THESE llflllllllllglfllllllllljlllljllllfll L Mm University This is to certify that the thesis entitled SELECTED VARIABLES INVOLVED IN ASSESSING COMMUNITY NEEDS IN TWO NEST JAVA VILLAGES presented by Mohammad Roml1' Suparman Amirsaputra has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph D degreein Secondary Education and Curriculum / Major professor Datew 0—7639 OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to remove this checkout from your record. SELECTE: VAR] §S551$ COMMUNITY NEE Mohammad Roml ‘ 1‘ .1. (/) {3 rr Mickie ~ . u “an Mlpartlal fulf‘11~ for t} (/1 ,. Departmth O N beCOndaI SELECTED VARIABLES INVOLVED IN ASSESSING COMMUNITY NEEDS IN TWO WEST JAVA VILLAGES by Mohammad Romli Suparman Amirsaputra A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY AB SELECTED VAR] comm NEE Mohamed RI I; In the attempt t: patible with the needs l ners faced with the pro the needs of a particul appropriate ways for id attempts to deal with t given to the second Dro ABSTRACT SELECTED VARIABLES INVOLVED IN ASSESING COMMUNITY NEEDS IN TWO WEST JAVA VHIAGES By Dkflrrnnad Romli Suparman Amirsaputra Problem In the attempt to make community education com— patible with the needs of the community, Indonesian plan— ners faced with the problems of knowing exatly what are the needs of a particular community, and of knowing what appropriate ways for identifying these needs. This study attempts to deal with these two problems, with emphasis given to the second problem. Purpose The primary concern of this study is to examine and compare the effectiveness and efficiency of a group approach and an interview approach in collecting infor- mation about villagers' perceptions of community needs. The comparisons are based on the analysis of five inde— pendent variableszquantity of response, specificity of response, means/nonmeans orientation of response, type of response/need, and the time needed to conduct the needs assessment. It a]. two approaches on leade sons between sexes, bet and nonleaders, mid bet subjects, regardless of the needs, were also th together it made up the As sum Two assumptions study. It is assumed th ty needs, and that they their own needs and the first bias held by the roach for needs assessm efficient. The second b is an appropriate level in Indonesia. Hypc Twenty-three dim lated for the six foci differences and some p: the compared independe1 variables. needs assessment. It also compares the effects of the two approaches on leaders and on nonleaders. Compari- sons between sexes, between villages, between leaders and nonleaders, and between educated and less—educated subjects, regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs, were also the purposes of this study. Al— together it made up the six foci of this study. Assumption and Bias Two assumptions and two biases were held in this study. It is assumed that villagers know their communi— ty needs, and that they can express their knowledge of their own needs and the needs of their community. The first bias held by the researcher is that a group app- roach for needs assessment can be both effective and efficient. The second bias is that the village leVel is an appropriate level for community needs assessment in Indonesia. Examines}: Twenty-three directional hypotheses were formu— lated for the six foci of this study. Some projected differences and some projected similarities between the compared independent variable on the dependent variables. ‘ Adults in the ., ‘l on were the population adults in Dean I and 48 ed as samples of this s leader/nonleader and ma were official leaders 1 nonleaders were the hou 45 leaders and 50 nonle St In each village lected and assigned to Interview Approach (LI) , leader Interview Approa (NC), and a mixed Leade The subjects in L1 and in their own homes, anc were asked in separate questions were asked m their community needs : cational needs, three 1 portant need for themsl Guide and a Group APPr Of this study wich wer Population and Sample Adults in the two villages in West Java,Indone- sia were the population of this study. Forty-seven adults in Desa I and 48 adults in Desa II were select- ed as samples of this study. They were stratified into leader/nonleader and male/female categories. The leaders were official leaders in the two communities, and the nonleaders were the householeders (husbands or wives): 45 leaders and 50 nonleaders. Only 24 were females. Study Design In each village the subjects were randomly se- lected and assigned to five treatment groups: Leader Interview Approach(LI), Leader Group Approach(LG), Non— leader Interview Approach(NI), Nonleader Group Approach (NG), and a mixed Leader-Nonleader Group Approach(LNG). The subjects in LI and NI were interviewed individually in their own homes, and the subjects in LG,NG,and LNG were asked in separate group discussions. The same four questions were asked concerning their perceptions on: their community needs in general, their community edu— cational needs, three priority needs, and the most im- portant need for themselves. An Interview Approach Guide and a Group Approach Guide were used as intruments of this study wich were in local language (Sundanese). _ ' Factors that may‘ this study to some ext-an (95 subjects) and the 1 both the interview and Co A group approach assessment is more pref ach if the effectivenes ria for selection. To c of specificity, however appropriate. Whatever needs identified will . There is no gap in the two villages on of their community. Nee be conducted from eithe through interview appr< suggested, however, thz volves the nonleaders 1 Since the quant‘ from villagers varied their educational back der status, the sampli assessment should take Limitation of the Study Factors that may have influenced the findings of‘ this study to some extent include the small sample size (95 subjects) and the limitation? of probing used in both the interview and the group approaches. Conclusion A group approach as a method of community needs assessment is more preferable than an interview appro— ach if the effectiveness and efficiency are the crite- ria for selection. To collect data of a higher level of specificity, however, the interview approach i5 most appropriate. Whatever method is chosen, the types of needs identified will be similar. There is no gap between leaders and nonleaders in the two villages on their perceptions of the needs of their community. Needs assessment, therefore, can be conducted from either the leaders or nonleaders, through interview approach or group approach. It is suggested, however, that a group approach that in— volves the nonleaders be used. Since the quantity of community needs derived from villagers varied significantly on the basis of their educational background, sex,and leader/nonlea— der status, the sampling frame of a community needs assessment should take into account these variables. To the Villa- To the Villagers and the Poor ii ACKN My graduate career gan State University were fellowship of the Office Research and Development, Culture, Jakarta; the F0 for International Develo This dissertation, as th the result of a relative which many individuals a This acknowledgment is m In the Office of E nent I am especially gra‘ opportunity given to me ment and help in my rese Moegiadi, Mr. Waskito Tj MI. Sugiarto for their h Mr. Adji Pramono and his their endless help. I also wish to the too numerous to mention Education and Culture i1 Province, and in Kabupa research and travel. M: ACKNOWLEDGMENT My graduate career at Stanford University and Michi- gan State University were made possible through a joint fellowship of the Office of Educational and Cultural Research and Development, Ministry of Education and Culture, Jakarta; the Ford Foundation; and the U.S. Agency for International Development/Michigan State University. This dissertation, as the culmination of my study, is also the result of a relatively long endeavor and process in which many individuals and institutions were involved. This acknowledgment is my Opportunity to thank them all. In the Office of Educational Research and Develop- ment I am especially grateful to Dr. Setijadi for the opportunity given to me to study abroad, and his encourage— ment and help in my research. I am also grateful to Mr. Moegiadi, Mr. Waskito Tjiptosasmito, Mr. Soemitro, and Mr. Sugiarto for their help and suggestions. I also thank Mr. Adji Pramono and his wife, Mrs. Diefla Pramono, for their endless help. I also wish to thank all of the government officials, too numerous to mention individually, in the Ministry of Education and Culture in Jakarta, IKIP Bandung, West Java Province, and in Kabupaten Purwakarta, who helped me in my research and travel. My thanks and apology must go to all iii the villagers in Desa Cih Cilangkap, who participat in my research. Without have bean- written. To the chiefs of F0 Jakarta, and the chiefs 0 ton, D.C., I thank them a Jakarta, I specially than arrangement of my and my Jakarta I specially than her help. At Michigan State to my chairman, Dr. S. J suggestions, help, and u ship throughout my gradua of his sabbatical leave 1 done. Iam grateful to I W. Hickey, and Dr. Kenne‘ suggestions, and for ser‘ also thank Dr. Ted Ward ' University and serving a atM.S.U. I must thank tions and permission to thank Dr. Frank Fears fC To all my friends Soemardi and FranceSS CC the Villagers in Desa Cihuni, Desa Cilandak, and Desa Cilangkap, who participated and used as "guinea pigs" in my research. Without them this thesis could not have been written. To the chiefs of Ford Foundation in New York and Jakarta, and the chiefs of U.S.A.I.D. in Jakarta and Washing— ton, D.C., I thank them all. In the Ford Foundation, Jakarta, I specially thank Mrs. Ninuk Smith for the arrangement of my and my wife's travel. In the U.S.A.I.D. Jakarta I specially thank Mrs. Rosalin Tjiptoprajitno for her help. At Michigan State University, I am deeply grateful to my chairman, Dr. S. Joseph Levine, for his endless ideas, suggestions, help, and unfailing encouragement and friend- ship throughout my graduate career. He sacrificed most of his sabbatical leave for helping me get my dissertation done. I am grateful to Dr. William J. Kimball, Dr. Howard W. Hickey, and Dr. Kenneth L. Neff for their ideas, comments, suggestions, and for serving as my guidance committee. I also thank Dr. Ted Ward who introduced me to Michigan State University and serving as my advisor during my first year at M.S.U. I must thank Dr. George H. Axinn for his sugges— tions and permission to use his ideas in my research. I thank Dr. Frank Fears for his help and encouragement. To all my friends and graduate students, especially Soemardi and Francess Cosstick, goes my deepest appreciation iv ll'. 1' i {It ni .1152?" 