> 8 4, ."’ f M . . ’ "35" . 1532;; .‘~ study qua}, ~ ‘ 2 -.-' . . fluctl; .-‘.|‘ 1,5,. V _.’V' . Qti-Ju. $. may N l '4 ) A ' “‘KC’Z’JY& .E "1 N“ “- ‘1 .{.- ‘ '3. “Rattan-mow 5-2;, - .-. a: - -~ ~ 2-- : law “I. otlawu“ . : ' .r ' ‘ . r. 1“ ‘ , .\I 1. ,’ 9;; V ; gang, of Cursii r325... e :ar-ca.~;:. iv: 'sh-t J .. OI “March methods and ?._._jhniquu Her-s . A {tux-.1383 documua and {#‘ifilknt gum 1331:}! 9". h tn. United~$tg§gg‘ MW 2 1’ ' "‘\v_. :2an * £1. 3: ‘n - .2 2 .:. L ¥ 3 v . . ‘1 ' l 2 , 1 l “7' u" ABSTRACT AN EXPERIMENT WITH AFRICAN COFFEE GROWING IN KENYA: THE GUSII, 1933-1950 BY Carolyn Barnes This study analyzes the factors within and without Gusii society which directly influenced the introduction and expansion of coffee production. It also describes the assumptions of the colonial administrators in regard to the form and structure of the industry. Furthermore, salient characteristics of the pio- neer growers, those who adopted coffee before 1938, are compared with a subsequent group of Gusii coffee farmers to test hypothe- ses on innovation. A combination of research methods and techniques were employed. Primary, written documents and relevant secondary materials were consulted in the United States, England and Kenya. Also, pioneer growers and other informants were questioned fol- lowing an interview guide. Then a structured questionnaire was administered to the pioneers, a random sample of the next set of coffee adopters, and respondents for the deceased members of the study unit. Information from the questionnaires is provided :hatab1es, giving frequency counts and percentages, while chi- square tests indicate levels of significance. PS/HTBSA DHINORD 333303 TAClfliA H?IW T"hMIrafYfl h OBQI~EEQI .ixaua EH. -£kafl* A; lisnb tuodfiw has nidaiw 2103353 efl; Lexyfi-xs ybuse sin? soiansqws bus noiijDOItni ed: b93n9p{3u1 ‘.J3wi}b dordw v:s.w, add 10 anoiaqmusas edi aodizoeab safe 31 .noi-ouboxq 10 310335138 has mac? ed: a: busgux xi r1ojsxjalnlmpa *dlg s61 30 aoijaizsjoszsdo inexlsa ,.:om19d31u1 .yxjaubnl -n- -3 THIN boaszoo ass 8:91 axoisd 993300 hsiqoba odw 920d: .awswt;r —9djaqyd tau: 0: arguisi 993303 liaua 10 quoup Jnsapsadna F ;_; .aoiifivont: ,, .gh an»: mimics: has abomsm misses: 3o “grandmas uyihuuoua JflBVB£83 bflfl ednsmuoob nsflifiiw {YTSM'Iq 2p . m!) 9'! :7 w ~La}! ”now an 33115:”ch 195110 7 , we Mum anamxfi ‘2. amt, m man a: in um m s 1Q land!!! iii-snob gifl 1&3 can: waiviajni q ed: 0: 691 :: ins .exsiqobs 7 “him :1 mhmtm an: M3 Won- Jinn «can gill? .aogssuoaroq has saunas gnu-Iver} pnivip . .sonsskiiapia to gravy: efisoibni aja f .Luyn3.fl‘ aisixsssh :fi110w01y ISSHQIQ P‘v n5 Earn: “331LL“ 99:10: T; xbusa en? ESIdL: ~& ~ , . ¢ 54 _ .1wa uI'Z ”—Vflw Carolyn Barnes The study documents, up to 1933, the importance of cof- fee within the settler—dominated economy of Kenya, which pro- hibited production of the crop by indigenous persons. After that date, at the insistence of the Colonial Office, the colony agreed to African coffee growing, but only on a limited, ex- perimental basis. The ultimate agreement compromised a more extreme position taken earlier by the Colonial Office, when Sidney Webb was Secretary of State. Among the three experimental areas was Gusiiland, in southwestern Kenya. The initiative to begin coffee growing there, and subsequently the impetus to organize the industry on a cooperative basis, was taken by district officials. A positive response to the introduction of coffee was forthcoming from only a small number of Gusii cultivators. A significant percentage of the first growers were among the early educated members of their society. They were motivated by a combination of reasons, including the expectation of earning a greater cash income. In contrast, other members of their society were un- willing to plant coffee for fear that Europeans would confis- cate their land if they grew the crop successfully. After this fear subsided, the rate of expansion was largely determined by external factors such as the wartime emphasis on food crop pro- duction, the policy of concentration of coffee areas, coffee diseases and pests, and availability of seedlings. The ultimate control resided with the central government, which set a maximum limit on the annual allocation of seedlings per individual and the maximum number of acres under coffee in each experimental a-‘vn‘xsa 113'}?st . ‘1 l.‘ -Ioo 3o sanijoqmi ed? .fEQl J: qu .asmymnoob t'.13 ‘-s'1q doldw .synsx 30 {m r1035 bazsnimon~19n 39a 0J1 nu; _~. : 3971A .anoaung auoaspibnt 3d qoru nun 10 ooivuubr“; i = Q! vncioo sdJ .901310 {LIHCEOD an: in san: slant QHJ .5 :~.. .uf‘ «x9 .barinit a An yin: Jud .g.1afl‘[ ;u;§nr rsrrzzf . ' - 910m 5 beatmOIqmos Jnnmsezus 936F,Jlu oi” .-%,: I : nsdw .931330 153311.. I01) an: 2d :1:)ii’;e‘. ”I? noiL-"JI; : .93532 3-.) ‘(TJ .9195: saw d-d-a‘n‘ r n: .bnsliiaua zsw 25915 Isinemiisqve Oxidj édj pnomfi pniwcxp 953303 niped o: 1713fi3lfli'9dT .eynsv u1“32fixfi Y1:aubfli 9d: 932'5930 LJ 22-9qmi adj ylgneuoaadua his 352;.- A .aIriokiio 35.iiflsrb yd nexbn 35w .aLasd 2v13H13q000 s . Efifiisddaaoi 25w 993300 30 “01.3305613ni and o: sanoqae; iUfJIAC insezltapis A .sxodvadlus Lisa? 30 :sdmun .Ismz s uinr u;.: blaSOUEB winners“: pdoms 919w exswoxp 32113 and i- grainsasac noiapnidmoo s ya bezav130m 919w x91? .1151903 1195: lo axedmuw 1136?) mung 5 mm 1.0 mlwa oft: pnlbuion' ,a'vvuaszar #3413 5Q”- Mlflgfl .1815: m7: .1 .amosni‘ ,Ianflifiéifiiiififintiflb3 3o: 993305 ::L:: :2 pnil' .w 7‘ ’ "mm: ”a 3", “919;qu 117ml Item: r. . .; A“ 15”,“ mm M ”a: 9n: \b‘iuiac._ “:7 ,f_;ah ‘ Him 813 as (has 210395? 5-7.:15.‘ I .15. m ““35. “3303 YO ”“31““ 30 ‘(ailoo ‘ 9:13 .35.; *r ' . am «as mama 30 whdeflwfs has .3389:; has 252 muhinfiflfs fies fiiidv .3usmnxsvop 151’fl89 9d: 5 :: Labiasx £04: an; Iawbtvéhni 19g apuiibesa to not" 'Iis lH=r;ns 9d? no xxx. 'fdéhflniltgas #635 mi 993309 137 2 tsdmur mam; in ed: "m-_4 —' Carolyn Barnes area. Although coffee production in Gusiiland was successful, not until mid-1949 was the maximum acreage limitation removed. Coffee growing, especially once the cultivators were allowed to plant the crop on their own land, rather than on a block plot, was accommodated by traditional agricultural pat- terns. In Gusii society, men always had the right to cultivate a plot of land for personal profit, so the administration's insistence on coffee ownership by men was in accordance with this system. Labor on the coffee fields was usually carried out by family labor and supplemented by traditional work groups. Initially, at the district level, the management and control of the coffee industry rested with the agricultural of- ficer, and finance was provided by the local native council. In 1943 the industry was placed under the auspices of a board of eight Gusii, elected by the growers, with the agricultural officer as chairman. The following year, facilitated by gov- ernment's interest in cooperatives among Africans as a means of directing their energies and aspirations into non-competitive arenas, the board was dissolved and the Kisii Coffee Growers Co-operative Society established. The society functioned up to the mid—19505, when it was transformed into a cooperative union with affiliated societies. The organization of the cof- fee industry was marked by the gradual accumulation of control by local persons and the assertion of Gusii leadership, al- though within constraints set by central government. Kisii, as well as the other experimental areas, demon- strated that black Kenyans could successfully produce coffee asn158 nyloxso .Iniaaoaoua 36w bnsiLiauD n1 fiOiJOUbUlg 39:10“ d? 95:1A .bavome: uoi:sdkmi! apssxve mymixsm 9d: auw 0&Li-1.r A; 3:9w ajojsvislus 3d: 93m: {Llanosqae yuan-:7 «:3 . s uc mad: ISdJB! .bnsf nvo ~k9fi3 no 401“ 9n~ w~-.; -: “Ln ~J£q £51u31u31195 Isnoijibfiwi yd 59: homM'ors xsv ‘f,;. adsvidlus 03 anpfu 9d: bsfl ayswls mam 4‘3»:w~a ;a.n a'noiibtjelnimbz 9:: ca .Jiioxc [sneaisg ~~* 51;; : Ar diiw et-asbxocon n1 eew nam yd qéfi zanwu so? an nc w: a. baixzsa {liauau 85w ableifi 393133 adj no 10d21 .m9;51- a» .equoig fizow'Isnotdibszfl gd bednemsrqqua has 7015' Ylhm: ‘4‘ has dasmapsuam 9d: \Isval joixtaLh an: 3: ‘gllfljcu 'v‘ -!o laiviluaixpg ed: djtw 593391 tzzauéni 93130: afiJ j; .Iionuoo svisan 15901 add yd bhijotq 33w sonsnzfi Duo .*>~ baud $.10 3501:3339; at: 13511:: 500qu am: yx;aubnt an: (L. .: Ilzniiuojzgg t9:13 d4L$ .Juauaup 9d: yd 5933919 \v?"vn v53“ ‘V°° Y0 593Qy$5£bda ‘1592 gnifio1£03 9d? .nfimxiada as 13:2*“w gnaw-5,3; giggazifi 911mm awbszmmo r2; 3391mm: 2 Ar '1' ‘3%!Jh 941:1? ':‘ \ 4‘ Knit ’1 nodu .aoaej~b:~ “a: c ‘ .uizupoa 5935111315 mt. 4 jam-dd 14 nexus: an: yufimbx': iiiflbrio «alias-Is Cd! Ens anoalog J.: : .3fllflliflld. thfll's Yd 3st Iinlsxjsnov nzfijiu flgU”" M as» “when: 1911.90 gas as 119w 3r. \‘riaiwi "- .‘ 001%39 OOIIG!Q YI£0136902ua bluoo er. ; iosid 33d? 59:51:— : , Carolyn Barnes and provided a model for expanding production and marketing to other areas, once the government decided it was both economi- cally and politically advantageous to extend African coffee production. esnxsa ngloxs3 l o: paljsfixsm baa “OIJDUbOIQ arkbnsqxs 101 lebom 5 bebzvoxq up: —imoaoos died an! :11 babies!) anemOIeVop 9:13 5mm .aaoz-s -; «in 993100 dsoiuifi haejxe o: auoagsinevbs YIIBfiliiifi- bus giie, .w‘ .L ‘UL’EL?! '; .. .vr AN EXPERIMENT WITH AFRICAN COFFEE GROWING IN KENYA: THE GUSII, 1933-1950 BY Carolyn Barnes A DISSERTATION Submitted to , Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of History 1976 . I pp . W~MM mow mw mum's m “' - ' 0231433591 .mm :mm MI 26 ‘ | .1 2917158 muonsb ,n I. I " ‘ ‘ ." - ix ~ g m an: 1.153 '- " .- 1,; ,r .11 those “0' a - V w "O M.‘.JN| , H . y ‘ ' . " “1.9m Swan '.5 ‘. a ,..-.u, z _ . M“? "a _V .. _. cc. and a». . ; - I :l‘ L. ' >Va9 1“ ‘4 s“... 5‘“: ‘ 9. 53' . T on; ‘ I’m 13.3 p ‘ v. . .. ,«V- ‘J , - 3 A ”pic-om who taeuiuua tha'ucvran - r the “Italic?” In. mg; mum-es .24.“. .1119'1335969 fie magma ’ ' 1W 9.1» ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Advice, assistance and support came from several sources since 1969 when this study was conceptualized. Although unable to mention all these persons, I wish to extend a general thank you.' At Michigan State University, James Hooker provided continued guidance, and Harold Marcus gave extremely helpful criticisms on the form and style of the manuscript. John Hunter, Mel Page, Marjorie Winters, Fred Chege, Eugene DeBenko and his staff at the library, and the staff at the African Studies Cen- ter assisted me at various stages of the study. The map and figures herein were done by Richard Sambrook. To those persons who facilitated the securing of finan- cial assistance to conduct the research, I am deeply indebted. The study was carried out under a Midwest Universities Consor- tium for International Activities Grant and a Fulbright-Hays Fellowship. ‘The Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi, contributed supplemental funds and services. Carl Eicher, Victor Uchendu, Roger van Zwandenberg, Alan Jacobs, and Frank Holmquist provided advice and informa- tion during the initial phase of the study. Robert Maxon generously allowed me to read draft sections of his disserta- tion and Jon Moris provided useful information from his studies. ii ”mamas " assume as”): was?! also noqqua bns eons‘Jeiaas .sotvbls WW“ .bssusmqaoaoo amt ybuds em: :1st can sin? W 1W 3 M b: 621w I .enoaxaq seed: [Is notmexr. .,.; .L'U '. We m mt. «11:31th 5351a nspldom 1A “ @WWWM 9N9!!!" blmfl has .soasbinp beummw E’“ j... *Wm 6‘8 1, up. bus moi odd no anal-41311; ‘ ‘ J mun .uuuzw cactus .9923 1-24 n“ “Mini. ed: pal-sub nor: ”3‘ M u on bswolls 11:00-19:13? “in. WV no)! not. has nor: ‘ N. At the University of Nairobi, Bethwell Ogot was ex- tremely supportive, granting me research associateship in the Department of History and assisting in the research clearance process. In Nairobi, the Office of the President kindly grant- ed permission to conduct the research and patiently awaited completion of the study. The staff of the Kenya National Ar- chives and the Ministry of Agriculture generously assisted me in securing materials. Colleagues at the Institute for Development Studies gave encouragement and advice. I am especially grateful to Joseph Ascroft for his assistance in the design of the struc- tured questionnaire. Ronald Garst collaborated with me on the sampling for the early growers. Appreciation is also ex- tended to Edward Karanja for his helpful comments on a draft of Chapter 3, and to Philip Mbithi, Neils Roling, Marvin Miracle, and Joan Metson for their advice on various sections of the study. In Kisii District, D. A. Mulama, the District Com- missioner, and S. M. Wambua, the former District Agricultural Officer, graciously facilitated the collection of data. The officers and staff of the Kisii Farmers Co-operative Union and its oldest societies, the County Council and the District Co-operative Office kindly allowed me access to their files. At Bishop Otunga Secondary School, Brother Anthony and the historical club kindly loaned me their documents. Furthermore, the people of Kisii, whose kindness and hospitalitva shall never forget, willingly provided information. iii -xs asw 3090 llswdasfi .1d02irw 30 yjisxsvinu 9H1 JR en: mi qideeasiaoaas lehQESX 9m pniiuszp ,svifrpqguu V-HI? : 1,”!qrv-11 3]." sansxssio doxssasx and n: pnrjeiaas ans violaIF 30 ~1nsxp yibnix anebiasiq and iv saikir 95; \inIL w n1 .bi;3u;v belisws vijneijsq bus dcascnoi 9M3 juubnno c: noiaajr:.; Ls “IA IBHOiis'A 152er 9d: 30 33.51.: 9.1 .‘(baza 317 .1" It..'.'.‘ -'. an”- em bedekaes viauoxsnsp exujluoing lo 11Jainin a: was by .:;t':‘ - . um; prvizuzu: 2r eeibula insmqoleved Io} stujzjenl ad) . asupssiiofi 03 13193519 ylisinsqes me I .eoivbs hf? nasmspLXUCUne an., «59:32 eds 1o npieeb eds ni sonssaiess aid at} filolfimfi no em daiw beésuodsllou 32150 bisnofl .siisnnoiaasup p31 ; ~xs.oais ei scltuiaanqfi .azswoxp glass and :03 pnilyn.h afifl ‘32::b b'ha'aifléfifioo Inigled aid :03 stnsxsx bxswbfi cf ‘9btp; l slaw .mflsfi‘ anew mum: mm 0:: has .a “sum ' anosaaae'sgoizav so soivbs TISHJ 103 noeian anon bf: .9!r:;.1 .‘(ersi mi} n. «has ”Wan .mzas- .A -c .iehétam 112ch nl tmmi SEW who‘s 6113 w .H .3 bus .xsrmis: .r-.. 1‘? fllfli ifi dfltlboiias '63 Bassltitosi yiauojosup .19'LZZ? as“ «W said-w! 1153.: u: to 23532 has amonau mmw an“ IM was oil! was... news m b'w L-fl . if as anions oi mn mat soifio avijéiaqe . ' fflfi WM M «1m W02 5{;'.JJC‘- q nine 5 :m .m ”.alm this sax bduox vibnix duh Isoi'xo‘afr ‘ uass I- tail-£83m mu awnbnn ssoflw .1121}: lo eiqoeq 3a..- ;fih&5£lmuini bsbivor' H Iiiw .39p103 Isvun i? Several persons assisted in the field study. Leonard Ogeto, Justus Nyakweba, Charles Ratemo, Ben Mogeni, and George Omari served as translators and interpreters. Fred Nyawaya, Mathew Onsomu and Andrew Atoni assisted in the administration of the questionnaires. In England, information on Gusiiland during the colonial period was provided by A. T. Matson, Richard Gethin, and Humphrey and Anne Carver. I also wish to acknowledge A. J. Manners who freely shared his research findings with me. The staff of the Public Record Office, Rhodes House, the Colonial Office Library, the British Museum Reading Room, the Royal Commonwealth Society Library, the International African In- stitute Library and the University of London Library, all amiably assisted my research efforts. A special thank you is extended to my close friends and colleagues who provided moral support during the years when this manuscript was more of a vision than a reality. iv brsnosd .zbuja his}? sda ni iejaiaas aflOETSQ .sxnvv’ 991099 bnb .inepoM n98 .nmsjsfi aslisd“ ,cuswxnvt etwvuz .eyswsyu bend .eiejsiqieini has aucjslenbx: a; nevus} . noiseljainimbs sdj n! baseless inojA WUIFLL hr: umcaco wa. .3923: .i-no 3&9 p Isinoloo an: gnirub basliraua no noijrmwnic? nucleus n1 baa .nldssa blsdoi'fl .noa'SsM .T .5 '3'". Pruijtvozq new m; J .D .A spbeiwonXos oi daiw 0215 I .asvnz’ ‘ r:.:A by; 33‘ '1' .‘ ' ' sdT cSM dsiw hpnibnii doxseeer a n banana (Ia:-i cfiw 3*9z' lsinoion ed: .eayoH aebodfl .90i320 bxoosfl Djiduq 9p? in Istafl‘éfl: .mooa pnibssfl museum 4212.15 sfll \yxsrdi; 9-. ~31 nsbl:35”fsfi§ilsniasa1 ed: .{xsrdid 2191902 dJILQWI 11§ .yxsxdxd aBBGOJ 30 ysksxsvinu ad: has vus~dj.J e: _,.. ‘< .1” ’\ _, 1'" V, .H336%}e flatness! vm baseless Qiqu-” abusixi g.915£' 23$ babnnéxs as soy insd: Iszosqa I 31392 ed: pnsnflb~336que Iaxcfl‘fiabxvonq onw asxm .seifcr villas: o.asda notstv s,’ :0 atom new quronunsm :i’; Vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . vii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter I. THE SETTLER COFFEE INDUSTRY AND THE DECISION TO ALLOW AFRICAN PRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . 20 The Settler Coffee Industry Up to 1933. . . . 20 African Coffee Growing in Uganda and Tanganyika . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 European Views on African Coffee Production in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . 38 The Colonial Office Steps In . . . . . . . . 44 Nairobi Takes Action . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 II. THE EARLY STAGES OF COFFEE GROWING IN GUSIILAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Conditions in the District . . . . . . . . . 75 Introduction of Coffee . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Technical Aspects and Marketing . . . . . . . 109 Expansion of Production . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 III. THE GUSII COFFEE INDUSTRY 1943 - 1950 . . . . . 133 Organizational Aspects of the Industry . . . 133 Expansion of the Industry . . . . . . . . . . 155 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 IV. SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COFFEE GROWERS . 180 Theoretical Framework and Methodology . . . . 180 Family Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Characteristics of the Growers Before Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 E "' ammo no man hyd‘; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. aswsm‘ 1:":1. "- . it ‘ I o o p‘ u o o o . - o a o o . . . . cap-USP! I I "VA ‘ ‘5 r: W m M 332000!!! 33110:: amuse sum ‘ 13’ fi . . MITMOST mamas MM 0'? , .-' ' r. . 1 1 : ‘, 4"} . .i ' .fv * ' .. .Y 4. . I ~-‘ ,1 : . . . fl unwbnl 903300 ”[3308 9d? at autumn) 993103 (Ionian Japan ' mm mm . a awnau-z ’ ' 'mlilbrro'.) ' 39011011111 Includes? 501'!!me Tum-'18 N 11809 881‘ 3531:5910 «News mimhon . . uni-Ina JO MIJM M mlanosd'r _ 1': 4r Wu 2111;? -“ 5G “Humosxm Q ’~ .316 ”PM. mum mm: mm a 4134mm» ’ NT”- .' in": -“ 1w» ”'3qu PW Pl . ’rMM‘f‘ .H "I .__J L.._-_I -__;4 Lb" 35.35;." m 'r'a' .' A Q ~ Q. 1‘ .Q I I o o - I o O - ~ - - - . . VDITUUUCW' A] ’ I .I .11 .111 .VI Chapter Page Characteristics of the Growers at the Time of Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Salient Characteristics of the Cultivators Since Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 IN PERSPECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 The Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 APPENDICES A. Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 B. Arabica Coffee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 vi ' 5!; ‘xofiqnd'J F n :11. , ’ v V I ’ '0 '1'.“ ' : ' 7 Q ' “5% W all: to laugh-3031513 ' I . . J 3"; I “A ’ I y L. . {if ,q “9 o, o o o . “01w 3° 1 P - , , 2 W29 ,flbd'dlmm 31101168 :. as} ”g. ‘0 :“LGI'; :33.-. (/4 ' i o '. y '0' '6' - a - "01W ”Ilia “'1" ’ _' q- '; 1" I «O o l I o c - o . o o s - ma ‘ ' o u ,. ’i} .' ‘ ' .: '. ‘g ‘7 “f1. 2.; Q o o a o o I o a n n .n n o ”11°33‘83“ “1 A r . ‘ b 3 a ll ' O! l... P» ‘0 Q Q 0 I o I O I o I I djm’jifi 9m. 9 ‘9 o ‘0 o o c. 0 n n o o - . n - “038;:‘19m3 BEHNLE‘WA . . 9‘ a, . ‘. .. . . tacidbodd-fi donned! .A ”*2, iii; 9' o o. a o . u a o 953309 ”it“ .8 Man 03103.13: ' tr,\~ ._ )u: ‘ . o .. Table 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. . 15. LIST OF TABLES Number of European Coffee Growers 1922-23 - 1929-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acreage of Coffee on European Farms 1907—1933 . Exports of Kenya Coffee . . . . . . . . . . . Government Revenue Collected From and Expenditure on Native Services in South Kavirondo District 1925-1930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of Laborers Contracted in South Kavirondo District 1928—1933 0 c n o o o o o o u o o o o Increases in Coffee Acreage and Number of Adopters in Gusiiland, 1935-1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of Coffee Trees Per Grower in Gusiiland, November 1937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Increases in Coffee Acreage and Number of Adopters in Gusiiland, 1943-1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . Coffee Cherry Delivered to Pulping Station and Price Received by Growers, Gusiiland, 1943-44 - 1949-50 0 O D O O O I I O U I O O O I O O O O O The Amount of Mbuni Delivered to Pulping Stations in Gusiiland, 1946-47 - 1949-50 . . . . . . . . Leadership Position of Father . . . . . . . . . . Number of Wives of the Father . . . . . . . . . . Fathers of Pioneers: Leadership Positions and Marital Status (Percentage) . . . . . . . . . . Education: Number of Years . . . . . . . . . . . Fathers' Leadership Position and Educational Level of the Pioneers (Percentage) . . . . . . vii Page 30 31 33 88 90 105 125 159 172 173 184 187 187 189 192 alum so ram - (IS-£391 3‘:me 3.1303 :15ququ 30 xsdmm I . D ,C O I O I I O O O t O O I I O 0‘- ESQ! €_€QI—fi6§£ $135! nsdgfl‘lufl no 993103 30 spasznA ‘. .‘ .' . . . . . . . . 083,390 synsx 50 .1330qu . icaaal-Ioo suaIVsfl :nena1sv:o a“? at cosivuse wlifll no I U I I l . ~ I u . OFQI‘CSQI Almanac!) “nods-1 to IBdMLIM .1. . £821~O'!€I 30113310 , 05 902309 «I: communal . ~ 7 tel-till .bmliiaua :11 4” W ”3103 30 19am: rage I I .YIEQIIWVOI --* 81 ammonl .bnnlilaua n1 ~ 1320:!) 09310:) Jami-cal 531:1 . . 62-021 '. to :auond Id! sflnslllnua a1 W quantum it Inn! to sodium! ; 1 to I19d351 W8 1311mm "g " "xwfl , Id: 30 loved ' . «.1575; WI :11de L‘ Table 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 3o. 31. 32. 33. 34. Page Length of Time Worked Outside the District Before Coffee Adoption: First Job . . . . . . . . . . 194 Place of Employment Outside the District Before Coffee Adoption: First Job . . . . . . . . . . 194 Type of Job Outside the District Before Coffee Adoption: First Job . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Adoption of Cash Crops Prior to Coffee Growing . 196 Age of Growers at the Time Adopted Coffee . . . . 197 Occupation of Growers at the Time Adopted Coffee. 198 Work Histories: Outside the District Before Adoption and Occupation at Time Adopted Coffee. 199 Education and Occupation of Pioneers at Time of Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Land at the Time of Adoption: Number of Acres in the Sub-location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Land at the Time of Adoption: Number of Acres in the Sub-location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Marital Status at the Time of Adoption . . . . . 204 Training Received Since Adoption . . . . . . . . 206 Adoption of Other Major Crops by Those Still Living 0 O I O O O O O O O O I O O O O I I O O 2 0 7 Number of Coffee Trees Owned Currently . . . . . 208 Work Outside the District Since Adoption: First Job, Type of Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Work Outside the District Since Adoption: First Job, Number of Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Occupation in District Since Adoption . . . . . . 211 Number of Businesses Owned Since Adoption . . . . 211 Formal Leadership Positions Held Since Adoption: First Mentioned O O O I O O I O O O U I O O I I 212 viii ‘w‘il a! ‘ 31:». .j. 1 m! l :.'- ;j“ - 920198 19113010 ad: a$uo bsdwow oak? 30 dapnsd Z‘: .u D I o, O 0 O I . 3811.71 :fiOlJQObfi ”3303 ‘ 538198 36113810 add obitiup Juanxolqma lo 33314 ‘ ‘21 o o o 9 l o I I - odotl 1831‘ 'floquobA ”91 ’JL‘ ,g 953303 930198 3011191094? wlanuo dot 10 eqfl ‘ w ‘8 I I n |' I a o a I a o - £61. 3831‘ “701390915 I . I‘ . . . V t A’KL - 9‘18958.39339°.°3 191:4 aqon dasD 10 nolaqobA '. .093500;§9#g¢§3 933? and is auewuxa 10 90A 8H3 abieauo :asluoaeia ixow Si ROIQIquooO bns noijqobA ‘1‘ _ ' tu‘aIiT ad: is bnsJ ' .f. . .‘. IoliIaoi-dna ed: a .11 In: 39 6mm notional-due ad: 8.530 to n013qobn . . . . pnivld 003199 to radial rugsbtafico $10“ 99 act? .dbt obi-inc fizow -W" IdOL Inn 30 sedan“ 30660J IIIioa an. 31:11! 0M7 mount—u‘ .1- nIdLT .01 IS: .EC .&£ Page Table 35. Formal Participation Since Adoption: First Mentioned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 36. Marital Status Since Adoption . . . . . . . . . . 214 37. Progress of Coffee Growing by Africans in Kenya 1935-59 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 38. Price Paid to Producers, 1945-46 - 1964-65 . . . 220 ix ' ' "3‘ .7: " W8 3’"- 'flflfl :mfiqobfi Donia aohlflktkm‘l Luna! .EE I" _ - -° -_ ~ 9"“. bmoljad .- ' ‘ L'- V .‘wfi3-.. . . . nolaqobfi agate 301.38 15111.! .at U. 7 . ', ' . ”I I) 85563135. vd 931mb 993305 10 389190?! .YE . 4 ‘ ‘ ‘._.I :I’I '0 I I U I I o I I o I I G o Qa‘afél ..‘n'ag§;u!1,- at-aoex .aiqauhoaq on his? solxq .ac LI ST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1. Average Annual Market Price in London Received for Kenya Coffee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2. Gusiiland Coffee Areas 1934-48 . . . . . . . . . 100 3. Acreage Under Coffee, 1946-1965 . . . . . . . . 219 4. Coffee Percentage of Total Value of Domestic Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 ha: 9 . _ mus so. an 319911 Am at. am «mu hum-IA spasm .: - ‘IIM \ I I ‘0 a u . . ”1’03 8“!“ 301 -. . 7° "ii-‘52}: am 50130:) basiliaua l '. ‘. . 2381-838]: .091103 :19an 91315513! .£ ,, “W!!! “M “an )0 99531199198 99110:) J . 45:24.5 ‘2 . . . . . saxoqxa m" W"W"Ww—‘ - --— ._ “vha INTRODUCTION The early years of colonial rule in Kenya laid the foundation from which European settlers, with their allies in commercial circles in London and government, could gain con- trol over the economic structure and productive resources of 1one of the main settler the economy. Production of coffee, enterprises, was exclusively reserved for Europeans until the early 19305, when an experiment was undertaken with African coffee growing in Kisii, Embu, and Meru. Although indigenous coffee production up to the late 19405 was limited, the ex— periment was nevertheless significant not only in terms of its beginnings and growth but also because it laid the founda- tions for the future structure of African coffee industry. Even though this study concentrates on the introduc- tion and growth of the coffee industry in Gusiiland, or Kisii, the relevant activities and policies of London and Nairobi will also be considered. Thus, the research covers factors within Gusii society and those external to it which directly influenced the introduction and expansion of the industry, and the assumptions of colonial administrators and officials in regard to the structure and control of the industry. Also, the salient characteristics Of the pioneer innovators, 1Unless otherwise specified, the term coffee refers to the arabica species. 1 MOTTZIIGOQ'N'H adj his! synsx at slum lsiaoloo 3; a: 2‘ yiwse 1n: s; 391115 niedj niiw .21913392 ussqctufi ‘ridw mcu? 10'11 ~nos nisp bluoa .jnsmnxevop has uofro; n1 aalsxia I .w;::mv ~30 asuiu0391 svidouhoxq has 9:u::uuje nihHFODO Hn‘ .24; 1.2: l ' N .991300 10.nojicnboun .ymczuos ad: 1913352 nism ad: 30 emo 9d: lidnu sassqoxua 103 bev:9391 ylsvzauloxs 25w ‘aeggxqwofin: ascrrifl'dsiw nsXsixsbnu asw insmrxsqxs or menu .aOfEJ gl:uv auonsplbni decodiiA' .uxeu-bns .ucmz .iieix mi pniwnnr pn132: -XS 9!: .bsfifmii asw 80b?! 936! ed: on go noijouboxq esiiz' 39 amass 5% zinc ion insuliinpxa aasiedainvsn 85W :nsmiueq -sbny03Vsfld,b&$£‘$i.9avsasd 0315 Jud dflwbap bus apnfnnlped aui .yziafibai‘QIEROOIIIOISEA 10 91030013: 910101 ed: uni enoij ~ofibor3ni efi: ao'eeisrjaeoaoo gbuaa aid: “Quad: nevi .trazx :0 baazxsaue ai ggeaubnx 593239 9d: 30 djwoxp bus n24! tdoalsn but “and 3'0 island-g bus and sivuos arm-319: m;- paxcsosi aaIVIO dsusoaaa sci IuflT .bessbieaoo 9d eels Jiiw 11:59:35 datflw 3i 9: ranhauxa. seeds has 2391903 11390 nidvrw V'fififi «amnsubai 583 to I¢&lflfi!#O-QGI nokiauboxjni In: hscnenlfini 7 at Ifistmtiia quwflfisuaniflbn Istaolco 30 anoqumuaes an .QILA .tpfifiyfifll II; 50 1013000 has Iiuaouxja ed? 03 53599: .éihdflroafli'znnnoiq ed: 30 30335233395153: 1031152 an: .mu.......~.—-—- - ....—.._.... Civifii'adalna Hind 9d: .bsiitssqa sv' Dash-mI scxdnts 2d: 01 i F- -. especially their position vis a vis colonial institutions, are used to test a few key theories on innovation.2 The economic purpose of Britain's colonial policy has received considerable attention over several decades.3 Two major contributions to the field recently are E. G. Brett's Colonialism and Underdevelopment in East Africa: The Politics of Economic Change 1919-39 (London, 1973) and Richard Wolff's The Economics of Colonialism: Britain and Kenya, 1870-1930 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1974). These studies postulate that the development of capitalism in Britain involved its depend— encies as suppliers of raw materials and produce, and as mar— kets for manufacturers and capital. Colonies therefore grew (underdeveloped) within the constraints imposed by the eco- nomic development of the industrialized metropole. Brett maintains that external control, however, positively contrib— uted to the societies by introducing the most advanced social and material culture. The response of African farmers to economic opportuni— ties during the colonial period has been the focus of a small, but growing, body of literature. These studies generally 2The research methodology is explained in Appendix A. 3One of the most influential books ever to appear is John A. Hobson, Im erialism: A Stud , rev. ed. (London: George Allen Unwin, 1938). Other outstanding writings include: V. I. Lenin, Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism, rev. trans. 2nd ed. (New York: International Publishers, 1934); D. C. M. Platt, "Economic Factors in British Policy During the 'New Imperialism,'" Past and Present 39 (April 1968), 120-38; and Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (London: Dongle-L'Ouverture, 1973). .anoiauiitgni 16130109 31v 6 aiv noisiaoq 119d: glisiosqes $630135V0flat no 391109“: 291 v93 5 Jae: o: beau 915 nan yotloq {alanine a‘ntsdkxa 30 eaoqauq atmonoos sdT ow? 5.3gbeasb Iszsvaa xevo noijnsajs ejdeisbianoc bsvjeoez é'iflaié id .a.bxs 213n9991 blsii an: o: enoziudlzjnoo :otsm -.. l..l .- s‘ is. Inwtean bu. meiIslnoIoD (ITCI fibuijoennoO .ngvsfi wsw) ‘3594Iflu1 oil 30 Sasmqoisveh aimon fiflilflcb Isaxsixe 35d: enlsinlsm 1‘ 00139100: ed: 03 be:u .oaoalun Isixs:sm one .963403 .A ndoL .,. calla 991090 ,— ’ A ‘fllflal o! n V >9 ~n£ .aasx: .vs: has!“ .3531? .H’ 3 .0 “31$ mellsbaoqmi weh' 1' ”are 15315“ bus as ::I: :aIzm v _J‘°"“°a focus on colonies in which Africans dominated production for the export market.4 For example, the meticulous research on cocoa farming in Ghana by Polly Hill and the origins of the groundnut industry in Northern Nigeria by Jan Hogendorn des- cribe how Africans reacted to the demands for certain crops, the ways in which they responded, and the transformation of marketing activities. Several of these studies, however, fail to trace the economic interests of the metropole in supporting export production among Africans and neglect to consider that the initiative shown by Africans was circumscribed by the limits imposed by the colonial government. In the initial phase of the modern British colonial period in Africa, official policy on non-indigenous participa- tion was flexible. In British West Africa and Uganda, for example, expatriate-directed agriculture was attempted, caus- ing conflict in the administration and among special interest groups, in each category of which there were those who argued for large—scale plantation agriculture and those who supported 4See, for example, C. C. Wrigley, Crops and Wealth in Uganda, East African Studies No. 12 (Kampala: East African Institute of Social Research, 1959); Audrey I. Richards, Ford Sturrock and J. M. Fortt, eds., Subsistence to Commercial Farm- in in Present-Ba Bu anda (Cambridge: University Press, 1973); P0 y Hi 1, The Mi rant Cocoa Farmers of Southern Ghana: a study in rural capitalism (Cambridge: UniverSity Press, 1963); Margaret J. Hay, Economic Change in Luoland: Lowe, 1890- 1945," (Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1972); and Sara Berry, "Cocoa and Economic Development in Western Nigeria," and Jan S. Hogendorn, "The Origins of the Groundnut Trade in Northern Nigeria," both in Carl Eicher and Carl Liedholm, eds., Growth and Develo ment of the Ni erian Econom (East Lansing, c igan: Mic igan State UniverSity Press, 1970), pp. 16-29 and 30-51 respectively. in? nciz'uLC'q E ‘~*wfi‘ ».! " .n ‘1 i:’»‘ '5 a) r WV: -; fluiseaww Hurlitifivm an1 'L‘L» a L 3 _. 5a ‘u Inqxe 9r: 9d: 30 anipi~ an; fiv- ..‘F 2‘...'. z w;.' y' ’ -89b niobnsaon naL :v 611;,LH 12.." A; .w-a hr: :unbnuo .aqoxo min? '19: in" tel-hr . v : gw :~: 3" .' ,-'« 2m, 30 noisemwoiensw: 3d! HIE .Pjnrr w ' an: ' :_V Di fvnw “'1 lib} .ievswod .euiuuja ads»: 4; .51w‘3c ..w.'; ..~: {n::nbrw puijzoqqua a; sioqovsom 2.1!: 30 2.47.929? "t. :rf' err-.31: (2* 35d: Iebianmc 01 305199“ has .iso.:if inane v:.J)rV03q “of“ 5:12 desdiusexfuxzio 2r- -1’:‘.»L"!):. r‘ wade 1... a: -. ~. .,~ -Jflsflnisvop thnqlcu if, g: Leeann; afixwil 151310105 “3.118 filabtrfl art" it;- 922mb; In: uni 9:13 ‘2: ~3qioirasq auoaopihntenoa no yskiuq Lainkiéo .5okris n1 b..19q "103‘ 311511.399“ has MA new actual ax .91dx' 2:913 35». an . Passe Pbsfiéfibffis(qflwvfiafliIIDIIQfl bofifloiibroioizjsqxe .quers jgélhdfli flfiégséa Pflaflfl Dflfi~cnbtas3cinlnbc an: ni aniline: 9n: beepiuodwsaw eaten a“: claim 1o 2:09:35:- 3559 m- .BQ'JC‘1p MixmebdflwW smfi'yoim manic; 91593-89151 10'; ..-..~..-....——; it ufiignsxa 103 .998: 5 nsoizlA 3353 .gbnspg 21.!!! 131308 io SJUBISETI ,1530! .H .L has xooxzuji sadness?! at am m o ,HIFI— .u I DIZIU3 ni ybuje ’ .233 .t 39-159st -1fl' Jim: .a. (M) many I W! hm 50:03’ ”“1198 I?“ ”53‘ ..niebnspofl 8 flat has ‘.slisvtn nisszou . ,1 30 dnwoleveé has djwcuo 2 J avf‘nm : “seldom. '- I' " H 7 ' 7 -YI9'-‘83Hz8h'tl IE 0" Lat. :3! «m: M3! at .—M-‘—_'_““_— _ -.____ __ -. peasant production. In both British West Africa and Uganda nearly all large-scale European agricultural undertakings failed, while African production for the export market suc- ceeded. Thus, a colonial policy evolved which supported African agricultural production in British West Africa and Uganda.5 In Kenya, however, agricultural production for the ex— port market was sustained by European settlers and facilitated by favorable land and labor laws, in an attempt to make the protectorate self-supporting. Construction of the railway line from Mombasa on the Coast to Kisumu on Lake Victoria had been financed as a public undertaking in Britain, with the capital costs financed by treasury loans. Initially estimated at 5 1,755,000, the actual cost amounted to L 5,550,000.6 In its first year of operation, 1902-03, the railway lost 5 49,690 and an additional B 319,112, the annual charge for sinking fund and interest payments, was not covered by the protector- ate.7 London was unwilling to meet these losses since it was 5For a fuller account, consult A. G. Hopkins, An Eco- nomic History of West Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973). pp. 212-16; and E. A. Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelo ent in East Africa (London: Heinemann, 1973 , PP- :17‘5I- 6M. P. K. Sorrenson, Ori ins of Euro ean Settlement in Kenya (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 19685, pp. 19, 30. See M. F. Hill, Permanent Way: The Story of the Kenya and Uganda Railway (Nairobi: East African Railways and Harbours, 1950) for detailed discussion of the railway debates and des- cription of its construction. 7Sorrenson, Origins, p. 30. {-{angij “m. 5.421715 7....0 Lti‘ -.'«.i “ft-a- .. z .8 ...‘E'su,’ 324.351, awnlfifinxsbnu 12,1.51.i pr A'LMLL I vtn‘; -p1ui 1-; 'a B0 -3ua 19:!1517 1 IOtr:-2.“ sud ..; 1" ~ "z r: «ilrfu ;... . “ [19.noqqua fit-25m :' -: 3".- . .-: ~ ‘ u- -' 4 .21. '7 i '--.~" fine 5.111315 33W: .1.-“_‘ “I r. . ,' 13-6. , magi: Latitu' -xs 911.1 "[33 cornuhomg 17m- 7. s a; _ - 7. ~ . .- :53)! r. {39153111053 bns rain-Maze r‘.-',v3~i .1 .' m- a 2n. .4 w: .... v‘ 9d: sism o: +qma34u yr ni Vg-. ~n , 1;. bani affix-v.5 Yi'dlis‘l aft? 36. I" ,""."I Cw... ,Hn't:i o: 3...; .1‘ mi? flu 5251mm“. Irv-fl rm, . $513 ddiw .fiisjnfl m pnifis3zabw~ otloig 6 as 3923:4124 rusqzi basalt—t“ tiisifiinl .amsol twang”: yd Deonsnii. 43203 1:22;; 0! 3.009.938.61 a: Mom m 11.33:» am ,CO'. 92?... 5 .52. 093.85 a ”01ng at: .cmsou .auuzoqo 'm 159»; 3.2-; at; eshflpta-aqzigpzth Iguana sit .511.91£ a Isnosiibbs :5 hrs —momqs¢s 265.3” mm Jam 389593.11 but 5. w? 82.! 11,9951? Wat-m MM wail!” 815w Mao... ‘ J35 E ,_ ~ _ :Vidotrtsm 53:32:15: WOq-rwi ‘IIIH .7 .M 25.47." ... ) wuss sbnsg '31:: banana :0 meet am 331 30 nciiqw'v already spending large amounts in the East African Protector- ate on military campaigns to bring the territory under effec- tive control. Traffic had to be created to make the railway pay, and the protectorate needed to become self-supporting. Since few mineral deposits were known to exist, a prosperous protectorate and a profitable railway would depend upon agri- cultural commodities. Agricultural export production was influenced in the initial years of the protectorate by Commissioner Charles Eliot, who reported to London that local inhabitants could not be relied upon to produce export crops. He described the Kikuyus as badly disorganized due to the severe famine in 1897, and claimed that they had turned away from agricultural pro- duction to cattle raising. The indigenous people around the Gulf of Kavirondo, near the terminus of the railway line, he judged as corrupted by the love of alcohol and leisure, while the Masai were "utterly non-productive."8 On the other hand, he pointed out that there was ample available land suited to European agriculture. Settlers could grow crops for the rail- way to transport to the coast for export, and they would re- quire imported manufactured goods and other items to be car- ried by rail into the interior. Several suggestions for settlement were advanced. The Foreign Office considered proposals for Indian settlement 8Richard Wolff, The Economics of Colonialism: Britain ————-———-—T——_——_—"_-'—. and Ken a 1870—1930 (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale UniverSity Press, E9735, p. 47. "‘1031‘9'1‘!‘ {REL-1'17. {a 1r" .‘u' .I '9 ; ~: *9 .' m :ano.‘ Z-‘hE-filib "99339 ieimu no: (~~927 11 .941; .z . - 9- uu" 9. ' 9' 2'. 7.- .‘b yawiis: mi: - 25:9. 9.,*i€'_.---1.‘V1'3 9x; :r 13.- ,. '9; 9. , .‘rzvzmr. :_-.9 .gsni.]oqque—31ur- "an. J" . ’ I ..»-'3;99‘~- 4: - ' '9 - 9 y en? MM; . V's-'1 avochznmj r ,;~:;e ‘r . uni v v u '9 9 “ z : . ~~ «our? «tips noqu {11:th 5.19:»- '.:"';.‘9. 94.11.?" . . ~_,«--.-. . 1.9.1. 9!!! ni bsowgnllui my x'v.?-H.'.'.z.".';' -139. 9 9'- 83115th 1 .m oz»a.: .‘ annivn- C'.’ .auasnziq noeqozui adj 101 92:01 And ' 24.”.uon as Blual- Us: aOSQI 96.3 o: '40 599]. 7'2'9 (£51.13: y; 7"“. 9'6 i 5075.. ..vu»: 32).} -=:.':' .vmonoosroda n1 solitacq : Luiarb c 23Hi$-aa are; 91039'215 nolaaoaaog zaseq01ua swag tiséaniilu awsl has: 5;? 93!: 1A .758th mot-95a c1134 .hnpi' 10 83363.1 91:13:} '9- xd bsiaaqzhasirulwowitn star but! at 215p}: uaatzin sm13 mace --. ...—.--..- . v-5“- am 30113 upnodam" -- ‘-s 191115. 915w awed? on 501221! daiiiga 9n? -I”K -5H h-° .L :iucnom iname... 1° soiiiA 3253 HS: 5 3.: .3 ’- _ I -“3 3530130, 59.51311“: V3: 3 1.- anoi~15 bIOdatan .“ ,_ “’- £31113} ad: «1 3:99;»: L... 5i. '5 ' h 5' " 1 T ‘ -' no; so idu‘.’ Her-.49? 389} Iii-H3..G-4§} .{fiQifitl l¥nil ni a19n5a1~1A anT' . 9’81 .Yiiaxsvlnh issca .__yv 1 ‘1 ,- _g$eei§~sng 03 395;? amaze-:92. 1.4..“5'EEuto‘J’ 9:0 ..lio .Isvltflt M .3 uni vol: 58 anesnt. 11 .1-r.v Bu131h 32u510>¥392£5§ .d1;r ma -;?“"'AV ::§: 2‘2: (8301 ‘38”? the colonial powers. The East Africa (Lands) Order in Council of 1901 defined Crown Land as areas not used by indigenous in- habitants for occupation, cultivation or grazing, and land vacated by them, which could be granted or leased, the supposi- tion being that African rights did not amount to land titles. Africans therefore had no legal land rights and were accord— ingly at the mercy of those who might covet their lands. No overall attempt was made to set aside land specifically for Africans until the Crown Lands Ordinance of 1915, which em- powered the governor to proclaim reserves. Yet, except in two instances, none was formally set aside until 1926, and thereafter land still could be confiscated from the Africans, as in the case of the Nandi, for European use. } Emerging from the promotion of settlement through a lenient land policy, the European agricultural structure was based upon the availability of an adequate supply of indige- nous laborers. As John Ainsworth remarked in 1905, "it must be remembered that Europeans will not do manual labour in a 11 country inhabited by black races." At first government was directly involved in securing laborers for settlers, but A- C. Hollis, appointed to the new post of Secretary of Native Affairs in 1907, sent out a government circular prohibiting Chiefs from compelling labor to go out, and regulating recruit- ment, which immediately diminished the labor supply. A crisis ‘ er“liked in early 1908 when the colonists bitterly complained \ ‘— 7 11A3 quoted in G. H. Mungeam, British Rule in Kenya, - l§2§;;g;3 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966), p. 93. b]- . .‘F'li '\' b IionucD ni Vabgfl 'EPWBJ) 531.3. ". au .vszcq 101n' n5 wdi ~ni z spifvnl '.'d but“ rm 4.5.1 7'. 5:1. tuna-J; .li-u’i 1c: DHJL has .pn13513 Y Hut) 5“.“ .'.'n_srvv "VWJ41 trdifi —12cuqn: orw .Esasel 13 bafnh‘ 9 91;. ..jdw ,mu J ;; tuna“ .89131” 5551 w: Jnuoms in; ',I 9 nu; -',= fl fsflj gnL.“ no}? -b'xoaos 9'19“? but; .23-'§I_3.i‘1 bm :-; a 1" ' WIC.’32-.:f" «m mic: OM .ebnsi 319d: ‘erfi “lgin' NE: M "w {Lfivfl ad: 3n ;£9' ‘10? ~;£.[£.:>i?iosqe {mot ages 7:32 a: man as»: 3. '.~-J'J¢- iLm-ws- ~m9 doin‘w .6121 1C BLAILCLZLZ'.‘ 'abmzi v-g 5:) mi: mm; 21£:~".:.'t'.'.'; ni fiqsexs \Jo‘!‘ rev-1929‘: mum-m- 0:; mmvvop ?m' ‘s'r;-'..‘u«3 but .3391 11mm «Alias .193 vilsmuoi sew anon .rfi‘ransian cw" .ansotaiA-od: «013 b6352253non 9d Lluoo €111: bnsl xsjissnsui ...u nsoqomvx 103 .lbnbfi odd lo 926: adj u} Ab s dugoud: salmsiaaso 2a unissunaq on» sex? pn1pxaaa sou 919353313 Itaséieufitgo Intactul on: .yoilcq bnsl jnuluei MM. 10 214W! ”lap-b. as 30 titlidolilvs 9:13 no-w based m 3,3? .abci' cu mzm ”remit asst. a .339‘1ud51 zoom 3 at: 1am; Isms; 4.1630: 111' ans-ma 35d: bs'xsdnmmsz 9c imam mu 33' 3’ gum mm yd Ezesidsdn: "3310' ‘“‘:§§§ri‘f Ifli finlifliti~ll bovlovni {inoszsb saw 763 W! m m~ in at #03411qu .aiuox .3 .p. IWé m a mans .roer :11 311531;. 131% swaps—x by:g: .5» a. 9’ sod-3 mums :03! £39.10: N L. W «a baa-3am: use-thaw doidw .Ju'mn ugmdwuwsw 63H m 3021 glass at bsiq'” ’ _...__,.. ._ -..m—- _. ...“ .W .8 .3.) n: 'LA‘U‘ .abexq nobasas~‘ £191e§081 about an unmet demand for laborers and claimed that the new 12 The commissioner of rules had doubled the cost for labor. the protectorate commented that requirements for labor in the highlands could be fulfilled if a poll tax, supplementing the hut tax,were instituted to force young men out to work. This idea was accepted by the secretary of state, who at the same time ordered that government officers discontinue securing laborers for settlers. This prohibition, however, did not mean that the administration ceased to "encourage" persons to work for settlers. In 1912 a Native Labour Commission was appointed to find ways and means of inducing Africans to 13 "come out and work." The legislation resulting from its recommendations provided for the registration of all males over sixteen and for regulated squatting.14 The demand for laborers caused by World War I forced district officers to supply men for the carrier corps, but it was generally left to chiefs and headmen to meet quotas. There was confusion over the degree of compulsion to be utilized, but this was clarified in the Native Followers Recruitment Ordinance of 1915, which established conscription of African males for the carrier corps. Settlers unsuccessfully pressed 12George Bennett, Ken a, A Political Histor (London: Oxford University Press, 1963;, p. 25. 13Marjorie R. Dilley, British Policy in Kenya Colony, 2nd ed. (London: Frank Cass, 1966), pp. 219—21. 14For a further discussion on labor policy see ibid., pp. 213-38; and Roger vanZwanenberg, Colonial Ca italism and Labour in Ken a, 1919-1939 (Kampala: East African Literature Buueau, 19755. It '1‘ wen ed: :sfi: b9”-:i- ix: ‘ x. 'n' .mor -mnn 1“ a ed» 1; 12fluzaa.mmsn ufiT Ll.“:n- .1 7'J -:' 1 .1 .i an: anion if? n1 TVGSI x03 Pinuu‘: : ; .‘,'»ins'n.' ~1n1 a A:q an: 313 nurjnumsiaque .-vv ”i-o . '1 in? .' _. , .u - Wirr"?:" asz .fizow 5+ +uo rs: _ra ‘ 9': I 'r H~:;;".v- s~.w‘.3 ~:‘ omee adj 35 odw .nrn'z _~ _ 1‘s ”,9 ' : _ ---ws ' pailnrsa ;hniflnuaafb a‘sziijg vny‘ri ’ z ' L' bomzt'c MTL ion b122- .'xevswor' .w‘:.~.‘..1rri.n"-.j ..En.“ 7 :tsmdui anoe‘xsq "sys‘wormfl on [19.3.2593 3013:ny im‘w’. .1." .7. I"'.-:.'\' asw noreaimmrD 10v (n4 avian! n 9:?! n3 .::;v;:'n In? aapu {j on an can pzzia'nbni I”; an: -. ha- 2:"j:.w1'.1.' r.‘ E:7~:u-;I-r, aji two-13 pnijiuaex noijsgamsi .ed-‘r .31. 2: ‘~,:. 'xmnzr asIsm £15 10 noise-1321991 9.13 103 bebivow um:.‘Jb-fimczmom, $5.9fli3dlupi bo$SI0991 1:1 but nevifiin :yuo been: I m: snow 2:! We: cream! mi burner, art? :21 and (Amos-1min: an to: no: 31119:: 0* 21591330 19% 7.23!» 5mm ’ rakfioupisaa ’03 mg! has no“: a: 3391 illsxunsp ssu .Milfifl {ed aim)“: 3'0 mosh OflJ 'uwo noiauxn:-"- um? W03 Emanuel! #1331! m 31 593313513 an: aid: 1.”; mun-3b magnum “Indian. flolnw £381 30 sonsnibxo W xiMMum m .mos urns: on: 10‘: 3915:: .‘—..- “pm—— - . as annual! 39-1098“ U‘ 1 at“! wllzevinu 23103va 429112?! .a slasher.“ .zes'J first“! mutual. ..‘as bnS ' {as final; 101131 no au': aaaoaii 1m‘zr‘: ... ~31” ' ~ ‘pjsdnsnswxrs w :59“); .qq :Slag“..-;IU QLE' N .12 tuodznl ~...... m. ...-...w. I”. ..ucswfi for an extension of the ordinance to allow the drafting of labor for European farms. Nevertheless, a favorite, and usually effective, way to avoid conscription was for Africans to take up service with European settlers, and those already employed tended to remain at work, rather than risk being drafted. sz 1917, an alteration in the system of recruitment made the district officials, rather than local leaders, re- sponsible for turning out conscripts. Large numbers of men were impressed, causing some officers to complain about the disruption of normal indigenous agricultural production pat- terns. The war—time system which involved government in actively obtaining laborers was a pattern which the settlers wished to maintain during peacetime for their own purposes. After the war, when European men returned to largely neglected farms, the labor requirements exceeded the supply. This demand led to the Northey circulars of 1919, which set forth the functions of officials in regard to recruitment of labor. In addition, an ordinance empowered headmen to con- script Africans to work, sixty days each year, on government Projects. Agitation by humanitarians in England and mission- aries in Kenya led the Colonial Office again to forbid officers to Participate in recruitment and to prohibit compulsory labor f°r private employers. The use of forced labor was restricted to essential government services, for which prior approval had \______—_ 15Donald Savage and J. Forbes Monro, "Carrier Corps recruitment in the British East Africa Protectorate 1914-1918," ‘LOurnal of African History 2, 2 (1966) , 313-42. ,. ‘3' D , 7 3’0 pulsing}: art: work: 0;: manta” 9113 ‘.v nolanejxo n: 10} ban .baxaovsi s .easleda1svsu .1m :51 nnsqowa m1 nodal 35:51:15 '10} um acisqlxaanca blow; o: yaw .eviicena '{Jleuau vbns'xls £305: bus .axsuvnv nxssqnzw r‘5.w sun/ma qz. one: on EMUNOI'I mm: 1911361 ..‘hmv 3t flit-7‘53 c7 ushnn.’ .J'I')‘\'.:"1b'.5 manner?” 10 madman on: at £1:‘IJ:.TQ1!:. 1: .7 m1 1: {.3335th '9'! 43:550.! {6001 amid mans: .afa..:fi‘:.. Jot-212.: a-L‘ abnm dam to M 991041 .eaqixoanuo mm {53131113 In) oidlenuqe WM sum.» 0.) arsenic 9110.. pmama .5932»;qu «my: {#39 WW lmafnaiwa 300(19p15nJ iamon 10 w. 'rmualb A WQI W9? Mira! daidw min": anti—15w w'" .é‘n‘tuf ”3ng man 5 new Issued“ painludc "QLDV' Jar 4“ .- V w autumn Gullah auinism 0: better»: VVV V VV‘hmm.1ovednzsdiA ' “4.313. .uun 59335-133941 , pm.» 03 bat bnamsb aid? f “mt” 30013911143 odd 11310: V V -' ‘jI .mi:’lbb6 n12 nodal 1:1” a: gunman :qhoa __ao.tsu.tpA .uustoxq ”1 “firm“ or asks Iii finishing 0:! 10 to be obtained from the secretary of state. Regardless of stated policy,the colonial system nevertheless lent support to the settlers in obtaining a supply of laborers. Even with the use of cheap labor, many settlers were in debt and undercapitalized, leading to enactment of a sys- tem of supports in favor of the European settlers. Through taxes,mostly paid by Africans, government provided roads, rail- ways, crop research and other services for Europeans. Subsi- dies were provided through the customs tariff and privileged access to profitable internal and external markets. The set- tlers also monopolized the most profitable crops and control- led buying and selling. The private sector, especially lend- ing institutions, also assisted the Europeans, although fixed short-term credit obtained during good times placed heavy financial burdens on the producers during periods of low com- modity prices. During the early years of settlement, Europeans were unfamiliar with the soil and climatic conditions, and there- fore most planted small acreages of several crops to spread their risk. Also, many farmers were without sufficient capi- tal to invest in long-term crops. At the same time, a few wealthy planters and some missionaries carried out scientific experiments on a variety of crops. Soon the administration, 16These aspects are discussed in vanZwanenberg, Colonial capitalism pp. 1-34; Brett, Colonialisuxand Underdevelo ment, PP- 133-505; and Colin Leys, Underdevelopment in Kenya iLondon: Heinemann, 1975), pp. 20-40. OL 30 aaelb'lspafl .sisJa. 30 visas-mu: ad: 00".} ()Mlbfidb‘ 9d 03 ixqggua 1ha£_eae£enzxsvsh mafiaya Isiuarcm ad:.zoi£oq 09153. .arsxodal io ququa L pniaisydo ai alsijsea en! 0: exew-exai’aae yuan .xodsl QABL" 10 Gay «:1 r31w nsvs ~3Ye nib Wanna OJ xgnlbsst .L»§Yfii£’-.‘I‘Iuj.e~blzu lune- J-iz-‘. m‘ dfdoiflta .srolaasa'nasqoxufl sfi‘ 1. wow») n1 ajrocgua in ma: -1131’.2h36;‘béb£vozq :nsmnstJP .snsstxls Yd b.8q gt aom.asxn3 ~18“ .WUS‘ ran asco'zvvae yonzw ans finishes: «101'; .avw . flfliiiqfltjh'fins 111151 amodcuo an: nouuxn- t -t-»“xg 419w aeib '1???” gm“ lsnusaxe bus Ie:.1u;;..: Manama, m means “Mm mm” ddsji‘ioxq 32cm and boxiloqomm 0215 83511 ah'*’ '.:109368 9351119 so? .pnillaa baa pnlyud bel his no snob-Jud 1 51:211an 31.39311q yatbom l ‘J ‘33“ M1 9:111:30 {031% .1311 119d: ‘8 {Mai 03 Is: '¢i-__.- ~ 11 keen on encouraging agricultural exports, recommended that planters focus on one or two crops for export.17 Official and unofficial research, supported by London, was undertaken on the kinds of commodities most likely to maximize returns on capital invested in the protectorate.18 In addition, government subsidized railway rates, and later made loans to producers of certain crops. In sharp contrast, the colonial policy toward African agricultural production up to the early 19205 can be classi- fied as conscious neglect. This inattention mainly derived from the supposition that improvement in the African areas would hinder the flow of laborers and force wages up. Em- ployers frequently and indignantly complained about the sup— posed ease with which the indigenous people could earn money as independent producers.19 As an administrator's wife can- didly explained: It stands to reason that the more pros- perous and contented is the population of a reserve, the less the need or in- clination of the young men of the tribe to go out into the field. From the [European] farmers' point of view, the ideal reserve is a recruiting-ground for 17Wolff, Economics of Colonialism, pp. 68-73. 18Scientific investigatitnson export crops for the empire are discussed in G. B. Masefield, A History of the Colonial A ricultural Service. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, $6272" ' 19C. C. Wrigley. "Kenya: The Patterns of Economic Life, 1902-1945," in Harlow and Chilver, eds., assisted by Smith, History East'Africa, Vol. II, p. 226. A. Jan'1 QWIHHMW'fiT : .ajxocxwa -1.." ' - CL , .s.. ‘ 7n ‘ i: . ‘. TI . I garlic .31H1r- .0. can“: -« ;.W In ,JJ : nexugiean saw .1» we; 7d ;« ' 13 i ,F* 557 ~.: ‘1;~‘u 2'2w-fis1 s :.:j: H1 .p' g. r..; - . v " - -1- . . . .c. ' uh: . . . .91 .n-iJLhnu at ._;¢1,.a.. 1. ~ - a,; 1. -;.,; r .3550}. abbn‘ .SMJ UHF, £31.. '. ' ‘ :91. .t‘; .2. -‘ .-* H‘ I ‘ '1‘ l 1‘.) e I 1 I 3 nsniulA blSWCJ insloq Is 307;? 3a; .Jfitg‘wa: ’183513 9d “35 80891 {[755- 9”: V " 3L " ';,.!;h\") 2', 1:; '!:;,"JL_'_;:‘ besides ylniun actxne'jany aim: .335194u 3:1- ";n an to.- 23915 nsuixifi an: n: :nsmsvo:;uv ‘53: H“l.‘i;gflu. 3:; 11‘; ~mfi .qu zepsw 99101 has avsuouoj to Hell J33 195312 bigot «we add Jam beniniqaoo ylimsnpibni bar. yijrwupszi P‘W'Cii .. won me 61mm 91m escapism 35$ dstdw rs... ease 7:93p: «mans awotnaeintm as as e".8‘10§nb01q :neimsqsiuu as :bewisqus yibih “ism-931mm and: man a: chm—.32 :1 136135 _IIH as how (an: warm; 511; ie we in! mg! .meae: s ’m 918’s! 8“ Rt 13‘! M 938 30 noxasnx to did ‘nflfi .11315 ad: flflnz Joe 09 03 V 3‘“ ”T5 (dingo: 31 ”WW 0 I! muons-1 1;:th .fiécaitstaiaaIm-I niaxaasioaez Vf-V19£§9.‘* -“ 3 Hi beecuseib an; a: 0"“ t‘lbilei 22' Mg; levjluckxyA fginoggy , Ties} :V Isuunubqaass ad? is?" .ysfvlaw .S .381 rd chi ..m .tavlias has unrass n apex 5021 .9134 .Bfi: .q .11 .10? ..aiff' "’; i103818.d31m2 -. ...—...- 12 labour, a place from which the able- bodied go out to work, returning oc- casionally to rest and beget the next generation of labourers.2 Europeans believed that promotion of African agri— culture would hinder the development of European production. In 1912-13, at a conservative estimate, seventy percent of the value of agricultural exports were "native produce," whereas by 1928 the proportion was less than twenty percent.21 Africans were expected to continue with their traditional agricultural and animal husbandry and produce mostly for domestic consumption and internal markets. Even when lowers level officials tried to influence economic policy in favor of the Africans,they were blocked by their superiors. Never- theless, isolated projects took place in the African areas, but these desultory efforts depended on the initiative of individual administrators and mission societies. The agri- cultural department‘s assistance usually involved occasional ' advisory visits in response to official requests and the pro- : vision of seeds.22 A policy shift towards African agriculture occurred during the post—war recession. Britain and Kenya were in 20M.‘Aline Buxton, Kenya Days (London: Edward Arnold C0., 1927). p. 10. Mrs. Buxton was the wife of Clarence Buxton, who played a key role in initiating coffee growing among the Gusii. 21Wrigley, "Kenya," p. 243. 22Jon Moris, "Crop Introduction Campaigns as a Test of Planning Capability in Extension Administration: The Central Kenya Experience," unpublished manuscript, n.d., p. 18. \v. -m‘ ~.'I .L. . ct ' . "UtJ JV -WL ' I-fl -1‘?‘ -' i. ‘\‘ .-D ("r' j J! , ;' HUN“ u - ‘LWJ ' 1 1" ° r. '-~ 43.. m ..g' 4 ‘ r '1 -i:fn. nsoiu‘HK L- {1'.4-ww;ug is“: in f ' c,s-, 0103 .ucijnubowq ncnzowr; lo ‘nsm ciw‘ L in” s u:.: ;;‘~w 21L;.u* 30 31:91; {"1121 ‘v_'.'il'.‘\.";': .7, “.1 1: Ia‘ a" {3: "1v 'r f »h ' . ”.SJUBO'L; evijta" 319% : "U-C'VQ 1.. ""1. " ‘1'...) . 5r 35!! 9:13 15 ., ... _ . , . _ . , “c., y , ,y . .JnSOISq ynnu«: nbhj 3591 any nu. ruixg ~J 3-? ‘u e‘a.snw Isao£31b533.1;ufia 332w suqiinwo o: be“ -439 9”?W art .113 :oi yljaom snubOIq any ygflnsdauu imp nn hrs 1514:;vdxupr *19wol nadw nsvfl .axfliism isn1u+n§ huh [difqflhafiPh oxygennl love} at voiloq bimonoos SDfirfllifll on bats: e;n.nki?o 19Vu‘ ~19V9fir .anoitaqua ~asfi: vd befioold 513w ysd: xA.w?y¥~ 31: 5a .3591: asattis odj'ni snslq flood a+aetoaa bsacfoat .Ezsihfii lo say-taunted ai‘u :10 W nations *0.) :uesb nun-w find olupb ed? .391301990'uatyaim fin. aioaixdeinimhn l:ub1vioa. lsaoiatooo bevlbvni $115018 sonaseiads a'3nam316st inxuji'c ~03; ad? has §§§§QQQQ liiotifio 03’sfiuugaow mi 9312;" yuoaivbn ‘s.lbe¢& to noiaiv .souauaao oianflgfiggnrgle336'afisoued aaxna folioq A ni; mam“: um .mm saw-3.0:; sdz) Etiiihf‘; ~~..__._. --..-- . _ '~ ~-v halts MOS .uxn .01 .q .{1391 ..o:~ ‘ AI .EAS‘.q '.BVflQI' .gsipixwlg in 3:10 5 A: can; a acidoubozial 9029" .21105 not.3 him My! £01.an mien“ x3 :1 " u 1 ti 1'33an Darin-151‘? .11 .q ..b~.n .cqizsaunnn.benaltd. ; ;-netxoqx3 sins» ifl13li$£ui a: 9191 291 s bsyslq Oflw .Iiau.. 13 23 The protectorate's customs collection, financial trouble. which, after the hut and poll tax, represented the largest item in revenue, fell along with the drop in export trade. Some people felt that stimulating African agriculture would ease the balance of payments by reducing commodities imported and by increasing exports, while also augmenting customs rev- enue. The Department of Agriculture's Annual Report for 1920-21 contains the first mention of a plan to improve African agriculture. Emphasizing that the department was "becoming more and more interested in the development of the highly fertile native areas," it proposed to improve agricul- tural practices and increase production by employing a large number of "native instructors [who] are likely to succeed where Europeans would fail." The proposed initial stage con— sisted of two or three years of training for African instruc- tors, who, after graduation, would be posted to the reserves. Each would manage a demonstration holding, where local farmers also would receive training. The report pointed out that ac- tivities would be directed towards production of such export crops as maize, sorghum, millet, groundnuts, simsim, cotton, beans and peas, which were claimed to be well suited to the "resources and facilities of the natives" and with which there would be "no question of competition against the European grower."24 23Britain's poor financial situation is explained in Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment, pp. 115—38 - 24Department of Agriculture Annual Report (hereafter I DAAR) for 1920-21, as cited in L. W. Cone and J. F. Lipcomb, £1 .noijoolfoo emoaauu a'araauJoeioxq an? r&.oldu031 Lsionsnl! 1.99161 ad: 59J3t257732 .15: [log has 3ud ad: 19:15 .dnidw .9552? Jzoqxs n} no.5 :M‘ fisz pnols [Isl .sunsvsx n1 n93} bluow 9103Iu01195 nr3111£ ,u11112m31. thi 3192 sfgoeq omoa b3330qmi aoljtfnmm03 FUJ}UCHW 2: RIHJM(&§ In :Jnelsd 9:1 sane —vsx amcjauo gntdnumrnr He’s 91.flu .r‘vr;.€ . zanaxoni yd bus :03 Jaoqsfl {cunrfi a'eiqutuipr 3g iuemsxsqsu ndT .suno avaiqmi u: nfifiq ; i- JCIJHOW 1931. si: anicvnoc.IS-OSQJ saw adamytsqsb Mn: anf hairlasjqw .ax.ortcczpa nsoiuiA add 20 :nsmqoievsb :63 n1 boflznxedn. 3'31 ban 930m pnimcaud“ —£uaisps 9vozqm1 o: bsaoquzg 9? '.rsa1r ovijsn 91111:: Yldpifl 9215! a pnivoiqms yd “01399501q aese1uni bns 89011951q lsiua 'fibénafln 03 yiafill 915 [odw2 erosau1:sn1 svkjhn' 30 Iadmun —dg§ggfllis lstaihl‘boanqamq CIT ”.115? bluow anssqozus sxsdw . 3'10, bluow oals uSfinow asidivlfi .jgs ecoxuoaoa' AJ‘ 14 A review of the colony's economic policy was under- taken by the Economic and Financial Committee, better known as the Bowring Committee, which contained a large unofficial majority. Since the colony's trade was dangerously unbal- anced, the committee suggested ways and means of increasing exports and decreasing imports. The committee successfully submitted its resolutions to the governor between March and October 1922. These aimed at broadening the base of produc- tion and providing easy bulking for export.25 The committee also called for the department of agriculture to provide staff for the African areas, but development of the African areas was "only to make it help in the promotion of the white colony." Support for African cultivation came from the Colonial Office, which, in 1922, was in communication with Nairobi over the possibilities of increasing production in the reserves. At this stage, W. Ormsby-Gore claimed that Kenya should be regarded "primarily as an African country," since settlement was "on the edge of ruin." Moreover, some members of the British commercial community, like Major Sir E. H. M. Legett of the British East African Corporation, favored a change in the colony's economic policy. One businessman even expressed “the conviction of all the other business and banking men to eds., The Histor of Ken a A riculture (Nairobi: University Press 0 A rica, 2), pp. 43-44. 25 M. F. Hill, Planters' Pro ress: The Sto of Coffee in Kenya (Nairobi: Coffee Board of Kenya, 19565, p. 53. i. —‘t~:b~U ’hW ;‘ .. w, . mun.“ a r.- .I, ' =. wan-w A nwonx "ark-r1 .99;_;L:mx_'; - I‘ ~._-.: .' ' ".r -..;t: :0” 5:1" ,‘cx man's: Isioiliorzu 9131;; It. hem; r-w - :m- .- . .' m»: 9.11 as ~Isdn. '{I'awrxa m3-» 9w 9:» .. ‘ V“ I' ' “I n,“ ( :1. parasel-»nr '\ :‘u‘n .. 5 :1 Leaving. ' IL‘H' , ‘ .L-e r' {Iluffaaasom a": «x. - .2 ‘ m - , ' _ .. ..I ...: ._ < but. :13sz nub-Mos: 'I:.' a ’z r. ‘sr‘? -‘ ' .I. ._' 410351 a 2; ‘m: r E' -:ubo:zq '10 ear. Ci ad: :f-twl..o;;.-.-<,v;v.- _‘: min; 983:"? . ;, r‘ 60‘ -, t: ssaiimos sd'r .er. :x:: '13:? pat-24d .9 [lubl‘ ~m~ T“ . or}; 31533 ebivoxq 0:! a-xusiunmpz. 1:3 SHE'F‘LbUB: an: 16" ..;.a a: L! ants 11501139. 9:?! :0 me am: IiJ‘JLb 3:.“ r" g '. 153.11. ». x ml .-{noloo 931th: 911:! 3c 00130.30“th ":3 at III-3n 3': mm: o: y. .«." t ... Isiaoibssw m3} mo aoiasvifiiuo mm} 114‘ 103. ‘qug;? 19:0 Mensa fish. «summon at an; .5591 m ..ym'no Jan‘s”: W'fli “diam “1:8”!!! ’10 asiflL-dxaaoqg at: 96:51upda suns: 13¢: ha-fiiib exae~gdunao .w .99.:a all: 15 mums: 9661. ".mm- mm“ a u yli-zemrzq" irsbzspeu I w :6 him an: .W ”.nlm 30 9959 9d: no" em; 3W .5! .H .3 SEE W M .utm lu- name-s den-1'11" (:3 We 5 W WW “Mi Jana deijha 9M 5% m muted“ in: m moon 2 ‘wloloo art; '5‘ WWW “mm 91' ‘18 ‘10 “0130111003 era?” 5 03815 911'" ‘ -di‘J" fig! max-15A 33 as“: _; ~-Ag_.5 ,- 7‘[;' -.. 73,,. 1 [118.1 .933 '. a? ’_ _. ‘| '. -' . 60 :idozien} 313031.: .—....-~ ‘1‘. 15 whom I have spoken, that the real future of all these coun- tries, lies in the development of native production, rather than white production."26 In spite of the proclamations and signs of intent, few resources were allocated to promote economic development in African areas. In 1925, with an estimated African popula- tion of 2,500,000 people, the Department of Agriculture's staff for African areas consisted of only three senior supervisors, five supervisors, and approximately seventy African instruc- tors and apprentices. In addition, veterinary services in the reserves were provided by one senior veterinary officer, four veterinary officers, eight stock inspectors and about forty scouts. Training of African staff was carried out at Bukura in Central Kavirondo and the Scott Agricultural Labo— ratories at Kabete, where instruction centered around a model farm. In 1925, seventy students were receiving instruction at these two centers. Also, a small start was made by the Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with the Department of Education, for agricultural instruction in village schools; seeds were issued to these schools and mission centers to be used in training courses. In 1925, the East African Commission led by W. Ormsby— Gore studied ways to accelerate African economic development 26Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment, pp. 178-79. 27 HMG Report of the East Africa Commission,'Cmd. 2387 (London: HMSO, 1925), as cited in Cone and Lipcomb, eds. Kenya Agriculture, pp. 47-48. i in. T ‘1 h Cu‘ '2‘..' f r . 2 ""47““ _. " r!" ‘L‘ Li). J" ““1: 1 1mm; lsfi _»7 .r:""u“~ “U i' 1' ‘ ’ ..kuI.'» : u! .1 ar‘ 3 .25: ' >r ‘. - . 4 ~ p. 1 ' \ ‘ 3:. 2 9 9h- ’ -- lr- - . -. -» . .JVEV -IJ .rIq-r; - -. I ~~J21‘ -— ' -- at - v ~ .. -¢ N’ .-,\ 4 .~., . 9,. - '. ,q- ’1 >_‘_ .d . ‘..~v .3vw.oL-.~_u sun”, . . . . , , .. . , 2. .3- --.I;:.§oq {16: f7” sr‘. ~17} ‘ , I. ‘_ . f'.‘ -! .‘—.- r, r :15:.: $911.: lustipfl ‘3“ .9. "M 1: emf, . .i ' 00.! ' .2 :2 ‘ ' .a'xoaivxsqua mnirrzz 991:” 331.1: .' : nex'v — a - Us. :x;.'~.'.'h~. .m' SUI fifli fisfiifilfi 'Irgflra vjl‘smxxougq? u’n Iatrfiv";4Jv a. at as: $3132: Tm..." .93“ ‘: '14315. r.’ w .._, s :'I‘.’ . ' a‘1. ‘auoii'fi? '{.;I..’ 113:)” ‘xc-L’xv: $1. {.1 rs.- new e: '473‘1' 2 ... 4 U 5'! . .4 .J L w? x. M 3:10:15 Ems afarmesqrmi Xacuz mp; .219? 35 duo 5911-153 35w iisje noel-135 ’kc gnhrs-z'.‘ .3:7.~I:)')a fit“: ‘06:»! IBIMJBOS‘JQA 3,3038 9d: 565 obnoxi'm}? hymns}- vu EVU."...I Laban s bayou! 55:939.: netsouujani ozsdw .sjsdsx as ea 393r~ «033mm: gnkvtsoe: saw 8335:3032 pure? .asex n! .5115? '91:} 1696:" am: #3538 line e .08”; .2351nso ow: 9.29:1: r ing-wanan odi'dtiw a613310qooo ~i ,sauilnairpa lo Jnsmjlsqu :81U6lna 96131:? a! n6i3oorjini 1$1u1£uaixpl Io! .Poijsouba a a nun-om.“ atom; M3 oat-bean: 919w ..9-Jr TS rM-"wflii'l$ n; 552 -M was“: calm cum 1“ an: n = " xiébnoaa 9 .tgrxt .qq 110311253 n 16 and to improve social conditions. Reporting on Kenya, the commission acknowledged: There seems little doubt that the Department of Agriculture has in past devoted most of its attention to the improved cultivation in European areas, and that until the last three years, very little indeed was done to encour- age native production. There is a feeling among the natives that the resources of the country, which are supported out of the general taxation to which the na- tives contribute so largely, have been used too exclusively for the development of Euro- pean areas. Stimulated by the growing wealth of the natives in the adjacent territory of Uganda, the natives have been loud in their demands for services in return for the taxes which they pay. They are backed in some of their demands by the Convention of Associa- tions, the local administrative officers, missionaries, and, to a large extent, the com- mercial community.28 The best incentive to efficient production, the com- mission maintained, was proper provision of central markets, roads, and transport facilities. In its opinion, both the promotion of agriculture and the livestock industry neces- sitated an increase in staff. It chose to ignore the colonial secretary's 1923 policy proclamation which asserted that African rights were to take precedence over those of the other 29 communities in Kenya. Instead the commission referred to a dual policy. 281bid., pp. 46-47. 29See Robert Gregory, Sidne Webb and East Africa: Labours Experiment with the Doctrine of Native Paramountcy, Un verSity 0 Ca 1 ornia P lications in History, Vol. LXXII (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962). pp. 5-55. l‘ 9117.1: Ins-)4. 1.x;- ,. '1 a. . ‘.‘I),:::.‘ . H . svo‘xqm _.1 but; by .c 4’3 .M no} *- wn~ Jnerrzfiirsqu” 9..1 h '7 .‘Iirn .u -. xvi "new 2.0.1: 30 'm .3‘.’~~' -':. . . ;. .7 ni u iJ.’t:i*. '”n”q4' vn . . I1.g" .‘ 99:61 1:51 991 .I~=. *.V" ,1 -'. - .- a -1;nunt a: ennn u-u -38L7= . “‘1‘ {: ... . ‘ J I (' ‘ . 1 “b 2H1? 12514 BEVJI.JL!6 I , .wnl .v a: "J ..’ t:{ . F fisflraqqu‘c‘. 911-. . J‘A‘ .‘U‘i't: 3:. 1 '7 My...» 4:7 -5n 9X1: £1331“. 0:? niujzzg-‘a- ir'twrmv v“) I; : ‘ beau RQJC svsn ; *grsl sé .Jn:i. ' a-..; -0103 .C 51mm\uwr‘:23 dd; {"1 “95".. in. V9 uq‘ difssw t'L'V'MVig- 7!? yd b01i';.‘vmi.+2’ .75» 1”. r'.‘ of 3'0 yx~‘.3‘.¥.4'.x'rr‘~" ‘r'r'm'rbe CI'U ni {123’2’3‘56 -=.'7 u..- uififij 3; mm: .de 9‘35“ 393;.an Jz" blah-2;} 33333 9:13 '3?! :xtuin n1“ .“1“.‘.";~38 '.' .‘, .;i‘.'r‘.':“:'. him 6.; pso;{.,!.u 3:". (an? .3;qu gaff) r!-'.'.;’~. rhino-eh 10 nuunavno'.‘ em, yd eta/tum: 133;..- ..ga'asiiio 3v1?51331nimbs {5301' on: ... .04: ms 9‘3 .Jne‘ixs 39151 3 03 ~51“? .aaiienuiuam 85.231nummoo I siozen was: 93!: «5:91:50qu suntan). o: wiinsonx 339:: :m‘.” .edsxzsm’v'zugcos an, Melvyn ”M an .bsn.t..:nim noiaaim EMU. ,gfied Aweinigp at 43 . 561.13.11.93: Jxoqamn: has .eL-sox ~6&66‘m3migdi WM “is! but naflualpr 3'0 “01:0qu 161.1639: am. map: 06.9% 11.11633 at arsenal as 593.3“ 993639“ £651.61 Wm 39110:; 5:21 a T133919“! 19619 ‘64 '56 m mm M 6: sun- 2:691: .xsoiz‘zA s .9 6...... Mum at: W $9qu :1. aslflaummco cpiioq [sub ...... .6645 .96 . Jam“ es «aw axodoil sea - .. . g . , . ' astral“; x! 371;. 515;: ,1. . 9’", '.; I __,~ " .s.‘ -. ', ’- ‘3 g o .1: ”Wing , ~ .: . ‘ " .. > 1.930 winevkm} :ysiex-xaa) .I 43‘ I r v ~' 44 »' L- U 1)" 97:! 1.53:! .4 >4 1. 1 ..‘I A‘. In Fv _. 7 ’L‘ ' ~' '. \‘ '. s' '— V 17 The dual policy of increasing the quantity and quality of production on the native lands pari passu with the development of European cultivation is accordingly neces- sary, if only on financial grounds. The present purchasing power of the native is low. We are confident that stimulus to more and better native cultivation is one of the best means of securing a higher standard of efficiency on the part of na- tives who seek employment from time to time on European farms.3o Governor E. Grigg spoke of a dual policy at the Con- ference of British East and Central African Governors in January 1926, and the conference report defined it as "a com— bination of non-native and native production."31 A year later Grigg gave the idea political meaning in his push to achieve closer union of the British East and Central African territor- ies. Grigg felt that the Europeans in Kenya and Northern Rhodesia would be afraid to participate in a federation which might apply the doctrine of native paramountcy. Thus, he ac- tively proclaimed a more moderate policy, that of dual develop- ment. His hopes for closer union, together with those of the Secretary of State L. S. Amery, were quashed by the Hilton Young Commission, which had been established to advise London on closer union in East Africa. The commission's report, pub- lished in January 1929, recommended closer union as a means of coordinating Kenya's policy with Uganda and Tanganyika, where African interests were given more consideration. In 30East Africa Commission as cited in Cone and Lipcomb, Kenya AgricuIture, pp. Z§—50. 31As cited in Gregory, Sidney Webb, p. 63. fl:r.»-'.':" .1 . ‘7 4 .3" "- ' '3'- . '«.:.J_ :.i;. an audit-P ufi‘ ~ , Q' ! ‘ '. . .r‘ 1‘ suave». .2. ..1 Web" . 2,. -2oqun y"u!.‘ 3: r a‘ x ‘:"' ~‘ _. ‘.J 9153 :L'f-AH" J :2. 4:." ;.~ .‘r': W v 5": svixsa': ¢:.|_~ 7‘: '_!'~‘i‘t3_ 7:. .' ~j 2-. u: :.rviumv.‘.; and- *nei» ‘7 Wg -. . 4‘ -:no at u01352.'?43 2v;3' - .wfi his v' I ‘g'an-jdri #1 n. J: .--, - ...“: ,2. . , .' , .511 '10 .i"6‘{ .-;.‘.‘ . .,, - . v» ' '-:- ~ f anti a: amin uc12 :1e.y“ .3 a »;u 2:“.1 . r ,. -n03 9d: :5 yoiioq {'rr 5 :~ rvwf“ g»: 4 . 1.r*37~2 ni auoalavofl Rb Ti'n Lquge' but '.rJ finr:;1i 30 arr;~n. —mo:> 6" as :1 b93314»? truce: 54;: -' j' ~.’« 5.2: 3.3; use; may ii" . V . . g . 13351 1591 A .n011)u»n1g p'x‘sx but 9* 9th no: -r r'x*an.; eveldos 03 dauq aifi n: painsam Lablfikicq ssh} an? "759 ngzfii -Io:rxxp3 nsnizifi Isujnso has 3353 deraiud was 20 nc;~: 1580!“ 1:39:13on has annex ni ”moans. 311.1 and: :19? perm .222: dokflw notifies“ 5 at miainbe 03 51631. ad biuow siassxuifi 435 ad and! Mug when to mlnoob ed: quqs nigm .qoms'b 1W ieM'._m1mmx-m «as s bums oc q \!s i: add 39 ma K343. W m 16.01: 109 aeqod arH :r-cm ill? I! 5“,}!!! 63)“! m .I ..1 91538 10 {15.79129 5:, 3i 533315‘3116 uflfld bfid’d’ifl! noiaiimmo nuqu I m .651!“ ma at mmu jeep-I one} . .. . ‘39): green“. :11 banal! m “15“ WW midsaifimo 1:. ' .m’Ta‘fisT’hggs 51:29); .11. . .q W .21an a: 503' to all: 18 regard to native policy in Kenya, the Hilton Young Commission stressed that "if the natives are to be fairly treated pro— vision must be made to ensure that they receive an adequate return in services for the taxes they pay," including pro— vision of agricultural services. "The economic development of the native areas is moreover necessary not merely in the interests of the natives themselves. It may form a most im- portant factor in the economic progress of the whole country," the commission reported.32 While some advances were being made in Kenya to provide more services to African areas, the governor, European planters, and their allies wanted the speed and direction under their control; thus, they strongly opposed the recommendations of the Hilton Young Commission. In 1929, when the commission's report was published, approximately twelve of Kenya's forty-two agricultural officers were on assignment in African areas. From the beginning of its work in the reserves, the Department of Agriculture's ob- jective was to create a strongly hierarchical, multi-functional, and tightly controlled field organization. As the number of staff increased it became necessary for the department more clearly to define its policy on African areas. Annual confer- ences began in 1929, where extension staff problems were dis- cussed and official policy changes enunciated.33 32HMG Re ort of the Commission on Closer Union of the De ndencies in Eastern and Central Africa, Cmd, 3234 (London: HMSO, 19295, pp. 56, 58. 33Moris, "Crop Campaigns," p. 20. tQngfMWOU pnuos :"TIiF enn ,ETZSV Ll “"r.:q SViZLJ ~1 b15991 ~3*u ly-fi31; VLWEu‘ ‘U G) :u ‘w . 