television in this country has been remarkable, but the use in educational tele— vision, especially in the vocational and technical areas, has not kept pace. There are many reports written about the use of television in the vocational and technical training but these have not been of the formal type. There is a lack of reports in the area of supervisory training of vocational and technical personnel. Problem The major purpose of this research was to deter— mine the effectiveness of videotaped instruction in supervisory courses for post-secondary vocational stu- dents as compared to conventional methodology in these courses. Three hypotheses were tested: Hypothesis 1: Students using videotapes in a classroom setting will have higher gains on achievement test scores than will the group receiving the same lessons with con- ventional instruction. 84 85 Hypothesis 2: Students receiving instruction through videotapes in a small group setting will have higher gains in achievement test scores than will those in a large group receiving the same lessons on videotape. Hypothesis 3: There will be no variation in achievement by type r- of lesson within the total four videotaped lessons. The secondary purpose was to survey government, business, and industry to determine the extent of their use of television and videotapes. Design The design of this study could be considered a variation of Design Ten of Campbell and Stanley as shown on page 42. The same short test was used for the eight lessons in the study as a pretest, posttest, and final exam. Two groups of regular day-time students were involved, forty—four in the fall quarter and thirty- Seven in the winter quarter of the 1971-72 school year. Forty-four students took the course in adult education during the winter quarter; but since their attendance was inconsistent, the results were not significant and are given in Appendix E. Population The students taking the course were enrolled in various technical fields of the School of Technical and 86 Applied Arts of Ferris State College. These students scored between the average of all high school graduates and the average of students enrolled in four—year courses on the School and College Ability Test. The sample included all the students who took the course as a requirement or as an elective during the quarters under study and enrolled in the author's section of the course. Description of Method The class normally meets on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday for thirty class sessions in a ten-week quarter. The lessons used for this study were normally given on the second thru ninth Wednesdays. On Monday, the class met as a group and received the normal lesson and the pretest for the next lesson. On Wednesday, the class was divided into groups for the treatments. On Friday, the class met as a group and had the posttest on Wednesday's lesson and the normal lesson for Friday. During the last week of the quarter, the class received all the tests as a final exam. The class was split on four Wednesdays into groups such that one class had the conventional instruction, one viewed videotapes in the regular classroom, and the remainder viewed videotapes in five groups of two or three students. The class was split into the same groups for four other lessons but no videc done Less< oath videi Crit Meas bank waS1 as p. quiz week Subt gain the - used StUd3 leSSr was : 87 videotape was used during these sessions. This was done for comparison purposes. Lessons The four conventional lessons were: Communi- cations, Job Analysis, Labor Laws, and Automation. The 1 videotaped lessons were: Training, Five—Minute "How to . . . " Talks, Social Security, and Introduction to Critical Path Techniques (PERT). Measures Short ten-question quizzes were developed from a bank of questions used with previous classes. A quiz was used as a pretest and posttest for each lesson and as part of the final test for each lesson as the eight quizzes were combined as a final exam during the last week of instruction. A post gain score was obtained by subtracting the pretest from the posttest. The final gain score was obtained by subtracting the pretest from the final test. An analysis of variance program was used to determine if any interactions were significant. Surveys Two surveys or questionnaires were part of the study. One was given to the students to rate the eight lessons and the use of videotapes. The other survey was sent to various schools, government institutions, and bi to 10 each Thes and time Vari sig: ferl or ‘ was and t01 can: Var' Sig: and resu 88 and businesses to determine the use of television and to locate reports written on its use. Findings Variations were considered to see what effects each would have and if the results were significant. These included interactions of terms, groups, tapes, and measures. These