5‘3! h. for their constant encour Merrilyn Wenner deserves mess to spare her preciou I thank all the sch in the citations or bibli At IKIP Bandung I who did most of the field mycolleagues, Mr. Sutar'y mita, and Mr. Amir for t I am also grateful and my guardian uncle, M who prayed for me and en There are not word the courage, support, an Sukartini, and sons, Agi home and endured much th' abroad. At the end, praise the Merciful. With Alla my study. If there are in this study I let my and correct it in other in one way or another , Allah Laws, only to Ali for their constant encouragement and suggestions. Mrs. Merrilyn Wenner deserves my special thanks for her willing— ness to spare her precious time for typing my dissertation. I thank all the scholars whose inputs are apparent in the citations or bibliography of this thesis. At IKIP Bandung I am grateful to Mrs. Suryani Zahir, who did most of the fieldwork of my research. I also thank my colleagues, Mr. Sutaryat, Mr. Suryadi, Mr. Roni Artasas- mita, and Mr. Amir for their help in my research. I am also grateful to my mother, Nyi Mas Siti Saadah, and my guardian uncle, Mas Suparman, and all my relatives, who prayed for me and encouraged me to finish my study. There are not words of thanks which are adequate for the courage, support, and sacrifice of my wife, Sri Patmah Sukartini, and sons, Agi and Riri, who have to be left at home and endured much throughout the four years of my study abroad. At the end, praise goes only to Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful. With Allah guidance and help I could finish my study. If there are procedural and theoretical mistakes in this study I let my fellow researchers to further judge and correct it in other studies. However, if this thesis, in one way or another, yielded anything that is against Allah Laws, only to Allah I ask for mercy. East Lansing, August 1979 LIS'IOFTABLES . . . . . . LISTOFFIGURES . . . . . Chapter {'I. THE NATURE AND BAC" | ‘\ Education and De 1 Statement of the Purpose of Study Assumption and B' Hypotheses of th- Limitation of th Importance of th Definition of Tel II. REVIEW OF RELATED Section 1. SOCii Development am Section 2. Com Community Need Section 3. Meth III. METHODOLOGY AND DE Section 1. Prey Section 2. The Section 3. The IV. DESCRIPTION OF TH LIST OF LIST OF Chapter .V’l‘n\ I I l | \ I II. III. IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE NATURE AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Education and Development in Indonesia Statement of the Problem Purpose of Study . . Assumption and Biases . . . Hypotheses of the Study Limitation of the Study . . . . . . Importance of the Study . . . . . . Definition of Terms REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . Section 1. Social Change, Community Development and Community Education Section 2. Community Problems and Community Needs . . . . . . . . . . Section 3. Methods of Needs Assessment METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN OF STUDY Section 1. Preparation Stage . . . . . Section 2. The Fieldwork . . . . . . . Section 3. The Analysis . . . DESCRIPTION OF THE SITES FOR THE STUDY vi Page vi xi 27 43 52 7O 7O 80 97 114 Chapter V. RESULTS OE STUDY . Section 1 . Demo of Subjects . Section 2. Inte Group Approach Section 3. The Variables on L . . ' ' Section 4. ' ' Section 5. . ' ' Section 6. ' ‘ . Section 7. Summary . . . ' VI. CONCLUSION, IMPLIC Conclusion and I Concluding Rema APPENDICES Appendix A. Interview Gu‘ English Version Bahasa Sunda Versi Appendix B. Group Approac English Version . Bahasa Sunda Versic Appendix C. Table l to T BIBLIOGRAPHY . Chapter Page V. RESULTS OF STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Section 1. Demographic Characteristics of Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Section 2. Interview Approach Versus Group Approach . . . . . . . 142 Section 3. The Effect of Approach Variables on Leaders, and on Nonleaders 170 Section 4. Leader Versus Nonleader . . . 180 Section 5. Desa I Versus Desa II . . . . 194 Section 6. Comparison Between Sexes . . . 203 Section 7. Educational Differences . . . 216 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 VI. CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION, AND RECOMMENDATION Conclusion and Implication . . . . . . . . 236 Concluding Remark . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 APPENDICES Appendix A. Interview Guide English Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Bahasa Sunda Version . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Appendix B. Group Approach Guide English Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Bahasa Sunda Version . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Appendix C. Table l to Table 17 . . . . . . . . . . 276 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 vii Table 10. 12. - One LIST I Basic and Derived H1 Planned and Actual . Desa, By Grouping . Examples of Scoring Responses . . . . Number of Desas by Kabupaten Purwaka . Ranking of Desas in . Ranking of Desas ir Demographic and Phy Number of Subjects Leader/Nonleader Number of Subjects Leader/Nonleader Number of Subjects and by Leader/No: Number of Subjects and by Leader/No Number of Subjects Y Desa, by Lead ‘Way ANOVA on Question #1 Q :by one‘Way nnovn OD QUEStion #2 C I by “Way ANOVA on c Question #1 & # . Variable ' ‘ Table 10. ll. 12. l3. 14. 15. LIST OF TABLES Page Basic and Derived Human's Needs . . . . . . . 47 Planned and Actual Samples of Study by Desa, By Groupings . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Examples of Scoring the Specificity of Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Number of Desas by Kecamatan in Kabupaten Purwakarta . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Ranking of Desas in Kecamatan Pasawahan . . . 123 Ranking of Desas in Kecamatan Campaka . . . . 126 Demographic and Physical Background of Desas 129 Number of Subjects by Sex, by Desa and by Leader/Nonleader . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Number of Subjects by Age, by Desa and by Leader/Nonleader . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Number of Subjects by Education, by Desa and by Leader/Nonleader . . . . . . . . . . 139 Number of Subjects by Occupation, by Desa and by Leader/Nonleader . . . . . . . . . . 141 Number of Subjects by Number of Children, by Desa, by Leader/Nonleader . . . . . . . 143 One-Way ANOVA on Quantity of Response to Question #1, by Approach Variable . . . . 144 One-Way ANOVA on Quantity of Response to Question #2, by Approach Variable . . . . 145 One—Way ANOVA on Quantity of Response to Question #1 & #2 Combined, by Approach Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 viii Table 16. Two-Way ANOVA on Qu Question #1, by D Variables . . 17. Two-Way ANOVA on Qu Question #2 by De Variables . . . 18. Two-Way ANOVA on Qu Question #1 & #2 Approach Variable l9. Chi-Square Analysis Responses to Ques Approach Values . 20. A Comparison of Ave Orientation Cater Questions #1, ‘33, 21. Chi-Square Analysis Needs (Question = (Question #2) by 22. Chi-Square Analysi Needs (Question (Question #4) by 23. Rallking of Type Of and Approach 24. Table 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Page Two—Way ANOVA on Quantity of Responses to Question #1, by Desa and by Approach Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Two-Way ANOVA on Quantity of Responses to Question #2 by Desa and by Approach Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Two—Way ANOVA on Quantity of Responses to Question #1 & #2 Combined, by Desa and by Approach Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Chi—Square Analysis on Specificity of Responses to Questions #1 to #4 by Approach Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 A Comparison of Averages of Means/Nonmeans Orientation Category of Responses to Questions #1, #3, and #4 . . . . . . . . . 154 Chi—Square Analysis on General Community Needs (Question #1), and Education Needs (Question #2) by Function and by Approach . 157 Chi—Square Analysis on Community Priority Needs (Question #3), and Individual Needs (Question #4) by Function and by Approach . 158 Ranking of Type of Needs by Function, Question and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Chi—Square Analysis on General Community Needs (Question #1), Priority Needs (Question #3) and Individual Needs (Question #4) by Function and Approach . . . . . . . 162 Chi—Square Analysis on Community Educational Needs (Question #2) by General Area and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Average Time Per Subject for Each Approach . 165 Actual Time Needed for Each Approach . . . . 166 Two-Way ANOVA on Quantity of Responses to Question #1, by Leader/Nonleader and by Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 ix Table 29. Two-Way ANOVA on Q Question #2 by L LNG) and by Appr 30. Two-Way ANOVA on Q Questions #1 & # Nonleader and by 31. One-Way Analysis 0 Response to Ques 32. One-Way Analysis 0 Response to Ques 33. One-Way Analysis c Response to Ques by Leader/Nonlea 34. Chi-Square Analysi ponses to Questi Nonleaders . tation Scores t< by Leader/Nonle. ' Ranking and Chi~S< Needs by Functi. Leader/Nonleade Table 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. Page Two—Way ANOVA on Quantity of Responses to Question #2 by Leader/Nonleader (Exclude LNG) and by Approach . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Two—Way ANOVA on Quantity of Responses to Questions #1 & #2 Combined by Leader/ Nonleader and by Approach . . . . . . . . 178 One—Way Analysis of Variance on Quantity of Response to Question #1 by Leader/Nonleader 181 One-Way Analysis of Variance on Quantity of Response to Question #2 by Leader/Nonleader 182 One—Way Analysis of Variance on Quantity of Response to Questions #1 and #2 Combined by Leader/Nonleader . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Chi-Square Analysis on Specificity of Res— ponses to Questions #1 to #4 by Leaders/ Nonleaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Comparison of Average Means/Nonmeans Orien— tation Scores to Questions #1, #3, & #4 by Leader/Nonleader 187 Ranking and Chi—Square Analyses of Types of Needs by Function, By Question, and by Leader/Nonleader . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Ranking and Chi—Square Analyses of Types of Needs by General Area, By Question, and by Leader/Nonleader . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Chi-Square Analysis on Educational Needs (Question #2), as Classified by General Area Classification: Leader vs. Non— leader (in Ranking) . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Comparison of Mean—Averages Desa I and Desa II on the Quantity of Responses to Question #1, #2, and #1 and #2 Combined . . . . . . 195 Chi—Square Analysis on Specificity of Res- ponses to Question #3: Desa I vs. Desa II 196 Comparison on Means/Nonmeans Orientation of Responses to Question #1, #3 and #4: Desa I vs. Desa II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 Table 42. Chi-Square Analysi (Questions #1 to Community Functi 43. Chi-Square Analysi by General Area, 44. Chi-Square Analysi Question #2, as Area: Desa I vs 45. One-Way ANOVA on C Question #1 by E 46. One-Way ANOVA on C Question #2 by E 47. One-Way Analysis c Nonmeans Categm #1 & #2 Combiner 48. Chi-Square Analys: Responses by Quq and by Sex Vari. 49. Comparison Among 1 Females on Mean Responses to Qu Table Page 42. Chi-Square Analysis on Types of Needs (Questions #1 to #4) as Classified by Community Functions: Desa I vs. Desa II . 