1“ 'fl' 1: 'mj 15289138 ssnppobb as 9919331 ?95' iLH‘ ‘ .113 w- clsu 9d 7.:’ finxafv -‘1q pnii Zuni ”.;sq " affif 9d: '? EHUI'IBE a; ‘z.3&! fin-f'IQOL'r/eb Duncan: ‘- LIH'E " .' -."..'<‘--‘Jz. '.. “. )I‘ '2.- ‘.u- afar. )r? n1 YIQYSM ‘ufl [ :nHGDQ: * ”Ur -" '; asul- Ivffir' ”f1 ; mu #30m 5 rmol ‘3.- -r-uu~i:zv~.-..- 2' vqs'x - .‘t- '.- exams} spinner) 9174'... art: 3. .2: 9:: y, 7‘ : ”mow m: ."i : . ‘:»;, .‘m :‘u. 9‘11“ 019": 2.13.129. Fr: .FIl c. .rrm; ’«_‘xr"u.{.‘: ‘9 -71.::r3.,'; 3.“; odd .afia1s ‘oorviA 11 dut£”2‘7 fi”01 :' 'h‘: :1 57: ' *. sbgH bsoqa ed: bannsw ZSLLIE ten: 35: .azejnrlq u ous'r* . 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European se- curity in land facilitated the expansion of coffee acreage, while the tax and labor policies ensured a cheap supply of workers on European farms. Settlers agitated to prevent development in the African areas since they believed it would reduce their favored position in the economy. But, when Kenya's financial position deteriorated after World War I, it became politically advisable to promote agricultural pro- duction in African areas; the settlers and their allies in government tried to ensure that they controlled the direction and speed of African economic development. However, the pro- hibition of coffee production by Africans partially slipped from their control. GE 3153 dsuzzifl orflu ’vgrr .- n'“ t t n‘ ‘1‘ dvidw ni isw an: ‘5 fizvuvMET. ans fl'i-im quwsumo- "-iA L .agnqh 30 vmmannv 913 -‘u 1r;:“‘ 94 .F3 Pve' ‘r? ceentau; -sa nssqozua .vCSET aw“ 1' y .LCu LuIJZ§iT '; 17'ia sd* «L 15959135 991105 km fiu?9~.qv» uh? Brjsfirt r ?~-: A qfijwu. )0 viqquz quads e hs‘nan; 9:' .lon 3*13f “10 xx: 9n: si'nw 3navs:q o3 be_-;1i.e 2.3u ‘ak .rrwgt 'A- tzud ac angina“ bIUOW :31 bevfuizad 3'9!“ 3:31? 811918 {15"}.1‘121 "I“? . i .‘-£l:‘m'."'s.‘d‘.’5b qudw .308 .Ymonnus an: n; rc;1}eoq bsuovsi wisdn snubs- ‘I T." bluow 1s33£ bsiexr: are: thfjan igions:;1: n""ng ~03} kaiailcoixpe sjcmnxq on olusajvbs Yllb?111;01 fiflhflQG 3; a1 luklls tied: has azsiassa 9d: 185936 nLDJIEL P; not3wub naisasxib 9‘3 builoxfiloa ton: and: Qantas o: bsi 3 snemnxsvop ~ozq ado .isrnuoa inn-nolavab sluonooo «3911?! $0 bueqa has b95511! xiialztti nusoizia 16 ngédouhozq 991109 30 woiiidid .loxanoc 119d: maxi CHAPTER 1 THE SETTLER COFFEE INDUSTRY AND THE DECISION TO ALLOW AFRICAN PRODUCTION European opposition to Africans growing coffee derived from the economic position of the crop in the Kenya economy. As assessment will be made of the extent to which government supported the European coffee industry, the importance of the industry to the economy of Kenya, and some of the industry's problems. To contrast the practice whereby black Africans were prohibited from growing coffee until the mid-19303, a brief summary of government-supported coffee production by Africans in Uganda and Tanganyika will be provided. Further, a detailed account of the consideration later given to African production in Kenya furnishes evidence of the proposals made, identifies view of various government officials and staff members, and records the reaction of European settlers, all of which are vital to an understanding of the final plan to initiate African coffee production in Kenya. The Settler Coffee Industry up to 1933 The initial plantings of varieties of arabica coffee began with experiments at mission stations?" During 1893 it 1Appendix B contains definitions of the terms associated With coffee infestations, and a description of the technical aSpects of coffee production and processing. 20 .' AST‘IMID mimosa am mm W ‘I'JU’.’. : 331':ch asurma 3m ' "OI TOUOOQQ HAL)! “1' V A W! ‘l M!- ("I kiwi-4.11.3190 palm emaiflé on 30:31::qu uni-({u‘iufi 4.2511” it“)! w m gins ml: in uoiaxaoq :urmncos on: mox‘: Jfim 4‘32?" an :MMXs 9:13 2.: in; m ad ilLv ”mandamus 8A mhwpmm ND .Yzaauhxi 5:310: nssqonus mt? boruoqqua W:Wio one but 52m»! 30 {mono-so ed: M yujaubm Wat sci-mu W Jenn-too or .3531qu mmflme m1} bsjididowq 93w ..--... i0 yams ieixa * MU a]: mail“. 21 "\.-.~ was planted at the French Mission at Bura, in the Teita Hills, from which plants were taken in 1900 to St. Austin's mission in Nairobi. Plantings were also made under irrigation at the Church of Scotland Mission at Kibwezi, and St. Augustine's Catholic Mission at Kikuyu planted coffee in 1901.2 In these early years missions distributed seedlings to European settlers. In 1897 the Foreign Office's regulations on Certifi- cates of Occupation of land for European settlers stipulated that not less than a quarter of the land be planted within the ! first five years in coffee, cocoa, indigo rubber and other ! plants approved by the commissioner.3 Although this regula- ‘ tion was not carried out and the ordinance soon superceded, : inclusion of this clause indicates the significance given to 1 cash crops by London in these early years. Coffee commanded high prices on the world market in the early 18905, but suf- fered from overproduction and an according drop in price by i the turn of the century. In 1909 the Department of Agriculture in Nairobi warned about the expansion of coffee growing. It doubted whether it was advisable for settlers to confine themselves solely to coffee production since plants were very susceptible to pests and diseases, and production depended on the 2W. J. Dawson, "The Importance of Plant Introduction with special reference to the Highlands," The Agricultural Journal of British East Africa (January 1912), as quoted in DAAR I§I7-I§, Ministry of Agriculture (hereafter MOA) Library: P. 39. . 3Hill, Planters' Progress, p. 9. \EL‘LU ;:;-I an -. . :P '. . .i-V *Jv~ r '; .an'v 86w noiaain ,I“? if» {It-2.121%” .J, ”3‘73". ~I..: - ' . ' ..' ' .‘ N; . 215' ' a‘nnijeyg A .+L h"- ..“ H’ ' '. ‘ 'Wtf" : . “.Inflf 9 - . deed: UT :00} .1 .- '"v ~' ' . ' n '- u . .31511392 nesqowufi u' .ynsr.:._ U Jda:1*r:3 - .: a ._ {.lbn ~1313153 no znuxjr so: : :T :3. ~, 2 - -.' ‘~ r" be 9361!“;zra azsi‘rb,a a13q01u5 1- .pzs: 11 ';:. "‘ . ig arm 9H1 ninifw rsjnsiq u; 'ma! Lfl: 3‘ 12*wrv? 3 ha" .29; c 3 And» Isdao has IdeU1 “n;'Ji .~, ‘v‘infi w. ". ; e“ , *«1-. -slnpaw 81nd figucdrit 1.:u1, t~zammo Cd: y! ’ch;:¢. 2335;. .b‘sbsoxoqua nos-a swunxbz 3 an: i-rus too :15: '15: :on 75w xxx-.11 OJ nevi? seasuitkagia Ed) asdaoihni saUfiIo 81d: io nmiat;nu1 bsbnfimmqa 951300 .azsov ulxsa seed: n1 nobnod '3 330:9 dead due. 1nd .aogfil 11159 9:11 at swim Mm»! ad: .2: 233m (ijr‘. ,Yd salquat gash afiibacaoa as has uolJauboaqwovo maxi bows? . . .YSanea 9d: ho nxu+ «a: infirm: mt .mlubhafi to .W 9:11 9061 HI 53341:!” 31 .QW‘Q “a“ 1‘0 NIGMXS 911:} daddy. befitsw cuifipfinflflQIQ§£3afia Q3 Cil3330995§3'a11531vbs BIN fl; reddedw sxdrmm umsau ”algmuzuoimboxq 391300 on yfsloz sub unababhaqafi netinuinaq an. .aaeasalb has adaoq 03 l .W 96!" .neawsa .r. .L-!" [jmki ad: 04 are: 9131 Iota-age 1.13 .4 " an 3333 day. 118 10 inn-1.0;; '7‘?§3”YXU?”§T"TT‘_ EA ad it .g s8 ~q~ wig-923155.; : : ”Hi :3 r a 22 acquisition of a sufficient number of laborers at harvest time.4 However, in 1910 the world price of coffee began to rise steeply, and a considerable number of Kenyan settlers started planting the crop. By 1911-12 coffee was classified as one of the protectorate's major industries and prospective entrepreneurs drove farm values up.5 Government began to take a greater interest in the crop due to Britain's economic concerns as well as Kenya's. Britain had obtained most of its coffee from Ceylon and, to a lesser extent, India in the 18705 and 18805. Al- though some proportion of it was used in Britain, most of the coffee was re-exported from London to Western Europe. A dis- astrous attack of coffee disease in Ceylon near the end of the century forced Britain to rely heavily on Brazil and its main re-exporter and controller, the United States, for coffee. To lessen Britain's vulnerability to fluctuations in quanti- ties and prices, and to assist in its balance of payments, the metropole needed suppliers within its control. Thus, it fa- vored government support and regulation of the Kenyan coffee industry.6 Coffee research work in Kenya was part of the duties Of the government entomologist, originally appointed in 1908, 4DAAR 1908-09, MOA Library, p. 16. Sum 1911-12, MOA Library, p. 90. 6Wolff, Economics of Colonialism, pp. 73-77. 3&0. . 1 ~ ‘ 3 r .342119L: L 0‘ ‘1' d 3421 L n L) t .. , .nLi on .. .322» w - ~ ... . .1; ‘1; .... . >1 2335;- as e. ’ . ‘r- ’51.: 3v1199qaoxq ur' "--flfifrflf! 'nfl a . .. - . EL ,3 03 Herod 3nsun1~70£ ' g' x_ a .- g .. . .f.91;913fi3 Dimeufifi a'nrnfitxs C. no; qt}? : ~ . ~' rgv. ._~ 7; r u.s: ; \ ‘v _. L. " D- ). KolYDD 1210‘... 9143.13: at”. 3': 'e'oi. ‘2”’I‘.5"- -. ’ '\8 ~LA .20881 an thEZ mun :7 r‘rz“ .ttije ThPipf F .7 .Uflh 9d3.§o daom .aisdiifl ni beam :5w 1; 1c 1LL'1UIJL; JMCR ipJ u; —eib A .equzua nzsaeaw on nobnoJ maxi L-.X”§A.‘€L icv ?“ 353 30 bus 912.1 1,551: 110.1er In aessalf, "9?:er ':‘ Xvi-"fr. awn: -- as: has; list}! no gfraspd 21.91 rd a: 1.3118 .1~-.1- ‘2 .‘f‘tt‘ffiflo an: .3931!» 393 .mm b98186. all: denounce ban. 19330;::;~-.n nim- ~£3msnprn1‘agqmgsutag£3 9’ yéjltdlmonluv c'aisjina neanel 3? 2:11 .wamuq 30 W at mi 1811!: 0: has .asc;-c, bra 11?. ~53 31.1 , .3114? .logdm. qt :1th casiquae batman aloud-519:; M30900?!“ 055%me but rxoqqua 3119311119 or; 1:510. I ‘ 77-” :‘ 3.11::ubn- WM 3;: fir“ as” mm mi from Qua-z 99310: $92151”: 21W fingcs imuevop 9d: 3 -oo , ._ ' ..a1 .9 .ma non .oo-soex mun" ' -- I ‘ .u .«q .fiudtz MAI-1121 Mme .X‘?-€S .qq W.) simnoofi .1310»? Wow—M 23 and the mychologist, first posted in 1913. In the early part of 1914 an ordinance came into operation to control the sale of coffee plants within the protectorate as a means of prevent- ing the spread of leaf rust. Already in existence was the Coffee Leaf Disease Ordinance of 1904 which prohibited the importation of plants and seeds from designated countries, ex- cept with permission and subject to special conditions. In January 1914 a coffee plantation inspector was appointed to advise planters and inspect land for infected coffee bushes or conditions which might give rise to diseases and pests. The inspector was authorized to require, in writing, the oc- cupier to take necessary or advisable action, within a speci- fied period, to prevent diseases and pests or their spread. If actionwerermn taken by the occupier within the time allo- cated, the accused could be fined or imprisoned.7 After the outbreak of World War I, growers who had followed proper practices, though, were not assured of a market for their crop. By early 1917 the growers were affected by a war-time restriction placed on shipping coffee. Requests to the con- troller of shipping in London resulted in a quota for coffee, but in March 1917 coffee was declared a prohibited import into the United Kingdom in order to conserve on shipping space. The unsold coffee accumulated quickly and storage facilities 7East Africa Protectorate (hereafter EAP), Ordinances 3:5 Re ulations, Vol. XIV, January 1 - December 31, 1915 a r : Government Printer, 1913). p. 9. '4 "urn 911 r. i ' ‘ .1 9d bur Tm? =xi.‘ [51-37.03 r:»‘ a“ ' " s. .‘ M“. :10: 3' * ».)1q 3: n n ”7:7 4' '1: . 2:310. 31 31".) 2113.6 ‘uJ'de: - ."13 Ildf pr. ad: hs‘Ld dozc ”t 1" .n. .‘ 2V . g a. nil“:. “K9 .EGITJRUHJ fia‘n‘fii?9” :.e ‘2 ; 'r ~~cm1 n: .anolixbnoz Isfneva Lu mr- f~>n . 03 bojnlbqqs emu ioipeqan- 3.Js.u' . ..; 7 1:8 ..suh.f asdaud 993103 b13333n1 in? a . ““f”“| -. aszv _q noivrs . sq urb 892.a‘ib o: “8:1 +*:\ 3 J; Aw a" .nnv' 1- ~00 sdj .9C1711: xi .5iivnsi u. “951.211- sew “Kin yd: ~kasqz u aidJiw .noifioa efdaazvbs 1s vibna'?a~ €523 «4 weighu .bsBiQB 119d: to 83.9q has 39359315 snevexg c3 .otxzsq b»?! ~olin a... 9113 .mm 10191130» an: {d 11915.1 ...... .... wrvoi ~15 :r (adj-19335 v.50uoetiqni io—bOflii 3d blues beauocn at: .3935: ifi‘UGJHO mamg Mflo‘! but any new“ .1 1.1.2 611094 3c. ‘Itéfli.xei raven: 5 io‘haiazah duh Ctsw .duuon: .3nvijnszq .QOI- ”.19....”an m «a no; 11:59 ([3 *noo-9dd,efi‘l$-ibpafi' mm.- 191“ W 1 #1 m! m at pat'qqida om mood It)“; .s‘ H "h" mwmm no «3%.; mo :11 magma: bsiin'd 9m Willa“ moves. ”3155315193 bargains“ ”no: bloanu 9.4.1" .camlan 983§§idi no baoslg noisntr:,51 -0 1911013 0'” fiction Y1?! finxam ni Jud * m 191180553 3531619923038 291-2311 3335‘- .1! I'diiaofl - 1 gaeunsb .VI\ ibv .snoksalu ea has .0 .q .(tl!1 .rsdni's :- . pa :Idc:15fl) it I l 24 ' were inadequate. With no returns, planters lacked the money to maintain their plantations and to pay wages for another season's harvest. The situation was potentially serious: neglected plantations would lead to disease and ultimately to capital loss. When the banks stopped granting loans to growers, government prevented potential disruption of the in- dustry by advancing loans to planters against the security , of their stored coffee. Eventually Nairobi made successful representations to London; the embargo was partly lifted and . some coffee was exported.8 Meantime, production was affected by diseases and pests. During the war many plantations suffered severely from leaf rust, thrips, antestia and other infestations. Previous government research work had concentrated largely on fungicides against leaf rust and on the artificial drying I of coffee beans, but in 1917-18 experimental work was expand- ; ed to insects and diseases injurious to coffee. A few years later when difficulties plagued several areas, the coffee plant inspector9 complained that “the Entomologist's advice on the treatment and control of this pest [antestia] is not generally carried out."10 With only one coffee officer, the Department of Agri- culture described itself in 1921 as "wholly unable to give 8 18, p, 8. 9Mr. A. D. LePoer Trench's title was changed in 1919- 20 to Adviser for Coffee. Hill, Planters' Progress, pp. 38-39; and DAAR 1917- 10Quoted in Hill, Planters' Progress, p. 60. I wnwr -nl 5353;- ‘ ‘ w , k. . .- . H.‘ u 9*: 'J'. ::-.i ,..:t. 152‘ am: In: 3...:- m» Jn- ~ -. ' ’ -.n . inn: 0* ’93.?‘1". "1151.. - .1 ' v' - 3*- u r r' 42-9: . Lina-mun- -15 a: ., L ‘ . ..‘-;_ win 1 )7 Ann.” 1:- 1:: _.... . ., . -r.£ or; u‘ *u a'fil 4‘3 4 in} 1 r x = 3.x .; ‘lm’ase u’: n," 23' a-“ r 2 ‘ 1 l: f iaat‘wuua 9?? r. " r” a ' wanna??? 's :1“) ,1: o 1" :1 .3? but. 129:3: -. 25.-'4»: .og‘nma: : '-'*" ;,— ‘ , .' v.“ ‘p‘ 25 benefit. as?! :11. £3: as} 7.;,..:‘:29;r~.u' . .‘ t In...- may .~ “: 4;: u; “1.93 ‘ u- '9'". ’ : “fr. tlexsvse hazefiiua enoisnguslq vnsm yew 554 9:1" .anoéiafnoini 32530 but sixes3ng .aq:1&: .9a;: 2.91 ma-i 2192151 banana” bod 110w douse»: .Ist-JrriIIZSx/uj ~ 1'. :12 pniYIh Lalnkiiixc sfl:.np has Sou: 1594 :eulsps asLLajgnu“ no ~hnsquaresw £19! Lsanifldzlygo 81*?!(1 at and .anaed 99130: 30 azmy’wai .5, -mm 9;! “laid mat: Ems Bataan; 03 b9 991355 ad: .isozn iaxivsa beep-{q 8913£uoiiiib nsdw 49351 saith; a‘ifiiufiiapggfiSVQQQF-Jlfl; honxslqmoo eloaooqunx inslq son :1 fm M #10 mm» has imminent and ac. ‘ ‘ _ . n. A 7 ‘1'.3uo 5941159 ?ilh29fl9z 4296;»-‘W-w .mpn on)!» one um cum _ @152 9" 55”; $18.51!?“ ”mi .51 um! 5911113895 exuzluo -‘ ...i .—. ...-....- —r:1w' m are End-3c :qq .gmq V'aggsnsm .ums '"‘ .3 .o .35 4145.!" mm an out: ”mm 19099.: x .A an? ' .esfi' ' usakvhx a: OS 01 M4." _!' 3:151:11.) JO 1 o ; .4 . . _ J: , . .. .‘9..-. .4 . .‘f ‘P’J'.u ...» 25 adequate attention to the needs of the industry and the in- terests of individual planters."11 Moreover, it declared that it was unable to properly administer the regulations which provided for the inspection of plantations. The follow- ing year coffee berry disease, which was to become a major blight, was first recorded. It was found in fourteen planta— tions in Uasin Gishu and Trans Nzoia, where it cut crop yields by an estimated fifty percent or more.12 In 1924 an inspector of plantations was appointed to administer the disease prevention regulations. During the year, he served notices on seventeen dirty and neglected plan- tations. Even with this additional official, the Department of Agriculture expressed its concern with the lack of an ade- quate staff to deal with the coffee industry. Coffee ranked second in the acreage devoted to crops on European farms and provided over one—third of the total value of the colony's agricultural exports. Coffee growers lobbied for greater financial support from government through the Coffee Planter's Union of Kenya, which consisted of branch organizations, each of which had a representative on the governing council of the union. Al- though membership was not compulsory and in the early 19205, members accounted for less than one-fourth of the total European llDAAR 1920-21, MOA Library, p. 22. Hill, Planters' Progress, p. 60. DAAR 1924, MOA Library, p. 13 and Appendix. 12 13 “4 0W ‘Ji er" '"" "‘1‘,‘ 4'." .1. r" . ...? iiffl‘ntfi 9:180?sz ! l4- 's‘ias‘.) :of’ "‘"<~::1_-r' .2 4 ’:.uu1.~jlnx 30 218915: sac, Jainiftl 1:)3'5. "nu-o. ., ‘1- -L'v-'.-‘.u-:,. sew .‘1 35:13 ~.3liu: JfiT an -_ 1 nxfsfifl . ~‘ 1 - iubivqu 43L ':c{_sm I: sump; _" :3 ' v. 4.. ' 7.093,.“ g; :3: Nd??? 35;“; tn? --3rr:51c mi.) *Jrs‘r- z", LAM-fL Am- ‘? .fw.“ 7:31 "'22 2'2! .z'dpry af-l 31v gov. 1:0 7" I..'.- FL-r'w' "in“ i 4 .» vii-r." 33??!) mi encn." ' 33.1w - , 'i 1‘)“: ‘03:”..‘2L m. Vt c-fr baznlcx‘q-ls 311w a:nij.*..'ru'v:. ‘-3'.“»»;..:P'~z '4 v A' n. eds paint- .ah313riunefi noi-nsw91: \FF ".k 3d: «wizxnimbu ~nsiq 59335199: has {32:5 dastnqua ac ason-‘ hav1n: sfi .1asy xuamvaqu ad; ..siniiio ianoiiibbs sidfl hfliw ---3 .;noi:51 —ebs naio was: an: daiw manor; :3} 552.293qu EEZJIU'JI’JYQE 'm bsinsx’ssihon .21:Iu0fl% obiiob sdt_d31w lash Cd 32532 syrup 5:15 W33! W03 at: m 01 3mm sens-ms an: :11 baa-’39:: Variant-mad: 16.94137 Inc: at: io bum-am uwo bsbivc-tsq ‘1.8310qxs lrqufuains 33mm: 151W W m ”his! neuron: ss’xlo’) 46W In W 9% (#163 II” Mid: imam/oz: mofi s Matias}; m 3.1mm Mad lo bsaalano: new. -56 anbiflv 4‘6 Io-Iiuunae tlilfllycfi an: no svissansaszqs: 56?: m qlflusdmsm 4194:0413 9m wwwm m an“! M3 at: ’16 WW m M m! 15034300935 madman -—M M-.- .as :6; mm «a £19m: mm” .M '§.mmx‘1'swmq .51an m up ti .5 nan-161.1 son ‘a" V'I HI I l r I: y. ~ ,4. ‘ -'...;u:] t _ u" ‘- "T- 2 ~. 4-~ k 'l H: v[ .v‘ 26 coffee producers, the union was the main body which dealt with the government on behalf of the coffee industry. As early as 1921 the union's annual meeting included a discussion about the formation of a coffee-marketing cooperative. Also, the delegates urged the director of agriculture to increase the scientific and technical services related to coffee. In early 1924 one of the council's members proposed a tax on coffee exports to finance the expansion of services.14 The Director of Agriculture, Mr. Alex Holm, supported the principle of a coffee cess, provided that the department controlled expendi- ture from the fund.15 Later the council suggested the estab- lishment of a coffee board, with statutory authority to deal with matters concerning the industry; the board would con- sist of the director of agriculture, the senior coffee of- ficer, and three representatives of the Coffee Planter's Union.16 In the years before the coffee board issue was settled, government continued to finance experimental work on seedlings, pruning, seed selection, grafting and shade. In addition, a Special Coffee Planter's Union and Coffee Consulting Committee was established to publicize various issues affecting the in- dustry. This committee was particularly active and effective 14Hill, Planters Progress, p. 63—64. 15"Rejection of the Coffee Board Bill," East African Standard (30 June 1931), p. 44 16Hill, Planters' Progress, p. 64. 43 1‘.‘£'.V jgt‘Jb .3‘3'Ihu.‘ '{Lum‘ a .m 31 ‘ " .4f'.‘ 7: ;Z ibul»; 903-2101“ .s r"ns 3A .wx‘:gan' A - : n; Egan‘s n‘ 'n~u4u19vop ,d; J..r)d5 nCiLfizL-"M-i'.‘ r . '. L . _ '1: ‘ H4 ‘ ‘4 ”unfit: 'Lirfj :SEI as; \oalA .un: TL-fwu .‘LvnA'gu ." ; 'a PJiflBMIO} so: 5C3 Etfiv”'df ri =-y-_. . c ‘, ;L 312' ,"' LawLL usfsgsisb fits?) 11'? .99330'; "1‘ [V‘um' "m _:_.;‘.r.v':.:-< r in '1..' '11:. L-‘rwivé “4310' Wu :5? r ho \q " ' 1. -'- it . c (3" . pl _ . “V-"V’JT ~d¢ .aarz'Va: ‘. wfil‘n1153 an“ J~nsn1. :7 ¢'_uuu; n 1t s'uifinhu; ”n: c5312qua \ ;uk xalX .1u .aiv:loo:woh 3v ~iénsf;i L94Iifijuj‘ *numt"ngi‘ 1.: J~fl1 beérqul .aasa fisiiou ~dsjas 9H3 L Jevppxa 1.!Luvn .d 'ajsd ” .Anng rd: nor} 3133 1595 03 yfijrod-u; {lehJEJE Uaifi .busud 591190 e .: fmemnali —non bluow based ed: :Yijaubfii an: gnjnxaonoo ezsijsm dttw -io 962393-7oinae an: .51u31aoitns in notosxib out It 3818 'zsiasli'asiloo 9d: 10 esvasanoaotqoz esxfi: baa-.1931} 65.noin3 ,bslntea saw sneak bxsod asiiac 9d; stolen Ixasv 9d: nI .4:mean 139w 16324945115qu saga-«£3 o: bananas: :nsmxuevop \aWZaIA, Ma hm ent-km 430113010: boss .gx-inuzq 993nm; 3:114:me 901199;“: saint) u'znmlfi ”not: .(alssqa 27 in 1928, when its recommendations led to goverment action to improve crop storage facilities at Mombasa, to regulate the sale of fertilizers and pest remedies, and to establish a cen- tral warehouse in Nairobi.17 In 1929 a special officer was attached to the Depart- ment of Agriculture's coffee section for six months to organ- ize a campaign against berry borers. In addition, three tem- porary inspectors and thirteen temporary assistant inspectors were engaged on the campaign, which, with its accompanying in- spection of plantations, "enabled a large number of neglected 18 Two farmers or abandoned plantations to be cleaned up." were prosecuted for failure to carry out instructions. The same year coffee berry disease caused a heavy loss of crops in Sotik and Kericho, while in 1930 plantations suffered con- siderable loss from pests and diseases, as well as drought. The Department of Agriculture emphasized, however, that the "means have been found to exercise a considerable measure of control over most pests and diseases known at present."19 It stressed the proven value of systematic inspections, in— dicating that authority had to be exercised to influence growers to follow the proper disease control measures. In 1930, sixty-three plantation owners were convicted of failing to abide by instructions issued under the Disease of Plants 17DAAR 1928, MOA Library, p. 55—56. 18DAAR 1929, MOA Library, p. 20. ISDAAR 1930, MOA Library, p. 18. )3 no: ~35, *fl‘mf‘f‘nroh J 2"" “13:1. '7’ L- I 1. 3 “-3" -3‘; "3 7" 5d: sisiupox )7 .quw"t ‘- «‘ ;;s‘~ v awrxn'a 0"? 9?”3"M1 ~umv h daiidr+a 9 OJ is: .aaiW'ms' ' “4 LG” p””‘i:13‘”¥ a” a ”5 ’ '5; .: 'E.5d“*&k 151: -316990 udi or nsnabijf 2:1 3- .12: [513‘w7 ' r"' F -n5910 0* adjnom yi; In? nn‘:vc< m;i!t< F ~*a"'v.;;m L; 75am -ms: 5931: .noiiznhs «I .ezszot yrvgw gen‘.44 Kplfianb a sit axoaosqaaj insaaiaab 21EX‘1m5J 59933:fi' has :-nJ. ;n; {1579; -u£ pnkynfiqflosvb aji flviw .doidw apzavmua adj u' nggvuo Jzyw bsnoolpon lo :sdmun spast s tgjdsns" .au:1:;:.:rq 3; noijusqa aromas? ow? 81".qu bsuasls 9d 0: vno;!sjnujq 'vuotusda :c 869 .ano1390132ni duo 23353 c: vtulisi 133 ts~uwaac1q 319w same 10 no; W a buns smaxb quad ~9in? me» am: -noo‘bdx‘élukzhfléififiaiiiq Of?! a: olldw .cnolxsx hns $1332 a: .Msuaf-irthQ If M an 51-94; am: aaci aldsxsbie 5d: ihdi :Iviuufl .bithIflqns Olusluolrck to *‘omsvag eu 9d? ' " Jim on bum! nasd- svsn armed!“ Iglififithb has I309q ieon'xsvo Ioufinoo 3653 pnijsalb 1m .44! voila) o: sxewoxp mink-£4: bush-Yule .0E° 1 m !6- W a“ “m maul 1:! 9mm. 03 ..b. .am‘a‘ .q .Wfla an aim 3m 1 ..9: 4.3.25.1; m: .2921 am” .4811 .‘g‘ .mcflJ non .Q' .. '11" ‘ r ' ' D. II I. “ RH: 28 Prevention (Coffee) Rules. Besides these technical and husbandry problems, a drop in price for coffee in late 1929, led planters to ask the gov- ernment for a special advance to facilitate the maintenance and development of plantations. Farmers argued that they were unable to retain their positions because of the low prices for coffee and the resulting constriction of credit by banks and commercial houses.20 A special committee was appointed by government to investigate the situation of both the coffee and sisal industries. It found that a large percentage of the coffee plantations were heavily mortgaged, and that plant- ers were suffering because the price for coffee in the past season had fallen approximately 5 50 per ton below the pre- vious year's price. The Board of Agriculture, elected mem- bers of the legislative council and ultimately the committee recommended that the government through the Agriculture Ad- vance Scheme, extend short-term financial credit to coffee planters during the 1931-32 season.21 However, the “state of government's finances did not permit the recommendations to be accepted."22 Towards the middle of 1931, the price for superior grade Kenya coffee improved rapidly. Even so, the ZODAAR 1931, MOA Library, p. 7. 21"Report of Facts from various Memoranda of the Board of Agriculture or Figures from various sources," n.d.; and . Minutes of a Meeting of Elected Members Organization, Memorial Hall, Nairobi, 16 January, 1931, Kenya National Archives (hereafter RNA): Department of Agriculture (hereafter Dept. Agric.) C/Coff/O/l. zznaan 1931, MOA Library, pp. 7-8. ..uizfi L) .i-?~ noi1nsv91i an" .’ _;_ 'i.1..;‘::: 5.1-: .-:. -- hi! inuix‘J'uJ saaxij 4.1:) 398 'Jig nflJ .35 03 .;G‘1x g ..g . ‘fI s~xi 1 “clips 1o“ soilq n1 14',- spa-”12:17.1“ nr' . .‘r '1.... .‘ ' 7 <-. mil-“i p . xw ; 0'. 103 fincmnx, 919w you: ,Hn'i' new}: " ;'. - 3 1:5." ' 1 .‘w nuclzwut- bnc uni easing w;£ sfl+ 30 s; isc-f v'~ 'Laod ;;-. 2.: :i u; sldsnu in: aflaafl {A 3 93121;. toilnyx.1caz onxaine-l an: has 552103 a. ba:n;ng a 75 wcvrrfinrn .u_;‘r. A ’.:~amwd rsirzammoo to apsjcauweg u~rr' . zed. o..ui -. .nscaxzngzi 15313 has -3na£4 asdJ Lu: .bsyan::-m {Ithfi oiew aaLLJ'Jnsiq 991100 and dang ”a; :1 as ‘ a; to? 53:13.9:3 BBUkCJQ pniisilpa u~9w 816‘ ~91q ad: wolsd'hoj tag at d yi935m1x01qqs nails} bed nausea -msntb¢§99£9'.srualgoizpa 30 based sdT .unixq.a'1nay anoiv 9933L3!9039d3;!§§3§§131B bun fiancee svfdsdeipsl sdJ lo 219d -hA sisalnniibh and flavounfi :aaanaavoe and 35d: bstnemmuuax asstov D: sibsxa inAoasai? a19$~3woflz bastxa ‘emsdoa soasv waive!” rmn m .noansz §£~1£81 ad: pnixub axesnsiq Anoiapfi 10 n30 BBSLflIM iiddxlnfi Ilsa 3(lll Iodtssasdt WV) ( 91:95 29 crop was classified as "small" due to losses from capsid and mealy bugs, antestia, coffee berry disease, had pruning and handling, delayed flowering, and,in Nyanza, excessive rains.23 By 1930 European coffee planters numbered 931, which was forty-four percent of the total European farm—owning popu- lation. As shown in Table 1, in 1923—24 the increase in the number of growers over the previous year was approximately fifteen percent. A smaller percentage increase took place in the following years up to 1927—28, when the rate rapidly began to increase. Coffee acreage numbered 96,689 in 1930, and,by 1933, there were 102,238 acres under cultivation. Since the mid-19205 the total number of acres under coffee had been second only to maize grown on European farms.24 As recorded in Table 2, the greatest annual increase in acres under coffee took place in 1917. After 1929, the annual per- centage increase in new acres devoted to coffee was extremely small, because of the low price received for coffee, and re- strictions on the crop during the depression; also, several regions had proven themselves unsuitable for coffee produc— tion. The average annual price received for Kenya coffee on the London market fluctuated greatly, as indicated in Figure 1. The highest price received between 1922 and 1933 occurred in the 1924-25 season when coffee obtained Sh. 137 per hundred pound weight for clean coffee. The lowest price received was 231bid., pp. 7, 174. 24DAAR for these years. ~-._. a; '25 biaan me?) read.- 1 lat "- =mz“ an ssiiirasfo saw gear 556 annu1q Esq .oyrs ;n 11181 gl~io. 5 319-4» .spuJ yinsm FS . . . . . “ .anrsx swinasoyw .ssnnvu :;.1': .1i'svcil cevi.eb .pnlibnsn dolflw .15? uiisdmuu xJfir';g ‘siuun Irau.-u3 CE"! yH —uqoq guinwo-rxr” U391x‘!‘ r‘ r'f 1‘ ‘.'C]Jq ‘u01°yj103 an. ad: nj usguuuni afi' E 'LIU- J. .i u. 1 n1 awofla ad .Jdiju' g1+.:7;3':1[.;~;':::q._.i 9.»: its}; 6-3.« 151 at"? £99". away-(1;. 1c aadmun usslq ficax snunuuni JLJULLZTU] iall-ua ' .‘fl::591 R95? 13 filthy-H <1- 2.: 975.? new”; .8:;-"‘3.'3'. '_I.‘ .‘L' arm-9v {‘-;:‘w(;£lo"i ed: 11% .0581 n: 09d.1v sexedmun apnea?» 993103 .easaznni o: nape: .nnissvthnv is: J 39155 8E8.§OJ 919v 919d: .6501 yd\bns 393300 Iebnu 29135 10 stnun 1530: 9d: aOSQI-bgm‘9d3 sonia 2A hs.aun53 nssqozua no awoxp ssibm a: yIno bnonse used had 25392 :11 98591031159141: 33935519 9113 .S aids? r11 sob-mos: ~xsq lemurs eds” ..9!!! :55le .YIEI at 433qu $00: 991100 113an 219mg“ III} 693109 0:! 593an name won «1 9135919421 995N194 -a:«§§b‘ $93565 ID! 56019301 soixq uni .63 to sausaod llama “kw Gin-El tam-1m and pal-sub gore ad: an 850113311: 'jifflima Ii! aidbatucnu analogue“: nevozq find anoipsi W m sea bums win Loam 095st ad? .noi: -\__ - ‘— a—flwg-. 30 TABLE 1 NUMBER OF EUROPEAN COFFEE GROWERS 1922-23 - 1929-30 Absolute In— crease in Percent Increase Number of Number of in Number of Year European Growers Over Growers Over Growers Previous Year Previous Year 1922-23 585 1923-24 671 86 15 1924-25 696 25 4 1925-26 714 18 3 1926-27 749 35 5 1927-28 829 80 11 1928-29 871 42 5 1929-30 931 60 7 Source: Computed from Statistics on Number of Growers in "Coffee and Sisal: Statistics Related to Coffee and Sisal Production and Exports," submitted by Director of Agriculture to Coffee and Sisal In- quiry Committee, n.d., K.N.A. Department of Agriculture C/Coff/O/l. Di 1 '3 an. t 0E~ISQI - E's~ s; ”3cm was: 3733'; m cm :3 "a". «34"qu _- .. ...—..— ~-- ._.- ....— . v“- —— sessionl jasora§ A. rifdlu In ISdeM a} .3 tilt ‘ : *Jfi: zero erswor" 2‘ f.- is.» wrz‘ a. . . 15.2.? 155! auofvai‘; 1.5.1 rank-T" 1.9m 1;: ‘: ‘a-SEEL (:1— 1w I \ ) g:"‘ ...:I V N 1’) Q 1‘ Pu n 1, o (b \q E St 1V8 QS-BSQI Y . . 06 - ICE JE-PSGI . 3.4 mil ID ”13213538 «4023 bsjuqmo" mars-2‘2 ' swims-'12 users has 99330:? ,. "1.612% bus aaisoubcs‘l 15213 has '- 46%” as- mama-am 10 30:99:10 - ”6.9! 5! ”6.13.99531m09 ulup ’- - .I\O\3§o‘0\3 maisonpA QY'H‘J. n ,5". . 7,; .’ . ~‘ ' . , '- . . 4mnrab’m“ ' ~ ' . -' — ' . .’ .{:)’:~ ".I_ . p‘ i "f u a h “47“ 2' as: i O I}. -%.qb,¢ r v. ,. --. ’ 'v r 31 TABLE 2 ACREAGES OF COFFEE ON EUROPEAN FARMS 1907-1933 Year 1907 1914 1916 1917 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933. Source: Acreage 500-600 5,000-5,500 16,000 22,000 27,813 33,813 43,359 52,249 60,054 65,140 68,950 74,662 84,073 90,205 96,689 98,874 100,387 102,238 Absolute In- crease in Number of Acres Over Percent Increase in Number of Acres Over Previous Year Previous Year 6,000 6,000 9,546 8,890 7,805 5,086 .3,810 5,712 9,411 6,132 6,484 2,185 1,513 1,851 38 22 29 21 15 13 NHNQQ Computed from acreage figures in Department of Agri- culture Annual Reports for these years. MOA Library. 4 P. AEQLVN‘I amid ~u;&:1=t.'5a':_-' w;- 333.; ' _ ._H%-r .-- .. -4 4 >>.—. ’ {7.1'1'3’33333'5 an? n‘ igz’aci veaezoni 1n9319€ nr vase?, "-‘x :JIJmui’I n.3, ’-' zodrn'v'c raw." 1551' 19V: taunt uelf '%:H& 159? anol~51€ :uc? i;fi;‘?“1 - (vi - - r., ‘ . r1 ‘ " 31‘ 1 «417-1 35 “ . D (H; "s 71‘! - 19 03?! SS 000‘} Fifi 1591 616‘? 098.8 EIC.V _.‘FC-€ °3‘55_12 ’h ”f ifi¥.£ in ‘ Q '“i g 3 it" i i am 518.1 513.1 QEé.VB ens‘xe 120.03. 'op:.aa 029.33 saa.tt £T0.l8 ao:.oe 233.32 tra.oe ca£.oox 3:1.301 '11 nfiamo not: mum: 'IfliiCIfl Joana! azusluo 8891 9521 30891 1891 $521 5:91 gaozuoa 32 mm 8%. 5me. 83m. Rem. mun—moo <>zwx mom om>_mowm 20020... 2. moEn. kmxm<2 4< H musmflh 483. nN\NNm_ s N m. b s d a I. o M 19 Department of Agriculture Annual Reports for these MOA Library. years. Source: I» I‘ll. - 1f; u .1 ills]! .1 ..-- - ...Ilill’v II; iii..l.ilIlll.lll|vlll. £11.11. 3 0 g 55.5.. E 55... Gas»; .chs» 9.993%, m 93.6.. 3.3.. n3 09598» 3 0a. 301}!th m can as ‘e’ site “a ’2' 3* g 3 _ _ r - -1 3:34-}-1 . . .--..ICIIJIIIIIt , ... . . : . , p . .;_ ... ...m. ...... a. om. mm. 343. 35.0.. 999% 953. 95%. «539.. 'I. .‘t‘lllllldl’lylll :1 'Il 'litiiet 7...— , 33 , TABLE 3 EXPORTS OF KENYA COFFEE Increase or Decrease in Year Tons Number of Tons Value L Over Previous Year 1909 8—1/2 236 1910 31-1/2 23 1,068 1911 61 29-1/2 2,995 1912 104-1/2 43—1/2 5,765 1913 151—1/2 47 11,071 1914 275 123—1/2 18,502 1915 389 114 21,738 1916 301-1/2 - 87—1/2 17,297 1917 827-1/2 526 46,028 1918 - - - 1919 3,577 2,749-1/2 244,468 1920 5,319 1,742 392,507 1921 4,949 -370 379,107 1922 3,895 —1,054 279,722 1923 6,953 3,058 491,416 1924 7,920—1/2 967—1/2 635,618 1925 7,363 -557-1/2 823,901 1926 7,046 -317 747,195 1927 10,490 3,444 1,140,293 1928 10,580 90 1,119,448 1929 6,654 -3,926 702,760 1930 15,504 8,850 1,426,869 1931 12,290 —3,214 986,429 1932 13,795 1,505 1,213,715 1933 12,848 -947 831,187 For the years 1909 to 1921 the figures refer to the fiscal year ended March 3lst. For the years 1922 to 1923 the figures refer to the calendar year. Source: M. P. Hill, glgnters Progress: The Stor of Coffee in Kenya,(Nairobi: Coffee Board of Kenya, 19565, p. 185. «N ,. I.“ d 30157 55 3185? 33110; AYLBH 15 BTEUQXS 10 2&5913n1 n; edonosa arnT 10 .udmun :uoivaxl :qvo xseY ‘9 S\l—f .xf-ce VF ;\-«{SI #11 S\1‘Y8 - 338 :\;—e¢v.s 33?,1 _ . ggé- " anoT \L-a :\1-I€ 18 5\1-h01 i\[-ICI EVE eaz SXIHIO! s\L-vas ‘9 FY€.E 218.! 239.9 use! 34 Shs. 64/ - in 1933. The number of tons of coffee exported from Kenya in- creased steadily from 1909 until 1921-22, when a temporary setback took place. Nevertheless, from 1920 onwards, coffee exports had the highest value of any single agricultural com- modity exported and contributed approximately one—third to all agricultural export revenues.25 Even so, the volume fluctuated, as recorded in Table 3. Between 1929 and 1933 the European coffee industry suffered from low world prices, a decline in the annual per- centage increase in the number of new acres under coffee, and decreases in the number of tons exported annually. These were mainly indications of the world-wide depression. During this time European growers pressured Nairobi to give greater assistance to the industry. Simultaneously, Nairobi was pres- sured by the Colonial Office to initiate coffee production among Africans. African Coffee Growing in Uganda and Tanganyika Until the mid-19305, coffee production in Kenya was reserved exclusively for Europeans,and indigenous people questioned this practice. For example, according to C. M. Dobbs who served as Provincial Commissioner of Nyanza, groups living near the Uganda border frequently asked why Ugandans were allowed to grow coffee while they were not permitted to zslbid. L'. ’91 L: ' \&6 .80: -9: ; n93 to}: ME'gfiqxt saiiow .. . '3 :1 xwer“ HnT 'glf.“.‘~3fi‘.“l”“' ,- ...le.‘ ' {5“}.391 :f‘ . u v n7.~.~: 2r 5 ~ '93 b5?! .10 -.'4n ‘9 4. 0 ’ r 3 .2: “}U“H .un:lu J“CJ 3353154 -mcr IC”MJILU':CE . .i.; fr' " J' Irwuv‘4 st} snfl «swoqxs u: i'ffl!‘:flfl V.nuum(x"2r95 vu‘uc ~~n H1: : “IOMXJ vfiibom Silt-'10? 3. :, ‘ ":—: ' v“. 1‘ : .i»;-_.~. 1:, .‘l ' :41} n. . M". ‘-...".u 1'75 .115 nLui‘ rt Habljt'f :; .bn16L13U12 YlJRUbni esikc: us g't X “1 “fit bus wit: neawtea ‘15q launns 9d? "5 nfljiU . 2 .223113 5...} we- me}: haveiiur has .931305 ~qbnu 29195 wen in [squad and n1 'en;:uui sysinso easflT .vilscnns befluoqxa ans: 30 asauxm adj n! Peacs~se“ paianfl .noiaeszqsb skin-bluow ad) 30 2nor:s.xun; vintam 919w masses: svip 03 ideallu baxuaassq 5199319 ussqnzud omi: aid: ~ssxq.acw'idnxlsfi .yiduoaasslumxa .gutaubni ed: 03 senesciaas ée£§nabozq sofiios-efiiisrni~oi 991110 Isinoio: on: yd beige .sasoiilA QGOML W pg a; 231sz 991301353135 mm at @131qu ”3309 coups:- ad: 11an Vii‘ib‘j gfligp5£515 has.gusaqoaa! so! i4l'ltulexo bsvxszsz - {134? ._J v3 3.. and” 101’ .W .14: bmouaeup W‘Vm ’59 W atoms-b “no: 0:19 addoa 1' ‘ ”Wyn-om: “Wain-Mandy: 35 do 50.26 Also, Kikuyus regularly raised the issue, as exempli- fied in the Kikuyu Central Association list of grievances and requests presented to Governor Grigg in late 1925.27 It was difficult for London to reconcile coffee growing by Africans in Uganda and Tanganyika with the de facto prohibition on in- digenous cultivation in Kenya. ' In accordance with the colonial policy of making Uganda Protectorate self—supporting, cash crops, including coffee, were introduced.28 In 1904, distribution of arabica coffee seedlings was begun in Buganda, and in 1911-12 several hundred pounds of seedlings were distributed to the local people in Mubende, Toro, Ankole and Bugishu Districts, while, at the same time, European estates adopted the crop. Renewed effort in the 19205 extended coffee growing to Ankole and Kigezi in Western Uganda, where a few nursery centers also were established. In these places each grower sun-dried his crop and then hulled it in traditional mortars. Government especially encouraged and gave financial support to coffee growing in Bugishu. By 1922 government 26HMG, Joint Select Committee on Closer Union in East Africa, Vol. II, H. C. No. 156, (London: HMSO, 19315, p. 528. 27C. C. Rosberg, Jr. and J. Nottingham, The M th of 'Mau Mau': Nationalism in Ken a (Nairobi: East Africa Pub- IisEIng House, 19335, p. 93. 28Wrigley, Crops and Wealth in Uganda, p. 131. 29A. S. Thomas, "Arabica Coffee History and General"; and N. S. Haig, "The Native Coffee Industry in Western Province," in J. D. Tothill, ed., Agriculture in Uganda (London: Oxford University Press, 1940), pp. 315 and 325-31 respectively" hi . _ , 69 -1fqnshe F .sue" fin‘ “4<.:" ‘17"le auv“1,¥ .81A .0! ob has EwfiwnUGiXQ in 1 x . ' '.22'. [p-- «- ”KFJJA 9d: at 5:13 Tr 25w :1 ‘.ESti 4;.: a. upth u x‘i . 1* cnér andq 81890991 annzzwid 1c kniMCi‘ 551.0- uf'":‘~n1 a: "*,nu_ 101 Jlualiith J1 an nn‘:r Jinx. ‘jFUJ7.J .u ..lm n41 Wflfipit bar =bnng; a; r. . '.13.V. ,u; auoas Jpz h Pnixuu -;\'-3.1“» '1-.~-..' ._ ‘.ii:m Honzfic~fv a 01 911133.13; ‘at‘cvy .4: .1 .' ~.':'I'- 1w; jt':~3_~i~. _::s:uJ.‘9301’1 5013.531! .. , .. r i; , . . . garnsus :3 h‘ijgll ' ,, .013, r. .nwwv3c13u1 anew .sszios 1519;92 S!-‘£?l a: ‘ s .abnsrifl n1 IL, L as» 'priitssa “3310" 15:05 and 31 irfudtx‘elb 315w apniYJuravir aaasoq bsxbnufi .9iidw .enaijaiu udeipua pas 940XnA .c.u? .3Lnsdu? ui slqooq bowsnsfl .qpxa an! hesqobs 3535339 n59anu3 .smij fflrs ed: 35 .bns sienna o: pniwoup 553300 bsbnszxe aOSQI 9d: r1 $30339 0215 aassgeoéyzesspn we? 5 azsdw .sbaspu 510:23w a1 1:991! aid fisdzbéngn,xuypap dose asoslq seed: «1 .bodeildsiao 939w ex.e¢sitdm Lenoiilbszs «1 J1 bellud nan: has qoxs Lainnfinxi swig has bepnauoone vilstosqao susmnxevov :aoihzsvdé (flit 2a uflsiyefl ni putuoap .aaaoa o: iuoqque 4’t?‘fil 8 .K -565 ‘. ‘Iumw .0 in Jl‘v .o-oaq y31¢19v1av II ‘1 1‘ £ 1‘ x r 36 had established twelve nurseries in the southern part of the district, from which seedlings were issued without charge. A hand pulping machine was erected for use by the growers free of charge and run by the local native council, with the advice of the district commissioner and visiting agricultural officers. The following years additional pulpers were con- structed by the local native council and individual chiefs. Since these factories only undertook pulping, the individual grower had to dry the wet parchment at his home. Buying and selling were left to private traders. Not until 1930, when a full-time agricultural officer was posted to the district, were steps taken for more rigorous control of planting. In- dividually owned nurseries were prohibited; a method of se- lecting cultivators evolved; and a system established whereby the chiefs assisted the agricultural instructors. In 1931 the Bugishu Coffee Scheme, financed by the native administra— tion and under a European manager, was inaugurated to handle coffee processing and marketing. Processing was done with- out charge to the owner, and initially authority was given to the provincial commissioner to advise the board.30 30A. J. Kerr, "The Arabica Coffee Industry in Bugishu," in Tothill, ed., Agriculture in U anda, pp. 331, 339; Ian R. Wallace, "Peasant Production of Arabica Coffee in East Africa: Technical and Economic Studies in Bugishu, Meru and Kilimanjaro," (M. S. thesis, Makerere University College, University of East Africa, 1968), pp. 118, 134-135; and Stephen G. Bunker, "Forms and Functions of Government Intervention in a Uganda Cooperative Union," paper presented at the Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the African Studies Association, Denver, November 31’ ‘f d "!30 n"?u'r s o»; .1 tst'anwv , ;-n: Lenexion389 fad .3T‘Ehrlo tuoifs‘i»: u ‘. ,‘ . , w 1', we? min"... .012 .39111211') ariwovp adv 1d gap 2 ' F-‘ ‘ a;+ .-‘nsm iniqiuq bnsfl A 9th 11:1 W: .J luau-L): :‘ v‘ ;_;. .2 ‘ , . J ‘ ’.‘ ‘.‘: '1 H .- r.‘.:: .‘4 9313 .zxu1 [12,- ';. raj .- 113: as.» alarm-1' ":1“ " 311* 3‘1 :1‘ o'uvhs 4'02.) ”aid RLQLJD .; 111).: ;'m\\_' (run ' : , I e r 5‘ .51 "ahii’fv- 44191.13 11.1 Liv Ibrfi i L :mi .JL) 9': 1 ,‘If-H is: ' rd; '1; .;'.~*.'fi:.':?‘= Laufli‘sibnj ‘34:; ..juxiqlucl ," "mm: _‘L:l"‘ 8115:6121}? och :1 95.1153. has (M‘YUE .emon a;fi ‘L znwmn.:nq 33% an: 132 :1 bad tewcxg nerfw .00?! Bum: : -.7 raj‘giSJ-J Six-‘32!” as. ave-9w {unilat- .3:ix:aib 9:13 of 25320.; saw r";- it;:«; lozuuisizps 931121—11UI .. -n! .pnransig io iodine: sue-10911 9104:: we} mu'ri aqejz 51m! ~93 30 [mm s :basxidhldlq mow Ioheanm benwo yLIsubiv‘zb Yea-mew Wish!” m I has zwlovo Ixossvuiua pawnsi 1581 “I W 31:131th ed: bedalass 3191'er In: «extaim‘ ”Wm sud mm .mu-aa 591103 Offsit‘lua 9m sfbnmi o: ‘ tin .mm “0:101:13 I '19an L 15 not: -M£¥fim m M .W has plum-9301c; 293100 a: «961$ “ISM!“ 13W NI am pm as spans :mo “.31mdw w a) m1aclmo [Iimdvoaq 9d: . .408 ' ' '. . ‘ ' "..DO.ILH110T 51 , W _ - ' 1 ' . maus- .995an " ,4 ‘ , ’ , j -' hm 1531mm? ,M #:9113344) ' -‘ ' in Imaging“! tutu sane?" ’ ~~m 5: 7556“; m .220 an IV 3:515qu3 _ 1m. Wmm amt-em on: to pauses. .(L-U qq .Ifei .3- € . ( 'AZLI x: {any :(..:_ utdlcnfivflg YV’YJCJIIH’K 37 In Tanganyika the government accepted coffee produc- tion by Africans, and later it became involved in controlling production and marketing. Between 1893 and 1896, missionaries in Tanganyika introduced arabica coffee in Bukoba and on the slopes of Kilimanjaro. The mountain's lower and medium eleva- tions were dominated by European-owned estates, and although there was no definite line of demarcation, African holdings clustered on the upper reaches. The German government en- couraged African coffee production by exempting growers of coffee, as well as of wheat and European potatoes, from cer— tain forms of communal labor. In 1916 there were 14,000 African-owned coffee trees on Kilimanjaro which by 1922 had increased to 125,000. From 1922 onwards, the British mandate government also interested itself in African coffee growing and posted European supervisors to the area.31 Dar—es-Salaam had responded to pressure from European growers who feared that the African-owned plants would be a source of pest and disease infection. African leaders also recognized the need for the control of diseases, and in 1925 they formed the Kilimanjaro Native Planters Association "to ...[enable] Africans growing coffee to organize their own in- 32 dustry." After the association had successfully purchased 31A. J. Wakefield, "Native Production of Coffee on Kilimanjaro," The Empire Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 4, 14 (April 1936), 97. 32Wallace, "Peasant Production,“ p. 152. Changes in the aims and structure of the coffee industry are given in R. J. M. Swynnerton and A. L. B. Bennett, All About 'KNCU' Coffee (Moshi.Tanganyika: Moshi Native Coffee Board, 1948), PP. II-22. if “ "prLWU u' 4: u n nuns *r‘"' 5' 0/ .ixvnsfinsT HI . >'4'v _‘;v<;f_\ f’ 1 [\JI‘,’ L3“, {1] “12.": l V , . " :‘ “A . 3‘. \ 3."? [1:41)‘ Yd HOLS f--1610i33_0 .8 ;; 2J1 QB! nusm’ t .wr 7wJWrn has notioubOIQ anJ no has nan“ufl 61 rui‘u: t“ 7" w‘ .W"2c; s£;vuaunsT n1 -5v919 murbsm has ,ew‘: a n'n .uad ‘~" . Yn;er;1ix )0 asqvl: nuucflgls Fun .asrr';u bfifiwn>rfn”W: Q vr .Arsnzmcn Jzew 2191: apntbfod nsuiwkn ‘"OijnDZchg : n . 9;;nlint on esw cash: "as Jnsmcierup armIBU fin 1;)EEI 1219- sfi: rs bsxssaulo to eleven? rn ijqu.vn 3n n r4".'x u, sullen nasr; A bspuzuoc fist: moi? ‘aso.;'::xq new. . L1 73m ‘quiv- 70 ..r. (law as media: 800.01 919w 912d: 619$ n7 .debt :Lnummvnvko emnc: nth: bad Sifll Yd doidw oxatasmiiix no 39513 99:10: hsnwo-n5333?8 9m datfl‘a‘ at": gunman 32391 1301'! £00,891 0: Lersxant 993M?!) mlml’sifi at new: 59380293113: oele :nsmuevor “.m-w 90 Was naeqmua beta-.crv- has “new mi “mg a max and MIIDB-as-Iofl 5 ad mm may ed: 3511: 591391 oflw 83910019 ”It «at.» m “hill-33:2 “sooth has 329:; 30 connot- m iii 39 em fit Wu CI! to} been 011:) besinpocsx e3" Hakim 83M #11“! tantalum ed: heme? {94.1 It '2“: 4- ”W 15...? .IaIIIIw“ fii séfim Id: to ”31350138 bus was In: gm .8 J .A has not-"‘Mcwa .H .L J! Idf’ll filial xlegnr- -°unuoosfifii 9.2105 :s-IT”.qq 3 0 D23 0 O C-:' O GIT-2‘ C i 38 spraying equipment and chemicals for communal use, the govern- ment decided to involve itself in controlling production and marketing, due to the declining quality of the crop. Official- dom stipulated that every African grower had to join the asso- ciation through one of the subsidiary societies and that all coffee had to be marketed through the Kilimanjaro Native Co— operative Union, which was formed in 1932. A European manager of the 20,000 member union was appointed by the government.33 European Views on African Coffee Production in Kenya In Kenya, when the topic of African coffee growing was raised, both settlers‘ and administrators' responses tend- ed to follow a set pattern. They argued that coffee was so threatened by pests and diseases that any neglect in cultiva- tion greatly increased the possibility of total crop disaster; such destruction would be immanent, they thought, since African cultivators would not have the means nor the organiza- tional capacity to deal with pests and diseases, and super- vision of small African owned plots would be too expensive. The Europeans also claimed that permitting native Kenyans to grow coffee would make it difficult to detect theft of coffee berries from Europeans. Furthermore, the opponents maintained that the good reputation of Kenya coffee on the world market would be jeopardized by indigenous production of the crop, since they assumed African grown coffee would be of inferior 33Wakefield, "Production Kilimanjaro," pp. 99, 103. t -p.~v 1);.) 4,: .33“ 14.77113: '. ' irnouu bf" Jugwagiupe pnkysxqa 5” “J43,Lhoxo idi'lul7“fib h. i=23: -vla',; t: bunioob Jnom ~fsi51110 .cr1~ af' .C ngfrup pa;a-1)sb :;: oJ sat .pnjdsaxsm -naan 9n: sic; u- L tel gr . ,.LEA VIBVt '5dn Suislugija mob lip 35d: Lac a “Jrnor IIIiCt.m = 3:! 1* one figuzjdj nokisio ~06 sr_35“ Vu‘f’nlillk 21; fl TLlnu 'ajnnzzn so 03 bad 993103 mspsmsn HBOQI ufi ..EE. 2 i. . ""' T"Anw .uoinu swijsxuqo f 9 . . . ‘.3n:wn stop nn‘ id bsjnlo.Je cEw u;-nu Isdmsm 00L.OS sun 20 rm" -:' " umpfifi. rm awr'h 3153(1ou h--- _ - 3‘L”."‘..‘1L‘L°139‘Lb_‘235 pniwo1prssfiitu :ssfxlfi io TLUCJ an: asdw .sgmsu Ll ~bns$ assnoqes: ‘2103513ainimbs ban 'aznlrlsa fijod \bQELSI saw as as? 693109 36d? bang}; gen? .nxsjjeg Jud 6 WCIIO} on be airmen .111 seem“ was an: aaaseaib has 8359:; go; 59:19:59de usisssfb {go-as It”; in ¥1££wl§m 01!: 5935919311 viissxp not: again .W 1nd: .3595”; 9d biuow noijouueeb done mxiaepgn wamw‘m my! 10:: Much! azoiavnlno menu W9 by; .mM Na; easel; “312 last: 0:) vjkaeqso Leach I'm 39 ”W W “9 ”9156 WI ted: Innis «74"5' 'j dam“ If 1.2.13.an — V. -___.__ ____._———-f—.'. _ -—- ‘_—_. __—__. ‘1 39 quality. At times they also contended that the price of coffee fluctuated, but wages to laborers were assured and thus the latter provided a more stable income. Regardless of these arguments, the underlying concern derived from the per- ceived potential loss of laborers. Settlers feared that viable economic alternatives for Africans would‘diminish the supply of laborers and force the rate of wage labor up. The issue of coffee cultivation by Kenyan Africans was continuously raiSed in official commissions, committees and conferences, especially in the 19205, as government re- assessed the colony's economic situation. The East African Commission of 1925, headed by W. G. A. Ormsby-Gore and whose terms of reference included the recommendation of steps nec- essary to improve African economic development, considered both arabica and robusta coffee cultivation by Kenyan blacks. The commission classified robusta coffee, grown by Ugandans and Tanganyikans, as a hardier and more easily cultivated crop which yielded more consistently than arabica, which it maintained "must be regarded as essentially a crop for the European producer." According to the commission's report, "in all circumstances...it would be unwise for the present to interfere with the policy of prohibiting the growing of arabica coffee by natives in Kenya until more data regarding the results of the experiments now being undertaken in the Kilimanjaro and Bugishu areas are forthcoming." This call for more information seems to have been used as a delaying tactic. Yet. the commission proclaimed, "we are of the opinion that, 30 3;_14 ad: Jfi.‘ twhn- “U; :efh ”q” 5K1? 3A .ijlsup Er- newness 9194 avaifiunq r .szu t u ‘bs sufnuii 333103 10 assinurysi .va . a,“ '« g- F nu '.-, tfij‘t; udfi aufld -.ag r}. 3.11 b;:' an Liaun'. ‘1.';39u-u u»; .e'numupzs seen: ”I: ft jnx' cairn: -13 . a; ..r~.;.n. 3. .i i .AIJnsicq beviso . tiEQra s"; d: nlr‘z s , - .é'g'i 'r‘ :;»L.nu‘filjs vtmonoas :w ; 9:1‘ any It: 9 Lnu‘sxszods! 3L snsoirifl neqnnx .E vs; '_f°l., 'leo' i“ u;aa§ 9d? aaejjgumo: \"rrieaimmf I. ~s' 1' :xt'fn (fauou unrjnoo P.» ~9n :ramniu up 39 .2099i )fi: rL uiL-£usaa9 .33539191600 has a] neon’u‘: ies-. sn‘r .rzo.i;.-x—:.m., c-w..).~.t.ns {uh-2’; 9:53 basses lb saodw bar. 9300~\_'Jam0 .f. .f‘. .41 yd batman .6283 30 noissimmj ~nsu agent 30 florisbnmom an: bebumni somqnisa '10 ans: Beneficiaries dnfimdfsvsb oinnouaos’ M3111}. evo'xqmr o: vzsaae .efiofid dismal yd mnavmmo 39229: Inudm has ssids'rfi flied mbflifi'ktmw «when m finfitenxo noiaammoo art's“ WM @1239 m has 1015:”! I as ,amsfir'msmxs'r bms ,. ._ ,, , at! as W fimuhoxq moqozua " # &m It mow 31..im0239 £15 at“ A... 40 where the spread of disease can be controlled by the Agricul— tural Departments, native production of robusta coffee should be encouraged."34 However, further support for robusta production by Kenyan Africans was not forthcoming, although the introduction of robusta coffee among European growers received serious con— sideration in 1926, especially in areas where arabica did not grow well. Robusta was discussed at a special November 1926 meeting of the Kipkarren Association of the Coffee Planters Union, which was attended by the senior coffee officer and a representative of the union's council. The settlers of Uasin Gishu District urged that they be allowed to import robusta plants for a trial. It was agreed that the director of agri- culture would be asked to start an experimental plot in the district, which would be under the control of the senior cof- fee officer. But, further discussions by the government with the Coffee Planters Union resulted in the conclusion that "the Highland areas were not likely to prove favourable to the growth of this type [of coffee] and there appeared to be a risk of damaging the reputation of 'Arabica."'35 European anxieties about African planters influenced the decision not to test robusta. This fact is revealed in the report of the Coffee Conference in June 1927. The growing 34Report of the East Africa Commission, pp. 35-36. 35DAAR 1926, pp. 13, 172. - .‘itt 1‘: <1 Infs. '. .1 w» ‘aa-aptfi to “react 963 ozeflw Lf' a. w. '23 gjfffl'f :u nH:'?F.glfl an 'rr .e‘dsmfixsqso L610: ii“.rwpezuoane ed I; Ko‘a:v:31q hrafF w 1" ‘iv .r; IAJ“‘LH ,Ievswofl nolfsJECJJn; cw, hu'ofi‘Ls .prlthfisnt. 3.: ¥hW euaoiziA “Lynsx ~00: an:;ln; bovine: 319 amp IFVU“'II 2 “WE :ofdoo sJaudox 30 3w: 1‘; CdeSiE 51.nv 'x TL ~- ..Lsi“ua. 3;“. n? 10:3sxsbba RKQI TBJM¢vo£ iaiwvc— $ 3n we...vaib P-z gfgbdpfi .Iisw woxp 82330514 99110; n9~ r HQ'-L‘WUE’W nuztsxqix 9““ io pnijssm a bns Isoli?o cn’iéy tainaa’vn: rd rhbnofins sow dstdw .noinfl niesu do aisinnsa sdT .Linango v'xsxnu and lo avkisinssszqsu siaudoi axoqmi u* bsvoiis 9d (ed: 1513 began snixsaia udeio ~ixps 10 10339115 ad: 35d: 699195 25w :1 .lslx: a to: aanslq add 01 boiq isiaembzeqxs as 3153: on bale: ed bluow exujlua ~ioo reinse-9d3~io iamdanu'sds Isbnu ed quow dordw ,30f33Iib dalw'ihemzzmep an: yd ‘anulaaunarh 1mm} .388 .1991110 99‘! 1713173! udbdslbmo wan: heal-yea: miss: new“? 933300 9:13 ofeldsemn: 9qu 0:2 yum; do; use «use may" 9113“ 41 of robusta and Liberica in districts already established as coffee areas, which meant the European highlands, was opposed by the delegates. A major argument was that "the success of inferior types would almost inevitably be followed by cultiva- tion by Natives in the Reserves, the proper supervision of which cultivation would be practically impossible."36 The conference urged government to continue its op- position to coffee growing by Africans mainly because of the great difficulties which would be encountered by European plantation owners to control diseases.37 In the meantime, cultivation of arabica by Africans had been discussed at a conference held at the Colonial Office in January 1926. This meeting led to the Joint East Africa Board's defense of European settlers in Kenya against any pos— sible change in current policy. In the summer, representa- tives of the board and the Colonial Office met to discuss the East Africa coffee industry. Major Ormsby—Gore of the Colonial Office talked about coffee production in the Kilimanjaro area and claimed that "there was no intention of conducting similar experiments elsewhere and the Government would prevent uncon- trolled cultivations." He concluded that African production of arabica "should be strictly confined to the two areas viz: that on the higher slopes of Kilimanjaro in Tanganyika and 36"Coffee Conference Opens," East African Standard (June 25, 1927), p. 57A. 37"Results of the Coffee Conference," East African Standard (July 2, 1927), p. 23. ‘ {If ‘ jay 1 ' ._ 'l “" x ; fl: 931d inns ijdC/‘J 30 j;.,. ...» . — 1.5.. 7 1:11.! 5a.; 2‘12... Tzft‘w‘ .asau 9033-1;- 5 .; . ' . . ' if‘mff r) ;' - ' 3936994181) 5.1.1 yd ‘ -1[» - -’F;:. »r_ LJW b .'1 m >331: zoixeinl I a1 .*'~.-:"‘;.; 5 : - ‘ ‘ ‘. 1:. ‘ f:"l‘?BV. {(1 nm ‘1 '77 a: I» 1 ' 2 1 3.“ " 1... '4 set. 15‘“ :luo down ”if; .-.‘ .‘1 '_,'.‘ .ZJ.J . .? 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T011 .1?‘ nciuaoq 353,4.“ 2:: 5'5 my 37:; ;--:r:.:.- 9d bluuw .‘CUIJNA; Y:$J11uull"£0 3591;] L .aazaae a ;(-J. . ensnwo noiJaJflsiq anboxilfi yd SWJJAL.7 fa n':isvivuuo .9m2“655m an: «I 591310 lsiroioD 9d; 16 bled annexeiLco u 1; baaauoalb need bfd 531135 3253 JnioL an: o? be! pniasem einT .éiél Visunnb n: -aoq Yflfi janisps aynsx niraaeiisoa naeqoxua 1o sanaiab s'bzsoi $311639qu: .Iamnme 9d: 111 .xgoiloq 111511513 :11:- spastic oldie red: 2811:1215 01.3911: 931110 1511:0103 ad: has bzsod 3.1:: 30 nevi: mimic!) ad? 2313 ”OD‘WNFSO amt-u! .flm ”no: 591131; 33.53 am oikfnsni-lba 93:1 ni- nob-1mm “3109 suede bails: 93.1330 161.32“: mum 30 Manual: an :51: 01.5.1" and: bonnie has 41951;: vnm than am” on bu 0;“qu aiming” ‘71! 42 that in a similar position on Mount Elgon in Uganda."38 Sub- sequently, the issue of coffee growing by indigenous farmers was raised in 1929 at the Conference of Governors of the East African Dependencies which was convened to discuss policy co- ordination. In regard to coffee growing the conference con— cluded that "the growing of Arabica coffee by the natives should certainly be discouraged and possibly prohibited."39 The Governor of Tanganyika did not agree, but did express the opinion that coffee growing by Africans in areas of European settlement in Tanganyika should not be encouraged. The same year Kenya's settler-dominated Agricultural Commission, when reporting on Kikuyuland, set forth its views on coffee growing as related to African agricultural develop- ment. It supported a policy of encouraging food crop produc- tion, from which the surplus could be sold, rather than cul- tivation of non-edible cash crops, even though the latter might bring higher monetary returns. This conclusion was based on the argument that the yields of non-edible crops were subject to drought and the returns fluctuated according to market conditions; although the same problems affected food crops,they did not mention it. The commission stated: 38Joint East Africa Board, "Notes of Conference between Representatives of the Colonial Office and the Joint East African Board held at the Colonial Office, 20th July 1926," Colonial Office (hereafter CO) 533/629, No. XF 5304. 39Conference of Governors of the East African Depen- dencies 1929: Summary of Proceedings (London: Waterlow and Sons, n.d.) p. 19. ~ch '.. "MON n: ~uz=f arur” - M. £1“; '.Jxmia 5 at Jan: Jusmzu “imf‘udh‘ :5 WJ.'. : T‘»* :- "a! 3d: .ylinsupas flag? 2d~ i0 ?:'..:vc* in runs .120 "" f: ".V‘ an Deals! law -00 ys'Foq 32H3~ ‘ ~J iflflfiVJC1 r.a ’: Jw 30:' aonsueo nanrriA ~fmu anus"! rm?" '—.J 1:114, ‘n-"T r- ’3: kHz. .. .Fu; :snk’oxo aevzjnn : y .W 991-03 23 -2-3 :w r:;oru 2.)" Jen: bsbnis ii".bejidiH.-. deieaoc bun Eon='wuar‘b 2c "tailing: iizone -ud1 aeeque E rud .osjps Jur é.p bAiVREERHT io Ionuvvo? «HT CBOQO'ZL': ‘10 “3.5.9123 ni ans-zir'fil. .353 tflimwu 23130:: 15:13 noiulqo .hopstgou;u 3d Jon b “d? sfiiywegnnT a; 1n9m923322 lsxu31uoiipfi b535nimob-191133; .'an9X deem 5mg; anT rawsiv 3:: ddzo? as: .bnsfuyuXLX no rnlsuoqst «adv .roitetmmo; -qusvsb [exujfaairps nsotuifl o: heistsr as pniwoap 951300 no -adbozg gore boo} 93k951uoano io yeiloq s boixoqque :I .Jnsm -Ia5 flfidérlsdéiir.filoa.$d biuoa aathua ads doldw mo~¥ .nol1' :33f51.§fl#ddgbadi £309 .aqors fleas sidlBo—non 10 noifsvi: ibkindfefifénseaidfl? .asIBSoa uttasflom xsdgid pnlad Jdpzs >€§§j§§§d§§¥§1flifi;}o abloéy ad: 33d: innmupus 5d: no beasd -s31§§§§§;5fgg *'3§ — Data’s: ed: in: sugaozb ad :sotdua 939w 7 ~ . gififiidlfliq‘liih'inirneuodall zcnaljlbnoo asxxsn 01 1 MW“? .3: W151“: «on .... _ »;¢~ . * . . Mon“ ,‘5_-A .v- .. - ‘ ' ‘ .,7 ~ . » '-1303noaoxqsa ,vg- asses asalxifi ’gaitio Isinoloa .. 3. Qt 43 Undoubtedly the native, seeing and perhaps working in the European coffee plantations, does begin to think of growing coffee, and probably has formed an exaggerated idea of the profits attaching to it. Yet, for good reasons, the administration has discouraged the growth of coffee and in a few cases where bushes have been planted the owner has been induced to remove them. The situation is thus unsatisfactory, because the administra- tors have no legislative sanction to prevent the growth of coffee in the Native Reserves, while the natives who are in practice de- barred from growing coffee, have a grievance in that they know it is permitted to Africans in adjacent territories. The coffee planters of Kenya feel very strongly that native cul— tivation of coffee should not be allowed and the Commission recognizes the force of their objections.40 The commission report then proceeded to give the usual arguments against coffee production by Africans. Nevertheless, the Agricultural Commission resolved it was best not to dis- criminate on the basis of race. Rather, they proposed a meas— ure which would have the same effect. Small-scale production could be discouraged, they reasoned, by the imposition of a high license fee, which had been advocated by the Coffee Planters Union to provide funds for research. The Report of the Commission on Closer Union in Eastern and Central Africa quoted passages from the Ormsby—Gore Com- mission Report acknowledging the poor standard of cultivation in African reserves and the lack of agricultural services to indigenous cultivators. To illustrate the difference between Kenya and other East African regions the commission, headed by 4oCPK, Re ort of the A ricultural Commission (Nairobi: Government Printer, October 1929). P. 34. uvLfiqu z. 2".12 .9 lb#“ an? '.(93£u:;uU .9413:c:rs‘1 ue'tcr IiJT'1-t art '_ .‘ixzsw nus .9siln: :71w,.; 3' “f #1 s1 u'ued 2306 .‘fi 131—15? coffin-«.15 :9 t - ,7 W“. .2. ‘1 ”4101.1 boo; moi .JJI .3- 01 pnrz‘2-rh a :*'r’ 9d? 59;.‘:x‘a, ézr 11*F1‘;iulfib~ w"? .c-féssx - dz 3.» . v - . ni Cflf 3:13 -. :2 'x : an: nr)‘.t “ 4« (‘1’? f‘: 4 ' i ‘r.("’ " ‘ -:‘.:1.! A N“ Z: . ‘. .31"? .73 (Li I’.’ 9 " .‘ r r‘ -‘ "T.',:Tif 21‘! oar'ic' J .‘ fl)f‘wr‘> r . « nnra,1 1: n 1:5nL; sw’1s.p'wv; Cu wvnf dTJj .Huilfikfli 9v33sfi edj mi 35.3.: It dJMC'g Li) ~nb 917-11.; ni 9'15 052'!» 2‘37’30“; 11H almw eixsvaixg n are} .993339 "PAW“"Q ruyi b91155 annatliS 0.3 sf ? imxsq 31 1' 32F; yJ‘: 3rd: 3; 3"3-ur£:; 95;: ‘ ~3n1 .nuixnjirwsJ jzsxscbs n; -Luu evijnn J; : yiLAoWJa av ie~i <;nex in fine bewcfis u ‘;n nlun" gilu: ‘t rnfzbvif died: in oszq' an: as: nr.:s1 N;F“mené en: t .2101. )uLuo isueu ad: svip (J Lubbsuozq nun: txoqai nnizazmnv: sflT .aeoiedssteM .an521135 yd acidosborg es}&au Saflisyr e‘fiemugin «16 0;: jot-rdaeo‘ saw :1 5991039: atekacizwmoi') immlu-nnpfi ad: -asem s beeaqoaq 23d: .1sdisfi .995: is steed an: no sfisnrmixo aolisuhdaq sleet-rum ..meéie me an. even biuow doidw 92w 5 3;¢ aok!}eaqm1 533 2d bluoasst yen: .bopoiuooeib ed blue: afliiufi and 2d2§a§5a0Vfi6 need bad daxdw .991 our 9511 dpiu . C 9 . 61335539! 19! shim! abivoaq 0: min!) auannbm man Wm {538615 as 09qu an“: 30 ”aged sd'r i: sflfisflbiillfillhlit be:onp_ aOISSA 1&13093 has ;«,w 415 . 3109's noiaaim r V d nnoL11A a; _r_______________ri 44 Hilton Young, pointed out that cultivation of arabica coffee by Kenya Africans was not in practice allowed, whereas Africans grew it on the slopes of Kilimanjaro "in quite substantial quantities with great profit to themselves," while in Uganda cultivation of robusta coffee by indigenous inhabitants was "being actively encouraged." It also called for a thorough technical inquiry "for it is unfortunate that the natives should be able to draw comparisons as they do, between one Government and another, and as a result to harbour suspicion on injustice."41 The Colonial Office Steps In In London, the reports of 1929 came under scrutiny in a new political climate. The Labour Party won the general election of June 1929 and Sidney Webb, thereafter Lord Pass- field, became the new Secretary of State for the Colonies. Sympathetic to African interests, Lord Passfield took an ac- ~ tive interest in the coffee issue in Kenya. When he sought an explanation for the question of coffee growing by Africans, Governor Grigg replied that "No general desire to grow this crop has been manifested and the safeguards which the [Agri- cultural] Commission...propose...would render cultivation of this crop by individual natives unlikely in the near future."42 41HMG, Re rt of the Commission on Closer Union of the De endencies in Eastern and Central Africa, Cmd. 3234 (London: HMSO, I§2§5, pp. 32-33. 42 No. 17220. Memorandum by Allen, 27 June, 1931, C0 533/413, E7" hm";“ (alt.r: ' 1'1- V. ' ‘: ‘3 p:’w:oq .Qnqu nOJIiH 4.5:i21“ ‘,~va(u . a , : otf“ - 'E -- :ud an53131h synsx yd _r ~ ;, _. .- 1,: - m , _ - l 2. mg: and no 31 wag 5;:'_ 35331 "‘3 5;: '-if .- gt n » JJW_U Ania asiildnsup t‘wn‘ '2 ‘;I-‘.*~..‘C’ ’x’w _. f 3 i"? ' -7. :; “.:.'°;:“-”-‘~ '1: NOKZSVldiU'.‘ flpuw.‘v' s we? ._ {no ~zf= , .L0?3"J041h visvizas paieu” anv. r 31- 7L1; ;; mu; ‘3 ii " 103“ yu;u;n Izoiados: :n neewsed .nfi 1rd: 2. xnmaii.u-Js w.~. cf ‘dp ed aluoda nn&3;::.c vi‘dwtfi j pizza: { EL ans .I‘ijfiflfi its insmnievofl “”.9ox:autni no 5} anoia so: -o jsznoloo adT ...“--3- ...—..-- ni vuiibxoa quflfi smso QSGL lo finxoqez an: .nobno: n1 iEIHWwp an: now 23:54 anoded 9am .9asmiJo isciJrloq won a ~aabfl 51c; resiseisd: .ddew Enable has ESQ! snub 10 acidosis .esionoD 9d: 101 33538 to yxsdeuooa wan 9d: amsoed .blek: ~35 n5 19o: 519113338 baud .adaacodni apolxiA o: aiisdssqnya 3:12:15: an! “aim gm «:1 grant mm em a: Jamaal wk: .ausahfia 2d fictive-:2 {$33303 So same-a9 9113 m1 mustang“ ms Eiflé‘3§§§463*aaiaab £31¢a09~ofl’ aids beiiqoz 99110 IOflleVDS 45 In April 1930, Lord Passfield requested the governor to notify him "as soon as possible" about the feasibility of African coffee growing, arguing that "the experience in other Colonies where native-grown crops are intermingled with estate-grown crops, indicate that native could be encouraged to grow coffee without risk to estate cultivation if adequate provision is made for a plant protection service for such cultivation."43 The colonial secretary clarified his position in "A Memorandum on Native Policy," issued in June 1930. The docu- ment reasserted the policy of native paramountcy, and contained a paragraph on the right of Africans to choose their work: "The main objective to be kept in view is the improvement of the general condition of the natives by encouraging them to make the most efficient use of their own resources for pur— 44 poses of production." It stressed that government should actively assist in improving methods of cultivation through training in agriculture, effectively disseminating supportive information, and enabling Africans to obtain a fair market for their products, especially by providing adequate means of communication and transport. In regard to coffee produc— tion, the White Paper contained a significant clause: His Majesty's Government consider that na- tives must be allowed, subject to any necessary safeguards, in Native Reserves or 43Secretary of State for the Colonies (hereafter SSC) to Governor of Kenya (hereafter Gov.), 10 April, 1930, C0 533/413, No. 17220. 443M6, Memorandum on Native Policy in East Africa Cmd. 3573 (London: HMSO, 1930), p. 112. ‘1‘ 7." 1531‘— r":.“ '. ‘ . .r‘..‘ A'|'l c.3031. .‘VE‘PI III“ [‘3 1n-::1£ '3 , ,1 uu't" 2‘ , 'L '~,J;Herq at mace 35“ ml“ =31 ’ t 133 r 1 uq;| ' “ vr.L.'a .;n;w01p 99310: ...‘_,__<,;;h ”‘5' _A ; , "1m .7 914,. «yr ; ,"‘..,¢f»',." -< Wind! 9223va (3' “a: ”W‘T .3) f‘ ‘ A " r -. ..., 'i :-‘ 'an‘ ‘e'fr ;-'.'tfi Lb-F.‘ ,80 1-17 2; A ' _ -‘:; J-. - :1 u”.*‘~ ..v ~~J.a: c' 1333 *zod;;w r .5 . , ‘ ”.Lu-)nv".. . . 'fi: Jfijxr= ".:3UJUIH inr'g ; 103 absm ....n '3 17,33" “(“3 u“ u‘ 7-! l-‘ r ::‘r,lE 5le’ AV" —u:'m.'vri “4?- gig! mi haves? .vbiinfi wwv33H no urinaxomefl 11351." 7:: .‘15‘, \'.;'_“T"...’-/l-".1’.q 91-1750 :9 (jibe '_-:!.‘ D‘J 1’3886-31 Juan :iwov 1:133 sauce» 95 an53111‘ v~ Jfl‘ " ed* to dgnqpsznq a lo 3n9m3w31cwk 2”: 2i weiv nt xqsfi so of Jvi339?do 315m ed?“ 0: mad: pnipstucons yd aevtisn 9d: 19 noijibnoo istsnep 9d; —1uq 133 assauoasu nwo 21333 30 say aneroiiio 330m 9d: 913m riuode JflsmflIBVOQ 35d? beaesrta 31 .. ".nok3ovboxq Io asaoq npuozdi noijgriafuo 10 abodjsm pnivoxqm; n1 islets y15"2.105 svi31oqqn2795135aimnaekb ylaviduslis .oauiiuokvps n? onlnisx: :adka Iiaims ntiédo 03 23393335 pntldsna has ,nuijsmzoini anismLaxafipabn-uniszvan 2d tllsiasqas .333nboxq tion: we} onfibaq»a§§300 33 635931 a! .31oqan333 has aol:noknumnoo 33 ' m: Witwh 3 1133333303 "#33133 3.1: .nou 13:: am mm mm 46 on land in individual occupation, to grow such crops and to keep such livestock as they think most profitable; but, apart from the question of insuring the necessary local food supply, which is the first essential, the Government should actively encourage the production of such crops and the raising of such stocks as the native may prove best fit- ted in the particular circumstances to under- take, and such will give him the best return for his efforts. Any proposal to prohibit the natives from engaging in any pursuit or from cultivating any kind of produce is, of course, to be deprecated, and if regulations are called to safeguard stock or crops from disease, such regulations should apply gener- ally to all persons Without any rac1al dis- crimination. (EmphaSis mine.) Governor Grigg reacted hostilely to the memorandum and the "Statement on Closer Union," issued at the same time, the latter of which supported the Hilton Young Commission Re— port.Grigg's relations with Passfield continued to deteriorate; he wrote official letters criticizing his superior's position on issues, and he even denounced the colonial secretary and the Labour Party.46 The clash between the governor and Lord Passfield was manifested in Grigg's continued refusal to reply to the questions raised by the Colonial Office on African coffee growing. However, the issue of indigenous production underwent serious discussion in Nairobi. It took place at the annual meeting of the agricultural staff who served in African areas, in response to a proposal from the district commissioner in 45Ibid., 116-17. 46Gregory, Sidney Webb, pp. 122-27. £103}; 3.: ;<.fv::{r'»» ‘;2 z I .‘uzl ‘it no? ' no as 130*L97;1 «2:; Hour u: “an aqnxo 1332 moi) Jfisqfi \Jud .313331331. ‘.nm fluid: zed 4 15“(I wasea:"an *'J oniuzar’ .u nvxjasup 9‘3 xlni‘naepe 35'71 «d; ~- : lav fi?“3g- “mv 4:1 spsruoon= v;3rlfirr ff"”H '"zzsvci 9d: 33 pnt’iaw 353 in‘ 2: -- 4,. Z: " ‘”_5\*3 '2‘? ii be x :5"; 1 ' '3": n 9~ ‘ < ' . QL: ~1sbnu 03 ansnnxgiuo-i; 1»rh»; :3. ‘ H: t 1 flTU39i +asd on: mzd 51?, ({'~ ”;:: .3 ‘3x : 312£fl223391.1fi;930““ gsf. - ‘ <,- 3.: -' 10 Jiitciua “W: r: on "“:':‘-“”‘Li_ ' ’ :6” E :2: 5033‘s,":rn. .7; w- .. . .1 Pr:33nEEéEZOEZE.).:.T:§?ESSZJBT ~“ of . ’it'“ i “*1": > " :. * 3w¢d3_u an anew £35 0 ¢fis . Cr’ ; 923.3,: :, 12.7.1105 ..‘2-71, b.1313... 1'33: ML. tie a .0335; 3:: dog»? 323631. . _ _ 7“»- ,1 _, -.. _ muLns-iomsm ed: c. 1(Lnima:,r. barns. ~. “fish-:- '(un’15‘vu'ié .9511: was ed: 3:: beuaai ".noin’J 187-3:13 1:: firm 935733" 9:13 has ‘8‘ minim mot M31121 9d: b9310qq:.8 riahtw 1c 1133151 9:11 ISJW'Q‘,WIQ: “dicta? (131': anoijsfm a'pph?) drag noting «is, ' on 33331333319 3333331 13101330 3:01» ed a!) W nave or! has _aouaai no 353 3333333 3331: 3d? '3’ I‘j’lfi :11 5938911113121 25w bigness? f Wham m w yd b93131 Itxoijasup ed: 0:! . 1(3sz :uoer 3d: . . , , , .pnlwozp 953109 .. 7'. 33 on!” ad: .stuofi uni mm 3533’!” 1&3 m! We on 9330:1391 :21 , 1‘ ”MID.- ll’ ' .;t1-axx ..Qtdza‘ . 33%!» :5!- We. mags“ ‘ i l A V D r J f"7'- ‘ - '- ‘ . ."..'.2;1.m 47 Meru for production and cooperative marketing of the crop. The participants agreed that arabica could be more widely grown in Kenya than robusta. After the Coffee Officer of Tanganyika discussed the difficulties experienced in the ad- jacent territory, the meeting resolved that African coffee growing be permitted only under the direct control of a European in charge of less than 100 acres, broken into blocks of not less than twenty acres and within five square miles from a factory. Although those attending the meeting recog— nized Nairobi's policy of discouraging the production of coffee by Africans, "it was realized that no legal prohibition was possible, and the time was thought to be not far distant when natives might insist on coffee growing."47 The Colonial Office was committed to ensuring that the opportunity no longer be withheld. Nairobi was further informed of London's position when the Agricultural Advisor to the Colonial Office, Frank Stock- dale, who was sympathetic to African cultivation of coffee, toured East Africa prior to attending an agricultural confer- ence at Amani. In Nairobi officials questioned him about Lord Passfield's views on the controversial coffee issue. Respond— ing, "he took the definite line that no Secretary of State could accept any policy which would make growing of coffee by natives impossible," and maintained that African coffee 47Meeting of Native Agricultural Staff, Nairobi, August 25—27, 1930. I am grateful to Dr. Jon Moris for pro- viding me this information. ~;-:‘:'. ‘55,: ”(39:35,,- ~.. in 51* ~n:'L‘-an lo} 019?! wuiw 910w h1fi”9 ; N;nxr .th . ‘.; :3nbliwinqu ad? .0 :nnL%-L ,nzia; p'i 1" ~ .;;§;gr" ,un: syn?! ni nuclp ~5n qu w haocgiisus‘ 332: . A “.3 in? ?";un i: exifnspnsT seifiue n; :~.“ ‘x': g- . :‘xwzm . ~.:2193'fn935{ " i: 7:’>:T-1.i; .3. .: r- a \‘J :10 . ‘7 “1.;‘2: -«i {)fliWD’TE. 2:530’. mm} 197m": mu? ~ .- 5:1,: ::.-‘~.- .i‘ spin-{:- .1). asqu'iufi Zi’~-_i : 911.3593 "(j ; .1.€;‘_‘! . . '2». {Jr-3 .--; fr.lJ 339! 30.1 30 r ~poD-'~-'z r71"..i'.JEOu mu pining-m; _;..~ in figuorijin ninjas: s. mun} ?‘ i raft-4:. ad: {1:1 }.I£‘LI.-""":‘.t.| 'o; 'oc r»"ic'rt-1L51‘! basin noifiidiwouq [533E Cf anj twiiissz 35w ;( wareziuifl yd 993300 inexaih 153 30a ed 03 :fiyuod: asw emit ad: has .9ldieauq new Tin. Isinoioo sdT '.pniwoxp 993309 no iaiani :dpim aevijan menu on vjinuizoqqo ed: Jed: enlivene o: beajimmoo esw suillo .blsdflszw ed IBPflOI nsdw noijiaoq a‘noheod 3o bemxolfli ibfiisul new idoxlau “533-3. mm @1330 Isiholob m o: uoeivbA 1311;31qusz ed: manna 3% QOIJSVIS‘IIJO rmaififi od charisma new oriw .eIsb ~193fl¢5 Ikihiluoisgs as gakhnssss o: xoiuq nolz3A $358 boauo: hm nods mid Omaewe anionic mama “I .lnm :6 tons 48 production should be permitted provided adequate services were available to guard against diseases and pests. He as— serted that these services "must be" under the control of government, but not under the authority of any board with executive or advisory functions (by this he meant the proposed Coffee Board or the Agricultural Board, both of which gave substantial control to European settlers). Stockdale reported that his views found general endorsement from the chief native commissioner, the attorney general, and, "with some reserva- tions," the director of agriculture. He did not mention the governor, although one assumes he was in contact with Grigg. Reporting back to the Colonial Office, the agricultural ad- visor remarked that, although the European coffee growers' association "might kick they have not a single leg to stand on in respect of this issue."48 The agricultural conference at Amani,which Stockdale chaired in February 1931, had been called, at the suggestion of the Tanganyika government, to consider coordination of research work and common agricultural problems. Increasingly concerned about London's position in regard to coffee growing, Nairobi raised the issue. The delegates, consisting of di- rectors of agriculture from the three East African dependen- cies and technical specialists, concluded that arabica pro- duction by East Africans "was a promising agricultural under- taking for areas selected or approved as being suitable for 48Stockdale, 25 December, 1930, cited in Memorandum by Allen, 27 June, 1931. H p‘ -' s; :3" i y.: 3' .