sources were considered two at a time, three at a time, and all four at one time. Variations by Terms None of the interactions involving terms were significant. This means that it did not make any dif- ference whether the students took the course in the fall or winter quarter. Variations by Groups Only one of the interactions involving groups was significant. This was the result of comparing tapes and groups. This meant that it made no difference as to which group the students were assigned. The signifi- cant interaction has a bearing on the hypotheses. Variations by Tapes Only one of the interactions involving tapes was significant. This was the result of comparing tapes and groups. This meant that any difference that resulted when comparing gain scores was not significant 89 except when the different groups using the tapes were considered. This has a bearing on the hypotheses. Variations by Measures There was a significant difference when consider- ing the overall averages of the post gain and final gain scores. There were no findings of significance for any of the other interactions involving measures so this m, mar-a; ." ' difference may be due to chance. Variations Considering Individual Units Only one result was significant when considering the interactions involving the eight lessons nested in the odd and even lessons. This was the one involving tapes and groups. This means that the interactions among the individual lessons was significant as was the one found considering the lessons as a group. Overall Means of the Even Lessons The group that had the highest gain score was the one that had videotapes in the classroom. The next highest group was the one that did not have any video- tapes at all. The lowest group was the one that had videotapes in small sections. 9O Gains on Videotaped Lessons The group that used videotapes in the classroom was the highest on the training lesson, the five-minute talk lesson, and the Social Security lesson and the lowest on the PERT lesson. The group that did not have any videotape was F- the lowest on the training lesson, highest on the PERT . lesson, and the middle group on the five—minute talk lesson and the Social Security lesson. The group that viewed videotapes in small sections was the middle group on the training lesson and the PERT lesson and lowest on the five-minute talk lesson and the Social Security lesson. Student Ratings of the Videotaped Lessons There were no ratings concerning the lessons on training and Social Security that indicated a significant difference. The overall rating on the lesson on five—minute talks was shown to be significant. Each term showed a different pattern but the averages indicated that the no videotape group rated it highest, followed in order by the classroom videotape group and the small section group. The overall rating on the lesson on PERT was shown to be significant but not enough students in the 91 no videotape group answered this part of the questionnaire so no data were shown for their group. The small group sections rated this higher than did the classroom video- tape group. Attitudes Toward Videotapes 1 All the groups that viewed videotapes rated the rfim use between "indifferent to it" and "enjoyed it" with the small group sections giving the highest rating. All the groups said that the use of television 1 r "helped some" with the small group section rating this the highest. All the groups felt that the amount of television used in the course was "about right." Videotapes were used in four of the twenty-three lessons. Survey on the Use of Television and Videotapes F The results of the survey indicated that tele- vision is used in many ways by schools, government insti- tutions, and businesses. Although they may not have scientific documentation for their beliefs, people in industry who have tried television believe that this is an effective way to conduct training and have continued to use it. 92 Conclusions and Implications The results of this study are that the use of videotape in the classroom is an effective way to teach the type of student usually enrolled in the Foremanship course. This was evident in the training and five-minute talk lessons which were primarily lectures accompanied FL by training aids. The bulk of the course consists of this type of lesson. It was also shown in the Social Security lesson which consisted of a short lecture by a visiting expert followed by a question—and—answer session. The PERT lesson required that the students follow the instructor in the problem demonstrated. The group that had videotapes in the classroom did the poorest of the three groups. Evidently, the concentration needed was only present when the instructor made a live presentation or when the small groups could interact and answer each other's questions. This means that the complete Foremanship