198 43. Chi—Square Analysis on Types of Needs by General Area, by Question and by Desa . 200 44. Chi-Square Analysis on Type of Responses to Question #2, as Classified by General Area: Desa I vs. Desa II . . . . . . . . 201 45. One-Way ANOVA on Quantity of Response to Question #1 by Sex Variable . . . . . . . 204 46. One—Way ANOVA on Quantity of Response to Question #2 by Sex Variable . . . . . . . 205 47. One-Way Analysis of Variance on Means/ Nonmeans Category of Response to Questions #1 & #2 Combined for Males and Females . . 205 48. Chi—Square Analysis on Specificity of Responses by Question, By Males and Females and by Sex Variable . . . . . . . . . . . 207 49. Comparison Among Mean—Averages of Males and Females on Means/Nonmeans Orientation Responses to Question #1, #3, and #4 . . . 209 50. Chi—Square Analysis on Types of Needs by Community Functions, By Question and by Sex _1_ Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 51. Chi—Square Analysis on Type of Need for Question #2 by General Area, by Sex . . . 213 52. One-Way ANOVA on Quantity of Responses to Question #1, by Education Level . . . . . 217 53. One-Way Analysis of Variance on Quantity of Responses to Question #2: Education Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 54. One-Way Analysis of Variance on Quantity of ReSponses to Questions #1 & #2 Combined: Education Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 55. Comparison on Means/Nonmeans Orientation Responses to Questions #1, #3 and #4: By Education Level . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 xi ‘4- Comparison Among E Three Most Frequ Needs (by Functi ‘3' *4 o c u u a) 57. Comparison Among 13 Three Most Frequ Needs (by Genera #2. 43, and #4 . 53- Summary of the Ana Hypotheses by F: Interpreted from Hypotheses . , . Table 56. 57. 58. Comparison Among Educational Level on the Three Most Frequently Identified Type of Needs (by Function) for Question #1, #2, #3, #4 . . Comparison Among Educational Level on the Three Most Frequently Identified Type of Needs (by General Area) for Question #1, #2, #3, and #4 . Summary of the Analyses of Directional Hypotheses by Focus by Variable, as Interpreted from the Testing of the Null- Hypotheses . o s o xii Page 223 225 231 10. 11. 12. Maslow' s Hierarchy I The Rural Social Sy Needs Assessment ir Evaluation Cycle Map of West Java Summary of Sampling An Interview Settil A Group Setting . Map of Kabupaten P1 Map of Kecamatan P. Map Of Decamatan C. Map Of Desa I . Map Of Desa II LIST OF FIGURES Figure page 1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs . . . . . 46 2. The Rural Social System in its Environment. 49 3. Needs Assessment in the Planning and Evaluation Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 4. Map of West Java . . . . . . . . . . . 75 5. Summary of Sampling Procedures 88 6. An Interview Setting . 91 7. A Group Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 8. Map of Kabupaten Purwakarta . . . . . . . . . 120 9. Map of Kecamatan Pasawahan . . . . . . . . . 124 10. Map of Decamatan Campaka . . . . . . . . . . 127 11. Map of Desa I 131 12. Map of Desa II . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 13. Average Quantity Responses for Leader Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . 168 14. Average Quantity of Responses for Nonleader Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 15. The Proportion of Variance for Question #1 and #2 Explained by Independent Variables 16. A Study Design Suggested for the Successive Combination of Approaches xiii CH THE NATURE AND E w Indonesia is a rura of its population lives i under a subsistance agric pendence in 1945, however been neglected. Only re< emphasis to the developmt Development Plan. In PE 1974 ~ 1979, Indonesia bi development of rural com as the basis for organiz subsidies for fess commu Increased from US $12 9 “11975. and us $38.6 mi In its attempt to CHAPTER I THE NATURE AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Education and Development in Indonesia Indonesia is a rural country. Seventy eight percent of its population lives in rural areas,1 which are basically under a subsistance agricultural economy. Since its inde— pendence in 1945, however, development in rural areas has been neglected. Only recently has Indonesia begun to give emphasis to the development of rural areas in its National Development Plan. In PELITA II (The Second Five Year Plan, 1974 — 1979, Indonesia began with more interest in the development of rural communities, with the desa (village) as the basis for organizing the attempt.2 Development subsidies for desa communities, for example, have been increased from US $12.9 million in 1972 to US $27.7 million in 1975, and us $38.6 million in 1976.3 In its attempt to accelerate development, Indonesia lBiro Pusat Statistik, Statistical Pocketbook of Indonesia 1971 (Jakarta: B.P.S., 1971). 2Republik Indonesia, Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun Es922.121411212_:_IEZ§1£212 (Jakarta: Departemen Penerangan R-I., 1974), Bagian III, Bab 20 dan 22. 3Biro Pusat Statistik, Statistical Pocketbook of $22923§12_1211 (Jakarta: B.P.S., 1977), p. 323. has put great hope in usi intrumental factor. The concepts of education as They are summarized as fo 'Primo: The concep implying that educa to the grave. Edu merely cover forma nonformal educatio school education a constituting consc' the development of Secundo: The cone education being bo society and gover . monopoly of the go together with the to make efforts in education. Tertio: The conce; for National Develc that development is human beings and nc ment shall therefor empassingly just at as well as spirituz the Constitution 0: Based on these con and Culture has begun a education system, formal attempts and emphasis to villagers than before. buildings have been est 4Republik Indones' 5Ministry of Educ cation and Culture in D and Culture in Indonesr has put great hope in using education as an important instrumental factor. The PELITA II adopted three basic concepts of education as its basic policies in education. They are summarized as follows: "Primo: The concept of life-long education, implying that education begins from the cradle to the grave. Education does therefore not merely cover formal education but also implies nonformal education. In—school and out-of— school education are of equal importance, both constituting conscious efforts to facilitate the development of personality and of capabilities. Secundo: The concept of responsibility over education being borne jointly by the family, society and government. Education is not a monopoly of the government, but the government together with the family and society will have to make efforts in securing the objectives of education. Tertio: The concept of education as a vital means for National Development. It has to be emphasized that development is meant for the benefit of the human beings and not otherwise. National Develop— ment shall therefore have aim of realizing all empassingly just and prosperous society, materially as well as spiritually, founded on Pancasila and the Constitution of 1945."5 Based on these concepts, the Ministry of Education and Culture has begun a big step in developing a national education system, formal as well as nonformal, with more attempts and emphasis to reach and match the needs of the Villagers than before. Thousands of new primary school buildings have been established in the villages. New curri— 4Republik Indonesia, op. cit., p. 22—1. 5Ministry of Education and Culture, Indonesia, Edu— cation and Culture in Development: Policies on Education and Culture in Indonesia (Jakarta: 1976), pp. 13—14. mla has been introduced are being reviewed and n experiments and pilot pr the best methods and pro education in Indonesian of nonformal education w and Culture is for the a and women above the age gets of nonformal educat the Ministry of Interior the Ministry of Agricult The vast growth of and adults in the villag. the latest emphasis on d grams, under the coordin In this context, the Min a three level rating sca the development level 0 are classified as: icsa suasembada. Of the 66, classified as swanky-a, suasembada.6 The gener and suakarya desas to t 6N. J. Colletta, An Overview (Jakarta: Research and Developmen cula has been introduced. Old nonformal education programs are being reviewed and new ones are being created. Several experiments and pilot projects are being conducted to study the best methods and procedures of formal and nonformal education in Indonesian settings. Although the priority of nonformal education within the Ministry of Education and Culture is for the age bracket of 10 to 24 years, men and women above the age bracket are also the popular tar- gets of nonformal education of many other ministries —- e.g., the Ministry of Interior, the Ministry of Religious Affairs, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ministry of Health. The vast growth of nonformal education for youth and adults in the Villages has also been motivated by the latest emphasis on development through self-help pro- grams, under the coordination of the Ministry of Interior. In this context, the Ministry of Interior has formulated a three level rating scale of desas (villages) in terms of the development level of the desas. From low to high, desas are classified as: desa swadaya, desa swakarya, and desa swasembada. Of the 66,045 desas in Indonesia, 25,500 were classified as swadaya, 38,800 as swakarya, and 1,745 as swasembada.6 The general objective is to move the swadaya and swakarya desas to the swasembada status, while motivating 6N. J. Colletta, Out-of—School Education in Indonesia: An Overview (Jakarta: Office of Educational and Cultural Research and Development, 1975), p. 11. is needed to achieve the things, however, is the p selves. Without their aw toparticipate, any self- to failure. How to increase th- and willingness to partic own village is, then, a ~ hpopular answer to it i answer, consequently, pro popular means for the de It was based on this assu education programs were it However, they diminished programs in almost all de duce the expected change: patibility of the educat: the communities is seen The belief that educatio for change, however, is cribed in the previous p great hope for educatio difference is that sinc Education, formal as we the swasembada desas to further develop their potentialities. Joint efforts among ministries and other community groups is needed to achieve the objective. The most important things, however, is the participation of the villagers them— selves. Without their awareness, motivation, and willingness to participate, any self—help development program is doomed to failure. How to increase the villagers‘ awareness, motivation, and willingness to participate in the development of their own Village is, then, a strategic question to be answered. A popular answer to it is: "Give them education!" This answer, consequently, promotes community education as a popular means for the development of village communities. It was based on this assumption that in the 19505 community education programs were mushrooming in developing countries. However, they diminished in the 19608. Community education programs in almost all developing countries failed to in— duce the expected changes in the rural areas. The incom— patibility of the educational programs with the needs of the communities is seen as the main cause of the failure. The belief that education can be an important instrument for change, however, is not changed by the failure. As des- cribed in the previous paragraphs, Indonesia still has great hope for education as an instrument for change. The difference is that since 1968, the beginning of PELITA I, education, formal as well as nonformal, has been more --. of the vi). u, respect, Colletta efforts for villagers ra villagers perceive to be these efforts take into - within the community its these needs. He argued . 