- r —‘ . bluona nostubozq A-t, n‘ :z . , 22:» i .- , : ..3 oinsl'isva 91-.» ii. L. ". i‘ '«:I'. ; --: ‘1' 1 Ni 1" .:f' . . . ' V : 429.15! 3.71113 b53195) 1:: . 1:”: N. ‘51 : . '_‘..'r'J :i, , -) ‘ " ' - :JL’. ,Jnemmsvn; '1'!31‘-C;\J‘.h‘1 :n '1'. m *u 1 ' . . ~. 9v Juce. .- Sxi-L' I'I’; ‘ ‘wa 30 £133 .1 \i'l \ "b: r_, :r ' a; 2: C-"LOS 35330") BbJItQO” w[»awoo,: , .* H. , ' “ u. ”no Ihirnsaadua avian. ‘ifio uflj Jv“ tzuw’ ops {anonze JHLCZ -w3iv aid 35nd -n‘tu:oi smug “did. .Ert . Juflli ;:-'ujfl£ anJ .IJnokaeimmnv .991'153 daiw 3353mm ..; .—,: :n arm. Pf‘f. use ripuonjis .zoa'zsvcp 4:5 [.a'ui‘fiiuaiith on; .suléit 12.1;onan 9.1:) 0;) fined 9.113me ’a'towoxp 99330;; mega-m"! 3:13 siphoriz‘l‘s 1.15113 bananas: .1081? [7:15:33 03 paleorpnia s not: svsdfigsdj KIT-IX Jdpim" norisioofls 3:1: ' ' .9038; ELM 3o stooges: or no 91551903”. doidwsinsam is sonefzshxoo lsrniiyohps 511T noiiaspeua edit 3‘: .bsilso need on! J!“ magnate? ni heximb Remasmlbrooo xebianbo cm anemnwop sat-impair art: 30 49 the crop." They suggested that in the initial stages meas— ures be taken to prevent haphazard planting of inferior ma— terials, and that growers be trained in methods of cultiva- tion. Furthermore, services would have to be provided for control of pests and diseases,and measures taken to ensure proper cultivation, curing, and grading. The conference par- ticipants felt that these precautions could be best observed by restricting plantings to specified areas in select locali- ties; limiting plant material to that grown in nurseries es- tablished under agricultural departments; and providing ade- quate authority through legislation to enforce proper methods of cultivation, treatment of pests and disease, collection of ripe berries, and preparation and grading. The conference considered unfounded the fears about the spread of diseases and pests, and of increases in theft. More importantly, they found no substantial technical reasons to restrict coffee grow- ing by Africans.49 The month following the conference the colonial secre- tary again raised the issue of coffee growing with Grigg. He sent the governor a copy of a question raised in the House of Commons as to the number of coffee licenses granted Kenyan Afrioans in 1930. Lord Passfield requested Grigg to supply him with the facts and with further information about licens- ing practices, while reminding him of relevant sections in the "Memorandum on Native Policy" and the Colonial Office 49Memorandum on Coffee growing by Natives in Kenya, n.d. CO 533/431, No. 3040/1. ~.-t >ipo+c - 1 9:: n. tsJ‘ t34=v;;.4 _o1T '.qoxo 9d: “Sn .ma.r3n; 1; r inne.g bizatrq r naveuq OJ Heist ed sold t'zJ’U” .: <56439H a: quIEI) an .iswnv: JAN LAB ‘aisxzoj *n' b')""'.':, '. JG :2) firm: Eli wt .9 ~ {1' ‘3'.’ _;:“- 111". .1101: inJ. (‘1 .1 3 I (Hi ‘1 - M .L; .P .y . 61.3%} 10 11313-107.) *1uU inmsxsinmp 4*? . n'nnt’ 135 .; '.3rt;Jiuo Isqoxq venue'— :!e;d )1". biL'Lf; . ' {4.6.11 , ’4—1 in -.i ‘ .t'ei EfflfigiOlJ ~iix 0; jzsfe; a: sent“ .ri‘fs u .‘r : .-.A ...‘c5 :29: yfi “c3 asLueaizr 3i nwozg 3563 C3 .ufiejmn in:11 antjimii zeal: “955 pnihiwowq ans :3 n nzuuqeb lr1.;luuzups isbnu henaildsd abofijnm xsqouq strains »? R‘;)u ergo. fiyUuLu? (Jiion: ufi e:¢x-up 3o noidaslloo .3asvelb on; ejaaq lo Insmssujv .noijevijiua 30 eaneweinos sflT .pntbszp has noijsssqsuq bns .aeizxsd eqi: aaassaib,30 bseaqs ed: anode easel on: bebuuo3nn bezebilnoo yen: .tifiasduegmi 930M .Jreda at seasoxani 30 has .asasq baa -w019:$q§3fin'1§i;:asd 03 Queens: isotndoe: IélfiflBJEdUE on bnuo3 Ob .ensuixiA yd pal 13m ”Wee“ damages ext: ggkwolloi ddnoax an? 50 dispatch of April 10, 1930.50 No answer was forthcoming. In March 1931, when considering the poor financial position of the railway in particular and the colony in gen- eral, Lord Passfield emphasized the need to increase export trade. Acknowledging the general issues of balance of trade and increased railway cargo, he added that "it seems neces— sary to stimulate native exports because of reduced East Africa market for their produce and reduced employment.“ He requested Grigg to take action for the "immediate increase of native production for export," suggesting the possibility of greater maize production and, where suitable, a production campaign for crops such as groundnuts and simsim. Passfield stressed the urgency for action in the forthcoming growing season and noted the "question of grading and marketing na- "51 The tive produce is, of course, of first importance. latter statement, incongruent with his previous ones which made production a top priority, reflected Stockdale's view that more attention be given to marketing aspects. The governor's reply the following month indicated the colony's organization in regard to, and lack of support for, African production: "No very substantial results in this direction can be anticipated this year." Grigg gave these reasons: a significant increase in production could only be brought about gradually and through sustained effort; more agricultural and administrative staff was needed, and funds -_—-_—_—_7T___—__——_— . n 5 SSC to Gov., 4 March, 1931, CO 533/391, No. 15856 "B . 5155c to Gov., 30 March, 1931, co 533/410, No. 17142. anmg fl *‘fi :3 r (H' : v.' _\c«" ,5 Lqufi 30 dodbqllf laiuwsnil int. ~h -"‘ ' - ' tri finism n1 -;4; 1' nwjpu »,' Ere "11':-‘137 r3 { \firIT an: 30 notjiaoq 31€4.z J~Rélnri ' xiii ,~‘ wuq*= -7**3225€ bon .1519 9b£T7 1 it: .51 ' ; rPfl '"t-h 5N! :2='wernA .9551? ~agoo. aw; i ‘%' .1; ; "1 . .rflTH“ «a r: "nu10fl£ has flPp. i'lflbQ] Ac W’g'f 3 :fl‘klfi ~"1rr _ m..n:13 OJ YXSB Iii .finsmg.iqme b«va,z b r ._ .uwg 323n~ : 3 in425m sotliA 0253:30; Gisjunmm?‘ , “a: r-.J:n 9X1: 0: puita bsjaeupsa F tJiliflleaoc 9d? :"1‘ ’ J' ‘.‘:cqx9 703 nogfggboxq gvljsn ncijaubczq 5 :fw_asin'a ewuru Isa ncijuubqu axism 19J591p blaibaasi .rzamia Bat wsunbruorp as dune zqozo 1o: nplsqmso pniwoxp pnimnoddzoi ed: mi unitos 103 yonepzu ed? 59283138 -sn puissxxsm bus pnkbszp 10 noiieanp' 9d: veto“ bna noes»: sdT Ia“.sonsduoqmi 59113 to .sazooo 20 .ei oouboxq svl? dcidw aeno'anoIV9aq aid dsiwntneoxpaooui .3nsasduia 793:5: weiv 21315519632 bsaoslie: .yJixoxzq go: 5 Heisenberg sham Iretosqas pariefizam 03 Ravi: 9d nOISaoian 910m 35d: bqnééfibai-d3nom”pntwo&£o2 ad: gigs: n'zouasvop 9d? 51 were not available; and given the current invasion of locusts which appeared to "prefer maize...it is unwise at present to make any endeavor to increase maize plantings." The governor also claimed that an improvement in African agriculture was complicated by the land tenure system which hindered acquisi— tion of adequate land for local native council seed farms, which were, in the director of agriculture's opinion, of first importance. Some attention was being given to cooperative marketing, he reported, and the entire issue of marketing was currently under examination.52 In spite of the reservations expressed by the governor, further prodding by the Colonial Office led to the Native Af- fairs Department "Circular" of August 1931, which stressed the importance of greater economic output in the reserves. It stated that two lines of action were needed immediately: gen- eral and continuous propaganda by officers of all departments; and a program of long-range development based on economic sur- veys conducted along specified guidelines.53 This circular, as discussed in Chapter 2, led to the proposal to grow coffee in Gusiiland. Meantime, pressure mounted in London in regard to coffee growing by Kenyan Africans. A delegation, consisting of Ezekiel Apindi, Chief Koinange and James Mutua, which had szGov. to ssc, 29 April, 1931, co 533/410, No. 17142. 53"Development of Native Reserves," Native Affairs De- partment Circular 34, 31 August, 1931, CO 533/435, No. 18214. JE £53,7-. ;1 uxl .2m" "*"73 a1; -\q?r . n 4 L’ ftcvs ion 919w ‘ a: J. vié'i‘n'nu 3.; J:...~7:.:- 2.39:: J . :quS “on“: “Dem-v ?. "r," as: 1 ’1- - 1i pa v .u'mn-v \jnr: 9.42.3: 2.2a! -‘mrfuoi‘xr ":~,-' ,1? r' v "’f"F1.‘g-'..’ ..r w“ b'WIIf-ID Gals. Laura." ;».~.-. 6.4%.". 33.41.. new ._z; r . ' :n» 4 ‘- u rvdhrniqrm‘n ,zfrr: 6" i'zn': '.i1_..:; 9v: inn 1" . :~‘ c in), «35:1,: by. "r- not? :51»? if: ...:uluiqvhz .J'e‘ur .461: ‘2“ 1“: .1115 3.“! 0: .:.":,H can“: 5_ 'r_;;—.‘-1‘3f-f~‘)r.;1 2? ,,~J‘.,"L'n m‘u‘wi an; a' ijzif‘i”: ennui wwafioqmi. ::w ta :rgzsm is -;2;. :1: no 31< Ln: Latvc“aw :4 ,‘misaxxsm ' 3 1'<-:.;L:';mr5>;-~ tarmu ‘{I”na‘:'zfl') \xonrsvop on: {d b98891qz3 anorflevxeefin cd: is *xiqa 31 -35 Syrian ed: OJ bsl 931310 islnoIsD or” {d pnlubouq 19d31u7 ed: 59829338 dskdw .IECI Jacpufl io ":sluazia“ J;V:m31[. ;90 21153 SI .asvzceex add n1 juqduo oiaonooa asfinexn do eonsjroqmi mag :glwstbemri babe-a new 4101.106 ’10 ssnr‘i ow: 35d: 59:53:: mama“ 111.; 30 ”991139 rd aha-pagan; aucunkdnoo {ms {no 'IUG slnunnéa £6 knead inaflquovsb sauna-gncl 30 msxoouq a bns Ifiiflylxa eIir ££.asnEIeblup batikDSqe paoio bsioubnoo eysv cm W a: 1mg m an be! .S 39:";er a1 boaauacib as .baslxiaua a; ;.-:r at m .01 MM nun-n1" «than! I}? - ‘M"9'5£‘" f i» Q ‘ III .umlflA rd pump 99130:: .98“ 4:! M&.uu .141“de «9‘3 £8 mood! "my mtsven’ .Q~ “it‘ll aim fine” 33 smog IA - 52 come to London to testify before the Parliamentary Joint Se- lect Committee on Closer Union in East Africa54 sent a list of grievances and requests to the colonial secretary includ- ing the statement that "we should not be prohibited to plant economic plants such as coffee."55 When the delegates met with Lord Passfield in May 1931, Mr. Apindi specifically re— quested that "the Kavirondo should not be prohibited from grow- ing coffee in their country which was suitable for this crop."56 European witnesses also commented on black Kenyans growing coffee before the Joint Select Committee on Closer Union in East Africa. Although most of them tended to present the same familiar arguments against the innovation, several persons argued persuasively in favor of it. For example, Major Sir Edward Humphrey Manisty Leggett of the Joint East Africa Board pointed out that the Kikuyu Reserve was suitable for coffee growing since "the best of the white European coffee plantations are upon the same soil and in the same climate, side by side, touching the Reserve." He proceeded to attack various arguments against African coffee cultivation. In re- gard to pests, he testified that in the Kilimanjaro area "the 54The commission was established to debate the vary- ing reports on the issue of closer union in East Africa. 55"Matters which Kenya Native Delegates desire to bring to notice of the Secretary of State for the Colonies," n.d., CO 533/410, No. 17165. 56"Note of an Interview between the Secretary of State with Kenya Native witnesses before the Joint Select Committee," by Parkinson, 6 May, 1931, C0 533/410, No. 17165. ‘, 3.13; .. ‘ :Xm' " ’ 4'. -., . "" ‘ “giant..." 03 “I03 I: j ,_ ’ ‘ V '..' V . ‘ .1" " u ‘ 4." 39.1.1 1.181107; 32191 ~; .- -* , g. - ‘1 " ~v one asonsvekxp lo :Z; . . ~ .; ~, .' - ,.“ '* 1ELT116'P ed: pni . a . -1 r ' - .,_. :jnei. wimonovr > V 1 : ,- -' " ' ' -"1 c ‘ trod :flirw war-1:: * 1. ' .21?! 2.1m», . 1 . .iz; Iii-‘17“. .13 9;! ' :r-rh 5938911!) ’vr" . . ' ' " C5,"; '7 ~ . :- , ,2 .11... : .ri. ,1..;’_;‘t..J '. ; '13. 1.1 2.51100 pm "1.511% I". ' LII c- hr“ n. In as .i 8635. ., .r.’ H: vI: J It“. upefii". ,7 ' . flmmrz' .1" , 1. JV 3.1.3.11} 3:": .~'. ‘ac' salami) pnchxp Jl'zeae‘iq I; 3 ;' e? as .' 1' "+1.3 ? . ~:.,~.~r npuorijifs -:J-'4.L‘1:? 'abifi :13 noinU lsxevsa ‘u01fn.anut edj janrops eInsmnpxs uriflmsi ems: ed? .siqmexa at“ .:I 30 love? ni ylsvienuaieq hearts anoaxeq 3253 :nioL ed: 10 :39 QQQJ vicinsk vf-u iqmuH buswba 118 xotsfi eidsjiua asw eVISasg'uquiix ad: 15d: Juu beanioq bISOfl baiaah 991309 aseqorufi sdIflw 9d: 30 iced ed " 99612 priwoxp noiioo 101 .etsmlic‘sfisa,afl3 at has [toe ease and noes ass anoiisrnslq x9511? 03 nahaeooagIefi ”.evaeaafl ad: anxdouoa .eble yd able ”“611 ’r .ufirtsvldiua 953100 nsskuit 3aninps afinsaupxa auolznv 911:" am 02:91:qu set: at Jun. bonus” ad .uaeq 0: buy DE L... 53 inspection of the [African] plantation is done very carefully, and does not reveal pests, and indeed reveals a very high standard of cultivation." The trade figures, he said, showed that the Kilimanjaro Native Planters Association purchases of fertilizers and Sprayers were "surprisingly large." He dis- missed the subject of theft as "really [a]...small matter." To counter the claim that indigenous growers would lower the quality of coffee produced, Leggett reported that annual sta- tistics on coffee grades from the Kilimanjaro association "cor- respond wonderfully well with the figures of the European Planters from adjacent areas in the same years, and the same months or weeks of sale. There is practically no difference, and in some cases, the figure is even a little above the European figures."57 The Secretary for Native Affairs in Tanganyika, Sir Philip E. Mitchell, testified about the viability of small- scale coffee production. From the point of View of disease prevention, he said, small plots ought to be advantageous. The government entomologists in Tanganyika, he disclosed, had reported that "everywhere (except in Kibosho, where it was only fair) the general condition of the native could not be too highly commended." In regard to regulations, Mitchell felt that Africans would not object so long as they were not 58 based on racial lines. Also representatives of the Anti- 57Joint Select Committee Closer Union, Vol. II, pp. 348-49. 581bid., p. 443. (. '1'! Int-3113:. 1'19“ mt-.- :‘i - .1 .'.‘.‘:I I; [11.7. ' .. 2v .' 3U «ciaooqaai 2537' y‘a; : flaovnr 1.x“.*. "”5 ,ngea s:::. run each bar tsucdp \Ljrr vi .aoét';f Inr‘ an; I.L .‘n’iJiu3 Io bxebnbde 1c neasd .Iq noijbréoezr . a an} a .. ‘ :Lw;:Fflin¥ 9d: 35d? ~a;b 5h H531: ng~yr§‘r .nI' U7JW afiJx.:.z bus ataxiiidzei “.1ozirm a‘»ma...;r1 r ?r “2-fi1 "3 ‘ =rd;4 9d: beaarm 9d: 29v~i fauox u:aw=24 agru-rtn~‘ Jr“? 4.313 ad: xgjnuoa 5T ~s¢e Ispnne Jed: bojrn r: J7Q”Q:C ,tauubrVg 9e1140 Ea yJiifiup -?o: ,WII‘AIJJHEE uznrhsm.iix J; ‘ril ';;I*; usiium n? 5313813 useqc1u3 3N? In >.1nri1 ‘43 njrw ££:~ 'iliwebHUr: bnoqasx 9mg; eflJ bi; .alsey ¢k59 on. a} 3591; jn-nrgbc my‘? awsnnsiq .sonexsfizit on yllsoisuzxz 21 919d? .9155 i: afiesw no adjnom endeavods 913111 a nsvs a1 exupxx 5d: .aeaco anon at has -. l “.aauupki aesqoxufi ~1ia .sfiignapnaT n1 azigiifl aviisfl not 113393398 udT -Ilnua 39 fi‘fiilfifitv oda.dveds bsiitzaoJ .1! ods1LM .3 qiikdfi gisygfi io.uafiv,§b dnaoq ad: :01! .aolteubOIq 993100 clean ;§nb§9§:n§3fis ed 93 :dguo axoLg lIsas .bisa ad .noiinovsxq and ‘fibqgmpfiszsd .£§£VQSOQ§T g1 aseipolomonne :noanxevoe on? 54 Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society used examples from Tanganyika to support their favorable position on Kenyan African coffee growing. They quoted from the results of a government inquiry that "in the Kilimanjaro area the condi— tion of the native plantations was very high, whereas that of the White settlers' plantations was definitely inferior to that of the natives."59 Professor Leakey incisively addressed an issue which others tended to avoid: "the development of the natives to any considerable scale and of native farming and native ex- port, will undoubtedly cut down the native labor supply, the fact that the two things [sic] development of the European and development of the natives are inimical to each other.... 60 The statement was in con- Their two interests do clash." trast to the myth created by former Secretary of State Amery, and accepted by the Hilton Young Commission and placed in the Memorandum on Native Policy. The Colonial Office wished to maintain its argument that the development of all communities in Kenya colony would provide complimentary benefits. The settlers believed otherwise and so did their governor. Nairobi Takes Action Nairobi succumbed to pressure to allow African coffee production primarily because of the desire to enact a bill to 591bid., p. 127. 60Professor Leakey's Evidence Before the Joint Parlia— mentary Committee on Closer Union, CO 533/412, No. 17199. wv; :“‘l.'gl..£ e 1 . ’1.v.:‘ffi:;r'."f: ~‘e'-$.’"L'..'T"7'Gl'u but; {mania ..., '..’:J.' 4.? 14. .-.-f: :13 7:“. s i a ' «I?! _' f :rg'gfré :33 BliYflfiQflbT .r 23 “ace ”5‘ an: ?“ 'LIT 7‘:H<:, 353305 n£0113A :L.'.:":. «f . ; ‘ ;" a; " . 3,": "" 2;";1' {mug-1} Jlfmlfl'VOL' 3hr? }:3.119{;1--' - ,_ .z , . _ .11.: . .; -‘cr. 9th it) “0.13 :‘ p2)?” {1:11 gm“ 'v' ‘" _. = ~. .v ‘. 312.. j .7 :I- Fife-7' 331:“! add 30 7 a: :.sn an: )0 15d: {1 'm (“rue—i w 9- r- ‘ “Mn r l roux“; ~ * 9423.54: Eu! ., wagqchn'razs l. ' mum's (:1 imbued 818.134: ‘3? :Vian bus axlrta“ oul’2h in M1. :Inna cfdrwsrianou Vnr r. earl: ‘fiqqua wade." 1r": 9H? ml“; ’11:; ‘ £.»s;’€£.;.-Lnu Ilia: "tor! assqozui 9d: 1: nnsmqolsvsb [3121 apnin: Lu“ sh: 35a: 3963 ....isdvo dose 03 £59; mini 915 asvrsns an: 10 Jasmqotovsb bus . V 0‘ enoo fit esw jnemsjsia our on .fiasi: on anssiaani 9w: Iiedi ‘gxsmfl $3533 30 msg#02953 Iamxoi {d b9:.ss-3 diym sflJ 0.. 3&5}: and mi head“; has nomm‘) 9M0! aoaxm an: ad 391,3J08 {ms 0: bgnziw gala-30 Isiaoioa ed? .201qu avkvnm no mubnzxomefi asflmo u: 10- imam» an: and: 1mm :31 rxtsjalw 1H3 ifliirua¢ §i§3nsfi1£qnao shivozq biuov ynoloo svnsfi n: .2:ch :51”: £3.53 a: gm “Known {annual 87.811398 gt“ 8" fobldxea «mu: m j; :' mmfim imam“ .mfilfiflfi‘fl a was“? “I: to «Him rumba! A, {IZIXL ' IXIKI: 55 establish a coffee board. From 1929 onwards to the legisla- tion of the bill in late 1932, the issue of a coffee board, with powers to finance scientific and technical services, was pressed by European growers. In December 1929 the Coffee Planters Union drafted a proposal for the establishment of a coffee board, with powers to direct policy and expenditures on development of the industry, which could be paid for through contributions from growers. A bill prepared by government also called for a commitment of a matching 5 for L contribu- tion from government, a proposition advanced by the growers. At the annual meeting of the Coffee Planters Union in December 1930, the director of agriculture stated that the Coffee Con- sulting Committee had recommended passage of the bill but sus- pension of its financial provisions until the economy improved.61 In early 1931 government informed the coffee union that the original bill would not be introduced, but a few months later it published an amended version which was publicly rejected by the union. The government bill was less ambitious than the original one which stipulated the formation of a Coffee Research Institute financed partially by a considerable increase in the cost of growers' licenses, and the contribution by government of matching funds. The Coffee Planters Union strongly objected to the omission of the principle of a match- ing government contribution. To break the deadlock, Acting Director of Agriculture, H. Wolfe, suggested that the proposed 61"Rejection Coffee Board Bill," p. 44. ‘llIL'\ —siein91 an: a: :éuawna UL?! «01".buw;d 993109 a dllldi‘io .axbod 997303 e 1e Buzz: an: .' WI 43%! mi 111d ed: 30 not: asw .suuiku> {salamani but a:1.~nu we flfigkflli 03 sinuoq “81' 393303 9d: 9:94 Iudm90”5 n: LISWUWE nrsqoxnd 2d bSCIOIq e in Jflumdhildfiia? Th1 xn} ., 32:4 , b '3swb aoiaU axeanllfi rsuuaznnsgxe E15 yurloq ".11} " -xsan Aéiw .husod suites npuord: nu: Dino 9d biuvv Htluw ,\1inuhnt ad to :nemqolevsb no 3n9nmtavoz> w: 159351153; ..1 J «1, .citavo‘ip m0}? anoinudnsmo -a;ivrnuh 5 1r? d u'fé:vuu r f0 chmjimmoo's 103 balls: onl- .a:9worx adj yd EDJHCJp‘ uni-tecqoxq s .Jnsmnxsvop me!) not: iedmeoofi mi HOLfiU nusfinsi! 993103 an: 30 paiJasm faunas 9d: SA ~n03~993103 add 32d3 5935:: srnJiuolxps lo IOJasulb ed: .Otél -eua\Jud um ad: 30 9938859 Mas-moon ban.“ mums) gaunt. 13.2:st ymonoae add may anczakvozq 151:»:an an 30 aotaneq may new: 5.1:: W1 meantime m: gm. :11 m z} m W; at m um. um magma .4: 3w ' M,W Wop all! spinal an {d 59390;” as W» am: one mph? ed: and: ;CJA‘ v~f$L ? T 6'. $431 " 1.9“ 56 bill include an amendment that government provide coffee ser- vices up to L 10,000 per annum, the existing government commit- ment and expenditure, on a L for L basis with the industry.62 While the Colonial Office internally discussed the bill in regard to possible discrimination and its applicabil- ity to African producers, Lord Passfield responded to the Governor of Kenya: "I do not feel able to express any opinion on [the] COFFEE INDUSTRY BILL until I have before me your recommendations in regard to growing of coffee by natives. In the meantime, I should be glad if you would suspend any Government action on the Bill."63 Subsequently, in August 1931, upon the collapse of the LabourParty government and Lord Passfield's retirement, Sir Philip Cunliffe-Lister took over as Secretary of State for the Colonies. Sir Joseph Byrne, formerly Governor of Sierra Leone, was appointed Governor of Kenya in the fall, though he had been in the colony since February. Finally, with a new person in charge of Kenya, London received a reply from Nairobi on African coffee pro- duction. In November 1931 Byrne wrote: "On general principles there is no valid reason why natives should not be permitted to grow coffee subject to certain safeguards." He reported that after the Amani conference he had examined the selection 62Acting Director of Agriculture (hereafter Ag. DA) to SSC, 27 July, 1931, KNA: Dept. Agric. Coff. 1/3 Vol. II. 63SSC to Gov., 4 July, 1931, KNA: Dept. Agric. Coff. 1/3 Vol. II. or ’ .-: 1:177 . Shir- j. ' - ... 1:1 ' ‘~ . ':‘~;-f "' v ~' :1; sfzuiani LI id -."- 1r ' f"'.|s.'..'11-:‘/~'.;, ;.'t.(: £135 Z'...1 .1.....'.';‘.: ' 1; ').c; 1 ~11 qu 893)“! It‘subfii "W: nfgu 7'954 n 1“ a 5 u» .fil;+iffi‘gfia bun insm 9L; '-e;u In vifon7»3*; , ‘ 1“ s."' Lflfi‘e-idw ”:[n 3150.3 1J1 Du. rsj'rntn. 'alt fi1;2‘" : 67 516093 n! [iid ad: 93 Libfloqeci _.- Esau“ r‘ ‘ — <.. ~ :Luind 02 3:1 -,. - ,. 'J‘i- ',\j).‘1 -,.' v c. ' I._ | ,. ', r,’ ‘4'; 3." .0113“ ‘1 Ina ‘p. v.7 . . . I .sz...; .4 L. .. .. .. , - l t ..c- g . A ‘ r - 1H0? Om 910331 17 r ' ,;.r ' 1Q ik‘itdw- Saififlfl {adj} no .TuVLjnfl ta an;}.‘ 7 y?’d”‘ 1' brnp m w' affikisbnstmooul yns bnsqaua hibou~em»' ‘- 42‘? ‘fl Lln~u2 1 .em:3nL9m ad: a! Jzuglé hi .fiJnfiupuedua .11*€ adj no n;r:15 :nomn39v00 510.1 fmc. anemmsvop \‘J'mqu'uvdr-I an: “-0 32.-1511.10 0:1? noqu .IEQI ISVO X003 usjaiJ-Biiilnufl~qil:dq 33% .jnemhuiju1 a’bistiaass .smr-{afiqeaeb Iia .asi—noloi) ant-ma 33533 3‘... yawn-Jae as 30 ‘IOB'IiiVéDERfiOE’QfW mm .enoaJ 51.1018 “.0 ion-19w»: yheanol Sarita mice 911:. u}. need bed 9:! Mod: .115: 9d: .1}. svns)! .52“ $519935!!!) .15: nomeq war: 5 11:11! «Mani! .Yxsuade‘l *1:me balmno 16.31113: "at! 21:49: I bsvieoox nobaod .aoljzmb _ .7: m so“ :«m awn nu Wow «I fins,“ 1.1" . 3“! 010v £\£ 57 of suitable localities, and the provision of legislation and additional agricultural services, together with financial as- pects. The governor had been advised and agreed that "the most suitable localities for the initial enterprise are to be found near Meru and Embu townships." These sites were se- lected, he pointed out, because they were distant from Euro- pean plantations. The Department of Agriculture planned to provide from its existing staff the necessary skilled ad— visory services and supervision for two lOO-acre coffee fields; coffee production would be permitted only on these blocks "until the measures of success...can be gauged with a reason- able degree of certainty."64 On the same occasion, the governor acknowledged that "in the near future" there would "probably be demands" from the Kikuyu of Fort Hall and Kiambu for permission to grow coffee. Two Kikuyus from the first place, he reported, re- cently had deposited the coffee planters fee of Sh. 30/. Byrne argued against "haphazard planting," especially in the neighborhood of European plantations and claimed that "sudden diversion of the labourers earning wages on the farms to coffee cultivation in the Reserves would not necessarily mean financial gain to the labourers." The governor proposed to make it illegal for Africans to grow coffee in the reserves unless permission were received from the director of agricul- ture. He acknowledged awareness of Lord Passfield's despatch 64Gov. to ssc, 25 November, 1931, co 533/408, No. 17094. i“. "ffifijv i g _ :3: : 1“ "'7 ‘ ' ‘ . :._)-J‘ 4614" 9132153108 10 ‘_!yb .5noialbbb .‘ JraJ D'* - a» -5 1 ~ vs: 0d? .8199q ,1 rwh a :nwvu lbiJil ‘9: a, a ' . n“ - LJIUZ :aom 1. '11:.“ 2'55“: memo} 9d '3? ’ '5‘! - ‘ '[H L1. r Wan n01? : ;I \u , c ‘3ui'V '1 .5937‘ E ‘. H1: .1 A A I ‘2.“ ".31 " Sal-fr. .11» ’ ‘G'JBICA fill-9C! «D» 3" z: {1; : J3! 3: ~~ ; J 1‘ n01: sbivorq .abx~ 1 Grit- n136-“*' ‘ in. \T’ ‘p 'ivxea $10817 afiaofi eaafi' UL glue begr‘wiu m 'iuau nwi‘-ubouq wgtica ‘1108531‘ 5 11‘) LE ..-'~T_JL'x:y 9d (1:) ‘.31v1511vv 1r 351995 aid» 35d: filebelwnafibfi :oaubvao ed: .nolessoo omba 0d: n0 moi: ”lbfigfitfiyedffltdpdflflq' 51698 810“: ‘91u3u3 139a 9d: n1” . $§I villi! has 1153 310' lo uyuxix 9d: W401 gm M! m at! alumna ow? {5&1 J12 a; on: mm mm an: beiiaoqsb bad 21:11-33 asfibfll’ iids haufials'ial finalauall£q 819901»: 20 boodxoddptsn cw. M m If. a“ WWI ers: in mtuovib .993303 “Janine: battens surfs F 2:91.11: . L 58 of August 17, 1931, which raised the issue of an overall limitation on areas for coffee production, which meant appli- cability to Europeans as well as Africans, but Byrne felt that restrictions on European planting would be "impracticable." Thus, the Africans would have their own set of regulations governing planting and the industry, even though under the proposed Coffee Board bill, they still would be subject to increase in the cost of licenses or payments of cess. The Colonial Office carefully studied Byrne's letter. Stockdale perceptively observed that the phraseology used by the governor "rather indicates that the Government has some doubts as to the ultimate success of the trial and, if the Department (of Agriculture) sets out with this view the 'measure of success' required before extension is authorized 66 He thought that it should be made may not be attained." clear that, while the initial tests were to be carried out in Meru and Embu, the issuance of permission for coffee growing in other African areas would be contemplated. Furthermore, he favored beginning experimental block plantings in Fort Hall and Kiambu. A Colonial Office functionary raised the political implications of the issue, pointing out that although Kikuyus wanted to grow coffee, plantings were to be legally prohibited in all reserves, except for designated areas in Meru and Embu. 65mid. _ 66Minutes on Gov. to SSC, 25 November, 1931, by Stockdale, 12 January, 1932, CO 533/408, No. 17094. F“ {l alaijvo as 30 Juati aflv »J.157 doifw .IEQI .TI 3Céfillfiio -1Iqqo zrbom aaidw ,uui:oubuxq «#1309 an} 35925 no nolfiliilii 3(31 9",gfi *v: .BnnaillA an 1- I : aruhanUS 03 Y1llldib ".eldsorjcchmi" 9d f7v1w nuit1niu ,.m:r,. mu -nur13113891 1‘“: anoi:a£upsx 3; 13 ."c ~.; _ 'm: b:*l. uJSSijiA an: .aud? 9d: incur first!) n«.. .lisafiLW. 4d- Du. {ninnblq pain1svop OJ avotdua Gd Elbhw ii.)e ny 14:4 oasod 961103 beaoqoaq 68 g _ - . . .6399 in nynu‘ r2 -- —;.' : Yu ‘"00 5n: n: session: .19339! a'gnuyfi boltnne 'Fgulvur :~-339 ,waGLOD 9d? yd been ypolosasxdq sd~ :55 f vxeeuo yf9*i:q931uq alsbiooda amps and inemnusvoa 9d: jzd: eaJaoibni zsdjsw" ionxevop ad: ed! il .hns 1511: 9d) 10 aasoau; ejanzdlu ad: on as ejduob 6" uptv aids ddiw 300 3392 (eoufualapA to) inaudansa Warm mm Innings: 'aaouaua 30 mum‘ mum at -M smart: as “- .botu'csss 9d son an m: 5119 m is! 09 m ma: saw u: um» and: 15512 59 Also, Nairobi's plan clearly set out separate regulations for 67 Another person stated that the Africans and Europeans. stipulation, which gave the director of agriculture, subject to the appeal of the governor, permission to allow Africans to plant coffee, was highly discriminatory and thus conflicted with the native policy memorandum. He suggested that the governor be informed that the Colonial Office "would be un- able to agree to the continuance of such discrimination beyond an initial period of, say, two years."68 With views set forth by members of his office, the colonial secretary formulated his reply to the governor. Sir Philip Cunliffe-Lister's despatch was sent April 19th, almost five months after receipt of Bryne's important letter. "Broadly speaking my view is that it is indefensible to maintain admini- strative restrictions on native coffee planting, except so far as they may be necessary owing to the inability of the Govern- ment to afford adequate supervision, and that the areas in which it is to be permitted should be those in which the ser- vices of an agricultural officer are available for the purpose." In reconciling the discriminatory nature of the proposed pro- gram, he considered "it is legitimate for and indeed incumbent on the Government...to take all proper precautions against any risks of disaster to the existing industry." The colonial secretary requested the governor to reconsider the possibility 67Note by Allen, 2 February, 1932, co 533/408, No. 17094. 68Note, 8 January, 1932, co 533/408, No. 17094. "I “31:5.F4993 jfu'rJyfi rnr I‘D "L 1' n;_ «‘fdrrisfi .0318 an? bejfja Ihkzzfl 105 wr: :zhmqu193 bns 2359;118 TDJLJUL .:1!JIuvi"fi, 37 ~n" ":i 3 -:rn ”a .notznluqul aagoizifi Mfifrn .’ .p'ns,W'Sq ,. 71a 3? an; :C ibsqqs on: 03 hejniiin09 and; in: 2;3:;airr"9:? “afl.£r e" 's‘iofl Jfinl. OJ 9d? 3b“. bejaqyuue at L-CNL enum 'Pllu; evivsu :51 dJIW ~nb 3d bitvw" finigio i;;uui V 3; Tifii 97‘”3?Li ad IUH‘HVGQ buoyed no :snzmixnarn ;J,: _ u ‘1»nsinofi e“ 9013: OJ aids 0L1 ’ ”.yis QW‘ .”£w .Jw bothq 1r;3inr an ad: .v';¢3 :‘d i redmu' 3; 341"? 39a awoiv fiJiw :13 .10n1nvog an? :1 prqs; 3.3 butslflmxui v“n?oxrse Islnofso Saamts ‘dJQI itzqé :nsa alw dofisqebp a':n:§id~si:ilnu9 q:£lflq ylbsoifi' .193:ai sassxoqaire'oayva 10 jqisrsx 1931; enjnom 5V1! ~ialmbs nissninu oi sldlsnsiobui at :i :sdJ ai usiv vm oniineqe as? as fiqsaxs .pfliinilé 991300 svizsn no ancifioitiaa: sv135133 ~dirwob Odd '36 ,‘c’ilkdmk an: 0.: game 11.28993st 9d 11m zed: u ui'iifl1s ed? asflr has noisiVquue aoswpobs bxoiis o: sass -19! was fihfiflh a; 0.063 9d bison. basil-sou ad 03 at 31 Haida .me a“ as) “like“ no 11mins Inuituohpsm mac notv m 5% '9‘Q to sauna mamuxmb «I; ”1119:1099: n! 60 of including areas in the Kikuyu reserve as part of the ini- tial experiment, by defining specific blocks for which permits would be issued and providing adequate supervision. Further- more, he asked for more information about plans to provide staff.69 In spring 1932, the intention of government to allow coffee growing by Africans was indicated in yet another draft bill, which centered on the establishment of a coffee board. The proposed legislation contained a clause stipulating "the provision of the coffee planters license shall not apply to any coffee plantation in any native reserve." This clause was inserted to make the director of agriculture, not the coffee board or local district commissioners, responsible 70 In contrast, the bill designated for licensing Africans. the district commissioners responsible for issuing European planters' licenses, in consultation with the board; however, the colonial secretary's disapproval eventually led to the consultative position being given to the director of agricul- ture, thereby making the licensing practice similar for both racial groups.71 The same month the bill was issued, the annual coffee conference convened. Participants strongly denounced the 6955C to Gov., 19 April, 1932, CO 533/408, No. 17094. 70 No. 18288. 7158C to Gov., 8 November, 1932; and Gov. to SSC, 30 November, 1932, CO 533/428, No. 18288. Gov.'s Deputy to SSC, 30 August, 1932, CO 533/428 - : ~ '1 ‘ x 51L”; ":V‘nafl, . {r 1'2: :n" . : ,z 4’75 gn'buiani '1:- .-."LT"1.I in». ‘1-' i '...'...i. ~ . .' J-‘r'an :43 Juaunsqxo 1613 TL“: .1.- "2:: - 4 .. 3;; t ' x . Y .3 run L‘SUEPL 3d DJJJOW zzt'i In, ’ 4 21.911. 1. a»; man? ;" 'i .‘I fr- £26 9“ .0101! 98.3153a 3:3[16 .;-‘ ..1‘:~.~.~,L.:: . ' )1 Le 1...:f t H~ E .1 rm}! 1" LI 1: min .9“ 5.; no.9 -. --1. n F' S” *-‘ ye gnaw-'7 993303 .51 :n'. 136': F. ;., ...'D 1. "i. .... '4“ .u; [3.) Via run-30 {2'91 'Lw . (11121 '1' f? ' 3‘2. _; ' . I, " -fiv";.:.; no :23. : a. ,..~=,'l Boat guxq SIT? or . g," L. - . r - 31-1fm“; gel: '4 91.: x - r'flrciVO‘lq sea-5.1:: ainl’ ".t.>\.".;s.acsi 91:50 3115 n: r.--.-.‘r::-1r.a!; 95130:) vns adj non .GVLIIEUiIQS io 1033931b ed: ixbm o: bssxsani saw eldianoqas: .EEancieaimmbs 30i1;*aib (cool 10 bzsod 993302 bsisapiash 111d 9“: .3aszsnoo nI 'G:.an5;rxiA pniansoil 103 nasqqufi'éniuasi IO? sidhsnoqaa: atsnolaainaoo Joixaaib 9d: .zsvswod 1-basqd yd: daxu 301353193000 ni .asenocxl ‘axednslq and a: be! Yiififl#fléfl9 lsvom-qqpcib a gxsaezosa lslnoio: an; } 9‘3 03 navig paisd noiaiaoq vaJnJIuaano same! we: Jami; amp-x; mason. 9d: shim gamma .7103 IT pqaoxp 1.519.: .ad5 Jslunzi now iibd an: naaqgquyo ed? "‘r-:‘ maniacs 61 decision of government to allow coffee growing by Africans and urged "indefinite postponement of a step so utterly un— wise." They argued that the world coffee market was on the verge of collapse due to overproduction, and government ac- cordingly ought to restrict planting rather than to encour- age its extension.72 Government representatives assured the growers that they intended only to allow coffee to be grown by Africans in Embu and Meru districts, and on a limited scale. Notwithstanding the European planters' objections to the clause dealing with indigenous growers, they did not reject the coffee industry bill. Thereafter, the proposal was passed by the legislative council in December 1932, and it came into operation the following month. The Coffee Board then re- placed the Coffee Planters' Union and represented both planters and traders.73 Although the Colonial Office had advised that rules be promulgated which applied equally to all races, Nairobi felt there were adequate rules covering European coffee pro- duction and that it was not necessary to legislate further to maintain the quality of the European crop. On the other hand, a special set of regulations were considered necessary to con- trol growing by Africans. A draft of the rules was sent to 72CPK, Re art of the Proceedin s of Coffee Planters' Da 3 and Coffee Conference: Held in Memorial Hall, Nairobi, June 2§ - July 2, 1932 (Nairobi: Government Printer, 1932), PP- . 2- 73Hill, Planters' Progress, p. 90. 14:1. r "\«h‘ ~ ~ -.... W: '. unnr'n.-us p in noiaisob ‘L -+ ;9:¢ Io SHEVi|047COF sfih(':bni" reply has mi‘ ’1" :21-7 3:..-. f ' in“): V w .‘I..3 351:. ' uni- war-:1"? ".eakw ---.;. ‘t‘j::.,,"' anv- ;- : . r . C" I:.: usjri‘co 10 spasm: .oeoce 49 ...- -3: n" .rn‘f‘ 33iV7v~ 33 ucwic yfpnkbxos 9:13 55‘1”" _' . r. a} ' ‘:~ ans .5 1" - ;2.:- was 8:1 spa .‘.w‘r“:!- 9;. -':‘~ Afiiit' I'm/LIL ".3 712:: loaf: .‘n u.:J 31.1'.‘ e'iawoazp .f-‘ri' »‘ b’ufigfli.‘ .' ‘2'. 131:." .;.".-.7"_- ‘f?’ 1133' .. . .....m Hi HIEOLIYA ‘(d an. 03 nunjria‘dn ‘a’hr45.q seQQOILb a." grxfsbvanjiwsok snare: *0" 5L zed: .exsw~~' v.0n9rtxui njjh n-llueb 932519 beating new 15.1-4401, 314.2: .1331.) :F" .Lild yxfinmw 9931309 5m: 0311.1 mo ‘31 has ..SEQI 19:15:93}: in 133mm. eviablaipsi ed: ya —a: ”A: 131398 593303 94’1” .dinoa gnrwollo't an: 1101351090 axoslasiq flied 59339-03131 has not!!!) "new“? 99310:) 93‘: (19qu , [v-222551: has aim use ”93,39 maniac We!) em stpmn'slfi. W.mfliw Wm bail,“ this!!! bsttsplumoth 9d 03 W W ’03? m than an: :1 35d: [ms noises?) bud 3.8m w :19 .m') M ed: 10 y film on: 11133111»! 62 London in January 1933, and even though Nairobi pushed for a reply, the colonial secretary refused to comment until dis- cussions were held with the retiring Director of Agriculture, 74 Alex Holm. Meanwhile, consideration was given to discrimi— natory aspects of the regulations within the Colonial Office. To reconcile the native policy memorandum with the discrimi- natory policy proposed by Nairobi, it was suggested that Sir Philip Cunliffe—Lister's pronouncement in regard to another issue might be applied in this case: "It is no part of my intention to impose, in the supposed interests of racial equality, an unnecessary legal obligation on members of one race, merely on the ground that such an obligation is neces- sary for members of another race in their own interests."75 A meeting between Holm and Stockdale took place in June. Stockdale reviewed some of the objections raised by Lord Francis Scott, a leading settler representative, at a meeting with Sir Cecil Bottemley, in charge of Kenyan affairs in the Colonial Office, and by S. G. Gare, a Kenyan settler lobbying in London.76 Stockdale briefed Mr. Holm on the 74 No. 3040. 75Minute on Gov. to SSC, 13 January, 1933, by Freeston, 6 March, 1933, CO 533/431, No. 3040. 76Mr. Gare's status as a representative of Kenya's European growers was questioned, Holm claimed the views Gare expressed were really those of only one of the Coffee Board members, although Gare presented Lord Plymouth a set of docu- ments, with about 500 signatures, purported to have been signed by European planters and managers of coffee estates, which urged that Africans not be allowed to plant coffee. Minute on Gov. to SSC, 13 January, 1933, CO 533/431, L m? — LU" 1 3('1_tf ‘ . a; g F, ‘ , V 7.1 : ';“.'.>_,1.A5L fii nobaod ~:;nt: .13 ‘r.‘ ..utztz : .- it: ‘4': “(Iqai ‘ 1 uaiumzu "« .' v 1 ' rI .; gnaw .moi'sauo a .."1:):- 'LL T‘ r." ...»...-. .. . '. ‘- I?» ’. '.'.'.l‘ c! '; ~21Loh x91]. ”f: L‘: "x“ {1 ,. ad: .a. ' . ‘ ~ v. ~ ’ _ .: v : ages yzcdsn -:_:nl‘u)a:.b "at" ' j m..l‘.';:"- 3 . ~' ;,‘ «oust OT :u‘n‘ ‘; .':d."-..« ' r- aruqcic‘ '5 I... *1 2:10.36?! woman. (if :21“ An '._' r : ’ZV; '2sja'..-:‘:'1umi) «.giiirl‘l '{rn "1L ,_ ":1 t2. 7‘. ,- 4:1: ..f.’._$ bung-1“ axc' Mpim 911881 1.2,;3b1 97:5171'1. r-rr -3; r; Leanna '13 ncijnat ni :mo 30 e‘xs-dmn no r. :1‘~p;.do ispe.‘ {-5.2232011er .: (13' ilsupe -as’osn a}. no;aspiic!o :15 done asu'w 5.1210?» :afifi mo vis-um: .eon BY".aJaeisnni awn 119d: mi 9951 reasons 1; aisdmam 10? {use at qobiq flood 9&gfiflaoia has mica soon 9d pnriosm A {d fission agoisootdb an: :0 one. houoiveu ajsbxooaa .9nuL s as ‘wuum mm m 5 .31008 aions'i'i [3'on 811,532; m fit M at W $1063 112 {in 911393! :flétit m 5: Mrs 48, it“ .9031?!) 1512110109 9M :11 $13 an QM fiwmz “momma n1 mum; defuse! in ma W 2: m oi not) no ”mu” . .ODOC .0“ xi «insinuate tfiutz as can do“! a 9 r s new .gt“ - ”may asaqozwa i uninannuéa 062 :uodn daiw .eahsn _ : mam-whom“ ;. ‘7 ah Inuolzfia 33d: 5.910 dolnw _. : “(l"313|1331}3(l1 .‘7 u: , , . ‘ , -9 (II-I In!!! hf 63 colonial secretary's view that "production be restricted to areas and subject to conditions which afforded an effective insurance against disease." The retiring director of agri- culture said "the Rules had been framed in such a way that the Director of Agriculture had power in his hand to achieve what the Secretary of State desired, provided that no undue pressure was brought to bear on him by Administrative Of- ficers." He had received consistent support from the governor and chief native commissioner, Holm claimed, but warned against the officers. When the subject of trial areas in Kikuyu reserve was raised, Holm objected because of the preva- lence of mealy bugs; he also felt it was "undesirable to per- mit cultivation in the Sotik area" (referring to the possible planting in Gusiiland) because of the presence of coffee berry disease.77 Mr. Holm drew attention to two points which he con- sidered as key in the draft native coffee growers regulations.78 First, the director of agriculture was given permission to "from time to time by notice in the Official Gazette define 77"Note of a Meeting, 6 June, between Mr. Holm, Mr. Stockdale and Mr. Freeston (Mr. Hibbert being also present) to discuss the Kenya Native Coffee Rules," CO 533/431, No. 3040. 8During his years in Kenya, Holm, who had served in South Africa for sixteen years, generally had been supportive Of European settlers, although he fought to maintain control bY government rather than to transfer too many powers to settlers. Before leaving his post, he had taken a very con- servative position on African coffee growing and his statements at the Colonial Office reflect this. ,‘swquaoaa lsluoloo “» a 2.. v. e 3'.vn "a ~ .-~ w: :an:dua bns 8.916 :1 . 1 . a: r. ‘4: 2‘ an’ .-‘ ~.;“ aauisps sonsuunn: '; '>~ E ' . - . .5 ' .rfi .rfi «mi" his! £1193 ;‘ ' ‘v1‘ :25 ‘:"',=,‘: -x , " - .’ ‘ T ._ ' ""5 777 1' 3.730111! 9“: . 3L ‘2 5 . ‘Tfil?(7‘ ."'.!:. 1' ‘l 1»¢J;2308 9d: Jsflw I':fijaif?lw_fi‘ " :.1 ' > ~a ‘ Inyn:1d 86W s.uansxq r -‘ ‘L1 Hw1i JW'u: : ' , fi«= " P.\ ,t has 9H ".a189i3 LWJW,m ju' F5h_. \ ‘Jgf ‘::ui&?immufi urijsn 33in: has 25n" :n‘a: ; . if--: ifif Tun“ .'L33i333 9d: Janispb *svsxq sin~3c eauswrf asijfifdn micd ,fiszl“: ”em sv19asx uyuiix -19q oi aldswieobnu“ arv :. aie“ on. -Ufi : old 1.59m fie sons! exdiaaoq and 03 pnixxsfiet) “5915 11:92 933 mi aoiasvzaiuo aln {axed 992309 10 enasserq an: 10 sausage (bnsliiauo n1 enlanslc rv.9asoalb «we on tidiiifinasitfbg out: as mwmfi'is m!) union .zm 8Y.ano£3§£H951 axswfiav .5s5360 avaasu aisrb Qua at ya: as b91001: ‘3’“ a is was?" «Baas-a! .1! has sInbiocaa "V‘I ' Ltiv;flc'“” 64 areas in native reserves as areas in which coffee may be grown." This meant that the director, without any other legal proce- dures, could extend coffee growing in African areas. Second, in defining such areas the director would study the "economic considerations affecting the interests of native coffee grow- ers." This, of course, could be interpreted in many ways. The retiring officer claimed that agricultural officers should provide only supervisory services to African growers and pos- sibly greater assistance might be given if the staff of train- ed African instructors were increased.79 Meanwhile, policy details were being worked out in Nairobi. The Department of Agriculture promised the European growers that government "would not give substantially more service to African coffee growers than it gave to the Euro- 80 peans." Since it could provide only instructional and in- spection services similar to those given to Europeans, the department suggested that the African coffee owners or their local native councils employ a European supervisor or manager, who would be assisted by trained African instructors once the 81 plantings totalled 100 acres. In the initial stages, how- ever, the department only required that "experienced native coffee workmen, in sufficient numbers, should be employed."82 79"Note Meeting Ho1m, Stockdale and Freeston." 80DA to Chief Native Commissioner (hereafter CNC), 17 February, 1933, KNA: Provincial Commissioner, Nyanza (hereafter PC Nza) AGRI l/2/9/2. 81 82Deputy Director (Plant Industries) (hereafter DD(PI)) to Agricultural Officer, Nyanza (hereafter AO, Nza), 25 May, DA to CNC, 4 March, 1933, KNA: PC Nza AGRI 1/2/9/2. g ...; ‘ - 7; an“; .‘ ~. ~‘n'-£35I1 .11 88.1. <£ -: 3; 4 "r» x : ~ ‘ '.’ an: ‘fifi' Jubam alflT ' .LE'” n «' '.., ', - _ .2: rr‘ 6(33:X/ I;|UOD .ss1utu "“»"""' “:1 a. ”W ‘ - _ ! L ~rp'a ‘wru P1""1§3b xi ’f‘qp. w" .' ‘ f a ‘J “ _ " . "‘ ‘z ‘ v ‘ ' . .fla-zbianoo ... .’ _-.;.'T ‘v: in ‘9‘. . _: . ~1'! ' IQ 3’. ,ELLINI‘ ".219 '4‘. I .i\\; 61.: ’ z: 1 »t ;' ("¢211L3€f: sdT i. 2.: .1‘: Inna , --.~ i‘f"».- ..w: ' ‘ ' 7 '09; }'.‘13qx:e '{Inc Gbi‘i-‘s‘xq ‘4{L_' r r e’i; x as: 9 . :janxr vldis ‘..'-.::~;:'_)..£ .v" :z‘ alodm'vjani atnt‘xilx be H: fine hofiaow pried 31w e115rab yotioq .afinvnseM 1seq01u3 an: bsaiflk.fl "..._Iuoi1pA no anensxsqsd 9d? .idouisw saga [Ilsitntjadva svrp ton hiucu“ nannisvop Jana answoip ~03!!! 911:! o: ova: at tutu tramp 99330:» {rs-shin 07 901W” -nii bns isnofao‘uami (Inc shiverq bums ai some ”Hansen; 91f:- .8n6§qoasa €19 mostly used: on 1511318 asalv-me noiaasqa tiniest-tam moo 1:531:15 9d: and: bsaasopua aasnaxsqeb .1393?” 153mm mun-103 s yoiqma almanac ovlasn 15901 963 in; _ mafia beaten) 2!! bottles; ed bluow om: "E'- ytpethtt 5513 a} £8.8th 001 Milne: 3:411:11qu ’Ib—VJ& I": ...... ' .99 an“ m 92:21 gmme'i . . . ..5Wu man (out 3»: 5w; :- was: an: .xm mi .310 o: as” 4 sum sodas-r. woo“ ) snarl .39’ : among; ~03 65 In May 1933 the chief native commissioner gave authority to the director of agriculture to begin coffee nurseries in Kisii, Embu and Meru. This permission was based on the understanding that the cost of seed and labor would be met from existing ag- ricultural department or local native council funds.83 The overall policy was enunciated the following month and was based on the stipulation that the respective local native councils would finance the industry and that African coffee growing was to be considered experimental. The total acreage in each of the trial areas was not to exceed 100 acres, "until Government is satisfied that coffee will do well in the area under native cultivation." Moreover, Nairobi stipulated that the seed be approved by the director of agriculture; that plantings take place only in block or neighborhood concentra- tion systems, in order to facilitate effective European super- vision; and that a grower was to be limited to 100 trees, un- less the director was assured that the African had sufficient experience, ability and capital to justify a large ownership. All possible attention was to be given to the management and supervision of the coffee fields; therefore, the necessity of employing Africans to assist the district agricultural officer was emphasized. When the plantings reached "an eco- nomic unit," a European supervisor was to be employed and the 1933, KNA: PC Nza AGRI 1/2/9/2. 83CNC for Colonial Secretary to DA, 9 May 1933, KNA: PC Nza AGRI 1/2/9/2. v ...» 150 .‘EDiEF'Wfi ‘ flu in; i..fo ed- ELEI 1‘“ GI ; ~- h; -n :v' fw2112 fizva , - . oi"u ?o ROJasuib eflJ :rr?:1-£gu ;u; 1. heard .I' 7:1 -.:;ac AeiT .utak bns-Udflfi .'8 L:."'i “25,» ”' ‘. LL: :‘ «rt-u»? mug: . i0 'raoqsrza 3Ifl3 4ft ”.3A : ..-Hugx pLIM‘ ‘ i 'DW7T-q30 (nXUJLusil 25w hum d Sud uJ'P'il-: v" 2 n;~n-sa sax ystloq llsxovo ‘iun' .~:‘, 339* iv* "L. “.A‘Liuqlia 5d) ab bound Agliuw cu“: 11 Jnrj :1: ‘1‘;.u O uflJ UJHIHI3 tiunw eiionuOD 99n;' _ Trft‘ J? I ' rr vcnxr ;3:solanuf 9d C3 35d pnlw01p 'T:n‘” .2e*;= : 5 en; » s . .4 55915 1.133 sd‘ 10 “358 01 £915 adfi £1 Est 0L T;.w fiéiltb Jidj beiizxisa ti Jasmnxsvoa 11M: beisluqijar 3:11-145.“ 3191:0910?! "..uan‘avijiso 941:!er zobnu and: zeiuziuaiup» 30 rejouuib ed: Yd bououqqs ad been add *613n83noa boodaoddeisa :9 Avoid a: vine soth 9153 apat:nslq -zsque nssqb§u3~avlaggaaa.aasnéliasi at 19010 at .tmséaxt not: ~au .aasniiucl 63 5111.11 id 03 can tenure s and: has znotaiv 31.11.3191 beg " >sd3 and; beacons saw 30:59:15 eds .391 17,7, argggtl s qzisaut o: insiQta has mailids .ooneltsqxo 11:13 .3121 gt 2 .4. .- g...x1.3 1W»: 3:133 .:\Q\$\I 1836 5:! 3% ; ~ ‘ 5 ~ ..qs; .,;:._.£ 1 1" . ‘j’m' -~ _;'~-';..T-' "- -,;‘1..‘-‘7 .112: 5" “’4" _ . ”r - - “' fth"",~¥-}wfissax‘.gum§5‘$” ~‘filu‘ ' tail. M4-- 66 salary was to be paid from local native council funds.84 A delegation from the newly-formed Coffee Board met with the acting colonial secretary in July 1933. Although evidence concerning the discussion is scanty, an available document reveals that the delegates urged that coffee nurs- eries not start functioning until the rules governing African production had been "definitely enacted." Moreover, the European growers' representatives expressed annoyance with the projected coffee trial in Kisii, since government had previously only mentioned possible experiments in Embu and Meru. The acting colonial secretary is reported to have said, "there had been considerable political agitation to permit the growing of coffee by natives and following the Report of the Joint Committee on Closer Union, Government had decided to encourage experimental acreage in the districts mentioned." The three areas were not selected because the people from these areas had strongly demanded it, he seems to have ad— mitted, but rather because of their distance from the railway which required production of a high value exportable crop.85 The pressure exerted on the Colonial Office by the European settlers did, however, have its effect. London con- ceded to Nairobi on both the issue of regulations applying 84Ag. DA to Provincial Commissioner, Nyanza (here- after PC, Nza), 22 June, 1933, KNA: PC Nza AGRI 1/2/9/2. 85Chairman of Coffee Board of Kenya to Ag. Colonial Secretary, 13 September, 1933, KNA: Dept. Agric. Coff 1/3 Vbl. IV. ' a; V Q. r 3.2m 1:3}. rv'r: F l I... :r:-._ )3 saw '11th vv 1 ; .' ;.:-1‘. - .‘ ".1: ' l ‘ at: v . “2135.1919?) I. nLu~121x .LG 3‘57 n: x-. s ~ .. rulzz .955 adj 4:1. .'7 ' :Ir. , t ra- ~. ' 3U“:‘_'. -' . 1" ' .21 ."rxo‘; sultgbbrfi :'.'.;_1.i In" . V_ , x H“. 5 ,v ’f 1... ', fit 3“ ' .'. l f . 1 51:- “! J'i':fin.ilt)t :15: it)? :‘lnlr‘f ;. " ‘j ‘ x .1.‘..":)»' ‘ -i. i.» :«n’l aeuu ~,: .2, .vaum ” 59!:MJ_ y‘ 3-1..30” ",. Lsfi naivzuboac " - . ‘- C - ‘ , : --,‘ 3‘ r L :5 ;:~- a". : stamp 11596103113 but 1'5*,1*;. -*,o .1: g1 a; null: 95‘1"~ buffisiOIQ 9d: .i: vdad r1 E3ufifillciifi 9 ira'flq Senn.4uem ‘g-no yiauoivotq .5152 uvnd or 92310q91 : N njzztst itffloiui pnlJcn sdT .uxsfi iimxeq o: noitsJipa isziaiioq oioazsaiaaou nasd 55d 33:13' 30 310952 an: paiwollo} one aavljsn yd 991.30 to pniwoip an: bshioefi but! immunevou 410160 19201?) ..o 99:911me :ruot. orb " 111131.91“ anus-ail; *an': m spas-roe .iwamitsqxs 9953110030 :23 3:013 aiqoeq as: swan-9m! bssoslsa 3m new tee-us 511111 911'! «stem 70:) .m' ad. .33: bebamsb Y-Ipmxsa but 3591; good: {avian m W33 smack!) 1191!: lo gamed team Jud b91311 ”Waiw 111w and s ‘20 mimboaq 11:111.: doidv 1O $15613” “W03 ads to bum mung oer 67 equally to all racial groups and of coffee growing in Kikuyu areas. As one member of the Colonial Office reluctantly gave up his stand, he claimed "Kenya will only 'stone-wall' and the great thing is to get a start made. If a success is attained the impetus of the industry will do the rest."86 At the coffee conference in the,fall of 1933, the Kenyan government outlined its policy on coffee growing by Africans. Director of Agriculture, H. Wolfe, explained the policy as evolved in June. Other areas might be found neces- sary in the same initially selected districts or in other districts, he affirmed, but future development would depend on the results of the experiment. Neither at this time nor any other, however, did government clarify what aspects were being tested and what measures would be used to judge the success of the experiment. The purpose of government, stated the director, was "to provide for the natives a profitable cash crop by means of which they can add to their own wealth and to that of the Colony." The European growers were promised that rules "of a stringent character" would be enforced, and that government did not intend to permit African coffee grow- ing without adequate European supervisory services being avail- able. The delegates at the conference strongly opposed the 87 policy, mainly on economic grounds, and continued to agitate 86Note by Freeston, 5 October, 1933, co 533/431, No. 3040. 87"Coffee Growing by Natives," East African Standard (4 November, 1933), p. 16. r:,; raw-3, "'v :1. Luke; imam an, o-: ylhups ,5 3;,nL-Jr151 u;11?” .J.2.;os in- 1n ”s..3m tzo 2A .aaous Una '-lEn-ennf¢' 1-2w 1-?V r- -;“ Ufim_L33 an .bflfiJB 316 up 8» Jh3*n au-' .* 5 ii if .- NE . 19: v a? Pfiifl: 3591p tam adj ;* 11" '::?=.:i.-.t. , .; aujagmi ed: 9n?) ..‘1-’ "I ‘r' " r15 .2": ‘1 its? ".' ~ :1w- 511’: its 1d palwox< :fjo: no “in-‘{ .ui . Fitfrw ‘.omu:ovop asynea at? benislcxg .eiiow .H .9 ". :pA 2‘ ‘L!}£J .ansoixlfl "29:39:! Elmo? 9:1 3.4mm auras; loci}: .:5~:u‘- :11 bark-"3 at": [3110!] todfo at no a:u::3aiu L91 3.9? xgibiflrnt emna ed: 91 visa hasqob bluow :namqoisvob Stusui Jna .oauziizs ad .aJoizflaib ion said eidfi 33 1adziau .nnmmlxeqxe ed; 29 zjlueax 9d: no 919w azaoqas dsdw zilzslo snoanxsvop bib .Iavswod .1sd30 was an: ayfint 01 has! 0d 9190' aaxuoaom 3sfiw baa betas: outed b93533 .Jufijnnaaaogio,agoqayq out .3noulzoqxo an: 30 aoeocua Vsldodbioagws units-n an: :02,9tiioxq on" asu .zodoezib ad: dflloéw-flnb'iiaflfiwqfi-Qfls soo~safl3.daidu 30 cases yd qozo data bsaémasq 3&09 lzflflhgh QIDIEIGI ndT 915010, ad: 30 35d: 01 has 4Wv63§pad M» Wong” :aegalma s 30" "in: and: -wQ1e. 9:390: ntof:1§«¢éllnssaaabalmgt :cn bib :nnanzovop 35nd ~1£sus §Q&Q§.jfl_ :_ , .’ aliggnax oaaupsoo suodatw pal Sflfi'fiiidiflb téfidiflll;lg'fi .'siflfl to nonspnlob ad? 4.o£ds mm 99 madam 5,9“ m om no glam: voila; .oa .189\Sea as £8G£.1.¢ubnb z .aosu-oxx {d o:ou” . _ .090: .savksda 1d pazvoaa 991300' f8 .31 .u . SEQ! .Iodlnvofl b) 68 in London to prevent the ultimate enactment of the policy. A special executive meeting of the Joint East Africa Board was held in November 1933. Although several of the comments at the meeting were against coffee growing by the indigenous people of Kenya, there were a few supporters for the proposed program. The London representative for the Coffee Board of Kenya followed his instructions to oppose the pro- posal on purely economic grounds. He also admitted that it seemed useless to approach the Home Authorities "as it seemed clear that the decision to start experimental areas for na- tive coffee growing had been made a definite policy of native development," unless the European producers could put for- ward concrete facts and figures to support their arguments. The same month the Kenya coffee planters' case was put forward to the colonial secretary by Mr. Parnell, Honor- able Secretary of the Coffee Trade Association of London, and Mr. Gare. The latter outlined economic arguments against African coffee production, while Mr. Parnell claimed, "the market for Kenya coffee was already beginning to suffer from the high proportion of inferior quality produced by the in- sufficiently capitalized European planters." The amount pro- duced from a few hundred acres of African coffee, maintained the colonial secretary, would be negligible in comparison to the output from European growers, although he refused "to 88Joint East Africa Board, "Minutes of a Special Meet- ing of the Executive Council, held at Bevis Marks House, London, 7 November, 1933,"KNA: Dept. Agric. Coff l/3 Vol. IV. M ,5- 9h fhgwfifqng m'-m::!r on? :;n :4 o: nobnoJ n1 ,¢‘j 1:10; .nf «- ~nrt<~w 'wrfu :*s siuvge r 1 3 ('197‘2 .."- A ’-w. “0d”'”fif ni bled anw b1508 ~13 ' w".-_‘::':._« a :7: ’1‘ er»: Ham 7'1?! is airxsmmo EST "mqgue w-i . .... w' .~;:“ :2 “inquq abornpibnl a». ,0", :JI‘T ‘: : '1 ;,_ .' 1: e- 1.4-..- 7 . . .‘ “519.51"; 2:980:51] 5d! r-"J ; 1.9-." ,;_‘ ;", ;,' _ , r ...;nIEo’ syn—3}: 3C 51508 *. ‘bfl- 2:5Jlmlfi mai, ‘2 .du.“~T- Z'WLHCLJ {luzuq no ioeog 41 5. i”;JL3”?5»$ ~ ‘3 cc: 1r.r- .3 07 eesLeflu bemoan -£. ESE-i syn :sjuéi'quxn 315., «: arra-n~b 9d: +5}: :asla ewijsn Eu grilcq ojlulwnfi a wonm fiufid bed pniwoxr 931309 svxi ~rol jug filuon ezeoubciq asaqoxua sflJ easing ".Jnsmqoiovab 88.33nemnpxs ukunj Juoqora o: asxupi? has uses} ajs: moo brew 85w 98in 'eusiqsfq 993100 S‘uex 59: dinom once an? -xohou .Irssrsq .1" 2d V10391383 Lsinolon ed: 03 bxswici ing has .nobnoJ 10 notiniooeefi 9351? $9320? 5d: 10 vusdsaoee old: yaniaph aSneMupza oimonooe bonilsao 193351 odT .9190 .3! ai3' {Socials {Isn13€‘;1fl siidw .aoidouboiq soilco nsolxis 9643' $6131»; 0:: Von-{Mood vim!- uv «nae was: :03 3911“ «i2 ofld 1d bafiflbaiq gaiiinp totilitiuflIé136§oaq nerd eds ' ' ' ' “ " gunning: ' 1:65am :3 39 3a: 1°’*'vou T n6BnOJ I§X* 69 pledge himself to any maximum area which natives might ulti- mately be allowed to plant." Cunliffe-Lister claimed that the difficulty and expense of providing supervisory staff it- self would act as a check and "gave an assurance that such extensions as might be allowed would be authorized only after careful study of the progress of the experiment."89 In the discussion the colonial secretary remarked: "It would not be politic to prohibit growing as the public would declare this to be an injustice to the native races."90 Mr. Parnell concurred,91 while Gare claimed they were not ask- ing for the prohibition of planting but that "government should not encourage native growing due to the evils that would re- "92 sult as much for the native as the white man. The session must have been stormy because the same afternoon Mr. Parnell wrote the colonial secretary: "May I just make it clear that my Committee does not entirely agree with the attitude of the British Kenya Planters as so forcibly expressed by Mr. Gare."93 Nairobi was informed of the interview by the Colonial Office. European settlers gradually acknowledged London's de— termination to persist with plans for African coffee growing, 89 3040/1. 90Minutes of an Interview with Sir Philip Cunliffe- Lister, signed S. G. Gare, n.d. KNA: Dept. Agric. Coff 1/3 Vol. IV. 91 Note to Bottomley, 2 November, 1933, CO 533/431, No. Note to Bottomley, 2 November, 1933. 92Minutes of Interview with Cunliffe—Lister, Gare. 93 3040/1. Parnell to SSC, 2 November, 1933, CO 533/431, No. "r ,-: L w “.“‘-. :‘ fiz‘l'n'w v“? w; ' '(I‘F'. w, w ilsarnlri 996.15. I. a“ 7-' .' filmy. '.4;x..1~' .-' fumwilr, 9d Vim?" , 71“3£~.~rn8 rc.‘ ~ - 1r n-~9q"u ra. 13. 9;?315 ed: .1: a: , :41 J 1" : ~ n : '.— . u ;: <. a: 5":3 E. I now 1158 J 5 c r f ‘ w . H,tM PB euclansflxa : J r:.c_' —. t a t“. , .{; lo "hJa 1.43159 ,Jvrrgj .~ .-au u, T r t: ,_ . chart 1? CT ‘IILJ'H; .. "'1 a. .! 3.0.“: J gr Ann's. ' ' wti‘q 23d 3 in .‘LUW :1!" 39, . . . . Ee’efw; 9'. _' ' .:i ui“.* .1 021.134." .' .'E- 9d a? aid: 916.1119.) bIUOV “Hi3 '3:u‘ 91:1w n'Jfir rem. .Lo “3 '“ ' v'-‘-" {unjukfifinoo (Jewrysg 51M bluod? Jnefiuisvcp‘ ltd? Jud pnijnsiy 5r nrh-idfdoiq 553'103 pni ~91 Mum: 35d: alive 911:} 03 sub pafwo'q. svijsn ops-wormo-joc se'msm ”um an: as sviasa ed: 103 down as .7102 noises: ed?! Ilsa-1'15}! .xr. noon'xszris 5m 91!: napalm moi: need aver! 381m 3343 15510 01 am am I "9316" 211339193: 1311:0109 ad: 93cm: on: 20 qfiuflsil and data 99195 xlsfizm :on 3902; 0935M go achsua .116 gid‘mzanqze 114113133 02 an mini? 32119)! 1131:3138 ”MOMmQ'ofi m'gd' “iv-193:1). 9.43 lo 6943:0111! our Mona! I W5 :11sz 31911:“.moqoxzm *1. -fi. éa'fl'j , a: ' A aflfimfimm in} 3““- that sum as «013131.339: 70 but lobbied to ensure that the cultivation be limited. A delegation of European elected-members of the Kenya Legisla— tive Council met with the secretary of state in February 1934. They asked if the proposed planting in the three areas would "be treated as an experiment and not be extended until such time as those experiments have been thoroughly tried out." The colonial secretary reiterated his position that the avail- ability of effective supervision would determine the rate of extension. 0n the issue of a world surplus in coffee, he re- ported: "The coffee experts in London say that it is ab- solutely rubbish to say that the addition of some native coffee grown in Kenya is going to make the faintest iota of difference in the world market." In response to arguments that coffee growing was against the African's best interests, he wisely proclaimed: "I think the native is a fairly shrewd person at finding out what pays him."94 During the remainder of 1934, two main issues were settled: agricultural supervision and rules for African coffee growing. Initially Nairobi proposed to place in charge of each area "some young man with coffee experience under local terms 95 of service," but the Colonial Office was skeptical about such arrangements since "it is obviously better on political as well as technical grounds that the responsibility from the 94”Extract from Record of an Interview between the S of S and the European Elected Members of Leg Council on 14 February, 1934," CO 533/447, No. 23133/1. 9SSSC to Gov., 18 October, 1933, CO 533/431, No. 3040. .32§;ML[ d Hg,.31 ; . #1 sh' stuazz a: DsiddoI duo ~x ; . ".Abl‘; e C. ’ ; _:-":r'. “”1"" _ mun—1 u:;-§. 1“! 3o rzoijbpsiob -i f C y '45:“ “.1 r51. ’9- ~ 0: : ”1.13% :t m. (LDMUI) 3v!) Lu'nm-r 26."'( ;' -'~-'.',: )r‘J m '..." ' ;' .. i"~'-Cm1:.v_".: --"r.‘ I“ Dames '{odT ._‘ma 1.?4 "-Lufl-z-suu . ' ..t . ‘ 34:1'9 .“1. at" b'a’ILs‘l‘ of!" 7:"; 113197 ‘{;:i.’£.'Tl(/I. hue-:1 w F:;!;**1i‘[‘94.§2<£t 33011.1 an no”: 'IT‘.’f _~’:" .I:'..'.: ‘. ‘ I‘d: "3‘ {15;3".A2143’:noloo SdT ':C "u.:’ - ~‘x1".‘:u;'sb but}; man“, avi 139239 It "31112.51 1 en ‘31 a: .L anfqua h'xr; u is ;\~ez sh: no .noian93x9 «dc ai t; 1gn+ ,ia ‘JLLQJ vi 6.:3qxs 5931:? sdT" :osjfuq svkizn 2303 10 no431Lb: an: 15d: ;52 o: neidduu ylsiuloa 10 530i :ssjnisi and 915m 03 pzlog £1 synufi rr nwOIQ 99310: 763n9fl9915 o: sanoqeex n1 ".JSXIfiM b’xow WK; n1 9 noxsiikt .aiesxosnl sand e’nsaiiih ed: danispe anw galvaap 99330: and: ‘ bwasdz 2I13s3 5 3i awiéaa sfia finidd I" ;b9misIooxq yisaiw 9d l 7 ‘9" mill awe and». no puma): as noenq may mask aim ow: .NQI in rebate”: an: uni-1m: U aslficfi dhfiliifi :0! gain” in: antatv1oqui Iszualuoirps :boIJJsa ‘01 bananas; 1401113 {IIsIJInI .pniwo1c My all annoy once” £915 ass.aud ae iaaanoynszxn noun hm: u 11%; u ‘5‘ ".9slv1ss to II It 33.7 ..9 no -sauosw lggglllr ‘ Wad: has a 10 .I\££ Vb£\£!2 OD. “‘ItQI ‘yzsandafi .910: .o: tisxttz as .ttcz .a.do:ao II ..v00 0: 331‘“ 71 outset should rest on someone about whose fitness to bear it there can be no question." Eventually Nairobi proposed that a forthcoming gradu— ate from the Imperial School of Tropical Agriculture in Trinidad would receive three months intensive training in coffee work at Scott Agricultural Laboratory and then be posted to Embu. In the meantime, a temporary agricultural officer would be placed in charge of Embu. A settler with a diploma in agriculture from Natal, who had eight years of experience in Kenya as a coffee grower and who had acted as an agricul- tural officer for one year, would serve in Meru. Another European settler, Mr. Graham, with a two year course in the Agricultural College of South Africa, six years farming ex~ perience in Kenya, and service as a temporary agricultural officer, would be in charge in South Kavirondo. It was pro- posed eventually to place a Trinidad graduate in South Kavirondo.97 The Colonial Office agreed to these appointments. However, London also discussed the staffing issue with the Carnegie Corporation which was interested in supporting develop- ment in African areas. The Colonial Office suggested under a five year agreement with Carnegie that provision be made for two additional agricultural officers of Trinidad standard to work in Kenya to supervise African coffee growing.98 Although 96Note, 18 September, 1933, co 533/431, No. 3040. 97 23133/1. 98 23133/1. Gov.'s Deputy to SSC, 7 March, 1934, CO 533/447, No. Bottemley to Gov., 28 April, 1934, C0 S33/447, No. ‘ 1 ‘ 1e nun' 'UQBWCt nu jaqx blood! 191100 E .ua.feab§ on ad n53 515d: uv ‘L. ”-71; ; J-r: ‘r-~ . . xd01tew g'faurngua n :1 cwgu A... gig-f; it i: 'ugz‘rz‘ ; , Uri-,1. .'hi'!‘3".f.".I arid {am} 936 at 'f'ti.»_ ¢’.1g1t.' 9' 1*“ .w x1 9”i3903 FLHOW bsbinij : avg :r n: ‘72 {ants} i~n Lu’, . M “3:33 1: 110w 533309 isa'.::“!i. . 1.7.1:.Ji‘jj‘li. \f‘z. < ".'rr-r L . .“ 27:30»! «15 u!) .111de 03 sniLge» r J’A. ef43~a A ‘Hm J 1H.LH3 1; reusiq 5d bfuow mornizawvn .. 31r9{ 4nuiu 5;” er .letsn mozz ;“-?{”fi§195 ni 1.13114 5 ‘ ms bar: 12'»: 1: re trait-1t: so? r3 2: 35 51:13}! Hi 19430.".3. .1, .1J mi :93 b!;'-J'.-' ‘mlw‘g may. to?! vsoiilc 1511.13 9d1 n1 921009 153$ ow: 5 djrw .msdsza -1“ .st3393 assqoxua vxa pnimuoi BISSY x18 ,59i11£ diura to epsiiofl Is1udluoirpk InIufluolxps 1515109“: 5 an salvage Ems ‘synax ni 99:191qu ~01q 25w :1 «obnoxl'fisfi time‘s, ni 5915110 ni 5d Vquow Janina ‘d-wo'a n: samba-1.9 51311111? is 55qu n yIIaujnsvo beaoq Y2 .riaemanioqqs Bead: on accuse suliio Islamic? on? .obno1tvsx 911:? £311: staff 3513in 9d: Mounds oats gonna: ammo! «30!sz “dim! iii 833m 931:1 any dotdw nonszoqzoa demo? sonic £421:on Cd! .um Mobil at 3am ’.l\££l€§ .IVCICS 1 AA. 72 these plans did not materialize, they reveal London's inten- tion at the time to ensure that expansion of African coffee production was not hindered by financial arguments and by lack of an adequate supervisory staff. The regulations governing African coffee growing, which received the colonial Secretary's assent in October 1933, were published in July 1934. Areas in which coffee cultivation was to be permitted were to be defined by the director of agricul- ture, based upon suitability of the soils and climatic condi- tions; the amount of cultivation in terms of economic control and supervision; and economic considerations affecting African interests. No African could grow coffee unless he had been granted a permit from the director of agriculture, issued by the district commissioner. Before such a license was granted, the director had to be assured that satisfactory provision would be made for supervisory services; that the planting and development of the coffee field would be carried out satisfac— torily; and that provisions for a pulping station or other processing methods would be made. The Native Grown Coffee Rules of 1934 also provided for the inspection of coffee land similar to those for European areas. After the rules were promulgated, government gazetted specific areas within South Kavirondo, Meru and Embu Districts, where coffee could be grown. In South Kavirondo it specified Nyaribari, Bassi and Kitutu locations. '- , 1' ' . L " r 7.5‘ . i.;xv;;m ion nib ennlq ...dS eiv' . 3. .s.;:u Jr 3min 5d: 35 not: :1 - * "+3 ‘ ', T An ..‘ * '.ebrid son élfi noiiuuboxq 27‘ ;:.aex.equa sisuisb an 20 :3 .3 1‘, V .s r n: ”, In: , -‘ aw"ljrlngsu an? . , , x’.‘ 2' ~14 . ">_-1nw? Ceiwoi v and bovieoav I lJI" '; . _.1? o or 3; ass: 7'91 vfuL n} badeliduq *tginnfi it -031 :ib Mn: ‘1 traits: :3 -r jnfih beijimmsq 9d 01 -;L~c» n13£nilj huh 21 v' w'? in _.i_idsriue ncqu tread .9103 loungn: “ignwcoh if :r 1; ii noifireLyivo 30 JfibOmL an: :8fl013 mantras p“i:39115 aroijbl—nianoo sjmvnoos one :HCIBI‘TSQLB has used fed ad easing 59130: wo1p niunc neoizlfi 0H .ajas1asni yd bonsai .s1uiiuoixps in 10:391ib 3d$ ~01} 31m1eq a bsialas .bsdns1p ass oansoil a dash 910198 ‘.19aoiaarnmoo :3 inJaib ed: minivmq yxwofiolaoa 35d: bezuaas 9d o: bed 1030911?!) at: bats pnimtq 9d: and: :asr-a vxsa y‘xoeimqul mi absa ed buoy ~n5iéfi&QQ*3vooboiazso 9d binow blsii soiiao 9d: 10 anamqolavnb Wmmusufllqing s 10*} 311035:qu 33:5: bra :yllso: M wad an? .955» ad mow 8m autumn; MI was ”Miami. do: 803 “I“ can LEQI 30 so“)? a: 151m: 73 Summary Up to the 19305 the colonial government strongly sup- ported the European coffee industry which represented a major source of the colony's revenue. Settlers and their allies argued vehemently against coffee production by Africans, often claiming that such an innovation would lead to the spread of diseases and pests, and that Africans would not care properly for their coffee. However, it is evident that the high stand- ards and ideal of coffee growing professed by the settlers did not prevail among all the European planters. An underlying reason for the opposition to cash crop production by Africans was the fear that development in the African reserves would prevent an adequate supply of laborers on European farms and force the rate of wages up. During the world depression which seriously affected the Kenyan coffee industry, the Colonial Office's concern over the economic conditions in the colony, as well as political and humanitarian considerations, led it to pressure Nairobi to change its policy on coffee growing by indigenous people. Clashes between the Colonial Secretary, Lord Passfield, and Governor Grigg led to a stalemate, which subsequently ended , when new persons were appointed to these positions. The Euro- pean growers acquiesced since they were vitally interested in having a bill passed to establish the Coffee Board, although they fought hard to ensure that coffee cultivation by Africans would be limited. The outcome was a very restricted plan for . 31‘“ trim!- frnm. "g “mm m W "ii u: qt! 1 ,—n 5 ns' ~791:u1 i'l:m .";t '4. 19' Cm T! 33103 ed: bofixoq tiff: 1;;- :w; r-e”; ‘ ~ ., - ' x oz add lo 59300! Tu i 1-a .w' *= ':.H.:. " .i.h: . 'w ”':.vwn9ds\ 2990915 :11: ..t ‘:L"» .1‘1 .- -_. } } f',."" ..‘f'ii palatial: .' ::_ : ».-’- ,;r-r1. t-vu ,A . ' :1 ., 3 . v‘.“ .2 d-oq oz 5 898.92 .'i» r ,. w! 3!! ‘ 31‘ ' .1. ‘7; l‘. , J'\’:' v‘? “83107) Iififl'f’ 103 {L _ iijue : ;7 ' : ~ '% .vv asivnu ‘1 Lsebt bns abxs n 1 I‘m : 1 . '~:" 1 ~ — “J .z 1.100% Ilsvsxq 3r)". LRLZL”J; vi rilievfinju g03r her» NJ firt‘iamlnr nnw 101 nouns: bluow aev1neex HbU;K]A'0fl3 oi invmq029Vuh 36d3 1591 ed: 35w has sfljfii nseqoxva no easiodal io yjqqna gisupsbs n3 3n9v01q Lqu 299:» 10 915: 9d: 9910) bsjne3ia ylauoixae'flainw noiaaszqae blanw add patina 19v: nxsanoa a'soiaio.lsiaol03 ads .Yansubni 991100 anvnex ed: iaaifliioq as lieu an .ynoioo an: at Instilbnoa alaonooo 9d: ifibtibfi-QIUISJEQ o: 31 be! .anoissshhlcnoo nnlznslnsnnd baa .9£i§§§ taéhipihni yd guinea: 503500‘30 101109 331 squads 03 has :Mmm- Mod .mn‘na“ fitmcm’mmed mum m 90! mum‘s-arms A you new aims: “till? huh _' I” ma ns’q ’ ;' 3....)r\ 74 coffee production in three areas remote from European farms. in addition, the rules governing production by Africans then gave de jure stature to prohibit indigenous coffee growing in areas not designated by government. The manner in which the plan and rules were implemented rested upon the govern- ment in Kenya. Legal measures were provided to allow exten- sion of production areas, but their use depended upon the orientation of those in authority. b? .223"? men. .."s; “lei""i {Hz‘Tfi 2.; r: 99m" 2:12 wolsouboxq 90!!“ ”91‘ gun; a9§ y“ goi;:s»,;3 r éoiavop ehlc: an? ‘nogslbbl uf indflflF 99‘3o; aucaspgnn; jtdrdqu odveiuasja g;u'ggg 99.9 aaxiu nr Y|nn5u pi? .jnewwxs "E v: bsjsnpiesi Jon 35:15 hi UZuYD? eds neqn banagr b: asmaqui 519w 3L:11 has nelq 5d: "rants on'n n1 fistLquq m;vv estuaGQM'lapad .byrsfi n1 anon snv noqu bsbfioqsb in; JEHHs igd .assxs nohsscpgzq 30 no}: .-::1013un n; uaofli 30 noisssnatzo 'I %"5"“5*‘3.4 ”fest 'rr—z- 4“ r": “ . 'u‘ CHAPTER 2 THE EARLY STAGES OF COFFEE GROWING IN GUSIILAND One of the areas in which coffee was permitted was Gusiiland, called Kisii by the colonialists. Although the region was not originally designated by Nairobi for coffee production, it subsequently was added. The reasons for its inclusion are assessed in this chapter, and economic condi- tions are studied. A detailed discussion of coffee growing in Gusiiland aims at documenting the assumptions of officials and administrators in regard to the implementation of the plan, and the processing and marketing of the crop. Since the project was labelled as "experimental," technical as- pects are assessed to determine the degree to which produc- tion in Gusiiland was successful. The technical questions, as well as factors within Gusii society and those external to it, are related to the expansion of the industry. Conditions in the District _________________________ 1894, as part of the Uganda Protectorate. Only after the transfer of the Eastern Province of Uganda to the East African Protectorate in 1902, were attempts made to establish effec- tive control over the region. The Gusii area contains an ex- tension of the highlands, about 2,000 meters above sea-level 75 _ fin , : ZTAJTIa“ .. 3v wcq: 1‘JW ' % tanATa yiasa 381 ;s, iv-‘12n'w: 4 .111." J! t'~‘" an} 10 900 l we" ; ,,::flr:ngis- ‘ ' fig .123H rollso .bnslllifl. W::3C’ ' ;¢:;..L {a |-',Uo at“ 11(5r1"27 jon can «019.! 2,1 “,' an ta,r an; hJLWH ear VLJnaupaudua 51 .nolioubozq ~¢hnar LILTHOLO Ln» v gsflu Fin} n; {9369285 516 “01891381 pniwoxp ;s3105 jo noieauoaib befisseb A .baibail 915 labia aisloiiio 1o auongmueas ed: gniinemvsob :5 gain ballilnaO l1 sd:_&o,no&353nsm9£qmi 9d: 03 b15903 ai auoasxsakntnbs but saute .qqzo and 30 paissxzsm fins galaasooxq ad: but .allq- -as lspjhdas: ”.Lsodemirsqxe' as bollodsl a‘w sootoaq .13 W (may: 6:! 99st and mm.“ 0: banana m can; my: ‘15?’ 76 in the northeast portion, which gradually declines in a south- westerly direction to a lower plains level. The highlands, rich in red laterized volcanic soils, consist of rounded, steep- sided hills intersected by narrow valleys. They normally re- ceive sufficient rainfall, and the entire area is well served by the tributaries of three main rivers which flow into Lake Victoria. Gusiiland contains two main vegetation zones: Kikuyu grass at altitudes above 1800 meters and star grass in the 1350-1800 meter zone. The fertile highland area was considered by Sir Charles Eliot and his successor, Sir Donald Stewart, as a potential area for European settlement. In 1907 an administrative station was established among the Gusii at a site the Europeans called Kisii. By early 1908, the government had divided the region into eight locations. Although residential areas were not strictly along clan lines, the locations nevertheless were referred to by the name of the dominant clan, and a chief was selected for each location. Because of Gusii resistance to colonial rule, the district headquarters was moved from Uganya to Kisii in March 1908. The district, called South Kavirondo, covered an estimated 2611 square miles, and was inhabited by approximately 274,000 Luos, Kuria, and a few smaller ethnic groups, as well as about 850,000 Gusii living within 539 square miles.2 lRobert Maxon, "British Rule in Gusiiland, 1907-1963," (Ph.D. thesis, Syracuse University, 1971), p. 35. Consult this source for details on the early colonial period. 