course could be put on videotapes. The lessons that were pri- marily lectures could be shown to large groups of stu- dents. The lessons requiring more concentration could be put on videotapes to be drawn out from a library by small groups of students. The use of videotapes would be helpful in solving some of the problems involved in scheduling of this 93 course. The students have their major labs in the morning and afternoon hours requiring that the related courses such as Foremanship be scheduled early in the day, at noon, or late in the afternoon, often at some distance from the lab classes. Different major labs are held at various times so Foremanship classes are held when sufficient students are available. Through use of closed circuit television, the lessons could be shown several times during the day and viewed by stu— dents in the lab areas, lounge areas near the labs, or in the student dorms. Ferris State College is located in Big Rapids, Michigan, which is in a predominately rural area. Grand Rapids is the nearest city of any size and this is fifty-five miles away. Instructors who want to show their students the actual job situation must arrange for field trips that take the students away from all the classes, not only their major labs. Instead of this, videotapes could be made at the factory site, edited for effectiveness, and then shown in the classroom. This will be even more feasible as the use of video-cassettes become more widespread. Like many small communities, Big Rapids will soon have a cable television system. This means that once the system is installed in the homes, the public 94 schools, and the college, the course could be put on the cable for the regular students and adults of the community. The course could also be put on videotapes that would be kept in the library so that students could study the lessons at night and review what had been taught in the daytime. A student at Ferris may challenge any course in the catalog and take a proficiency exam. Students with experience in industry could study the lessons which are missing in their background and then take the required test. This would be in keeping with Ferris‘ philosophy of being a second-chance school and would speed the mature student‘s progress toward graduation. The gains in the lessons were relatively small, but this indicates that administrators have an alternate method of instruction. This may not justify the purchase of equipment for one course but more courses could use this medium. Cable systems in many towns have equipment that would be available to educators without the expen- diture of money for equipment. The amount of gain possible would be sufficient to increase the grade of a student in a school that uses only five letter grades as does Ferris. 95 Recommendations for Future Research The small section group did better on some of the posttests than the other groups but then they drOpped more than the others on the final test. This resulted in a lower score in the overall rating. This indicates that the small group might have learned better but for- got faster. This is an area for further research. Another area for future research would be to determine if there is a maximum number of lessons that could be videotaped in a course in order not to lose effectiveness. The students in this research felt that four lessons from the course was the right amount. Research should be done to see if the studies for the group as a whole would be true for each of the major fields such as automotive, air conditioning, printing, television repair, and welding, among others. The area of Adult Education needs to be researched further. Some method will have to be developed to take in account the absences that usually result during this type of education. 'I "_'-‘.r BIBLIOGRAPHY g BIBLIOGRAPHY Present, and Future." AV Communication Review, XIX (Spring, 1971), 5—8. Allen, William H. "Instructional Media Research: Past, ”.1 Bretz, Rudy. A Taxonomy of Communication Media. Engle— wood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publi- cations, 1971. Burnham, Kent Richard. "The Effectiveness of Learning by Instructional Television in Community Viewing Centers and in the Home Environment." Dissertation Abstracts, XXXII (November, 1971), 2,565 A. Campbell, Donald T., and Stanley, Julian C. Experimental andeuasi-Experimental Designs for Research. 