'inner“ gap functioning . efficient nonformal educ that basic research on " to improve their lives i. Coombs8 has come t< suggestions in the area 4 to study the current and needs of. various populat areas that warrant prior Stateme It is agreed by t education in Indonesia ticipation of the villa \._______ 711331.,1). 26. 8Phillip H. Coomb formal Education ActiVi 0f Educational and Cult P. 5. fully focused on the needs of National Development. The problem of incompatibility of educational programs with the needs of the villagers, however, is still unsolved. In this respect, Colletta7 observed that nonformal education efforts for villagers rarely take into account what the villagers perceive to be their "learning needs,‘ nor do these efforts take into account the existing resources within the community itself which may be mobilized to meet these needs. He argued that there is definitely an "outer“— "inner" gap functioning to the detriment of effective and efficient nonformal education programs. Hence, he suggested that basic research on "what people want and need to learn" to improve their lives is a great need in Indonesia. Coombs8 has come to a similar conclusion. One of his suggestions in the area of nonformal education is the need to study the current and likely future critical learning needs of various population sub—groups in their respective areas that warrant priority attention. Statement of the Problem It is agreed by those who are involved with community education in Indonesia that to capture the interest and par- ticipation of the villagers in community education programs 7Ibid., p. 26. 8Phillip H. Coombs, Report to UNICEF Jakarta on Non— formal Education Activities in Indonesia, (Jakarta: Office Of Educational and Cultural Research and Development, l975), p. 5. ' 't xii é' :- 52:“ 1 program a Lei-a commity needs. This concern creat- mst obvious, is the pro the needs of a particula problem, being aware of - tifying these needs, is . tion planners to be mine planners go about the id in rather haphazard and community needs are ofte concerns, national or lo bias of the community edw This study attempt are the needs of a parti what are the strengths a that can be used for ide emphasis of the study is assessment process, com: the findings might have country. It is only logica on the needs assessment needs and designing pro Programs, the process u it is imperative that the needs of the villagers be compa— tible with the program. In other words, before designing an educational program for the community, we should know the community needs. This concern creates two problems. The first, and most obvious, is the problem of knowing exactly what are the needs of a particular community. However, the second problem, being aware of the most appropriate way for iden— tifying these needs, is often assumed by community educa— tion planners to be minor and is often neglected. Instead, planners go about the identification of community needs in rather haphazard and unsystematic ways. Listings of community needs are often strongly influenced by monetary concerns, national or local interest groups or the particular bias of the community education planners. This study attempts to deal with both problems — what are the needs of a particular community in Indonesia and what are the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches that can be used for identifying the needs. The stronger emphasis of the study is on the examination of the needs assessment process, comparing different approaches, so that the findings might have broad application throughout the country. It is only logical that emphasis must first be placed On the needs assessment process before attempting to identify needs and designing programs. As a first step in designing Programs, the process used for identifying needs must be seen I , «1 -: ' TAI- primary conce .. were the effectivenes : lasting approach" and an information about villag needs of their community needs. Comparisons were aspects of villagers' re The four aspects were th- tions (quantity), the le the means/nonmeans orien of responses/needs. In a conduct the assessment t] and the "interview appro of efficiency. This was study. Since data were av were also conducted whic foci of the study. With were a total of six foc' 0f the study was to exa aWench yielded a diff on the quantity of thei the study looked at the as a strong foundation which allows for the true and repre— sentative identification of community needs. Purpose of Study The primary concern of this study is to examine and compare the effectiveness and efficiency of a "group meeting approach" and an "interview approach" in collecting information about villagers' perceptions of the general needs of their community and their community education needs. Comparisons were based on the analysis of four aspects of villagers' responses to questions posed to them. The four aspects were the number of responses to the ques- tions (quantity), the level of specificity of the responses, the means/nonmeans orientation of the responses, and the type of responses/needs. In addition, the man—hours needed to conduct the assessment through the "group meeting approach" and the "interview approach" were also compared as a measure of efficiency. This was the first and primary focus of the study. Since data were available, additional examinations were also conducted which were organized in five additional foci of the study. With the first one described above, there were a total of six foci for the study. The second focus of the study was to examine whether or not a different approach yielded a different effect on leaders or nonleaders On the quantity of their responses. The third focus of the study looked at the leader/nonleader variable and compared the leader and the nonle regardless of the approa The fourth focus examin (villages) on the four a foci respectively examin differences on the basis subjects on the same fou Assum t In conducting this assumptions and held two at the onset. First, it their community needs . with developing nations , villager knows this (nee in Western capital."9 I hundreds of extremely di it is incomprehensible t to know all of the local that the local people dc only through the taping be possible to have co The second assump their knowledge of thei \W 9Colin Mason, "A partici ation in DeVel the leader and the nonleader subjects on the four aspects regardless of the approach used to elicit the responses. The fourth focus examined differences between desas (villages) on the four aspects. The fifth and the sixth foci respectively examined differences between sexes, and differences on the basis of educational background of the subjects on the same four aspects of this study. Assumption and Biases In conducting this study the investigator made two assumptions and held two biases that should be understood at the onset. First, it is assumed that villagers know their community needs. To quote an expert who is involved with developing nations, "I believe, from experience, that villager knows this (need) much better than any aid planner 9 In the Indonesian setting, with in Western capital." hundreds of extremely diverse and distinct ethnic groups, it is incomprehensible that any single body would be able to know all of the local needs. It must be assumed, then, that the local peOple do know their own needs. It is only through the taping of this local knowledge that it can be possible to have community development in Indonesia. The second assumption is that Villagers can express their knowledge of their own needs and the needs of their \— 9Colin Mason, "A Village View of Foreign Aid," People's BEEEigipation in Development, Vol. 2 (Calcutta: Indian FFHC Society and Action for Development, FAO, 1973). use} rinses} on? . 3. q, 1’. community . The challeng in the development of ne can allow for villager e The first bias hel group approach for condu can be both effective an approach to needs assess can interact with each 0 perceptions and knowledg members' sense of belong and become a motivating the betterment of their The second bias i appropriate level for c nesia it is the lowest ] given the authority and ment activities. By won still possible to captui in terms of the size of with and at the same tin local ethnic group. Ob‘ focuses on individuals the most powerful way 0 However, the focus of t ment and as such, a one on the community . community. The challenge underlying this assumption is in the development of needs assessment procedures that can allow for villager expression of their knowledge. The first bias held by this investigator is that a group approach for conducting community needs assessment can be both effective and efficient. It is through a group approach to needs assessment that individual villagers can interact with each other, share and enrich their feelings, perceptions and knowledge. The group approach can enhance members' sense of belonging, worthiness and usefulness, and become a motivating factor in working together for the betterment of their community. The second bias is that the village level is an appropriate level for community needs assessment. In Indo— nesia it is the lowest level of local government which is given the authority and responsibility for organizing develop— ment activities. By working at the village level it is still possible to capture a certain amount of efficiency in terms of the size of the population group that is dealt with and at the same time retain the uniqueness of the local ethnic group. Obviously, a needs assessment that focuses on individuals in a one—to-one manner is probably the most powerful way of initiating individual change. However, the focus of this study is on