2These figures are approximately those estimated for 1917. South Kavirondo District Annual Report (hereafter SKDAR) 1917, RNA: DC/KSI/l/Z. g4 “. . n. -'7_ ’ \Lifi 1:1- aniflw .;;,;1uq ivfiedjxoa sdJ at ,31.’ ‘ u 1" ..Jvoi " r1. Jrvu‘ ”. ; .Jurxib {Ilodiaw ,Quh«.7” :. :>_‘;u? .». - 9,3: . Us;11w:6[ be! ni not: .7 viiqr-- in'” :'~fia' r~1isu _. JTJTGiTS‘fl! ailtd bbuia ""-'J".:"e .'fg. 1’} r.-~‘-'l£~ 'F‘1J '~ 'u 7.7L ‘ ViLiuii- )fifll'DIilb'e 9V1” wAsJ 0101 J ,3 M%1_r ; 7;" 2:57 .11 fl ‘1 taijhtuaili 9d: yd :awwo: 3:13;:rhv. v;=w ow“ T'Lnf“: bwsliiana .skiojaiv a: i ! 71-er '2': .'ugf' 5'5"! '1-1l: E‘;IL;:1;")'::- 3r. 286:9 awn“)! 65m l'T knifnprn J[iJ‘;: on“ one: Ioiem 0081*OEE1 9d: n1 3 ‘FM a .. i1; . va':.'i’..)':~." ;‘.1{‘. {11‘6 J“: -115 dz‘vL’IS-"T‘ "113 YO bfliSbiBflOD .sninoijdsa useqoiufl 103 sewn lsianafiuq s as .stweja puoma nonalldsdao saw noijsjn svi*cxxsintmbs on $081 nl .80?! glass 2!! .iiata hells: annoqo'wa an: 931?. e :5 mega on: .anohsnoi 369R 51“ solar: ad: bsbivib bad :nsmn'tsvog on; mm}! min gala :1»:on ion new “925 Ioiinebkaex npuomm 9:13 30 ainpa m 24 63 “not": om Imminent: 3x10133901. 04:) mum: dong “1: ”who on! 3.1“ a has .nslo Jasniaob x 0.521 M“ M an amp” I013 bovom our a-xsdxwposad [animal 1min!“ duos balls: “1013131: od'r 090 W: 2! i I: yum I” “V paella “up! 113$ Mutts-pout a m .siwl .0004 5 “an“ an swim.“ uaua 000.on We!) 63 Winter ile 30 5:11.998 Warm“ ‘7' a!” hub" .mll ”doll ' 5— }, W may! .aiasd: .mfl) » iii an no Van‘s-b :03 wanes out: fl 7 no norm”! eaod'rs V'mtfiua " Y 188003,- “1.35;: n? . 77 Similar to the pattern followed throughout the pro- tectorate, the early stage of colonial administration over the Gusii focused on establishment of control and new structures through which to maintain law and order. Thereafter, while strengthening efforts in administration and initiating a new judicial system, attention was turned to the collection of taxes and related activities. As elsewhere, taxation implied a means of stimulating a supply of African labor for both in- side and outside the district. Also, taxation was utilized for encouraging trade, based on a money economy, in animals, animal hides, and agricultural produce. Bringing the indige- nous people into the money economy was also used as a strate- gy to encourage the purchase of imported goods. The Gusii traditionally had combined agriculture with animal husbandry. Their main crop was wimbi, a type of finger millet, five varieties of which were grown. By the turn of the century, they cultivated at least two types of sorghum, three kinds of potatoes, seven varieties of beans, and pumpkins. Agricultural activities, as well as hunting, cattle keeping, warfare, and building, were carried out on a cooperative basis. The cooperative unit was the amasaga (plural, risaga), or neighborhood, which had a clearly defined membership. The size of the task to be performed determined whether persons within a sub-area forming a small group or all units forming the large group would be called to participate. Neither the sub-groups nor the entire neighborhood operated on principles of formal organization, nor did they contain institutionalized ‘1‘; n. , "13 hm” Jw° . ' 4 “.‘J "'1 ‘2. "’2 '. :fi: ,3. ‘0: h 3; g. ‘ ' ‘ l .5 . ' I if: \.[ {2‘59 515.! .93510’003 ‘ ‘ : " ;*—n:o' 7“ ".'v i '-~s :0 #623303 lieua =15, : . . a, .’ x ‘t: ' i .. f x . I: " ”=3. :7 f aiDiiEV 619110111! my; r tnift’ ’ n - J 1" }' , =)‘w? . pniqutpnexyn nr13uw, ’ .” ,< ;~‘r44 r w w ‘v'arJL .MDJb\& Iéznibuc ;,.x; , fiJLJSKK’ .~~rntgcl- .fi ,L;;_-viaon rsjclsx but 39x33 - , - ‘r g h r ,. v ' .fran. , 9n515£Umf18 1o ensam 3 art (1 ;'\ .ai'.“ .09’9 rillfimifl so} notatuo bus abis ,7 :wr.n vi ‘ng .~ fi”’fl r: L=anu .sasxj pnipbuuoons 103 T(3Li in} gaiznlfd azuvrxn istnjlusixpn bna .aabin 15mins 'BJLK V . ha been oats asw ymoooos {snow ed: 033! siqonq anon .aootw bsjloqmz 10 sesdcxuq on: spszuoons o: I? MJiw stujruoixps banidmoo bad {llnncxsibsx: liaua sdT :apnii in sgy: s .idmiw saw gain “ism 119d? .yabnsdaun Losing »——. a—-.» 9.13 3.3 niuj adj Y8 .nwaug screw down 30 utioixsv on: "alum 991d: .mndeaOe io eoqy: ow: Easel an has-vision yed: .yaujnso aniasmpq has .snsod i0 aoiisixsv nevus .30016309 to 35:11 .enlqsai'sznass».enidavd as ££ov as .aaialvisoa 153031091194 .aiaad'awlzfixsgnna 5 do Eva 50:31:: Chow .psibiiud has .orslxaw 78 positions of authority. A person needing work to be done, such as clearing new land, notified members of the group who would give their labor. They would be rewarded or thanked by a beer party after the work was completed for the day. The amount of drink given was not related to the size of the task performed nor the hours spent working; thus, it was not payment for the labor obtained. A wealthy homestead might call work groups more frequently than others, since they could afford to provide the necessary rewards, but the right existed equally for the poorer homesteads. At times only the women were called to work, but their husbands would come to enjoy the beer because they had some proprietory rights over the labor of their wives. On other occasions men and women worked together. In principle, it was the men who would clear the land, while women prepared the land, planted, weeded, and harvested. Men were also re- sponsible for putting up the basic structure of houses and the thatching; women mudded the floors and plastered the walls. The designated roles for men in agriculture, however, were not rigidly maintained; when necessary they might perform or as- sist in activities normally ascribed to women. Men would es- pecially undertake more tasks on their own plot (emonga) which they cultivated for personal profit. Another form of cooperation in agricultural production was carried out by daily work parties, divided into morning (egesangio) and afternoon (ekebosano) groups. These small daily work groups consisted of women either closely related .1 ~‘ ; w ., ran: n ,«h. g .7;: 3‘}us Bo anoiflsoq ". ‘u. '-. ,, 1. L’.‘ L.’_-,'i';.3u: L l. A a: ;..1i1[‘3.‘3 85 :11)!!! new ,. i:f»‘,l"n'.-r"».” 1,'.'..’_".' 'V' .1315! ‘Iisdd‘ evip bluow .." '1” 1;. "'7-.. ;' 'J ‘"' 7: : ‘L' i‘ fang 199d 6 Yd Z, :4 :‘ ,ini 1.‘ -5w Pflkty {nzih To inroms 9d? 0 ; .d: r“... 'J ‘:,__ ethox a _ awn bamjnftsq x35: ‘4;' '."1anC '13.»:4 . .Yu.v ‘uw ;.ir: an: 101 insmysq £12.“. A ”a.” .1,.; .~ ’ ft . ‘ '{132 ' W11 - ‘.»"rt auncq :how 115') L .i; L-i: mvu , o .‘¥1.HL' lICJEW-QH 1J3 ubivozq on b20331 'x UWEJjEJW fl '1'1q an: 103 yilaups 1:353 32d . nov a: sfl'iav «law nsmww on: yino 39ML3 :A emoa bad vsfid FCLDDSJ reed ed: going 03 smog biuow abnsdsun radio n0 .asrxw~ulad3 10 rodsl an: 1990 ztdpix vxoioiuqorq 31 .siqisniiq a: .zsdsepc: bofl: c. nsmow has new eaolasooo .5925951q namow silnu ,bnsl and 13910 bluow any hem and saw ~93 oaIs orsw nan .bsfiésvzsd has .bsbsaw .boanslq .bnsi an: has‘asasod 3o saqggstta atasd and go pulsing 103 aldinnoqa .aiisu as: beraoasifi Eng stoola ads hookah «snow .pnidoind: on: 79 or living near one another. For example, a morning group might consist only of women within the same domestic unit, such as a woman, other wives of her husband, and their daugh- ters—in-law. These groups were not formally constituted and their membership could fluctuate from season to season. The daily work parties operated on a strict rotational basis; one day working on member A's fields, the next day at member B‘s and so forth until the group had performed tasks for each member, before it assisted member A again. In this way, daily agricultural work was carried out on the basis of reciprocity. No additional hours of labor input were gained, but such co- operation provided a social means for accomplishing one's work. Trade of food products among the Gusii was minimal during normal seasons. More common was the exchange of food based on principles of reciprocity and social obligation. Barter among the Gusii was based mainly on acquiring items produced by specialists, such as ironmakers, potters, and soapstone carvers. Trade with neighboring Luos and Kipsigis was conducted in the pre—colonial period both in times of peace and war. During normal agricultural seasons the Gusii mainly exchanged produce for animals, but when drought struck they relied on their neighbors for food. The Luos, who often experienced prolonged drought and periods of famine, referred 3 to Gusiiland as their "granary." During the colonial period 3William Ochieng, "Trade Contacts and Cultural Con- nexions Between the Gusii and the Luo in the 19th Century," paper presented at the Historical Association of Kenya, Annual Ul'lk :_‘ ,, .-~ .u r, _ rn‘nxfi gnu i6fi: outwit 10 u; ‘;m .1 'v y=no jaianoo 3491. urin'iaziqmooon we.” Hfll'w‘fi’l‘. .'sz’we s 339:1”016; {10131519530 .xxow .amiaim 35w ilaua and gnome afingbqu booi 30 obszT boo? he spaadoxs adj 25w nouns: anon .anoaaoa Ismaon pnixnb .noijspiido {since has Yttaozqiosu 30 aalqionizq no belbd amedl eniiinpos no yLsism nossd use 11390 ed: poems 193158 has .axsiioq .azpflsunoxi-as nous .asailsiaoqa yd boauboxq alpieqix hasV sand saisoiflpisn «31' 0553? .ezsvznc onothAOC 19 am: at. m baking Inlanipwnq ad: n1 humans on: “are mu m “mini-as W M 5.35:! has soapq . ”A. . 'u . ‘ 35 12:17; nsmow E 85 tion. 32'23?‘;.- ,1 -‘i , 1: u 4:;.m aszf .Wfl~ni~2193 “TEL”- 1' , ‘*" < “Wu 3 '11 C’da :tdnum mind: 47--”- ‘ , a 7 m, ;« .. m, tem- .1; 2&1va glinb utr: .1 ' 'gcn J .1v-; . Z 19dn~n v~ gfl‘iTPW {5L sno- .r~'. 1;.1 .1, ;..47 Z: en 9;. 4-1!“ 1.: -'f."t .. ":1 ‘: 02 bass 8'8 _. . z. 7‘ . : ‘ A re Inga: dais“. ::: 7.x. r-fxazsd .'xsdlm ‘4un 'gr.’ . ~ ~ 5 so b51:x.v saw 119w ifiiualuoizps -~.. V. . LL' . '1; 4 1‘ 3:23 215'» fluqr'. 10:3. 1' emod 03.701 ‘ibbs 051 ":im. . 80 this trade continued to be significant. Prior to World War I a few trading centers were es- tablished in Gusii country to support bartering across the borders, serve as collection points for produce and animals, and to function as centers for selling imported goods to "stimulate the desire to earn money."4 In spite of these centers, the traders, consisting of Asians, Somalis, and Swahilis, usually resided in Kisii town and made buying trips through the countryside. Trade in cattle to be exported from the district was often prevented, however, because of quaran- tine due to diseases. Otherwise, commerce was largely de- pendent upon suitable roads and paths, and adequate transport. Produce was transferred within the district by porters, bul- lock carts and donkeys. These means were also used to trans- fer loads from Gusiiland to Homa Bay, Karungu, and Kendu Bay (opened in 1912). At these ports firms purchased goods and cattle and then shipped them by lake transport to Kisumu. The volume of trade was aided by Gusii agricultural endeavors. As early as 1907, a colonial administrator recorded that "as agriculturalists the Kisii are very industrious."5 Conference 1972, Nairobi, Kenya, p. 6. A description of pre- colonial Gusii society and patterns of migration is contained in William Ochieng, A Pre-colonial Histor of the Gusii of Western Ken a C.A.D. 1500-1914 (Kampala: East African Litera— ture Bureau, 19745, although some of the conclusions narrowly define the complexity of the processes. 4C. E. Spencer, "Notes Regarding Kisii District, 1913- 14," RNA: DC/KSI/3/2. 56. A. S. Northcote, "1907 Histories and Customs," RNA: DC/KSI/3/2. '* .uv.:noo shew! aid: s2.‘ ~‘.,»; A r , .xu 'tnk -" 10119 .. ; .y 11;. n2 basil-11d” 75 “up .,‘U x , . . .fh~! v s sv132 .aisbaod -vyug n': 1 1‘ 1 ‘~ ‘ a: noiinnui'o: bus .C~ ; .L 'I Limb 911.; 936.1Utfi11.” in. . Iv~cu , 7 ;J —r ‘ .u '1 3.3. r; vii .auoinso r1;x. , 1 92- 1 . “,2‘ .r.‘ f ;‘.t;- “iznuzu .ailkflnwa .:“fi .n‘~r'vz .- .4 v.¢ :. L ;‘ .3hiEW17HJCJ add dpuoxfla ::L;' i -u5:~~ .1 law‘. ..5 va'rwq tssir anw Joiudaib 9d: can 'xe;.m saw u ~~mfi0r .gaiuunuc: .eshsaeib 03 905 oak: .JIFQYHVVJ 3J.n ebr cn' suffiq YKE abscfi alcsdiua acqu :nsbnoq —Iud .Euleoq yd 19131515 an: ninjiw bsuweizipuj saw souboxi -answq a: bran 0815 oxaw anssm sasdu .aqssaob but 33:59 £901 ysa ubnsfi has 1upfluIBX .ysa smoH o: hnslilaua most absol 1.8 has angst becsdsanq anti} aszoq seeds 1A .QEIQI oi benign) .pnusix_’oa.3:cqansxd sflal rd and: bcqqhda and: bus 918’.» 11119611151133 11811:) 211 Embu am that: ‘10 mlov an! babxqsgggnc55zzetaxmbs £n1u0103 5 roe: as 11110 as .azovsohno 61;}; r; ' ' .2: itTQI endorsinos 211.19 iniaoloo 4'" “1111!! 1:1 ‘5' *3; L~-. ‘ run an: Gait-b 81 Two years later another official reported that the Gusii were "excellent cultivators" and "far ahead of the Kavirondo [Luo] in the use of cash and understand and appreciate the central coinage."6 These statements document the awareness of some administrators to Gusii agricultural pursuits, but must be understood in relation to the predominance of pastorialism in the rest of South Kavirondo. With a few exceptions, district officers largely ne— glected Gusii agricultural activities. Up to 1913 in Gusii— land, action was taken in the distribution of new varieties of seeds, such as beans and maize; the encouragement of new crops, especially wheat; and the establishment of experimental seed plots. Afforestation also received attention through the promotion of plantations. Revenue for these undertakings was mainly derived from the Kisii Captured Stock Funds.7 In February 1913 an agricultural instructor, Mr. Wiley, arrived in the district and served for twelve months. His activities centered on training thirty cattle for ploughing. Mr. Wiley also promoted wheat production among the Gusii and simsim growing throughout suitable parts of the district. Much of his attention, however, was given to cotton growing in the Luo areas. The activities initiated by Mr. Wiley and the mar- keting of agricultural produce were disrupted by the outbreak of war.8 6sanR 1908—09, KNA: DC/KSI/l/l. 7Livestock seized in retaliation for Gusii resistance against the British were sold and the revenue placed in this special fund . SSpencer, "Notes 1913-l4." "WW—r. " r > '.jf" ‘;r " xxzcna 19951 11591.0UT .u ~, p :' ~ .' :bx.31uo Snailsoxo' ~13 J H ' a ‘ .‘ ’,-.. ‘21. {Strata to 981.; 9d? :11 3.: ‘ :'::-.' , ‘_ 5357:: --‘.-r-:9.d‘l‘ 6" .opanioo ;'.v r:' _+. , . . 7nig‘:c 4:{hw a: sxcfetoaznlmbn "‘ . ' .. ‘ - ,ij 25' ' 3' ." 35.-7'31 (:1 ”003111st \1rvnH nfuoa in snot adj " ..1‘JT'J.“ "A? t- :', 11W .~ ', “ -'H :4“; L31; ‘15.:‘2'1'1‘95 llauEi b93591: 9r7'- --‘ ‘V . u -11 .1” ad: n: ~afisé 85w noitos .bnsl «we. ‘1'"; ; ‘7‘.‘;;.'";' n": :srizsm ‘I-zw a-uzsd 3i. niiue ,absn lo IBJugdilbfiHE to IAsmdaIKdfitl‘ 951 505 :teedw {115139039 .quzo ad“ SQUWJJJ fl“.3nei$€ boviaoe: safe noissiaozoiik .aioiq‘bOOI :sg apajzaixsbnu 93353 to? sunavsfl .aaoljssnsfq to notionoxq n1 v.3bnufi £3038 bsxusqba 113k! and mo1} bsvixab {Inlam bsviirs .yafiw .an .iossuxsaai 151031991195 as £191 vislxdo! aeigiuitos 22H .adjnom avjswn to: bovine ban 19135015 95: n1 gaziw .22 .Qnidpuoiq roi'913330 $31141 paintsxj no 505.3399 ‘mfimia “has tuna“: mu mummy nods: basal-our on.“ 10 flaufi' itfi¢13itb ad: 1» £31.; sid‘ilna SIO‘QIOIIH gal-619 ad: a; aaiuoip added» 03 dusty“ L_.aoi:ao1:n eta ' , .una 00.1 82 During World War I trade from the district in agricul- tural items was low, due mainly to a lack of transport and storage facilities outside. However, trade in cattle was ¥active1y encouraged because of military needs. When a suffi- cient number of cattle was not marketed voluntarily, people were forced to sell their animals. According to the district commissioner's annual report for 1916—17, "the native has had to pay high prices for everything he has bought and in many cases he obtained low prices for what he sold."9 Moreover, in 1915 the hut and poll tax had been raised to Rs. 5. The war years were preceded in the protectorate by a period of depression, and famine and influenza struck through— out in early 1919. As elsewhere, South Kavirondo was affected. Trade was so slow that shops temporarily closed and part of the time a quarantine on cattle prevented marketing outside the district. The depression did not prevent government from raising the hut and poll tax, which, in 1920 went up to RS. 8. However, in the next couple of years the colony underwent a change in its monetary system so that in 1922 the tax rate was Sh. 12/, which actually represented a reduction from the previous years. In order to ensure that tax obligations could be ful— filled, it was necessary to stimulate economic activities in the African reserves. Agricultural production and related activities in South Kavirondo began to receive greater atten- tion in the 19205, following a shift in government policy. 9SKDAR 1916-l7, KNA: DC/KSI/l/Z. '~ . n! ' ’ NJ: "U . ._ ~.:.‘,r~u' i in" o'LDW {mitlud < ‘ '. ' 'r‘ ‘ - .5 rum. 2‘." 94:; 25»: 301931 law: .1 , = txj _' :«wci‘. ‘bia‘ntn ”Jill i061 99.103. g7v~-£5~ 2 . luau hsynvuoune yisvzjoc .u ‘1. 1:13. in new“ 31min neg-f i w ‘ , 52,13? - . :31: 5'. ..‘di 1.‘ - ')5 b30301 9:99 1. _ - a”. - ~13 .. ~)“ - ;~ ‘73¢v” -. 2- s'zanoiuatnwbo aw, - . {-13 :.":‘u:.-_{ 7w" .nwrgxrmn ‘ C‘ "Asst; £19m WV; 03 :JVUogrh ‘. I e 3' Adm 23' "9341. .v banisido 9n asaco .7. r.‘ J-.»";'x -' -.vuzt 4...: \ ms Jim! 951'? file}; a1 a yd exam, dam; 5.x." .«hm‘sxa an». 37.-'71 m‘w orf'l‘ -dnvotfiz fiouxja asssnlinf has animal on; L3iflafliq9b :~ boiuoq .39439132 cow abscitvnh diced .arodwsais 3A 9(21 glass at duo lo 335g baa fisaolo yiirsroqneo aqoda 3563 vol; 0e ass show? shiaiuo pniaoxzam baiasvsiq 913355 no onljnsmaup a sat: 05: mos: snanuasuog :novaxq don bib noiaoezqeb ed? .39133eib on: .8 .aa a: q» 395w 8321 xi .dotnw .xa: 1:01 ban 1nd ed: palate: BM maimed; axis: in “Qt-30° axon w at .mm mm at: 5:931 31; tad: 00 may: 331130006 an at awn-do WWW as. Wm “1‘38! M A“ .52 mt . in War minus. .4; ' 10:61.11: 111 mu 83 In 1922 the agricultural supervisor stationed at Kisumu, Mr. Booth, toured the district and reported on its agricultural conditions and prospects. He described Gusiiland as "thickly populated" and its inhabitants as "good cultivators...[who] appear...a progressive race." Although they primarily grew wimbi and sorghum, he observed "several small but good" fields of wheat in Kitutu and Bassi, and a "fair amount" of ground- nuts and simsim grown in Wanjare. Very little native maize was grown, but the improved seed maize recently issued to chiefs and headmen was reported as "doing very well." Booth pointed out that Gusiiland's remoteness, with high transport costs to the railway, prevented maize from being an economic crop. Linseed, which was produced in small quantities and which had fetched low prices in previous years, he listed as "suitable for native cultivation." Booth also suggested that it would be profitable to grow wheat extensively in the high— lands and groundnuts in the lower regions, while onions could be produced throughout Gusiiland. To carry out a promotional scheme, he urged the employment of African instructors.10 The district commissioner claimed that South Kavirondo needed at least four or five more of them, for they were "essential 11 if any progress is to be made." At this time there was only loAgricultural Supervisor, Kisumu to DA, 23 October, 1922, report on "Agricultural Conditions and Prospects of South Kavirondo District," KNA: Dept. Agric. AGR 4/3. 11District Commissioner, South Kavirondo (hereafter DC) to Senior Commissioner, Nyanza, 12 December 1922, KNA: Dept. Agric. AGR 4/3. ' 1 i138 Aver” .. : ~ [moircs 94? SSE! BI y ‘:*.:; ~:, -. I “’ g. .. :< "' ,ng Grid have: .113008 3!.2 . .Ier;‘r,u :. '_ - . '.uqar.. bus anok31bnoo :1 " ' r. 2" “ .2 .1'. " r-(‘nx R'J- 55:3 ”bejziuqoq ‘;.:7:_" 2'" .‘ ‘ 7. ' :‘ii’vi’wfinl‘iq b...159qq5 f..,! ‘ivc1 ~u 'yu; ”r ' : ~V‘Jv ed .undpxoa b“? idmxw ,- ” 1 ; -' .~. lifph nan uHijx v: rasdu 3o .* u ‘e; ’ffli‘ ctr .312f2uh ,; nw'wc Itemia has 810a ' ‘* :7 ...: """ $143.- tam" ad: ."ad .nworrl aaw d: “a ‘." ..=g . '2':L ~. hnjtnqsu 35w nsmbaefl bns aloiflo .“i'”.V.TI flusf {Jim .zzopajonaa a'oasltiaun ind) juo beinioq :fmrutwn as guise meil sslem beinavaxq .yswiiéx 9d: 03 33.00 Lns zaifiLjnLup Llama n! boonbozq asw dotdv .beszniJ .qoro as 55322( on .arsev acolvsuq n1 saving on bedodsi bad doiflu (T :sna “& aeppue oaLa dance ".fiuljsVISIUU svkian so! oldsiida‘ ~ng1d ed: ai yievianeixs 3535» were 03 aldaaxfioxq ad bluow 41 blues anoino elidu .aaoipsx Iowa! 943 at asynbnuoxp has shoal LsnoiiomOIq a duo 23135 or .baziiiaub suodpuoadi bsoubozg ed 01.22633u232fi1 why. 10 3m1w on: began an .9330: m... paces-2MB: dam nm'mua swam... 2512:.» we - i 7 3mm nut 2s 84 one African instructor, primarily occupied with starting ex- perimental rice fields outside Gusii country. The director of agriculture promised to station a European agricultural supervisor in South Kavirondo "as early as possible," rather than an African because "we have difficulty with native in- structors, not only their supply - there are but few - but their supervision."12 The agriculturalist promised by the director of agri- culture was posted to South Kavirondo in 1924. Assisting him were an African agricultural instructor and two apprentices. Although they were primarily occupied with the extension of cotton growing in Luo areas, they promoted wheat, bean and maize production among the Gusii; encouraged the establish- ment of fifteen black wattle plantations, two to three acres each, throughout the district; and established a ghee industry in Kisii. Mr. Spranger, the supervisor, found that the exist- ing small-scale wheat fields were planted with old seed which resulted in inferior crops. Approximately 1,000 pounds of new wheat seed were distributed, and Mr. Spranger planned to supervise planting in the forthcoming seasons.13 However, he was transferred in 1925 and not replaced. 120A to Sr. Commissioner, Nyanza, 27 December 1922, KNA:' Dept. Agric. AGRI 4/3. 13Agricultural Officer, South Kavirondo (hereafter A0) to Sr. Agric. Supervisor, Nyanza, 7 January, "Report for the year ending 31 December 1924," KNA: DC/KSI/l/3. . ‘ ‘ ,?~;I*':~m.*.::;('.' nani‘llh one .7 n- : .. A a- » ch19; 931: iasnomlzoq .ir— ‘ Pv- -..r_v‘1-.; mquuohps 30 -~::sx Janna ck xoelvzoqua -,. ‘1 r~ ' - 5.: 23a navitiA n: and: 'u - ‘ - , ~r , ”Lfifi’ "LH inn .axojouaaa nn2a1vzsqua iron: u,:’xz.3iuuiipfi edT .n . ....~ . 'v, n -, ."2.R njroz us bezauq enw QIU$IUO 333; Lhifl”ldDil§fi n(sixiA an area '1 - L.;gnoau {Liasmqu sxew 19d: dpuodilt L.” ,. vcxw 1919m;“' '3”: .assus cud ni pniwoap nodioo ~ni .s¢.2« an: bepniuzbnc :iiauD 9d: pnoos noianuboxq oxina (VS 'olfl‘ cf ow: .auctssjnsiq slsssw scold aasziii 20 :non 713.:rh i esfiy s befialicajee baa {Jaludaib an: suodauozdj .633. ".xa an annx'bnumi .zoaivxsqua 0d: .xogusaqa .2M .1131! at n7€n¢ huge :15 aviw beanslq 319v ebIoii 35.6w olsoa~115ua out io-abnuoq 000.IrylsasmIXquga .aqozo loiaodal a1 boaluoox 03 benafiiq x; '~ar511q8 .2m but .fioiadzasalb stem bos- ssodv you 9d .zevewcn .angapqs eainnodtxqa ed: at uglinslq Daltmsqul 85 The district commissioner, W. F. G. Campbell, record- ed his annoyance in the annual report for 1925: "I cannot too strongly emphasize my disappointment that at the moment when ghee manufacture and wheat cultivation were commenced upon a large scale the Agricultural Supervisor should have been removed and not replaced." As a result, he claimed, wheat production had "practically come to an end," while the ghee industry was in a "lethargic condition."l4 That same year drought forced Campbell to decree an April to mid—July prohibition on the export of foodstuffs, as well as on the purchase of food for resale. Although the dairy industry received little business in 1925, the following year production was good. Ghee had many buyers, while butter was sold primarily to Europeans in Kisii. Up to the fall in prices in the early 19305, produc- tion was good. Moreover, there were several requests by Gusii to establish dairies outside the town. One was put into opera- tion in Kitutu in 1927, at a site about twelve miles from Kisii, and the following year one was established at Mukeru. Although there were several African-owned dairies operating in other parts of the district, the ones in Gusiiland were owned by and controlled by the local native council. In 1928, an agricultural officer again was posted to the district but stayed for only nine months. Among the Gusii he supervised the local native council dairies, distributed seed, promoted the groundnut industry, gave demonstrations on “SKDAR 1925, KNA: DC/KSI/l/3- - ' V , l A I III ..' V '. f, .L: ‘1‘” ’1 ,4 - . r - 42n5v.nns aid to V. - , 7 . ".'udqm9 vlpnoxao on: wn:m soda uodv ,n .1" »¥ . L-” 75351 5 aoqu ' .m. m 3‘ " .cm ‘1’. humus-x need Lou. -- .' 2A xczsnubowq 359dw v;.,_7.1:‘ ~ a. 25V yxfieubni cede wo~2g¥ ur ' vflbfli3 fin;wni JdeUIb 1592 x' :r , w: .aiiu. "; ‘6 ,:(139 an? an noijidiflodq [529* '1): new} in sand-37m; — -.;2 “ ol-‘Ef 329953: 32+?ubwa {first at? dpuodiifi cgf out? .'~ug 25w noiioubc7q 1591 pn~w>zio§ add ‘ESQI at ni :nanomufi n3 {firsmkiq bios 35w assaud vildw .axeiud fall ~1-L.L‘5L‘:‘I\._{ .esm nil-169 9d: at, 3:39in :51 um an: on Q!) .nux =rana v: eiasnpsx LazaVQe 319w $2553 .xsvoszol .5009 99' not: —u«9qo 030i jug atw eno .nwo: odd shttiuo aeixtnb deildssao 03 mom: soibm 7v£su3 Juana 3515 s as .tsea al usuiix ai not: .uxsxuuas 09:12.le now am: no! patrol-£01 0d: bun .1181! gnuhsqé wiztfl-Mm—W-fl‘ 153m! mu am decorum 97m» mum ml “loch tamiflfiffiwoq 39630 at .+ ’- .72 86 preparation and drying of hides, and campaigned for eradica- tion of striga weed. Although promotion of shade drying of hides was a national policy, by 1930 only three drying sheds were functioning among the Gusii. In the summer of 1929 an— other European agricultural officer was posted and two African instructors, recent graduates from Bukura, joined him in September. From this time onwards the district had the ser— vices of a European agricultural officer on a continual basis. Not until the 19305, however, was a veterinary officer sta— tioned in the district. The internal economy was advanced in the last part of the 19205 by an increase in power mills for grinding maize and the establishment of more local markets. Although power mills operated in Gusiiland prior to this time, beginning in the lat— ter part of the 19205, administration reserved this enterprise for the indigenous people. By 1930, a significant number of licenses had been granted by the local native council for new mills. The council also undertook measures to establish local markets and regulate centers already used in barter trade. Although the exchange at many markets was still largely out- side the cash economy, these centers began to gain prominance. The Kisii-Bakoria Local Native Council, established in 1925, stimulated and regulated several economically related activities. Starting in 1927, it levied a rate of Sh. 1/- per head on adult males. The revenue was spent on developments such as the construction of dairies and dispensaries, afforest- ation, road building, establishment of markets and a school ,5 a». , ;. uzJ 1' ' 1. 1:115 £101.15}.un ' - .f . , .; Lrflh hm-13e 10 not: H 4. ‘- V ' u 7: 7 '& ~"n.:sr i saw sabld u .;€ w . ‘ . :~.- aninc.:onui 919w . A r. '. - '“ 3:“'.Jfl» ~‘ tL3q01uS IDflJo .;' -;;;, -;,»-. .axodov13301 3.4: 1:17;: _: r Imp“ ‘3 ’z-zs m muuxl s 30 8031‘! 797 ‘ ‘= ‘e r nun ,wovswnfi .aVifl 5n: Lisnu 30H ”worms :2 3113 hi bsnofu ' 7 -:<: - w '; nnnvgga 91w 1.74.0099 £5.11, 93:1": sd'l‘ 51.23 -.'~.r~‘ 9mm. 1...: '21:} 9.11.121"; run; {11 9259:2314 r15 ‘(0 30991 90': ailim lawmq dprwdtiA .ajeiaun 15:01 axon ¥o Jasmdltiisiae ed: ~12; uni a: pntnnipsd .-mzt aidfi s:_xoi:q bncIiinuD n; bossloqo uziir 15 no 24d: bevrnaw: noidsrazinimbs .aOSQi 9d: 20 jan :0: Eu xedmun :nnuiiinpie s .Oéil 28 .siqosq auonepibni an: :01 Red :03.Iionucs oviflsn 15501 ad: yd bsiaszg mead bod nounsall Lanai fieiidsjas o: teases?“ nooaxebnu oils Lianne; our .azlia .3bsii szIBd‘ai been 3559115 aza3nao 03519205 ban enogxsm 87 accumulation fund. Recurrent expenditures included mainten- ance of dairies, salaries of market staff, payment of border guards and subsidies for mission schools. In contrast, reve- nues paid into central government were not reflected by pro- vision of services and infrastructure in the district. In 1925 W. F. G. Campbell, the district commissioner, explained: "To say that the strength of the Administration is one District Commissioner and two Assistant District Com- missioners is merely to ignore two essential facts: (1) That ever increasing demands are made upon the Administration for betterment of the natives, and (2) the natives are themselves beginning to demand that something be done for them in ex- change for their payments to Government."15 Indeed the in- habitants of South Kavirondo, like Africans throughout Kenya, received few services and provisions in relation to the amount of government revenues derived from the district. The actual expenditure on services to Africans in the district, from 1925 to 1930 was estimated to be 5 29,226, while the total revenue from the hut and poll tax and other sources was 5 333,164. As Table 4 shows, only 5 1,328 was spent on agriculture in this period. Thus, up to 1930, while the local African inhabi- tants of South Kavirondo contributed substantially to the cen- tral revenues, only a small proportion, about nine percent of the revenue, was spent in the district on agriculture and other services for Africans. The ability to contribute to 1SSKDAR 1925. u - ' : u'w 4;! uwv fl.u3 notjnIUNUOOb 1 ' “"816e .zsri'sb 30 none .- '. .:~ 1V e.*' 2.2 ;.:‘:ad: a has ahinup r“. :.. . ..';4‘= v'ni bisq coon ~- 3‘.- : : ‘ - ;_.- 3C noiakv . r;‘ = . T"‘: ‘7 " . ,fiwu‘ f .F.v,3?f n1 x'v'r-;: .. . wn: ‘r 1.. . .3 .r . vsa LN" :benisquo ”‘7. , .‘ ‘ * .. ‘::, .~ , ...; HP 7. 11' ,fw'f) 33113310 sno Ii “5 5 éuneaar ow+ 73 mg: n, viewsm 51 ezsnoreakm 15* 1' _ - r r 34 1a; 197 Sir? C_E anaaneb palacajfini 10V. eestEw f; If 3n”;1kfl afl' .9 but Lz<~l3nn ed: 23 insmtosiid -xe n; wed: in} ones 53 _3nifijcm¢% ‘cf! bznmsb 5? pninnipsd 7n} efii beebnl 3!".in9anasvoa 93 aflnmnibq :19": uni spnbdo .Eyasn :uoflbnogdt Russiaaa 5x11 .ufinefilvnfl dance 10 ajnsaldad Jauoms 9d: 03 daijalsr ni anoielvouq bar soolvxee wed bevtsaofi 159335 53% .35133318 and ma~3 Bevixab asuaovox dnsmnusvop to asei gags .sstiialb 5d: n1 annolxia 03 aenrvuoz no oxvxibnoqx. smirk-W 9523 cam ..au as .1 ea a: human. saw our on 1ij2vil 63003 to 1331: ‘3_I tine .asuaovo: 1:1: 88 .mumw> omega How Hmmmmm newsman o: mmusuflocwmxm HMGOflumoswm moflomws wan Hoods "wuoz .MOHHm .Hm4 .mmE .UHOMXO .wmsom mononm .mummmm mo coauomaaoo .souxsm .> .m wosmumao :H =.wc>oz cnoq an QuandmmMHo mm mmofl>uwm m>wumz so wusufiocmmxm pom omuooaaoo wscm>mm msw3ozm usefimumum: "mousom mmH.m con oom.v mwm Hmm.oh mam.m ,osom>mm nonuo marrow xma Haom can us: mNmH wHo.m oow oom.m me Hmo.on mam.e oscm>wm Honuo mamrmw xma Haom can us: amaa mmw.e com ooo.v mm momrow mamrv msoo>om Honuo moH.Nm st Haom pom usm nmma mmmrv chm «mm.m NN mmmrmm mmm.¢ mscw>om Hozuo mmh.om x59 Haom can now wNmH vv>.¢ mmv omh.m wme mom.om mmm.m msso>om “mono mom.>m x59 Haom pom usm mNmH mwusufioswmxm mxuoz mwusuflosmmxm mousuwosmmxm mssm>mm mscw>mm Hmuoa OHHnsm Habaomz amusuHDOMumfl Hobos mama “my mmmanmmma .eonemHa oozomH>¢x mBDOm zH muoH>mmm m>Hemm szmzzmm>ow fl Hands onaonnflhl.tdduo In L Manual: 26;. .... caucuno:baxa amhun mam Uu+omhh3wmf n In. fit an: huucunc0huflh hbulfl coauQFVnOARI IQIIIIR, 3.. 23.9 n» 03% a: $5.3. ... ....m @565. a .m moaoyaeo a» a; .moram .HH> m 89 government revenue was dependent upon the cash economy. The world economic crisis was felt in Gusiiland in 1930. The drop in prices for agricultural commodities, com- pounded by heavy transport charges, led to a reduction in the price, demand, and production of agricultural commodities ex- ported from the district. Moreover, heavy rains hindered the normal production of all crops but finger millet, and yields the following year were affected by swarms of destructive locusts. The subsequent shortage of food within the district was lessened by a prohibition on the export and sale of food— stuffs, except by permit; a famine relief program was set up in Gusiiland, but by October it was discontinued when produc- tion of food crops returned to normal. Nevertheless, low prices were still received for agricultural produce. For ex- ample, a 200 pound bag of maize sold for Sh. 2/ in September 1932, and, although the price rose the following year, in July 1933 the prices dropped to Sh 3/50 a bag.16 The depression was also reflected in a decrease in. numbers of persons working outside the district. Due to the restriction on credit and the decrease in commodity prices, the European farmers drastically reduced the number of laborers they employed and lowered the wage rates. Previously large num- bers of Gusii had left the district to work. In 1926 and 1929, for example, the recorded number of laborers contracted from 16South Kavirondo District Intelligence Report (here- after SKDIR) , September 1932 and July 1933, KNA: PC Nza ADI! 12/1/3. (‘R 7. ,; -~ 1 fvsvmxe tab at»: swims: -1 a ‘1 .J v a _ If‘p-H’TI 71110»! at?! .3 U . 'r'lk rt"? _ . .. r 1.: 69"-;q n1 qozb 9d! .08“ w ‘ .'ri‘or': r. v . -:' : '-: " : 23.".1571 vamod ‘11 5M ‘ 'uwo'w - . w - -v ' . ”... hm. ."vrr. .anemab .Iolfl up: [Is-1-3m r; ' -' ' . .- Awnexf. 5d: met! haddoq (Dir.-. 1m.- .-;.- . 1...' .. 4,,“ i»! It: nioxJaubOIq 18m ”31'!" Had. -“zuw'c. ' 7 .- r. {L- emv 1591 patwlloi-w .' ‘. , on"! 39 '.7..,‘*xo:ie. Jns’upsraua Mr .adm - we: 2" 1 '~ . :mczxa a: f .13 :zoiudldoig n '(d beneaeelflcim m' in? crown 2.; tell .2 mlxvnbi 5 zijnnsq \‘J 7613915 ‘01”! “3.121016; um».- l-nurxfinouazb as": :1 IMG_1210 '{d Jitd .ba‘llklflo it we; .aaelsfljneve? .Ibmon o: bonsai!” ago-1:: boo! low -x-..- 10*: .ssube‘xq 1511131051195 103 Wives: 1113. new I001§q usa’medqea til-\S .rtE 191 bios 982-. 10 a“ bwoq ”S s .1 90 South Kavirondo rated second highest in the colony.17 As shown in Table 5, the number of migrant workers from the dis- trict fell sharply in 1931, none were contracted in 1932, and very few found outside employment in 1933 and 1934. TABLE 5 NUMBER OF LABORERS CONTRACTED IN SOUTH KAVIRONDO DISTRICT 1928-1933 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 6,710 7,910 6,399 1,236 none 62 Source: 1928-1931 from South Kavirondo District Annual Report, 1931; 1932 from South Kavirondo District Annual Report for that year; and 1933 from South Kavirondo District Annual Report for 1934, KNA: DC/KSI/l/3 and DC/KSI/1/4. Despite such harsh conditions, government taxation re- mained at the high rate of the prosperous late 19205, Sh. 12/ per adult male,and tax collection became difficult. The need to increase the income—earning capacity of the indigenous people in order to assist them in fulfilling their tax obliga- tions, and thus help the colony's revenues, was a major govern- mental and imperial concern. As discussed previously, the Native Affairs Department circular of August 1931 called for greater economic output in the African reserves and formula- tion of long-term planning to meet this goal. 17Native Affairs Department Annual Report for 1926 and.for 1929, CO 544/20 and CO 544/28 respectively. 09 .1: " ' ' . '. Lr: but/.233 Luna: obmzm- ‘ «an i'ffi‘ -~" .2 ‘.~"5 1”sz Tc. :udmmn 9".) .6 01635? at m n'57..;u. _ .. 3n~. . LV. n: v.415da 1103 IIII. ; . .7 .'g 7, . 73113.5 um 2:15.: bnuoi we! W“'~ 5 ..‘ur. ... .. ' ‘ .yt'. ; ‘-‘..'I"'T'.“IA.I ‘3'}!3814131 , ' .v- A. '13-.17'8IU {.CK‘HJA'U'AH a II s; 2,1. .;51 axe‘ 9991 are: c. ~ 2 2 9a..) Cit.V oxt.§ ‘ L..5.... 5.25: "Lmsax'noi 5300?. 13,913 (EQIJJSQI 1m 77:11-5? mm but hum? «of! St?! nae; “11qu 9.. .jJuc‘c’. may: LIL: Lear. :‘Ibfi( 375d: 13‘: 3:101:39. [cum ;I.!/.‘« AU?! 10': Hogs?! {511st 131-13310 02311011001 ‘ -‘~ "firemen hm; (\xumoa -1! w): 5.01.3.5st firmnn‘zeavop .enoiflbaw 8133011 (on. any.“ ‘ \SI .de .aOSEI 5:5! 30019150” “I: in 1m: dill 0‘1 38 I!“ been an? 51.19::sz amour man-uses: an: hopin- ualn viii. aucfiepibzu egg-:1: 2e tam mm m Md 6 Ep5zxao x»: @5555 anglirtzuxenuaunle~3555-: oea5aine‘a: utqaii 91 The Introduction of Coffee In response to the circular of August 1931, a meeting was held in Kisii on November 25th. Attending were the acting provincial commissioner, the provincial agricultural officer, district level officers, prominent missionaries, and a resi- dent European businessman-trader. After discussing various suggestions, it was unanimously agreed that "Coffee growing by the Kisii be encouraged provided that conditions are suit- able and that adequate supervision can be arranged for intro— ducing the highest grade coffee which can be grown in South Kavirondo."18 When forwarding the minutes of the meeting to the act— ing chief native commissioner, the Acting Provincial Commis- sioner, Mr. Thompson, claimed that he did not think it was possible for such a meeting to accomplish very much, until the schemes contemplated by the government for the development of the African areas were known. In regard to coffee, he admit- ted, "This may seem rather a revolutionary proposal, but the meeting was unanimously in favour of some investigation being nade of its possibilities. Personally, I cannot help feeling that if we continue to demand tax at present rates from the native, we should put no obstacles in the way of his raising the money for it."19 18"Meeting held in Kisii on 25 November, 1931 to Discuss Preposals for the Development of South Kavirondo," KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/1 Vol. 1. 19Ag. PC Nza to Ag. CNC, 9 December 1931, KNA: PC Nza.AGR 1/2/1 V01. 1. "w ‘ '1 3351;111:013!!! III! .- ‘ ' q' ' Laoqesn n1 . m « ~ ' ~: .' gene :1: bled nu ‘ ~' '11,). ammo; [5.59MMq ,. .1 1~ .2‘1~ ‘svef 15113.1!) 1- ‘. ~ ' «.‘a'. 1 . 39:10:03 Mob .1 an. n .anolaaoppua ' '1L, gr 11g 1"” '3‘1 y 90 (gain 9d, Yd ,, 1 1. ‘ . 1 ’ flfi- 11 T;7.: u; di:u;an 36d: Bab Bide 1:3: ' “ - 1 . * "UL-w“ fifil’t‘“ SIP-Elf: .f sedph‘; 9d: DRIOUb ‘ ‘ 1:630:11th .1 '. 1- mi- : r .1” son: ;-."'"2 7 ;,- ‘11 .mum “11' T321 en'seznoi 0911K .«Lmrfiu first-1' r":~‘1’1 crz'rfuflx Gris .‘faflqzeaima eviasn ifiida pal -' 3.. find? Jon bib 91*. ind-J beanie .sroeqnon'? .1»: 3911013 -,1.- . um; \r'ou'in' 115v dengue-eon o: gnu-son a nov- :03 situation 3251:123039v-Jb add not immaevog 963 vd 5031“me We -:imi~5 ed .993300 03 55.9.1751 .uwoud now can anoint old ed: 35:4 .i‘bBOQDIq. -v¢moi:mlovw' s ”as: noon (an aim” .6019 Dated noiis.p£d3flfi*fiéfl to We! 21min“ in gain. 92 It appears that, after the meeting of November 25th, the local native council was approached for their views on coffee growing and their support obtained. Many of the coun— cil members were well aware of the financial benefits which would accrue from coffee growing, as well as coffee husbandry techniques. Several of these persons had become familiar with coffee production when they worked outside the district; others had worked on the coffee plantation at Nyabururu Mission, the Catholic mission located near Kisii town, while attending school there.20 Strong support for Gusii coffee growing came from the District Commissioner, Clarence Buxton. He felt that the area had been greatly neglected by the central government, assert- ing that "the district has not had a fair chance of develop- ment agriculturally, owing to a lack of funds, absence of eco— 21 He enthusiastically nomic objective, and lack of roads." fought for coffee growing in Gusiiland, together with other measures to develop the district. Specific proposals were set forth in a "Development Scheme for South Kavirondo,“ forwarded to Nairobi in early 1932 and submitted as evidence that year to the Kenya Land 20At this time, there were only two coffee fields in the district. Coffee was first planted at Nyabururu Mission in about 1912, and Richard Gethin, a resident businessman- trader, planted the crop on his Kisii township land around 1920. 21Major C. E. V. Buxton, "Evidence before the Commis- sion at Kisii," in HMS, Kenya Land Commission Report: Evidence, V01. III (London: HMS, 1934), p. 2346. .H 1‘ M '111' ‘1 ' 1- {L11 1 1 j v. .. ., 1 ~' ;r . ...1 l . 1".3'4 5199’ 31*“ ~. 1. .H. 1 2.; .1 .pz. 41-1.1 - 31:1" "rt-11 moss 3m 1 .. 1» r. 1' ‘mga‘ ' .-.:‘1; w .‘E.’1:1‘.'.~‘:'. .mps‘mbur .1 ; Lu.“ "in 411: ram? acutwboxq 50!)”- :11'5‘ .nu. vi.’ ,V; was _»I J; 1101 "1 .1 1...} 391.170 9113 M 50‘1"”- .miv.‘ .rr- .‘L.u:-' :3 t}? ‘nitfl 12335901 noilaifl 911m 05 . .usd: 1m 91'1‘ «on was: 271"".w'01x. 3.9.1109 119113 7.51 hog-.11."; [mafia 551.: ad: !.'.1';‘ $193 an .rroama 331191510 Jewels-Amt)“ 103113.10 241545.55 quantum-op Insane!) ed: yd bod-593w 11““? MW -qo£sv,sb 3.6% 1151 a bad Son 25:1 39.51155” W' .5va -ooe in somde mean? in Mt a or palm .yssmmuwam {fisswmfaOMna an “Kahuna to he! 1:!- 5mm!“ 155303131151stva Jan-dilute a: M W aim - dam” W» m ammuwm“ a mi Mo! an “WW mam 93 Commission. The document contained a discussion of the pos— sibilities for expanding the production of existing crops; advocated the introduction of coffee growing and a wattle bark industry among the Gusii; and called for the establish- ment of a district-level veterinary unit, regulation of the ghee industry, and institution of a public works program.22 The paper concluded that little scope existed for in- creasing the Gusii's economic base by expanding the production of existing crops for export. Maize production, it pointed out, suffered from market fluctuations, and the region's dis- tance from the railway led to costly transport charges. Wheat was dismissed as a sound export crop because it had to compete with European production and interests. It was as- serted that the extension of English potato production was possible, but would not be profitable, since it would compete with the production on European farms which were usually near the railway. Other crops were also negatively assessed in re— gard to the market situation.23 Coffee and wattle bark production were identified as the best economic activities for Gusiiland, since they were fairly high priced items which could stand costly transport charges. In addition, it was pointed out that the wattle bark industry did not compete with the settlers' vested interests. 22Major B. W. Bond, "Development Scheme: South Kavirondo," 11 May 1932 in Kenya Land Commission, Vol. III, PP. 2377—95.. 23Ibid., pp. 2378-82. .- ~ - ‘Amuuob ofif .noiaaimuoa 0-11.":1'10'3 ' 103 amt-Mud.“ . ":11101 3113 9(13 bessoovbn 1 ~ ..1. ”we .uMh {sjanbai iuad n ~ . - ' , ’ ' ' ;cva-?:;1Jzkb 5 1: anon ', ..' ' ‘ .J;.l Ln‘ ijaubni node ..., 2' ‘. . .. . ,vav. - 1'3 ""'.T- . ”('1 9m ‘."' ‘ » v‘ . .; "11".? '-:.: 12' ' L c4) OLU palace-m .1 ~ . ".; , a .JICHAU w 2 «qclfi «niacixe lo *' f 5‘“ .W. .M. u- 34.'bm mb‘i h91e§352 .300 .;.1#,7 t “911; ‘ glf~t’ ”J ho. ; VIIGI an: r021 sons: ,3 351 ‘- w~u< “d gown filOmHQ ha 55 p as chaimclb 35w 359d" -25 uaw 11 .ajaaxej'? has norfisuhoiq ahsqoluz diiw sjsqmoo 86W noijoubcrq odsjoq deilpr 3 to no- angina ad: 33d: baits: ujtqmes bfuow 3r sonia~,9£dsfriotq ed :on bloow Jud .sldilaoq issa vsisueu oxnw doiflw smug) nasqeanfl no aei300501q on: dike -sxfai Sausages,yisviispsn 9215 9:95 nqexs :sflao .anlilu on: “mountain 3mm and a: bug as mil-W5 93991759: We: and autumn: “3103 sfitfl get: 9061! vfiflitlttfll' 3&3 ..Iillfililuoiflaaooo filed ed: . ‘Tmauptl «exam , ...... “...... if";‘ KS we: .. 651mm: .. ., A~ unfit“. .« °' ’! 1'!!!“ ' ' 94 In justifying the request for coffee growing, it was emphasized that, although the Kisii highlands bordered the Sotik European V settlement, the production area in Gusiiland would not be ad— jacent to European holdings, so there would be little danger of possible spread of coffee diseases and pests.24 Ideas were also set forth on how coffee should be in- troduced among the Gusii, under strict supervision and initially within a limited area. First, it would be necessary for the government to empower the district commissioner to exempt the Gusii coffee growers from payment of a plantation license, at least until the plants were bearing a crop. At the same time, however, the license would be required in order to prevent per- sons from growing coffee on a site not approved by the district commissioner or agricultural officer. Second, along motorable roads, a number of small, individual plantations, perhaps with— in a seven mile zone of Kisii town, would be established. At this stage, no special coffee-processing machinery would be necessary since Mr. Gethin, a local European, who had his own coffee plantation in the district, had indicated his willing— ness to purchase the fresh cherries from the growers and to take responsibility for processing and marketing. Third, should the planting of coffee be extended outside the seven mile zone, no plot away from a road would be allowed. Ultimately the aim was to have factories in each location, either on a cooperative or private enterprise basis.25 24Ibid., p. 2382. 25Ibid. ...-_- . ~ . . 1114.39n11313wtu 1 I1 ! u ;_.,1'. . _ . 1.1 ;' 113004315 .3“: _. 3.: :J' u f.. .: 1 . s; :1 vrd'_ adj .7u9msidJsl - ._ r ’ -- 3‘ . . ...-;-.o..' 1 a 1mm: Pd shunt .' ‘3. 1 .0911. 1:: L ~)_ ‘1 .1 ". . nut»): olalaaoq 30 .1 L1... .‘-:;. 1 .1.‘. ‘5‘: >‘ 0:15. um, 3L1 ;_ . 11m. a ‘ _ . 13.: '. tu ifgzfl‘ ~ . ' gaunt. baouboufi ‘1' '-'.1.:~-: ' 1. 1. :'r ."2'22'4 1;:31211'111 5 111113111! .. '1 ‘ ..r ‘ . 1 '- : .131". '12“??- ML! p-wocgme 3:: Jamming .3). .115, . ":1 v.3111';1:.-.; .5121"; Ewi-mnp 9513303 11803 .17 my"-.. nai'xsau ‘3719'12‘ '-..:!15l1._ 9.1;: 111m; 3309! 3.1+W.1.v iebxo n2: 17".)‘11099'1 ad bluow oansaii 0d: ”avowed Jul-132721.. c112.) 1d have-1.1.35 van 9312: r. no 94330:) 3113111019 mofi 8am 13:75:11 row molt» mucosa 35531530 15101111011215 :0 zenoiaalmoo - 131-.1: :aqedxsg .anoiJanslg Lax-bxvibnk .iLsme to zodnm s .aboo: a; .badsiidssas 9d bluow .nwoa list: 39 can: slim novsa 5 hi 3d blrow 'nsntdosm. paisasoorgvfliioo bias!" on .9053: all; nwo sin bsd odw .nsegozua 1.551 a .asdgya .1! anal. txsulsocn «pniliiw aid bassofbgi' bats-#0313016 06:! ll: “”3415“; 003100 0: has .azsworp 94: ” mm, ”94”! Man a: W 1.1 luona .b‘zid'r 95 Government was slow in reacting to the proposal from South Kavirondo. Throughout 1932 and the first half of the following year coffee growing by Africans and the rules under which it would be permitted were being considered in London and Nairobi. Meanwhile, the District Commissioner of South_ Kavirondo grew impatient, as did the Gusii, who wanted to be- gin planting. Not until June 1932 was an official reply re— ceived to the proposal for coffee growing. The deputy direc- tor of agriculture responded: "I know of no reason why coffee growing by natives in South Kavirondo Should not be successful under the strict control and supervision that would be enforced, but no decision can be made on this until the present discus- sion between Government and the Secretary of State is deter- mined."26 When the provincial commissioner attended a local na- tive council meeting on September 16, 1932, he was asked if the government had replied to its request to be allowed to grow coffee. The official informed the council that the areas in which Africans might be allowed to grow coffee had not yet been decided. Although the provincial commissioner supported the request, provided there were regulations which would easily facilitate supervision, he did not favor exempting growers from licensing. As he stated before the Kenya Land Commission, "So far as I know, there is no legal means of stopping natives from 26DA to PC, Nza, 21 June 1932, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/5/1. . -,_, . 1‘1 91.11. -.-;1 rtvxtnevoo 31:1 1. i1 1 " J‘ , 'e'L’ $.1' abnozivsl M ‘: 1V 1""148 ‘.&9\{ pfliVOIIM 1 .1111“, .5. alum.- 31 now 1 p 1 ,1- >15 WWI-1M ..tdoxlsu baa ~ _ 1 ~. 11 .. 1 ,. ~ #17111 mu wasp obno1lwsx 1 1 . (3.71.1 FM; .p1u3nblq nlp . - -. 19‘: .'haF-qiwq an: o: bsvloc -;~ « . 1 1~ 3 j, .Lr-.{,-..:;.-1asv .-;uJIu'Jinb 30 103 1. J ., I ' .1' run: ;.'.~. :I;r('..:' 1.1 sovinoa yd pnkwolp ..w- "Wu“. W1 iv; :15'1‘3 n.,’:.?..'(1.r'y Y: 1,113 (cannon 331138 9d: ‘1is w 11:12.1'. 71",. r 1st; en: giflrzu are: no chem 9d [169 110131391) on 3nd 315.11 a; a I132 111 1152*:12598 ms: bras :asmzsvoa {199H:vd not: as...” 1 . 11711;! a Ruin-.3135 Xenoiaumoo Inioaimq 9d? Mdh' :1} 2191.415. saw 511 .8881 ,3! 19mg no palaces limos at: Finn-“151E: 3d. 03‘ imp» so; a: bum bu! mmsvop ad: :5st 91!: 38:11 Itamfis'w Midi WHO “3‘ .003300 was say 3011 bed sai‘ieo’m1ia'. m 1.1! 31bit! ”in” dot!” at E15 rmqqua reacts“. W ““15 «math and '{iiaee him My? " : 1 ‘ ' ' 96 growing coffee and I have never seen any reason why they should not grow it, under supervision." In December 1932 the provincial commissioner asked the deputy director in the Department of Agriculture for his "strongest support in gaining permission from the Government" for coffee planting by the Gusii.28 Furthermore, he suggested that a trial area be authorized while awaiting the major de- cision. Responding, the deputy director reminded his subor- dinate that the rules governing coffee growing by Africans were being considered and that until they were approved and publish- ed, no steps should be taken. He promised that the senior of- ficer would be sent to Kisii in early 1933 to advise on sites suitable for coffee growing. By then, the rules probably would have been published, so that a definite scheme for Gusiiland could be submitted for approval.29 The District Commissioner, Buxton, was discouraged by the inaction. In December 1932 he requested enough seeds from the senior coffee officer for fifty acres; payment and trans- port charges were to be met by the local native council. When 27Minutes of the Meeting of 16 September, 1932, Gusii County Council (hereafter GCC); Minutes of the Local Native Council, September 1932 - July 1934, Vol. III; and "Comments by the Provincial Commissioner Nyanza on the Foregoing Memo- randum: Development Scheme: South Kavirondo," in Kenya Land Commission, Vol. III, p. 2397. ' 28The Department of Agriculture was divided into two sections in 1931: the deputy director in agriculture to whom this study refers is the one in charge of plant industries. A0 Nza to DD(PI), 5 December 1932, KNA: PC Nza AGR. 1/2/9/2. 29DD(PI) to A0 Nza, 9 December 1932, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/2. w , LL -': 3n; n :1 , . ..3; i»? f asfl I fl t 39330: 901.01? -_ .’H‘JQI :1 .1-1I.m; .31 ”I? m 119 1i* 3 vi :0 mssefl n1 - ' 1' ’- ' 11 ‘..~11'1’;.._:.1i. :-."7 r11 XOJOS‘JID [3M ~~~ - 1 ”.51 *3 J-mqqua 1399:1013!“ "ug(ghi .1: - ._ L931 9N3 .1 pFiJRfiIq 963100 103 nu-JL,¢1 .i'Lx t—riwonvr: 9d €23 -A?13 3 35d: 2 b Viqui 531 ,E“'ihqqaufi .001330 !L£"i.‘ (. ,u;w~‘ 39" ? puLU77'" Asia! an: is“: 333.35 .4112. h-.«.43. 1 ‘ - ‘ ." 1: #3": 12m; busbianoo pal.“ 2' "vim-ad; :.'I°."‘- '1 -.1'.'; 313::5'72113 9i: next.) ad birzode 299): on .be 29.145 511;. ~‘1;...'.'£1:‘1 c: {in \1’1‘. .5. "i Mai)! 03 35158 91d L‘IBOH 19013 Airs-w x'IdE-JO'iff 3911. 4 11.13 .nsri: 118 .pn'rwoap 393309 1.3? aidsztna batiiiada 113:?! amurkre 931111295 5 3516 as .bedaiidnq and WM QS.£.svouqq:s 103 Maintains sd biuoo {d bapszmoorib .asw mom-we .Isaokaatmol) serum“! nd‘!‘ 111.01} absss répzvoua 5933909931 915 mu m a! .aoiianai all: —ens::l Brut: 3.12qu {351905 2.1112? «.03 mm undo ulnar“: norm .iiomoo svidtm W “and m u «a: no. loo-1m nag 97 informed, the director of agriculture reminded Mr. Buxton that, until rules were established, no steps were to be taken to plant coffee in Kisii, and he refused to approve the request.30 Nevertheless, evidence indicates that the district commissioner did plant a small coffee nursery in Kisii town, which he claimed as his own, but from which he intended to transfer seedlings to the development center.31 Government was upset, but unable to prohibit it since Mr. Gethin had cul- tivated a coffee plantation in Kisii township for many years. Nairobi was annoyed by the district commissioner's pressure; moreover, they did not like his statements, such as "growing of coffee in this district can be made a success if we intend 33 that it should be so." It is apparent, however, that it was through Mr. Buxton's sustained efforts that Gusiiland finally was included as one of the initial areas for African coffee growing. In late 1932 the government soil chemist, accompanied by the provincial agricultural officer and district agricul- tural officer, toured parts of the Kisii highlands. He report- ed that the red lateritic soils within the highlands, of which there were 40,000 - 50,000 acres within a ten mile radius of 30DC to Senior Coffee Officer, Nairobi, 15 December 1932; and DA to DC, 22 December 1932, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/2. 31 1/2/9/2- 32V. G. Glenday to DA, 23 December 1932, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/2. 33 PC, Nza to CNC, 1 February 1933, KNA: PC Nza AGR DC to PC, Nza, 5 June 1933, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/2. Y9 .:ad: ne'tho .xr usur.wax °TH.L1b51hE io iojusulb ed! .b-iifllfl' D; «351” .d a» :.v ; .. r5 a~ ..--Aaiidsjas 919v 801$! 13“, grunt-:1 vn‘e *qu” 413.» ..fi h;—_-=..r‘. at! 3'38 .lzai)! at 963’“ 3“. ; I 'u;;:n,u ofi? 3 ’ estziuAJ :3n;blv. sealsdjxsvofl ““ .nwu. L133? n. gauz..I 4A:1v 'ghu? 5 Jnslq bib IanOIIILI—bi “ '“--.-f.m'J;:i .4‘ 1:: ..m: will: sou 1111.15. an! as (59011819 911 dbl“ anumrvguoa ' ..9?au ju6wguLGVac ad: of apnilbooa Iaiafllii ~iuu vs“ :rfijafi .~” tax; 12 JIJLMOZQ 43 ofdsnu Jud .1oaqu lid g£.‘1;2. * . '.' ' ‘nwun :zstfi a} noiJSJnrlq 953300 6 DSJCJXS 1 W % \. :1 [.1 3 H sxuaEez .ru1225mmcn 'Olljllb 9d: vd bayonns 25v ldailifl I.) u u U pniwhjp" as done .dtnsmsdsja aid wilI son bib vs“: .Ilvoeiél bnsdni 3w ii aaaooua 5 sbzm 9d nan joiijalb 31d: n1 solioo'lb 35w :1 15.13 .xevewod .Jns'xaqqs a: 31 “to. ad blood: aria”: ' {Elana basiiizno 3m: 8510319 mum. amount! .1)! «anti 991190 nmnn :03 non Imam: an to m u ‘bobuxod'u'iii .mtmp W5 sen-one noa 3W 5:3 net m1 1:: ‘4’ «Isaak-gas sauna mi mama xmtfihaa axmmq enm- Wu W mu! f: afiq’wfl” fifi"m'“ W, 97‘ .. y ”‘4... 3‘ , 98 Kisii town, were suitable for coffee production. However, he cautioned against official encouragement of extensive coffee growing until sound methods had been established for the con— 34 trol of coffee berry disease. The soil chemist and other officers also discussed the method by which the areas for cof- fee growing should be organized. They Suggested that block areas of approximately twenty-five acres be designated for cof- fee, each sub-divided into plots of possibly one-half acre to be cultivated on an individual basis. This idea was incorpo— rated into the South Kavirondo agricultural development plan for 1933, together with the proposal that all blocks be within reach of a coffee pulping factory, several of which were to be established.35 Final selection of coffee areas had to await an inspec- tion in spring 1933 by the senior coffee officer. He identi- fied eleven sites where extensive planting of coffee, up to several hundred acres in some places, could take place under easy supervision along major roads. He found the local native council seed farm satisfactory for coffee growing, and suitable locations within the eleven selected areas were chosen for cof— fee nurseries. In his view, "if one object of native coffee growing is to enrich the natives in the reserves, it appears 34"Notes of Some of the Soils of South Kavirondo," by Soil Chemist, distributed by DD(PI) to A0, Nza, 8 February 1933, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/5/1. 35A0, Nza to DC, 5 December, 1932; and "Memo on Sug- gested Policy of Agricultural Development, South Kavirondo, 1933," in A0, Kisii to DC, 29 December 1932, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/5/1. 31a 2 .u12»~,7“11 1.' in- 0 "1‘52 919w \flVOJ ltl‘l -131 1 1.» my» - 1 1.: '.: 2111-3." 4 .1“ M. 3:11!!ng 5900138.!) ‘ r _2 '5' o 1' <1!” 1 *1’.‘1f.;1-"v EMILIO-'2 -ijrw pump 1 w a 2 1 ”2’ 2 k, E “‘3 ‘f‘ INS! 9: 200 3C [0'13 ~ U « - .h-:, 1 1 2 u A. a. (s-_:' nais 31991330 220111: :1 13.1: .. 1.):-. PL; cs1" . ..t 1' hhmde Dr! -UO‘JQ 99'! " "ml. Lair ED; '- t " 1 1:11.. :12'1". "'91'19W: 111" 1-'1'2'>:-'1{q5 10 80313 : ~.u_ {.3 ‘1 .JC ; .:n L1bLVi“ dye dose .99! --:~f":a::m" .2; .-' '1: {L'iv'T .1‘:'~:~;r1 [LLE 7' "1.1-" .‘~-- in?! be’svijlus 9d n;I: .nsmqo'w'nfi frxn; -; .5 ohms ivufl fif“ti an: aid: 59151 zinjiw :8 ‘éuojd 2!: ibfll inaoqn~x an: dyiw xefifispc: .Etel 103 9d 03 euew nsldw 10 ISTSVQE .qujssé pniqluq 991100 B 10 nose! 2 at.bedek1d§dla ~ euPnC as 3isws a: bad 8391b 99?305 30 50139919. isatfl ~L3n9bi 9H .3531320 sei§ou noises ad: vd ESQ! pnfxqa hi not: 03 qu .ssflloo to pniyasiq aviancdxa saadw nests novois'belh isbnu eoslq 5M5: bluoo .uooslq once at coma. bozbnnd Innova- avlssn,lsool on: bane! as .shsoa total paeln-aolctvxoquo too. .oidtfirke rm ..m1m ”no: so! {manning am but now am mi» m profit was We. mt. w £11317 anoint-am 99 to me that initial planting should be made in numerous suit- able locations." Cultivation should not initially be under- taken where the potential of suitable land was less than 200 acres, and initially each area should include no less than twenty to twenty-five acres, composed of smaller dispersed parcels of land; planting could be extended as the results warranted, he stated. In addition, the senior coffee officer advocated that cultivation should be extensive enough to jus- tify building a pulping station in each area. In regard to the likelihood of diseases, he claimed that the incidence of coffee berry disease might "not occur in any severity, if at all, owing to favourable environment."36 From the areas identified by the senior coffee officer, the district agricultural officer designated three blocks of land for coffee growing where Gusii farmers could have their own coffee plots. TWO were in Nyaribari location: one at Nyosia, near Chief Musa Nyandusi's home, and the other a few miles away from Nyosia, at Nyankororo. The third block was situated at Mogunga in Bassi location, near the Majoge loca- tional boundary (see Figure 2). To facilitate easy supervision and accessibility for officers, each block was close to a main road. Meetings were held in each area to encourage people to cultivate on the block farms. The district commissioner, the 36"Report on the Highlands of South Kavirondo for Coffee Growing by Natives," by Senior Coffee Officer, 9 May 1933, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/2. 3.1;" ~c ’0" - 1 laiflini J5“: :- 08 . '21-“ 1 .. ...". ' , L, v 11 ". 1 ' 1. 71,}. JLL‘T.’ .830335x1 “Ck bu; p2‘v g... Lu t-. f«‘ L . a ..-‘ wJ~q 5d: sxsdw next: .u. 1 '1; z 1 '5sfiini Dfib .a019. sn¢~-.-1L Jln1- . l~; ,;;1 .av: : 11.1731u9w3 a: v3n9w3 gasp ) , .1 ‘f Q"K3 -u ”fu;u sn.'u&;q oufll :4 aiooxsq 'IJ.1p en .14:uz an: .15. .n: a; .usznvn 9d .bsanbxzcw .3 r4 _ 1 ‘ (2:15 J} ‘ 5a". ,r 11‘: flat );.-. LT [:42 "5.12 5935003.“). J 11;: — :. .LHTB (n9; Mi r";JnJa pnquuq a paibliud {111 u ~vusbzrni adj ‘sn: bsm.sxv SJ .zuacsaib 7n booniloili an: 15 ii {‘415Vv: van n1 xuuoc 30c“ J le saseaib vniad 991300 1 . . a'“.3nsmncxzvns aidéxuovai 01 pnxwo .lln .Jsoxiir eei;o: 201392 9d: vd bsiiiinebi 35920 9d! max? 30 aiooid finidj bsdenpiasb 1991330 lazuilnakzps 33:13:15 0d: izsnj evsd biuoo azsmxsi llama 939dw.pniuutp 003300 103 bust 35 eno :noidsool 12.-5131132! at new M .uoiq “no: m 9193 5.291130 5:11.an 1mm 3“th can! 113180 nu 1111101! 35w $391171 £371.:de .01pr 11‘. «1.0!! qui- vum ”£1.- ..agoi assassw. amassimi 1199;. an «and! u human, Figure 2 South Kavirondo (Kuria) 100 GUSIILAND COFFEE AREAS l934-48 South Kavirondo (Luo) / /-/ 2 ' North /- Muglrongo ./. . Moran! r—J Morumbo ° / town ( woman //////////4 ° GosaroroKnum Nyoslo . Koumbu . . Nyankoooci . Nygnkororo i Nyorlborl 3°“ Settlement Bassi . Kiomok ama .‘- South Mogunqa Mugirongo Majogo /—. ./. Narok District W --- Gusiiland — Location 0 K m. 20 L—-——A——A—l—’ Bun Mop Source: Survoy of Kenya (12.1 . ’dx. EAERA 331103 OMA '“2 ‘\‘ 89-5591 9 x { ‘ \ \,_ ' i i 0qu nbrvmiirfit rim-,3 1 \\ i :1?on ‘ “~ . ' i " r'mi UM . ' 2 “fl g \\ l - i ‘ i \ \ . 7 i i umvuM . . i I .I ’2 ' Ofiiflanou kc“ 1.‘ ‘1: ,/ 101 district agricultural officer, and the senior agricultural in- structor took part in the campaign, and in Nyaribari Chief Musa also actively appealed to farmers to become coffee grow— ers. The Gusii were told that licenses and seedlings would be provided free by the local native council, and that they could expect cash profits from coffee production, but they were also warned that they must follow certain husbandry regulations or be fined. Initially the names of 100 prospective coffee cultiva- tors were collected for the Mogunga block farm, but at subse- quent meetings in late December 1933, it was discovered that these farmers thought they were to work for wages on a govern— ment coffee planting scheme. When a new list was made, only eleven names were collected.37 More people were enlisted at a meeting in March 1934, but, although by April more than eighty-five persons were reported to be preparing land on the Mogunga block farm, less than twenty eventually became coffee growers.38 The number of cultivators on the other two block farms was equally small. In charge of the campaign was the District Agricultural Officer, Mr. Gaddum, who had some experience with coffee. Government intended that he would oversee routine work, but at the time of transplanting and pruning a coffee expert would be 37A0, Kisii to DC, 19 January 1934, KNA: PC Nza AGR. 1/2/9. 38Monthly Crop Report, SK, March and April 1934, KNA: PC Nza AGR 3/2/4; List of Coffee Growers, South Kavirondo, 30 November 1937, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. .7 .‘;.11.:: 1: 1-1..:- '11'.1:""‘.1'J 1111.191131sz ’3133m L11 :‘11' ' . - .7 'L~’{'U.'1'.‘ er‘: '1- Mn; 11133 3019011. .1. j, . WA.-. ; 7 .~— . .1 {.5 swung oeis owl 7.1-..1'. rm: " i; . 1. 51 ' 21‘: 915%. f iaIJZJ sdT .83. ' 1 ..mfl; .er {min 1.31.1 .I’E'JC‘ ~3rJ \{d 9911 bebxvo‘xq ..15 C333 . 1. "nd an; ”u: ' .'Etvu v>-. Iz‘rwq dens josqxs so '6' ’ .1 3:1- '_"£..':i5 2 II I? ' - 1 '.-.n!L. I 1.2;“? wait: 35:13 594115. .bsnii ad ~E 1.12.21 2:13" ,1u'i":~.~1';5 .1 f 1: saint—r: 9:13 {415131111 -. .7 . ’: '1 01"! corn *0? -1113 111" 393195109 9:31: 8:01 «1.11:: .«IWI; "-4'.‘ am: 71' .1517; :13 4169912.. and .u' apnijsm Lineup -c'1 a”; f1 .'I-J -7_;;‘--: 1112‘ hjfv- o" 979w var!) iiflpUOflJ cleans? 989!” $111.; .sbam an!» jail wen s norm .smmbe [211113215113 99110:: Mal .n; fistulas 912131 r-iqosqsxom ”.bsmeiloo 939w comm navel. mad: 9"er £1:qu Yd nyuoziztls .Jud .AGQI dais! nit pair’s“! l mini no 5.11:5; jni‘IBqS‘Iq 9d 0.1 52533qu use anon-seq awn-13:191. 99330:) 531550911 y; {$933919 Yam: and! cut .mt} bold sprain“ bold ow: 391130 and an an- ovum: 30 mama od'r “Jame .Um 211m- uv am! 1531131113:pr misnw*w m w «1:35 mm: a: .saiioo data “It!“ ”a but oh aw .1! 13991330 102 needed.39 Mr.Gaddum was scheduled to attend Scott Agricultural Laboratory to learn more about coffee, but since no specialist was available during the crucial time for transplanting the seedlings, he remained in the district.40 To assist with cof- fee work, an African Senior Agricultural Instructor, Mr. Zedekia Oyondo, was posted to the district in 1934. He had one year of field experience and five years of training, two at Scott Agricultural Laboratory specializing in coffee. Ini- tially Mr. Oyondo was primarily responsible for managing the coffee nursery. From the nursery established at Kisii town during 1933, the first seedlings were planted on Chief Musa's plot at Nyosia in March and April 1934. Slightly more than three-and-a-half acres were planted in order to'stimulate interest in coffee growing."41 The following month four acres were planted in coffee at Mogunga on Chief Alexis's plot, and later in the year an additional five acres were planted by Chief Musa. 0n the other fields, the local native council's ox-plough was hired to prepare the land, the boundaries of plots were marked, holes were dug, and temporary shade trees planted. ”ac to DD(PI) , 19 March 1934; and A0, Nza to DD(PI), 19 March, 1934, KNA: PC Nza AGR l/2/9. 40A0, Nza to DD(PI), 19 March, 1934; and DD(PI) to A0, Nza, 14 May 1934, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9. 41A0, Kisii to DD(PI), 18 July 1934, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. ink , . OE 1,21. ‘UQ.’ '2 .1 1.. .‘Izp 22' k'{‘~‘6c’-1M .M 1 prov. 1-:-.~.1-: 0.! 2103810” .z. r" . V ’I',.II' 1‘: 7:1 11}. aldslimm b 41: 2 ; ~ *RL'ZFzI'. .I "I ;'1 “t.“ ‘ _. ; 1r 1 .'"ISE-"Q’J eff .apnllbm _ 'f—r'w' . 1_ IIVL'LI . ‘.‘i 12'— f-‘n’Yik n5 allot! 9.! sac 5..-w ': . - _ " ’ I 1 1," 7.; ;_ .>9+er-u any: ,obnoyo aifiob“ 1_ 0'9, .;: f; ‘2‘» ‘ f 1‘ 1 211172;: [3191? 30 3." >141! : 9 ' ' : .- .;I;.~;1' - «221111'3-‘1‘: i ifiuffiluci‘IQA $1038 2:1 51.! ‘2; 1 1' . 21min sew obnuyf: .114 211511 .y-xsa'wn “3300 .; E131 rrxfiizi 1:32;): .I L21)? 3 beadalldfifinfl y‘xesa'; 1!! 95d: m1! sic-gym 51-. drug a'sa 1'1: fax-171 no Lam-51g 919w ( milbsoa 1831! 0d: fis.+—n-r‘:.~;a—:-ezdr9 115.3} carom \gljnpila .NQI 1119.6 has lb“ 31 i 9.;.i;m;1 ax gas-zeta; Smlumi??? 03- 151330 111 baJnng new man I) " 41:11:32" 1:: bammlq 919w 891115 21003 rum pniwol‘iol 011'! 11:91 ed} M "19351 hm: dolq 24813641.} 1911319 no amp»! 38 “has ed: m} .53UM Raids yd 219qu new 88m ”filo-6131mm b92111 asw d—sooxq-Xo yum afiflu £3991 m .mu“: 15.91. 291011 behsm straw 3301*: 30 WW “3 “I m an“! 03 bwammm W in .Mm ._r . 103 In July 1934, a European plantation inspector from Sotik, an adjacent settler area, gave demonstrations to Gusii farmers on how to plant coffee. Only twenty-two farmers at- tended, apparently since only those already signed up to plant coffee were invited. Almost all the designated cultivators at the two Nyaribari block farms attended, but only four at- tended at Mogunga,42 another indication that there was less interest in coffee growing in that area. The same summer a group of local native council members and other leaders from South Kavirondo toured parts of Uganda, a visit intended to stimulate interest in district development projects, including coffee growing. The district commissioner explained that those chosen to tour Uganda "are capable of ex— plaining to their people the objectives which they should strive to reach and are sufficiently intelligent and educated to understand the ways and means by which such objectives had been reached elsewhere. They will see in Uganda districts in various stages of development and should obtain much useful information in regard to cotton, coffee, bee wax and general 43 Indeed, the trip did working of the native administration." achieve its purpose and support was obtained for encouraging coffee production. In 1935 the first coffee was planted at Nyankororo, additional coffee was planted at Mogunga and Nyosia, and a 42m, Nza to A0, Kisii, 27 June 1934, KNA: Pc Nza AGR 1/2/9; and A0, Kisii to SAO, Nza, 1 September, 1934, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. 43SKDIR for May 1934, KNA: PC NZA 4/5. —,::1 - - - I- Irv 1.: ~ .'Cw' {Yup nI . 1 i- I ~ -v. .r -x - 'I:sa Jassotbs as .11300 : ; 135:1 “v wad no 813-133 Jr r] -; an '19:? H 's «,nfit I vu..za ytfqoxsqqc \bebnoa =1~r1 1., . ,.:.u. .. - ‘ » ;<.41A .nsjivuj 919w 993100 11 1”~‘ - f 1 ,1. ~11 :I:1' \-'.3 111diwsyn ow? 3d: 15 ;L .», -d: 1~ ; -1» 31. 'r’ In. .s?nupofl :5 bebaa: +sd: n1 1n;z-w: 523105 n1 18919331 L'~I L1:_ 01 1‘ . a 'r5.2 :0 guns? b tamnte ems: an? .zu-r ; 12 u 1.. UeVyof .Buvwivsx Afluoa mozi arsbssi :sddo bus 1n~m:ois~no 331“;‘u a; Jaezsfln: sfslumiza o: bsbnsini :islv l ”file'rdt-fivl “311+aib 9d? .pnrwo_p 993103 pnibuioni .8399t01q ~VH ‘ rivsgsz 915‘ hLflfipU ”us: 03 noaodn one“: find: beatsqu. bfnone an: do.dw esvijaecdo 9d: stgosq 119d: 03 galnlslq bsjsoubs has =nepillajn1 xlinaiolliue 915 has dual} 0: IVIXS| bad asvijssgdo nova doidw yd sass: has agar and baaaeaeban on xi_aiatxjaib 553590 at sea Likv ted! .azan-naio 59d0fi91 «ssh Luisau dsum nisddo fifiuoda bun Jab-qnéavnb in 3.9530 anoizsv stsaep has xaw agfl ‘sltiBo .uotfivo a: beans: :1 «Disc-mnhnt bib 9113 sfl* .haflhfii‘ E” flififllflflfiifihflh‘ aviana ad: in palitou A u . A “1; At- . 13111951300119 :6! j " ’ 104 number of replacements were made on Chief Musa's plot. Seed- lings were carried to the three sites from the nursery at Kisii, but preparations were made for the establishment of nurseries near each block farm.44 By the end of 1935, thirty-eight acres were planted in coffee, with an additional seven-and—a-half acres in Kisii nursery (Table 6). Local persons were hired as coffee nursery laborers, inspectors and field staff; their salaries were paid by the 45 Kisii-Bakeria Local Native Council, but they were under the supervision of the district agricultural department. In the early years of the industry, because of the small number of growers and the experimental nature of the project, each culti- vator received a remarkably high level of staff supervision, advice and assistance. In 1935 the coffee development staff numbered between eleven and twenty-two, and by January 1936, twenty-three were employed, a number of whom were probably 46 laborers in the nursery. As of December 1935, this staff assisted only fifteen growers, with an additional sixteen farm- ers preparing their land.47 44Zedekiah Oyando, OI: Masena area’siaya District, July 1973; and Monthly Report, SK, April 1935, KNA: Agric. Kisumu REPT/4. 45See Statement of LNC Expenditure in SKDARs for 1936- 39, KNA: DC/KSI/1/4; and LNC Estimates of Expenditure for 1940-43, GCC: Minute Book, S. K. LNC, November 1938 - June 1940, Vol Ix. 46Monthly Report South Kavirondo (hereafter SK) for June 1935 — January 1936, KNA: Agric. Kisumu REPT/4. 47A0, Kisii to A0, Nza, 16 December 1935, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. 1W1 -r R ' ,, ' y;nn 515% i namessfqax 50 196.96 3122 w” a.: ' 'LJ ~~"n- an: a: DB~1¢fi9 939w Ipfltl 5‘ fi.“'& " "eu.vi.w;fsy ,‘2 '07 ~L5m )xaw an013515q61q 3nd .. _ . Vt- - . .~': :.; , 1:: .‘ _, 21 k» pa- r 12 ' .mxa: xauid floss 159a 1'r.; .3 n+iw ,as:ir; “I bajhslq 539v a ;T;u“ :Tarxun xieix at 80105 “iv H‘ ‘ - 7 R. V :zuw eroefiaq 15903 p- g‘ jf‘a -1.“ ,.Ll;iga Lan :33517 519}? fins axodaoqaak 'twr *;:2 ‘;' 'qg 7' vflaOJ aui 6% isncd aliofiBE-lilix }.- 4i .Ju:437£gmb L Kggiunizg J. trtib 9d: 10 notalv19qua 33 ‘33"p‘ 3154: an: ?o eaULusd ‘ngazhni ad- 30 8163! [£130 : emu:dn is:..a.si19qx9 ad: has ausuoxp I . - .‘ r. . , I \I “I 0 n‘ 7 . 4 .A .nO':1vzaqdu ?1523 30 lave: field yldafiasmox 5 bavlsosu 3035' *1532 Jnaaqoiavab nazfioo ad? 6891 kl .ooasaaieas has aakvbc “35.-‘31- ‘.__~:5U;~.£L yd bus .ow-wmwa bus acute normed baud-1m vldsdoxq 919w monw 30 madman a bogolqne 939w oaxds-stoufl M wan-um 9113 al 3:02:0an 1353a aid: ‘eaei nodueoqa 19 an -m153 naaixka Isnoiihbbs aa_ dgkw «3398019 8.03111 2160 50331333 n has; and: pal-”mg us ~39m’1‘36 mm” 1" ‘¥\ 'F ’ ” '” “ has ;tr21 yLun 105 .H\H\mm00\< madman .OHum¢ umx nusom .uuomwm hanwuumso wmwmou mowndufl Eouw vwflflmeoo "wousom .mmwummunc osu wwsaocw uo: mmou oommuom mwaat hm NNN oH.om hm.~ma «wma m mma Hm.» n~.~oa meH a mad mm.¢ on.¢m ovma HH 55H hm.- . Hm.om amma on . mma mv.na mm.oa mmma «5 mm ma.om o¢.mn hmma m . MN . om.m H5.vq mmafl ma H~.mm mama Ham» mcficwomnm Ham» Mo cam Ham» mcflcwowum um>o muw3ouu um mumzouo Hm>o mmmmuod ca «Hum» mo cam Haw» mo Honfisz CH no Hmnfisz mmmmuonH quHomn< um mmmmuod wwflwhofiH mfiflflomfi mvmalmmmfl .QquHHmDU ZH mmmamoa< ho mmmzbz Qz¢ muflmmod mmmmoo ZH mmmdfiMUZH m mflmdfi 0.85.)“ , a . . . ~ . r . .3 393 as 3585 gum! ‘ 221...". 5:5 5, . ‘ , , - ash-Joan authonah a .4 ,x q we “omit: ah wo Honeas onunuuaw Guano-ab n. I... umV» {$“ifdfl” Jad? gtujsanse Ininoioa Id: ~} A‘ H: b45997 n3 finamnmcv p in stq 9d: no asviaom 10i1021u 9d YLJO nan an.: on: nafiw aslduob 9:5 anoiniqaua done .ba-J '3}. ID 33113297 smovoa tuba; has 35935 bankinb [lama at aunt; Modxonfigi en a sailidu 03 5951995 oauiezsds iduutnfi no 95310:. Jualq b12109 earns! Want: undo: manna-mace media: .am152 gniuodfigisnvio txodgglo n1 sud .hasl “WC tind: gnidsoe‘vbs new hm! ###1 to not 3Wu3m 11:55:“ 33113215 ea: an: at m oz may. '51 as: amp 5:13: 107 officer, the people were "keener" to grow coffee.51 A site was selected at Murumba and planting took place a year later. Meanwhile additional areas in Kitutu, based on the neighbor- hood concentration system, were identified and approved by the senior officer. In December 1936 the district chiefs, including Aoga of Kitutu and Chief Musa of Nyaribari, together with those of Central Kavirondo, toured Uganda. They visited a big coffee factory, local pulping stations, nurseries, and several small African-owned coffee plantations. At the Bugusege Coffee Ex— perimental Station they saw pruning and mulching experiments. What they learned they reported back to their people.52 The support of the chiefs, combined with the neighbor- hood concentration system, stimulated the adoption process. The new system was initiated in Kitutu during the last part of 1936, and extended to other areas a year later. In fact, the cluster plan was not strictly followed: by the end of 1937 four clusters of coffee growers consisted of only two farmers each, and one person was allowed to grow coffee on his farm approximately three miles away from his nearest coffee grow— ing neighbor. It appears the agricultural officers paid more attention to the willingness of the farmers rather than their location. This disposition helped considerably in advancing 51Arabica Coffee Quarterly Report (hereafter ACQR) for October-December 1935, SK, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. 