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Educational Technology, September, 1969, pp. 72-75. AF APPENDICES : ]__u’.a_ I IA - 1’ ' . I APPENDIX A FOREMANSHIP (G-130) APPENDIX A Foremanship (G—130) Instructor: E. S. Junker, W—109 Text: Bitell——What Every 796—9971, Ext. 261 Supervisor Should Know 1/10 Introduction to Course, Foreman's Job Chap. 1, 8 l/l4 Human Relations 2 1/17 Wbrkers Attitude 3, 4, 19 1/19 Communication 5, 6 1/21 Superior and Subordinates 42 1/24 Leadership 7, 9 1/26 Training 13 1/28 TEST NUMBER ONE 1/31 Manpower Management 10 2/2 Job Analysis 11 2/4 Appraising 12 2/7 Programmed Instruction 2/9 Five Minute Talks 2/11 TEST NUMBER TWO 2/14 Labor Relations 14 2/16 Labor Laws 14 2/18 Giving Orders 16, 17 2/21 Safety 15 2/23 Social Security 2/25 TEST NUMBER THREE 2/28 Discipline and Grievances 18, 19 3/1 Automation and Computers 25 3/3 Automation and Computers 25 3/6 Cost Control & Planning 26, 27, 28, 29 3/8 Introduction to Critical Path Techniques 26 3/10 Cost Control 30, 31, 32 3/13 Final Exam Part One 3/15 Final Exam Part Two 3/17 Outside Reports 102 APPENDIX B EIGHT QUIZZES APPENDIX B Foremanship TesT one Name Group The grapevine geTs mosT acTive usage a) in spiTe of good communications, b) in The absence of good communicaTions, C) because of malicious employees, d) when The boss is away. The Third dimension in Three-dimensional communicaTions is a) across The ‘ organizaTion, b) means any Three people, c) is The Third rank of The organizaTlon, d) is The Third level down. " The besT kind of communicaTions combine spoken or wrlTTen words wiTh a) movies, b) achon, c) Television, d) lisTening. The mosT fundamenTal form of communlcaTion is a) planned appoinTmenTs, b) Telephone calls, c) informal Talks d) lnTeroffice memo. _5vw The besT Type of communicaTion for quick checkup a) planned appoinTmenTs, b) Telephone calls, c) informal Talks, d) inTeroffice memo. A common error in conferences is a) noT assemblying daTa, b) noT providing enough Time, c) running Too long, d) noT consulTing oThers when seTTing up agenda. Rules of communicafion include which of The following: a) sell The spiriT as well as The message, b) individualize The communicaTions, c) back communicaTions wiTh acTion, d) all of The above. DlsTorTlon or clogging in communicaTions is caused by a) delay, b) rivalries, c) procrasTinaTion, d) all of The above. Which of The following do noT cause rumors? a) wishful Thinking, b) uncerTainTy, c) anger, d) facTs. The besT reason for poeple being poor llsTeners is a) waTching for facial expressions Too much, b) Too busy Trying To express own ideas, c) lisTenlng Too well, d) hair Too long. 103 104 APPENDIX 1’ (Conttnued) Foremanship l. MaTch iTem wiTh deflanion ll. Use a for Training iiTeraTure, b for an evaluaTion device_ c for an audio~ visual aids, and d for a meThod of Training. 2. 6. 7. lniTial Training Upgrading Training UpdaTing Training Refresher Training ReTraining LecTure Lesson plans Movies Performance check lisTs RoTaTion TesT Two A . Name —— ~----~. Higher level in same family of jobs Teaching a new skill Teaching To person wiTh no previous skill ‘ Teaching laTesT deveIOpmenTs ReTeachlng courses in an area noT used L105 APPENDIX ‘9 (Continued) F o remansh i p TesT Th ree Name Lkae a + if The answer is True and a 0 if The sTaTemenT is false. ______ l. The purpose of job evaluaTlon is To raTe The worker. 2. A job descripTion Tells in general Terms whaT a worker does. 3. A job descripTion is a sTep by sTep accounT of a job. 4. A red circle raTe is a raTe above The normal raTe. _____ 5. CosT of living adjusTmenTs are noT included in Take humo pay. 6. Non—exempT workers do noT coiiecT overTlme. 7. Job evaluaTion Tells whaT Type of Training is necessary. 8. A poinT sysTem is one meThod of job evaluaTion. 9. Ranking of Jobs does noT figure in job evaluaTion. I0. The basic Tool of job evaluaTion is merlT review. Foremanship 106 APPENDIX.B (Continued) TesT Four Name MaTch iTem of raTlng wlTh a bad example of The raTlng. 10. FacilliTles Training Aids Concest Appearance Eye ConTacT Voice ATTiTude Knowledge SubjecT MaTTer Question A. Answers quesTions wiTh new informaTion . Displayed as needed -\ w O '.'.‘ dimva'DOZZr—Xc-“IOTIZJ' . reels Teaching is a chore Follows logical order fronT of room orderiy . EveryThing is imporTanT Hair noT combed inTeresTed in geTTing maTerial across Lesson all jumbled TogeTher LighTs noT on when needed Looks ouT window Knows only whaT he is Teaching . Main ideas recognizable No order To Talk PicTures remain when noT needed RaTTies coins Talks aT one piTch . ASks general quesTion Varies raTe of speech Looks around room .107 APPENDIX B (Canfinued) Foremanship TesT Five Name 'The following is a IisT of labor laws. Use The IeTTer of The law To maTch wlTh an idea from The law. Use one ieTTer in each answer even Though more Than one law would apply. Sherman AnTi TrusT ACT (l890) . CiayTon AnTI TrusT ACT (l9l4) Railway Labor ACT (I926) . Norris v LaGuardi ACT (I932) . NIRA (I933) NaTlonal Labor RelaTlons ACT (Wagner ACT) (l935) . Public ConTracTs ACT (Walstheaiey ACT) (I936) Fair Labor STandards ACT (l938) War Labor DispuTes ACT (SmlTh~ConnalIy ACT) (l943) . Labor ManagemenT ReIaTions ACT (TafT~HarTIey) (i947) . CommunisT ConTroI ACT (I954) . Labor Reform ACT ( Landrum~Griffin) (I959) PRC-HIQ'TIITIOO'Q) l. Employers could noT inTerfere wiTh unions 2. Labor is noT an arTicle of commerce 3. Labor's sTrikes are an resTralnT of Trade 4. Minnimum wage is seT 5. OverTime musT be paid for work over 8 hours in a day 6. OverTime musT be paid for work over 40 hours in a week ‘_____ 7. RighT To work laws permiTTed 8. Secondary boycoTT prohibiTed 9. Workers could organize and bargain coilecTiver l0. Yellow dog conTracfs unenforceable Foremansh i p TesT Six Name f7l 108 1.2mm): 3 (Continued) i. True or false quesTion. PuT check in preper space. ‘True False l. Social securiTy cards should be used for idenTiflcaTlon. 