community develop— ment and as such, a one-to-one focus could preclude a focus On the community. Based on the assum hypotheses were formulat this study . focus 1. Interview vs. Hypothesis 1. A g greater number of commun Hypothesis 2. Nee will be more specific th approach. Hypothesis 3. Nee will be similarly nonmea an interview approach. Hypothesis 4. The agroup approach will be derived from an intervie Hypothesis 5. The approach will be less th an interview approach . Explanation The stated hypothe did not entirely favor l conducting a community I for example, the interv. approach on the basis 0: i3 he expected the same lO Hypotheses of the Study Based on the assumptions and biases, 23 directional hypotheses were formulated to accomodate the six foci of this study. Focus 1. Interview vs. Group Approach Hypothesis 1. A group approach will generate a greater number of community needs than an interview approach. Hypothesis 2. Needs derived from an interview approach will be more specific than needs derived from a group approach. Hypothesis 3. Needs derived from a group approach will be similarly nonmeans-oriented as needs derived from an interview approach. Hypothesis 4. The genre (type) of needs derived from a group approach will be different from the genre of needs derived from an interview approach. Hypothesis 5. The time needed to administer a group approach will be less than the time needed to administer an interview approach. Explanation The stated hypotheses above show that the investigator did not entirely favor the group approach as a method of conducting a community needs assessment. On hypothesis #2, for example, the interview approach is favored over the group approach on the basis of specificity of needs. On hypothesis #3 he expected the same results for both the interview ,’,,. theses for Focus I favor five hypotheses mere con can be argued that the m seem contradictory to ea This seeming contr ing manner. In the grou to share and discuss the both the interview appro given the same questions as possible to Question assumption that subjects through sharing and deli ted that the average n group approach will be 9 (hypothesis #1) . In an separated and not able 1 answering the questions additional input that ca the needs. However, si: inclines toward conform. lects in a group approa: responses (hypothesis # 0f needs (hypothesis #4 as for the specificity In terms of the 11 approach and the group approach. The other three hypo— theses for Focus I favored the group approach. Since the five hypotheses were concerned with the same focus, it can be argued that the multi—directions of the hypotheses seem contradictory to each other. This seeming contradiction is explained in the follow— ing manner. In the group approach the subjects were asked to share and discuss their opinions and all subjects in both the interview approach and the group approach were given the same questions and asked to give as many responses as possible to Question #1 and Question #2. Based on the assumption that subjects in a group enrich each other through sharing and deliberate interaction, it can be expec- ted that the average number of responses of subjects in a group approach will be greater than in an interview approach (hypothesis #1). In an interview approach subjects are separated and not able to interact with each other in answering the questions given to them, hence there is no additional input that can increase their knowledge about the needs. However, since it was assumed that a group inclines toward conformity, it can be expected that sub— jects in a group approach will be less specific in their responses (hypothesis #2). Differences in type or genre Of needs (hypothesis #4) can be explained in the same way as for the specificity variable. In terms of the means/nonmeans orientation of responses, since in both the interv the questions were the 3 questions that Would lea ment of community needs (Le. , means-oriented) n 'héeds as the goals thems then it can be reasonabl no significant interacti and the means/nonmeans—o case the investigator pr interview approach and t Show a more nonmeans-ori In administering had to visit each subje far as two miles apart. Time was not needed, how the group approach. On t jects were asked to come place and they were give it did not need as much approach. In addition, tory step was given onlj the interview approach ted for each subject. group approach would ne allproach (hypothesis #5 12 since in both the interview approach and the group approach the questions were the same and there were no explicit questions that would lead the respondents toward the state— ment of community needs as a strategy to achieve goals (i.e., means-oriented) nor toward the statement of community needs as the goals themselves (i.e. nonmeans-oriented), then it can be reasonably expected that there would be no significant interaction between the approach variable and the means/nonmeans-orientation variable. In which case the investigator predicted that subjects in both the interview approach and the group approach would similarly show a more nonmeans—oriented response (hypothesis #3). In administering the interview approach the interviewer had to Visit each subject at their own homes, which were as far as two miles apart. It was certainly time consuming. Time was not needed, however, for discussion as it was in the group approach. On the other hand, group approach sub- jects were asked to come together at the same time and place and they were given the questions at the same time, thus it did not need as much preparation time as in the interview approach. In addition, in the group approach the introduc— tory step was given only once to 7 to ll subjects, while in the interview approach the introductory step had to be repea— ted for each subject. Therefore it was predicted that the group approach would need less time than the interview approach (hypothesis #5). Focus 2. The effect of a proach on 1e Hypothesis ‘6'. Lea leader-nonleader group a of responses than leader approach or a leader—0x11 Hypothesis 7. Non only group approach will than nonleaders who part or a mixed leader—nonlea Explanation The two hypothese the group approach on 1 by the investigator tha leaders when they have i in group work, it can be be motivated to show the knowledge of their comnu therefore reasonable to leader group approach t number of responses the leader-only group apprc On the other hanc’ leader group approach \ and motivation with thy Will he more restricte 13 Focus 2. The effect of group approach and interview approach on leaders and nonleaders. Hypothesis 6. Leaders who participate in a mixed leader-nonleader group approach will show a greater number of responses than leaders who participate in an interview approach or a leader—only group approach. Hypothesis 7. Nonleaders who participate in a nonleader- only group approach will show a greater number of responses than nonleaders who participate in a nonleader interview or a mixed leader-nonleader group approach. Explanation The two hypotheses predicted a different effect of the group approach on leaders and nonleaders. It is argued by the investigator that leaders will be functional as leaders when they have followers who participate with them in group work, it can be expected that as leaders they will be motivated to show their leadership. In this case, their knowledge of their community needs would be shown. It was therefore reasonable to predict that in a mixed leader—non— leader group approach the leaders would show a greater number of responses than in an interview or even in a leader—only group approach (hypothesis #6). On the other hand, nonleaders in a mixed leader—non— leader group approach will tend to lose their creativity and motivation with their leaders around them and hence will be more restricted in the number of responses they .f‘ .. {a 3,3..zgfiss‘3; give. In a group consis the inhibiting factor wi motivation will increase leadership over each oth factor, to voice their op leaders were present. I nonleaders will give mor group approach than in a or an interview approac Focus 3. Leaders vs. N Hypothesis 8. Th will be greater than th nonleaders . Hypothesis 9 . Th from nonleaders will be needs derived from lead Hypothesis 10 . T' he more nonmeans-orient leaders. Hypothesis ll. ‘I leaders will be differe from nonleaders . W Hypotheses #8 to variable regardless of {lenses/needs. Based c 14 give. In a group consisting of only nonleaders, however, the inhibiting factor will not occur and creativity and motivation will increase in an attempt to exercise their leadership over each other. Or at least the inhibiting factor to voice their opinions will be less than if the leaders were present. It was therefore predicted that nonleaders will give more responses in a nonleader—only group approach than in a mixed leader-nonleader group or an interview approach (hypothesis #7). Focus 3. Leaders vs. Nonleaders Hypothesis 8. The number of needs derived from leaders will be greater than the number of needs derived from nonleaders. Hypothesis 9. The specificity of needs derived from nonleaders will be higher than the specificity of needs derived from leaders. Hypothesis 10. The needs derived from leaders will be more nonmeans-oriented than the needs derived from non— leaders. Hypothesis 11. The types of needs derived from leaders will be different than the types of needs derived from nonleaders. Explanation Hypotheses #8 to #11 look at the leader/nonleader variable regardless of the approach used to elicit the res- ponses/needs. Based on the argument that leaders, due to their roles, will have a than the nonleaders, it can identify more needs leaders (hypothesis #8) . will tend to generalize individuals and localiti can be expected that the ina less specific stat sis #9). In this contex the Five Year Developmen oriented toward the f ina program (i.e., nonmeans— of how to achieve the go these factors will make their community needs di (hypothesis #ll) . Focus 4. Desa I vs. Des Hypothesis 12. T Iwill not be different from Desa II. Hypothesis 13. T Desa I will not be diff derived from Desa II. Hypothesis 14. T needs derived from Desa Oriented . 15 their roles, will have a wider View of their community than the nonleaders, leaders (hypothesis #8). However, since the leaders will tend to generalize the more specific needs of individuals and localities to the community as a whole, it can be expected that the leaders will state community needs in a less specific statement than the nonleaders (hypothe— Sis #9). In this context, especially in the framework of the Five Year Development Plan, the leaders will be more oriented toward the final products of a development prOgram (i.e., nonmeans-oriented) rather than on the ways Of how to achieve the goals (hypothesis #10). All of these factors will make the leaders perceive and identify their community needs differently from the nonleaders (hypothesis #ll). ' . Villa e II) ELLIS 4- W Hypothesis 12. The number of needs derived from Desa I Will not be different from the number of needs derived from Desa II. Hypothesis 13. The specificity of needs derived from Desa I will not be different from the specificity of needs derived from Desa II. Hypothesis 14. The needs derived from Desa I and the needs derived from Desa II will similarly be nonmeans- Oriented. g§am‘pal$nifil "is ewehsai {3* it»? :12: if i ’ 3“” ‘ ;£ . 