52"Report on Chiefs Tour to Uganda," A0, Kisii to A0, Nza, 21 December 1936, KNA: PC NZA 4/5/8. , f ' '- , " "- ~-. 5!qu 0.1.? .1991110 .,,- . . wimp m»! :6 hamlet I“! w . _ . . 1 ‘. ~ - l vnoifibbs oIlanlC“ "r352 noifianjne'znm hood 49013.10 203mm *- L', u‘r-TI :adrucsa n1 '7‘ - ., . . , , -r~.3 :m-w “a 12.04 Eszd') Ems 1:31.531! ac‘ - y #-;-r y .n“ wt} -?Wuufi .chnuwivax £31339? :7 _ :r at h.. .‘w‘w ‘xn .a‘r.5r*u n11yizq IuDOI .2103911 ~x- an a - . ya u._ ;A 3ifii'57nLTq 391100 bsnw0~n§0k13$1 2*aniwnwyn n;fi=?“ bub U"fib1{ wax (ad: noijsii [sinsuiusq ."C; 1: r; mar?! (u; .{cx-d Mummy-'1 23:13 [79111531 You: find" «wot‘ripii‘u‘» amt; fifiiw Tasnidfitoo .e’xsirb 5d: '10 1101:3291: sd'!‘ m:i$qobs ed: bamiumue {annexe nolnxmsonoo boot! CL It! '1‘ 1 ’3 14 :3 ma... 1.2.51 9m [nutfub man): :71 503313101 am: away: an m cil: .'Jr-rs‘t nl’ .19151 150‘»: a caste 19636 éi'bsbmue has .8!!! 7501 30 has an: my :mzwa gm... son am! am; and: 219111151 ow: {Inc 16 mum won '10 61101.11: no! 3:151 eh! m $9336an 48 warm I“ m nab Nil {£350 108 the extension of coffee growing. By the end of 1937, there were ninety-five Gusii growers with a total of seventy-three acres under coffee (Table 6). By mid-1937, to assist the growers, there were five African coffee inspectors. One of them, Mr. Gabriel Nyamweya, explained his background and training for the position: When I left teaching I went to Chief Musa for a job. He gave me a letter to take to Oyando who interviewed me. After a success- ful interview, I was sent to Kabete where I stayed for six months. I was taught how to plant coffee, spray DDT, pick berries and weed. Also I was tau ht how to wash the coffee after picking. 3 In addition, he learned preventative soil erosion techniques. The coffee inspectors, as well as other field staff, assisted with preparing the land and planting spaced shade trees and coffee seedlings. They taught the farmers techniques for mulching, pruning and preventing soil erosion, and the inspec- tors examined the fields for disease and standards of husband- ry. The supervision and instruction consisted of demonstra- tions and actual participation in the labor. By mid-1939 the coffee field staff was reorganized so that each inspector became responsible for all the work in his designated area, including field work, nurseries and pulping stations, and assumed direct control of the field staff. Meas- ures were taken, such as abolishing the pruning squad, to re- duce the actual labor done by the field staff on the coffee 53Gabriel Nyamweya, OI: Keumbu area, Nyaribari Chache, March 1971. n'nr ." ,. » r. ~‘.r~ ‘0 noianaixo .13 W . , ‘ .' . -.a;i «Vii-yaoatn.UIOI ;1141‘ 331303 156na 1.80. -.J ,3 L, -- r H. l- . .‘E9r~bim $8 "n"'{ ... ‘ ~ .. .v. .J<;~uqs; 99:10: naaltifi ".-. I. f- .7 ..l'VJJ.L.p\i v.4...“ bankaiqxo " ' ‘ . "'...'~‘ nil.) -. _ is! .' “'101139 _:+ ~. 2 3‘5 F a» s.’-L 9n .uofi r 101 a. . '..::L . 1 . Shuu'yl-JJh' z nw .fl|fi5i&: ‘ .‘ i T a; 139a as. T \w~‘~x;3n§ in} ' Em E .3-Jvom Kit 123 Layate . .s_q ‘TCU "r;:; 99310: Jaslq ~.- . 10d :npuu: esw i 131A .bsow 'L.uniis'c 2v.?s 991303 auspFLi . f’w'fi 1:03 avinsjnwvs~q FWHIESI 3d .eoiilbba a! 39933:?L .iia 4 gini‘ 25:33 85 lieu as .axodosqeni 991309 9”, has ascufl argue Faosqa unidnbiq baa final 9d3 poiansxq “31' 103 22n;m‘~doe: azamxai an: inpua: yea? .apaiibasa 901300 —naqanl SL- rV8,.roxaoas Lice pniimdviig Ens pnlnusq .gnldOIUI -bnsdaud lo a. sbng at has saaecib xvi lid!!! 1‘5 fichllnxo 8303 «axjauomeb 1c bajaiaaoo noldfiuzfitni 5n! nleLVSlflfi‘ Dd? ~21 109 plots, but it remained responsible for spraying the trees to control diseases and pests.54 Technical Aspects and Marketing Although initially it was assumed that the coffee would be processed into parchment at a pulping station in each grow- ing area, a review of the preparation and marketing of African grown coffee was undertaken at the request of government by Mr. Oates, a marketing officer. In setting forth alternatives, he recommended that, if a pulping factory system were established, costs would be borne by the local native councils, which would hire agents to manage the factories, to sell coffee on commis- sion, to keep records and so forth, under government supervi- sion. The other possibility, Mr. Oates explained, was the pro- duction of mbuni, that is, sun—dried cherries, on individual farms for outright sale to an approved buyer at a price agreed upon by the Department of Agriculture.55 Although the deputy director of agriculture supported the mbuni system, the provincial administrator and agricultural officer favored the pulping method for Kisii, because the wet 56 climate would probably endanger mbuni production. At their 54Quarterly Report, SK, July 1939, KNA: Agric. Kisumu REPT 4/1. 55C. 0. Oates, Marketing Officer, report on "Native Coffee Growing: The Preparation and Marketing of the Crop," n.d., KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. 56DD(PI) to PAOs Central and Nyanza Provinces, 18 February 1937; and PC, Nza to DC, 7 April 1937, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. ~ ». _- n.tr,"913130d.m "'..; :3 DC: eaassnlb onsnso 3.4.? mg a' 91% immune? -. ,.~ , . LLurortiffl ,. . . . r m-"tz.-. » m! inseasooxq 0d >;~ ~ ~«2 ..-,..m “a. 1 d02va2 5 .5925 out ~ ~' ; ...,u . -u' :s 35:.3191 35% gallon awocp . * ; . J - _‘< * 3 .,. 3:13 cal-1921mm s «.9300 . . 3..., "w; hwy 1712:“ ,; {miqiwi n '1; did: bsbnsmou .91.;01 .1' :vi; ‘3 '. .~ 123." 511% an: 1;; 1'<1tik.‘d 6d bluow 83.00 imwu. at n-13:» .Loa o: .%u£*3336' odfl unbnbm o: iénoea 911d - .3 Juczvtnx:rcp '19:)er .n'noi oz bus amass; gas)! on .101. “can -:» saw ‘béfibigfifl asfa“ .IM .ytilidieaoq 19n30 0d? .aotl -Eug-vlbni do 2.91119d3 bsiib-nne .at JSH3 .ngg5 30 1011.05 )fiyipfi unilq a 35 nayud havoiqqp an as 01.8 3‘913530 :03 Cult! a€.e1q:.fiabixa‘ to 1W m 1449.! saxoqqua Iszmlucirpalo :mmfi m M3 MIA lsiualuotxps bns chaxtainfilbi'laiajiflduq'q‘l «Iliatl $33!. ll! 33w adj swsosd disk?! 1143' m m “- W amino 1.19.13 35. “3 .mumq m ' muster-”nun 110 suggestion, the pulping system was instituted in Nyosia. Al- though the first crop from Chief Musa's fields had to be work- ed by hand, the pulping station was ready to process the main harvest.57 The district agricultural officer favored Mr. Gethin as agent, to deliver and sell the parchment in Nairobi, but upon the deputy director's recommendation, the coffee was to remain the property of the Gusii growers until it was sold in ,Nairobi, thus realizing the maximum profit for the growers. Gethin agreed "to take delivery of coffee at Kisii, pay the owner, there and then, a sum of about one-half pound values";59 he then would despatch the produce to Nairobi where it was recommended that he deal with the Kenya Planters Coffee Union. These arrangements were based on the assumption that a prompt and high first payment to growers would help to encourage pro- duction of coffee. After sale, the agricultural officer would be responsible for calculating the amount still due to growers, after deduction of a five percent commission for Gethin and other expenses. Under these terms, the first parchment from Kisii, approximately 2900 pounds, was sent to Nairobi in Decem- ber 1937.60 57 NZA 4/5/8. 58AO, Kisii to A0, Nza, 24 August 1936; DD(PI) to PAD, Nza, 31 May 1937, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. 59 SKDIR, January 1937 and September 1937, KNA: PC A0, Kisii to A0, Nza, 20 July 1937, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. GoIbid. ~. - 5:: .',_ . r .9 C-‘ujf . 2- ~ 1..»q 2711 .0013!“ k. .7 - . - 1 13'." '..J."- 2213') “(3 M 'r .= -~ _ :1 v. ‘. , 7:.u . unJ ‘bnad yd b. ‘ Jam-13d 1 . I» ; ‘1 7:: 3244.71“; 9:1? . ‘ : ' r..'-: -.~t«*'k."~;' 33‘ ‘3fl59n u ' ‘—-. — x r _ w L. 1;; v-rxvt = ‘ -.~ en": {t ‘ .‘mr qsb 5.13 noqu 1 ' i ~.; t; f ' ‘ ».‘ ha 7, I :2: ' m1.“ '3 -:";;~.;:“rq 5d: atom: J ‘ . :. ‘1 :1 ‘ z: , in: V rnL'mJ XI}: 2"; 3.6131 - .191 and: ‘ xdoxilfl my ‘8 .y ;,-VJIT:>}:33 ‘10 neviirai'v 92153 0‘ “ b39195 {2111.103 .7. mum. 11w— 'r::r jundr 3': 3308.6 .noer .5." L 919.13 .zomlo n admin» 110mm,: ‘1 atmbozq 9d.) (izubqawb blum'nem 0d swim. m‘r‘ms 22:9erqu 1:23:19)? 91’: daiw [sub mi 55113 hubris—mar Cams-«:1 g. 31:61 misqrweas am no hand area- adnmpnmu snuff ~51"; 39511103113 0:1 qied biuow aims}; o: 35.-17¢“; 3:113 dpid has blue.» :‘yoijm {:3 3311155195 M: .91132 Int! .903100 10 [1013985 .a‘xswoxp o5 sub 11.233 :«uom ad! ”335.103!” to} eldicnoqun i} has niddoi) 101 «shaman m Iii! I he solubob 1.3!. mni moulds zsq 3323.1 m mi: M may .Wo‘x'zofflp .1 -‘ *.”‘ . 4???" 111 When marketing was being considered, an interesting issue arose: How would the bags be marked? The director of agriculture asked if there were any objections to the com- pulsory use of the term "native arabica," with possibly the letters from the district or province added. He claimed that "whatever mark the coffee bears on reaching the Nairobi market, its price will probably not differ from that of European grown 61 coffee, quality for quality." The mark would be retained in exportation. The senior agricultural officer of Nyanza re- plied that "some name less pointed might suit the purpose." As he explained, "there is still a strong feeling in Kenya settled areas that anything produced by natives is bound to be inferior quality and I should like to recommend a name which will not cause deflation of price and yet be fair to the estab- lished producers."62 The agricultural officer and district commissioner for South Kavirondo, however, did not object to the term "native" as a mark for the Gusii grown coffee.63 The term was adopted, particularly because government felt obliged to the settlers to make a clear distinction between European and African grown coffee.64 610A to SAOs Kisumu and Nyeri, 2 November 1937, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. 62SAO, Nza to A0, Kisii, 4 November 1937, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. 63A0, Kisii to SAO, Nza, 8 November 1937, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. 64Monthl Bulletin of the Coffee Board of Ken a, III. 35 (November 19375, 199; and DA to SAO, Nza, 9 December 1937, RNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. ' .. {.1 ‘1 'r' " 34-33‘19.’ as“ av. jun» we" 218013 QUI‘I In) t- 53385 sunflnslitl : ' '. v “. aw {zoning . .m , - , n- ' :d? «“033 8101101 . l J . -¥.. ” 94v £19m wevsisdl' ‘T 'u‘ .u ' - g'uhv -' 11;w soitq :31 f 15* *~ ,g A’“.‘n,' '3 :0; 1:?lsup .993100 s .A- - . :1 n," ;'~In-5a um .noijsfi‘xoqx. 33' _ Mum Lz-«ng'mtag 5mm omoa“ 36.13 ballq ’ 2 Li’s? .: ;e s Ilia? ii evsdj" .655155149 ad I‘ ,3 L1 - ’ ta (353 ‘d 3’3JbCIq enidjvna and: cheat 591330: doidw saga 5 Ln ”JFJQW _3 Cflii hiaode T has {911839 zoiuoinx 9d : Jif has 991:4 is “01351135 sous: 30a 11k! Ln; 199:910 Isauvluoltps ad! £‘“.aaaouboaq hsdltl 5';dr Jon bib .xsvswod .afiaomivia £3963 :oi IDflOIIIIIIbO 4m 56.351309 sweap 11:99 a“: :0! iii. I'II "ovkssa‘ n33: Id: 2.9mm 3191 jnmiwhé afflufidflbfififihxm am swims neeqcrx.'3 negated moltuatills :Ii‘fl I Gill 03 1151’!!! Id! 09 ”was“ lump mm id- 112 With the marketing issue mainly settled, the district officers turned their attention to coffee processing. The Mogunga pulping station was completed early in 1938, by mid- year one was ready at Kisii town, and another began operation at Nyankororo in late 1938. The following two years factories opened in Kitutu at Murumba and at Marani, and in 1942 a pul- per was installed temporarily at Nyankegogi and a site was se- lected for a station at Gesarara. Meanwhile, new semi-rotary pumps were installed in place of the hand—operated machines in the older stations at Nyosia and Mogunga. Thus by the end of 1942, seven pulping stations were operating in Gusiiland with an additional one planned. At first Mogunga factory pulped coffee berries to- 65 gether, but later each grower's harvest was processed sepa- rately at both Mogunga and Nyaribari so that payment could be made according to crop quality. By mid-1938 this practice had led to poor results in fermentation, so that, in line with a suggestion from an officer at Scott Agricultural Laboratory, the coffee at each factory again was processed in large quanti- ties. This practice immediately led to an improvement in the liquoring results.66 65ACQR,First Qter 1938.SK,KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/ 1/1. 66A0 and Experimentalist, Scott Agric. Laboratory to DD(PI), 17 March 1938; and A0 and Experimentalist, Scott Agric. Laboratory to A0, Kisii, 9 September 1938, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. - fa" = . = -.= w; 31.3 “le ‘1. T . ' 1.- ~ 3 D‘H'TU.” 01.03,” \ ,. . ~ . ' - LI:uh?E pniqluq ...”... - . r *. . ‘ Main-{nibw ,~; , ~ . 3 -_ a . . i t-..‘; . ten; new In lfl fin‘T .M .wt ”é HJJJBJE 5 103 5.39.‘ if ,2: 'J. 1. r. . .n . -, . :1 ‘ .msir‘, . beihjani $19!! I” ~r-..' J » .v "Jam-T .m- -.=."=)'(L‘ 12. enoiJsJa 15510 M: 3:32: 3.1-3?) 11,72. 9:21:1qu novel .Sbfil ..Lsrmsiq 9120 15210131300“ m} zany-ad 39'3er waging T193933 5931:2934 3331! :IA ea 1T1 1“ ~: "its“ a ’zowwg 22959 10151 Jud Q m .43 r r b» T‘ 'J‘ J [212.100 3.1511250 354: we 1225;111:3114 8“ “PM um 35 M Luz-d soiiot'rq 21:13 829%th ‘58 .2911” 9'3“; OJ 9014530000 u 2; dziw and. aft .1551: on .mblim! aim ”on 93 m "(10.1 eroded 2212;212:912“ was: ”pm my”) pop-luv. ~13nswp 992.51 at 5:29.935?! W WW I?” “”1000 ed: at :nsmsvmtgfii as eral- NJ 15m.fl18m Me old, ”m N: 113 In 1939, the marketing responsibility was transferred to the agricultural officer to save the five percent commission paid to Mr. Gethin, although his firm continued to provide transport. This action came as part of the measures taken to streamline the industry and provide greater return to the grow— ers. The new system provided for monthly payments to growers at approximately two-thirds of the value of the cherries de- livered. Payment was made from funds advanced by the local council. After the coffee was sold in Nairobi, the money was sent to the council, and every six months or so the remainder due to farmers was paid out.67 This schedule was changed dur- ing the 1940-41 season when sales were made through the war- time supply board, and only a small initial payment was made to growers.68 Although information is scanty, between 1938 and early 1940, it appears that growers normally received between five to six cents per pound of coffee cherry, and payment for the 1940-41 season dropped to four cents.69 Before the first pulping station was built, questions were raised about the finance and management of the factories. Although there was talk of placing a European in charge, the 67AO, Kisii to Ag. SAO, Nza, 11 August, 1939, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. 68ACQR,Fourth Qter 1940,SK. KNA:Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/ 1/1- 69This study refers to East African currency units, un- less otherwise specified. From data on parchment, the price per pound of cherry was computed at a ratio of cherry to parch- ment at 5:1. ACQR for Third Qter 1938, Second Qter and Fourth Qter 1940, First and Third Qter 1941, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/ Coff/l/l. I’L' .9091 III .. . _- 7 ' .'2" 1":11311191196 0“” ’zfi'llr .gxdjso .7M 01 it.“ . , J ' 1'. o5: n aid? .330qtltli h '1 ‘91:... .1' 3311 Oflilllbfl'liI r~ . ; .1v01“ m71eqe win 3d? .aao ~ , , . ; 1 = - -_.' 1 = ,‘ >L.I.r'..“-ow1 ‘szjoMIXOIQQI 8. .1. sh.n Paw Jngmynfi .boxovll u x . _ A ‘ C 3‘ 3;; ‘ _‘1' "#5.! 7'27’A clim” w. .J ;difem V; ;'a'u 2'3 ‘ltnuvos adJ 03 3:3. =w, . ‘ n .w 911’3floa 21¢; “.319 h.s; 2:» 219513? 03 out ‘au '~. H_.i1¢: obsm 939w asfea nmdw noes»; 1&-fl&€l ed! 9‘1 :1 afiz= ZLu Jnunguq infwgqr -igfin z vino but .bxscd ququa 0.13 . . . , . . b an; at?z n nw'qd .KJVina a: aoljsmxoinx dpuodJIA 8 . azsubzp naevfsd LJULn531 yifbmwun auswozg laid statues ’1 ‘0091 till. 10“ :nsmgsm fins ,ylxsdo 921303 10 bayou 1'1 Bans: ~11. 06 (It! 93.3mm and 0.1» mam those; I,“ enoisasun ‘aiiud saw uokiatu inkqmnqgalsth Odt-Cloiql -:.;t' .291303553 an: 10 ingglgfiflfin has Oculafik eds snout-boats: can! 91%: ‘spxsde mnBWthMmfl"! ”0°40“ a :5: T ' . l\ .1 .' .4: " 2513.6}? "V 114 factories always were managed by Gusii. Until 1943 when a re- organization took place, the Kisii—Bakoria Local Native Council paid for the growers annual licenses until their coffee came in- to bearing, the building of pulping stations, the purchase of pulping machines, and for services, including the extension staff. A small part of this expenditure was recovered through 70 In 1938 the provincial com- a cess on the coffee pulped. missioner maintained that these responsibilities should even- tually be borne by an association of coffee growers, but the local council should continue to help finance the industry un- til an association was formed.71 Since coffee production by Africans was considered ex- perimental in terms of the suitability of coffee varieties to the local environment and the cultivators' use of proper hus— bandry practices, it is important to assess the extent of the success reached in Gusiiland during this first stage of coffee production. Three varieties of arabica coffee - Kent's, Gethin's and Blue Mountain - were tested for the suitability to the local environment and resistance to infestations. Although initially the district agricultural officer suggested planting one variety on each of the three block farms, the senior coffee officer ad— vised that Blue Mountain be planted most widely because it was 70Expenditure Estimates 1941, Notes, GCC: Minutes Book S. K. LNC November 1938 - June 1940, Vol. IX; and State- ment of LNC Revenue, 1938, KNA: DC/KSI/l/4. 71PC, Nza to Chief Secretary, 21 December 1938, KNA: Agric. Kisumu LNC/1. .1 = ' ; v.2. ' d‘fbh’lb 0013”“! _. . . . . .r '3 3,er not-Quin" ‘ 7' 1’ .' 1 . .‘. -=_..V:=1é_. ‘3“: 101 M '11- .. 1 "a: p u. moizrvd '11; .inutd.“ . , -:._~- a. . ' w .1 ~. . .- 2:". r‘nam nalqlnq . .._ ”a; ; $9.4 .me A .13”. -1' -1d1 (IO 8.” I :-: - ;~ . ' ~ :‘71 42.112.111.354! :enoiaqb 2 .u‘ . a 22.-noes” :.. .21 {2.71021 9d [1.15” n ». . . .. .'1 _= sun'utac-o binom- 113211100 11901 "db-9112.293 ass 110135190535 M LL: as» 1‘ :-=.‘=. » ' . 5.122. .n'u 1'12 :01 113013016; 9935:: 904118 1;, -.c..:.-,z 1.. ”ii-7-: is 132%}! {5-1.78 9d: 30 man at 181M -:" 7’ 1111;1ny 1:: 5.3.? ";:0:*:"~.‘i.!£UD 911.1be6 3119310011an 1500‘ m 3;: 3’0 :7ns~-1..:. .1111 swam; 0:1 4315.13:me :1 31 .mnoau M (vs‘ltc ‘fo :JOhJE :1 2:11.;- aidJ par-18b hmuiw M “do“: “w unidjsa .2'359» - 39330:: 5211:1215 to 391mm ”an 2% 15301 911:: 0:: ‘c.1‘.lid¢331ua 9113‘ 301.593!!!“ 05.,“ " W 001$ ” yiisis‘ini ripuod‘flfi. .smolztm 01mm mm yasixsv 5110 911133qu 13933939! mmmwammmm ~25 215211330 saiioo 1911153 as “1 mu m I“ N to- no 115 known to be resistant to leaf rust and appeared resistant to coffee berry disease.72 However, during the first two years only Gethin's and Kent's varieties were available. By spring 1936, the twenty—one acres of Kent's variety planted at Nyosia and Nyankororo had proved unsuitable for local conditions; at Mogunga, the eighteen acres of Gethin's also proved highly 73 susceptible to diseases and pests. That fall, Blue Mountain was planted in the nursery and, when cultivation began in Kitutu in 1937, Blue Mountain was used.74 Future plantings were almost entirely of Blue Mountain, and in some cases fields of Kent's and Gethin's were uprooted and replanted with Blue Mountain. An outbreak of leaf rust occurred in 1937 in the Mogunga area, but it was brought under control by spraying.75 The following year a form of coffee berry disease attacked fields planted in Kent's variety on Chief Musa's plot spread— ing rapidly at Nyosia and Nyankororo. However, the Blue Moun- tain plants in the same areas proved highly resistant to the attack.76 By April 1939 the agricultural officer reported 72A0, Kisii to Senior Coffee Officer, 26 January 1935; and Senior Coffee Officer to A0, Nza, 14 February 1935, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. 73Telegram Agricola, Nairobi to Agricola Kisumu, n.d., KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l; and ACQR, April - June 1936, SK, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. 74ACQR, Second Qter 1937, SK, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. 75ACQR, Fourth Qter 1937, SK, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. 76Monthly Report for August 1938, KNA: Agric. Kisumu REPT/4. . ‘1 , - J- . - 1 ' ...1JP(;-:c’l 95 03 M 2:1 , ‘ ~_ ,- '1 r- ' wit fixed 00!!“ ’75 «f ‘ ".‘"‘-".' £115 3'nid’w ‘m ‘ ‘ .“J. '.:4u*"-{JG'3‘~J 9d: .nu z" . . . .,."-1. :1- ' " . .. «:Jn'tozlnaxu has ’..'I' , ' , . .'1 :’ '3‘? :Q-{IS 9:1? ‘bgm ., 1 , . _.,1~ 9.1. ."_.7:«;w”113 93 eldbqsowc . .1-,.; 9. -.-.i £19311qu nu ‘ :'~ :.3:.7n,-'::5' uni-H .‘Iiél n}. 11211311 '- 7 4_ - «...-111,3 .1. :3. flexing 12ml. crow ’1‘. _- "1 ,‘m' . ‘ :17: hot. miqu eunw 9'5; r1393 but. 8'3““ 30 minim J..:* .-'r 11‘" N. ET.:)‘.‘.‘L¥')'_)I;) "1811‘! 3591 “Lo ison‘inuo M ‘7‘.;r:,\"=17r.1'15 ‘(rI 1013111125 'Isbnu jdpuord 2E? 31 Sad .0565 89m 1.419543% sass-elf: «(113d 9.3309 30 inc! 5 any pniwoLIo} .3! <3 ...-1142 5901-: a'sauM 351:1!) no 2:991st h'flafl n1 bsdnslq 36161! -nqu 9213 an: .xavswoa» .ombaoinsyu ban stub!” :5 Ylblqti éfii an: o: Jnsjaiasn yxdeid bovoaq ...a‘ iii. on! at Isdhxq Iii! 533“qu 15’9“” Wanna». «$ququ 21 ”.1583: 116 that four acres of Kent's had been uprooted because of coffee berry disease, and by August an increase in the disease had caused growers at Nyankororo "to become dis-spirited [sic]."77 Again in 1940, coffee berry disease attacked fields planted in Kent's variety. Minor outbreaks of various other coffee diseases and pests also occurred in this period, but they were controlled by the spraying. In late 1941 Blue Mountain plantings revealed a disease which was identified at Scott Agricultural Laboratory as brown blight, which did not nor— mally attack Blue Mountain coffee.78 The samples were taken from trees planted at an altitude of about 6,500 feet, so eventually a limit was set on the altitude at which coffee could be planted. With the initial stage plagued by unsuitable varieties of coffee and in light of the fears frequently voiced by European planters, the question of how well the Gusii farmers took care of their coffee plots is particularly interesting. The information available on the level of coffee husbandry in SOuth Kavirondo is insufficient for precise evaluation, but a general description may be extrapolated. Comments in the quarterly reports ranging from "husbandry good," "husbandry 77Quarterly Report, SK, August 1939, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Rept/4. 78ACQR, Third Qter 1940, SK, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l; AAO, Kisii to A0 and Experimentalist, Scott. Agric. Laboratory 2 December 1941; and Plant Pathologist, Scott Agric. Laboratory to AAO, Kisii, 11 December 1941, RNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/3. £910: xuoi"ii§ f..-‘ ' , . - .1; {.145 .susalb 1'14“ 1 1 ‘; :{ -.- 1 . ”‘~" ' "4: J 3F e19w01p bOOIib h“. . H‘ ,3 “ .-_ ’ff‘ :“.?u) .0991 a! fil‘!‘ .. 1. . , . -1.:.‘~ .l‘JDI'L’Z'J a’flnsl M . :2... 3.32921 one. nan-CID ; ' 1: n«1_ _‘ 1;1¥z}:; -" Yd bullOliflOG 31.“ , ‘1 1;: w' .z-Jh uzrae:b MGIBBVSX lgflljflfilq -' V 1 ., ~ . . ‘ 1 1 1 {19.-fl chads: isxvjluatxfl ...:hn . ' 1" 9~~3 1'-....‘r.z.ok'1 -..-11;: 1:33.13: gm: 2;; '3" snugufiu (1!. 1E. bsjmlq 30.13 m! sa-«J. C: . .>;r."1-. x 1.11;:1 {we rad: no 30?, am: 3311111 I 11161131187. .boflulq 9d Mano 93:33:12.. -‘Jr{1_j';..e;u.' 31. £191.19qu sparkle 1313161 .1: ddlfl :{u' bsziov ;.E~?rzsups:} 3369?“. an: to 31:91! 11 has since in amma‘l .ziatta 5dr} Iii-av: Wot! 3'0 1101:2an 04! .cmulq 88w .9ni323193n3 '{I‘isluoijisq a! mom 9.3300 1M 36 01.6 m M. ‘pbusdaud 99330:) 31.0 is’vél '91: MW}!!! “I’m * Jud .noissnlsvs 9319991426.! W IIM'“ but. 117 poor," to "husbandry improving" with very little actual evi- dence do not provide a sound basis for analysis. Better in— dicators would be the amount of coffee delivered for sale, for which data are insufficient, and the quality of the mar— keted coffee, but this depended very much on the drying and fermenting process carried out at the pulping stations. The level of husbandry, though, may be inferred from the general attitude of government officers and the extent to which threats and prosecutions were necessary under the Native Grown Coffee Rules. The district officers consistently considered the ex- periment a success, and the initial cases of poor husbandry were rightly attributed to the difficulties of the block farm system. A few local leaders were identified as uncooperative or apathetic, but the farmers as a whole never were described in this way. Chief Musa's coffee fields in particular were a source of official pride. The officers' efforts to extend the acreage under coffee and to gazette new areas indicate their faith in the Gusii farmer's adoption of proper husbandry practices. In 1937 the South Kavirondo agricultural officer wrote with great irony, "It is comforting to know that the Kenya Coffee Board is alive to the danger of allowing native plantations to be sited too close to European estates. It was most encouraging to see these well tended native patches after passing through so many derelict [European] coffee estates."79 79Monthly Report, SK, November, 1937, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Rept/19. wzwsdfivd' 08 ...” _~ . 41:.qu Jon fi ” 2 blue! “new u.. -15 6325 dalul lflp ‘ . : ' ‘ .r‘ . M .993200 5.3“ ~. ‘-' ~ A _; :.**Lu aauvoxq patinallln .. 7 ,., .17. - ‘,n pssion i: bnejxs o: oézafihp 'Olloklil 0dr. ., Eé ’3. a g 3 Y 3': 1t 3 15919 djiw sdoxw 3931330 I333: 5150?! 991103 §'fh9)l sip a” 9d 0: 2120stqu 3mm 118 To what extent did the generally satisfactory level of husbandry depend on the threat of prosecution? Certainly growers were aware that they could be fined if their fields were neglected, but one would assume that the officers would be reluctant to carry out prosecutions because the success of the experiment depended on the cooperation of growers. In addition, since many of the growers were government workers they could be pressured by their employers rather than through resorting to prosecution. Between 1933 and 1942, it seems few warnings were issued and even fewer prosecutions carried out, 80 with fines ranging from Shs. 5/ to lO/. In 1937 six growers were fined at Nyankororo for failing to keep their plots on the block farm clean, and in 1941 one grower in Kitutu was warned to decouch his field, but evidently he complied since 81 there is no evidence of prosecution. In 1942, four growers at Mogunga and three in Kitutu were given written warnings to clean their fields. Those at Mogunga complied, but those in 82 Kitutu were prosecuted and fined. If one considers that by the end of 1942 there were 222 growers, the number who re- ceived warnings or were fined seems quite small. 80Absolom Ondara, OI: Ogembo area, Bassi, March 1971; and G. Nyamweya, OI. 81ACQR, Third Qter 1937, SR, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/ 1/1; and Monthly Report, SK, December 1941, KNA: Agric. Kisumu DIAR/4/1. 82Monthly Report, SK, March 1942, KNA: Agric. Kisumu DIAR/d/l; ACQR, Second Qter 1942, SR, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. Q . - Amazeigmn m . - g and 03' ~ms:'w1m 0" ~' ' i fr)‘- '1. , . ; -_~....-v~s~’gsr4 1:.“th d3 , ~ ' 3 3mm 92min \noljlbu _.. ~1 ' ~ g. 1;! _~93uaaeuq 9d quoo FD . .. . ~ it -~‘ war! rtiJuasuo'rq 03 guinea” g w: «2...». save 1.1-5 manual new central. ;A~. ~. ‘ ~‘r 1 ‘1' ' . ..r F .ada mom 91:19:16] mil 6.150 .-.:. a 3 ~ ~- an .-s 5..-p-27 10’: axoxexrzmm :1: beat) a" any «.32.. ." 1" "even." 5":(1 {1"}! «11 bus 4159129 tiff-1 ”OM w are i>::;;~_‘m.:~\ 1.1 ‘211'355‘312; tad .5191} 81:! moon-b o: beam 7 zenvcz‘ip furs/L .3591 "7 lauauiwsfinouq 9:0 mm “‘83. m a): squirm..." 19:411.: anvil: 9194 91113;! a} M 585 W" mi 92011:! ...-1.1 ,bsilqmos 5901013024 352 M and; ‘8” not: yd 35:13 alsbkarloo m n “mm; ”mm m ~01 odw ‘ISdMa‘f 9:33 .axmmmm5m~buw‘ \.3‘1;9.Q\§ am .3_ . . 1.1g- , awash .9119; ,3 34.. ~ 119 The quality of the coffee produced, partially a re- flection of proper husbandry, seems to have been high during this period, except for 1942. The first harvest from Gusii- land received the high grade A classification.83 In 1939, eighty-five percent of the coffee in three despatches placed in the upper classes, while the following year seventy—five percent in one despatch was so evaluated.84 It appears that.of the total coffee marketed for 1941, fifty-seven percent was classified in the higher grades. However, the following year the quality of the clean coffee dropped, so that only thirty— 85 This decline in the seven percent was in the better grades. quality of coffee was attributed to insufficient fermenting and drying accommodation during the heavy picking seasons, and apparently was aggravated by continual heavy rains.86 Expansion of Production When coffee was limited to the block farms, a nearby farmer only had to submit his name to be accepted as a grower. After the neighborhood concentration scheme was initiated, it seems that any farmer could plant coffee as long as he lived in 83DD(PI) to SAO, Nza, 21 January 1938, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. 84Compiled from ACQR, Third and Fourth Qters 1939 and Fourth Qter 1940, SK, KNA: Agri. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. 85Compiled from quarterly reports for 1941 and 1942, ACQR, SK, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. 86 Coff/l/l. ACQR, Third Qter 1942, SK, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/ g _ - {3. “up a“ H. u' > . , ‘.. \|.. S-qcnq ?O M --1 ' a ' w ’ “J3 .bol-xoq “ ..-_.;._ {‘ii.‘ an: bvaOOfl m ‘ "7 ‘ ‘ wig; 9v€1~21hu I, unapg wqqu emu ‘ . , .. 2 ~ tr. 717:: 2'. mm at m . n a ‘ _» L. ....w.‘. 35 :éni ‘10:: 15103 fl .. f ,7 ‘ . v.42“ H: ,. .3.Lx‘ LF‘: “PI: fl: bflRIOOILQ ‘.14..' ' . ‘ : w ‘ "“41 ~ 3‘" . ."s'mv. . IQJ" 30 Yflllltl’ 0‘, -;'3 . . cf 2 -. -7 r V:- Fuw- ZL'::.‘.‘_'.-.‘. ~ark! nk anw 33991” a”- .n :‘:r~ ”#5:, .' 12:1: ' bajmiizmxs and 991399 10 1.111.” M , 2 ur-a; .x; ry.-«3:2 2m gaunt; noinmau pain. In 9mm mgr-5: immune!) yd 55381151995 .50: 1.13:” no“ , 3 ~ no 5:1'msn r3 .anrfl £30.11 91“.: o: banImiI 03w 3.2109 M .1113-50‘19 5 as 533(33338 ed 03 man ilfl 1m 63' m YIN 1.8}! :1 ala‘Wifiini esw amuse. mums—mm that“ one 21”“ ’- ft uh. rt bevil 3d as pao.’ 315 551310: “big hit” m ” 1W “0 3;ng :msx ‘BEQI await Ema QEQI 81530 #3110! - .1x£\im sl‘éI brig nu 19S \g Lama aw; 120 a gazetted location and had at least one willing neighbor.87 Although the land of a prospective grower had to be inspected for its suitability, an appropriate site was usually found.88 Expansion of coffee production initially was limited by the unwillingness of Gusii farmers to grow the crop and by govern- ment restrictions. Why were so few of the Gusii farmers will— ing to start growing coffee? The reason most often given was that, since coffee was a European crop, the farmers feared that if they grew the crop successfully the settlers would take their land, just as they had confiscated the land of other Kenyans. Other reasons, mentioned less frequently, were that people did not realize coffee's potential financial value, and the crop was difficult to care for and the farmers were aware of the strict government regulations concerning proper husbandry. Since most Gusii were unwilling to adopt coffee at this early stage, the motives of those who did grow the crop are particularly significant. A special case existed in Mogunga area. One informant remembered that since so few volunteered for the Mogunga block farm, the district commis- sioner announced that government employees should be the first 89 to plant. Evidently he did not impose this decision, however, 87This meant male farmer. Female widows in charge of farms were not allowed to grow coffee until the 19505. Onyiego Ogorwa, OI: Jogoo area, Kitutu CentralIJune 1973. 88M. M. Otwori Atambo, OI: Ekerubo area, Kitutu Cen- tral, February 1971. 7 89Mikael Mbera, OI: Sengera area, Majoge, January 1971. 1017.”. Jul 5033.... O - -. z-‘y‘ubnnlflum .r ' «mm 8.11%“ 1 . v ‘ -~ -;;’:~;;:~ lo not.“ *at'. '21 aunpnulhl. _, .-—,.»xci1:>nJas'x 3a.- pazwflp 3153: 03 ”I t ' . _ ..wv: : s i1".W 9531’) ’3!) 92min 3* "v" my; :2, \ v 'inf 'xu'L‘ v9.1: 11 3.8” I n ‘ ‘ mu E "p. yum: :téwfi .hflll 119113 *3 V w , ‘ 1 1 r 1:13 ..‘177‘ -:-_ 1011.40 .em‘fn.) '1‘“ f d"; a'sa'fiioo Jailhf‘} Jon bib 3140“} 3w } i 'm f . 1w ';'-.u:'1 's f. 3:)? 9153 oz: 31'1011315 an 9019 0‘: h- I J «,5: r" can :I (.{V‘_:.iJ5i[J¥_)93 inemnasvop ”I33!“ ‘1. m ‘ am 1 ~:;: 221‘: 7‘» Mans 03 :uiiliwnu 939;: im m ”“1! F q .1017" art? “L Ed.» om smart! in awn“ ‘3 MG tixan all” ‘ .11 15932329 9255 Isiosqa‘fi WM” flulwtn m it we} 02 sonia amt: balm W an mm W p 7.. , -—aimmoo ioixieib and .m} 1513“ 3220.? 3d: 5d blunt-18 seared” 3o sands K3: 7 g treaty!!!" .eflw $113“; 1.5.1.514», ’ , 5‘70)?“ 1“,“ ”7" 1'3? vast) 3303;1“1flj5l? W“! - 121 since not all the government workers in the area complied. Another informant said that he and a few other persons were to1d to grow coffee and were assigned plots by their chief. Those told to grow coffee did not have to contribute much labor in the beginning since most of the work, such as the preparation of the land and planting of seedlings, was done by agricultural department laborers. However, some of those who did not maintain their fields were later prosecuted.90 A number of farmers at Mogunga eventually abandoned their plots or sold their trees, occurrences much rarer on the other block farms. Thus, it appears that three categories of farm- ers planted at Mogunga: the volunteers, those persuaded to do so since they worked for government, and those designated by the chief. In other areas, no clear distinction appears between those who planted on the block farms and those who planted on their own land. Three general reasons are given by those who adopted coffee production prior to 1939, but these are not ex- clusive categories. Frequently a combination of reasons con- tributed to the decision, while the sustaining aim was to in- crease cash incomes. There were those persons working for government, who, not mistrustful of its motives, were willing to serve as examples to others in their community. As one person explained, "People like myself who worked for the gov- ernment decided to plant and show others that this [land 9oJohn Oseko, OI: Mogunga area, Bassi, June 1973. :.nn;u3d ed: «1 IO‘D‘ w: «v? 13 AOIJLISQIIQ p *7: fitfui‘ ,LSIUiIUOI'IPI [I “. . f T: u‘haniam :Ofl bib 0d! ILLZ ' “ in 319fi1n§ 3C Ifldlll I 1 . . :- ~ .3 ~39: :2. -' '05:” tion ‘10 um “uni" av, :13 : 5:26:35 31‘ .amtT .ami W .1- '~_;i4 322;. ,7v932H4[_' nu: :fipnupofl 35 beanslq I}. 33:»: ...:rz'; out 712.13.171.91“: :52 [vmhow god: 9051a on m .Sotdn ed: ‘fl ‘3u;:§a -JLedLr ®J:i3nijaib 159£3 on .85915 radio n1 . n Lanziq 2“» sash. bus am?53 iooid ad: CD Annual; can 080‘, um. :3gur33 12..: hunt) 915 2x30853531 infirm ”a M m, It“, ~29 ion 2:12. 55:3:3 Jud PEEL 0: “Hum“ DH“ #10:. sung-7:25: k3 nquanidma . nijljrw 919w .ssvwear M '30 " 9:10 25 .gslfim 1” it «a? an: m Ismail 615 and) am: anda .. 122 91 A head- expropriation] was not true about the Europeans." man at that time asserted, "We were government people so we were not afraid. We were sure that the government would not take the land. "92 Other persons decided to risk land confiscation against the prospect of earning a greater income. The financial bene- fits to be gained from coffee growing had always been empha- sized in the campaigns to register prospective growers. Those who had seen coffee growing were already aware of the economic benefits. As one pioneer put it, "I risked it, saying let come what may," because coffee was known to be a good income earner.93 Another pioneer adopter had been imprisoned for anti-European religious activities; when he returned to the district, most of the land and all the animals belonging to his family had been taken, so that he had "nothing...to sell to get money." Since he had heard of the money acquired from coffee growing in Kiambu, he decided to plant it at the risk of losing his land,94 as did his brother and father. For most of the Gusii pioneers, coffee was not an un- known crop, they considered it as a good way to earn money, and they were quite eager to plant it. One person recalled that he 91Nyakundi Monyoncho, OI: Tinga area, Kitutu Central, February 1971. 92Mariera Angwenyi, OI: Nyagiti area, Kitutu West, March 1971. 93Leonardo Mayaka, OI: Marani area, Kitutu West, June 1973. 94Marita Ongwora, OI: Onsungus area, Kitutu West, March 1971. r- ’ amsq 1431130 5: «1'3»? 1.‘ ”anemia , ‘uAi house at 03": . r .: J ranpjmo ads! “I” , . ‘_ 4 3;}; :p when. am out!!! ..n . J , ‘ . 7 _ " -[ g,” r—unrrlq :HVO M an!“ '[€"‘;J": r. ' ' , , ,t ‘- tawny. 3...»: 93310: 9805096 '\w* ”1.9":(i ,:—_ «; “urn-:2. new; an ~d mar; 19313056 3m m 1:.I‘u’1‘1‘2139'v 9d nsdw mount»: ”0“ -- a ‘31:; «.3 _ a. i; :10.- 9d Mamas 9d: 11: mm “‘ ‘1' '1?‘ ' .‘ffino': 1: ~: 0.3 Use 03...9n11i30fl" u M m W; [Li :"i; 1091‘: 31113.7 >9 t I h. .. ‘1 123 had been impressed by Mr. Gethin's coffee field in the district, while several others mentioned working on European coffee plan— tations or seeing it while working outside South Kavirondo. Another pioneer cultivator explained: I had lived in Uganda where I was able to witness coffee being grown by the Bagandans.... I had also heard of the [Africans] in Tangan- yika and the progress they had made as a re- sult of coffee growing. As a result, when coffee was first allowed to be grown by Afri- cans [here], I wasted no time in seeing that I planted it. Indeed, I had been anxious to do so for a long time.95 The desire to earn a greater cash income was frequently mentioned by the earliest growers as a reason for accepting coffee, as illustrated in some of the above quotations. Why the money was wanted is difficult to ascertain; although many mentioned the need to pay school fees, this seems to be more a contemporary explanation for past behavior. The schools in the late 19305 do not appear to have required fees, although students needed to provide their own maize flour and blankets. Several others mentioned wanting money to buy cattle to be used as bridewealth. For example, one early pioneer grower had no uterine sister, so that no bridewealth cattle would accrue to his maternal homestead. He was forced to look for another way to obtain cattle and thus began growing coffee. With profits from coffee growing, he was able to buy twelve cows and twelve 96 goats necessary to marry his first wife. Those already 95Kasimir Orwenyo, OI: Marani area, Kitutu West, May 1973. 96Nyamari Nyatome, OI: Keumbu area, Nyaribari Chache, May 1973. , ' ”('3 .- F. ; .'jr: .x_ 0’: -q::,,% :- 53 ‘3597‘. 2.3!“ V" "A. ’89: ‘41 ' i “r' 'J'M'E‘J‘Iqtfli “'m --7 Iain". at- ,_;=»"L8‘5£ 10 not!” : sunolq um 08*: .'l .. Ar"; Ev was 9!!! ya b98013“ ...:r...- .4 » '- 9 . to 36:02 a: magnum: as .9033“ urn-13.15 a} banana: nv teno- an: [amide 25¢; 03 soon at: bone)!!!“ r. $0093.: «5'1" .'mjrvsfisd 3a“; :03 nozmfluo 215'!me :.:‘.c..'.fl:: 14:13:}: Lsu’upa: evsti 0:! ‘39on Jon ob core: '03:! “O a); :4215 :1 xx. 123?; sadism mu. aid”) film 0:! W 833.601! 592:1; ed 0:! 97.3. to \{21d 03 venom MWWSW mm In“ on bat! lemurs 19911011; 121““ gm ’1“ .~' tuna-um II .3 amass 1.1mm 313339 Will‘s: «,in \rsw ransom“. 105‘ abet 6:5: w ALL 124 married saw coffee growing as a means to acquire additional wives. Since the desire for money was probably common through- out Gusiiland, it is significant that some pioneer growers were not fearful of government's motives, while others, al- though hesitant, were motivated enough to risk having their land confiscated. One informant provided an interesting analy- sis of the pioneer growers, which is substantiated in Chapter 4: "Those of us who first planted coffee [in this area] had already learned to read and write. At the same time, we had already been converted to Christianity and, as such, we were slightly different from the majority of our people. Thus, ..97 there was this outside influence on our lives. Their de- cision to adopt the cash crop was also influenced by the sup- port and encouragement given to coffee production by Chief Musa and Chief Aoga. Throughout the initial stage of coffee growing, the district officers ignored the director of agriculture's 1933 stipulation that individual ownership be limited to 100 trees, unless he had been assured that the indigenous grower had suf- ficient experience, ability and capital to justify a larger ownership. Up to November 1937, the number of trees per grower ranged from 134 to 7,632, (as shown in Table 7), but fifty—one percent of the coffee was owned by six growers. When imple- menting the neighborhood concentration strategy, the staff 97 June 1973. Mariko Nyansinga, OI: Nyaguta area, Nyaribari Chache, a. v J. a; .. .... I, “no; use M Jan: . rxxpcs am; saute 1. .- ' .hnslilwo .100 . , ‘ 'nJh .1; i. Llisei 30a 9100 ' c‘ 4 1 i g . '. «1;»: .Jnsajaod dpuod: 'L"‘ ent .bsjsoafinoo bust 3w.;g Iqsno’q ad: 10 It. . -1 .5‘”': .731 64 :L117 nflw an 30 saoflr' :0 ; -1 1 _ A .;9_~. ;:c be”? on benibei ybhsiil I ‘~ 2. 1.... 1; :-:ifl5;3éilli'.) 03 bevjsvxnoo used @801.“ 7 may a. 1. :- 20 yu‘rtojsm mi? maxi snexaiiib 21mm ’z. s: “ , 1.: 1;.0 r1.) sonwnni abkwue unit a" no!“ one u” ~i bscnaczzni cals 85w gore dens ads Jqobs 03 uni-In :oi.+ :Junnxq 991300 01 Govt? ado-tgflwnnoa. has 38“ ..9“ has III!- M an? .pmiwc19 991303 15 apaaa jointnd a!) anudIVIBdT . - EEG! a‘etujluuiips 10 roiaeiih I‘D filflllll I‘fl’i’fi. $0§I3ili .2981: 001 0: mam: ad WW :wsmm due b’sn’ newt-n; wmm‘aymmmmum 1591151 5‘ viiiwt ad mummWQ iswo’a- Iaq £36915 2*; W” ano-yaifi 3m: {1‘ M“ H L... 125 TABLE 7 NUMBER OF COFFEE TREES PER GROWER IN GUSIILAND, NOVEMBER 1937 Number of Number of __Trees Growers 7,632 . 1 5,370 1 2,148 2 1,074 2 671 l 537 12 402 1 268 . 18 134 _48 Total 38,219 86 SCHJrce: Compiled from List of Coffee Growers South Kavirondo, 30 November 1937, KNA: Agriculture Kisumu Coff/l. liJnited most plantings to one-fourth an acre, which was equiva- lent to 134 trees; if a grower proved competent, he annually Could request to receive an additional one-quarter of an acre Of seedlings. In late 1937, when the acting director of agri- culture took notice that the plantings exceeded the 100 tree maximum, he severely criticized the Kisii agricultural offi— cers.98 Although he protested, the officer succumbed and limited plantings to one—eighth of an acre, equivalent to seventy trees, to keep plantings within an easily measurable unit.99 98DA to SAO, Nza, 8 November 1937, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. 99A0, Kisii to SAO, Nza, 30 November 1937; and A0, Kisii to SAO, Nza, n.d. rec'd 22 December 1937, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. “LI 2....” 31$.9i £5302 '4 ~ rug, :3.» 3--'-. 'of; ”:o 131.1 mo‘m bolsqmoa :mm L." Im,‘ '\/x . .J\_ . i 31:2-.. 17:17.71)! .«r;zt:1-n::up:§ :AMH .VEQI xsdmavofi 0‘ TDLMX .9106 as djwuoi-ano 03 agatflnslq 380. delifll in ‘.~ ans a7 .Jnsjsqnoo bovoxq xswoap s 31 {0.013 8&1 63 3331 6:3; as is 1:376U0-:350 lsnokiibbs no Gus-0.1 03 3lsnp’! 51860 ~1nps 10 10339135 paiJos-edfl ntfiv .ViCi Ofitt a! .upallbooo I. 9913 {Hit an: 5913599219 mm ‘W “a “1131i 36:»: «Mini ~1139 Isz.u3£uoi'zns' ram “3W1“! 151:" 0‘ 'w has bedImnmyg mm ‘3 WWQWW 0:1 inexavmpe .3235 elasrusssmgfmgsefifif ' ' 126 There were no sound economic or technical reasons for preventing the extension of African coffee growing in Kisii. The policy of limiting indigenous production was bound up with the idea that African coffee growing was only an experiment, even after production had been successful for a number of years. When the Gusii coffee growers were restricted to one-eighth acre plantings, the deputy director of agriculture reminded the South Kavirondo agricultural officer, "The policy is to experiment with native coffee growing, to judge whether na- tives will take to the crop, care for it properly, etc. To make this experiment a true one, it must be representative of the large numbers of natives who would grow coffee in the fu- ture, and not merely representative of a few who are able to 100 The real reasons, of course, plant large numbers of trees." that this notion of experimentation was maintained for such a long time derived from the pressures put on government by the European coffee growers and the lack of commitment by government. For example, when opening the 1934 annual meeting of the Coffee Board of Kenya, which only represented European plant- ers, the governor remarked that he was aware of the planters' anxiety concerning government's steps to initiate African cof- fee production. He assured them that the European coffee in- dustry "must on no account be jeopardised by indiscriminate, 101 uncontrolled planting" by Africans. Also, when discontinuance 100DD(PI) to SAO, Nza, 29 December 1937, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. 101"His Excellency and the Coffee Planters," East African Standard (4 August, 1934), p. 14. :-'...‘11"]A 13113 “61 fl " "..z.'{70'tq 19:2. DOV. new ad: nut .71: .apnmnnlq 0135 -. .'j 4 fix, -’:4.Itli‘./BX £13003 “3 32.? 1' aviésn ff. rw 3.4301164“. ‘. _1‘ '3‘“ c3 sins 111w mi: 4.- "; f-4 ~ r <--'x:~ Gun: 5 :qemixaqxo aid: Dill “:L.‘ o. "ow Grin-x ."‘)V1"L‘.fl 3.) 319W“ amt w H: .Jz'h \.-. " E 1C 5'.'i::;;9.1589rxq53 {.971st 3501! M5 .63” -... ‘7 .mnesaz L59. rad'r OGLEastn 1" 3396mm 09:31 inst! '. .'x .; 1w? hv'az1;\.:;s;;sm sew moms-.msmizoqxe 10 now 81:13 3!“? 5r; "nannnwvop no jug seamen; odd m3 “711* “H glut ..ngtrrzsv-grn yd Infuniimmo 30 :I'Js-L “3 In. em “3.309 tango-u! '10 pub-99:2: 49mins no: 91113 gwm 4m :12! - ‘ —:me£€1 asquIaB heane‘aezqs: titan 5W_M in W «nosed? p.233nsiq 9:1,: in ma; ”#4:!!!”me “p.93- -MV‘ maul-139334231113 q: '7 W I . a , If 127 of the block system was considered at a meeting in the fall of 1935, attended by the Colonial Secretary, Cunliffe-Lister, and the director of agriculture, the former reaffirmed his view that coffee growing by indigenous Kenyans should proceed 102 The 1936 shift in policy to allow coffee pro- very slowly. duction on individual African-owned plots did not signify that the concept of experimentation had been altered or that substantial increases in acreage would be allowed. In November'1937, government confirmed its position on the experimental nature of African coffee growing to the Coffee Board,which complained that there was a serious lack of labor, especially during harvest season, because Africans had become reluctant to work on European farms. The Board asserted this shortage was due to the increased prosperity in the African areas caused by rising produce prices and the gov- ernment policy of initiating cash crops in the reserves, pur- sued with "rather too great an enthusiasm." The Board claimed that the situation did not really benefit the Africans because the cash they were earning in the reserves was no greater than what they could earn by working for Europeans, and serious losses were being inflicted on the European agricultural sec- tor, and, ipso facto, on "the prosperity of the colony as a whole."103 102"Notes of a Meeting held in the Secretariat on 23 October 1935," KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/2. 103Coffee Board of Kenya, "Memorandum on the Labour Position," 6 May 1938, KNA: Dept. Agric. C/Coff/l/3/8 Vol. III. 3i.r.' "w-GYP Xoold 0‘! h .. - . 4 a Lehman: .etii‘fi -- - 1": 20:33:15 9:15 i; ‘v '1" safez'wo 35!” h” ,v . 4 ....-'.- SolJff‘VOll f!" . . ed.,-"nilbnl 41c mus-n _ 4 4 ,4 4 ~ '47" 14'. “4; anunoo 9!” 3m suasa‘u: 1: (biiflum ‘ ,4 . 4': :~--m ‘ :31: ; nimsvrm n1 ”.3: 4r»: 1‘ 1': ::.-J:n {sisvsxueqxfi alt: . .i‘ .,,' . - : Anni: .1: n'.‘ DEULIumt‘.‘ 1311418 .b'lfiofl M '...<'..:t:;‘ . dues-sf: inuvzsfi pnixt‘b yifsiosqas .2031 b ins-4:1 3.5m: :‘3 :c-‘wa no how 03 .msfiouta': m m ,4: a: ..-«::,;20.1., bv'afirs-zrvsni ad: of 9:113 IBH 953531ch ltd: .03!“ Iron 2.4.1 hm: (52114.; 95:45on ensai: yd buuso anus nah“ ‘ ~1th .aevzteas: 3:41 {:1 ago-13 duo Wists“! 10 251101 1“ 2734311519 bison“: 912T ".masiambm as #8919 m 1.430!“ mm“ "winced 3415911114 95.1 31291154 (Mani mm new}! “I" 3“ mad}: 1535910 on 257: 29:11:68.: 8'6 a} film I”! w ‘59 “2 24101302 has .anueqowfl 303 M“ M M“ 128 Although the Coffee Board claims were greatly exag- gerated, in South Kavirondo the increasing interest in coffee growing caused the agricultural officer to report in 1938 that if enough seedlings had been available, the total limit of 100 acres established by the administration would have been reached. Land was being prepared for coffee which would bring the total acreage up to the limit, and new applicants were 104 In July 1938 the district requested per- being turned away. mission to increase the limit on coffee growing to 200 acres in the gazetted areas. The provincial commissioner delayed forwarding the request to the director of agriculture because of reported coffee berry disease in South Kavirondo, but after a month he admitted that the rumors were unfounded. He sup- ported the request for extension on the grounds that the in- dustry was making satisfactory progress and the local native council was spending considerable funds to advance the industry beyond the experimental stage.105 However, the director of agriculture refused to grant permission to extend the 100 acre limit, claiming that all varieties of coffee had been found un- suitable to South Kavirondo,except the Blue Mountain variety, and this variety had not yet proved successful.106 104ACQR, Second Qter 1939, SK, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. 105 SAO, Nza to DA, 18 July, 1938; and pc to DA, 17 August. 1938, KNA: Agric. Kisumu 1/2/9/2. 106DA to PC, Nza, 17 September 1938, KNA: Agric. Kisumu Coff/l. _H 4” '.da11d5339 IOSOI.°°‘ " . . , '. 41.4; ~r;»4 asw baud .5odoacz z . .. . . ’ EL 34‘:- q4: 99.35.1435 1630;! m . 4 3 .4c 1- ”" vaws ranxus gated , .1.. 43 Jinx: -.3 easeiant o: not-cl- : r .v 4 ~' sr' .ansns 59339359 add at :E'.4J'L3.vf,' . . 9.2." no: ”.0 Tints-11b ed: on fiasupex an: panama 15:13 ~34 ‘nh' :ivsn A: :8 n; 9355215 vtxod 991109 bodloq-I lo ...3 ~31»: .buhruminu mew 210m“: at” 1.0:? bwilm 9d 1118“”! ~'; 23% and: ahauozp ed: no notnnsfxs 103 3t‘9901 ad: began; UVIJGH Jana} adj bns eaaxpouq yxojontqkill naifilfl 83V 133195 3vjaubni 9d: sonsvhs n: shag) eidoxsfiinano pazhalqa any tion-l, at. can We a: team 91:25, cor. ed: bnsfice hi magma: gauge; W Mimi!” 4m moi assassin. mm 204, vig,.;”i_,;3m1312j,dt$; 3o unioezil 2&1 .xevawbfl 129 In April, 1940, the chief native commissioner urged that the African coffee growing experiment be recognized as a success and that wider plantings be allowed, pointing out that the experiment in South Kavirondo had been successful for seven years. He reported that: A letter from the Director of Agriculture written in 1933 clearly shows that he en— visaged that in such circumstances thousands of natives would be able to plant, subject to certain not arduous conditions which he described. If the experimental period is not declared to be at an end, at some time the natives can very well complain, with reason, of Government's insincerity. As far as South Kavirondo is concerned, my belief is that the experiment has only proved the suitability of a fairly restricted area (part of the Kisii highlands) and not a tre- mendous number of natives would ask for li— censes. The amount of inspection would prob- ably put most of them off and I doubt whether in the second year, as many as 100 would be planting in addition to the 179 who are now doing so. It appears that by refusing this permission, we do the European coffee indus- try no good, we give the natives an oppor- tunity to accuse us of breach of faith and our own consciences are uncomfortable.107 Finally, in early 1941, government authorized the ex- tension of coffee growing in South Kavirondo to 200 acres. New planting was to be strictly limited by the capacity of the agricultural department staff to ensure sound husbandry methods, prevent soil erosion, and control pests and diseases.108 107Copy from CNC, 30 April 1940, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/2. 108 DA to A0, Nza, 7 February 1941, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. "1" ' -”IU . Jr- ravs :>.Dix:!aex q; .3 “2 .:;r3 0: :nomizoqxs ad; gag; ~~7cqei 98 .exnsy nova. In! “ .1 . -3 193391 A .. g, ' , I. . :1‘ 110113191 ’ i; -341 Rapsaiv v, a) a “UV soaffian 10 :l“ f~' 47 niuiusa 03 __¢ “d“ If .bsdiruasb s)" 0: kw‘AcJ'i-abdon ,... gvuv nan aqvj+sn an: *nacrnravoa Ito noun: .ozx-st “3002 as uni 5 $51 45d: 81 lsifad ._ --'H‘ s 10 yfiilideakua ed: ~93: , Jon ban (ab:nfdprn iielx ed; in 115;) »?f :03 335 blue» GSFifinr 30 xsdnuu auobnnn x:;u.._.' Show :1 Jinraqul “to 3m 9w ,aum majorly: 3:1:er ; has no mad: Bo team an yids 9d bivow nor as yuan as .maet bases? 0d: «I won 9:5 odw an 5:13 03 minus a! "wash; aid: Efliagisu —aubni 393300 my! uh: eh m: ozoqqo n5 servant at: wk: on ‘ {:1 33nd sum. 31 . 9am ,1; .ufim , on tgfi M,” Ens ‘dfliei 10 §9fiatd 1b 39 OCIOQO 2313B9 V0: «raga—19.3mm m mine-.9 m up .. v, —x9 9d: besixod.1os suaaynnmup .thi 3‘10. a1 .1llill3 . ~,:av .9105 005103 MW‘MKVfifimmum ‘$"Q§fi’1fl‘dfl’ fllflllflaall“fl". 3g «(swam m ya 130 The provincial commissioner cautioned the South Kavirondo of- ficers gradually to expand cultivation and recommended that 109 The district only twenty-five new acres be planted in 1941. commissioner retorted that since the permission to expand had taken South Kavirondo ”by surprise," there were very few seed- lings in the nurseries for additional planting. He suggested that plans he made immediately for expansion in 1942.110 When permission was granted to extend coffee growing to 200 acres, there were 184 growers cultivating a total of about ninety-four acres, with an additional five acres planted in nurseries. The largest annual increase in number of grow- ers and acres had taken place in 1937 when the neighborhood concentration scheme was introduced, as shown in Table 6, after which the rate dropped primarily because government re- fused to increase the acreage limit and because there was a war—time emphasis on cereal crop production. In 1942 thirty- seven new acres of coffee were planted, the largest annual in— crease, but only twenty-eight new growers were added; this in- dicates that a number of former adopters extended their fields since growers were usually allowed only one-eighth of an acre of seedlings. 109PC, Nza to DC, 15 February 1941, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/2. 110DC to PC, Nza, 24 February 1941, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. ._ _... . : ~ .‘;"_"~_“-.'_‘i!UY!OO Intonfw'w H '-.-- 03 {.'wbrxp M ~ - . - rrfl-ya'asw‘fifi -4 ,, .~ ' : . . - -'r‘.‘ L 34101.7. Isnotl'fi'lw 1‘ 3.: r ~- -2 .. m.‘ " . ""“ c771’~1".'al {ULMB "Oi-d. .1 - ' ' ' .. 4:14;; 2 .2 “4:33:21”: mi: n: ”094!!! 7', ‘ ”MW." cirfi': T’u’f 2:1qu 5&1 ' " ‘ -, ~ r' "<2 g— .u Paw t'f. F.2'1m1r'3q :1de ' ~ 3 ~ .. .7 ”New: MTV r: .2: wind! 1910300132305 :33?!» 1:: .1!" < .25."?! .ucisngnin 3m 3 1:. . '2-.1:..-v.r {sinfmi 1mm!” “rem-Is. sci? .aaizsa‘fimfif ..rfit' n‘uiru'm. 3M nodw 3521 :23. 911515 nails: hm! cams but no ..2 “Mia's" .x‘: swans- as .bewboxdux 311w anodes 1:01:31:an aw .m. .: a. q sauteed u.’ in. aixq bagqo-ib 933: 9d: dell!!! 2091: 2.45.:31'15‘ seubood m :Iiall 5918735 odd 03mm 0: M”! "‘(Ll'lffl‘i‘ S; M st .mu‘mboxq gem I“ as m anda-m «rt: isumus 329915! 9:13 .mnslq exam 0.1390 to 00100 '03 a” ~ni aid: {59506 9190! IWIP was 349104541”! 2130 3" ‘9.” email 2394: bahrsorxa exam: sand [:10 :0“; 3 ass: was» and I)? mm A!“ W ' 131 Summary During the initiation and development of the Gusii coffee industry, all important decisions were resolved by European officials and officers. A few Gusii leaders helped to promote coffee growing and many farmers were familiar with the crop. However, the growers tended to be unaware of pos- sible alternatives to decisions made by officials or power— less to enunciate ideas gained from Uganda. Except in a few instances, the officers never consulted the growers or their formal leaders in the decision-making process. The issue of expansion, as well as on other questions -which arose during this period, the government officers at the district and provincial level tended to be supportive of the Gusii coffee-growing program, although frequently in a pa- ternalistic manner. In contrast, national—level officials were out of touch with the actual situation in Gusiiland, but keenly attentive to the interests and fears of the European settler population. Once the Gusii farmers no longer felt afraid that government would take their land, there were more applicants to take up coffee growing than could be accommodated; the Gusii, who traditionally combined agriculture with cattle raising, were readily disposed to producing this non-edible cash crop. The limitation on the rate of adoption was the result of gov- ernment policy, strongly influenced by European settlers. The European officials tended to make decisions which would keep the Gusii coffee industry wholly in the hands of ‘m " 'n‘ “.r'. :'-7~'"7:“‘.i.'3; fl"! Pnl‘xbfi‘“{flr"’1‘"=‘g' . . . « > .1. .wamflw , ~ . - .. -. mam. ”W - - ' - "W" ss‘ticor'enbwifi;fi‘ ~' -i.~:-~ - .'3sv»~'uloH yga‘ifi’i" .3 .sra :8 "..‘- rsi'ltsniefiffi-Tsw ,,~ -' _' ’ P" v' ‘ ’1" :::'L‘ trim-i HJALOnU'fi‘E' 33‘3“: 7"4- * -‘ ~ ': 1322.5": 1‘5"}: r": ;r 1.15.31 31“? Jemima! mi>“:r---.~nrrm.-~"“mb 173:5" n; 319539! I.“ .‘:.i a. nob. arms ‘10 3:3321 9d? "‘2'“ "v .~ 091.531: '-.-.::.*..'v79L-‘:r_' '3: :: .f‘m;‘~i".:sc:g aid: plumb 93015 03* 1"..L."Y.Ct}{.j ".1 - ' '13 bsbnst {wan laionivoaq has and.“ +4 :3 ..L ‘1‘:"':‘:;'FBI“: dpuoxius .maxpoaq plump-601100 it... slow viii-3:31;; Isvs.’ Jan-3135:! «3852:3000 a! .18” 0330116.!“ ‘(Lnssd 3nd \brasiil'aua n}. neissgjfl’i: 1503” Odd ‘31! w 30 3!. 191.3392 mama-.1133 ad: 10 21553-1 has 330mm 0“ 03 ”$3M“ 35d: bis-13‘s 559': 19ml on arms} 11000 M: 0009 .W m‘ol‘qua am- new and: .M“ alum 030 film mm guano 3:4,: :mm: as! blue. ‘5th go all“ a .pnieisx glans Min 02031001!“ mm amalgam qocm fleas slabs-tau chi: W a W filth: mu wot) 10 :Iuam m 0* “3““ H “at” QR .awlam m N,‘ ._‘fl—m __\_‘ i 4 .A 132 the Africans and under the control of government. For example, the suggestion that a European be employed to supervise the pulping stations never gained support. Rather,the stations were managed by experienced local people, under the super- vision of the coffee field staff and ultimately the district agricultural officer. In the same way, initially a European businessman—trader was used as an agent to sell the coffee, but eventually this function was taken over by the agricul- tural officer himself. These decisions led to the eventual formation of the industry on a cooperative basis under Gusii leadership. ur. —. haugaxg'g r1: 5.."; . ‘~“""S\‘§n-‘-Z-.'-‘_'""’33;* 31", "1...".‘5 ".‘-:‘ '1’)?" EQKfflrl hm m ” PH?" 9.: ;,_‘=.u:..;;:,:..3~‘ "r.” “3.33,...- Iéuprv) «k; :mnixygycmgrfi :3. '13.“: mam ‘ ..3‘ 39:32:: 35344;.121} 179m mil“! m ..1.:-a::1:-A mam..- ; tan-mm wax-n w: m m "92.: :‘2-':»:« waur; Mm: #33192; add? 3x1- with gig-w, W». m; aw: rd. . 19:11:97 handful”: lf-I" m; a ham; mm Minnow In! am: new it new”; mini minus-mat 10¢ .3 swings-'12. Wit? humid: 1329319 I” - .“:.‘Z‘.wi~‘.~3‘ 3:324:49; ”am-0333s.? mm as ”:3: vgurmfizcuii mm Mn M . Z . J " . on“: " " 3" 3. It‘d. ”i3-1. "_ ..w.‘b'o' v!" -..:"""",~‘19 ' 33%"? M: {351431.}; . {a 951:3 “at CHAPTER 3 THE GUSII COFFEE INDUSTRY 1943 - 1950 With an increasing number of Gusii cultivators and greater production, the district officers focused on reorganiz— ing the local industry. Analysis of different suggestions show the assumptions of colonial administrators and officers in regard to the structure and control of the industry in African areas. Also, an assessment of the factors influencing the growth and expansion of production indicate elements with- in and without Gusii society which affected the South Kavirondo coffee industry. Organizational Aspects of the Industry In July 1943 a special meeting of all Gusii coffee growers was called by the District Commissioner, Mr. H. Carr, to discuss the coffee industry and its future. He proposed that the industry be separated from the local native council, which over the past nine years had expended approximately Sh. 40,000/— on its development. Because of a rise in the price received for coffee and increased sales the previous season, a balance of over Sh. l7,000/- remained in the council's coffee fund, which, the commissioner suggested, was sufficient for the industry to be independently organized. Mr. Carr recommended 133 “-3 'Wiraqu‘ 1 n5 .iaiw * . . . ‘"!h In? .coxfuuhnmq utility ‘f‘_”'<73;‘ . , 'L ? .g,tn. .\:daubni 15901 odi'enl ‘7". '2 7 'CiL . 7, 15:1: JUL. 2" Inf-Jijqalbaufl 911.1 m a”, ‘n Lw1 n *fii subjuuzra and 0: 518991 ll :ni L101;33 grfi :v :nsw23)€r5 rs .oaiA .asszs nostril :‘fitw EJ'TFD‘TY‘Z‘f‘i‘ 13:733'Vhr'? 310:!5ub0‘1q lo noiansqxs— has dnwo‘xp out 'wr.'~3 fijuoa adj -szolib daidu‘v‘uiooa iiauD 130d31w has of «11:0an cotton 931-2.3..” 1M“ 3° 9 9 aw ssfiioo 5(wa £13 i0 9113:3990; bloom s {#91 flat: a1 :1an .H Q-m .13n0l8e-Ufim9 39.113310 ed: yd balls: at! camp “mag an .9103”: 131 has 233w“; action and moon on .iimoo'evisw [ml m 5012- mung-a ad {1380011 .18. is” “in“: at an a to ”3.5557: 134 that the growers appoint a board under the supervision of the district agricultural officer, to administer the current reve- nue, future finances, and the welfare of the entire industry. The growers felt, however, that the balance-in-hand should be paid out as a bonus. Although the district commissioner was opposed, he finally agreed to a one;cent bonus for each pound of coffee cherries delivered the previous season. Thereupon,the cultivators endorsed the proposal to form a board composed of eight members, with each representing a particular pulping station, with the agricultural officer as chairman.1 Except for one individual, selected board members were pioneer coffee growers, those who had adopted the crop before 1938. All the machinery, buildings, plants and im- plements in use by the industry were transferred to the board by the local native council for a token sum of L 50. Even after the Kisii Coffee Board was initiated, the administration still contemplated the form which the industry should take since, although the board members were to be re- sponsible for the management of the industry, the ultimate liability rested with the district agricultural officer and the provincial commissioner. The South Kavirondo agricul- tural officer suggested that the industry be constituted as a cooperative, similar to the Teita vegetable growers cooper- ative and sought a copy of its regulations.2 Acting upon this 1Minutes of the Meeting of Coffee Growers held in Kisii, 6 July 1943, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. 2 A/Coff/l. PC, Nza to DA, 8 October 1943, KNA: Agric. Kisumu a}. . . - ' in.» 93": noqus‘xefl v;' ‘1" ardrvis ‘13: {3'92qu 515“ ’9 ':'-»' L . 3 ‘ ' ‘2 . ‘HDLJfiL-s naming 1.3109131“! w'n: ' . 3 w‘ ‘ (can. .4. «no 101 3.; 1:32.21 Immutab- ' ~ ..u'r: 3 _ had 3 ".r 91:." f {tawdry 9.9730.) 199m)“; 0‘3.“ « a .. we. .spuibjua '._'I-'~n_"-_~Zobm am: In 3:91 mad" (1' in. at: an: 3.: r'G'm'ftenB'tt srsw (3:149an 9th yd 02:: hi ”manila“ .05 r' ’30 mm: 59.104 .3 to? (torn-on awn-a 1:901 d3 3113 .fojsijin: m. : fnsofi 393:- u .3 gm: 91!: 1911s any! «i - 4 . [:Jenbnl 9d: rioirfw mc': $.13 bmung [13:32 noiunnlm ~91 9d 0:! anew new binod ad: 1193041315 .9933)“ sis: “and! w 93min; 9d: ”1334,1551 M: 19 some“ at: no! “dim? . . -. \ . : Lat-.13 auxin! .‘l - ' .:-v’ P. -,V990'xp “‘I : 7" 3. .It 'L‘.’. J r m .11."; oioq “ ”3 ‘ 3 w , :‘f 1.. .9133)qu III .: » ‘ . 3...; "' ‘do 51:51 30:; 30 banoq | \ 1 i l but. 19:11:30 lamina: :95 is an.» out My but“ 911“! .k -45 Again; qbnmi‘vsa «was an min-no 1513511611 up 3 . ‘ '"fr' , {—Ji'. as Dana-138mb ad ram ~11 “€1.- . 1 . . . :7. 1:”); 3i“:_... , 135 request, the director of agriculture cautioned the officer about the position of officials vis a vis local representa- tives: "It will need some consideration, particularly if he [the district agricultural officer] is to be the official representative and if there are eight native members of the Management Committee. We shall have to consider safeguards as he may find himself, on occasions, in the majority of one." In comparison, the Teita managing committee consisted of the district commissioner, the senior agricultural officer, and three elected members; although government representatives were still in a minority, it seems the director considered this situation more manageable. Further discussions among officers in Nyanza led to the decision that the Teita regulations were inappropriate for the Gusii coffee cultivators, so the agricultural officer of South Kavirondo was asked to draw up a suitable document. By early 1944 a draft, similar to the Kilimanjaro Native Co— operative Union regulations, was sent to the provincial commis- sioner.4 However, the provincial commissioner and chief secre- tary decided to defer any decision until the arrival of an expert on cooperative societies, who was scheduled to investigate the possibilities of introducing the movement among Kenyan Africans. Meanwhile, the Nyanza commissioner formally recognized 3 A/Coff/l. DA to PC, Nza, 20 October 1943, KNA: Agric. Kisumu SAO, Nza to DA, 2 November 1943; and SAAO, Kisii to Pc, Nza, 2 February 1944, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. w. 3 - '. ' 1.5.2.5 an .3.“ .v‘.’ A . . -’>;?iz-:yq 0‘33“ .3 , 91' mm 31" am .* 94'.“ .7 = . : . - ’. .‘ ' m 33:11.2“: 9113!?“ ' . 3 . , ' , - JMb evidencolnqh - ‘ - - -..; .~ .mvno Jamey-all .._~.:n~... t :13 yam on u an, in - . 3",. .3273“ an: .nnaiuqaoo a! Us“ .-:3~rx€:a.;1n.'tr33 13133-1. . - ~.:-.1 3 :J'odmsm 5933919 and: 7:: Us: '3 as“ 7 any!) :; ELM—501m 5 3‘11 [1&18 If!" .'_-.'-..c-e7:.us"v mom monorail “It! f.“ L ESIHJYVE 5'. 1"15'J11l‘ib yarns. anoleauoalb radian! frisi‘vagoaiqqrpni «'st Enduring-an 5:19? 9:11 35:13 acumen-w tat-1330 Isnudluotips an: 08 .eno-‘svhluo .3310: um ad: 10! .3rrsmnoob aidsjina s qu M15 0:! am: It! obmkvs)! (1.100! 30 ~03 Lavina-#3 onstamifix am 0:: noihtlxfloxb a “(I 1.11“ 1. ---aim‘igo:) isibhivonq an: (‘3 36158 as» .WIM 71901130 “in!“ -91393 lei-rt) has usuciaa‘kmmoo Islam DID Jam-all "hm. jasqrzs as ‘30 Invixzfi 9d: Inns mm * WNW”: 136 the Kisii Coffee Board; it was given the authority to meet ordinary recurrent expenditures, including payment to growers, and could draw checks against a current bank account, signed' jointly by the agricultural officer and a designated board member. Within a few months, the secretariat changed its posi- tion and decided that a temporary constitution be used to en- able the board to carry on "until the society can be register- ed under an Ordinance yet to be framed and passed."6 Although cooperative societies among Europeans and Asians were regulated under ther-operativeSociety Rules (l93l),government con- sidered the ordinance ill-suited to the development of coopera- tives among Africans and planned to frame new regulations which contained more detailed provisions on the conduct and guidance of societies. Nevertheless, government was, in the chief native commissioner's words, "anxious to see Co-operation harnassed to meet the needs of the local inhabitants, particu- larly the Africans and believes that there is ample scope for it."7 The idea was not new. The establishment of coopera- tives among indigenous farmers in Kenya had been discussed in London and Nairobi in the early 19303, while the Labour Party 5PC, Nza to DC, 3 March 1944, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. 'GSecretariat to SAO, Nza, 30 May 1944, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. 7CNC to PC, Nza, 17 May 1944, KNA: PC Nza T & C C/l. an“ aside: it“ ,~ - .'ns'ttvuoo': M . mub bioofilfl , , { ‘ . ’ f"'e 9d: yd ‘13filot an.” 'r a midi!" M » osnionb has ml: ,‘ ,_ 3 - * - ~ '. z. 3. . ._3 33 b150d-0d’ Gill 4 . - :a r ‘2- u: '-:-‘ihuz‘z or. to.” b. ‘ ‘f'fi" . :np 1 ..-, .--'7;:‘1vd ......r. sash-arson wits)!“ rm: g -..: :n :3 (a, c. '24.. 3131008 263:;3: nsr'o-OO 9:1: I“ -€v~' 3 , A than»; . .3. 9.74 a: Luxluavll." svcsrrih‘xo 9“: 50'1“. P..',VIS‘C."IJ§L‘V.' ; 3mm"; 03 banssiq ban 311591115 won. ml: ‘ a; 3;:fimoo adj ur- anoiam-mq beuiisdob anon beaten”. m z}: m .3»: r..1-'mm'zsvoz_> .easisriatsvafi .auim in m :1:E:<.~zar,~o~o:> 992 o: anoint." .a'n'zow a'unoluime "in: m 1 vuuij‘xsg .airmfidsdni Isooi an: 30 lb.“ M3 to“ at m 1 1w“ egooa sigma at 919115 first” main int mm a“ w ‘ ' ‘ . . ~53.“ —a*xsqaon 39‘ aracsmdaiidsm I“ .fl'w‘mm muss-w n1 Baaenaeib mad had «an! at my WWII!!! Banal)! . 3).)?!» 7 137 was in power. Some members of the Colonial Office had favored developing cooperative marketing for African-produced coffee, but they held back because of the many conflicts between London and Nairobi over the coffee—growing issue. Coopera- tives among indigenous peoples existed in other British de- pendencies, such as India and Ceylon, with government support. In Kenya cooperatives among Europeans operated from 1908 on— wards, even though there was no official ordinance to regu- late them until 1931. And, in 1932 with the formation of the Kenya Planters Union, European coffee growers gradually became organized on a cooperative basis. A cooperative expert, W. K. H. Campbell, arrived in Kenya in May 1944, and visited Kisii and other areas. Campbell, who had formerly served as Register of Co-operative Societies in Ceylon and Advisor on Co-operation to the Government of China, was deeply committed to the idea of cooperative socie- ties and had well-formulated proposals on the procedures for beginning such a movement, which entailed a central role for government in encouraging and directing cooperatives. Campbell's report, the concern over returning African veterans of World War II and de facto cooperative organizations among Kenya Africans, together with the policy of the Labour Party, which had come to power in 1945, coalesced to contribute to initiat- ing a definite policy for the development of cooperatives.8 8See Edward Karanja, "The Development of the Coopera- tive Movement in Kenya," (Ph. D. thesis, University of Pittsburgh, 1973), PP. 44-49. .‘ r’ . . . .' .--r: and ‘. .'xewoq‘ a} *1 -« ~ moo annulus 2.1 32.39:! you: “9 . :3... , , ’ - * ‘dotusw has No _7, _ , 3 .‘sri pnnmn an}? 3. 3 3 :‘é'ua .eskonobuoq ‘ 3:3. ._.‘“.3... ~33 * i38QOOT) 5w!“ Ill J. ._ 3 ;,13.: , >A..;x U ’1”."13 “SUB ‘85”. .'\.' _ ' "I. .W-~.' 131.4: mod: m1 . 1;.zu - " " = 3 3 ' 1’ ‘-" newluufi‘ \no'u': FXQJHDI‘! at“ ages-3i s'::;:31~'~~qooc 6 no balm. 31:11» .J.J.3.~c:c3... mun-1.04%; fiastnsmo ns 11.31!“ Hi 3“! air-1.1119 lseol amen: jainas mum) daems‘ulovni 1” 11m: 7.7. 59323193ni 9101:: am: 119(5qu 4990:1315 Mame; dvfl‘ Juoce ordain: ‘0 asw mi ‘mxdsasqooa JSOUDOIQWA‘M“, 31:21:»: 9H . a1" akO‘IQ 99330: Hana ad: was 2391003 A lo I?” mien? an: moat? gsiwmmi eviism amine WP lid-1". 3A”. v at: 9191i: sepsoed 7, 9:11:93?!” ”1:3me 118 ,3 13M? saucepan-ed: 103 mm 9;): nuts-mosh «mm I“ W «313:» ads monasm sly 3g 61. mm In M.” ed. mmmm arm 6mm wmmm . fi‘ 90». ma {0-, 'A' ,..., , fl ‘1'" A’70-«'§‘°-;u .;.;EF~I_" 139 the posts of PC, Nyanza and A0, Kisii."ll To expedite this change, the regulations had to be approved. The draft previ- ously drawn up underwent changes by the director of agricul- ture, which were accepted by the secretariat. Then the regu- lations were discussed and approved at a meeting of the Kisii Coffee Board on June 26th, 1944. In October, the application for registration of the Kisii Coffee Growers Co-operative Society was sent to Nairobi.12 Unlike the Kilimanjaro Native Co-operative Union, membership in the Kisii society was not compulsory although, in fact, it was the only way to export coffee from South Kavirondo. Licensed growers, who had been approved by the society's board of directors, could become members by obtain- ing a share for Sh. 15/-. A member could sell his coffee only through the society, otherwise a fine would be imposed. The board of directors was to be composed of one member from each area served by a pulping station, and he would be elected by the area's coffee cultivators. The agricultural officer of South Kavirondo District, an ex officio member, was to serve as chairman of the board. The first board members would 11w. K. H. Campbell to PC, Nza, 7 June 1944, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/9/2; and Secretariat to SAO, Nza, 7 June 1944, RNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. "Notes on the Regulations of the Kisii Coffee Growers Co-operative Society, Ltd.," as received from DA by PC, Nza, n.d.; Secretariat to PC, Nza, 30 May 1944; Minutes of a Meet- ing of the Kisii Coffee Board [hereafter Minutes of KCB], 26 June 1944; and A0, Kisii to DC, 21 October 1944, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. ' ’ -41- (11‘st PT‘E’L‘ J‘llUU El” 1533 . —..-'. fl .... , .L‘. .'I";--m=.»5. ed “10.". ar 11 v,vv" .J H - .; ‘ . ‘ '."L'j‘3lb‘39‘1 011:! .” ---..E.r..; qu must!) 1!“ .1 . 929w livid? .Iiu ,7 . . r , — I 915»: 511013.! .4 um. ', buses ”91:0 >3 '2 a ; 'tc:1n1faipfl 10$ 7“ . - . - w: 3mm mm [3.190. -..." :xsrrj._[2"4 Sal”? sigh-t3 w ' :-:.i . itsitf «:13 r! gimme“- gm .‘ .1114 '11“. mi] 859! 31' Jab) .3le fund cm: ..3‘15n”1y beansoru .obnoflvfl 3.31;: y. .2 :‘flosuib 10 brand 3"{391900 3'5 :zsnm~r. A .