2. Social securlTy Checks cannoT be garnished. 3. Social securiTy checks may noT be paid To anyone over l8. 4. Social securiTy checks may be mailed To reTired person ouTside The UniTed STaTes. ll. MulTiple choice. PuT ieTTer in blank. WhaT is The maximum years of coverage a person needs To become fully covered under social securlTy? a) l0 b) 20 c) 30 d) 40 e) 50 AT whaT age may an employed person who is noT disabled reTire and receive full benefiTs? a) 60 b) 62 C) 64 d) 65 e) 70 Which of The following is ciosesT To The maximum amounT of salary which is Taxed by social securiTy? a) $3,000 b) $5,000 c) $7,000 d) $9,000 6) $ll,000 The maximum amounT an employed worker should pay in social securiTy Taxes in one year is closesT To: a) $600 b) $630 C) $660 d) 690 a) $720 The maximum reTiremenT beneflT one person may receive is ClosesT To: a) $324 b) $364 C) $404 d) $444 a) $484 The Tax raTe for social securlTy paid by one employed person Is: a) 6.0% b) 5.85% c) 5.2% d) 3.6% e) 2.8% Stabbed-bur, ."r '. w .. ' .109 APTENDIX B (Continued) Fo rcmanshi p TesT Seven ilame -..--.D--- *- -0.-- as... “an“-- d. .I. 0. * I‘iaTch Term wlTh expression or definiTion -*___ i. Job ioT A. AcTuaIiy performs operaTion _____ 2. DeparTmenTaiized b. All work done by individuals _____ 3- P"Ogresslve C. AuTomaTic muscle -.___ ”- conV°Yorized D. Compares oquuT wiTh inpuT ‘____ 5. AuTomaTion E. ConTinuous flow of mechanized assembly _*___ 6. informaTion F. DirocTions for operaTion of machinery .___ 7. ConTroIier G. Hand fed machines wlTh parTs on oonvcy~ ors a. Servomechanism H. individuals use machines To help uiTh 9. machine speciaiiTy l0. Feedback I. RegulaTes The operaTion J. Work by individuals as specialisTs TV I Forciansiiip 8701 Tom I. l. Ci 2. Ar 3. id 4. T 5. T Given Thu i< 4 days POM) Event I. H COW Foronansh i p .iaTch Term wiTh definiTIon. i. 2. 3. 5. Circle Arrow To TI TI ~ To .110 A. ummx 3 (Continued) TesT 8 Heme EarliesT possible Time job could be done 8. LaTcsT Time job is permiTTed To be done Slack Time 0. RepresenTs an acTiviTy E. RepresenTs an evenT leon The following informaTion work The problem and answer The quesTions. 4 days permiTTed To conipieTe job. EvenT com> Preceding evenTs None A A 0,0 Tl of B is a) l, Te of B is a) l, Ti of C is a) l, Te of C is a) l, The criTicai paTh d) 0 To 0 To A, b) b) b) b) is e) AcTiviTy None I 2 3,i 2, c) 3, d) 4, 2, c) 3, d) 4, 2, c) 3, d) 4, 2, c) 3, d) 4, a) A To B To C, 0 To C To Time a) e) e) U") U“: A To D To U, c) A To C To 0 f7i APPENDIX C STUDENT SURVEY APPENDIX C STUDENT SURVEY Name Date 1. Rate each of tho following lessons using a scale of l, 2, 3. 4. 5 1 will represent the highest level, 3 average, and 5 the lowest. Hold your Method of Knowledge Intaregt Prggentation Gained Overall 1 . Communication 2. Training 3. Job analysis 4. Five ninuts talks 5. Labor Laws 6. Social Security 7. Automation and Computers 8. PER! i 11. What is your opinion of television as used in this course? (check one) enjoyed it indifferent to it disliked it III. Did the television used in this course help you learn? didn't help much helped some _gfi - much help IV. What is your opinion regarding the amount of television used in this course? too much about right too little v. Any specific comments on the following lessons; such as value, suggsstions for inprovcnsnt, etc. A. Training 8. Five minute talks C. Social Security D. PER! 111 APPENDIX D SURVEY ON USE OF TELEVISION APPENDIX D 23l lves Avenue Big Rapids, MI “9307 January l972 Dear Sir; I am an Associate Professor at Ferris State College and also enrolled as a graduate student at Michigan State University. I am conducting an experiment in the use of videotapes in some of my classes. This research is the main part of my dissertation, tentatively entitled, A Study Ln the ya 91 Videotapes _i_n_ Teachlgg Supervisory Training Classes 12 Vocational 222 Adult Education. I would like to include in my dissertation a summary of studies that may have been conducted on the use of televisibn or videotapes in similar situations. if you have conducted any courses in supervisory training using television or videotape i would like you to supply the information requested on the attached form. If you have not done this type of study but someone else has i would appreciate you forwarding the material to him. ”gin/e Elmer Junker Associate Professor 112 E .113 APPENDIX D (Continued) Survey on the Use of Television or Videotape Please describe your study, answering the following questions. I. When was this survey completed? 