'nl via.) H. .. Hypothesis 15 . will be different from if " Desa II. its Explanation 2 The two desa samp of desa category. Both by its respective kecam desa swakarya by the ka subjects in both Desa I and/or assigned to tree statistically both desa expected, therefore, t between Desa I and Des responses, specificity orientation of response and #14. In terms of t was expected that Desa community unit, desas , unique. This uniquenes nity needs or priority M. Males vs. Fe] Hypothesis 16. Will be greater than t Hypothesis 1?. derived from males wil Explanation ____________ The two desa samples were chosen from the same level of desa category. Both were low in the ranking assigned by its respective kecamatan (subdistrict), and rated as desa swakarya by the kabupaten (district). Further more, subjects in both Desa I and Desa II were randomly selected and/or assigned to treatment variables. This means that statistically both desa samples were equal. It can be expected, therefore, that there will be no difference between Desa I and Desa II on the basis of the number of responses, specificity of responses, and means/nonmeans orientation of response as stated in hypothesis #12, #13, and #14. In terms of their types of needs, however, it was expected that Desa I and Desa II will differ. As a community unit, desas, however similar in many aspects, are unique. This uniqueness alone could generate different commu— nity needs or priority. This was the basis for hypothesis #15. Focus 5. Males vs. Females Hypothesis 16. The number of needs derived from males Will be greater than the number of needs derived from females. Hypothesis 17. The level of specificity of needs derived from males will be higher than the level of specificity Hypothesis 19. Th} will be different from t Explanation In a male dominate assumed that females are sequently, females can l than males (hypothesis 1 that females' knowledge males. The culture inh: males and minimizes the. feelings in public or t1 This will not only less also force them to spe #17). Since males, as assumed to be more con of their families whil of the family who will ducts, it was expected ted than females (hypo in the family and in t females in perceiving 17 derived from females. Hypothesis 18. The needs derived from males will be more means-oriented than the needs derived from females. Hypothesis 19. The types of needs derived from males will be different from the needs derived from females. Explanation In a male dominated culture like West Java it was assumed that females are less talkative than males. Con— sequently, females can be expected to give fewer responses than males (hypothesis #16). It does not mean, however, that females' knowledge of community needs are less than males. The culture inhibits them to be less talkative than males and minimizes their voicing of their opinions and feelings in public or to an outsider (i.e. interviewer). This will not only lessen the number of responses but will also force them to speak in more general terms (hypothesis #17). Since males, as the figure head of the family, are assumed to be more concerned about ways for the betterment of their families while females are seen as "banking" figure of the family who will be more concerned about the end pro— ducts, it was expected that males will be more means-orien— ted than females (hypothesis #18). Their role differences in the family and in the community will bias males and females in perceiving their community needs (hypothesis #19). . 2. y-"i‘v' 2 fl .3 as!” 40 Focus 6. Educated vs. Hypothesis 20. “z '1‘ subjects with more educ will be greater than th subjects with less educ Hypothesis 21. T derived from subjects w‘ be higher than the leve from subjects with less Hypothesis 22. T more educational backgr as the needs derived fr background. Hypothesis 23. T jects with more educati from the types of needs educational background. W Based on the ass 0f schooling) enlarges things, it can be expe be a differentiating f measures. The higher the number of response hi‘Jher the level of ed the level of specifici 18 Focus 6. Educated vs. Less—educated Hypothesis 20. The number of needs derived from subjects with more educational background (years of schooling) will be greater than the number of needs derived from subjects with less educational background. Hypothesis 21. The level of specificity of needs derived from subjectsvfith more educational background will be higher than the level of specificity of needs derived from subjects with less educational background. Hypothesis 22. The needs derived from subjects with more educational background will be similarlynonmeans—oriented as the needs derived from subjects with less educational background. Hypothesis 23. The types of needs derived from sub— jects with more educational background will be different from the types of needs derived from subjects with less educational background. Explanation Based on the assumption that education (i.e. years of schooling) enlarges knowledge and ways of perceiving things, it can be expected that the level of education will be a differentiating factor in the dependent variable measures. The higher the level of education the greater the number of responses will be (hypothesis #20). The hiGher the level of education of the subjects the higher the level of specificity of needs will be (hypothesis #21). ' ("on this variable (hypotl‘l themore likely the res needs more objectively, perception among the mo fore predicted that sub adifferent View of the than less educated subj Limitat This study is lim perceptions of local co. the study are samples 0 it should be understood standing of community r. to villagers‘ perceptic natural resources, pro: (employment, populatim ment policies. A complete and f is an extraordinarily It is felt that by lin of villagers' perceptf the extent of the stut 19 This is because they are more observant. There is no sound basis, however, for hypothesizing the relationship between education and the means/nonmeans orientation of needs. Therefore it was predicted that no differences will occur on this variable (hypothesis #22). But the higher education the more likely the respondents could view their community needs more objectively, and therefore more similarity of perception among the more—educated subjects. It was there— fore predicted that subjects with more education will have a different view of the types of needs of their community than less educated subjects (hypothesis #23). Limitation of the Study This study is limited to an examination of villagers' perceptions of local community needs. The "villagers" in the study are samples of leaders and nonleaders. However, it should be understood that a complete and full under- standing of community needs must also include, in addition to villagers' perceptions, an external assessment of human/ natural resources, projected trends in local development (employment, population, health, etc.) and government develop— ment policies. A complete and full understanding of community needs is an extraordinarily complex and time consuming endeavor. It is felt that by limiting this study to only the examination Of villagers' perceptions, it will be possible to control the extent of the study, complete the study in a reasonable ( ( ”a 50155921156 :...~oj'IT.f shim-primary is centered on hum The community in (villages) in West Jav West Java was selected reasons. First, the r and is familiar with i Second, the RK/RT (vil West Java is more func areas of Indonesia. I units for this study c third reason is that t was also located in We: of conducting the fiell The desa was lim of desa rated by the 9 its development. Just 66,045 desas in the wt suadaya.lo Since desc Indonesian government useful in assisting t‘. The term "villa desa community. It i \-—-——-———. loColletta , 9g 20 period of time, and also to focus on that component of needs assessment, perceived needs by the Villagers them— selves, as the primary component of a development framework that is centered on human development. The community in this study refers to rural "desas" (Villages) in West Java Province rural areas, Indonesia. West Java was selected as the site of this study for three reasons. First, the researcher knows the local language and is familiar with its geographical and social settings. Second, the RK/RT (village section/neighborhood) system in West Java is more functional and widely used than in other areas of Indonesia. It makes the selection of community units for this study consistent with its methodology. The third reason is that the office where the researcher works was also located in West Java province and hence the cost of conducting the fieldwork would be less. The desa was limited to desa swadaya. It is the type of desa rated by the government as the lowest in terms of its development. Just over thirty eight percent of the 66,045 desas in the whole country are classified as desa swadaya.lo Since desa swadaya receives the priority of Indonesian government policy, this study could then be useful in assisting the government in their priority area. The term "Villagers" is defined as all members of a desa community. It includes children and adults -— men and E 10Colletta, 9p. cit. wonen, leaders and nonl limited to two sub-grou leaders, they who~have rukun kgmpung (RK) , and ‘ community; and the nonl women, who are not offi married or householders that the majority of of to as "1eaders")are men also include non-offici teachers, and other org The leaders were First, because they fun the government and the in organizing village d are elected to their po sentatives. Although t powerful opinion leade official leaders in th people as capable and/ they had to go on gove The reason for c or adults 18 years of head of household) as household units are th The ele village life . 