«\a.? ..riz ‘10} and: n pl! 5 921m»? ‘30 .yisiaca 9d: mom: I!“ 33:31: Inurm one '13 beerJerm 9:1 or saw excuse-zifi lo btsod‘dfl' 739.13.919 ad Div-3w ad has .«zofisza 9&1qu s yd henna an: m 1931131. ltmjiuoi'xps edT .aza‘fisvifliu‘o 993300 run 1" g 03 254 .usdmsm g;ggzmo‘xg as .saxzaaxa ababutvnl'fisuai’fli bisow axswmrblsqd 3311! 54? £81.64.” $9 Mltfl'itrm :ZZX .5591 SfiQL Y ‘9991 ‘BflflL V .lsrw 8713111333 9.33635} 3,. W .965: .51 {$.33 ~i§¥fi :B- 39';1”5' .. l1 s: z:.....5 .g_.x .u“ ‘MummhmMMdm I , ”91-",‘MJz .2»?- «x'-:; .1 ‘5.:. : _ g Q " " L. 5; ' m“ (33:13 1mm! when -H, ummyw g1. ~———— 140 serve until 1947, when at the annual general meeting four of the members would retire and four new members be elected. At every subsequent annual general meeting, one—half of the mem- bers would retire in rotation and new members be elected.13 It was assumed that the board would have eight members, since, at that time, eight pulping stations existed. Soon after the accounts had been audited, a general meeting would be convened, where the audit would be approved and the net profit allocated. Twenty-five percent of the net profits had to be allocated to a reserve fund; other catego- ries, such as building and price stabilization, also could receive allocations; and the remainder would be distributed as a bonus among the members in proportion to their marketed coffee. A quorum would consist of one—quarter of the members. A special general meeting could be called, particularly for amending regulations; the presence of one-half of the members was required, and successful proposals required a two-thirds majority.14 Within the framework described above, the society's objectives were to: (a) purchase, treat and prepare members' coffee for market; (b) dispose of the members' coffee in the most profitable manner; (c) purchase agricultural supplies for the bene- fit of members; M.— 13"Regulations of the Kisii Coffee Growers Co-operative Society," n.d., KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. 14Ibid. ~ . WMJ us:- a“ - _ bluow nod-nab L.- -m~.~ r'xsupoodnl "I. .‘1’; 1 2.? 9:11:19} b11110?“ ..; ~ 1' _tr,:.‘:‘ between a. 31 its: '. , 1,. *.X.~.m131w8 .. . ' ' ... . 1m.“ 18335 nun? . A . v,‘ , ..:-. 105452!” ., 9d billed gala.- '. ‘ _ -_ V . . 5 2." ' ~:'_;;.L.'L‘ 31501-2; 35m 8111 h. 2,. we,» ’ i‘ f2:;Jx‘,')1,_'£:s 9d 0.? bed 3.11,“ ..W. s a“. ..x:-." 1.,r.._.':::r.- r) '14 .725 pnibiluci 85 {$308 ...“ ~ . .x - 5.31.") 5:5 u': .".-. iebanmeI and bus 2311013333011. WM ".952: :1: 119m 3‘; no;31,:.qg..1n r21 813(ka 9:11 9110MB wand 6 Q 1.; 9:13 '10 1911mm 5.3.)"10 Jelanon buxom map A M 103 ~_"’.'.3:H’Ji’)l;'"fi£{ .591153 at! I‘alUOfi A1389. 13190.9 “M‘ :70'381‘3”; 911': 10 lied-emu 10 90119291 1 an: 23301151099131!” abzz'M-wa: r. bazlupsz aiaeoqo’zq Luis-com Eu Janina!” “.mu- e'Yjsiooa 945.3 .9vods 6967x319” M13 “I atmlre.l It: 99530:: 'amdmem wage-19;. an sun! 1% m """' ~ ' ' ' V- 2.7 ' ‘W ;3°:5 {if . , , $33? 735:," " . "’3" “33'3”- , seem 95: :11 993k! ', ' " ' 7 37.1"» "15“! f 1 .I . . :" > { 'vl‘.‘¢W"® , tinted?“ ~—. - -. . " . . ,. ”2",".1’ Last 913:9} -. 141 (d) acquire by lease, purchase or donation, and hold any movable and immovable property, in order to better carry out the objectives; (e) raise money on loan; (f) provide for collective measures against coffee diseases and pests; (g) erect coffee pulpers or other machinery which might be necessary; (h) assist in the amicable settlement of dis- putes between members and discourage liti- gation; (i) and everything necessary to facilitate at- tainment of the above goals.15 In spite of the establishment of the society with its indigenous board of directors, until mid-1946 most of the re- sponsibilities of the society were kept strictly under the control of the district agricultural officers. The Senior Agricultural Instructor,ZedekiahOyando, made payments to growers and supervised the society's employees, as well as the department's African agricultural instructors who concen- trated on coffee work.16 The European agriculturalist, who was busy with food crop production in the entire district, claimed he had little time to supervise the industry. When preparation Of the coffee crop in 1944 resulted in poor qual- ity parchment, the officer insisted, "Owing to the pressure of other work, I only managed to visit each pulping station (except Kisii) once, for a few minutes, during the picking lsIbid. 16Zedekiah Oyando, GI; and SAAO, Kisii to Marketing Officer, Kisii, n.d. rec'd 7 May 1946, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. . ‘ ' L3! (5) ' :u-F- . u o". ' .- t. .‘I' ' * 2313* .1!) v vQ‘V" '2‘ t . €92.) I‘ 7: “A’: 'i" . ;:'. I r-rnzwox; ..».:1r‘.-j::w"_-i:v (s3 - .C" s ‘v, ugh-nth: . ~\- 'u : .. ' urn (- ~ .1 it an: o sJiJl “I @330 Errata-slaps 3312:3831) 9533 lo 101’” _<,.:". '«v‘ New at: .e°24\¢’-” :qme a'woimva ad: bmswa 5“ 83m mosses. oriv ax: ‘mj'zfiani Lstusuvnrxps “913M 3 3mm #0 it. ohm .nbncyOL-isuleboa .mJomel L-mmtm 03w .:Jaifezufilu:i:zps uneqonfl! a!!! 01.1203! 9313” 49 MW .Joifiaaib B‘Iijns.3d3 mt noizwbozg 90:3 boo: an M uiw nsdw .Yzztanbni 911:1- saiv-asqua o: nu: ma; had of was slow; woe: a: swim gm at mam-4B 39 mm exhaasxq 913 a: fight? Janice: M IQ .M‘lfiq I“ 142 season and these visits were only possible because other ac- tivities took me to the vicinity."17 Nonetheless, the agri- cultural officer played a key role in controlling the society, as shown in the minutes of the meetings and substantiated by board members. The Kisii Coffee Growers Co-operative Society was registered under the new cooperative ordinance of 1945, which repealed the 1931 ordinance. Although there had been talk of a special set of regulations for African societies, the new ordinance applied equally to all races in Kenya. To foster development of cooperatives among Africans a registrar of cooperative societies was appointed in 1946 to serve directly under the chief Native commissioner. The first registrar was Captain J. H. Clive, a former provincial commissioner. When he took office, there were eleven European, eight Asian and five African cooperatives which came under the ordinance of 1945; of the five indigenous societies, he claimed that three would be more properly registered as public companies. To assist the registrar were four African inspectors and two clerks on a modest department budget of L 2,050. Clive des- paired over his small staff and limited funds, which hindered the extent of their activities. Moreover, the department found itself in the awkward position of being called upon to help African traders, as well as producers and consumers who 17SAAO, Kisii to SAO, Scott Agric. Laboratory, 17 February 1945, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. ' . 4. .- dead: bill “ -!‘.' .. 9:1: t1? .1! tit-03 881’"“ ’1. ‘ .4... ,q 1931.310 Ilia!“ -. ‘- ' ~ '().‘!':T. 9:13 III M!“ . -979dmafl 6110‘ ~ . '2 .. 1:53 zennv b91933i90! : .'v _,, .w u;t- a“: boloaqla ? 23‘r7»3.fw' 1; 392 Igloeqr s ::~:~:u. ..z ‘. 'gi l-’.'.!'.-‘.‘ 5. Eggs eofltnlbto ‘4 e-a‘. 17:00:. ‘0 3nauquIVID 1'." ’ 1' . we: - 5 '2: (“v '1'. 4.1.73: asw 294131300 svlsorm ~., .3 .~-n 1:2“? .mrf- .':~ia::.';iaa;‘1nmc0 fiVlL'C-‘T 391d? Nb 1“ ' .~;-a;r~.i. n2 .mo lsiunjvozq ism-’31 s .9vil3 .H .3 film has ~ Lea fdr:~ .drsqownx “ovals 919w oven: .601310 ion: Id an <.;r.r.r;:’. tr: an: :nlu‘w we doldw awtfluoqooo “9111‘ wt} '33::13 35:12“! f;-.«1;1;..3iu 91-2" .2912381908 auwmpliml WH 9413 “‘3.“ o? .asinsqmoo oildnq at 5019131991 ulaoqoaq 910a ad IdlIH ow) om; aiodoaqgni mm” 1003 9391: 1311319.: on: am -295 s-xiLD .OEO S a! 1‘0 SWd 3mm IMO. I no m harshnid minim“ m: may” bait 12m 11m an an mm 'fir .W'zb '. 94‘ '57 iE’eTWé ""3133" g .. "'45 5‘5. ‘7‘- dl "r ' ‘ >F ". . I ‘ - 143 wished to avoid middlemen. Clive unsuccessfully proposed that government appoint a special adviser for traders.18 The situa- tion which the registrar found himself in seemed to have been fostered purposely by the Nairobi legislative council, which did not favor creating institutions to cater for the economic needs of the indigenous people. Clive later wrote, "I have often wondered if the Kenya Government ever intended it [the African cooperative movement] to succeed, or whether it pre- tended to do so as a sop of the Labour Government, which had come into power."19 The registrar did take an active interest in the Kisii society. In 1946, upon his suggestion, the society amended its regulations to make the marketing officer for South Kavirondo, instead of the agricultural officer, its supervisor, and the officer held the position of patron, rather than chairman, of the society.20 This provision opened the way for the elected Gusii board members more actively to participate in the daily management of the society's affairs. The Gusii chose Chief Musa as the chairman of the board. The following month the responsibilities of the agricultural department staff were changed so that they "be in no way concerned with any operation which should come within the scope of the 18Registrar of Co—operative Societies Annual Report for 1946, MOA Library, p. 11. ng. H. Clive, "A Cure for Insomnia," n.d., Rhodes House, Oxford: MSS Afr 5675, p. 192. 2°Minutes of KCB, 9 April 1946, KNA: pc Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. The minutes of the Kisii Coffee Growers Co-operative Society Managing Board were sometimes designated by the name ." * Lib”: him». 03 ‘3toqqn snolnzoygp ;- . , 4 n‘ awga' n: 9d: dotdw 09*! ‘ u- » ‘ ~77 1920011qu bud-v3 z“iv=t :‘J‘IC 13v5? :03 5‘5 x... ba-xabaow 119.110 ,,’ '. (".‘er.fi -vijsxsqooo aoalxl‘ nu ..ul :J' %p qfii d an 33 oh 0: bobs-3 " .uswoq 0101 film 7w): bvusnr my a'u‘ 31h x5x:a&pfi? ed? ‘ .'5' .12? ‘31' ..‘rofir‘mppn-P 2.1"“: 9101.4 .6091 :11 .1301”. ‘JJ-' to; mnoikiu gntnsfizsm on? 285m OJ anokfislupofl .31 ,.. ~ 7y. ”5! .Jun%i3c leaniiusixns ad: lo booianl .obaoii'Il 35A“ 1'dJfiv .nowisq it 30%diaoq 9d: bled Yaolitc DQJ_le 2;; "a: b5»: :0 molar ouq atzfl‘ 05.13919“ M: 30 .95.!” ').(.;‘.‘_i')::i’l.bq .5] ylsuims 93m 83m used new bucol- at! 1.3m";- ad's .z‘risi'is Wynne: m is 311M388“ um ma; pun-o: go: an? .‘barm on: to 91.145“. 91;: as «an 1%” 144 Board...generally speaking the Agricultural staff will be ad- visory only, except in so far as the implementing of the Na- tive Grown Coffee Rules is concerned. In particular, they will not participate manually in nursery work, except for seed selection; in the actual planting or pruning of coffee trees; in pest control; in the harvesting and processing of the crop; nor in the maintenance of machinery and plant."21 These intentions were enacted to a considerable ex- tent. The society's special coffee instructors advised growers on weeding, pruning, spraying and picking. Society employees at the coffee factories were responsible for weigh- ing the cherries delivered by growers, issuing receipts, dry- ing the coffee, and processing it into parchment. During the off—season, the factory employees advised local growers on management and husbandry techniques. The society also con- trolled the coffee nurseries and their employees. Notwith- standing this devolution of responsibilities, general advisory functions were performed by the agricultural department staff, who could report through the senior agricultural instructor to the agricultural officer, who, in turn, could exercise power over the society's employees if they were not performing their work properly.22 of the dissolved Kisii Coffee Board. The footnotes herein follow the exact title used. 215mm, Kisii to Marketing Officer, Kisii, n.d., received 7 May 1946. ' 22Zedekiah Oyando, OI; and Mariko Nyansinga, OI. .ai. r-".~.._‘. '.f?1&!9mp....“ -=' ' t; Metre .zlm'm ; "2 991109 «was I!“ ~31 anrc'zjzaq 30. mi ‘. ' M. .1: HICI'JOSIOO M '- ~ : ' 10': mag at an.” .r: . ~ i m: .3 1mm «1010 d! :r 1.1-. 919d? w]. . er. - girl-3v :a e"x-' «72:03 9M .31“ ., ~ 7 }' 5:2 girlxu‘z»: .I' vibam: no 81m 2.;.)-_;r.:-'~ 013'. iiul'maf‘wn? 954130? 9.13 .1: 395201" a- axis-aar- ‘E‘iti‘HC'IG 25d barsvxfsb eelxasdo NB ‘1 m: u .-9 "fsf'filsq cum! 5: putaasoc1q bag .991100 old pill r:-. e' ..E‘i’fifz‘ '.:_:>:.J Esai'ibr. mayo-km T103353 OIL? .MHI‘Q“ my)? Jr‘zf \f1-‘?" ',- sri'l‘ .aaup PM?” vxbmdnud ban 3“” .rijzvcjov. .eat :CL'gsts 3.2911: in»; aortas-um 99110:: ed: M moaivbs 1:319:19er .aeiiil'tdianogasx 3o afitsalovfl ufl'flflm (2353-: 31:99::sz Iszufl-uohea «[3 vi Making an an!“ :o:m:t~aui mammary. aroma on! mm 32ml!“ xewq 921339123 Divot) ,‘ (£1me .m’ .wuaosxwmufi‘g‘afl ziegi': puimxo‘izoq 1mm w 9““ “WWW“ 1* 4M .3. “22mm 145 A further boost to indigenous control of the industry came with the hiring of a full-time society manager. The posi— tion was filled in April 1946 by Barnabus Omae, who had previously worked in the district commissioner's office. He had been dismissed from his government job supposedly because he was a key local leader in the general national African workers strike in 1946, which had lasted one day in the dis- trict.23 Problems beset the society soon after this fundamental transfer of responsibilities. Only a few months after the marketing officer assumed the position of society patron, he was transferred. His replacement had just taken over, when the agricultural officer also left the district, without ade— quately informing the newcomer of the intricacies of the coffee industry. Moreover, during this period the account books for 1945~46 were lost. The former European chairman of the society had also neglected to empower anyone else to co-sign checks, so that between October and December 1946, wages and other debts went unpaid; in late December, upon the patron's approval, the board finally empowered its chairman and treasurer to sign checks.24 By mid-February the board reluctantly concluded that the payout sheets for the 1945-46 crop, made by the former European chairman, probably could not be traced and that some explanation had to be made to the members. At the same meeting 23 July 1971. 24 1/2/9/3. Christanus Otundo, OI: Nyabururu Mission, Kisii, Minutes KCB, 30 December 1936, KNA: PC Nza AGR ., .."-r." 13:13:11}. I: w“ ;~ - _ , mud 0d: OHM-fl I "2.» ."I brill) “I w '11 handout finch“. _ g . -‘~v . ‘ m? bsaa?flaib flood I‘d :: - -, -',Jl 45:01 131 a ‘.'+.‘ n ' ., . kw; oi 9x133: 810$!” Es.:oixa . ‘s; «.1 mi? ".'T-d aawidolq — ,' 4 . ' L .':C:‘Li1’4“la"’9qas1 IO 103-mu .~ , folds-‘41 an" ;.Mu;:~.;;:‘. 150.3110 91113011.. '- : fi'Mr-r :15th b .I ;.t"ffi:"~.')l‘-I r-‘n mile .bsaxeianu: ”V «:1», w .-mjmzuu 91;.- fisl cals :rll'w Laxuzlualm ‘3 ‘1-:::- ~33 1; 2.31324: ink adj -1.smeowen 9d: Eminent 11.3.. n} awforad :muoocvs 9d: hurtsq cin‘.‘ pairub .Wfll «new v:r=.~.>ou em ‘10 mzzzisflo awqozu! 19mm! MIT .3001 91w DAM <2 .aiwn’u mgia-oo o: .enls army“; 199:0un 0: banana: ouch-4 :3.-Nah 191110 has may “will 19m 5. Mat) ”It.“ adj "IBW‘IW #11an “£3 aaqu .ummx M fill-mm 3312 o: :mum: in ammo at am M1.“ '25“: banal-.3302) gums“ W‘l‘W‘h 1‘? :“m xmoa ad: w“ «on: ”Multan MW” m :m: m be»: oi 1m 5m 146 the Inspector of Co—operative Societies for Nyanza, Daniel Nyanjom, criticized the sloppiness of the society's financial records and files. The secretary and treasurer claimed that since they were not employed for such functions, but only help— ed in their spare time, they could not be expected to keep the books up—to-date. Moreover, they admitted that the accounts and records could not be correct, because when the former European chairman, "who since the beginning of the Society had been all Chairman, Secretary and Treasurer left,25 he only hand- ed over roughly to...the Marketing Officer, who hardly handed over to his reliever...who eventually handed over cash in hand with cash books, but gave no information on the other books."26 The members blamed the former chairman for the lost books. By June 1947 the registrar of cooperative societies complained bitterly about the "extremely unsatisfactory state" of the society's affairs. The accounts for 1946 had not been audited and, consequently, no general meeting had been held. Despite this, payments to growers for 1946-47 had taken place, but no provision had been made for the reserve fund. Accord- ing to the registrar, the board members "excuse themselves by pleading ignorance" and claim that the new marketing officer 25The agricultural officer is described as performing almost 100 percent of the work of secretary and treasurer in: SAO, Nza to Officer in Charge, Soil Conservation Service, Kitale, 22 May 1946, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. 26Minutes of a Meeting of the Kisii Coffee Growers Co-operative Society Board (hereafter Minutes of KCGCS Board), 19 February 1947, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. .. , '31. 1c- manual-fl x ,- : grin-N531; mot” xv 113 has ‘1“! ,x; anew 19d: 90“ \ “1 ...; 33.95., "1‘“ ~ .wwn' ‘zxi.-~O3-qu .10“ "i .1 ‘2') 25310001 m ‘1 : ‘1'. ’ef; : g. " ‘ .Bfil‘iéa‘") “SW ‘ zu‘s (wigs- ;_ ,.::~m‘t.rsrfi) Us a.“ w; ,; ' :‘J ‘7 ”1;." 91.3. .C‘J vidpuo: two I! '3-197‘”--"4i‘~»’...‘1"--".‘i‘9'l aid 03 I“. ‘y «ugrsmroinfi or: ovsp :ud .ufiood r1853 631' 'm r.._=n1.:sdrt~ Hung} 9111 Oswald 019m at "u: 33 :' 2:513ng 30 15332199: an: we: MEL (I '1: ,‘3'3t',-?".'i’fi( w vimnuxsxe" 9113 300d; visa-2.1M but.“ sari nu. hm: 31H :01 airwooos ed! .nislias a‘ysataoa m h .niar‘l {339.1 wan. 9x11343913 1515:1919 on .yismpunoo khan mm .sosiq 21974131 but! urn-9.: '10! 229mg 03 ”MW .0311! .31“ ~530qu ..‘mui snares: ed: wt a“ it.“ but swung-WW 1rd aavj 93112953 season" um 5M7.“ (”19“ “1” :991310 paiisfixsm m WWWW‘MW QM 147 handed over the books to the society representatives saying "he had not the necessary knowledge to assist them with their accounts." The registrar lamented the lack of technical staff available to assist the society: "The A0 says he cannot spare the time to assist the Society. Most certainly I and my staff of one trained Inspector and 3 untrained sub-inspectors of Nyanza Province cannot sit in Kisii to 'hold the Society's hand.’ If I cancel the Society's registration and liquidate, what happens to the Kisii Coffee Crop?" A partial solution, the registrar thought, would be to have the auditors instruct the manager in keeping accounts and making expenditures. He also felt that the supervision of the society should be part of the marketing officer's duties, although he believed that "the Africans should run their own society," even if they presently were "incapable of doing so without constant super- 27 The management and bookkeeping problems encountered vision." by the Kisii society were common throughout the African cooper- ative movement; without any special training, indigenous peoples were expected to fulfill various responsibilities in an alien institution. Although most who held positions had received some formal education, ignorance about bookkeeping was particu- larly evident. To complicate matters, the demands for assist- ance far exceeded the cooperative staff's capacity, and the low salary scale did not attract highequality applicants.28 27Registrar for Co-operative Societies (hereafter RCS) to KCGCS, 20 June 1947, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/COOP/l. 28Registrar for Co-operative Societies Annual Report for the Years 1947 and 1948, MOA Library, pp. 1-3. ONC; as ‘3 :m w ~, 9.1;: :0“ W” -.| ~ ., ‘ *::1.': u'.: ”.M -~ ' vise-s 03 shun-9‘ ‘ Lg'- ~ ‘a‘aas 0:! ”I! ‘3 *7 . - :1 nadir!) coo-I'- _ ‘f‘ ' "f: 'l .’ufli‘V01q ‘3” L“ ‘ or." 1911!!!!) I 3! 3m J'n' 1‘: an enemy.“ 9m , 1"" H» Aron-uni 1513:1901 O“ 'm ~ .- .:.::.“>::s "411-7991 11: vopsmifli ' ,.- 0.3 3.1: it. soiaumqua at!) 31511) 3193 00“ :.‘f,[:‘ ‘39:”!111 e't'e'rt'i‘lc 9.13391irsa “13* -...,a‘,.- tram ried: mm bran-'12 8311501131 .11“ -s .'-.»3_‘e,nc.:- .r:""1‘.7'.w' :e: which if: aid-giant" 01” [13M ' ‘1 . 7 non-=3 -rzmiruirc phi gsszuiood Ems 331-9931!“ 2:?! “tau.” :sqoc; .'.::~.)i‘.11.'a -:'r.,‘\ Juadpno’xrm Romeo eminence 1131)! may arsiqnsq auouspibni .Qflifilfilj'lfiifiq‘ 1121 Wu um um calls n6 :1: asljindimglfl- ““1113!” a: W.“ 55.11939: brad anoizisbcq ”H CH “WI-A» -muid moinoq as»? unkqm “Wsmcmw "331385 105: financial]; it '7 ' , .. r . ... 1r .1 1 - a? . _ p " v ‘, t . ; v I . I 148 A conflict emerged when the former European Chairman of the Kisii Coffee Growers Co-operative Society returned to reassume the position of agricultural officer. In late November 1947, he was designated as the society patron, ap- parently at the suggestion of the newly appointed registrar, J. Leslie, because the marketing officer in South Kavirondo did not wish to serve.29 The board acknowledged the appoint- ment in a letter phrased this way: "The board...conveys its thanks to you for your acceptance to reassume Patronage to its society from the beginning of our next financial year,... they would prefer you to have the opportunity to act as an adviser only when the Board and its Manager makes any refer- ence to you."30 A few days after receiving the letter, the agricultural officer visited the provincial commissioner and claimed that under such conditions, as stated by the board, he would not accept the position. The commissioner concurred and informed the board that it was necessary for the society to be under the guidance of the agricultural officer "without any restrictions as you proposed in your letter."31 A special meeting to discuss the patron issue was held on April 4, 1948. The registrar presided over the meeting which was attended by the provincial commissioner, the senior 29Minutes KCB, 24 November 1947, KNA: Pc Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. 3°5ecretary of KCGCS to A0, Kisii, 27 January 1948, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. 31PC, Nyanza to Secretary of KCGCS, 31 January 1948, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. v: .1: 1132.100 A ,~-~ 7.; -1;?i'tr'.' . . 1.: . .‘-*-~7 :0q 9“” m .,; am.- m .':91 to“ 2;....-.,».~'..-; ‘ - _ ..1 .15 21.13an a g7 $247.1 nu‘ .u sued .siilld .S t ‘ ”"91 :3 deiw 30.1519 ‘3 noafitfiq :93391 I HI 3... -- 1 , 12:7"; ‘m'c-t; '03 Hey 03 I‘M ., , . *x-r . um :HJW. ud: mo!) YnflkOOO Iii ‘34.; art: Sift)“. - 3 uov 3339:“; Mum VIII: w,‘ - .Nfifim 1:run§Y ij ELr 5.;c3 ad: “66w X132 I'll'h. _ UL ' 39 an: EWIIJJC?L 19315 2355 wgi A ' .m at no. :2 .Lzafmmow Csi)n1v01q 9d: b93;aiv 1933330 16303183313. “';VQ adj {d £93538 2; .3n0131bn02 day: sebum ’Ifld hIIiIII lurin-v 10". ism; :.—.w;'-'mo:; sd'lk .nofiiz‘m 05!: 31.935 30R b1.” u gtaioaa sa‘J :03 21533953.: a“ 1i 5M9 hm ad: DWN- * juoriji'w” 15011-10 {53031031396 .6: 30 “It“ “11 m 0‘. ””asfist we}: a: saw no: 0- Wu. :‘zi’arl 25w wan 503mg ads 3m, amml aims: Lnifissm 5:23 ‘VJDWW OH 1‘”qu Iokasa ed: 1mm”; Mm” Mr: ,1. ‘ 149 agricultural officer of Nyanza, the district commissioner, two district officers, the inspector of cooperative societies for Nyanza and board members. The Chairman of the Board, Chief Musa, explained the reason for the letter: "This was due to the ill feeling the Society had towards the A0 they were ap— pointing as Patron. This was caused by the loss of the pay- ment sheet for the 1945-46 crop before...[the former European chairman] went on leave and his refusing new coffee shambas [fields] to be planted when he returned to the district." Then some of the European officials gave reasons why the agri- cultural officer should act as patron. In the end, the board members reluctantly agreed that the agricultural officer he patron "with full supervisory powers."32 The board members' dislike of the manner in which the agricultural officer previously controlled the society was very strong. One member recalled, "he always looked down upon ourideas and had a strong belief that his ideas were much su- perior to ours. In most cases in the board meetings, we rep- resentatives of the growers acted as rubber stamps, always passing any resolutions without questioning, as to question 33 was useless." When the members did pass a resolution which they had initiated, then "the European agricultural officer never took the Board's resolutions seriously. In most cases, 32Minutes of a Special Meeting of the KCB, 15 April 1948, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. 33Onyiego Ongwora, OI. iz‘f, " 'v “53:15sz 3d 0:; (film. 7, . . ., , 7 2 v2) mug?- mm ‘10 em: 00‘ Man :2 1901330 19393189 . n' film "we. :uJ :L.-..v {mast-z, $11.43;)- .103 '31.“ '. ."(T‘xi-WZ ‘Lzoaivxa-rg-Ja 115:1 tblu' m f , ' .' r.. -~.;:;_ 1'. 1.1;" ;\;- ufliiefilr ‘ausdmaa bxsod, MT ‘1; g, 11‘ an: M.“ 3:51! [011mm vlwoivosq 'xsotfifin 15103109” Uni-,1 .'r 7 no; .fg'Isz-s sd' .59116993 10d!“ .50 .PMS’I m ":33: r151": 91:”; and-bi air! Jufi ‘13in 3&3. 5 56‘ Mind}... «age: as: .ex-n..399u 5150:! NH :11 W 380. “I. .m-“ m run-us: .aqmwa was” as am away Q41 in annual-- eraoup a: as ..pgiMm'p $thM‘Qfil.” m n’sidw aoinloesu as“; mum-u M1 -‘§'.m.¢m 1110 Ianvimimm “‘3’ fl. Wit“:- W .3933: 3206: ml " Mill mm u-‘m‘w W” __ . ~m 150 he looked down upon our resolutions and ignored whatever was passed. This greatly irritated the board members, and, thus, caused conflicts."34 Other evidence supports the general ill- feeling in the district towards the agricultural specialist. When they heard in the fall of 1947, that he was to be reposted to the district, the South Kavirondo Chamber of Commerce fu- tilely stated their grievances against the agricultural of- ficer in a letter to the director of agriculture, and circu- lated copies, with no effect, to the provincial commissioner, chief native commissioner, chief secretary and editors of two African newsheets.35 Nevertheless, the issue of a European supervisor was settled for the time. Complications arose, however, between the functions of the society and of the agricultural depart- ment in providing services to coffee cultivators. By the spring of 1948, the agricultural department had five special coffee inspectors and the society had its own field staff. The agricultural officer complained that the society employed instructors and inspectors "who knew nothing or very little"36 about coffee work. It was a waste of the society's financial resources, he claimed, since the agricultural department staff was able to assist the growers, at no cost to the society. 34Mariko Nyansinga, OI. 35DA to Attorney General, 20 October 1947, KNA: Chief Native Commissioner N/4. 36Minutes of the Annual General Meeting of KCGCS, 12 July 1947, RNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. rm, 9:13 "311.1815 “It.” WE: fiiud‘ L913)! tI-‘l3 :n .4391 s at not: 1'3 tn". .1)!» .891” w ',,:_- ‘91.}.1'18121'UT7OO want.” ‘4 'L . ejoodawsn nooks” ,.' ' .-~5na n;gq01vh 5 :0 anae: an? .meslsndxavon n=¢'? , . 11:"! ,92525 :minszrlgto') and: 9d: :02 m _~.:f:£,:i11131395 9“.) in bur-1.191908 9d: 30 swim! w an a: .21035‘.’j‘3,{t!3 sell-:9 m aeoikun alibi.“ flat 3’ L's-Frga evi‘i {um inamqusb inuniuoi'xgo 9d: .800110 ,9“ .'t'issa bisii mm 235: bed gunman: baa mas-um bsychme {32.11008 96:? .1611: bsnisiquoo mi?” Minim.‘ “"913”; 219v 10 pnirij'oa wemi 016"» “mm mm Iskonanii. a'vjsmoe 9113 in gun samba: ..” mm. H.513 9591'“:qu Isuiimna “57,-” Mali “W .3539th m 0:, “an ”Mm gulf 1“ i ‘1 W 151 The registrar of cooperative societies supported the officer, but the board contended that the department should hire more persons for coffee work.37 By the end of 1948-49, three of the society's inspectors had been dismissed, but reemployed by the agricultural department.38 In 1949 attention became focused on the inspectors, instructors and pulping station laborers who performed field work for the growers. The director of agriculture, the regis— trar of cooperative societies, and the agricultural officer for Nyanza, asserted that good care of coffee fields occurred because employees themselves pruned, sprayed and took other disease control measures, rather than training the farmers to do the tasks themselves.39 On the other hand, the growers claimed that the employees only showed them how to prune and mulch, and that they were unable to carry out disease control methods because they lacked the necessary materials and equip- ment.40 Administrative orders were given that the employees cease working on individual fields, and that plans be initiated for demonstrations at the pulping stations.41 37 A/Coff/l. 38KCGS Annual Report 1948-49, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. 39Minutes of a Special Meeting KCGCS Board, 21 September 1949; Minutes KCB, 5 November 1949; and SAO, Nza to DA, 18 July 1949, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. 4oOpen-ended interviews with approximately 30 growers. Minutes of KCB, 6 August 1948, KNA: Agric. Kisumu 41Minutes of Special Meeting of KCGCS Board, 21 September 1949. 120 - ~ ';unixpn 0d! 1‘ b , .1 ‘K {8.54}: .11 ,nra'.4 ”as a1039fl190al .- _ 1‘ [51 9d: :01 in. do ;. ‘; enijz!c.noo 30 103‘ “ ;r '_,. gra: dqfizssan \ssnsyl 163 g: .E‘u'xq asvluamshj naeyoiqms Ollibtd ij' nix .-;w,.s‘ qua: “adj“: .aouuassw {01Jnoo 0.5.015 v1r '; -v: ,figLi tudflc ad? ad E£.aavfsvmed3 .1833 061-6. - g ... :J a - mgr-'5 Lawofa Ino easvolqns on: 15‘: but!“ "‘t‘rg'.) o: 91"..an gnaw 19d! jar-U has" «an A 4o: 2"nJ¢ib :uc ,fu : bus aisilafsm yasaasoen 9d: 891931 yea: sensood‘aluiiil 062,..- L‘ejssfljihi mi anslq 3553 has \ablsi‘t Iwblvlbal no ”when.“ :usqciqnm ad: 35:11 nsvip 939w “ohm ”13:13.1!!!“ 33.330115” pniqluq ad: :15 munnm“fl1 umaix .517pr mm; @991 :ueu (.339! 10 W“ .l\3§"~l um; X .313“ :m .u-uu m.- 1m W; “ . fl Am --...Nr-p 152 Meanwhile, plans were being made to reorganize the Kisii Coffee Growers Co-operative Society. At a general meet- ing in August 1948, Mr. Leslie, the registrar, suggested that it was time for the society to be divided into smaller organi- zations, with a union as the parent body, because of the in- creasing number of members. Each pulping station would serve as a nucleus for a primary society, while in the future new coffee societies, each with its own pulping station, could be formed.42 The matter received further consideration at a board meeting in December. Members decided that the union should be composed of affiliated primary marketing societies to deal with several products, such as pyrethrum which was being introduced in the district. Thus, they proposed to change their name to the Kisii Growers Co-operative Union.43 They discussed the matter and gained approval at the next an- nual meeting. In June 1948 the registrar presented draft by-laws for 44 Sub- the union to the board, which made minor alterations. sequently, board members, with the assistance of the senior inspector of cooperative societies for Nyanza, set about form- ing the sub-organizations. At meetings held at each of the existing pulping factories the purpose of establishing primary societies and the union, and the by-laws which would govern 42Minutes Annual General Meeting KCCS, 7 August 1948, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. 43 1/2/9/3. 44 A/Coff/l. Minutes of KCB, 18 December 1948, KNA: PC Nza AGR Minutes of KCB, 30 June 1949, KNA: Agric. Kisumu w :n: ‘ ‘sfinwnsafl emw-h 99110011“ 4v .9“?! :zupuA a1”5&1 .3 an. ml: m'31' : l . v7.91»: .unoln; 3. . - *;flIW :3 :sdmua pail-sac -, I ,1 . 1 ‘ g 21.: 'r'; 1:. “.1“? 80913:!!! 5 0‘ :1. Y;;- .auijsiooa 093163 '309‘: 7:11 I. ,; a"? ”.me1 .d 1 1 1. 3 . '1" ."_5-'1F.1:RI‘):'~;U ;1, 91111991! 6380‘ *7 ~ .3; -< = ‘.w111 :utsli3n’r u hweoqmoo 9d 616666 '-'Jx W_1g;~7 . if 4~'r v?"ufinxr Tsisvea ddlv 13.5 05 ;:‘~ {523 .: fl? .3311 :atb 9d: 01 noauboxsal paid: *,1E cvgfsieqo«fifi awswoxi :Lth 9d: 0: sun“ 11961 suntan »;1 ::91 at: 3; Isvcnqqe baniop bus xsrfinm 9d: balaflockbgyglé .pmoai 135% mm 1071 :3.—1 -\;r:‘ 2‘15"... fpsjasaa'xq 1151382991 3117 8521 and. ‘31 due w“.anmjsxsils 1mm ebm mime .6251” ad: u now)“ noimu 9d: 10 93115331225 eds 1131‘: am In“ all?“ «1303 1113.115 :ma ‘sanpga :31 3.13.1099 arqu :9 W 9.1.1 14159 35 5.2311 “an 33 may 3 ' 1T {» -,- ~ _. -;r v‘.‘¢~ -~."¢"-'"£—r'~1 . - ‘(Zthfli'tq maxim. ‘13 m at! W puma W 153 each, were explained. When agreement was secured from the growers of each area, application forms and by-laws for each society were signed, members elected to the local society's managing committee, and a representative elected to the union managing committee.45 By October 1949 all documents were completed and sent to the registrar, along with a letter ask- ing for immediate consideration and action because "unless we start on immediately with other produce business I [the Manager] am afraid to tell you frankly that we are likely to be let down in coffee business owing to the increased expenses borne by the society, i.e. increased wages, personnel and new pulping stations opened etc. out of the little returns from the season's coffee crop."46 Nevertheless, no immediate action was taken on the re- quest. Meanwhile, the plans to reorganize the coffee industry and to expand the scope of the cooperative movement necessi- tated an increase in the number and quality of the staff. Be- tween 1947 and 1949 the Senior Inspector of Co—operative So- ceities for Nyanza, Daniel Nyanjom, although stationed in Kisumu, had regularly attended the coffee meetings in Kisii. As a board member explained: "He greatly helped the coffee society 45In mid-1947 sub-committees had been elected for each pulping station; these were responsible for managing the local affairs. Therefore, the formation of primary society managing committeesdid not signify a drastic change from the existing practice. Minutes of Annual General Meeting KCGCS, 12 July 1947 KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. 46KCGCS to RCS, 25 October 1949, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/COOP/l. .., 542.1(1)“. 019' .~ '1 (has 10 m . ‘:t-.::.'ra 919V 13.!” C‘ H :.-‘. .-'+-;#;1¢MXOO gulp... , r L .’ , . ' a" , -1 .. .;\;3‘ Cum"): 91119.11.- 1 . ~ : brus bosom-do . . . .1: :. 6.1 ~ vow: :0: 9311 '~ -' ~ fl ” v';?n:)awn1 no 1151. Q? 10? L'.- .' 51‘115 m5 {xspsaal . _ 11.2.4“ —e.::r,51«; 9.1.40-4 fli’ ”"013 3“ .‘ JG . z» . .wyna1hri .?.L .gjeicve 913 yd .fliqq . m a . 2. _ “u 51:: "do beau-:10 311011531: palm ‘ “.-:o~m 981303 a‘nouoa m .1‘ an; and». ciw’ .1013.sz snaibsmmi on .asaisdnevsl .Jifihfl! 391109 21: 9311551991 03 ansiq add .slldlnsufl f’qun (“Lassen gnaw-"1. (‘1’: 162391941000 5d: 30 egos. M3 5W! 0‘ m .121 .11532 mi: :0 3531145115: has reckon M3 mt mount as w ~09. evlfizaeqm-QD 19 3W8!“ 1013108 0:13 2121 1343:7121” ”1310 u' 2,);.‘ .unumiffl r. benoiaaje masts .mtmufl 5 EA 154 in solving many problems that it faced, in particular manage- ment problems. We members were much freer to approach him [in contrast to the European agricultural officers] whenever we had any problems."47 Mr. Nyanjom, however, needed assist- ance with the burgeoning cooperative movement in South Kavirondo. The board successfully requested government to send its manager to an accounts and secretarial course for African cooperative societies. Also, the board received permission from the registrar to employ a cooperative inspec- tor to assist.thenanager; employed in mid—1949, the man was sent to a course on the purpose of cooperatives and the man- agement of societies. By December, the board had employed another cooperative inspector and unsuccessfully requested that a third be hired, but paid by government. Also, in late 1949 an African inspector of cooperative societies was posted to the district to assist with the organization of cooperatives. The Department of Agriculture also gave greater attention to the coffee industry by appointing an assistant agricultural officer, solely to foster coffee production.48 47Onyiego Ongwora, OI. 48Minutes KCB, 14 May 1949 and 20 August 1949, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l; Christanus Otundo, OI; Minutes of Special Meeting KCB, 20 December 1949, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3; Assistant RCS, Nza to Inspector G. Odawa, Kisumu, 26 November 1949, Kisii Farmers Co-operative Union (hereafter KFCU): Co-operative Inspector File; KCGCS Annual Report 1948- 49, KNA: Agric Kisumu A/Coff/l. Hr . «rapid-Ht; an “if“ “ ‘. '1 :E‘ZUd 91‘13 (1.111!“ -, . » . Lumd an? .wmtvi ..;:-.'. .er a; 3-4mm“! 3:91 53.. L ’. ‘ ~ . . ' ,Jzivi-d. -‘.-'3.113_‘.$C{OOO m1?“ '1 1 - ‘3: ‘1 9d: marl nolam - 7 ..Wgu : 1139512511: «1': 3313225 as 10! .v‘ 1’ re ,.‘:.'w:,s' .‘ gagq‘u'v' em. no 981000 3 O3 3* 'waLc,‘ a 1nd! ...--..«1 and .'ziwimzrosfl up] 191301903 ‘30 SW . 1 v.5...1: ax ‘(lLuianwttzh -..-' L'fln T<3fuewqani QVIJI‘IQQOOO ”m ".1 .0218 .3nen'n‘2;usc-p yd bis-q 311d .591“! 96 but!” 8 «a .. . h P . sic-1 saw 291391302 svrnnsqooa 10 1033012331 001‘!“ as “a caviasxsqoon 30 noijsszinrsgazo ad: diiw "Ian 03 33333-11: W“ 0: 11011119333. 1935.911: svsp «331‘s 519311131pr 10 MM“ isnufiuoizps Jarjaiaas {:8 Miami. “iii.“ N“ f .5. V}! ”.110133118019‘11101369 yucca ‘4,” mafia! .im .991: ram». 0: $1111 wt 11 .m M 4-: 155 While approval of the Kisii Growers Co-operative Union was pending, the cooperative staff traveled throughout the district preaching the ideals of the cooperative movement and forming cooperative societies, among farmers and traders. The society's board members also discussed ways to strengthen their organization and the forthcoming union to serve the needs of its members. They decided to market other crops, in addition to coffee, and to sell agricultural inputs to its members. The director of agriculture did not favor the Kisii Farmers Co-operative Union dealing in produce other than cof— 49 It fee, until the coffee industry was under firm control. is not clear whether this objection or other factors delayed the registrar's final approval of the union, which was not forthcoming until June 1950. Expansion of the Industry The early war-time policy of emphasizing grain and bean production in Gusiiland continued into 1943. The follow- ing year the agricultural program designed for Gusiiland con- sisted of target acreages, primarily of maize and finger millet, with a smaller number of acres devoted to beans, sorghum, wheat, 50 and groundnuts. The South Kavirondo agricultural staff fo- cused on meeting these goals and paid little attention to in- creasing coffee production. 490A to SAO, Nza, 28 September 1949; and SAO, Nza to A0, Kisii, 28 September 1949, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff.1. 50SAAO, Kisii to SAO, Nza, n.d., received 11 September 1943, RNA: Agric. Kisumu DEF/3. -54...- mo tags “all '3’“ n . . m: .pm‘ . ,H, manoea‘xq 39mm ~t‘ - ~‘~.'LJIE‘.FJQOOD m _' . . 7'“ ‘T‘fiOd 8'99” ‘ c ' .' 91.; 3'13“ 11013.‘1m . .‘ gen-{'1‘ .atxod-ln '53 I A .wlg. «12w 0: £2.15 .9931”.q¢_ .- m' 1:. L7 ’1‘- fall“) SdT -. A ‘7 r.u_:..>.'-'; u in. uvim‘tsqo-o.) 22M “7... 5:391“. 't."i 36330:) 3:17 1131!” ..” +1.5: 1 it rock» L“: $1173 191113118! 1691:) 3M_“ .1. 121.“? . "AL‘LL 9U: 1.12-Juiqqr. link! a‘xs‘xaalyflgm .OEC-‘J. shut. 113m; 911W rywbar «I: So calms '1'“. Ems .1:; .(A prtirt'sml‘m‘: '10 {ozioq 9&13-13‘1 21359 0191‘ wrollol tzrl'l’ iii-9?. 03er 2191111131109 5.6111393 81 WW“ acme Sasii-ax:n :03 591191396 nomic; 1513,1333an m in“! [‘1 35!;im 1991113 fins 531.541 3% zilxltl‘iq 899m SW’ )0 ’1" 3551‘»: «1111119102 .amsed a: Mob m 10 I“ W S *3? 156 In 1944 the government also began to formulate plans for post-war development of the African areas. Goals were perceived as sufficiency in food; maintenance of soil fertility; adequate nutrition; and production of saleable products. In regard to the last, the director of agriculture claimed that the real argument of whether or not Africans should grow cash crops ought to be based on whether soil fertility and the nourishment of the people were adequate. If so, a thorough investigation was required, he maintained, to determine crops best suited to particular areas and the way these could be integrated into the farming system to maintain and increase soil fertility. Other investigations, he suggested, needed to be carried out on methods of conserving the soil, types of stock and management methods, and new crops or varieties.51 In response to the views of the director, the South Kavirondo agricultural officer expressed the opinion that in the coming few years every activity ought to be subordinated to the care of the soil and stabilization of African agricul- ture within the foreseeable limits of its future requirements. In regard to cash crops, he thought that none could be tol- erated which would tend to deteriorate soil fertility and that it was non-utilitarian to encourage planting, care and harvest- ing of cash crops which were unpopular with the Africans.52 His immediate superior, the senior agricultural officer for 51DA to SAOs, 12 January 1944, KNA: Agric. Kisumu DEF/3 Vol. II. ' 52SAAO, Kisii to SAO, Nza, 25 March 1944, KNA: Agric. Kisumu DEF/3 Vol. II. ‘ ‘1‘ «magma (so: 0&5 - , . r a - ~ ‘. c3 311900 m1: ' '_ " "311; (Hi? to manual“ ‘ I ut-ii‘l'; T1" 255! flOiibPIiIm‘ .1 ,, ,. v ' “Is 31; :r .«; ‘L;.‘-in‘q (n Leyla. 3.0.4 1 ~._- . . 1‘ a. . .7 arm’a‘g whims? 91‘: 0:31 593319”!!! 9-9.‘ .-m Tux 7'-‘-‘-._ ~ e. ‘1 .3129. 1,=.~r~’t-ra.cwr.. 19:29.") «111.1310! lied .r . 2.911; . ’ me. ry.: . ~1j.“m:—ato:» 1" shod." n: no fisro 11011130 9‘ as 913,1}:33‘1-w 1m .f‘v.‘ wt» Lax. ‘siodjsm :namspbnm bm £003. ‘6 11511-3? mm 9103219113: m3 Ea awe»?! 9.4.3 0: «1:01pm 51 _ . -0, I {:1 .3611: 3014:4230 91:23 Lsaaequs 1‘01130 1133310012?‘ mm bug‘snihzodm; 3d a: .mpuo 132111.136 (two not! v.3 m.“ ~.iuu!‘1@:i REC'i‘I 31% 30 noitssiliwa Dan £103 Nil 10 M“? «” .ejximer‘zups‘x 57.33.13 {15130 03M 31““ mul‘mi -£o: 915 blue: 9110,11 336.3 my mm” M“ 151$: baa 15111113391 its! , A I l ' -385V1&d baa—913:1; , SE ' ' 157 Nyanza, considered that, although soil conservation was im- portant, little improvement would occur until individual land ownership and demarcation took place, accompanied by rules to ensure compulsory soil conservation techniques. Further— more, he was hesitant about the introduction of cash crops, suggesting the establishment of experimental stations in each district of Nyanza Province, with a full-time agricultural officer in charge, who would conduct thorough experiments and trials before any industry was initiated.53 The views of the district and provincial agricultural officers formed the basis of the policy for the agricultural development of South Kavirondo, which was set forth in late 1944 as: The desirability of properly organized and financed cash crops suited to their particu- lar areas, introduced and developed with full Administrative support, as an essential part of the economic life of the localities concerned. The undesirability of introducing any cash crop without adequate experimental and demonstration work, coupled with an intel- ligent appreciation of its prospects and implications.54 Since coffee was already established as a cash crop in the Kisii highlands, it was not included in this policy, but experimentation with pyrethrum growing was affirmed, leading to the introduction of the second main non-edible cash crop 53 Vol. II. SAO, Nza to DA, 3 May 1944, KNA: Agric. Kisumu DEF/3 54SAAO, Kisii to SAO, Nza, 22 October 1945, KNA: Agric. Kisumu DEF/3 Vol. II. ' - ~ ‘:—.'~ in“) 1‘ mar; 9311‘ u' 3' m‘ 33:,; cu; 1. m;::fi i3 bamxoa anootl.’ ~ ._ 1.: .r~f:-i;~'- .th,‘ s;- 11.1qu ‘10 1% mu N am. b??‘?;“-‘rSEJ'IO afl‘xeqorq 1‘0 'pifidbiiaab 9d} 4x41171133 M“ c: )njiua :qom dasa 599mm " ‘1" an w [39qu swab has ba',‘ xzoozini man: ”I . 3139:4239 r25 55 ‘ ‘1 )qgue svissxinm 1m ‘ _ 3 C9i.'.'i’.x£’.“;l 5:13 m 913’. i aimemcs Off: 30 3‘13 | ”(”4 darn {ms gr: isufimml 30 '(3 Jid‘sfiaw m ‘ >4, _ bus L‘sjnsmf'isqra, any 3M“ gem '.. ' ‘ 4931:; ms :1sz 59143569 , WWW ‘3‘," 3’»; ba «3*» y s c. sQSC‘sq 83% it! mtfiw 32m 2 ’3 r wmé 158 in Gusiiland. Nevertheless, from 1945 to 1950, the agricul- tural department gave most attention to soil conservation, the improved husbandry of existing food crops and increased food crop production. Lack of emphasis on the expansion of the coffee in- dustry until 1947 is revealed in the annual statistics on the increase of acres and number of growers (Table 8). Other factors, related to the extent to which the industry grew, were government regulations on maximum acreage in Gusiiland, availability of seedlings, and the return for coffee. In 1943 only 200 acres could be planted in the officially gazetted locations of Nyaribari, Bassi and Kitutu. The issue of gain- ing permission for the people of North Mugirango location to plant was raised at a meeting of the growers in July 1943,55 and it was again brought up at a board meeting in December 1944, when extension was under discussion. At this time, Chief Musa strongly expressed the View that "the Society could only be certain of success if the number of planters and acre- age under coffee was increased considerably."56 He suggested that in the future, when payments were being made to growers, the opportunity be taken to hold meetings for prospective cul- tivators. While the agricultural officer agreed with the chief, he reminded members that the gazetted areas were limited to three locations and that parts of these were unsuitable for 55Minutes of the Meeting of Coffee Growers held in Kisii, 6 July 1943. 56 1/2/9/3. Minutes KCB, 12 December 1944, KNA: PC Nza AGR G- :1. . - - - » “ _ 3‘ “m .3‘2 Inclaud bwm’l * 1.0- ‘T‘dbCi'Iq QOIO m " 2‘ ‘0; ”+9 "(and . , '11“ ' c' 1L9; liJLIU “3” -v- . : “rm" 'z 7.7;" .3 10 9325313111 “3 ..- ., H ‘1‘ 0: 435191 .cm " ‘,,- ‘J ‘2': .7: A ,* ..". sic: inmrniffllop m I: ‘ ';':'J " 7.".. . ;I_ 3002 1'.) YJlflal‘”. w; :1": 2:.-g be! 31; a 851' 053 Y!” ‘09,! —u'.|3,, '. , ".' .m'LuIi-Z LIL; lei-23.3 ‘iladluegl lo anoint“ + navy. :‘sggi-mm .4370}: 3‘0 sigcsq 9d: 10‘: ne'ualuoq ”3 :m ‘(INL a; 319W019 ed: M) pardasm s :5 begin! an 1% ‘: --‘.rmoosa .41 yam-mm £31501 :5 is qu ddpuoui nines m it I. ‘13,,” aka: :8 .n.uiee1t:'i:ih 193.10 an [70189918. am .5“! find?) 239L902. adj" 3m: ‘erva 9:13 beans-mats 21911011. um 3“ «nos has aisflmiq 1.0 mm” 9d: 3: Cum: 1:: am Cd ‘1- 5933699115 5!; a?".tz£dg1fl>i£uoo bane-ran: ham ”I!” a“ Q. .e‘sswozp 0:! 953m pnied 933v aim-pg a“. .nrfii m .1 1“ i in. I ‘ - ‘ . 7. _, . . 159 TABLE 8 INCREASES IN COFFEE ACREAGE AND NUMBER OF ADOPTERS IN GUSIILAND, 1943 - 1950 Absolute In— Number Absolute In- Acreage crease over Growers crease in at End Preceding at End Number Year of Year Year of Year Growers 1943 159.19 26.82 251 29 1944 172.25 13.06 285 34 1945 177.15 4.90 290 5 1946 189.27 12.12 312 22 1947 193.80 4.53 371 59 1948-49 221.60 27.80 530 159 1949-50 270.60 49.00 789 259 Source: Arabica Coffee Quarterly Reports, South Kavirondo, Fourth Quarter Reports for 1943-1947, KNA: Agri- culture Kisumu A/Coff/l/l; Annual Report of the KCGCS for 1948-49 and 1949-50, KNA: PC Nyanza AGR l/2/9/3. “I 2 , y i ”A 9959138 c v. - n-1 has 3s :9( 758? 10 c .’ .L.Q?..[ ‘ 30.5; as.s¢r f. ..5 EL?” 1!)“ y:- $25.1 TS.QBI “ 1 .“v. a? . 2 08401 I)”. : a.“ 09.2.9 03.15: gm w. r. 98'. . 00.9; atom Ill-Cm I . . 72-21272 {(32108 a; mqafl 2.1me 901109 holds“ :& ”33:12:21)! $391 was 1201 mm mm unit 9.4.3. :0 3102395: 15mm. I\I\!303\A mot: mm . 3 53.25va as usual oanbEI has ”an: 2 m...4 Hana .-€\ cu m 160 coffee-growing, while other Gusii locations might be suitable. In the end, the board agreed to ask the director of agricul- ture to review the locations in which coffee growing was per- mitted, with a view to increasing the area, while at the same time prohibiting planting in unsuitable areas. The agricul- tural officer, supporting the request, forwarded it to the director of agriculture, along with the suggestion of gazet- ting areas between 5200-5800 feet contours rather than specify- ing locations. This proposal was accepted and authorization granted on July 15, 1945.57 This extension of the coffee growing area gave limited scope for expansion because of the 200 acre limitation, of 58 In August 1946, 59 which 178 acres already were under coffee. when approximately 189 acres of coffee existed, the board raised the issue of increasing the acreage limit with the registrar of cooperative societies, who was attending their meeting. Replying, the registrar "warned the board that be- fore any more increase in coffee plantations could be allowed, the present coffee shambas [fields] must be properly cared 60 for first." At the same meeting, applications for new cof- fee fields in North Mugirango, Majoge and Wanjare locations 57SAAO, Kisii to DA, 14 December 1944 and 8 October 1946, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. 58ACQR Third Qter 1945, SK, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. 59ACQR, Third Qter 1946, SK, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. 60 Minutes KCB, 17 August 1946, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. . D!" '2 ' my I; (Uh! .w 2 7, . ,, z a u Hui.” mutation; at: w: 17.2.1.“ win». 31901330 has .qul'yb' 30 1M 3,:wa naewjea am. ”I 2 v 2 g .. .2 w ‘ .. amigo .; 2:1.‘1‘2‘ .anOLSQOOL * 3,4 .-?I yLuL no harm :52; «. my, - . a «is arm 10 amid-arr; aid? " 1:, u ;. "5.., p35 arr! ~ aw.» .-_n:‘ :Tt'iaaquQ 101 W I: -; , ' n: ’..-->:»‘.t"zr_r; ishnu 119w {baa-115 30195 in. W :wsvra. rot '.::-7-.?a-;;9 .ia",:‘L’]uD is: 23195 981 {1291:51me 12.13 ridiw U1; :' .,Jr,‘=‘s‘1’~r 9d: gniaesxnni 10 west all? m xix-”'1 gflii‘: 21:5; 21w or?» .eeiJeiwu “1311mm 30 ‘M —5d 35:,” ins-ad ad: hemew” renal?” on: .31“?!qu 'M .bswous 9d blue: anoiismwtq 393302) at mmt ”'5‘ t. m 59:50 yizeqoxq ad damn tablet}! ”2 0.32300 :m g A ‘30:) man 103 enoissaiiqqs walnut.“ Cd! 3‘ ..' .3131}? anolnanol‘ 9145th has apoflfl .mw m at “in ”' 161 were approved and, at a special meeting a few months later, the decision was confirmed by the society members. Suitable sites within these locations would have to be inspected by the agricultural officer, or a member of his staff, before permission to plant would be granted a farmer. By December 1946 a list of thirty-one names of persons from North Mugirango, seeking to become society members, was presented to the board for approval, and in the following months many more Gusii far— mers applied for membership. In keeping with the policy of concentrated areas of planting, so that the extent of produc- tion in each area justified building a pulping station, a de- cision had to be made in regard to selecting areas from which farmers would be eligible to plant coffee. Agreement was reached at a general meeting in September 1947, when the fol- lowing areas were chosen: the southern part of North Mugirango, the eastern part of Wanjare, the Kiamokama area of Nyaribari 61 (See Figure 2). and the Gesarara—Kemera area of Kitutu, Meanwhile, the agricultural officer requested the di- rector of agriculture either to allow 300 acres in the new lo- cations to warrant the building of a pulping station in each area of concentrated planting or to totally remove restrictions on acreage, with a view to planting up to 500 acres, "which when in bearing should be able to bear the cost of a full-time European Supervisor."62 When this proposal was made in 61Minutes Special General Meeting KCGCS, 13 October 1946; Minutes KCB, 18 December 1946; and Minutes General Meeting KCGCS, 27 September 1947, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. 62SAAO, Kisii to DA, 8 October 1946. 3. Lat. 63mm“ 1 "Inca 85w 2:01.19!“ .'25'?~O[ 983311 nidflkl,_m" 2 . ' . I_"J 10 Ilz’1011mlzng - :‘1 2.4.12" 03 :10:qu ... . .112 to 1811 a tug: _. .2 ‘ 22.-19:, -Of..'7"WS-'J' 0: put” [.1 at: 1‘. m. .1570“!qu ’91 ~ .. - .. .g-xis‘szmzxr so: beiqu. Cu” 92:. 7.. .v .5121 «u awm ban-12mm _i: au( 5335 dons aim 1322». :2 .21:- '-;-'>slea 03' 23102392. :15; absm 9d 0: hot! 130*.” \ my; “.J.‘ii‘:‘.,‘ln .39130“. gnaw; o3 Oldipzls 9d Moon w - 1.": , 2131.1"! .TPE; vulcajqea ni ._m: 32:32:: {51.3qu 5 $5 W? ‘ ,.f1 LUV [iftoli ".U fifiq numlrruflc’i 5d) 2.1530119 mu ””5 m l 'z'fni 2.9.x“? is can; smaXmmi)! ed: ,O‘MUIUN 30 33“ MM...“ . (3 erupt"! 99 08) 15.035351 In one QW‘GRW WM -ib an: by asnpsz zoo-£310 immunities and: «SM «n? -<)i wen rd“ {Ii 2:92:95 008 ”Ii. M 1."le mfilflw ” m .2 53 m 2101353: pakqlpq s in polo-lbw as: any”: 9km excisiot‘tfiea: women glass! on so palm.“ Wk“ 162 October 1946, almost 190 of the total permitted 200 acres had been planted. Replying, the director of agriculture informed the South Kavirondo officer that the subject of African coffee growing was currently under discussion by the Coffee Board of Kenya, which he thought would be "sympathetic" towards the re- quest. Moreover, he agreed that the acreage ought to be in- creased to allow each area to develop as an economic unit and to be large enough to justify employing a full-time super— visor. The Coffee Board of Kenya, after careful consideration of requests from the gazetted African coffee growing areas, approved further extensions, provided that "very thorough con- trol by the Coffee Services of the Agricultural Departments... 64 be exercised in these areas." Although this decision was made by the board before March 1946, not until December 1947 was permission forthcoming from government to increase the coffee planting in Gusiiland by an additional 100 acres.65 The decision by the board and government to extend coffee acreage in the experimental areas rested primarily on the need 630A to SAAO, Kisii, 12 October 1946, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. 64"Annual Report and Accounts of the Board for the Year Ended 31 March 1946," Coffee Board of Kenya Monthly Bulletin, XI, 124 (April 1946), 44. Although the report states the board considered the increase of acreage from 100 to 200, it may be assumed this was meant to read 200 to 300 acres, since South Kavirondo and Meru Districts already were permitted to plant up to 200 acres. 65DA to SAO, Nyanza, 8 December 1947, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. -.; 22.9221... .3.“ o“ .‘J .7455. .503“ [.v.‘._ . menus I“ m :gHCnfl 9” .sldw .IIII‘ . .' 2' , , , =\- .zsvossofl .3” _. . 2 , - . fluar wcfls o: hon-III .., ..- “'.'._ 4‘: 1:250:15- 99151 d .’ £3.” .L_nmx Eu E250? 59‘303 ad? . " 2 . ‘.'_'-;:- "..2'132‘ H'J‘JJesibp wt) mm} 8.3th :xwi' ,.5v" -apf n9.;xtug .anolanoéxo xodisul 50%....I ,3-2.?w:2'u [fifuflrfillpa ed: Fa eeoiwxse 323109 id! $1.3!!! ii “...-A mfi~ n'puoddila : ”Hanoi: sand: «1 590101.... .’2': native-.911 Lita: 1a: .3524; :13):st 930396 bated It“ ”id,” 22.13 :32:s:-~vs«:z.- gr rinmrusvup m1! palm} “M * 53.15.92. 02‘; 122110131255. as {d mums s1 MdIn exits: oaojxs 03 Jusnasovop has bisod Cd: td'lIll3alb 3" 2.23.: 9:27 no grinning- bane: um W‘WMW . . , ,. .. .~ ,. new; 'z-i'ipA :53)! .6229; moo £1 .ttux «m 6 a“ I " 9d: :03 "Eggfl-fidv 522.5 59331.net; stfi', ‘ 163 to encourage production in suitable sites throughout the colony in order to boost export trade. From the peak of approximately 104,000 acres in 1936, the acreage on European plantations had dropped to about 65,000, primarily because of the elimination of the crop from regions which had proven unsuitable for coffee growing, and, second- arily, because of uprooting due to the relatively low price obtained for coffee during the war period. The result was a rapid decline in exports from 20,330 tons in 1936 to 9,120 tons in 1946-47.66 After the war the settlers and their gov- ernment pursued a policy of diversification of agricultural activities to protect the settlers from fluctuations in mar- ket conditions, hence although coffee could well serve the country as a key export earner, the burden on producers during poor times needed to be more widely shared. Further discussions by the Coffee Board of Kenya,which did not have representatives from the African areas, led to the major decision to support extending production outside the experimental areas. "In order to maintain and, if possible, increase the production in one of the main export crops of the colony, as well as on economic and political grounds, the Board is of the opinion that African production of coffee in suitable areas, and with the necessary safeguards in regard to theft and diseases affecting European plantations should be 66"The Coffee Board is Willing," East African Standard, (26 March 1948),p. 5; and J. K. Maitha, Coffee in the Kenyan Economy (Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, 1974), p. 83. ‘L2 . ‘ pczua no spam” :2) assayed Ill!“ 7‘ - 11-1.31. REVCQG but m .. . lily: 3‘") oeuonod .M .. '2 .. ' r_. ; :utu 95‘300 103 m .- 1:; 2310922:- ai 91111.99!) m aa C .'.r I_ 3*. r to 322-; 32g :5 bauemq 3w : ' 2:: r”: 2~9LJ193 or” 312930124 03 .9333“ 1' . 'I'm hint; -':-..-2L'u:::~ .iprmlafn 9921931 .uoulhmo'm ~- . «..‘aoarhcng no nah-r ., .2 32'23 .183180 éyoqxo [91 6 6‘ m .f'xrrzon'e. {i shim sum ed 02:! bun m m 2'. fir-'3»; 1: {“1806 993'30'3 gm yd 5120135qu 39:18:01; . ,, am (:3 by! .3521; ixboi‘xifi. 311:: 21011 mines-emu MM“ :-'nia:5uo uolrmboxq pnitmeuxo new: a: mkolmh m * midi-sect; 12' .5115 nibantsm 03" 1‘39 '81? - .m 1W. 164 fostered and encouraged."67 While there were very definite economic grounds for the decision, mounting political pressure by Jomo Kenyatta and the Kenya African Union also affected it. To provide for the extension of coffee, a new set of regulations, the Native Grown Coffee Rules of 1949, amended the 1934 rules and designated many new African areas where coffee growing would be allowed. As far as Gusiiland was con- cerned, the rules stated that arabica production would be al- lowed between 5200-5800 feet contours. The most significant aspect of the regulations, however, was the removal of maxi- mum acreage limits in the gazetted areas. Hence, in Gusiiland the onus of the rate of expansion was placed on the coffee society and the district agricultural department. With the existing organization, infrastructure and general awareness of the income which could be obtained from coffee, this new ordinance opened the way for rapid expansion of the industry among the Gusii during the following decade. Through meetings held during the fall of 1949 and through a locally based newssheet, Gusii farmers were notified of the procedures to follow if they wished to adopt coffee. In order to become a grower, the following actions had to be taken: (a) a person wishing to plant would give his name and the number of trees desired to a society coffee inspector or to a pulping station headman, both of whom would for- ward information to the society manager; 67"The Coffee Board is Willing," p. 5. .. sphj'so'udo 5M m , '4‘. ebfwon 0” 2.4- - . 1:. 53353113! “I. fl any.) ann'cnq 0T ..._ in»: 22:33 .zmiflm .3. ‘~- ._ '7 =. ..31u1 “CI 0‘! 2 . 2 :4" L 21m gfll'OIP canon 12 '_.-- sew; 9d: Jam ‘4'0'. ; .2!“ '0-_’?*'7C'$€ nasmd w “P'- 3"" 21011615205": 3.13 10 .13” ,4 .- 2 2:. ' ,wwgisr: 9'3? (LI. iiimkl ”Dm'.‘ a ': , 2; x L' :1» 50.32221324': 9151 91.1 10 m w .. ' .er . . ' gab JLLVUV"...JLI;:F Joints“) ad: b51210” :-..w‘i' 1.533212}: has .«tujzz .3?f-’.(I.n§ .noluskame W ...-2,: 2.2.1:; “slid-:2 .no-n bani...de ed biuoo :29-m want all.“ ‘,"‘:.",:t_x'2:"..' ed: 10 noiaresq»: Digs: 101 W w W ”a.” .9bboeb pnlwclfoi e213 W185 “Ila an," inn: e091 “to Mai 9213 9:111th 51.113518.” mm «25; 165 (b) an agricultural officer would visit the farm and after inspecting the proposed site would inform the farmer whether or not he would be allowed to grow coffee; if the site were suitable, the officer would instruct the farmer on land prep- aration; (c) after the field was prepared, all the couch grass removed and holes dug,the farmer had to inform the officer, who would then revisit the plot and if it were satisfactory, would issue the farmer a permit to plant coffee; (d) the farmer would take this permit to the district commissioner's office to obtain a Coffee Growers License, at the cost of Sh. l/-; and (e) on presenting the license to an agricul- tural instructor, the farmer would be told when seedlings would be issued from a nearby nursery; no seedlings would be given to a person without a license.68 The extension of the acreage limit for coffee in 1948 and the removal of restrictions in mid-1949 accelerated the demand for seedlings which could not be met. Even in 1947 the demand exceeded the supply. The scarcity led in 1948—49 to the establishment of new nurseries in North Mugirango and Wanjare. The following season the board decided to open sev- eral new nurseries and extend old ones;69 at the same time, the board returned the responsibility for control of nurseries to the agricultural department. Simultaneously, upon the 68Notice for Persons Wishing to Plant Coffee, by AAO, 21 September 1949, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. 69Annual Report of the noses for 1948-49. k-L‘Vin ' '. x I .~ =- : aripr as (CT ,7. m. h . -_ ' .1 ,, t...:. ms) . ' m ‘. ;f'w rf'ie / ‘ V if I > 'u '. 35’“ “a 7" .i‘~ .,- Mani {meow '7': 35‘s ‘ ' .._ , t tium" - .5; 23:3; (0) , A- ‘ l' " ""2"". 7 't .3300 "'32.; 1‘; ‘- .J' V,.'; ,J' 1'} .' #1153 t" ' ’ W" ' ,. ' _ E’; 5:31; 5191;) "- ifJO'n : i‘ . ' v.‘ " r -‘ ::‘:~:" “ti-"x ‘ " : _ -.i.:.*. i ' , ,"u’lb'i L! I :L .'l.‘ .4 J my}; r1? «2* 1;... n41 c, :- pvrijnsasxq no (a) :wox yansi an; .roJ: my tank law: :1" "ran—J a} bfucw apnil‘lu‘oa dam-t blofi r_m_-'3w up, tine-é? or: :vxoauun ‘id‘xbsa a “.i‘v€l‘IE= -; 5 junk-Aw noz‘xsq 5 0:! nevi? E; .«I‘ 4321.20? :10? 3h“; 92’53‘105 ed: 30 “0131831. and! " H ‘1“ win. b935~91©335 922; :Im mi anoidotzim 30 1m 0‘“ F9"; :11 WWII? .jsm e." 30:! 51803 M 391111th 303‘.“ 'Z’b-3&€l ni'bei yjioussa 3:1? Juana-u WM" bus apnezzguM 113‘on n}. 3911433301! m it Winn-wit -vse nsqo cf 13951395 based 3%: mt mire! d 11 -m .5431): since 912‘ 33 EEL 391-6 bid min ”WW asi‘xeaxun in round: 2162: 13;}; 3:13 aoqu . glamwa 166 advice of the registrar of cooperative societies, the society began to charge five cents per seedling to reduce subsidiza- tion of the nurseries.7o The senior agricultural instructor described these years, when seedlings were insufficient, as "a period of chaos as more and more people came forward to demand coffee seedlings. Scrambling was the order of the day. In times when the transfer of seedlings was to take place [from the nursery to the farmers], we had to ask government for the assistance of askaris [police]. Otherwise, incidents of fighting or stealing would occur."71 According to the agri- cultural officer in late 1949, "At present there is a great deal of interest in coffee and prospective planters numerous, but the limit to the increase in acreage in 1950 will be the number of seedlings available in the nurseries."72 The scarcity of seedlings thus affected the number of new adopters, as well as the number of seedlings each re- ceived. Between 1947 and 1950, the new growers received less than one-fifth of an acre of coffee seedlings, that is, less than 100 seedlings. The acceleration in the absolute increase in new growers after 1946, as revealed in Table 8, indicates 7oDAAR for South Nyanza 1947 and 1949, MOA Library: Nyanza Province 1947-50; Minutes of Annual General Meeting KCGCS, 24 September 1949, RNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. 71Zedekiah Oyando, OI. The use of askaris is sub- stantiated by Christanus Otundo, OI. 72AAO, Kisii to PAO, Nza, 22 December 1949, RNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. a-.. .- .21.;1';:;1:.n 9d: 1. .u ‘ r V , :2.” > -, mass: 911? :".-‘.-98110fl' m " . 1. : fans strain as M -. . 3 . 1‘. L IE .39!!!“ Lmsr ‘ ~ $121153: 9113 It. "3 ' _ g . 1,.er ”.12?st 03 um '4' salaries to ”Mill... m ’ . ;"-:.() an - \ 9.1115918 ‘10 91133“ «a .. c‘ r‘: mm; a“ 92.2'.’ anal 111 1991130 15193188 .;.‘.:1 Liviurtffi .1'.;"".?'Js~.::».;.x.1_ 1513:,- 5-51330': :11 3301133111 10 I“ lew 0’91. 5.1 ups-332:; ml see-31:31.1 5d: o: 11‘“ 88 3.1 Sahaoxzse 1m; m‘ii' a; aidsllavs 39:11“)... 30 “I.“ 166111;!“ 51111 hgjusiis tl‘ urf: again»: 30 when” on _..,_,m~(.., -9*z dose apnilbaea 3c: usdmun 9d: 31 new as .lmqmmj. eaei bowl-3'39: arswong wan an: .9291 has COIL W "mt”. 2331 ...-1 mil: .awzubeaa 393109 to not.“ to Wit-m“ segment s3ufoa<§s 9113 mi @1111qu .mnpggg agnozbm .B‘eim a: him-3.19..»lggny mm :mwi»; A91! ..W “I W“ pandas W Inn» to 167 the interest of farmers in growing the crop. While only eighty- nine new persons started coffee growing between 1943 and 1946, there were 477 new growers between 1947 and 1950. During the same periods, the acreage increased by fifty-seven and eighty-one respectively. By the end of 1949, 271 acres of coffee had been planted and there were 789 growers; A factor which influenced the accelerated interest in coffee production was the price received for the crop. The price paid to growers per pound of cherry had risen from eight cents in 1944-45 to twenty cents in both 1947—48 and 1948-49, a fact which will be discussed more thoroughly in the following section. The extension of coffee into new areas meant more willing growers could plant the crop, which they viewed as a good income earner. Production 1 The annual yield of coffee relates to the incidence of diseases and pests, as well as the use of proper husbandry techniques which are influenced by the availability of labor and the enforcement of regulations on the management of fields. Throughout 1943-1950 diseases and pests attacked the coffee in Gusiiland, presenting a disheartening situation to the owners. Especially in the original production areas where coffee had been planted above an altitude of 5800 feet, the plants were susceptible to infestation; Blue Mountain plants, as well as the remaining non-Blue Mountain varieties, were attacked. In early November 1943, when the plant pathologist from Scott Laboratory visited the Murumba area, he found that yum 113953 A 3.." *v 1.: .a-' "c'inuubmtq “I. z. . . 21111011. .33 blsq N” ‘ 1 1. .7 ,',\-.“7 7'“. 4“”;91 «It 81“” M or: f 7 x. :. :lju-r 74911:“: 1953 a .9...” 35".:0. rr. 1.51.13 211’} .0011?“ PM qua:- ~51“? sang blag) zzswnp [171111111 can)“. 1911359 «503111 boo. l,“ m r: r-za‘ 573119;): mi an: 1;} aajsiox 093305 30 51912 W 8‘ '31:, and 191mm; 3o 93:: 9:1: as £1911 as .moq bl. M a '14} :cch 30 v31 71113115175 91” 1d swing: at “it” “I!“ .251911 ‘17:. 37127399an and no amuam to W ‘3 95130:. erh 951495335 aagig Ms W Calm ‘ p.» 168 a disease, which had first been recorded in the fall of 1941, had spread to all the coffee fields and even to the younger trees. His investigation revealed that the malaise was a coffee berry disease, similar to a malady in the European estates in nearby Sotik.73 In 1944 and 1945 coffee berry disease and antestia spread to hitherto unaffected Gusii areas. By mid-1949 the situation was very severe. According to the agricultural officer, "in the Kisii Highlands coffee growing areas, with the exception of Marani and Gesarara, there is a sufficient large antestia population to cause alarm and to do a great deal of damage to the coffee crop."74 During this period, when reports of diseases and pests were common, the Kisii Coffee Growers Co—operative Society provided assistance to farmers by financing disease control measures. The society purchased the necessary supplies and its field staff helped the growers, without any charge to the individuals. In regard to the proper care of coffee fields, the issue of the availability of labor occasionally was raised at board meetings. However, labor shortage does not seem to have been a significant factor. Most of the coffee cultiva— tors used family labor for weeding and picking, although dur- ing harvest season when demand for labor was high, it was common for them to use egesangio, and sometimes risaga was 73SAO, Nza to DA, 4 September 1943, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. 74Marani'Safari Report, 1 June 1949, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. 7. ‘ {Jinan at m ‘ma :49. n1 ._ _ L1 3 1‘. [I E I E 1 " .. 51:91: mas-'1 mus mussel!) 10 chm ” -_r. :1.“ ,3... 1, 3.1021917133191190: at“ m \ .13-. E’fftrfiifsv" 10:11 .71. eases: lb painmal! I. m 3‘“, ful-o C‘HJ‘M' , 23.76.}?! 3.3? pm; agiiqqua 9166.999. «is 12.1.1.7. ".FTE'I'L 31:: 03 spurts was swim I!” ? em .ebleift saifion 30 4.2155 19:30:11 on: as Man 5%: . 2L»- 2: " ' been): em: ‘(iisnoiasoso MI '10 filt‘mflm w — ..;-. < I § 9” 11% WWQ r73 moi-e Jot. 8905 97153? 513 7:0ng m .ozsz' may mrwv 169 called.75 The male owners of the coffee, except for some with off-farm employment, would perform at least part of the work, particularly mulching and pruning, since the field was con- 76 Hired laborers tended to be used by sidered as an emonga. those few growers with large plantations and those with off- farm employment. Although the issue of scarcity of laborers and lack of money to pay for them was raised at board meet- ings, the arguments tended to be used by a few of the owners of large plantations, especially when threatened with prosecu- tion, as an explanation for unclean coffee fields.77 The agricultural staff verbally would threaten to prosecute growers, if their fields were not in good condition. Even though evidence is scanty about written warnings and actual prosecutions, cultivators were very conscious that prosecutions could occur. Written evidence provides informa— tion about a warning notice in 1944 served on a grower in Kitutu; the agricultural officer stated in 1945 that he would send out written warnings to Bassi and Majoge producers who needed their fields decouched; and fifteen persons were fined in late 1945, at rates between Sh. 15/- and 45/-, for badly 78 neglected fields. After a warning had been issued, a grace 75See Chapter 2 for definitions and descriptions of these traditional forms of communal agricultural work groups. 76The word means a man's field; see Chapter 2 for description. 77Ex-Chief Aoga Angwenyi, OI: Marani area, Kitutu West, 22 June 1973. 78Agricultural Safari Report, 17 February 1944, and 6 April 1945, KNA: DC/KSI/7/l; and ACQR, Fourth Qter 1945, SK, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l/l. avewcvxp VI! a“ - , : .., . A Jasmvolqn I” .—.. 1.1 y-unom Io 125-'1 lit -‘ um. , .g-msmnp‘lb ed: '1“ x';-_--L' 37:17:35:qu 9M “ 7 ~. [57; 1“: ,‘-‘.1jsn£.1qxa as 35 .fl "-.‘:'.-:‘ flea. laud'uoizus an? " - -.. . 7,: ems-...: z-«am u .enm’p 93M raw :15:-7-:w 3m 15 '17.‘.:.:.\=. at some)“. M3 fl 7 wanes {1:22; 91.1w 2111152113109) .9110th 1““ Ar." ......1 n‘nq or-n-fibWa 1:93.311“ Jumbo Mm .1101!“ 1::w‘:..1;) r—. rn b9v12a “9! at 991nm palm!" a that“ blucw er? 17.4: :19; :11 59.351: 1.191130 131113130119. 6191M art-.1 2'15" Long ngmta?‘ tms land! of Mm“ MSW I“ m ted"! 919w anoa‘xssq (159.1513 bu YWGII‘ lust} M m '.'[f‘~bd 10:1 .~-\P:: hm. — .31 .h Wm 16' meta-1 $ 371.11» 5 .beuaai and 55d will!“ I W4“ .73!“ m lo ’noxd’gxroaqh. aqu 0‘19 Xrbw " ‘ ‘ :03 '5 191% an em animated“ mess-w . mm 170 period of two to four weeks usually was allowed before prosecu- tion would begin. On one occasion in 1946, two of the board members urged that owners of large acreages of coffee be given a longer grace period, but the agricultural officer disagreed. Nevertheless, the following year at a general meeting, it was decided that a one month's notice would be allowed all grow- ers.79 It is unclear whether this was followed, since legally the period was stipulated in the national regulations. In mid-1948 the agricultural officer claimed that the coffee fields were in poor condition, with most overgrown with sangara (a weed), without shade trees, and lacking box ridg- ing; pruning, he claimed, had been abandoned by many farmers. Some plots, he found, were used for grazing, while others were interplanted with maize and sweet potatoes. He depicted the fields in Kitutu as in "a shocking state" but "less offen- sive than those in other locations." He asserted that "50% of the coffee shambas were so over run with couch that the trees are yellowing and suffering from die-back of the pri- maries and nearly all the remainder are sufficiently affected by couch as to reduce the size of the cherry and general health of the trees."80 The following year the director of agriculture, after noting the report, wanted to know what measures had been taken 79Minutes KCB, 28 January 1946, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3; Minutes General Meeting KCGCS, 27 September 1947. 80Minutes General Meeting KCGCS, 7 August 1948. 3,3 '_, «,2 ‘ 72,921,111; a: ‘1 ' ' £11.15--;q33a new bohn‘ .: 1- 1 .,,.v _‘ - wn} '39‘31'5171 KI 9er 851.913 .0”. ;,_,=, s 1:19:12. ,...r{Ji.x-r .1554»: a) cum ~51; I" L ...n " I_'.;v',"1r-m:‘ (.17; 415:? imfltuib 9d ‘pntmflq I“ amrwr. 1 1.1.: : "151m wai 958;; 515‘- .bmaoi 9‘ .310“ an. it, 11 ‘:-.-‘. 3 31.30:; 3;~3we baa 98113.15 twin MJMWM:~ cm 3:1; "9311.32 1517-29011: 5' 111'. at 9.151311 51 “MV* ' :E" 1111*. b.1319'eas 9'6 " .800133901 103130 at “0‘3 “1 m :11: MNU (logo-.1 :1er rm: new: OI 9‘1” m m * U. -J.‘1:; 9:53 3’: flaod-eik‘.‘ “1011 $13,103:“. “5 me1mm 5522:9131»; {."11913315308 915 1.51am: Cd nauseous?” .5” £311,911. mum); f-.nr- vned: It: in ”15 Ni! “Iv-002‘. .3” ' 15.115 ,L—nuiiuaifxgg 29 m .g .., ll“ . _ 3 _ .: ‘mw‘tf‘ 4‘6“; HSXbi 1199:! bed W WW’WW‘ :, #3152115 " 5' .1191 11963195 5': .egex sugar am’ 171 under the existing regulations and declared that "most drastic action must be taken to put the existing areas on a sound basis again or, alternatively, to commence up-rooting drasti- cally."81 Although it seems that warnings were issued to growers in 1949, no evidence exists of fines, prosecutions, or up-rootings. By the end of the year, the standard of culti- vation was described as improved in comparison to the previous year. The annual amount of mbuni and coffee cherry delivered 83 to the pulping stations (Tables 9 and 10), combined with in- formation on crop quality, suggest the years when infestations and lack of proper husbandry affected production. A decrease in the amount of cherry delivered occurred in 1947-48 and 1949-50. Moreover, the quality of the 1947-48 crop was ex- tremely poor; only fourteen percent of the clean coffee was placed in classes two through four, the higher categories. The following season the yield and quality were high; forty- one percent of the coffee obtained high classifications. In spite of the low yield in 1949-50, sixty percent of the clean 84 coffee fetched a high rating. The 1947-48 drop in production 81 A/Coff/l. DA to SAO, Nza, 7 July 1949, KNA: Agric. Kisumu 82Minutes KCB, 20 August 1949, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l; and DAAR for South Nyanza 1949. 