2. How many people were involved? 3. What part of the course was spent in the use of TV or videotapes? A. What was your Opinion of the value of TV or videotape? 5. What opinions were expressed by the students as to the value of the TV or VTR? 6. Please summarize the experiment. 7. If this experiment was written and published from where may capies be obtained? Sunnaries of answers received will be sent to those requesting them. APPENDIX E ADULT EDUCATION APPENDIX E ADULT EDUCATION Ferris State College Adult Education programs attract students from cities and towns in a radius of ‘ r over sixty miles. Included are persons connected with Ferris, employed persons desiring to up-grade themselves, employed persons sent by their companies, owners and managers of small businesses, and housewives. a Three courses in Supervisory Training were * offered free during the winter quarter of 1971-1972. Eighteen students signed up to take the course on Tuesday nights, twenty-six on Wednesday nights, and none on Thursday night. The group on Tuesday night received the conventional training and the one on Wednesday night had videotapes in the classroom. Students who took the classes were from Ferris' nonacademic departments and companies in Big Rapids, Reed City, Cadillac, Newaygo, Fremont, and White Cloud. It cannot be determined if this group was typical of adult education groups. Schedule Each group met for two hours a night for ten sessions. Their schedule was as follows: 114 115 First Week - Introduction. Supervisor's Job. Human Relations. WOrkers' Attitude. Second Week — Superiors and Subordinates, Communi- cation. Third Week - Leadership Training. Fourth Week — Programmed Instruction, Manpower Management, Job Analysis. Fifth Week - Merit Review, Five—Minute Talks Sixth Week - Labor Relations, Labor Laws. Seventh Week - Safety, Social Security. Eighth Week - Discipline, Automation and Computers. Ninth Week - Planning, PERT. Tenth Week - Cost Control. The eight lessons involved in the study were given on the second through ninth nights. The pretest was given at the beginning of the evening and the same test was given as a posttest at the end of the night. The eight tests were combined as a final test during the last night of the course. Gain Scores A post gain score was determined by subtracting the pretest from the posttest. A final gain score was obtained by subtracting the pretest from the final test. 116 TABLE E-l.--Gain scores (adult education) Five- . . Minute Social Group Training Talks Security PERT Overall (2’ (4) (6) (8’ 7 (No TV) 1.36 .36 2.96 5.80 2.62 8 (TV) -.85 1.04 2.58 5.33 2.20 Because of the absences, these scores do not meet the test of significance, however, the group that did not View videotapes generally had the higher score. Ratings of Lessons TABLE E-2.--Ratings of videotaped lessons (adult education) Held Over- Interest Method Knowledge all Lesson #2 (all groups) 2.32 2.54 2.50 2.48 Group 7 2.17 2.42 2.25 2.42 Group 8 2.27 2.33 2.40 2.24 Lesson #4 (all groups) 2.58 2.94 2.77 2.48 Group 7 2.27 2.64 2.55 2.00 Group 8 2.50 2.92 2.92 2.36 Lesson #6 (all groups) 2.27 2.35 2.37 2.64 Group 7 1.82 2.55 2.27 2.10 Group 8 2.07 2.27 2.27 2.33 Lesson #8 (all groups) 2.20 2.47 2.37 2.53 Group 7 1.92 2.17 2.08 ---- Group 8 2.19 2.94 2.69 2.77 117 The overall ratings for lesson number four and lesson number eight were the only ones that were sig- nificant in the main body of the study. On these two lessons, the group that viewed the videotapes rated the lessons higher than the groups that did not view video- tapes. Ratigg of the Use of Television The opinion of the use of television was rated 2.8 by group eight (2 was indifferent to it and 3 was enjoyed it). When asked if television helped them learn the group rated this item 1.7 (l meant much help and 2 meant helped some). The group was asked about the amount of television in the course and gave a rating of 1.9 (l meant too little and 2 meant about right). Conclusion No significant scores could be determined for this group because of the absence of the students. Using the gain scores, in only one lesson, did the class with videotapes in the classroom do better than the other group. It may be that adults have not grown up with television as have our regular students and have not learned to see it as anything but entertainment. More research needs to be done with Adult Education students. Some way will have to be found a. 118 to either use the data with the absences or keep the students from being absent or enroll large enough groups so that absences will not be a factor.