21 women, leaders and nonleaders. This study, however, was limited to two sub-groups of villagers: the official leaders, they who have positions as leaders in the desa, rukun kampung (RK), and rukun tetangga (RT) units of community; and the nonleaders, those villagers, men and women, who are not official leaders, and who are either married or householders aged 18 to 45. It must be noted that the majority of official leaders (hereafter referred to as "leaders")are men, and that the nonleaders could also include non-official leaders such as religious leaders, teachers, and other organizational leaders. The leaders were chosen for this study for two reasons. First, because they function as official channels between the government and the people, and thus have a key position in organizing village development efforts. Second, they are elected to their positions by the people or their repre— sentatives. Although they probably were not the most powerful opinion leaders as compared to some of the non— official leaders in their community, they were seen by the people as capable and/or respected persons, and to whom they had to go on governmental business matters. The reason for choosing "householders” (married persons or adults 18 years of age or over who have the position as head of household) as the nonleaders group was because the household units are the base of decision making power in Village life. The election of RT leaders is based upon one household—one vote . Th programs is collected 0 usually communicate wit activities -- formalas In Indonesia a ci married person has the (national level) and in leaders). Age 45 is th priority for nonformal to prepare for retireme their advancement is en as the last chance for change their life styl For these reasons this years of age to 45 year there is no limit on ag A study comparin interview approach as is important in the se ledge about the effect methods. The knowledg appropriate method to assessment. The results of implications in giV in 22 household-one vote. The contribution fee for community programs is collected on a household basis and the leaders usually communicate with the householders in their daily activities —— formal as well as informal. In Indonesia a citizen 18 years of age or older or a married person has the right to vote in the general election (national level) and in the desa election (to elect desa leaders). Age 45 is the cut-off point for the government's priority for nonformal (adult) education. It is the time to prepare for retirement (at age 55) for those who think their advancement is enough and near to end. It is seen as the last chance for those who want to renew, enrich or change their life style prior to retirement at age 55. For these reasons this study was limited to householders 18 years of age to 45 years of age. In the case of leaders, there is no limit on age. Importance of the Study A study comparing a group meeting approach and an interview approach as methods of assessing community needs is important in the sense that it will provide more know— ledge about the effectiveness and efficiency of the two methods. The knowledge can be very useful in choosing the apprOpriate method to be used in conducting such needs assessment. The results of this study, then, can have practical implications in giving direction to what kind of training Iaa‘ the community education the field of assessing In terms of its 5 and nonleaders' percept also important. In rur most often very decisi villagers. In this co good leaders know thei If the leaders' percep from the followers' pe a gap of "inner-outer“ based on the "outer" p fore, the information kind of gap is useful themselves as well as i the leaders and nonleac the discrepancies. Otl which might contradict both. Knowledge about also important because to help these desas. the government in desi that will be more rele These three type the results of this st 23 the community education fieldworkers should be given in the field of assessing village (community) learning needs. In terms of its substance, information about leaders' and nonleaders' perceptions of their community needs are also important. In rural areas the role of leaders is most often very decisive in designing a program for the villagers. In this context the investigator assumes that good leaders know their followers' problems and needs. If the leaders' perceptions (as the outer) are different from the followers' perceptions (as the inner), it suggests a gap of "inner—outer" perception. In this case, a program based on the "outer" perception will tend to fail. There— fore, the information about whether or not there is this kind of gap is useful for program planners, for the leaders themselves as well as the nonleaders. If there is a gap, the leaders and nonleaders need to sit together and settle the discrepancies. Otherwise, there could be two directions which might contradict each other and hinder the success of both. Knowledge about the nature of desa swadaya needs is also important because it is the priority of the government to help these desas. The results of the study will help the government in designing nonformal educational programs that will be more relevant to the deed needs. These three types of information can be provided from the results of this study. It is the practical usage of these is results that gives thi for Indonesia . The following te description of this st and phrase are provide standing. Learning need. need" and "educational educational need as "t vidual (or organizatio and what he is; the di 11 The resea reality." need" as any learning verbally) by an indivi can be consciously or (or means) to overcome or group aspiration ar Village (Communi needs are limited to ‘ villagers as the need: learning needs and ot' Village . In th M llMalcolm S. Kn Education , (New York: 24 results that gives this study its importance -— at least for Indonesia. Definition of Terms The following terms and phrases are used in the description of this study. Definitions for each term and phrase are provided to form a common basis for under- standing. Learning need. In this study the terms "learning need" and “educational need" are synonymous. Knowles defines educational need as "the discrepancy between what an indi— vidual (or organization or society) wants himself to be and what he is; the distance between aspiration and reality."ll The researcher prefers to define "learning need" as any learning desired or wanted (as expressed verbally) by an individual or group of individuals. This can be consciously or unconsciously perceived as a way out (or means) to overcome the discrepancy between individual or group aspiration and reality. Village (Community) needs. In this study community needs are limited to those needs that are perceived by the villagers as the needs of their village. It includes learning needs and other general needs. Village. In this study it refers to "desa community" llMalcolm S. Knowles, The Modern Practice of Adult Education, (New York: Association Press, 1976), p. 86. Luff Ml in Indonesia, which is governmental/administra used synonomously. Elgar A citi Leader . Of fic ia (RH), or a rukun tetanu W. A vi Household. A si same dwelling unit (or It includes the single or the wife, or the si householder . W- desa (village). It is ted by its RT heads. twelve RK . Rukun Tetangga within an RK. EAch RK consists of ten to for elected by the heads c abbreviated as RT. W: Desa suasembada is a x as evaluated by the Gr of development . This develOpment without m 25 in Indonesia, which is the lowest level of an Indonesian governmental/administration unit. Village and desa are used synonomously. Villager. A citizen of a desa (village). Leader. Official leader of a desa, a rukun kampung (RK), or a rukun tetangga (RT). Nonleader. A villager who is not an official leader. Household. A single family unit, which may share the same dwelling unit (or a house) with another family unit. It includes the single parent family unit. The husband, or the wife, or the single parent is referred to as the householder. Rukun Kampung. It is a smaller unit of community in a desa (village). It is abbreviated as RK. Its head is elec- ted by its RT heads. A desa usually consists of three to twelve RK . Rukun Tetangga It is a smaller unit of community within an RK. EAch RK usually has two to ten RTS. Each RT consists of ten to forty households. Its chairperson is elected by the heads of the households. Rukun Tetangga is abbreviated as RT. Desa Swasembada; Desa Swakarya; and Desa Swadaya. Desa swasembada is a village whose socio-economic conditions, as evaluated by the Government, fall into the highest level of development. This village has the capacity to continue development without much help from the Government. 2 u m Desa swakarya is the v' scale in the evaluatio Government. Desa swadaya is the ty third scale in the eva most input and subsidy him. It i zation consisting of 8 to as a sub-district a the United States . We Iti zation consisting of 5 referred to as a distr in the United States. information about subj needs through a group the section of Methodo as "group approach." Interview approa mation about needs by the subjects. The per "interviewer," and the the "interviewee . " 26 Desa swakarya is the village that falls into the second scale in the evaluation, and needs more input from the Government. Desa swadaya is the type of village that falls into the third scale in the evaluation. This village needs the most input and subsidy from the Government. Kecamatan. It is a larger unit of community organi- zation consisting of 8 to 15 desas. It is often referred to as a sub—district and is comparable to a township in the United States. Kabupaten. It is a larger unit of community organi— zation consisting of 5 to 15 kecamatans. It is often referred to as a district and is comparable to a county in the United States. Group meeting approach. A technique of gathering information about subjects' perceptions of their community needs through a group discussion process as described in the section of Methodology. Hereafter it is referred to as “group approach." Interview approach. A technique of gathering infor— mation about needs by asking questions face-to—face with the subjects. The person who asks the question is the "interviewer," and the person who answers the question is the "interviewee." REVIEW 0 The review of re view of the context an and needs assessment a have examined communit have dealt with compar group approach as meth the literature that is basis for the study. The first of th Social Change, Commun' deals with the concept of community developme section, Community Prc the concepts of needs the betterment of com: last section, Methods studies that have exa which examined commun Section 1 . Socia and C In a review of gator found a full re CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The review of related literature provides an over— view of the context and concepts of community education and needs assessment and highlights those studies that have examined community needs. Though very few studies have dealt with comparing an interview approach and a group approach as methods for assessing community needs, the literature that is reviewed forms a logical theoretical basis for the study. The first of the three sections of this review, Social Change, Community Development and Community Education, deals with the concepts of community education in the context of community development and social change. The second section, Community Problems and Community Needs, deals with the concepts of needs as the basis of any planned change for the betterment of community, especially in rural areas. The last section, Methods of Needs Assessment, reviews those studies that have examined learning needs, especially those which examined community learning needs. Section 1. Social Change, Community Development and Community Education In a review of the social change literature, investi- gator found a full range of theories from single concept 27 staggering the leaders, McClelland's ‘ personality resulting innovators.4 The Marx materialism and Toynbe theories that explain ties. 0n the basis 0 can be classified as ‘ deficit theory . The changes in individual - the lack of certain c make a community or a develop, the communi t} 1J. A. Ponsioen sidered, A Sociologic Printer, 1969), pp. 7 2David C. McCle The Free Press, 1961) 3Everett E. Hag Illinois: The Dorsey 4Everett M. Rog The Impact of Communi Winston, 1969). 