83Coffee might be prepared as mbuni, if the grower had only a small crop yield, a pulping station were not nearby, or the cherries were of poor quality. '84DAAR for South Nyanza 1948; and DAAR for Nyanza Prov- ince 1947-50. .n - ' 1: z-z q or)! oxiJfiiXI so“ ,1. - .. ,1‘ Ham's? 9d 1“ “W‘. ‘ J .39.:119'5115 ‘10 (11590 I” * 1‘ 41:1. ,1.; dg-u‘m'JLA 1".1'113‘ ..F'rs w» .erL xi 21.10:: : -;- udn 3'“ .apniim‘x-qll m 1,.” :Jo f;‘wdif"2£fib as” not“ 3...,“ 1 .- F‘wign. ‘tc; "moms “mums 9'?! .)v"f '; ?‘+;".1E~?‘ armir‘fsiv pnlqluq M” a y. whey e1}- 1:12:91.»er waitlsup .1019 no non-no! u «L .- «101321.070; {293091.15 yubnsdeud Iago-1c; 30 18311.” Us“: "Mi -:1 b-umgmuc 59391111915 (139119 to 31100“ mi: -<"a new com menu arm ‘10 wusup 9:1: .tmvonou .Ot-Qfl .51.; .. 91‘ 19:1 nsoxa 9m {to mas-seq manna! 21m 1300:; {Io-é?!- .amxopsmr 119119111 91!: euro! timid: all: 898.519 :1! W6 “(1:193 idgld 919w upliwp but may ad‘s noun pnfwonfl'u“ nI .arwiisoiiiaesfn 11911 macro in»: w 39‘ account}. is $113 '10 SKISM‘HQ WI .-“*Qfi!1 fl: bidt'fll"m'h§°1’“m 1503:3311?an (Ii qoi’b SJMJ'QQ “.’81’n w"! Wtw “in $9 172 TABLE 9 COFFEE CHERRY DELIVERED TO PULPING STATION AND PRICE RECEIVED BY GROWERS, GUSIILAND, 1943-44 - 1949-50 Price Paid per Total Value Pound Cherry Paid to Amount to Growers Growers Year (pounds) (cents) (Shillings) 1943 - 44 187,054 ---- --e- 1944 - 45 201,390 .08 16,111.20 1945 - 46 244,824 .09 22,034.16 1946 - 47 -——- .07 ---- 1947 - 48 214,687 .12 25,762.44 1948 - 49 247,026 .12 29,643.12 1949 - 50 201,747 .25 50,436.75 Source: Annual General Meeting KCGCS, 25 April 1946 and Annual Report of KCGCS 1948-49, KNA: PC Nyanza AGR 1/2/9/3; Department of Agriculture Annual Reports in MOA Library: Nyanza Province 1947-50. «is half m. 1 ' ~ 17m. 7.0513113 381100 _ ; 1251': :33 3113! an «m _ L. ., ...-..._ "a 3.1 - Q . ‘ / )r 1...“ 155‘! "' -—- "(Him bl {5.1 u" i. €E.£CE 3% - 15:! ‘;'r . ; a<°.:bc at ~ 2&0! 1-. \ ---- rn.- ate: " ”1‘15'5'53': k1. via w: u - nu’ ‘-'- 3"5b3 L“ F:- 039.TAS Q) - 3.Qrufl 155-“‘1'” C”. $97.10: 0; - ”.11..- unn 5:91 kaq: a: 3'053 onleen Lexoase Luann! $003fly. axnsya 31 :AKH ea- -8*91 8380! 10 since! Isuiafl “"’ languid exudfuornfi lo mun-m ;£\C\S\$ 8M . -F ca e—?b€I bonivoxq Lsnsz:113!alflmm*l uflioqik "“”“ ~..._-—_—_— 173 TABLE 10 THE AMOUNT OF MBUNI DELIVERED TO PULPING STATIONS IN GUSIILAND, 1946-47 - 1949-50 Mbuni — Amount Year (pounds) 1946 - 47 ' 7,200 1947 - 48 4,537 1948 - 49 9,192 1949 - so 5,198 Source: Department of Agriculture Annual Reports in MOA Library: Nyanza Province 1947 - 50. {’ Ji 1 (591 ; * iwua; I7fl;n ~*.1.;:1‘Lw 3: Enomfixsqaa nooznol - VP) W: LEON-{f 29351711.! ;'r , AI 4 .‘ . I . I‘ 174 and poor quality crop were caused by diseases and pests, poor husbandry, and lack of rains. The areas which contributed to the overall decline were Kisii, Nyosia, and Nyankororo, which are relatively near one another.85 Diseases and pests, particularly antestia, and poor husbandry contributed to the decrease in production in 1949-50, which occurred in the areas of Kisii, Nyosia, Nyankororo, Mogunga, Morumba and Nyankegogi.86 Nyosia and Nyankegogi con- tained a few large holdings owned by persons who, busy with their off-farm occupations, had little time to manage their coffee fields. At Mogunga the coffee fields were undergoing a change of ownership, because this original block-farm area was being prepared for an experiment in group farming. Also, the coffee fields at Nyankororo were changing ownership be- cause the original growers who lived away from the neighbor- hood were disinterested in maintaining coffee not located on their own land. Moreover, the altitude at Nyankororo, like the Morumba area, was above 5800 feet, thus enhancing the disease factor. All these areas, except for Nyankegogi, which contributed to the 1949-50 decline in production, were among the original coffee growing sites. The price received by growers for coffee was controlled by government during World War II. To help the industry after 85This is based on statistics of the amount of parch- ment produced at each of the pulping stations in the Annual Report of the KCGCS for 1948-49. 351bid.; and Annual Report of chcs for 1949-50, KNA: PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. , J ~ u '3 13“ film/13.1.1 “I ;. “ _> . but sdmulofl. ..9-1v. } f-xf 3'9sz vs! 5 59d” . ;"‘."HJ5'1£‘33'.~ msi-llo um ~ ~ - , }. .~~‘.':"DM M .abi‘sn nun , . 1.4.3: .. ":L" '?'-;:-‘,r.w:(i ‘qLdananm 30 m I .‘u .179 ml iamnnqxe rxe 103 bozbqs'xq out“ I" awn-Ir: pmpnedu 939w cav'sgm’nsy'rs 33 851.013 3.3!” w "rxd.':;"‘-.:xz -..-L.r FIVE} "#3933 15st am: answer? 154119130 all “I bu‘jmoi Jaw e~=.;iao Cninirjnitm mt mmtrallib a!” w uvfii ._L'quwinr m shy-P1316 9d: .usvooxou .w III. at“) 3:1: pniuneric-a and: V29? 0083. m u! .5“: m w nc.tdw ‘lPO?:>E')'x;ib‘-f:7 ID; Jqsnxa “9.661. 06.6: I“ .2033} m prisms 913w .,r:mjscboxq a): 9111;“ flébifll ad: 08 W, 55-1 Lennon 25W 99 ‘ica :63 m yd ”I”! “I“ IQ » ' ‘* 19:35 piaubni 9d: gm oc- .u 3;; am mm W!!! vdozaq 30 :9er mm mm Q ”2:.” “a“ Imam As «i mama “xvii 9 mm at: IQ m oe-uu m m a m m in. ”MG”; .cxwm ht". 175 the war, the United Kingdom Ministry of Food, under a five— year contract, agreed to purchase 6,000 tons a year, begin- ning in 1947-48, at a fluctuating price between L 125 and B 150 per ton.87 Unexpectantly the price for coffee rose after the war because of the economic recovery of Western European countries and the reestablishment of normal patterns of trade, although the world supply of coffee was supplemented until 1949 by the sale of surplus stocks in Brazil. A boost in prices also occurred due to the devaluation of the pound sterling in September 1949.88 Because of the rising world market price for coffee, the Ministry of Food renegotiated the contract in early 1950, agreeing to a price of L 305 per ton for the 1949—50 crop year and a fluctuation price between £251 and L 305 for the following year.89 During this period, then, part of the Kenya coffee was sold under the contract with the ministry, while the rest was sold openly on the Nairobi market. The price received by Gusii growers was further de- pendent upon the classification obtained for clean coffee, since the higher categories brought better prices; expenditures incurred in the handling of the crop by the Kenya Planters Co- operative Union and payment of the union's commission; and the commission deducted for the Kisii Coffee Growers Co-operative Society. 87Maitha, Coffee, p. 22. 88Wallace, "Peasant Production," p. 18; and Hill, Planters' Progress, p. 127. 89Maitha, Coffee, p. 23. ‘- . m;- -rm a! w ~: '.no: ”gm ~‘wf‘3‘i new ad: I!“ us be. Hum)? 00“ m. ”Judi-id In .“I’ ~ ".92 “f!“ '{d 9.21 ‘1‘. vi“ " r .2-*‘-.'1r;uoo .3315 mm“ rewtequa mi mm «.1 ;, ' .'i'izr'r:.;‘. . 5 2n :ms'. qo‘to (id—0.91 ‘3 d. an. . .~ . $31.». yum-your}. an: 103 (0! i it.” .-w -:.; ‘ 2;. "#3: bit a raw 393100 was)! at!!! 30 11“ 1“ m 1; .1‘1 m 3-1'0 .1102 HhW 329': 56: um- .tx’M ‘ w "25‘ Via! ‘ as. :3.:~v-.'o1p him-'3 ‘1‘ 59'3”” “in m ..“ .es‘rfoo man’s in»: benisido 'flotimiilml‘.) “8 mm ;-3 $31.32!)anqu gaeoizq 19339:! #1190014 “W 1.0"“ *«fl «1"; aasjnif F‘gntvfi e. .3 "d gold a” In W at: ”M ad: but. :nareaimoa e'nolfw an .h 1* “W A ammo; '3 2198019 mu: m mm? .-~:~w ».;Iw m ‘“‘#fr§m" ‘_ 54mm”: A 1. 176 Usually producers received payment for the coffee cherries and mbuni, which had been delivered to the pulping stations in the middle of the season. The price for mbuni tended to be the same as the first payment for cherries. At the end of the season and after the Kisii society's accounts had been audited, a bonus was usually paid for coffee cherries. The price paid to farmers per pound of cherry, including the bonus, fluctuated from seven cents to twenty-five cents be— tween 1943 and 1950, as shown in Table 9. More frequent pay- ment to growers was hindered by the insufficiency of funds. The Kisii society had to await payment from the Kenya Planters Co-operative Union before it was able to pay its members. The issue of obtaining an advance from the union, against the crop, was investigated in 1949 and found possible, but the interest 90 on the advance was considered too high. Thus, no action was taken by the society to apply for advances. Throughout 1943 to 1950, coffee cultivators complained of the system of payment, as well as the amount received. They took note of the rising price obtained for coffee on the world market after World War II. While discussing the 1948-49 bonus, the board members expressed the opinion that "if the payouts were not more than last year that would cause a great deal of discontent as the members were aware of increased prices and they would have been quite unable to understand the reason why the increase was not reflected in the annual payout 90Kenya Planters Co-operative Union to DA, 5 April 1949; and SAO, Nza to A0, Kisii, 2 June 1949, KNA: Agric. Kisumu A/Coff/l. affirm 9"": a! m ' ”mandala“ .3 ed: 30 ha". Him» a“ _ ;-‘ .:.'- o: tufiq 90139 a .~ .'~— ..‘n boyudtmli .“ . . 7‘: .‘eL’Q.’ one {#01 I“ J ‘ . 1.15”} .4. rw-w new-1p o: 3‘ j; :r ... L: xz-nn person um * '.‘IZ r; r“ - a ..,. 95». :r: :u:-£-d noinu WIN 3;: .zazimv 9;.) r791: ‘~0ut'rbs n5 pninis’“ h m nu: Jud .erdmeag 5mm? bus ecu n; beamisud“ 2.31:2;5 or. .aud'l' 02QO no) rmsbianoo 25w MD M .asocevbs m3 {lg-:18 03 1391508 ad: 2‘ W“, ')./l‘!.lf7I.q17‘JU excinvijluo 9233.3!) .OPQI or! £01.! 3.0m WWII; .bevieoerx 3mm ed: as lien on any" .59 wants an no 9971303 11‘}. benisd’do oohq pants at am W 9.34: e; mi: paiazicozlb eihfll‘ .nzuu 51m ”333”” on: :1" mm momma m “Mir-acct“ ‘ 35919 5 5805:: [alum m ”filmmwfiwm ~ {mustard 1:: m m m «I w swan-cam ; 9‘” ”mm“ °’ 4"“ um?" “..,?" tam ' -..-. IP' 9‘ 2 ~ is; 177 and it was likely to cause a setback in their efforts in form- ing a union."91 The registrar of cooperative societies, who was attending the board meeting, pointed out that only a small net surplus remained from the 1948-49 crop, because of the change in the beginning date of the season, which had resulted in the 1948-49 season lasting eighteen months. The remaining surplus would only allow for a one cent bonus per pound of cherry, but the registrar reluctantly agreed that the society could use funds from the 1947—48 surplus, so that a two cent bonus could be paid. At a meeting a few months later, board members inquired from the registrar if coffee prices were up, as reported in the newspapers, and, if so, they wanted to increase the 1949-50 season first payment to growers from the already approved eight cents to ten cents per pound. The registrar promised to consult the Coffee Board of Kenya on this matter. In the end, the growers received a first payment of eight cents per pound of cherry, an interim payment of the same amount, and eventually, a bonus of nine cents per pound.92 Summary Since cooperative organizations and other formal forms for marketing were alien institutions to the Gusii, the initia- tive on matters concerning the organization of the coffee 91Minutes General Meeting KCGCS, 24 September 1949. 92Minutes Special Meeting KCB, 20 December 1949; and Annual Report of KCGCS 1949-50, KNA PC Nza AGR 1/2/9/3. ' Hana-1193 whatnot?“ ’ ‘ MW". ml or” at Q“ < 'z‘r‘ . . ."v‘.-.1Z:". ‘{.-3591 ”(a g. -;. '* ..,-..; . .sm bluov new ' ‘ . ’ ,F.‘ » red? Jud .m i; ‘x‘wtét‘i .341- MIT}: 323.101 9” Lb. .blsq 9d 511300 I“ . :mci Enrnouz we‘. a puissant A 1A ' -- ‘7 ‘I'Lt'fil'k :55; I; «91302. 1'! 131341901 0‘!“ ~"~ ._1 :3 ‘ .«_H:'. at :‘3 61.3.1?!» [€an .951 31 Jane .I‘lm ','Z_if.§fi 1:2,. iii: 9...? may C;J;:‘.v")".? (:3 gamma 3.313“ U"."‘i'.nf7‘.iq ma'fisrpsu err.“ .2: my; usq @1118: no: 63' mm r1 .zajsnm aid: no :3 as): 20.131508 913303 9d: 31m“ 1m; ejneo 31193.9 '19 menu-z" :37)?! a “stone: um.w an. U‘ as .nnucms same 9d: in-mmm #19333 a. .m “M ca .3511th ‘xsq mm ~m Io WV.“ 31% : . ' " .‘ r12 M'mw ,‘;4$."“‘ff .' '. I (11.7.. 4 32.567 2"” nth-— '-‘¢% (“of Lama}. mam Ems awzmfim ”1:!an sun ,. " L’fifii « i; 437.; .f;._/; “we 533*“. "5 A“.‘S¢¥.z‘ Iii-£3 “'6 *"‘”'7¢-.*s.?'*‘i’ '. 993302 5d: 30 mm as: W mfig‘ a . f “91.5% It'pfm': 9 t 513:"? 1:" r $1.3m; sn': new 911:: a: “stipends! nth an m .eaei 2mm“ m Em: :EPQI ‘1.“ 178 industry was taken primarily by European officials and officers. The Gusii responded positively to proposals which would give them greater control of the industry through the establishment of specialized organizations. When responsibility for more functions was transferred to the Kisii Coffee Growers Co- operative Society in 1947, difficulties arose. The administra- tion attributed the problems mainly to poor local management. Although this assertion might be valid to a certain extent, it is necessary to delve further. It is significant to note that the administration did not concern itself with the training of the society's staff and board members in the functions they were expected to per- form. Although all board members and the manager had some formal education, and the manager and a few of the board mem- bers had experience as clerks, it should not have been assumed that they would have the necessary technical knowledge and ad- ministrative skills necessary for managing the industry. The requests made by the board in 1947 through 1950 to send the manager and extension staff to special courses indicate its awareness of the importance of adequate training. During the war years, the Gusii were influenced by the government's emphasis on food crop production, and there is little evidence to support the view that many persons wanted to adopt coffee during this period. However, after 1946, in- terest in coffee production increased. The price received for the crop also rose, and coffee came to be considered a good income earner. d ' x H L Q h In‘ B U .I - ~ g 1 , .'.‘.I6. .3 r111". Meat} insane. M w «it»; -‘!":,'71" em.-." .' 3 .-:.:3 ":5. .22de 131.04 I, 1 - 4 .;. *zlfl." {-..-F. axed-net". Error! lib tip-Jodi“ 4m: » ;.-,-~_-; '::.:. runs: 5 bar: :15an art: has .1101:sz 1.3.303 'TILICLS {1:324 ..“; .‘ 30;: Linads ii .ahalo as wnohsqxo had ‘3“ "‘I Jufi s9.-f~€~'.vrox::( 16:13:39.”! yiseasosn at: mod fill-tot p“ 2* «r5 .<":3au.’:-ni en: 9:395:1er 10'} 21388.0“! 831m “£313th 911:: 15595:. of 0&9; signs-1.1: we. at head 8&3 a! Q m 3:?! 4.1531233; eaauuoo leiasqgs 06 than WIQ “rm .pninimr snwpm 19 m1 an in m ..w '{d .‘JS‘OG‘BUIZKI mew 11w ulfi .m an.” all!!! 4"” Whirl; . 31' 912%.: but: .nofim QII Inn Q m Cam :_ r4.:! ...: . :7“ Cr.- 'r‘i‘ “...‘h midst " ‘ buns»: anousq 2M '3“ .335” W WM. 4:19 ‘1‘;-;:wu.s- ’ u mt «no; ”as: am Rim ‘1‘! m and 4&6} - —4.¢-'.¢9 179 The structure of the Gusii coffee industry af- fected the form which the industry would take in other African areas. European fears about African coffee production in Kenya proved insubstantial. When the need to increase production in the colony arose in 1948 and 1949, the Coffee Board of Kenya and the government recognized that growth could be achieved by extending production among indigenous farmers. This im- portant decision led to the introduction of coffee in several other African areas. Moreover, the formation of the Gusii coffee industry within a cooperative framework served as an example to support the organization of the industry on a co— operative basis in other African areas. gunnsvog 963‘ bit ': —' ’—".-c 1,51;an F" -‘-' IN. “51396 3““ "'i .'»::,:¢‘!£ nsoizlfl ”a“; ._. -_{31w mammal ”3‘10 .. .. . . ~.zi: “toqqua o: 91mi- --.;L-::a : 9:.» n1 aloud wtmfi' . ~ J k . Jaw} "1‘9 k CHAPTER 4 SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COFFEE GROWERS The two previous chapters detail reasons for the slow rate of expansion in coffee growing among the Gusii, and Chapter 2 also includes a discussion of the motives of those who adopted the crop prior to 1938. An analysis of salient characteristics of the pioneer growers, that is those who planted coffee before 1938, helps to further an understanding of the types of persons who were willing to respond to the promotion of this first major non-edible cash crop by govern- ment officers, while other members of their society were highly suspicious of the government's intentions. Theoretical Framework and Methodology Since members of a social system do not adopt an innova- tion at the same time, and some people may never accept it, persons can be classified into adopter categories which re— flect a time dimension. General characteristics have been ap- plied to members of adopter categories by Everett Rogers, who based his designations on 3,000 findings, relating different independent variables to the rate of innovation. Classified under the headings of socio-economic status, communication be- havior, and personality variables, these characteristics are used to form a set of generalizations and hypotheses. Although 180 M; J .x. ow: ad? _: '. .T' "(4" inaqxs 30 9.1-: 'u. .~ ; 0:715 S 1m .3‘ ‘ f en‘s beaqobo a. '1-3' pl ‘2. 33.192: 1910‘?!“ 1a . .2 ' . ! :1 IJL: .‘.F ~31 (1102545 99330?- M 1 .' rx: 7.3 if?» stow «H. antoa'mrr Cir some: * 3'0 2;;- .. a: 2'1: . (p.61. 39"1'f-av- 1m: 1313...! 3211." if” 30 ”13m .'21- ‘ "1:3 :‘*f31'.).'c’1.'::'....'x(f‘ Mexican 1.0"?0 e {idw .a‘xooiiio 1m .an‘oi '39 33:21 2'3nsnu19vcg em 10 800191” 1:221 obea 3.95-95“ mm. -rr..v-::-:'u rm .-!qoo¢.. 33;: of. noise £51908 5 30 anda" soul! .731 #493993 lawn: you alqosq 9003 but Ail: “I! 00 ,I ‘3 -9'r rltzizw Esfjopr so 193% 03111 130131“: “ “I m we n-a-Jd c- 15.. auLéaztoiosIuia {mash ”law “I “a c-dw .axspofl iieuevfl yd am WM W ”“3 3119193315 9:11:16: @wa 0019.; Q max-odd” magnum mxm to m ,4!” at “an W sad £50115le ml. _ ‘ 7 9:5 newsman“ m 7 iewil 181 several of these are difficult to test outside a contemporary situation, the following hypotheses can be used in historical investigations: (a) (b) (C) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (1) Earlier adopters are no different than later adopters in age. Earlier adopters have more years of educa- tion than do later adopters. Earlier adopters have higher social status than later adopters. Earlier adopters have a greater degree of upward social mobility than later adopters. Earlier adopters have larger sized farms than later adopters. Earlier adopters are more likely to have commercial, rather than subsistence, economic orientation than later adopters. Earlier adopters have more social partici- pation than later adopters. Earlier adopters obtain more information from sources external to their social system than do later adopters. Earlier adopters are more likely than later adopters to follow modern norms. The classification of an individual within an adopter category relates to any specified period of time or designated innovation(s). Research studies show there is considerable shifting of individuals in a social system from one category to another over time. 1Everett M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations (New York: Free Press, 1962), pp. 311-14. 2 Ibid., p. 189. mount!“ 1 . 7.. ti.) ' .‘1 . 1:4; 1 . ('v) ‘ t .' I 141' J ‘2': I 7‘! l ’ ‘ Id" ~ ",fii‘x, ‘1: L" I (u) .' I , ‘ "Haw - .* >1 -30h; 13'1151 (o) ".1“ mm' W 21:1 .1553 j ‘uxif *yru «we ;:e$qcbs 7111153 (1) , 3::--‘ nah? ".r‘ .2: ..{aiaxsmmoo ._. ~;,. 1+ '. :"'r'7‘. ‘-‘.’.J.S-’fl:*.f..'(. :r'raoaoos 0.3 ‘Q ~1'. £2.15“ situate swam ovzai aizojcoi‘s 1311368 (:3) . aquqrbn jets-.1 cad: noun ”a... 1:14:11.an "7mm 115:5de 22::- 79956 3011153 (I!) .. .. .13. 151-ma 11311.3 0*. fsnrijg 8903902 11011 . .3quon 19361 ob «all? ”381:8 . . . .- ‘ 5‘. N ‘ -, .r4'." renst nee; 1:1 32:11 910m 915 619.1th 1.11:.“ (I) IJBTH‘IO‘. 1113,5011 walla! 0.! arm 'rejqobs as nrn'jlw .Iosfgftvibnx as 39 Wilma m ._. W- bsfismpkasb 10 917.1: ‘10 boixaq 59131” 3“ w ”0%” 182 A theory of change in rural areas during the colonial period, by Godfrey M. Mutiso, contends that those who were educated (asomi) became imbued with the colonial system, in- cluding acceptance of economic opportunities. This group of people, the asomi, are characterized as persons at the bottom of the traditional social stratification system, who, through manipulation of economic and political power in the colonial system, would "buy" a place in the pre—European stratification system, and status inversion consequently took place. Accord- ing to Mutiso, the asomi have their economic and socio- political needs fulfilled in the new system; are beneficiaries of government programs, such as the introduction of cash crops; obtain rural leadership positions and jobs through the colonial system; and have gravitated to the new system for economic re- wards and rulership power. To test both the hypotheses of Rogers and the theory of Mutiso, the pioneers were compared with a sample of early adopters, those who most immediately followed the pioneers in the planting of coffee. Selection of the comparative group was based on a three-stage sampling process which is described in Appendix A. The mean year of adoption for the comparative group was 1955. Since the extension of coffee proceeded at a slow rate, it should be remembered that as much as a twenty 3Godfrey M. Mutiso, "Cleavage and the Organizational Base of Politics in Kenya: A Theoretical Framework," paper presented at the annual conference of the East African Universities Social Science Council, December 19-23, 1972, Nairobi; and "Cleavage and the Organizational Base of Politics in Kenya: A Theoretical Framework," Journal of Eastern African Research and Development 3, l (1973), 39-64. l. 4' 1".‘1091111 3.- .1. \ x; 3000 14 m 1.120.») to” sonrdv‘gsc‘ab M 151085 ad: . OI“ - : isnoij'rbs‘zs “I b 4:139 ‘20 (minim man. :3 "fwd” (2100' .m a 32.". 5:31: a117538 ban mum 1:,» > . 519.23 and salsa! of“ Q ...r - - sarzdzue abesa unsung , . 2 - In. 95.; Co Nine .amsxpo'xq 3W h -u0t has. moisiaoq cinaxsbsol In!“ mg. ‘.n manage ‘xci .r‘eje‘ga was an; 3:". nezsjivoia 9v“ [3‘ m ‘amq tun-«1m u. go» moods ad: on. 239905! 30 eoesrdoqzd 5d: died :00: 0! 11159 in sigma: 15 Iifiiu being-moo a!” M!” “U M-‘l n1 aussnoiq 9n: bcwolloi \(lsjslbs-i in. of" M 1'“ “now stud-magmas 9. .'3 ’10 1101339108 m i. M“ bed; we b 81 mam.- aaooosq palm mic-wads : ‘1‘" ’ ' Ajsxsqmoo all: .01 not?” 39 :II! no. a“ 31"“! ,. .1 .. ., gr a is hen-5199019 951100 30 m II! In”. “I “a. Yuma b as dorm as an! M 1,;- 183 year differential exists between these two sets of coffee innovators. Thus, the unit of analysis for this part of the study comprises the Gusii pioneer coffee growers,4 and a random sample of early adopters. An interview schedule was administered to members of both groups; if the grower was deceased, usually his eldest son was interviewed. To analyze the research findings, information is pre- sented in simple percentages and, in most cases, chi-square tests were carried out to find if the results were statisti- cally significant. No arbitrary level of significance is used, although it is assumed that any result of .02 or less shows the data to be highly significant. Family Background Since only eighteen percent of the pioneers and none of the early growers had brothers simultaneously adopting cof- fee, family background does not appear to have been a motivat- ing force which influenced an individual's decision to grow coffee; yet, it does appear to be a characteristic distinguish- ing between the adopter groups. Although a meaningful per- centage of the fathers of both groups held formal leadership positions (Table 11), the pioneers' fathers tended to hold higher positions than those of the early growers. More pio- neers than early growers had fathers who held leadership posi- tions within the colonial system. Among the eight percent of 4The questionnaire phase of the study includes all except nine of the pioneers, because either they or a suitable respondent were not available during the interview period. 184 TABLE 11 LEADERSHIP POSITION OF FATHER Pioneers N=77 Early Growers N=54 Number Percent Number Percent 1. None 47 61 38 70 2. Etureti 13 17 15 28 3. Omogambi, Omokumi 8 10 - - 4. Court Elder — — l 2 5. Headman, Sub-chief 3 4 - - 6. Chief 6 8 - - x2, 1df=10.957; p < .001, when comparing 1-2 with 3-6. the pioneers who were chiefs'-sons, there were five non- uterine brothers; their father held the highest leadership position among the Getutu in pre-colonial times and subse- quently he was appointed as a chief by the colonialists. As shown in Table 11, a significant difference occurs between the adopter groups when those with higher positions are compared with those who were etureti or without a formal leadership position. In Table 11, the term chief applies to one appointed to the position established by the colonial administration; a chief ruled in each of the Gusii locations created by the new system. The category of sub-chief and headman refers to those administrators who served directly under the chief. A court elder means one who served on the native tribunal courts . a v '_'»"v.'r.' ‘t ,- . ,1.-r." ..1 I; in!!!” J "mi: m3 “km 1‘ 'H’ _ 191313 rim .3 . 1.9 f lair“: «(:2 and" .; I$.4- d 1.10.“ a; nr:'~.".«;.,."::3 umn’w .100. .q :YCQJUh-ibi q“ Pfi'h‘ - awn? 333%; 33931: .aJua ‘aiaid' mew can Mg filamebnol‘ .‘IE'udbifi and gran Kenna; 1186: 12119113011 “1“ and assured sworn eonsxgi'iib swim 9 1.1.1?!“ ”it ' bszsqmoo e15 amzmieoq zedpurfli'tM I“! m , ' qidersbssl Linn-)1 B 32:01:13pr “I It! ‘ ._ ‘ , .. ‘41-" ~13.- -.' 15! v (fan ‘14-'34 185 or the Kisii Court of Appeals, appointments made by the colo- nial authorities. Omogambi and omokumi are traditional titles referring to persons recognized as outstanding leaders within their exogamous group and who commanded respect outside their sub—ethnic group. The titles signify a man famous for his skill in dispute settlement and who enjoyed considerable wealth and power. Sometimes the skills and powers of the omokumi and omogambi were associated with a type of magic, called ebiranya? Of less importance than the omokumi and omogambi, but outstanding in their local communities were elders, called etureti, who tended to dominate judicial pro- ceedings, as well as other affairs in their communities. A man became an etureti because of his wealth and the respect he commanded through his skill at litigation. As part of his power base, he usually had many sons who could make an effec- tive commander force to be used in retaliatory actions. In the 19405, the etureti position was incorporated into the colonial judicial system and the elders were appointed by government. In traditional terms, a man's wealth was measured in part by the number of wives he had, since cows, heifers, a bull, and a number of goats would be used as bridewealth ex- change. These animals represented a form of both investment and exchange. Even when use of money became widespread in Gusiiland, cattle used in bridewealth represented a man's wealth 5Ex-chief Nyagetira Nyawamu, OI: Nyaguta area, Nyaribari Chache, May 1973. "A‘A «.." Um. ..., . «,1» _ 1 ;_..:, ' (maggot. I” 1 . ‘3 3 1'! ”11.319 31w.“ ..r 2 - :uqaib at In.“ :-..._:'. was; 5” “I.“ . 49733910 bu 12am ,7», ‘ ~ .57 L It 2.»; "'3 7::".':61_$ 50m .. . ,_. ,7 . 1.1”..151am'3 Jud m o 1.711 4 .‘ H‘JC‘LbI ' 4 4393'. .:s 591150 .81“. .-, ,- . .Ir-w. “sq." ‘u:,.;:’:‘.'. guru?) as 219w an .IM -. agar in. - 5%,... -‘ .i 1' . sausoed ijszuis as wood a- H 1) 3 ...:n in 3;.ch er. .no;::p..i1i 32'- Lite: hit! #900de 1“»de ~-oei“9 r» Taiuw or: 4 arms 1.5mm bean Yucca. Dd .oil“ 13“? n1 .en-.~Hos vanj- i1: 33: at been 9d 03 mo! IMJW er njni bsisxogxooni 35w midiaoq 1.3.953! all: .lmw‘ '[d hsjnicqqs 919w arable 9d: has ”$02! Inioibflt 1W “i b "1W”!!! 8W Misc»: 3" m a and mem “I” “3 — s .axs‘lini .3909 sent: ill! I! ”iv i. “dig“ , ,g; 186 since frequently he had purchased some of the animals. Dur- ing the pre—colonial period when land was abundant, the greater the number of wives, the larger the amount of land a man could claim for cultivation by his family since each spouse had her own plot. In the colonial period when land for cultivation and settlement became scarcer, the land claimed by a man and his wives was not necessarily in proportion to the amount which could be cultivated by the family. The larger the size of a man's immediate family, that is his wives and children, the greater the size of the labor force; also daugh— ters would bring more cattle into the homestead through mar— riage. Table 12 shows that sixty-three percent of the early growers came from families which were either monogamous or com- posed of two wives, whereas only forty-seven percent of the pioneers lived in similar homesteads. A significant number of the pioneers came from families considered wealthy since their fathers had over five wives. The social status of a homestead head and his influence in community affairs were largely dependent on his wealth. A rich man could provide lavish hospitality, attracting many guests, and frequently his home would serve as a meeting place for judicial proceedings. Also, a wealthy man would generally command respect for his skills and talents used in acquiring riches.6 Table 13 substantiates the relationship between the 6Robert Levine, "Wealth and Power in Gusiiland," in Paul Bohanhan and George Dalton, eds., Markets in Africa (Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 19625, p . 521-24. _ _-, . , a .. , . M; Jr: ‘(AJIW‘Lw .:~ :sznnlooan “a”! q 1. r .. w retinal: 9113 m _ - . 1o. mick) bin” 4!- ‘-'~. 6:; ear-[iv Bid bit. as! P «3' I: :‘ *i‘. ’3}. “ ‘). ..aivoo 11:31“ 3M ._H_j;~34.1.'rvi a den. 1:: 10 98‘. ‘5 .‘v r‘; 51,3 .‘_' .~ ;:: an." Wtfim": 9:1.) .noxbilb w."l{i3 .z»..:t:. r. :" '2'“.- 3&1; , 5:1.:- t-nixd him It” ..9“: 'Y'Vizic.» .‘ 3:39.; m. :3t'7d3‘YJKiB Jam :zwoda SI aids? ; :-25' “(n .9: , "n;".".: :1 11:19 straw :19an e.‘~;i.~‘fifi3 not! mo. .1,” am it» Jae-219:; if!¢‘v’32"¥3103 vino 35931:de .aeviv on: 39 A,” 'cw’un jasortiariic A .abssztml “mm 111' 1).ka an” astute avriv‘Is-sw bazsbi-aaoo scum: new! sass exam.“ mg? .22:va an :svo but nodal; It? 3: ".QUIIQL aid has bass! mamas s in cases: Istooa mg”. {SUIT-"0:5 A .dJIsow aml‘no- sum amp}. 9;” ”1:33.23“ of mm mum»; gaumgn-mg calms mama! Hi 187 TABLE 12 NUMBER OF WIVES OF THE FATHER Pioneers N=77 Early Growers N=54 Number Percent Number Percent 1. One 22 29 18 33 2. Two 14 18 16 30 3. Three-Five 17 22 16 29 4. Six-Nine 7 9 2 4 5. Ten—Nineteen 12 16 2 4 6. Twenty-Thirty 5 6 - - x2, 1df=10.658; p .01-.001 when comparing 1-3 with 4-6. leadership position and marital status of the pioneers' fathers. It shows that those with high formal leadership positions tend- ed to have over nine wives, while those with no formal positions usually had up to five wives. TABLE 13 FATHERS OF PIONEERS: LEADERSHIP POSITIONS AND MARITAL STATUS (PERCENTAGE) Number of Wives Leadership Positions N=77 ' None Etureti Omogambi, Headman, Chief Omokumi Sub-chief One 26 3 - - - Two 12 5 l - - Three-Five 15 1 4 l - Six-Nine 5 3 - - 1 Ten-Nineteen 3 5 5 3 - Twenty-Thirty - - - - 7 188 Tables 11-13 reveal that most of the pioneers and early growers did not come from families of high formal status posi- tions, as indicated by the number of wives. Yet, a signifi- cant percentage of the pioneers (seventeen percent) belonged to households which appear to have been wealthy and had fathers who either held high leadership positions within traditional society or the colonial system. Even those belonging to such families did not necessarily inherit the wealth of their father, because of the egalitarian principle of the Gusii in- heritance system. A son's inheritance depended on the number of uterine sisters whose bridewealth was not used for other agnatic males, the number of cattle the father claimed as his personal property, and the degree of favoritism shown him or his mother's household during his sire's lifetime.7 Livestock claimed by the deceased as his personal property was to be a1- located to the youngest house, if there were greater need here; otherwise, the cattle were to be divided equally between the houses, with the senior house receiving slightly more. With- in each house the division among sons was based on the same principal. 7Favoritism in allocation of both cattle and land, tended to be according to order of birth or marriage. 8The inheritance process is explained in Philip Mayer, Gusii Bridewealth Law and Custom, The Rhodes Livingstone Papers, No. I5 lLondon: Oxford University Press, 1950). | :4 fi-M acids? ~'- - . .- 7 4. .1 .rr-f one!) 304! bib 3‘!" -1f ~."" ' ' .zrairfliibfli II .w ‘. . "1‘: 3’» opsmaznaq 8.. .. s "sitiv 391069“ a x , A ,, r.- 'vfpir: ruled 19‘11‘ * .nf .. ., .,;,1';~,1' .L'J 9d.’ 10 M ,;,- .E.2-;$‘_-£"F 1cm bib .61“ ‘ . , '.'-‘~.‘f!i$.'~ m1 is aazusosd HIM m_+:j.r,~!: 9'11? i'.'s‘._'i " ;."‘.L)-V A .mejeya 3011.33” 1 L 3,, 2:5»: 1cm 9: »' :Ljizmwaixiud Semiw 3193818 91:12:33! b «9.1351 3'13" 953:)».3 lo 1sdnwn an: ‘OOIOI 3M 12'. muons mar-"Iowa? 10 39:93?» sci: bus .yfi'xoqo'xq LBW p -:.;:.em:i_ \.:~:mi:193§.!. a‘acia e11! pni‘nib fliodseuod 3'1“!“ -I=: 9d ()3 an: Y379q¢,.q {moms-g am as Leesoosb 913 ti admit 319d been 1935919 9191» 97:11:13 11 .sauod jeopardy M1 03 m an: steamed yiimrpe 556mm) 96 0: am his”: ed: .m «dilw .s'xom {insights paving: mod 101-.9! ad; “MM we 91!: no been! sewer-10¢ examined-3hr“ 5‘9“” I! g ' .- y . I.” . :‘ s ,v ‘. .13 C v, ‘, .5951 has mm m in mud-nun magnum-1' 9981915: to 1mm 19 ache as W98 aw Jam gym a); W n W'Wmmi ntll'a V “13.1 *5M.‘ ~ 189 Characteristics of the Growers Before Adoption The degree of education and type of religious affilia- tion serve as indicators of the cultivators' acceptance of the colonial system. Both E. Rogers' hypotheses and the asmoi theory suggest education as a key factor. Nearly two-thirds of the pioneers received an education prior to the 19305; thus these persons were also pioneers in the field of educa- tion (Table 14). In comparison, almost half of the early growers attended school, a more common and accepted practice during their youth; they also had the advantage of more years of education being offered. TABLE 14 EDUCATION: NUMBER OF YEARS Pioneers N=77 Early Growers N=54 Number Percent Number Percent 1. None 27 35 28 51 2. Up to three 38 49 15 28 3. Up to seven 12 16 10 19 4. Up to nine - - l 2 x2, 2df=6.2; P .05-.02 when comparing 1, 2, and 3-4- Up to the mid-19303 education in South Kavirondo was connected with mission stations. In the 19103, two missionary societies erected posts in the district: Nyabururu station of the Roman Catholic Mill Hill Fathers was officially established in December 1911; and the Seventh Day Adventists opened a sta- tion at Nyanchewa, near Kisii town, in 1912. In the initial 190 years of Nyabururu Mission, the missionaries were especially concerned with converting and educating the sons of chiefs and headmen;9 therefore, pressure was exerted on leaders to send their sons to the mission. Prior to World War I most of the Gusii resisted, since the missions taught pupils to abandon traditional ways. Consequently, the government di- rected chiefs to obtain young men to attend. Cases exist of police (askaris) sent to arrest unmarried boys, usually those living in the cattle villages (egesarate), to force them to attend the mission school.10 However, these forays were neither frequent nor successful; in late 1913 the number of Gusii in school at Nyabururu and those who had attended, but ran away, totaled nineteen.11 After the First World War, the Seventh Day Adventists began a school, which eventually offered up to six years of education; it was served by several two- to three-grade "bush" schools. The first students at Nyanchewa graduated in the mid-19203. Gusii graduates from both of the mission schools preached in the countryside and persuaded young boys to attend schools they established there. Some of the earliest rural schools were opened near the chiefs' headquarters so that the 9Nyabururu Diary, entry 27 December 1911 and 31 March, iiéii. Copy held by Bishop Otunga Secondary School, Mososcho, 10Nyagetira Nyawamu, OI; and Masiemo Onkoba, OI: Getare, Kitutu Central, May 1973. 11Nyabururu Diary, entry 23 November, 1913. 191 teachers also could serve as clerks to the chiefs. After World War I, force does not appear to have been used to obtain school—goers.12 During this period, school attracted many of the pioneers, some of whom viewed it as a means of obtaining a status position within the colonial structure, while others regarded it as an escape from forced communal labor. Several of the pioneers ran away from home in order to attend school. Until mid-1930, education in South Kavirondo was con- nected exclusively with mission schools, and,therefore, reli— gious affiliation tended to reflect one's education, especially for the pioneers. Among the pioneers, seventy percent adhered to a non-traditional religion, and seventy-two percent of the early growers were associated with Protestant or Roman Catholic churches. Thus, religious affiliation, does not appear to significantly differentiate between the adopter groups. As indicated in Table 15, the pioneers who received the highest levels of education tended to be from families with low social status, while those who were sons of fathers with high formal leadership positions tended to obtain up to three years of education. A significant proportion of the pioneers (twenty-two percent) received no education and were persons whose fathers held no leadership positions. According to innovation theory, the earliest adopters are more orientated to systems external to their own social system than are later adopters; orientation implies sources 12Nyansinga, OI. '-"~ * xv ”‘ -'t' 1;: f 'L" -r, 0215 ”a” '3; ' 1 L curb 93303 .I 1" .{aflfl vp‘ : .xxoop-IOOIQI r. : amoa .atuaaolq .4; _ ~39 ~‘Hr;” J .+:aoq 803‘)! I 3:"‘» ~ at. a; barnsm qr“ firué ¢-t aiasnoiq 9d: 30 r a _ ‘* -DLm 113n2 ;..r,~:.' , -‘ . , t :. V ‘ zuiaxo bosons ,, $43115». ,.1 f <‘..rf~;..' .14."?‘111135 8001? W: ., VISBLOIQ a,: yucfifl .EWBqfi01q 9d: 19! 1:: ~; c.'-73LutnF .5» .311g1191 Ibnoijibali—aoa I 01 ‘25 , .: fi*.f§o:i:fl Hjiw 55:5130386 srew €19U019_¥1;QI— ;:,5 30h *SWb .731‘5111136 anoiprisi .aunT .nodaavda .15 sip rsjqobr an: “GER kjsd 9 1.3n33933Ib {IJHJOIQLHD‘I A to 15591 vdw 1193“”11 sfifl .21 aids? ni bsjboibni EA, ,753 :iw ecliima} maxi sd 03 ssbnsj noinsaubs 10 aIsVuI saodwkd Iii ifirw avsdssi lo anoa 913w odw econ: slidw .aussao itiao._!!£ saw: 0: p. Izisido 03‘ babes: amuuoq quench»: 1mg: gut usnnofiu ad: 10 aok:zoqp1q,3asaiilaeia A .noi3soubt 1Q;gfillg arms-tag 915»: I203 mum on bovine: (:mrsq Wm mus-sq 114ml on Mad W“ Laser mm at)“ a 1“» m as (assigns: lag i- “1:, _"’;;_I :2»: 1' 7:, 192 TABLE 15 FATHERS' LEADERSHIP POSITION AND EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF THE PIONEERS (PERCENTAGE) Fathers' _ Education of Pioneers N=77 Position None 1-2 years 3-6 years None 22 29 ll Etureti 7 6 3 Omogambi, Omokumi -- 10 -- Headman, Sub-chief 3 -- 1 Chief 3 4 l of information. Both non-traditional religion and education can be used as indices of this orientation, since they repre- sent aspects of the colonial system. Also, the coffee culti- vators' experience outside South Kavirondo is used to indicate external orientation because these persons had the opportunity to see different economic activities, associate with persons of other ethnic groups, and generally become aware of various social, economic and political aspects of the colonial system. Approximately one-half of the Gusii coffee pioneers and early growers worked outside their district at least once 13 Table 16 reveals that the prior to the growing of coffee. length of time spent outside South Kavirondo does not signifi- cantly vary between the adopter groups. The average mean num- ber of years spent outside, three years, is the same for both 13Only one pioneer lived outside for a reason other than working. Marita Ongwora had been imprisoned at the coast for his alleged involvement in the anti-European religious activities of the Mumboism cult, led in Gusiiland by his mother. 3,1:th ; at“. N". 1224303134 mammal,» 1;”:3 . gig “.0 43mm 5| (Puritan; \ 1mm Jaw L 39163 -' in: . £;_D.I[t,»‘. whatnbsrifsncH 4-3.1. .uniimo‘u'ifl 1:.r ._'._:;* -, Hrs 1101353119}.va rain? 10 eealbni as beat: 0‘ Q '_ 1:: 1, .3 Jam 'u-ajcye 1m salsa rd: to 31361.5)“ u‘ -. aw be»; 3'; 013.1031st dmoa 9512390 9311913st an” :: mm 10qu 941:: bar: ance-mg 939d: swoon! 303353313110 M ama‘mq dsiw sisioosss .asnntsm amass. sno‘xsilvkb up! auoi’mv 30 51mm amend 35115194509 has .aqyo'm studio 1&1“: .majaye 151:1an suit 30 um: 1591911103; bu mm 31991193; 993300 11:00 “a )0 it‘d-mm tiumqfiw. — ”‘w 1 9mm nest is winch um mm W M 13“ w- b..— are! me: ma... grass - “m1. mater“ ~ -magn m sack W aunts-tuna niq- “seam 193 groups. Table 17, however, shows that the place of work dif— fered significantly for those who held jobs outside. The pioneers tended to work further away from South Kavirondo than did the early growers; the latter group tended to be em- ployed in nearby Kericho area or other parts of present—day Rift Valley Province, whereas the pioneers worked in several rural areas, as far away as the coast, and one even worked in the Congo and Ruanda as a labor recruiter for an estate in Kericho. A significant proportion of the pioneers worked in towns or urban centers. Those with employment outside South Kavirondo usually served as unskilled laborers, although a proportion of the pioneers (forty-two percent) held semi- skilled or skilled positions (Table 18), such as office clerks, store clerks and drivers. Approximately twenty percent of all the growers worked a second time outside the district before they planted coffee and a smaller percentage worked on a third separate occasion prior to adoption of coffee. An indication of innovativeness in agriculture before the growing of coffee is difficult to assess, since most of the crops introduced by the colonial administration up to the 19403 were improved or new varieties of familiar crops, such as beans and maize. Adoption of these crops proved difficult for the growers or their respondents to recollect. Therefore, a list of crops which would have been produced primarily as cash crops were used to measure the degree of agricultural in- novativeness. Table 19 reveals that a significantly greater proportion of pioneers than early growers had produced a cash '. \\.'-.~wivr1 .7! ,_. . PM! (.1 .maoiiinp‘l I” .._ A" ' 'AIGW Cd helm-.1 m new“; glass 9113 In”, ,r - .- "'~.1-in ‘gdfissn at m ,, ,- .1 ..~ -‘.n'\'91‘¥ $9115? ”LI no .2593. 1'10! _— ‘2 all-3.8311“ . 8 - - a ' ' r "K\ T " ‘ P~t “sm- ‘.'.. pni'mqmo nadw 10c» 4 . ..» . Saab! . 3 9d: 30 Joint-guano em 0: noijaoubs "mm (5 316A? J .2 J . 9:30:13 30 minoq 99151 ,1. 401:“; 10 M1: M3 :5 M 331:? yen: rum: aims} 919w noissouba rm M13003 but 0,. xia 03 391d: dam 330.qu nod: to euro: molten wimp m tad ‘21:“: m anon-q Jim.“ and, bad «exam. )9 M ed: Jud! .mwm 01:00 3W?“ palm! 03 bonus! H «:11; am in W nut-”1'sssotmabs ‘10 um' .m “mama ”strum to our: ad: a used; .W and; W Wind .1 03 911510005 WW am island‘s alum! as at Ish‘ 200 TABLE 23 EDUCATION AND OCCUPATION OF PIONEERS AT TIME OF ADOPTION Farmer Other Education Number Percent Number Percent None 17 22 10 13 1-2 years 19 25 19 24 3-6 years 3 4 9 12 x2, 2df=4.802; P .1o—.os when comparing all categories. the Gusii coffee producers substantiate this generalization. Both the number of parcels of land and the size of the hold- ings between the two groups of coffee cultivators differ sig- nificantly. The pioneers tended to hold more than one piece 15 as shown in Table of land in their present sub-location, 24; a further eight percent of the pioneers and six percent of the early growers claimed land outside of their sub- location. The land claimed by the early growers was usually smaller in contrast to that of the pioneers. Table 25 shows that the average size of land in the sub-location claimed by the early growers was ten acres in comparison to forty-six for the pioneers. The variance in acreage is great: some pioneers held as little as two acres, while one person claimed 553 acres. The size of the early growers' land holdings 15The present sub—location is used as the reference base to identify where the land which the growers possessed was located. At the time they planted coffee these boundaries did not legally exist. .. g a./.‘ H! 5.3 VOITAJUOJ . ' .3 79""1'3‘. nojjsaubl anon pussy S‘I r aissv 3-5 ,, _‘ , S 'tom“- u.v .H.~FJ. 9 :S08.$'3b§ \ x made; a HJJfiuhfilfi £91303 Liaufi Odd 5.. 1 r ~n: Liv tic: i0 afvozsu to wedmun add “to. ,.) a I‘;: a:,ov.r:luo editoo Lu aqucip owfi 9n3.naeiflodr.'ll 3v a» ;1_ :4:" rom blcn o: beans: a1e‘nniq an? .Ylinl.¢ltl TI . .,arv ii swore as ”$.nothuoi'dua ansasxq sleds sf ball ’3 JHBTISQ xla the eiaenoiq 3 30 :neozeq :dpio Isdazufi'm ‘0‘ ~dua 113d: lo shiasuo has: bsmiala areuozp vixso II: is gizeuau cow sxswexe vixss odd yd b-nisis final on! ..,u51 ewode as slds'r .ateoaotq as: 30 “It: 0: serum 5.! 2m yd 1- smelt) maximums! .113 :1 mm! 3c “in abs-mu“ manure: o: MW at “as: m um amp M33 ence mm arm in Wm 41ng mat bear“: «mm am W W 3‘13?“ .5 Muf’M WWW” MM‘i-fim in: m Matt?! «37 fugfio _t:-J_.\.._.,g of ‘f. .‘tj? 7;; varied between two and forty-two acres. 7. One Two Three Four 2 X: Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Up to Over x2 LAND AT THE TIME OF ADOPTION: 201 TABLE 24 NUMBER OF PARCELS IN THE SUB-LOCATION or more Average number: LAND AT THE TIME OF ADOPTION: Pioneers N=77 Percent Number Number 39 26 10 2 TABLE 25 2 50 34 13 3 Early Growers N=54 Percent 46 85 8 15 ldf=16.61; P <.001 when comparing 1 with 2-4. NUMBER OF ACRES IN THE SUB-LOCATION 10 acres 20 acres 30 acres 40 acres 50 acres 100 acres 100 acres Pioneers N=77 Percent Number Number 11 19 10 9 9 11 8 Average number: 46 14 25 13 12 12 14 10 Early Growers N=54 Percent 35 65 13 24 4 7 1 2 1 2 10 , 3df=44.992; P <.001 when comparing 1, 2, 3, 4-7. . ~ ,1 .’.. i‘ \ _-!. ‘er TA aw ' am 9'1 takmfi-ixrs '50 1- A 7,, 1 - _ _ ...V-. ”-..—— . .' 1 .00 .1 our! .3 a ' out! .l atom :o 100‘ .3 ' - -,.-mr; 3').5"9'lf. ‘ .-? ,‘Q'ZEIPF‘T" V 1, . 'I f,'. " : 1.3.3 £2 )5! .‘x I .231 )5 our.“ .303 bus ow: nsmfi m . 4 ‘ r l. -'.‘ .7. '71.]. 8.5T ' ' ) 1 EL. waM‘w ;E‘UI""IO&IA '13 SHIT 8111' TA am VIOI‘I‘ADOJ‘EC F‘ m in Qu'DA ‘10 - .... --. .. -.., mw-m_ I :"A EJBWOIL“ \(fi‘ma fl'fl! 3399:1019 3119333? 29mm: insozsq 19mm 5 a: u {1 man 01.” 95".! a. c M H a: e; an“ OS 93 u ‘ ' ‘ £1 5.: .H _ .- '31.. ‘ “.‘z’ig $3.? 3;; is 01 7 V '“ aim-punt .m i .1 .1 Mafia 3:13.“; mm .'j ’1'. 150% lhk-T wn~oe § 4 fi 4:1 3;: g- a; ”I“. 7;“; “,5, 2‘5”?- ;-, m' 4',wa4451;53 fipm‘qa 2w - ’ fiflkfigafiat Sit. is}. "r 2' 4. 5:2 {“03 L.‘ ’.‘ 202 The difference between the pioneers and early growers in the number of parcels of land, and the size of their hold- ings is primarily attributable to the time span between their periods of coffee adoption. During the pre-colonial times, each neighborhood group occupied a distinct geographic area, divided into two complimentary units: the settlement (amatongo) and the bush (oborabu). The settlement area consisted of scattered homesteads and agricultural fields. The bush region was used as common pasture for cattle by allied neighborhoods. Within amatongo a series of common fields would be established, upon which each married woman and man could claim a plot. In delineating plots on a new field site, it was left to each cul— tivator to assert the limits of his or her claim. Land cleared and cultivated but then left fallow was recognized as an in- dividual's for a reasonable length of time; if abandoned for a long period the original cultivator lost his or her rights. New neighborhoods were always in the process of establishment as groups broke away or migrated to new land.16 During the 19303 the land in Gusii country was in the process of becoming personalized through possession. Land previously used as pasture and buffer zones between Gusii sub- ethnic groups or between the Gusii and adjacent ethnic groups underwent settlement. Of course, boundaries always had under- gone changes because of wars, famine, disease, or military 16The research by A. J. Manners in Kitutu provides an outstanding documentation of the process of claiming land. Draft of Ph.D. thesis for University of London entitled "Class and Status in a Kenyan Peasantry." 203 insecurity, but with the advent of colonialism frontiers had been stabilized. It was within these set boundaries, therefore, that new individualized claims took place. By the late 19405 and the 1950s most of the land had been claimed through the process of consolidation of land for homestead, cultivation and pasture.17 This process, then indicates that there was little or no unclaimed land left in most areas for the early growers to acquire; most had to depend on inherited land. After the 1930s, then, land gradually became a symbol of riches, but the traditional standard of the number of wives also was maintained as an indication of wealth. Table 26 re- veals there is a significant difference in the marital status of the two adopter groups. At the time the pioneers began coffee cultivation, thirty-nine percent had three or more wives, contrasted with only nine percent of the early growers; this is partially attributable to age differences. Thus, a meaningful proportion of the earliest innovators were con- sidered to be wealthy men in traditional terms. The degree the cultivators were involved in the colo— nial economic system and their commercial orientation are in- dicated by the extent to which they engaged in modern business enterprises. The data reveal that more pioneers (thirty percent) 7A general description is given in Philip and Iona Mayer, "Land Law in the Making" in Leo and Hilda Kuper, eds. African Law: -Ada tation and Develo ment (Berkeley: University of California Press, 19655. The study by A. J. Manners provides a more precise, and often conflicting account with the Mayers. 204 TABLE 26 MARITAL STATUS AT THE TIME OF ADOPTION Pioneers N=77 Early Growers N=54 Number Percent Number Percent l. Single/widow 3 4 3 6 2. One wife 26 34 35 65 3. Two wives 18 23 ll 20 4. Three - Four wives 21 27 5 9 5. Five - Eight wives 7 9 ~ - 6. Nine 2 3 - - Average number: 2 1 x2, 2df=l7.252; P <.001 when comparing l-2, 3, 4, 6. than early growers (twelve percent) were businessmen; although the opportunities were greater for early growers than pioneers because of the gradual loosening of restrictions on the in- digenous people in the late 19405. The first opportunity available to the pioneers was ownership of water mills for grinding grain; administration began to favor African owner- ship in the mid-19203. Of the first four Gusii to receive per— mission to build water mills, three eventually became coffee pioneers.18 Most of the applications during the 1920s came from members of the local native council, but by 1938 the council members were no longer the dominant owners. 18Minutes of LNC Meeting 26 April 1927 and 16 December 1929, GCC: Minute Book of Local Native Council, April 1926 - December 1929. -...-,;~,m»gxpa1r"'l¢ 931w no '9. aqvtw M J! m».- Iu-‘x‘? - m *3 »E. :nle — 9v)? “9! call .0 t * ~ 4*;qu H gr Nil r ,. ._'. -‘ i1; -‘1r;.§_.1‘zvj) If'as'iw ITO. " "i 35.53;.(13155 9 ‘ . :3.! nurse “slat-r? row (3.19339; ovisva} 819m}? ulna.” r . :9 _ ~23: arena-r}: Elise :03 13.35979 91:! Bowlmfl '71? on: no enoij'wkxfiar‘i 10 9111932001 bum-I519 W hm " {llxudzoqqo .‘Jalii erf‘l‘ .2099}. 9361 SM a: 01m M 30?. aifim 1936" ..0 gram an alumina ads. as m . ~12an magma 1(2st or M996 903.:ng Im‘” ”15:, svjeos: 0: Hana we! imtldé )0 .mu‘m * W' 99310» omen-xi ‘{£1w$m§.md3.miuiuwuw. '7 ‘ Fur was 30:91 «a mm W m )0 M 4255”,, 91!: see: 24 m. .m.ummw M‘:* 205 Salient Characteristics of the Cultivators Since Adoption When structured questionnaires were administered, thirty-five of the pioneers and six of the early growers were deceased. The average year of death for the pioneers was 1955 and for the early growers 1954. In this section, the original base of seventy-seven pioneers and fifty-four early growers ,is used, since there still exists a major time period after adoption of coffee for the deceased pioneers. Using a series of indicators of socio-economic and communications behavior for the farmers after their initial period of coffee production, the extent to which their be- haviors reflect innovativeness within the system established by the colonialists is assessed. Although very few changes took place in religious affiliation and level of formal educa- tion, a meaningful percentage of the growers, about an equal proportion of both groups, attended training courses (Table 27). Most of these persons received instruction at the Kisii Farm- ers Training Center, which opened in 1953; prior to this, a few of the pioneers attended farmer training centers outside South Kavirondo. A small proportion of all cultivators re- ceived non-farm occupational training and an insignificant percentage went to more than one course. Thus, neither group appears to have received any special attention or enjoyed special privileges in regard to the acquisition of training. Also, neither group had a greater advantage over the other in regard to securing loans: only eleven percent of the pioneers 206 and thirteen percent of the early growers ever acquired a loan. The pioneers primarily obtained them in the 19505 and early 1960s, whereas the early growers mainly acquired them in 1969 and 1970. TABLE 27 TRAINING RECEIVED SINCE ADOPTION Pioneers N=77 Early Growers N=54 Number Percent Number Percent None 56 74 41 75 Kisii FTC 11 14 8 15 Other FTC 4 5 - - Occupational 3 4 4 8 Administration, Co-op. 2 3 l 2 The degree to which the farmers planted other cash crops was assessed for those still living (since most of the crops were introduced after the average year of death for the deceased farmers). The list of crops selected includes tea which was introduced in 1956 and passion fruit which started being grown about 1959. Hybrid maize, grown mainly for con- sumption, is also included since it has been a major agricul- tural crop promoted by the administration since the mid-19605 and because its production has not been geographically re- 20 stricted. Table 28 shows that most of the pioneers and early 2oRonald Garst, "The Spacial Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations in Kisii District, Kenya," (Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, 1972) gives an overview of the expansion of the major cash crops. t. ' a . an 1". , I- .‘- local!“ :1 1 .qomO mantis!“ 4.49;. .1‘. 2 "7k. ~-‘3H.‘.~.-‘Cl‘ 9145521133 3d) datum 0: 9939913 slfl‘ ' 5 931,3 5M. , - 1:) Dubai it: a sand: :03 bums: m a. am no. its-‘2. 1c: xse‘{ epszsvs 9.1:: 13315 boonbounl can! u 3"", fl‘ 5an :.-;_-:':;..z_un; 159—3031's: agent: 10 3211 um (um! 4‘33 h‘ 2393:5321 mam 3iu~xi rotten; but ace; at bscuhoxm (ml: :1‘”) i331: -rxo'.- moi {Imam ms!» “'3‘” Mudgu- .2221 m m' ' , 1.x. 24-4 _;;- a: klfmim m m Mfg}, )3 at vitae rm szmflw ”magmas: m 207 growers adopted at least one of these crops; there is no numer- ical significance between adopter categories. Most of the farmers adopted hybrid maize and pyrethrum, although the per— centage producing the second crop is smaller than the district average of seventy-six percent. Also, the early growers show a slightly smaller percentage producing tea than is common for the district (twenty-nine percent), whereas the percentage of the coffee innovators growing hybrid maize (seventy-one percent of both groups) is a little below the district average (seventy- . 21 nine percenfl - TABLE 28 ADOPTION OF OTHER MAJOR CROPS BY THOSE STILL LIVING Pioneers N=42 Early Growers N=48 Number Percent Number Percent 1. None of these 10 24 7 15 2. Pyrethrum 15 36 26 54 3. Tea 6 14 ll 23 4. Hybrid Maize 30 71 34 71 5. Passion Fruit 3 7 - - x2, 3df=3.168; P .50-.3o when comparing 1, 2, 3, 4. x2, 2df=l3.815; P=.001 when comparing 2, 3, 4. The number of coffee trees currently owned by the coffee innovators contrasts considerably between the living pioneers 21J. Ascroft, C. Barnes, and R. Garst, "The Kisii SRDP Survey of Farm Level Enterprises: A Preliminary Report of Findings," Institute for Development Studies Working Paper No. 5, University of Nairobi, November 1971. ~.- aw um ”asexual.“- L. -. 5. .1 .‘(.1:4:u". $131572) '40 H01 _ ”...“- -....-- I as 593”“ H... u 2.; rd-m baaqobs It" 4: pnioubcnq m ‘-é 7-7v'.9v9a 10 M l ' 'it' Mina (.13an U 1 " “(Jun-N Shirt.» ” 1035101711.? 991300 w {equoxp 110‘ B. ‘x AA - bassist] .11 208 and early growers. The pioneers tend to have a greater number of trees than do those in the comparative group. This diver- gence is accounted for by the fact that the earliest producers were allowed to obtain more trees initially than were the later growers; that the pioneers could obtain more trees each season; and that as of January 1964, a national ruling pro- hibited more planting of coffee. It should be noted that in Table 29, those living pioneers who no longer grow coffee con- sist of five persons who sold their trees on the block farms, two who have divided the trees among their sons, and one who discontinued coffee growing on his own land. TABLE 29 NUMBER OF COFFEE TREES OWNED CURRENTLY Pioneers N=42 Early Growers N=48 Number Percent Number Percent 1. None 8 19 - - 2. Up through 100 trees 2 4 7 15 3. Up through 200 trees 8 19 20 42 4. Up through 300 trees 5 12 10 20 5. Up through 400 trees 12 29 7 l5 6. Over 400 trees 7 l7 4 8 x2, ldf=9.32; P .01-.001 when comparing 2-4 with 5—6. The degree to which a person participated in the eco- nomic system initiated with colonial rule is also reflected in his business activities, work experience outside the district, and off-farm occupation within the district. Tables 30 and 31 209 record that more early growers than pioneers worked outside South Kavirondo after the adoption of coffee: these persons tended to serve as unskilled laborers and to work for an average of four years. Most of the early growers working away from the district found employment in Kericho or other rural parts of present-day Rift Valley Province, whereas the pio- neers, many of whom were engaged during the second world war, were more geographically scattered. Several of the early growers (eighteen percent) and some of the pioneers (nine percent) who worked outside never obtained an off-farm job in their district, owned a business, or held a formal leadership position in the years following adoption of coffee. TABLE 30 WORK OUTSIDE DISTRICT SINCE ADOPTION: FIRST JOB, TYPE OF EMPLOYMENT Pioneers N=77 Early Growers N=54 Number Percent Number Percent 1. None 62 81 33 61 2. Unskilled laborer 9 12 13 24 3. Semi-skilled laborer 3 4 5 9 4. Semi-professional 2 2 l 2 5. Professional 1 l 2 4 x2, ldf=.014; P >.99 when comparing 2 with 3-5. 210 TABLE 31 WORK OUTSIDE DISTRICT SINCE ADOPTION: FIRST JOB, NUMBER OF YEARS Pioneers N=77 Early Growers N=54 Number Percent Number Percent 1. None 62 81 33 61 2. Up through one year 1 2 3 6 3. Up through four years 2 ll 14 25 4. 5-10 years 3 4 4 8 5. ll-lS years 2 2 - - x2, 2df=6.955; P .os-.oz when comparing 1, 2-3, 4-5. x2, ldf=3.949; P .05-.02 when comparing l-2, 3-5 About one-quarter of the cultivators have held off- farm jobs in the district since they first planted coffee (Table 32). Of this group, several of the pioneers worked for government and some held positions which required an educa- tion. In comparison, the largest group of early growers with an occupation were self-employed traders. The occupational status of the growers did not differ significantly, however, between the comparative groups. Also, having an off-farm posi- tion was not highly related to either owning a business, work- ing outside the district, or holding a formal leadership posi- tion. Ownership of a business was more common among pioneers than early growers; moreover, some of the pioneers engaged in more than one business activity, as recorded in Table 33. The 211 TABLE 32 OCCUPATION IN DISTRICT SINCE ADOPTION Pioneers N=77 Early Growers N=54 Number Percent Number Percent 1. Farmer 56 73 40 74 2 . Unskilled, (not gov' t) 2 2 ' 3 6 3. Unskilled (gov't) 9 12 4 7 4. Semi-skilled, skilled 2 2 - - 5. Traditional doctor 1 l - - 6. Trader 2 3 6 ll 7. Clerk, teacher, pastor 5 7 l 2 x2, 2df=5.717; P .10-.05 when comparing 1, 2+5+6, 3+4+7. x2, 2df=3.271; p.2o-.1o when comparing 1, 2-3, 4+7, 5-6. enterprises most commonly owned by pioneers were shops and water or power mills, whereas the early growers tended to own shops or market plots. It is significant that more of the pioneers than their comparative group have become business entrepreneurs . TABLE 33 NUMBER OF BUSINESSES OWNED SINCE ADOPTION Pioneers N=77 Early Growers N=54 Number Percent Number Percent 1. None 35 46 39 72 2. One 27 35 14 26 3. Two 10 13 l 2 4. Three or more 5 6 - - xz’ldf=9,261; P .01-.001 when comparing 1 with 2-4. L. . aqoria zo‘ ..Ev farmlakb‘fi J C. Iri3tbq “1 "+959, ‘mr a? "no; r: ‘W 30.41. g :YLY. 6'20S Q‘:-’ Y13l3‘:1u('.,fi9n4 0!. -OS q -I\'S. E-m oi- “...... a‘ziigfiofq '0‘ team ylnomoo 3.0. new v-sv o3 some: aim. .r.) 11159 9:13 361nm .8111: Imam 3:113 \\ 4 7.0 "‘1 {3'1" 3 J SAL; 3315. U .qu, 3.1mm Jfliafld amooed ~3va guo-zp 9911-1311309 1.1.13 m m 212 Formal leadership positions serve as an indication of the extent to which the cultivators were either integrated within Gusii society or within the structure initiated by the colonialists. A significantly greater number of pioneers than members of their comparative group have held a formal leadership position since they first planted coffee (Table 34). Among those with positions, the pioneers tended to obtain more ranks within the administrative and judicial structures. Although the pioneers have had a greater opportunity to ac- quire positions due to the time differential between adopter groups, there is no indication that a significant percentage of the early growers might eventually acquire more formal leadership ranks within the current structures. TABLE 34 FORMAL LEADERSHIP POSITIONS HELD SINCE ADOPTION: FIRST MENTIONED Pioneers N=77 Early Growers N=54 Number Percent Number Percent 1. None 36 47 48 89 2. Etureti 17 22 5 9 3. Court Elder 7 9 - - 4. LNC/ADC/GCC 6 8 - - 5. Urban Councellor 1 1 - - 6. Headman, Sub-chief 6 8 l 2 7. Chief 4 5 - - x2, ldf’=24.482; P < .001 when comparing 1 with 2-7. c =91 agrawug ‘ 3393191 98 ' I) - I $191594. .1. tin-30‘ .: vw‘vi"02 Mum I“ . 33811.3“ gr», mach-1‘4 aoq glam 1»: 9304.1” -.- zxzi'a' aim.” . .iq an: new“ ‘:?,,':..i " " an- L. .11.de . n 3 n .« awn anoljteoq gill. Lr‘ ‘ :‘ 5;}. L or. ,;‘r 91911.1 {m \p , upfi 7 'L;J grplu "inwoup \ano .63 .I. .g t“ * navln d3 n;d11w afi1.51 qtdtxlflll¢ ’ ‘ .193? ' y, "M ° and” mowing qzaaaamad WPIW_ .J.Jr";r:;4 u 7, 3311 .....-o— : MOITQOGA .'M- .- v’j “may L‘Do.n \V.=s? T"! ;‘-‘|!‘!Oi‘£ massisq xadsz “‘ ' {£153 xedamw 8:3 Té 36 TI 3 CS . _ 2%”. “3 .'DLHW 01 1wg. 213 Besides holding formal leadership positions, there was the opportunity to participate in non-traditional organiza— tions, such as school committees, both at the district and community level. Table 35 records that many of the coffee cultivators took part in these organizations, but the pio- neers have been significantly more active in their local cof- fee society managing committee or on the coffee board govern- ing the district. A greater proportion of pioneers (twenty- two percent) than early growers (fifteen percent) belonged to two or more committees. TABLE 35 FORMAL PARTICIPATION SINCE ADOPTION: FIRST MENTIONED Pioneers N=77 Early Growers N=54 Number Percent Number Percent 1. None 40 52 36 68 2. Coffee Society Manag- ing Cttee 23 30 4 7 3. KCGCS/KFCU Managing Board 2 3 - - 4. Other Co-op Society Cttees l 1 1 2 5. School Cttee-Community 9 12 11 20 6. School Cttee-District 1 l - - 7. Church Cttee-Community 1 l - - 8. Self-help Group Cttee - - 2 3 x2, 1df=8.597; p .01-.001 when comparing 2-3 with 4-8. In spite of all the previous indications that the pio- neers were integrated in the new structures and systems a 7'" 16:; moo: mm «1:- need was.- ..‘,F 9'... .. training! KM”. ‘ . :19 Mun.» do!“ , . ' mm (amid .L:"‘ 13 ' inn-)9 .10. ”I ~ 30“ ff .7' - HA, - ; -:_c- 13. 11:23.2 -;49_I..1_=i2_1.:>..tm - ~v19~u . a (..3 0b out ad epsnafl 11.130. allfllflbriI : 35 ES 95333 pal paipsm MM 4. - - a 3 5184)! .%m '. ( I l 1 “5:33;“ '0‘” m 4 C” ii SI 2 23W” w é -' - I I - * I I" 5 " * ‘5‘ 'j “555W 8—& .1511: I4 Wm my luv-1C. 1 «8!. ’na .‘ s71??? 1‘35)?" ,..5 4.29%.“ «LandaMWM‘IManaoutg-l 214 established through colonialism, they also seem to have main- tained their traditional orientation towards wealth and social status, as symbolized by marriage. Changes in marital status of the cultivators between the time they first planted coffee and the years that followed were made by eighteen percent of the pioneers and ten percent of the early growers. The aver- age mean number of wives for both groups increased by one. The wife enhanced the man's traditional social standing and produced children who did likewise. TABLE 36 MARITAL STATUS SINCE ADOPTION Pioneers N=77 Early Growers N=54 Number Percent Number Percent Widow/One Wife 16 21 33 61 Two Wives 21 27 15 23 Three or more Wives 4O 52 6 11 Average number 3 2 2 x , 2df=28.874; P <.001 when comparing all categories. Summary In comparison to the early growers, the pioneers tended to follow the general characteristics of early innovators as set forth by E. Rogers. A notable exception is that the pio- neers were usually older than members of their comparative group; the age difference partially contributes to other varia- tions between the adopter categories. Also, fewer pioneers .. i. :Mn: not!“ mm: u “v ...-‘5' H10’3‘v’t’mm ‘. 1.... l ' '53 1139111?“ _‘ his 3399001“- '5‘. Huh: '7". 16.1111!!! 1!". m .'f'.".fl: .‘fi.’ 23291151169 0!!" E' ".3‘.» neviblidn M -.;.,- ..- , -1_.~_.._._._... ,. ., “WV" t ‘ -‘ 3 T’s. :3 3:014 "‘ . . 1: J' 7‘ "rl'uefl 1:3de V‘o—Lmfim' H .3 :1 3 SP 0) mm .101: to ' . - ‘I .I 2, V O- ‘-. 8 1901mm! spa-1mm ' - (‘14; I+:-f our-mm Is unkismo'z mm! 100. > ‘1 :0". lidb‘ 33% 4t » berm: 819990131 9.5L? mam yin. w, 0:! Wm __ a: swarm glue to nuuxfimmw 3* 215 than early adopters had worked outside their district before they first planted coffee, a benchmark of outward orientation. In assessing the life histories of the pioneers, it is significant that only thirty-eight percent of them came from families which might be classified at the bottom of the traditional social stratification system, as measured by their fathers' marital status and lack of formal leadership positions, therefore not substantiating Mustiso's theory that those who became involved in the colonial system were from lower status within traditional society. Also, although most of the pio— neers had received an education, approximately one-third never attended school. Moreover, at the time of adoption approxi- mately one-half of the pioneers were solely farmers, including some of those who had been educated, thus indicating that they were not integrated to any major extent in the colonial system. While the asomi theory tends adequately to describe part of the pioneers, it does not account for the majority of them. Even after first planting coffee, the pioneers did not differ significantly from early growers in the acquisition of training and of loans, adoption of other major cash crops, and employment within and outside the district. The signifi- cant differences arose between the comparative groups in that the pioneers participated more in business enterprises, held more formal leadership positions, were more active in coffee committees, and had a higher marital status; these character- istics reflect a tendency towards a greater commercial orienta- tion and a higher social status both within traditional society " ’tei-iobfi ‘1“ H. 1.”, 593“th 3w.“ _ ,- .'r .nzu'easu a1 . -. n 1.10 :5”: $1131.11“ .3 " raw {bi-4w will"! ”:33 ‘9. {nice-a 161101315“! ": : (”511181 '3!“ - . ‘~- 0.3.2.111? 70:: Mom ‘. “f 2.1.? 1.1 EJSVIOVI‘II w ~ 3L- r: tr: gsr'ucflrbs‘sj :1le 1 n: L :.«;,.:‘m m. p‘ffiiii'USI 56:! It!“ rm. ’: .:: J.i.» as .1310910R .Ioofbl “but '..' :1; 1);: fit. :1. .c:.q 3:13 ‘10 Mari-m $1“.- 2.1.511 m4: .fzunsnf'ia need 05:! odw sion: 10 “I _¢.‘.— - :nj ."1 1;:de Iocsm \ms \7 bossxposal 101 '8' «,2. rig..- 9311:}. :b o7 3:113; nupebn was: yxosd: imou Dd: ' ... mu. 29113 is yj;:.Lsm 3. dd 1'03 amounts 30:1 swab 31 .819“ £ bib {31539117125 3:13 .aeiloo 9:11.3qu Saxl! 19115 an! r10133.aiv'poa 3:5: {11 3393319 7116‘ m0!!! Yi’Ml’ifiQlC-ifi‘k a“ .Ezgt‘lf) daso :to'rsm 39530 10 mum manual 10 has 911.1%? -13.’mpie 3911' 43111.16 063 56510300 bu mm .’m 112:; '7 n1 sqgemp 391W «3 Md mu COW. bind animus; Ward .1 up 5.5me :3“. ' ' A 99130:: xi. simian m not 3:551.” W I ,-‘~ 1_ 21‘ and the new social system. IN 9.9.?" :‘i- "‘5 F‘Jfi n. {-.ui‘ ~‘ L5 L30 *_‘f.‘h‘~l?€1-uu.‘-,'3 that. invent at“ m L49 on African ruffeu ytcrloh‘iin. by use “I; suitablo 8* 313m: allwm.‘ 'x‘ 4"le the 1‘: h; war: M ii) ulativcly w. J'r.'t those arom- npsne-i t-nrlxtffw: euitxntinr at this up. w ._. several _-¥«“{101)B in Ninth 'iyunla, m 3003!”. in ”(to an; Hilks m1 m area in For: an “unq' a). a. I311 u :hr— tam; axmrz-mnul 33:13. By sit-HM Iota cum th- arbcr gin-{tial mftae nuns mm 3,!“ grown” 108-fl! ’51 am. an (marital! to 1.569 emu mun am with an m1 and 1,030 producer‘s in m it“! 235 “1.1 “H00: M“ in Hate Ct ms t...- m mm m u ms «was! W "as. mdtcatqc ma manic. cam M "cum: 9...” mm 1!“me mm a! mm. as.» W 4. “magma-u is!“ 7”- L crop. in hf'tiéfll 'M" a” 3% “W W ” x-quu £5190: IN PERS PE CT IVE The Aftermath In spite of the government's more lenient stand in 1949 on African coffee production, by 1952 the suitable re- gions allowed to grow the crop were still relatively few.. Among those areas opened for coffee cultivation at this time were several sections in North Nyanza, two locations in Nyeri, Taita Hills, and an area in Fort Hall (Murang'a), as well as the three experimental areas. By mid-1951 Meru outranked the other initial coffee areas with 3,586 growers with 951 acres, in comparison to 1,549 Gusii coffee farmers with 363 acres, and 1,030 producers in Embu with 215 acres.1 Also, production in Meru at this time was higher than in the other experimental areas, indicating more mature, coffee-bearing trees. More areas came under coffee following the Swynerton Plan of 1954, which included a program for expanding cash crops in African areas. The plan set the following targets for arabica coffee: 1958 - 18,000 acres; 1963 - 43,000 acres; and 1968 - 71,500 acres. The number of growers and acreage increased rapidly after 1954, causing the total value of the African-grown crop to rise, as shown in Table 37. The com- posite figures on growers and acreage, however, obscures the 1African Grown Coffee: Summary of Returns as at 30 June 1951, KNA: Dept. Agric. Coff/2/2/1 Vol. 11. 217 x . ,- . ,, \ 13.1.:2 -. . v gaze-it 000. Et- - £09! were: 000‘ '1 '- 03.! 3093300 w.“ ... v - ufivzn n1 ~.‘:1 a mon’m no ”I! \ . bswollb not! ’. we; 215-.935 good: # rag-a [cause '1' in» , ' 1 . ‘. In. finnr. .elill um - mxelrwl'xsgxs ma: ‘3 ;;;‘1'.‘ :1 332‘ ": 1 if!“ "fit-2;. 3351100 £5111“ m 7, L as” a" v.v:l midimc, Hay.) (88‘! 01 “can.” It .~;>.:u 1. :“j‘i’w c J; :ijrrw 51's: m’ arenuboxq OilJ b -';::«<.;i<-‘: "3:130 an: :11 sari: zeiiqtd es»: mi: aid! 3. m ‘. .aeo'n anxsmi-es'ii(.~o warning szou pfliiflolbfll y” 9 if? pniwoi hr" 293303 19:. sans me 35911 29on ‘ .0 I253 gnzbmsaxe 1;"; a-awpotq s bsbuloni doldw be!!! h .l! 1:35pm: pniwoi £01 an: 19a- .1qu ad? .uou “0111‘ lit 0“ 2:591 .1! has 2190102? )0 3m ed? mos ”3.1.? - m“ an: lo scisv £8,963 “3 m J!“ wt: 11m: 110:: MIT Yé stab! at m u .001: a: mo -~.~ 16231621915:- 218 practice of initially allowing a cultivator only 100 coffee seedlings, which amounted to approximately one—fifth of an acre. TABLE 3 7 PROGRESS OF COFFEE GROWING BY AFRICANS IN KENYA 1935 - 59 Year No. of Acreage Value Growers (5'000) 1935 n.a. 103 n.a. 1945 786 318 n.a. 1951 8,208 1,735 n.a. 1952 11,864 3,038 n.a. 1953 15,019 3,867 147 1954 18,806 5,339 292 1955 24,486 7,511 310 1956 39,408 12,052 485 1957 61,990 16,783 992 1958 75,482 20,301 1,130 1959 89,153 26,161 2,181 n.a. = not available Source: E. S. Clayton, "Peasant Coffee Production in Kenya," World Crop Vol. 13 No. 7 July, 1961. Rapid progress led to the targets set under the Swynerton Plan being exceeded, as revealed in Figure 3. The year 1963 marked the turning point whereby African grown cof- fee on small-scale farms outnumbered the coffee acreage held by large-scale European producers (Figure 3), as Kenya's total coffee acreage increased. The rapid adoption rate of coffee .11. {111511101 1° -« 1r: lama-om “ .1 , ‘vs-I rt. :3 ,1 h , : 958.8! .s . nib,$§ :"L SSC-.‘JE 3505.26 £3. a! 098.18 0‘32} 10": .{75 580.3? iai‘; $31.3: €8£.98 eldsilsv: 30a 9 mi conjuvboxfi 391303 3533591” .noaqsxa‘.a .8 :éiliii.ml i .Laer “gun s .024 £1 .xov mg. 2.:de Munoz ., . "5‘ .- . v «a; . iti 19mg J96 ”arm at: a: be! «my “w” mm C magi“: ml Wax u _ m mm 9951 . A ' m: mung mun W «#99 MM .. ,. W?" 1-. ~.;('L’ .751“. 15399 a'sfimx‘i u e; mm W mu Figure 3 219 to 'I 32 ha 64 as be 39 be 53 b4 55 be 37 31 ID no 9 I co ¢ 2 L|J m u. u. o 0 tr m o z :3 Lu 0 <[ Lu cr o < Smdhthgs as 30 18 B46 17 0 5 0 0000000 gobwmenu SOJOV ;o spuosnoql Source: Kenya Statistical Abstracts and Personal Correspondence with Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Economic Plannin and Develop ent, in J . Mait . §§§§§§1}n_the Kenyan conomy (Nairo 1: East A¥rican fte ureau; 1974), p. 84. J : mméficirzcam PRICE Year 1945-46 1946-47 1947-48 1948-49 1949-50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 source: 220 TABLE 38 PAID TO PRODUCERS, 1945-46 — 1964—_6_5 Price (5) Import Price Deflated Price Per Ton Index (1957- Per Ton 58 = 100) 102 73 140 112 84 133 149 96 155 161 108 149 350 98 357 374 90 416 416 111 375 436 118 369 509 108 471 427 94 454 437 97 451 521 102 511 438 104 421 393 100 393 398 101 375 320 104 308 348 94 370 280 98 286 335 104 322 318 104 306 Kenya Statistical Abstracts (1955 and 1966) and U. N. Yearbook of International Trade Statistics (1956 and 1964). The indices are switched to the original base of 1948 for years 1946-1949 and from the original base 1953 for the years 1950 - 1953. In J. K. Maitha, Coffee in the Kenyan Economy, (Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, 1974), p.85. Figure 4 221 U) P- a: CD 0. >< DJ 53 F- U) u: I: C3 C) u. C) “J :3 .J <1 :> 2’ p. C) p. u. (3 DJ 3 F- 2! DJ (J a: UH a. “J U! u. u. C) (J IO 0 IO '0 IO N ebosuooiad Source: Kenya Sta 15 10a ‘ ' in Maitha, Coffee in the Kenyan Economy (Nairobi: African Literature Bureau, 1974). p. 30. 33 b4 35 be 37 Se 59 to bl ha ha 84 85 be 32 50 BI l949 East €134.14}: .....n. ..,... mm ”m on. are. 222 was stimulated by the relatively high prices received for the crop between 1950 and 1957. For example, whereas the Gusii growers obtained twenty-five cents per pound of coffee cherry in 1948-49, the average price for the 1955-56 season was forty—one cents for cherries,2 and a pound of sun-dried coffee fetched about ninety cents.3 Although the price de— clined in the late 19505, farmers continued to plant more cof- fee hoping for a renewed upswing in price, but after the first of January 1964 Kenya prohibited new plantings because of an oversupply of coffee on the world market. The growers were organized on a cooperative basis. By October 1967, the approximately 300,000 small-scale African producers were grouped into 159 cooperative societies.4 The initial processing of coffee was carried out by local primary societies, which when numerous enough were organized into a district cooperative union following the model used in the ex— perimental areas. The societies and their union were respon- sible for the transportation of the processed crop. The parchment was taken to Nairobi and handed over to the Kenya Planters Co—operative Union, of which the societies were 2District Report of Assistant Registrar Co-operative Societies, District Co—operative Office: Flimies File. 3Murumba Society Balance Sheet, 30 September 1955 KFCU: File 1047 dated 1965. A higher price was paid for mbuni since the producers did not have various commission fees, eminating from charges on the processing the crop, de- ducted. 4J. J. Oloya, Coffee, Cotton, Sisal and Tea in the East African Economies (Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, 1969), p. 48. ." iuir ‘dH 81M‘ . } .~ M» a)?! In it“ xx. N‘z‘... 5d: at h“? r. '10} 91*“ (.«r ._ ..41 5591 run-alt 1, ,1. 5.913.): to quw L\ a, . :1. 2 sn’: $681 W’ 7.. -» ' (2‘6, (1' ‘L bimiroi' new 83* ...¢_- ’ , ‘6. ' ‘ c. z- .r ’£‘+3o:) 17 pniaaeoo'lq m ; - .. . riquona 1.0199131 stem: {{9de .W , ,1. (A 51w. 2;.) .,n.:wol.lo‘x nolnu #1335 :1qu £97J F:- ~.1...~..3:—2;«:x em many 2.19.43 mu. 12.-3:333:03 95!? .25913 l and“ .r.:~:a beesaouuq and: 10 50135310qu3 011:! 535:st 9:13 on ‘I-Z'VC Lebau‘. bun idoxisl o: 12“.: an! $3. ’ anew aerjsicoa 9:1: dbl-rm 39 .1391!!! "1.133090% evide'asspwo’: 25:5!!in 1553833“ to nxmm‘ .0111 mintnnnio winnw 3911:.“ 5 ~ 2.32: 29:391an 0! 3.0143 ”mint?“w admit! fin} b31¢ an new: 33:19:11- I m “on: out. min-3m amt-av out 31113913060561: me ”My «a; gem mm new as» pus-gun; 223 members, to be processed into clean coffee and graded at the union curing mills. From there the coffee was sold through the Coffee Marketing Board at its weekly auctions. Coffee ranks as one of Kenya's most important cash crops and export commodities, although the proportion to total value of exports has varied over the years, as shown in Figure 4. The wide fluctuation in world prices for coffee, as indicated in Table 38, leads to unstable export earnings and hence instability in the country's foreign exchange re- serves, as well as the farmer's income. The fluctuations have also affected Kenya's balance of payments since, during the same period, the prices for most imports have tended to rise. Conclusion This study of an experiment with African coffee grow- ing in Kenya analyzes factors within Gusii society and those external to it which directly influenced the introduction and expansion of the Gusii coffee industry. It also assesses the views of colonial administrators and officers in regard to the structure and control of the industry, and discusses ways Gusii participation in the management of the industry were circumScribed by government. The salient characteristics of the Gusii pioneer coffee growers are identified and used to test hypotheses on innovation. The research reveals that prior to the 19305 the im- portance of coffee within the settler-controlled economy and the Europeans' reliance on a cheap supply of African laborers .-2a9* (it; «n as New at m r .3 ' 41' , 1:} ' ...rifir'u: 14%an b93001,‘:‘§— 1 2‘ ~ .. w.“ wv In; at“! Jinn”. D , "t ‘ .. - ..gfz ;--."; -' r2 ’.1‘.'~. :.:;U 9HI‘IB'._‘X9 .15 10 {M38 lllfl' ' “.13 ‘- :“ . “rm": x. z,- V;'$J'-~.; LWLL. nu"; 1w ”$103031 ESSYIIM 613a" - (15*. .mr u arm-51.435: 41:13 ber'.1-3¢!f35u vlinnilb doldw 31 03 .r,’ er-H 1.213.;‘41-7 wit. :1 “scab“ 99 3023 {two ed.) 10 - ' n‘ ‘Jtioé 0:! nun-a: n1 219-11130 has 310331111111!!!» Islwmyfir ak’fiw {magma-'5 3m. .uranbni at: 10 1013303 burs ’ 91:“; {13: :bni 9d: 1.) 3m 9d: a! 693381 N in 8511:179038'3Cfi9 and“. our. Jun-nun? {:1 a: new bus Miami no yam-x.- notion 1.00031 : .- . in." , ‘3 ‘ V “f: . .3 . mmnwumumzqmumumm bill! fm'im'éa MLWmov'x-lsuc an: furnish: ”nan 1% ' ... _. y ;, ':.'-_ :4. I . . V ‘3’ N .‘ Wan—mac Tao—swan no w-“Pmr 224 caused coffee production by black Kenyans to be prohibited. In 1910 when the world price of coffee began to rise steeply, a considerable number of settlers started planting the crop. The government, while not in favor of creating a monocrop culture, took interest in coffee, since it would contribute to the metropole's financial position as well as the Kenyan economy. Although less than half of the settlers grew coffee, the producers of the crop organized themselves as an effective lobby towards a sympathetic government, which supported the coffee industry by financing research, providing supervisory services, and assisting in market—related aspects. From 1920 to 1944, coffee had the highest value of any single commodity exported, and between 1920 and 1931 its value contributed annually to approximately one-third of the total revenues from all agricultural exports. To profitably produce coffee, as well as other crops, the settlers, who tended to be undercapitalized and in debt, depended on a cheap, sufficient supply of laborers. Initially it was necessary to compel Africans to work for them through labor regulations and a tax system which provided a mecha- nism to ensure that Africans needed to earn a cash income. Also, the indigenous people were prodded to serve as laborers for the Europeans by the government's lack of support for agricultural activities in the African areas. Although black Kenyans, particularly the Kikuyu and Abaluyia, requested that they be allowed to plant coffee, they were not permitted to do so. 3w :- “.1933 “C! anyhow; 1163311on I! _ a ‘. F pr 2" 4.31.5 lqjxuefam; we 03 balm” adv .IIOI’ 4,. * : a f r ‘ at. 1 Jaime .msim- Rec .1504: a In 7...!" ~5d'_".-.v'. r~ influxoxu dardw may; as: I in out .amosn: 6315:» 1. runs 0.4 beam mot!“ tilt ”(W 2 3"? 4:3' -s » $3”! 21210:!5'; as e'nsa 01 mm m m W . ‘ .- "1 3: #53:? 1‘”? 10‘: Hoch? is szI 33%;”! fl said {fpmyd r51. .8591: “aim at: 3% W . , .- .. 2‘: 2.3.1.9.. ; _g _. - 35:13 csjaeupes ,eiynlfidfi W W “3 I‘m , -. 5' . ' .33 e: u. 4‘15” ~ ~ '_ ' -‘a A: ~’IL)- -lJ.< - 1 ‘. 225 Greater attention was given to the coffee issue in mid-1929 when Sidney Webb, who favored African production of the crop, entered the Colonial Office as Secretary of State. It was politically untenable for London to support cultiva- tion of coffee by Africans in Uganda and Tanganyika, while production by black Kenyans was de facto prohibited. And, in spite of allegations by settlers and their allies, there were no valid technical reasons to prevent Africans growing the crop in Kenya. The settlers succumbed to the Colonial Office's in- sistence on allowing indigenous Kenyans to plant coffee, since the planters wanted government to approve a bill to establish a coffee board, partially financed by government. The ulti- mate agreement which took place under Webb's predecessor con- sisted of a compromise on African production. It allowed for an experiment to be conducted in three areas, away from European settlements, on a limited scale and under government regulations. Interestingly, at no time did London define the time period for the experiment, its components, or measures to judge its success. This loophole gave the settlers a stronger position than previously; coffee production in African areas was legally prohibited outside those areas gazetted by government, and the rate of expansion was to be determined by the director of agriculture, who could be swayed by the settlers. . 4 ' -' 245335 133 L .w (“able n'LT. {-9 7” sq: pausint a . '5 . u :1 [591311) E . .‘K yd 993309 ' i . I) 'u.‘ x Ydi >21“ id Yd ~ 'n.:rralla 30‘ .1. 3 an“ " .hynex d1 33" 4.:. av-Jimsa ad! . ‘ 'Wh' n’fi 2,, l'xo : pnfwolfn an I - _'.1=J:':.*x".3'.'< y 53.?me C”! . .n‘ ' ,ouarri Vafsijibq .bxém‘iTT f “...“. ,-. ;~! -, "1113;.” X00: :ioitiv 3n ' A .. u»: .uxlxlrx no saxmazqnoo O y :J: ' ani' ..v: .étfilL ‘nan Ji gm'faubnoo 0d 03 iv g 2E2 .: mate bit. sad: on .‘s .‘gipniaamoiul .‘ 4”! vnjueaam z? punoqmoa aii .iaamiaeqxo 94! i 512' o: as»: flotsam 30 to” 53! Ml b92150!!! 9d Moos om .sautlnim 3’ Wit flax 226 One of the experimental regions was the highlands of Kisii. The request to government to begin coffee production among the Gusii originated at a meeting in 1931 of officers and prominent Europeans in the district to discuss the eco- nomic development of the area. Their main concern was to provide an economically viable crop which would allow the Gusii to meet their tax obligations. The district commission— er readily supported the idea of coffee, as did Gusii leaders in the local native council who were subsequently consulted. The district commissioner's determination ultimately led the government to include Gusiiland as one of the experimental areas. There is no evidence to indicate that the Gusii ever formally requested government to allow them to plant coffee; this was not from an unwillingness to grow the cash crop, but because they regarded coffee production as one of the monopo- lies held by the Europeans. Initially Gusii farmers were hesitant to plant coffee because they feared that if produc— tion was successful the Europeans would confiscate their land to grow the crop. A small number of Gusii, however, were will- ing. These pioneer growers were either not fearful of the government's motives or so tempted by the prospect of making a good income that they were willing to risk confiscation of their land. Production of coffee did not conflict with the cultivators' traditional agricultural patterns. In Gusii society men always had the right to cultivate a plot of land (emonga) to grow crops for personal profit. The European's was 9:1: to q ...d Jaaupox “,3 LJ mutfioos an m 1 m. 4‘13 Jam 04. .H I :3 uejjoqqut 11w (2': 3.1 1.301 1‘“ . x ' a..- may: 39111.. ‘ J * « :-. . '«Juizmt u: it!” _. ‘ . ’ flu. '.Z.‘ finitiux‘fs ()0 5.1 .16“ 1‘32. 11“ t" 7.2.; .71. -- ~ ‘. is. .;.::~ ”:mn'zs (,1; 13930.11?” ‘1‘“ n.a. ...... g- ..1 5.36 6.szt.xif1wr1 an m: m m '. ;;'~. ’ L’iij‘ .-.“. .13.:3‘ '{ILi-Ijifl} .361nmua‘m ”‘4 it: iu ‘. n- 3*. 3:er sumac! 993109 min; “2,, .J mm; am: “1...; 51901: 9:15qu 0:131:33an: , :a‘;~,.';: .t£~vau..‘{i .tsaua 30 m “an. 1_ auto.” ' '- ac 001339311009 in: 9: MRI! In! an M, 9:13 dais; 33‘}! ..m m m ”the in ”WC 3:12:10 :11.th 1:30:an 1mm: ‘ 227 insistence on coffee ownership by men was accommodated by the emonga system. Labor on the coffee fields tended to be carried out by the owners, their wives, and children and was supple- mented by use of traditional work groups. To further an understanding of the persons who re- sponded to the introduction of coffee in Gusiiland, the pio- neer growers were compared with a sample of early adopters; because of the slow rate of diffusion, as much as a twenty year differential existed between the two groups. It was found that, contrary to the expected results, the pioneers tended to be older than the early growers. The age differ- ence partially accounts for some of the other variations, such as in education, between the adopter categories. The education of the cultivators was investigated to test whether the pioneers had more years of education than members of their comparative group. The results show that approximately two—thirds of the pioneers as contrasted with one-half of the early growers had attended school. However, the early growers tended to have higher levels of education than the pioneers, since schooling was a more acceptable practice during their youth. Other hypotheses tested centered on the pioneers hav- ing higher social status, more social participation, and a greater degree of upward social mobility than the early growers. The data reveal that a meaningful number of the pioneers' fathers as compared with the fathers of the early growers had high social status, as indicated by their leadership positions :13mn" 592100 to I. . T‘;uJ . ‘ ..9,“ exam ** au 10 an M . f 0 "6'33 09- “gig ...... m: an: as a” 'jvtva 93%! cm” '_ . sit: af'.( P 9‘13 ‘0” ,‘ i.I-’.3c.1xn 51.111910?!“ _.: '._°1r.‘13noo "3”“ :-;:_'* (18“... 159.10 M “'M .'i'in. 1:3 {Juniona {Ila-13m ‘f' J . in: .‘ 2.1.: nvsszd .nciisoub. fl *- rJ-h'" -- rains 95!: lo ntvijsoube CE? ”$2 =3 ‘ J .. 2‘1: 2.12:... {1311' 3199:1011} on: i I ,. J Harrie 21.7799: 9d" ..guozp sviistsqcmo It.” *. Jijtw !_I-a*....'.. ":z) a:- 3Je>3r19fq 9d: 10 ab‘titb-GW ! .".'~r'3‘.«': vi . Liza L-Qbflfiij‘fl 55d B‘IQN‘IQ 21350-9!” h .. I K. :to.‘ ffi’.‘_~1 .‘- ‘ .: pizwsl saripid not! 03 W m} _> ' aldxfag'mns 910m 5 saw pm ”in ..M .MSW» vvsd erg-)snolq 511‘! no ”mummy-cw ‘ 5 bus .missqiaijuq IsiuuqumQU?’ .. .ammm fixes 963 am 91.ka m1. 'exosnoiq 3113 30 m mm. Int-D ‘ ~ 228 and number of wives. A further assessment of social status shows that at the time of adoption, the pioneers tended to have significantly higher social status, both in terms of their occupations and marital status, than the early growers. Data on social participation since the period of coffee adoption substantiate the contention that pioneers usually had more social involvement in community affairs than did the early growers. The degree to which the two adopter groups varied in social mobility proved more complicated. The investiga- tion reveals that at the time of adoption a significantly greater proportion of pioneers than early growers had held an off-farm position within the district, although in the period after adoption, the occupational status of the two groups did not vary significantly. Further, in spite of a meaningful difference in the marital status between the adopter groups both at the time of adoption and later, the degree to which members in each category changed their marital status was the same; both the pioneers and early growers tend- ed to acquire one additional wives. The number of wives also indicates in traditional terms the husband's wealth. Postulations specifically on economic aspects were substantiated. The research shows that a meaningful percent— age of pioneers in comparison to early growers had more par- cels of land, larger sized farms, and engaged in business enterprises. 8 uv n! 30 .1 ‘ . .quv an) 31, gamut“ ‘~» 'r anoluqm ~ 1.5!; 16100. an “_ . ,-' ‘ __.u,..:ms.12dul m _ mi. 15130: no.“ musing“ ' 5;".‘J .- 1m; 01 98193!) 9“ . .M . .. - .1». . u. .nndom 19m uni: 2.1;: .15 and: 31W“ 4:4 3...»; e;~:;r;v,.oj.q 30 50131010qu” .-flwjaii: 9.x: .vfi-daiw 1101112qu cum; 1" .' .‘1 gauge fr." 'rjsr'neao 95H .nolaqobo '10”. W' 3 ..11 .y-r1~-,.z~s -,_rl.1apcnidpia raw :0; W‘ C'i‘fi- '9 [53:33! all.) at sons-193315 \Z'r..:1'. 5:1»; .10.. New. 19 sci: an :5 Mod. {3313.171 may. fmtpnfi: ‘aopsmso dose at nod-a- mm.qi ' - dune: raswrxp ‘. 11.6.? 5:5 mesa ad: wad “mafia ‘ taxi»; awn. 10 xarfimun ed! M8" JW‘W m. .dzusaw raw: m can insulin-3&2 ' 979* ”been. aw ”swim . 7 . .‘ -$::sb!9§ W a. and mm 0119* 1:: 5* #1513 am I’ll m “*Mmfl. ... ._ gamma Aswan. Mk1» W .19} — 'hdia” - ,.-. . I . 229 The economic status of the pioneers was not positively related to their geographic mobility. Although most studies on innovation show that the earliest adopters obtain more information from sources external to their social system than do later adopters, this was not true for the Gusii coffee growers, when orientation to external sources was measured by work experience outside the district. A similar percentage of both groups worked outside the district before they first planted coffee. For those who worked outside, the length of time and the type of job did not significantly vary between the adopter categories, although the place of employment did. Furthermore, since first planting coffee, there was no mean- ingful difference between the comparative groups in regard to the number who worked outside the district. The extent to which the pioneers tended to follow modern norms more than the early growers was investigated by using religious affiliation and marital status as benchmarks. It was assumed that a monogamous household might be an indica- tion of modern norms. The research reveals that, contrary to expected results, the pioneers did not differ significantly from their comparative group in adherence to a non-traditional religion. Also, fewer of the pioneers than early growers were monogamous. Thus, not all of the hypotheses tested on innova— tion were validated. Information on the life histories of the Gusii pioneer coffee growers was also used to test the asomi theory, which states that those who became involved in the colonial system 230 were of low status within traditional society, and through power and rewards in the structures introduced by the colo— nists, they were able to buy status in the pre-European strati- fication system. The data reveal that only thirty-eight per— cent of the pioneers came from families which might be clas- sified at the bottom of the traditional social stratification system. Also, although most of the Gusii coffee pioneers had received at least some education, approximately one-third never attended school. Among those with an education, a meaningful group were solely farmers at the time they first planted coffee. The coffee pioneers tended to enhance their traditional status by vauiring additional wives; and several of them gained higher status in the new economic system by acquiring business enterprises. Thus,-the asomi theory adequately accounts for some Gusii coffee pioneers, but not most of them. Coffee cannot be assumed to have been the prime re- source enhancing the pioneers' socio-economic position, since most growers had a limited number of trees, and hence a limit- ed income from these. Until the late 19403, the extent and rate at which they and other willing farmers could plant cof- fee were determined by Nairobi. For instance, the maximum num- ber of acres in the experimental areas was regulated by Nairobi, as was the number of trees a grower could receive each year. Furthermore, the emphasis on food crop production during the war years shifted attention away from coffee. Thus, these aspects external to Gusii society limited the rate in which exssnckq 0‘34 ‘3“ ’n and-rod ad: 9‘ SKI: ._ , .. 2mg.- .oau “..““ -~ 9:191. n m I ~ my .4 looms bsbdu’i‘“ _ .1 -f .. axsw qump mm JIZ'JP -~ . m , no 9d!" Jdflfl‘“ 2..- .v~2z.~, . rrup vs yd 211353. I“ -.u.: 4-5;: on? '1. gurus ‘xsdpifl MM “x "C. m an. 77??" .3d# HIV“ .asaizq‘xstno "alum »_-. "mug unfit 59;": win .;-_, bommafi 96 30111355 Odw 2.3.4:. .::oiji:;_1c! ninety-09-3w; 'nssnokq .63 pm dint: :‘ sonar! 5m.- .23913 30 man b.3118.“ ‘5 W » p.15 151-m NH .30}?! 9351 653 Lita” M3 ‘3! H " "102.» :man bingo 31w ffllllfiim'fi wt I arm: mnmlxm 5'13 .mlfll m mlufi , , ’_ donkey: gr: mains-p: out and (“Madam i113}, ' assay $359 an»!!! W M! lint-'53 ...-:3 WW M an» M «in; M in sea“: w “WWW“ 231 the Gusii coffee industry grew. The structure of the Gusii coffee industry was also determined by external factors. The post—war concern of Europeans over demobilized African soldiers led the govern— ment to initiate a cooperative movement among the indigenous inhabitants. Up to this time the Gusii coffee industry had been largely under the control of the district agricultural officer. Initial financing of the industry was carried out by the local native council, but in 1943,with a sufficient number of mature trees and a retainer from sales in the local native council treasury, the district commissioner success- fully proposed to the growers that they select a board to manage the coffee industry, although.the responsibility and liability still remained with the district agricultural officer. The monopoly marketing conditions of coffee easily lent the Crop to cooperative organization. Although under the cooperative scheme, through their representatives,the Gusii were more able than previously to be involved in the management of the industry, the cooperative was kept locally under the direction of a European officer and fell under the close scrutiny of Nairobi. Since a formal co- operative organization was an alien institution to Africans, it was inevitable that the initiative for major suggestions was taken by the Europeans, whose institutional form was being transferred. Their control continued until the late 19403 since government did little to train Africans to take over responsibilities in the cooperative organizations. . - -.. . ... _I;I1'I!53x. Yd my ~. . 1 1(0me 3900 0-“ irr 2.1 40 .mmaflw 1.: m...‘ :3;~.,.:~.‘rb :mj 'A'ijxw £55160!” lLfia’M, .~f' 2- -. 1.41100 “.._: ...rz.-.:+r’::.-.o:~. pawn-1w {logo-ea at? .w ; _ ..,, -. 3.1;. :.;..,:o1d3 .smedx svijuxe‘aqooa ad: :19an M“? ", f»..- f... v.3 Liana-Jan's; {mm :afcfs 91m snow 11099 “SW svusle 4002 arid .viieubci a“: 10 W 0‘11! “1 , . brie 1331330 nnstgoiua a to W15 0!!!! 36%.! $1M ...", ~33 {was} a sonia .tfltkfl‘vio QQWS-‘Wb‘fifl? I .ansocrit 0.1 W” “a, ;.‘ mam . movaamam ail «mm-aways ., new us; mm WWW 232 The history of the coffee industry in Kisii shows that the government officers and officials were not always united in their approach to the coffee experiment, although their differences tended to be circumscribed by a general acceptance of government guidance of the industry. Differences arose on the marking of the coffee bags for sale; the method by which coffee would be prepared for marketing; the rate of expansion; and the extent of an individual's holdings. Nairobi, influ— enced by the settlers, took a much more conservative position on these issues than did the resident officers who were more concerned with successfully carrying out the experiment and aware of local conditions. In all cases, except the issue of preparation of the crop, the central'government did not yield to the opinion of its field staff. The 1949 decision to expand coffee production within the experimental areas and to other regions was motivated by economic considerations. The acreage on European plantations had dropped drastically, primarily because of the elimination of the crop from regions proven unsuitable, and, secondarily, because of uprooting due to the relatively low price obtained for coffee during the depression and war years. The govern- ment could yield to political pressure by Africans to extend coffee production and at the same time benefit from an increase in export duties and foreign exchange earned through coffee ex- ports. Kisii, as well as Meru and Embu, demonstrated that Africans could successfully produce coffee, and provided a .1': ‘20 y‘xoilflm ., I"; " 819'31330 3 7' ~11 ' 0‘ Anni“; .11 .3 (ance: new? 3 "r -..va J Mn) ’0 .' {"- - .‘f‘. I‘- "v u .50“: .‘L'Wq 9d 61"" _ (T , 1 . 3c- :nwxo & 1 - ~* #1911398 9:11 2“- ..., ~ '3" :‘115 0311.4 eousai ' ‘ “All; ‘4 ; -119 12.j 1. yup-333993118 r111! , flu: .3 .1 . .wfikm. :P. A: qno): .ouoo 15901 in «.'- --:< ~ 2 .1:Z.1 .T:TI-“’£H“f;w{:f. Litre)?- 9L? .q0’15 ed: ‘10 ' .2 :3 33 Mail «a; 10 0011139"; ‘ ' as. I 1 .i..";’-- nah-3112:1211”: asfiou bneqxe 05 1101210» ”Q! 0“ ”(d LxJSEv‘JE‘J'vTA 1:59) 31101991 3521311 0: but 33915 £5 31101 injunolq usage-.1213 no 9959105 9d? .smlnuobhnég' all? of: v ‘ 11.3 add 1c summed yii‘zm'zq «atom: ~nxsvop ad? .eiiaY 1.” his mama-b id: r‘.’:~.J,' ""- "xx-af‘h 233 model for expanding production and marketing to other areas. The case study of the Gusii coffee industry shows that after 1938 the farmers' willingness to adopt coffee was circumscribed by external factors which were not related to the successful growing of the crop by the Gusii nor the quality of the crop produced. 71033“ 1% 131-1'; 9d: 10 m APPENDICES I'xi‘Virl‘tA .. u. APPENDIX A RESEARCH METHODOLOGY I .' ‘. n 151343§93 ’LI OHTSM MURASBEIR APPENDIX A RESEARCH METHODOLOGY In selecting a research location, I sought an area where the people had been growing a cash crop over an extend— ed period of time, since initially I wanted to study the transformation in production activities, as well as to iden- tify and evaluate factors internal and external to the so- ciety which influenced the adoption of the cash crop. Gusii- land in Kenya was chosen since it is a major area of cash crop production within the country's small-scale agricultural sector, and one of the areas where cash crop production has been carried out for many years. Research was conducted in three phases. Phase one consisted of the collection of information from written sources. Primary data were gathered at the British Public Record Office, the British Museum Reading Room, the Colonial Office Library, the Royal Commonwealth Society Library, and Rhodes House. In Kenya, original sources were consulted at the Kenya National Archives, the Ministry of Agriculture Library, the Kenya Plant- ers Coffee Union, the Coffee Board of Kenya, the Gusii County Council, the Kisii Farmers Co-operative Union and its oldest societies, the District Co-operative Office, the District Agricultural Office, the District Commissioner's Office, and 234 235 the MacMillan Library. Information was also obtained from the Kenya National Archives Microfilm Collection of Syracuse University, and from the Historical Club of Bishop Otunga Secondary School in Kisii. Secondary materials were gather- ed from various holdings. A file at the Kenya National Archives contained a list of the first group of Gusii coffee growers (1934-1937). This led to phase two. Eighty percent of the pioneer growers, who were still alive, were interviewed. Gusii interpreters assisted in these sessions, which were usually tape recorded, and the information later transcribed. As the interviewing proceeded, following an interview guide, farmers frequently raised topics which I wished I had discussed with the previous interviewees. Also, the research and my observations led me to perceive of the pioneers as a special, possibly elitest, group, but to test this hypothesis, data collected on a more systematic basis were required. To obtain a more objective measure of the coffee pioneers as a group and in relation to others in their society, it was necessary to have a compara- tive cluster. I chose a group of early adopters, that is those who most immediately followed the pioneers in the planting of coffee. A two stage random sampling process was used and then a purposeful sample taken to identify the early adopters. Stage one consisted of an area sample. On a map of Kisii (East Africa, 1:50,000 Kenya) each grid square in the major coffee growing region was considered as one unit, and a random { I “..l nlllm «nun ltd ‘ :~ r-rus WNW “iv-.139. 31m 12! 2.111 11»: .01! I. - 111 A ~1. 1‘ i3 94.: 10 3m ..9“: 3: b0! W 111:; similar a 311; .'(i 59““ ~ . "1";413'10331 w,“ J U ft 4' 1 Y I \ ll. ‘ O ...) 0 0' .5 W 0 F.- :i-‘V‘fi '17: .'«2'42 axon -.—,. =1. 'cfe --'I‘ .>:~..111 'pn 3'29». afasd 913m . madman): fl! 42.1.».- .z1.':.1;j. s as raw-96:25:11 sliioa ed: 10 & ~1~r,<:-._:enunv 1., sax-2..” rs: (153393912 saw 33 .ztaiooa Iiodi film ure-n: ai 15,-1;: ._ , 1.5L. p.25 11359 30 gnaw 5 seeds I .3033“ 1 mums}; 9.1. mt anaemic; ed: bmlle‘! (Inslwm fiw new has be...) an unmozq plum when learn at: I“ .axsqubs (in. an: (213-0S1: o: m: liq-ass Ivi Main '19 an a no .919“ son as to [unleash 236 sample of ten percent of the grid squares was made. Stage two consisted of a sample of farmers within the selected areas: a list of all heads-of-farms was compiled by going into each area, and then twenty percent of the names were randomly selected and these persons were interviewed about the year in which they first adopted coffee. (The cross- checking of the year given with the year recorded by the local coffee cooperative societies proved futile, since most origi- nal membership records had been destroyed or lost.) Since diffusion theory classifies innovators as the initial ten percent of the population, the farmers were ranked by order of earliest in adoption of coffee and the first ten percent were selected to comprise the comparative group. Thus, the unit of study was all Gusii pioneer coffee growers and a sample of early coffee adopters. A structured questionnaire was designed, which in— cluded some pre-coded sections. A draft of the questionnaire was pre-tested to learn if the questions were properly phrased to elicit the desired information. It was then modified, re- tested and further changes were made. A two-week training session was held for the research assistants, who were three young Gusii men, to acquaint them with the purpose of the study, the reasons for the specific questions, and the marking of the interview schedule. The questionnaire, written in English was translated into Gusii, and practice sessions were held on con- ducting interviews. If a member of the study unit was de- ceased, questions about him were asked to a member of his family, .1: farm .5918 m {2:5 bend” it” ”I rr..-Tw at M w w- ljf'r» ,' '1" ~-'-“r;'1€'n') 03 D9“ A M a, Ac.) ‘Luipflf‘g 3.2m 1'1'5 a" {meow .a r»: mm: 391100 Ylsst 3Q, .7 J -_;; :2: 1:1». .zyew 99X:- 813w nrmanmaleup bsmuouxilfi 9% 't?-(‘,.‘".ul [Hp-J}: BIL! 'O L‘Ifl'li A aiw.13')93 ”560*“ m/W“ Eye; 51,4“ ‘_7('.;.9L!O-1q awry-S '2; O'Lfi‘mp 9‘13 11 (1363:. .3 mwfl 4;; .hsurbom nod) am» :1 .mxsmma! build: “is 2.51:1:me om .Iinmm ml: at: 1» Man use” ,ybuaa 9d, 30 11qu as fish: and: misgu- as .m- sd’d 19 mm“ but, «math-99,91!” mum as!» insipid; 11.; Wt“ W ”I W ~noo on Mad as» W mm mm was 1:1: mm” wfiiw—l 2.1231 g y m *9 pamme ”m; I! 3! 237 preferably his eldest son. In phase three, I interviewed and corresponded with key figures, such as the district agricultural officer and agricultural instructors, who assisted in the introductions and extension of coffee in Kisii. Also, valuable information was obtained from a few Europeans who resided in the district during the 19305. In all phases, information acquired was cross-checked, whenever possible, to test its validity. In the analysis and presentation of data from the questionnaires, simple statistical methods are used to com— pare the two groups of coffee innovators. In addition to re- cording percentages and number of persons within given cate- gories, chi-square tests were carried out to test the statis- tical level of significance. No arbitrary level of signifi- cance is used, although I assume that any result of .02 or less shows the data to be highly significant: when the P value is .02 it means that it could occur by chance in only two out of one hundred cases. APPENDIX B ARABICA COFFEE d Xi-ZIWZ'IM 33111109 A3185“ 1'. J, “~————-‘M—~ APPENDIX B ARABICA COFFEEl Most coffee consumed in the world is arabica, although robusta and liberica are of commercial importance. The three species differ in appearance, resistance to infestations, suitable growing conditions, and flavor. Robusta and liberica, highly resistant to diseases and pests, are grown mostly at low elevations and in hot climates. They produce a lower quality crop than arabica. The arabica species includes Brazilian-grown coffee, but the coffee trade distinguishes be- tween Brazils and other arabica coffee since the former pro- duces a distinctive product due to differences in climate, cultivation and preparation. Mild arabicas command a premium price over Brazils because they are strong and acidic, usually possessing a finer aroma. Several arabica varieties are grown in Kenya. Europeans consider the first coffee planted to be "Mokka," a Bourbon variety, but in the 19305 it was discovered that this plant bore little resemblance to that of the same name in the East Indies, so the East African plant was renamed French Mission. This variety, still largely grown on estates in Kenya, pro- duces good quality crops, although the yields are not high. 1This section is based primarily on Chapter 12, J. D. Acland, East African Crops. FAO: Longmans, 1971, pp. 57-87. 238 4" ., _.u ..5» 11”,"? 114d 9.! M5 3.0km 'LLJ' . v . 1 2 . : nd'f ..mjrisxs Md: can - .._.. -.-“... =.?'-~_'.:r ~-.‘_:‘:oo 9d! Jud .seiioo m2: . , .r'j wing. 9:13:99 solders, 'Iaddo hm m .i.-._... ......- u .- . ..r asalerzwfiiih 03 sub soubcaq ovxszmlallii: ‘.J,."_".‘ - J' , —» _.::_.g;__:_33§ 51.2.”. .szoijsnsqoxq but i 2;: Ewan ';-...':.»: fan-.5 9:101:32 3'15 yea: “waned W . .. .nmosl ment! 0‘ Pheayxnfia .syasn n. nwoxp 5:5 aoiactulv ggégggg {livmflk' mama .1 *' .mix'cm" ed as nomic not!» an,» all fcsiq sin: and: hassvaoalb low at 0,191 01! 239 Both the French Mission and Blue Mountain varieties have some resistance to coffee berry disease, but the latter is suitable only for high altitudes and is very susceptible to leaf rust. The Kent variety proves to have a high degree of rust resistance and, unlike most other varieties, produces a reasonable sized crop during the off-year biennial bearing cycle; however, the quality of the crop tends to be low. Since the 19505 Kenya has developed several varieties, each with its own attractive features under certain ecological conditions. For a good coffee crop, rainfall needs to be fairly well distributed throughout the year, with the exception of a six - to ten-week dry period which stimulates the trees into a cycle of flowering and bearing. The altitude limits for coffee vary, but in Kenya it is generally between 4500 and 6500 feet. Coffee should be planted on gently sloping land which allows free drainage, while also permitting reasonable water retention. Deep soils ensure against drought. Although early cultivators planted coffee under shade trees, there is a trend towards reducing or eliminating them. Shade is only fully justified at high altitudes where it modifies night temperatures. Coffee is usually propagated through seedbeds. The seedlings take six to eight weeks to germinate and are ready for transplanting when they have one pair of leaves. Land for the trees ought to be prepared at least six months before transplanting. Eradication of couch and star 240 grass usually requires special attention. The planting holes ought to be dug at least three months before cultivation to ensure good weathering of the holes' sides. Although recom- mendations on spacing have varied over the years, the tra- ditional pattern is nine feet by nine feet, which amounts to a plant population of approximately 540 trees per acre. Plant- ingought to be carried out at the beginning of the main rains, and mulch applied. Coffee trees begin to bear fruit within three to five years from seed. The berry changes color from green to red during the ripening period, which normally takes from eight to nine months. Each fruit or berry normally contains two beans. The mature trees tend to produce a heavy crop one season and a light one the next. To control cropping and facilitate picking, mature trees are pruned. When the berry is ripe, the outer skin encloses a slimy mucilage, covering the beans which are enclosed in a tough membrane called parchment. Closely attached to each bean is a very thin testa called silverskin. Cherry is the term used for ripe berries which have been picked, but not processed. Picking is done entirely by hand and carried out regularly during the harvest season. The initial processing can be carried out by a dry or wet method. There are two dry processing methods. One, the berries can be left to dry in the field and then collected. J. S. Acland designates this method as the 'buni method. Second, berries can be picked when ripe and dried in the sun .n 1'.)qu 3911090“! ' » win-11 most as M #3 )0 9311193116“ ‘2 up. i-ei‘xfxso 0d 0’ .bolqus‘ =4 ’ ‘ '1 1’ . . ; (1.1.93.1 2.9st 993500 5&« ”77‘2“. (”and en? .59.! d3 5'. 3 U: ‘I 1‘; an» .bnl‘xaq 9113099.?! “I: ‘ 5_ 7'1‘7 K, .6 .m \;‘:.':;:1 ‘10 '3.” r135! v-n \ ~— r. H . ... .4 ‘v «- n J _1 >171 .‘stn 9d: one :M'gli i ‘ .bsnn‘m ms 29913 93213“! Juliet?- u :.—~ac re.- njiw 19315:) 9a.? .23qu 3i “19d mud W] ' \. s r1? h:-:».:«.-It>.ze our. arid»: eased add parts-mo ‘39": N ,. dose: on between vlaaoio .mesq 59th~ ed: at 211.8213 .niflamevti’a boil” sub-‘1 Milan!“ Jon find modem «and mu M‘mzm-m f = mo 5311389 but.» M557 fiafinfljfi “WW 241 on trays; the product, according to Acland, is referred to as sun—dried cherry. The second method produces a higher quality coffee than the first. The first method has never been advocated in Kenya and most documents make no distinction between the products of the two drying methods; all dried coffee is referred to as mbuni. The wet method produces a better product. The cherry is fed with water into a pulping machine which separates the beans from their outer skins. The parchment is still intact, and at this stage the coffee is referred to as parchment. The parchment is left for two to four days in fermenting tanks, where the sticky mucilage is broken down by naturally occur“ ring micro-organisms and enzimes; the beans are then washed and dried in the sun. If the wet processing is done inef- ficiently, even good quality cherries result in a poor quality product. The wet—method processing is carried out at coffee pulping stations, which, among small-holders, are cooperatively owned. From the pulping stations the parchment is sent to curing mills owned by the Kenya Planters Cooperative Union. At the mills, the parchment and silverskin are removed, result- ing in what is termed clean coffee or green coffee. After it has become clean coffee, the quality is judged at three stages: the raw, the roast and the liquor. At the curing mills, beans are graded according to weight and size. The top grades are: A, B, C, and PB. The first three represent heavy solid beans, with A the largest; PB stands for peaberry, which is a fully .; ‘ r vi m1: :2 n‘TiSHS Ems osmium van . v.-:~~-aar,r‘-~.(~l HM 3113 11' .mm 915.1 mi.- ., [nvlz 3;,1: a]; ', '31»: .an:’ flied-115m 9m .dbiflfl a .0 s.‘ 3 mm? 2.1 anemic mm} at” am'ma'wm ofnr,’ :‘r-Ji35'xsq033 2:931:51? Wtflfl'flm’ v!iu?5: .DSV'Jr::-3‘x 91.5 fixififllkfimmwmb , :1 3531A .eelioo seem M “MN m :1 a. 242 formed and heavy bean from a berry which contains only one bean instead of the usual two. The grades are ranked by num- bers to further represent the quality of the beans. After this rating process, samples are sent for testing. In roast- ing, the coffee is judged on its shininess and the whiteness of the center cut. Liquoring tests are based on acidity, flavor and body. The following are descriptions of coffee pests and diseases which are mentioned in this study: 1. Antestia is a frequent pest in wet areas, like western Kenya. The antestid insect population builds up significantly during May and June, attacking the maturing green berries, causing bean discoloration. 2. Berry borer, stephanoderes hampgi, is a pest. Larvae feed in the beans, causing them to appear blue. 3. Coffee berry disease is a fungal disease caused by a parasitic strain of colletotrichum coffeanum. 4. Leaf rust is caused by the fungus hemileia vastatrix. It is potentially hazardous in warm, wet areas. 5. Mealy bugs form a white mealy mass around flower clusters, fruits and growing tips. 6. Trips, of which there are several species, attack coffee particularly in hot, dry periods. «c . ~- answer» .I: 5f 31715.8 .BOM'v ‘ 2 , . t‘o'fw: but 81 ”a ' .zbod uni 1' ' ._‘fl. ‘, " TL-f' '-‘::'v pnhflollo: Ca " c n u , .' 1‘: r..- {3‘ (.91: 9‘15 doth ,. 2 gs '3': '(1 .; 'i' .1 i :i sijgeJM :1. ~~ ‘ , ‘ ..u vnoxm 12151391! ..,, . . A ,I'" 1: ‘. 19’. I ’ “gift (.10 BbIlUd -* . i-r; , r; "I.“ ‘=-- .1 211:? ‘fllXDBQJI ILiL'XOl DUELb M“ :19 ‘C (l'JJiT‘Z‘; 0 "" , ..-, ; iffy 0933 . 1910!! 2115‘ .1 if ,. ‘3‘: [‘9d 5 :3 C I has: MW. 03;“ --. .suid 15ml -' -. "ti-331'; "up: 2, 5'1 :zassezb tiled 933,00 g? " 'f 5.3!- 3333332512; ;r» nisrja 31:1 snag a 2d howls ”.'- 11%;:J‘gij 3:!rpn'v‘ 9d: yd 53132.13!) 31 130': 3.0.1 4 mi" ,—. IE": 2.5m {Jibia‘nedoq a: JI . .uau ‘. I21 " :‘swoi‘ - bnno‘xn aura: vinam 53.1112! 8 no] 8!“ M .aqzj gnaw-1t fiml W. swag #:315ij .<.3.tosqa leevea 33,5 .zbonsq 236 .19?! $1 125 mp2. , ; «902%.. gm ' SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY This bibliography lists those items found most useful for the study. Left uncited are sources which proved extra— neous or immaterial. Two types of materials which were unavailable should be noted. First, some of the Colonial Office records, from the mid-19305 onwards, dealing with African coffee growing in Kenya were destroyed, according to statute, a usual prac- tice due to space. Second, the files of the Registrar of Co-operative Societies for Kenya, held by the Kenya National Archives, were not available to the author. PRIMARY SOURCES Unpublished Official Sources Great Britain Colonial Office Records: CO 533/391 1929 Kenya. No. 15856 sub-file B. Agricultural Commission Report. CO 533/397 1930 Kenya No. 16091. Board of Agriculture. CO 533/407 1931 Kenya No. 17066. Native Taxation and Expendi— ture on Native Services, Annual Statistics. . No. 17073. Kenya Marketing Conditions. C0 533/408 1931 Kenya No. 17094. Coffee Growing by Natives. CO 533/409 1931 Kenya No. 17137. Agricultural Advances. Credit Facilities for Agriculture. CO 533/410 1931 Kenya No. 17142. Stimulation of Native Exports. 243 . -. ‘w ‘ gin: 3:55 .54"! 7389:!) cm, 2 , v,-_~.l -3 Sari: .hnc-ueu’i .59“. 93:: ‘ 9'1: a {7231... impisx ml 2231391303 fl .’xmL‘nr an? 73 sfdpiiavs 301! .1”. 8335008 YUAN IR? 22322;; $2920.... 56252215222! :abuoosfl 901330 Inhale!) «stunt ‘ e f.- -ibneqxil has 20:22:! «am am; .20: g 231231, a}: Jaw m ' * .emu25m mm 1269! W1 '- .asvidsfl 2:! my.» W er - : tbs-.29 . asomflr, 7 . . ' CO CO CO CO CO CO C0 C0 C0 CO CO CO CO CO CO 244 . No. 17165. Visit of Native Delegates. Matters to be laid before Secretary of State. 533/411 1931 Kenya No. 17182. Board of Agriculture. 533/412 1931 Kenya No. 17199. Professor Leakey's Evidence Before the Joint Parliamentary Committee on Closer Union. 533/413 1931 Kenya No. 17220. Coffee Industry Ordinance 1931. . No. 17229. Labour Supply Encouragement of - by Administrative Officers. 533/415 1931 Kenya No. 17310. Cooperative Societies (Reg— istration Ordinance). 533/422 1932 Kenya No. 18073. Kikuyu Grievances. Kikuyu Central Association. 533/425 1932 Kenya No. 18214. Development of Native Re- serves. 533/428 1932 Kenya No. 18288. Coffee Industry Bill. 533/431 1933 Kenya No. 3040. Coffee Industry - Cultivation by Natives. . No. 3040/1. Coffee Industry - Cultivation by Na- tives (Mr. Gare's representations and miscellaneous correspondence), 533/446 1934 Kenya No. 23103. Kikuyu Grievances. 533/447 1934 Kenya No. 23133/1. Coffee Industry — Cultiva- tion by Natives. 533/478 1937 Kenya No. 38049. Coffee Industry (Colonial Development Fund Grant). - 533/507 1939 Kenya No. 38103. Agricultural Department Annual Report. 533/530 1943 Kenya No. 38561. Memorandum on Political Affairs in Kenya, by Sir Alison Russell. 533/629 1926 Kenya No. XF 5304. Representations on E. Africa Matters: Conference between Colonial Office representatives and Joint East Africa Board. 544/20 1926 Kenya. Native Affairs Department Annual Report, 1926. 7" ‘W'I 1 — 2322:..qu 993303 1.5.1:: .ou n m nu "but!“ :. .1 .E‘BIVI .0“ 0 :7-12 9:.”‘sd bill .11 at rum): 1:21 um‘ .' 'r {n =9)! it?! “.\£¢. . '. 3." ft; {7‘1" 9‘10" .noltfl :1 Mrs)! 159]. £1§\£ll a .1891 1- w" .21“..'.'..'.9§§Tl O“ “m- .1'1’31 .../Jslflrunidl '3" .1 a" "v'r‘sh’ It?! 81’\Clejfi ’1‘ : 1511:2910 1101151331 .1 4‘4 - .01.: (was)! $2121 “mm. . .11 ThiDUc‘ 3A [5131193 hi7 C‘ :3 9 ”3.... T. ‘1 .u. 41.1 .cm “:an SE91 €£O\€€8 a .esvsu~ ' .45":- '.J.‘ y - I 2min .98.... OH ems)! Stu "#554!” :m.‘ 91..“ “as“; .0501. on syn“ £5.21 (um .aovljsl yd (2:123:13 - «(*Jzaubnl‘ 999130: .1\03~’J£ .cfl . W mums-22111: hnE.:nc-.11's:1...92 :1".an a ‘9159 .1!) 3971!! y . (o unabnoqaa‘zm 9 "» ~* .3:‘r’n‘:"-'.':~Ii.'?3 UYUiIV .LOIES .OM syn“ ICC! §..\“§“ .3917 is! yd so” 19'1‘ "9.37"" .19; m 3, 1:33:11an 931103 .290” .98 at.” “W _ V Jana-:0 hm "ma-1:01“ ' , 0‘1"»! ' ‘ ". 0 msmnqaq 1.1133153:pr 1013:.“ am on: 15:91:12on an malignant-N .1368: ml! its: at: “m?“ m audit :2“ w axmlfl. 0:1th Va” 1 ‘ -‘a“"“ 10” . “‘£ 991129 ”IWW“ Wm "13;.“ ”1 mm»: m was. has sauna: nism avian .nyml .. ..,... 4",: 134*“ 3§71| 245 CO 544/28 1929 Kenya. Native Affairs Department Annual Re- port, 1929. C0 628/27 1932 Kenya Register No. 18103 Coffee Growing by Natives. (File destroyed under statute) CO 628/30 1935 Kenya Register No. 3824 Coffee Cultivation by Natives. (File destroyed under statute.) Kenya National Archives Documents: Agriculture Kisumu AGR 1/5/7 Crop Production. Measures and Developments. Na- tive Produce Prices, 1942-45. A/CASH/Z Agric. Dept. Native Agricultural Instructors. A/CASH/B/l Agric. Dept. Agricultural Betterment Fund. Quar— terly Report, 1947-49. A/Coff/l Coffee. General Arabica 1939-50. A/Coff/l Vol. II Coffee. General, 1950-52. A/Coff/l Vol. III Coffee. General, 1953. A/Coff/l/l Coffee Arabica Reports, 1935—47. A/Coff/l/l Coffee Arabica Reports, 1935-47. A/Coff/3 Coffee Pests and Diseases, 1935-51. A/COOP/l Co-operative Societies, 1947-52. A/DEF/3 Defense Regulations 1939. War Time Agricultural Policy and Production, 1939-43. A/DEF/3 Vol. II Defense Regulations 1939. War Time Agricul- tural Policy and Production, 1944-46. A/DEF/3/l Defense Regulations 1941. Crop Production, Exports, Local Consumption, etc. 1942-43. Coff/l Coffee. General. Arabica, 1934-39. DIAR/4 Diaries, South Kavirondo, 1935-42. DIAR/4/1 South Nyanza, 1943-50. LNC/l Local Native Council Meetings, 1944-47. .’- . 1 [3951 bins! 880‘ u“ ‘ . 5 ;=: .aaviisflfl .2. , - 3.1 . J} isubozq (10:3 IRW” .._i, .2: .3»; 990.1011 ”U (my-Ur ’r'fl 9:21:21: .3qsfl .3119! RM 'm; j jpa‘: .‘qsa .311” I“ .09-T8291 duoqal yimw-ag‘“ . , . —I",("f 1132261». 7.6191195 .002109 Km“ ‘ ”RI .121" ry.-2:1 .991103 III ,1!‘ m wen): ._ajmoqsfl said-m anon . “All“ .1: £35.21 .ajxoqatfl’ 159111515 ”1303 I‘m 59‘ .’1 ‘ , 184359}. 39252310 fan-s 33.91 «mm .W 1} ~ .§e-HQI .0917le «mm <1- ('\ 4 N J 111113": If 51:.) 11.13?qu amt? 18W .QEQI IGOISBIUP“ W“ .u—etex WM ' Alvag «1.33:pr amt? 398.912.! .3013an mom :1 .193 .3944»; .MW ban W“ W." .anoqxa WW? mo .001 1:»:er I . . ..“-m: .919; mm .’ 12:41:15: am ,1.-...... . .--’ 5’}. 5 fl‘ 3241.23.21. , ‘ . 223-.2111, My! 111508.19 . ‘ '* =-'~ 1:1»: wr‘wffv , .- , _. . .934“! .“M ' 11, “I: ‘V "‘ . ' ', I ' . I 7.. «me? flaw-w wan-11. .' -.9 . ‘lq. , . . . . . ‘ L.”- . . ‘-. “I . ‘ 246 REPT/4 Reports Monthly. tSouth Kavirondo, 1934-39. REPT/4/l Quarterly Reports. South Kavirondo, 1939-45. REPT/19 Monthly Report. Nyanza Province, 1936-42. Chief Native Commissioner and Ministry of African Affairs (MAA) A l3/4 The Bassett Report 1948. (MAA) ADM 35/21 Reports and Returns, Report on African Coffee Growing Nyanza Province 1953-54. C 6/10 Handing Over Report of C.N.C. August 1934-January 1953. Committees II/5/2/3 Private File for the Honorable C.N.C. re Board of Agriculture (Plant Industries) - Minutes, 1934-37. Committees II/5/3 Private File for the Honorable C.N.C. re‘ Board of Agriculture - Minutes 1934—38. Committees II/9/2/1 Hon. C.N.C. Co-operative Societies Bill Committee, 1934-45. N/4 Nyanza Province. NAGR/8/II Development in Native Reserves. District Commissioner, Kisii DC/KSI/l/l Ugaya and South Kavirondo District Annual and Quarterly Reports. 1907/08 — 1913/14. DC/KSI/l/Z South Kavirondo District Annual Reports 1914/15-23. DC/KSI/l/3 South Kavirondo District Annual Reports 1924—1932. DC/KSI/l/4 South Kavirondo District Annual Reports 1933-39. DC/KSI/l/S South Kavirondo District Annual Report 1943. DC/KSI/l/6 South Kavirondo District Annual Report 1944. DC/KSI/l/7 South Kavirondo District Annual Report 1945. DC/KSI/l/8 South Kavirondo District Annual Report 1946. DC/KSI/l/9 South Kavirondo District Annual Report 1947. .yIdanON {u zuxtqafi 2119 -'.' V‘ ; .Jxoqsfi yldfl-> f;-‘uk 79v0 gajb» {1 q c\g\_\11 ., ~ u‘r011191 10 leOICLY rzotzez.#:u ’J.‘ {'7 9.‘GVi?q €\E\IIL } .aufi - :IJJLUDLIQA 30 bIQc ‘ 131’," .1 a; .3 1.. .non 1\§\2\IX, A, nuex .429”me .. _ ..f’ «.'f-Jju ..V'l {IE :A,|I!'.‘,'.". *313‘2'10 Obwwzvsx (13.008 b“ ‘t .bl\£191 — an\raa£ ..enfioqsfigiiv lsuan‘ Jslxzsld ohneaivsxf 247 DC/KSI/l/lo South Nyanza District Annual Report 1948. DC/KSI/l/ll South Nyanza District Annual Report 1949. DC/KSI/l/lZ South Nyanza District Annual Report 1950. DC/KSI/3/l South Kavirondo, Characters of Chiefs. DC/KSI/3/2 Histories and Customs of the Kisii and Luo. DC/KSI/3/4 History Record Book, Kisii. DC/KSI/4/1 The Diaries of G. A. S. Northcote. DC/KSI/5/3 South Nyanza Gazeteer. DC/KSI/6/l District Education Board, 1931-39. DC/KSI/7/l Agricultural Safari Reports, from October 1943-46. Department of Agriculture AGR 4/3 Native Agriculture, Nyanza Province South Kavirondo. AGR 4/5 Vol. II Nyanza, Agricultural Development and Programme of Work. Assoc/61 Kenya Planters' Cooperative Union, Ltd. Coff/2/2 Coffee Rules. Native. Coff/Z/Z/l Vol. III Coffee. Coffee Cultivation by Natives. General Correspondence. Coff/2/2/1 Vol. IV Coffee. Coffee Cultivation by Natives. General Correspondence including African Planters License. Coff/l/3 Vol. II Coffee Board. Coffee Industry Bill. Coff/1/3 Vol. IV Coffee Board. Coffee Industry Bill. Coff/4/1 Coffee Reports, 1939-57. C/Coff/O/l Appointment of Committee to Inquire and Report on Coffee and Sisal Industries. C/Coff/l/l Provincial Agriculture (Central Province) Coffee Confidential. C/Coff/1/3 Coffee Industry Bill. Coffee Board etc. (Assistance to the Coffee Industry.) . i I a: ..,”. a ““14210 “MY."- ,.l1_¢1u Lana!“ d"'. '4 :30 68115!" “M J 7 he“ modvsl ma. .aa 39110103,”- hv’m-‘fl {109318 29t151d 011'! ' -_ I ' ' ms .3 53::va diva! (n ‘- . “Vl'."‘ 2 g : -r‘:r§,7f ialliala I .‘t tire {53.13Iubilpofi’" swujluaixgl 30% .37 ljé‘v'ik yi" .BIUJLUOI‘SPI "I «(J 1r :mzuanpa .5335!!! II" arms-z aqooD 'aaosnslq “I: .sviian .nolna solidi 32./3.1111: 99330:) .5933»? It! mnsbnoqooczoo In: .zee‘nismi vd rxqijsVIjiU‘J 983133 .95!” VI- ~ ‘ 33935 is 3:31 2A pnihuIOfli soasbaoqlocaob' £1 . II 18 2133.66111- 5819.033 248 C/Coff/l/3/2 Vol. III Coffee Board of Kenya. Minutes. C/Coff/l/3/8 Vol. III Coffee Board of Kenya. Papers (Hon. D. A.) C/Coff/l/3/8 Vol. IV Coffee Board of Kenya Agenda and Papers and C for Meetings 1938-51. C/Corres/l Correspondence with Agricultural Adviser to the Colonial Office. C/Corres/7/l Pim Report: Matters Arising Out of. Nyanza Province Files PC/NZA 3/1 Chiefs and Assistant Chiefs 1924-29. PC/NZA 3/3 Agricultural Schools and Government Farm Kisii 1929-30. PC/NZA 3/45/12 Intelligence Reports 1929-31. PC/NZA 4/5/7 Intelligence Reports. South Kavirondo 1930-36. PC/NZA 4/5/8 Intelligence Reports. South Kavirondo 1936—38. PC/NZA 6/1 Grinding Mills and Public Works Department Water Permits 1924-28. PC/NZA 7/1/2 Agriculture. Training Africans, Training Farms and Schools, Kisii 1930—35. Nyanza Province Files listed under heading PC Nyanza ADM 7/1/6/5 Local Native Council. South Kavirondo, Kisii- Bakoria Accounts, 1931-36. ADM 8/33 Institutions and Associations. Kisii Union, 1945-49. ADM 12/1/3 Intelligence Reports, 1931-33. ADM 12/4/4 Vol. II Monthly Intelligence Reports, South Kavirondo 1939-45. ADM 12/4/4 Vol. III Monthly Intelligence Reports, South Kavirondo 1946-50. ADM 17/11 Section 15 Tours and Diaries. Registrar of Co- operative Societies and Other Staff. . gangs 133' .'l' 'o3303 VI .ldv. m} 1 '\2rradu in! 5“- ..w :‘onsbnoqlsdloan .591330 Lplnol- ~.K :31oqafl u1§_§\ ; 2911? seal -~ -‘,::Le.A Ens 338Gfl9‘ Wd33 $.7u3100f1Q‘1 :3 {C .OC‘CS" v? r “f “jxou,f 40n991115383 C r.” _: ful . .anezllifl pflinifiTT .93“; .LE’OEQI Li": y isfiau badgii, -: Riv .7En011vsx njuoa ngggaa EV ~ .. z . .« Vt: . r ¢:-.:ufix .nalxu iiaix .anoiia1993' .EE-IZQI 249 AGR 1/1/3 Crop Production. Food Shortage and Famine, South Kavirondo, 1931-46. AGR l/2/l Vol. I Development in Native Reserves, 1931-33. AGR 1/2/1 Section 11 Crop Production. Measures. Correspond- ence, 1933-35. AGR 1/2/9 Crop Production. Specific. Coffee 1932—51. AGR 1/2/9/2 Crop Production. Specific Crops Coffee. AGR 1/2/9/3 Crop Production. Specific Crops--Coffee. Kisii Coffee Growers Society, 1944-47. AGR l/5/l Crop Production. Measures and Developments. South Kavirondo, 1932-44. AGR 1/5/6 Crop Production. Measures and Development. AGR 1/5/7 Vol. II Crop Production. Measures and Develop- ment. General. Native Produce Prices, 1946-50. AGR 1/10 Section 11 Crop Production. Instruction and Ad- vice to Natives, 1931-35. AGR 3/2/1/1 Statistics and Data. Monthly Reports, 1944-47. AGR 3/2/4 Monthly and Crop Report. South Kavirondo, 1934—51. AGR 5 Circulars. Closed 1933-34. PUB 4/2/4 Publications and Records. T & C 3/1 Co-operative Societies, General Correspondence, 1944-47. Miscellaneous: Colonial Office Library,"Report by Mr. F. A. Stockdale, Agri- cultural Adviser to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, on his visit to South and East Africa, Seychelles, the Sudan, Egypt and Cyprus, 1930-31." C. 0. June 1931. District Agricultural Office, Kisii District File F/S Mogunga Group Farm. Gusii County Council,Minute Books of the Local Native Council, 1926-1944. Trades Sub-Committee Minutes. . . . . 1.1 ‘ " m\‘ .13! @013 ‘\“f“~ mural? qoxt) {\flgIn _. . a ." mm ”3303 » i‘~; ... - (..Iu ' v’ v ’(‘7’ 3 .319 1.1 ”“3“!" wild. .aavitsfl 01 ”I! ~.‘-‘. .371.“ ”51.450 has resin-23M! N .>;‘~.€£ £0; motels and” - w. 3510's.“ Mn Imuwiim 4.1:ng ..t-[Ebéqoia .A '3 .Wgflafl‘W’. art: Ifil 9.313368 10 WW“ .eaimlfi +UBR baa, if‘OEQI ,mmg ‘ m ‘ finnmJOM PA a 31.15 with“ um «and a finial-..» ..(-. 250 Kenya Planters Coffee Union,File Cards on Kisii primary societies, parchment sold: pounds and price received, 1952/53 - 1970/71. Produce Day Book from 13 July 1938 to 31 May 1939. Kisii Farmers Co-operative Union Coffee Occupiers and Number of Trees, Vol. II. Co—operative Inspector File. Minutes of Managing Committee Meetings and Special Meetings, 1950-1970. Published Official Sources Colony and Protectorate of Kenya: Bassett, R. H. Report and Recommendations on Development of Agricultural Marketing in Kenya. September 1946. Campbell, W. K. H. Report on an Investigation of Cooperative Possibilities in Kenya. 1944. Department of Agriculture Annual Reports 1919/20-1950. Department of Agriculture. McDonald, J. ed. Coffee in Kenya. 1937. Department of Agriculture. Memorandum on Native Agricultural Development in the Native Reserves. 1937. Food Shortage Commission of Inguiry Report, 1943. Geology of Kisii District 1934. Leckie, W. G. "The Growing of Wattle and Production of Wattle Bark in Kenya," Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 5 of 1933. Mitchell, Sir Philip. The Agrarian Problem in Kenya. 1947. Epst-war Employment Committee Report and Report of the Sub- Committee on Post-War Employment of Africans. 1943. Native Affairs Department Annual Reports, 1923-1947. Proclamations, Rules and Regulations, Vols. XI-XXIV, new series, 1932-1945. Registrar of Co-operative Societies Annual Report for 1946; and 1947 and 1948. Report of the Agricultural Commission. October 1929. 3‘ {ET-7"“ 117,1... :«kjouooxq bus-1213359: ‘15 pfiiw'fi w ."QLA-i' ”a!” ..nwmrtgxm .A . A . . .£"\0Y91 - ”‘3"; L I' ‘blu‘ it o, .i v-wwmqo-w . - ..oV .m '... I. H“. ‘0 ~w ‘ I -L - L A Af'r' . J ’30 é_l 4 ' -'. .1 , l — .‘ ‘.. } ‘ ‘11“ I . 7‘ , 'r i. ‘i. Limo-1'3}? ..“ ”FUD? mar»? t if." .‘_.L {"3 .’I; ubuiilgqglflk .’3 Indimw ' T" ‘3 I: '5".. "1:72:95. 23.11.13.454: .9113 ‘ i ‘..... ..,ffigzvizaa gleam! 1° 923“ ‘..—t“... J€QI .3311: ,3 .;.:+:.: .. 1:1 oquluotL ... ._._.. ....— -._... away .535 ".a ..mi *3 ..1. E! . _" w. _. .4 - av as . 251 Report of the Committee on Agricultural Credit for Africans. 1950. Report of the Development Committee. 1946. Re ort of the Economic Develo ment Committee Includin Minorit Report and Notes of Dissent. 1935. Report of the Proceedings of the Coffee Conference held Nairobi June 1927. 1927. Re ort of the Proceedin s of the Coffee Planters' Da 5 and Coffee Conference held in Memorial Hall, Nairobi, June 29-Julx 2, 1932. 1932. Swynnerton, R. J. M., compiler. A Plan to Intensifx the Development of African Agriculture in Kenxa. 1955. East African Protectorate: Department of Agriculture Annual Report 1907/08 ~ 1917/18. Economic Commission Evidence, 1917-18. Ordinances and Regulations Vols. XIV-XVI, 1912-1914. Government of Great Britain: Joint Select Committee on Closer Union in East Africa. Vol. I Report House of Lords No. 184 of 1931; Vol. II Minutes of Evidence House of Lords No. 29 of 1931. Kenxa Land Commission Report: Evidence, Vol. III, 1934, pp. 2377-98. Mayer, Philip. Two Studies in Applied Anthropologx in Kenya, Colonial Research Studies No. 3, 1951. Memorandum on Native Poligx in East Africa. Cmd. 3573, 1930. Report by the Financial Commissioner (Lord Moxne) on Certain Questions in Kenxa. Cmd. 0 3, 1932. Re ort of the Commission A ointed to En uire into and Re ort on the F1nanc1al POSltlon and S stem of Taxation in Kenxa. Col. No. 116, 1936. Report of the Commission on Closer Union of the Dependencies in Eastern and Central Africa. Cmd. 3234. 1929. .“v'. .-.?r:' M ausnitflA 3353 ,. \ ' _.: ‘ “ ’v? 31:»qw'r1 Inuzm. exujiuol'pr 39 7'5: [6‘1 .sonsiuva v- 8 w.-. .. ...—M-.. .. . . . .r." - ("u—1. a; .I'v')"-‘~."1}‘- .anV won?“ it hm «1...- .1 ‘44?- :n153r.78 35921:) 10 33W , Ta}, 252 Report of Sir Wilson...on his Visit to East Africa, 1929. Cmd. 3378, 1927. Report of the East African Commission. Cmd. 2387, 1925. Rowe, J. W. F. The World's Coffee. 1963. Statement of the Conclusions of His Ma'es '5 Government in the United Kingdom as regards Closer Union in East Africa. Cmd. 3574, 1930. The British Territories in East and Central Africa, 1945-1950. Cmd. 7987, 1950. Government of Kenya: Kisii Physical Development Plan. Town Planning Department. Ministry of Lands and Settlement. July 1971. Nyanza Province Regional Physical Development Plan. Town Planning Department. Ministry of Lands and Settlement, May 1970. Unpublished Original Sources Buxton, Clarence Edward V. "Collection of Papers," Rhodes House, Oxford: MSS Afr s 1103. Clive, J. H. "A Cure for Insomnia," Rhodes House, Oxford: MSS Afr s 675. Dobbs, M. W. "[C. M.] Dobbs Recollections of Kenya, 1906- 1931." Rhodes House, Oxford: MSS Afr s 504. Gaddum, E. Correspondence with the author, 16 September, 1970. Gethin, Richard. "An Old Settler Remembers Kenya, 1908-58." Rhodes House, Oxford: MSS Afr s 1277 (l) . Correspondence with the author, 8 July 1971 and 24 April 1971. . Manuscript on transportation in South Kavirondo. ' dated 1951. Copy held by Richard Gethin, Jr., Nairobi. Liversage, V. "Economic Management in Kenya: Trusteeship in Africa." Rhodes House, Oxford: MSS Afr s 510. l‘) . . . n... . “3.1311 .1 ‘..: “Lilo“ 5nd? .fi — : =..)L=.JI. -n0'.') fi— . -..... .-_...4 ‘. .‘ s. ;. “ab-K;X «9 XU'M-' -' _3«m. ." 1: n3 aaijoilXIOT .s'n. 13$..15vot . ., _ . Jflgiflaifi .m ' 751 s ’14“! .aJSW \ . ‘.4n911r0; U.b SD n 30 Y1 8 n . w «.., x; y. m IbJEen-z [I Ilsnci an aunt .- 5,, 2.5!st! ,3ns3gnj’raqsfl an m .OYCI' 5333359? Isnifipigp bodaé‘ggm =: ‘10 not. 091103 .V 13st con-1.55,} . .5011 8 13A 23m .mxxo .0“ .- :1) vi..- new?! asbm‘fi ".51.?! 2.11 101 nual .aquag ~50?! .rwaafi ”m “on”: moan am l.I 3Wt’éat .94).: 6. 11A m .Moftxf» .9300}! M. '»‘ .OYGZ .iednsiqea M .zotmts 941:! can: IBM I 2865909: mm m m WW (I) «a (- an m .82“ . has nu 1m. mm at: am 253 Morombasi, James and Gabuna, Barnabas. "Trade in Kisii Before 1907." Paper done for the Historical Club of Bishop Otunga Secondary School, Mosocho, Kisii District, November 1968. "Nyabururu Diary." Copy held at Bishop Otunga Secondary School, Mosocho, Kisii District. Nyakundi, Abnel. "History of the Gusii." (Trans. by John Omwenga.) Copy held at Bishop Otunga Secondary School, Mosocho, Kisii District. Thompson, A. W. Correspondence with the author, 14 March 1971 and 27 June 1971. Interviews Open-ended interviews were conducted with thirty—four of the pioneer coffee growers and other key informants. Also, a group of fifteen coffee growers, who planted in the mid-19403, in Gesarara area were interviewed in this manner. With a few exceptions, the interviews were conducted in Egegusii, with the assistance of an in- terpreter, tape-recorded and later transcribed. Be— low is a list of persons who provided extremely use- ful information; those who are not pioneer growers are designated by the abbreviation (NPG). The follow- ing does not include the fifty—four early growers and all the pioneers or their respondents to whom questionnaires were administered. Abuga, Erasto. Over the years he served as a key assistant and informant to W. H. Whitely. He is recognized as an excellent source on Gusii customs and pre- colonial history. Interviewed on two occasions in June 1973 at his home near Sengera, Kitutu Central. (NPG) Aminga, Manya. Before planting coffee, he attended Nyanchewa for two years and worked outside the district. In- terviewed in March 1971 at his home near Keumbu, Nyaribari Chache. Amunda, Wesisilao. After being conscripted into World War I, he attended classes at Nyabururu. He taught school and was a clerk in the native tribunal court and court of appeals. Interviewed February 1971, at his home in Amasago area and June 1973 at Keumbu, Nyaribari Chache. . 1 ,v 1, 713J813' .Iildfl?‘ ' '— I 4 "‘ .V I ")4 \x!()’.) ‘. ..m.’ ' . ' .ih .ndooaofl .I 3. . i I? my V'ODWJG: L lint) a. ." ""~. 9am. TS ' '— -' r, . . . ' ...:w1'2319w awotvzsjnt M ., . ’jV. ‘;‘ 1"1'1“ .- ‘oIi‘ II: 9931300 19““ z 2.91 «33 (18533 3 30 ‘-L ;<;'. 012w a)?r fi' lgtad fll .IOICII. 12""7 .11" x'ilif'I)‘.‘i_Ii' W3 5 d1). .- 5191.7;de r.-‘ ‘vw .'zt:;rp: '33 ml 50:!" 1 rajm‘ Lu: bab:o:391~sq53 an: *wrvomq 1'" ;.j.r...«:19q 30 Jail. 5 at - - 1 .011 21.1 .;.-I 930d: “101315.303!!th _ ‘ 1‘" . 1"”: .1 attain; mar. 9d: '[d bejmtcd I 'N' ‘V 5' "X" .11-:3. -"('.:-1:: m3 QbUIMI m aw :33 2'.1:3i1n.r-qast 119d: 10 8'10ka .b-:.-r.n+ainimbs an“: autumn .‘jx'lbjijLCEt‘o 353.1 5 er; .‘39V‘IQB Ml auav 91.3 m , as basinrous. 7.; an . 19311191 .3 .u 0: 3mm am} Em; mmaraua ”ma no ml mm r11 anoiasow (Md fw banana”: .1306!“ 413131191) uiujjji .s'smpa'sfi new not! ti‘ 3' awsdonb‘g}: 595m in. 3‘ WW “if" 111 .3011}: mourn Uh . .udmuaét 1mm out a mu mot 254 Angwenyi, Aoga. At the time he adopted coffee, Aoga was an assistant chief. Soon thereafter he became chief of Kitutu, a position he held twelve years. Interviewed March 1971 and June 1973 at his farm near Marani, Kitutu West. Angwenyi, Mariera. A step brother of Aoga's, he attended Nyabururu for three years. Before planting coffee, he was an askari and then a clerk. At the time he adopted the crop, he held an administrative position. Inter- viewed March 1971, at his farm near Nyagiti, Kitutu West. Angwenyi, Zakariah. He became chief of Kitutu upon the retire- ment of his father, Aoga, in 1948. Previously he worked as a clerk for the agricultural department and the local native council. Interviewed December 1971, at his home near Sengera, Kitutu West and May 1973, in Kisii. (NPG) Atambo, M. M. Otwori. He worked outside the district approxi- mately twenty—two years before planting coffee. When he adopted the crop, he was a sub-chief. Interviewed February 1971, on his farm near Ekerubo, Kitutu Central. Auma, Maraburi. After attending Nyabururu for three years, he was at Bukura Agricultural Institute, 1922-1925. He worked as an agricultural instructor in Gusiiland for nine years, including the time when coffee was intro- duced. Interviewed February 1971, on his farm near Nyosia, Nyaribari Chache. (NPG) Carver, Humphrey and Anne. Mr. Humphrey was a district of- ficer in South Kavirondo in the early 19305. Inter- viewed September 1970, at their home in Whitehead's Well, England. (NPG) Mabiria, Omambia. After briefly attending Igeno school, he worked in the Kericho area for six years. Interviewed March 1971 and May 1973, on his farm near Marani, Kitutu West. Machuki, Nason. He has written a list of names according to events in Gusiiland, for the years from 1900 onwards. Interviewed April 1971 at his shop in Nyansiongo, Borabu. (NPG) Maera, Mogire. He attended Nyabururu for less than one year, then he worked outside the district for approximately four years, and returned in 1930 when he became dis- abled. A brother planted coffee at the same time he did. Interviewed February 1971 and June 1973, on his farm above Mogunga, Bassi. ..... ‘e i. 11911.1 .w . . .«Di Liv—3““ 3w [16935 as M l 3 1'3. .qo‘r.) “a '"i llPIJw DSWIV vi” ..‘M ..Ia'umtsx .iw - -153; um! 30 1.. 1'. . .v'.‘ 33:» s at. 59110! ‘ ' AVE ..,] £5901 813 :ssn wmod alt! 33 "Km .Iiaix ‘le “.._".‘3 - _ - .Iv .110de .H U CM “ 1.3 . . ., H To: '. :w'z- ..vaj 21.3.“ 5”,: ...I...’ :9 "II-2: ‘ w 9m bBJQDbI. 5, “i r‘ .. '..~.', ”'t- ,:V€I m .. ‘- ...3 :rw, ' . glimsxje 1913‘ .lm' i,“ 'LJ.‘J_'.- .;-;. 31: 311;, A 51:11”! .15 I.“ '..; _ . 5, ,, W132: Iib 3.1:” ms u m .,.__ am...) 9! 2 ' JIIPULDflI ‘33.” ' . . ..". n ' ..- A ‘ 7‘1 ‘ '3 ‘1‘“ 3'343542i945>£wwiv191n1 . , uTfiZ‘fip 1; “if. . was .'3 I xde‘. JVII ,5}. _, 5 , i ‘.J ._h- u 2?: . ‘.—v'. .1:T.'IJ'n.x.’-x .BHFJX 5M 2.3m (m )w‘. (I «(lise 9:4: .11 ofwau'sivsx than! at m5 5 «i: ‘I 9r. ::":I d 1i3d3 15 0‘91 19'1”!“ m "(v-13' may) mar-ma. .3110 :99??? :!€,( it I A ...: E Jr! “£00.14: cnIipI 9111541513. 21395111. 1.13:! w I ~ Lawn: .EILSL xii: 103 new: mini!!!“ ’01:! a: w r" ..‘nmwm man .5151 3.1:! no it“ gal! has III! do“. ‘ .3.“ .3 90.51.1935 em ter in s want: and um' v m . 2.5.5.110 0091 mm: mm on: mt baitiwfit M .Opnotansgi! n3. goth 8'11! is “'91 11 W ‘ ‘ M @692 83!. are!” an m WW2“ W053. O! E 219nmmgm Mfiém m cat-woo 395(st 4:22. W was“ 1:1 m an .M ,_ ”who mam 3.1130351 u! m-) w ‘ .. 2111' no .8‘Y,C,,j " fiat It’fl W1 min“ .uua drywall W Lil-Y"Eo’i3’ ‘Kih' ul".}71..l“._."1t.f’1_i"' '.. :—.'...': 3'31 :21“? :11IW ::.o’. '.' . .ln". :._ '- 255 Maigo, Alois. After attending Nyabururu for three years, he worked in Mombasa for approximately ten years. He served in World War II. Interviewed in February 1971, at his home near Keumbu, Nyaribari Chache. Makoro, Daudi Nyakundi. He worked as an interpreter for colo— nial officers in Kisii for about twenty years. Also, he served as an elder on the court of appeals for three years and as chairman of his local coffee so- ciety for two years. Interviewed April 1971, at his home near Jogoo, Kitutu Central. Mayaka, Leonardo. He attended school at Eramba in 1926, and completed his education at Nyabururu. Mr. Mayaka worked as a tax collector and then as a clerk for the government for approximately fifteen years. Currently he has one of the largest coffee plots in the district. Interviewed June 1973, on his farm near Marani, Kitutu West. Mbera, Mikael. After working as an askari, he attended Nyabururu school. When he planted coffee, he was on the court of appeals. Interviewed January 1971, at his farm near Sengera, Majoge. Mogire, Clement Nyangau. He was educated at Nyabururu for two years and later served as an askari during World War II. Interviewed March 1971, at his home near Kegati and in June 1973, at Kegati, Nyaribari Chache. Monyoncho, Nyakundi. His father planted coffee at the same time he did. Nyakundi attended Nyabururu for less than a year, served in a low-level government position for two years and later worked as an overseer on road construction in the district. Interviewed February 1971, at his-farm below Tinga, Kitutu Central. Monongo, Marido. He attended a rural Seventh Day Adventist School. When he planted coffee, Marido worked as an askari for Chief Musa, a position he held for seven- teen years. Interviewed March 1971, at his home near Nyaguta, Nyaribari Chache. Nyamwamu, Nyagetiria. He was chief of Nyaribari for two years in the late 19105. Interviewed May 1973, on his farm near Nyaguta, Nyaribari Chache. (NPG) Nyamweya, Gabriel. After attending Nyabururu, he worked as a teacher for nine years. He became an agricultural instructor in 1935, attended a six-month course on coffee at Kabete, and served as an instructor until 1965. Interviewed March 1971 on his farm near Keumbu, Nyaribari Chache. (NPG) .‘”‘-‘rj.‘1t. TBSWA . .. :3de 1i . m - J10“ n1 1‘1' 1591 9mm! all ,' .‘bnuflsvv' 1.11.: T f 1"? .LG I.” . . .1. mm». 0‘ m .7.» : ‘9 21391 on!!! .- ., ,_ Z.) '10: "3", .7“. :L 103:1 a“ .1-- mum“ .“ :-. tsjsiqlno _ 1 ..-. '3 59mm 1- _ 1. ‘ 3199101 .,.' 151'-" 30 31m IS“ '9' ' i " ‘ 1 1m. 5919117193!!! .334. ,. v1':é~'~.. ‘SFI“:ft'. .laliu ‘ rr- v 7 1. we muaudl . ' . 1 1H“ '.‘) AI ...) ’TM " 1;; f . . .51"“p 1 39.1 moi 7" . 1; ., , 77 ‘z , .1 8",! 1:1 .153“?! 3mm I 1 ".9"- . 7: i 11:. Lax-'19:? 2.1m; has 8‘1 ~ ' ., - ’2‘ f ‘ VL’L rover. tenant-3.3!! ' "3' ' ~' .,z.1..v>' .ts 117% m If!“ 1.71., ..,..-.1.1..-; 13113.11 an! “thought!” .1133 - .9111 nabnsha iF-mxew .515 M ' £3. "1:2". - ". War-«.10.: 1s '1. .5917sz .1502 a ‘ 2’: bshow 13361 bafi- 813‘“ 0'! (:1 ”191112.15 9d: Ci not” ‘ , >1 .Lpui'!‘ vols-d moi 831939.} . . ’ngg‘i " ‘ ’17:...5'10 L L ‘51:; 1.-. '5 3 vi}: 1 ‘-. 1 21.3.; £4.13 :1 o.‘ 122 +1: 1.1 p-11 njnsvoa {an}: s batman fl nr— as ..oxwow obixafl .oc‘I'idr. 99qu 61! 513.2»? 103 fired 511 11913130 In .6“ 393 user anrrm aid 7!. .11”?! an MRI .maim hull 1 22159 0'»: :03 11456156! 19' W M”! 111 ms; am no erég% immoral alt-it!“ .'M mama-4a .., £5 at chains; 9!! 1. ,. 256 Nyamweya, Paulo. A member of the first graduating class of Nyanchewa in the 19405, he became pastor of Nyanchewa Mission. Interviewed April 1971, at his Nyanchewa home. (NPG) Nyasinga, Mariko. He was in the first graduating class of Nyanchewa and received further training as a teacher at Kamagambo. Mariko served on the Kisii Coffee Growers Board. Interviewed June 1973, at his home near Nyaguta, Nyaribari Chache. Nyatome, Nyamari. He received some education,but has spent most of his life farming. Interviewed June 1971 and May 1973, in Keumbu area, Nyaribari Chache. Ogeturengia, Nyangota. His father was chief of Nyaribari in the early 19205. Nyangota attended school for approxi- mately four years and held various government admini— strative positions, including at the time when he planted coffee. Interviewed May 1973, on his farm near Kerera, Nyaribari Chache. Okeyo, Alexander. After attending school for three years, he worked in the Sotik area and later for the agricul- tural department in South Kavirondo 1930-1949. In 1961 he was appointed to a government administrative position. Interviewed February 1971 the Ekenyoru, Kitutu Central with about thirty persons present. Ondara, Absolom. From 1925 —1931 he worked outside the district. After planting coffee, he was a court elder and on the local council. He has engaged in several business and commercial enterprises, and is active in community affairs. Interviewed in March 1971, at his farm, Tendere area, Majoge, and June 1973, at Ogembo, Majoge. Ongwora, Marita. He is the eldest son of Bonari, a woman arrested for being leader of an anti-European cult called Mumbo. After being in prison, Marita worked as a tax collector. For several years he held a leadership position in his local coffee society. In- terviewed on two occasions in March 1971, at his home near Kiamoncha coffee society, Kitutu West. Ongwora, Onyiego. A brother of Marita, he served as an elder on the tribunal court from 1930-1950. He was on the managing committee of the Kisii Coffee Growers Co- operative Society. Interviewed May 1971 and June 1973 at his home near the police lines, Kisii town. Onkoba. Masiemo. He worked in the first coffee nursery and continued service with the agricultural department for twenty years. Interviewed March 1971 and May 1973, at his home above Getare, Kitutu Central. «at: . 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