5James D. Cockl Johnson, Dependence , Political Economy (G 00., 1972), PP- 322‘ 28 theories such as Ogburn's Theory of Cultural Lag and Wallace's Revitalization Theory1 to theories which explain the dynamics of inclusive societies as a result of the agents triggering the process — i.e., Weber's Charismatic leaders, McClelland's achievers,2 Hagen's innovative personality resulting from status withdrawal,3 or Rogers' innovators.4 The Marxian conception of dialectical materialism and Toynbee's succession of civilization,5 are theories that explain changes by General Laws or Regulari- ties. On the basis of its premise, however, the theories can be classified as individual-deficit theory and structural- deficit theory. The first theory starts social change with Changes in individuals. Its basic assumption is that it is the lack of certain Characteristics of the individuals that make a community or a nation underdeveloped. Therefore, to deveIOp, the community must first change the individuals. 1 . . . J. A. PonSioen, The AnalySis of Soc1a1 Change Recon— sidered, A Sociological—Study (The Hague: Mouton and C0,, Printer, 1969), pp. 7—21. 2David C. McClelland, The Achieving Society (New York: The Free Press, 1961). 3Everett E. Hagen, Theory of Social Change (Homewood, Illinois: The Dorsey Press, Inc., 1962). Everett M. Rogers, Modernization Among Peasants: The Impact of Communication (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969). 5James D. Cockcroft, Andre Gunder Frank, and Dale L. Johnson, Dependence and Underdevelopment: Latin America's Political Economy (Garden City, New Jersey: Doubleday and Co., 1972), pp. 322—397. fore it is the s i to be changed first. 1 rural development prog: grams designed to prod: approaches. After World War leadership of the U.S.. the U.S.S.R. from the international aid prog helping the countries political development . the U.S. Agency for In was that of "injecting into the recipient con and pest control, for people in rural areas Change agents, either trained for that purpc the new technology and this approach, there :‘ Such a transition can in both formal and n03 consequence of this a‘ 29 The structural-deficit theory, contrary to the first one, assumes that the conditions or the social structures in which the individuals live are lacking or wrong, and therefore it is the structures of the community that have to be changed first. Most national development programs, rural development programs or community development pro- grams designed to produce change stem from these two approaches. After World War II, developed countries under the leadership of the U.S.A. from the "free world" block and the U.S.S.R. from the "communist world,“ started a huge international aid program to the emerging nations in helping the countries enhance their social, economic, and political development. In helping the developing nations, the U.S. Agency for International Development's approach was that of "injecting" modern technology, and knowledge into the recipient countries. New techniques in farming, and pest control, for example, were introduced to the people in rural areas through pilot projects and training. Change agents, either foreigners or local people specially trained for that purpose, became the key links in imparting the new technology and knowledge to the rural peOple. In this approach, there is no way but through education that such a transition can be made. Educational development, in both formal and nonformal settings, was the logical consequence of this approach. Community development and PA: by Frederick Harbison a is the key that unlock 'truism" has been a fu national development p two decades.6 Recentl has come under serious due in part to the res that education in a la consequences that hind and development. This but in developed or mc must be noted, however \___ ‘ 6Don Adams , Edu< l @195 (MassacE-s‘i 1970), p. viii. 7 James S. Colem; (Washington, D .C . : U 3 . . PhlllP H. Coom‘ S . W (New 30 community education flourished in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In this context, education is seen as an instrument in accelerating modernization and development. As stated by Frederick Harbison and Charles A. Meyers, "Education is the key that unlocks the door to modernization." This "truism" has been a fundamental assumption guiding national development planners and educators for the past two decades.6 Recently, however, this development "truism" has come under serious question. This reconsideration is due in part to the results of recent studies which show that education in a large number of instances produces consequences that hinder rather than promote modernization and development. This is not only in developing countries 7,8,9,10 but in developed or modern countries as well. It must be noted, however, that there are studies that challenge 6Don Adams, Education and Modernization in Asia, Readings (Massachusetts: Addison—Wesley Publishing Company, 1970), p. viii. 7James S. Coleman, Equality of Educational Opportunity (Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1966). 8Philip H. Coombs, The World Educational Crisis: A System Analysis (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968). 9Christopher Jencks, et al, Inequality: A Reassessment 0f the Effect of Family and Schooling in America (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1972). _ 0Samuel Bowles, "Schooling and Inequality from Genera— tion to Generation," Journal of Political Economy, 1972, pp. 219—251. Wuhan education' : development, came from programs for the rural called “green revoluti objectives. They were benefited the rich. T of the first and the P is an example of the 8 These criticism approaches used for n development, and commu sis on community parti development practices ll ‘ _Peter M. Blau Occupational Structure ‘ 1967). 12w s B k . . roo ov (East Lansing: Michi 13 15A S the ( ' ~Kahl r Lu - 0n PunYab A9331 (la: DEE. 31 some of these conclusions.ll’12 The other part of the criticism, which more directly challenges the assumption of the individual—deficit theory rather than education's instrumental role in promoting development, came from the fact that those development programs for the rural poor in developing countries, the so- called "green revolution," have failed to achieve their objectives. They were either not self-sustaining or only benefited the rich. The Comilla Projectl3’l4 is an example of the first and the Punyab Agriculture Development project15 is an example of the second. These criticisms have a great influence on the approaches used for national development plans, community development, and community education, by placing more empha- sis on community participation. An overview of community development practices is presented in the next section. 11Peter M. Blau and Otis Dudley Duncan, The American Occupational Structure (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967). 12W. B. Brookover, et al. The School Can Make a Difference (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1976). l3Akhter Hameed Khan, Reflections on the Comilla Rural Development Projects, (Overseas Liaison Committee, American Council on Education, Paper No. 3, March 1974). l4Akhter Hameed Khan, Learning From China: A Pakistan Experience (Michigan: American Council on Education and Depart- ment of Agriculture Economics, Michigan State University, 1975). 15A. S. Kahlon, et. al., The Dynamic of Punyab Agricul- ture, (Ludhiana: Department of Economics and Sociology, Punyab Agricultural University, 1972). isculsim is important to fir in this study. As the term l'community" can me people. According to Don defined, as sociologis people with a common c will be much too flexi rural village of a hun area."16 He further a "Community, the efforts, must h ness to make gen possible. That change efforts, must have suffic backgrounds of t relate them in a possible when pe from one another they have little ( think. "17 A definition of seems appropriate enOL 32 Community Development Before discussing what "community development" is, it is important to first define "community" as it is used in this study. As the term "community development," the term "community"can mean different things for different people. According to Donald R. Fessler, "if community is defined, as sociologists define it, as any area in which people with a common culture share common interests, it will be much too flexible because it can be applied to a rural village of a hundred families or to a metropolitan area."16 He further argues: "Community, then, to be a suitable locus for change efforts, must have a sufficient degree of primari- ness to make genuine interpersonal communication possible. That is, the people who associate in change efforts, even if only for the first time, must have sufficient knowledge or awareness of the backgrounds of their new associates to be able to relate them in a meaningful manner. This is rarely possible when people are drawn from areas so far from one another geographically and socially that they have little concept of how others live or think."17 A definition of community stated by Roland L. Warren seems appropriate enough to match the Fessler criteria. According to Warren, a community is "that combination of social units and systems which perform the major social func— 16 Donald R. Fessler, Facilitating Community Change: A Basic Guide. (La Jolla, Cal.: University Associates, 1976), p. 7. 17 Loc cit i and. locally ' islands it has differe used in South Sumatera in East Sumatera; 'Gam in Maluku (Moluccan Is Communit deve lo method, a movement, a The key word, however, defined a process as "a progression 0 participants to choose. The eve or individuals t social sensitivi William Kimball and Ma ment process as "a ser \- 18Roland E. Warr Rand McNally and Comps 19 R. Soepomo. Me Jakarta: PT. Internal—s Sedikit Tentang Massi] Leknas, 1970), p. 2. 0 . Dav1d Brokensl WM (Sar 1959). p. 47. 33 tions having locality relevance."18 In the West Java context, this type of community is in the form of desa or village. The term desa, although used nationally, was originated and locally used in Java. On other Indonesian islands it has different names. "Dusun", for example, is used in South Sumatera; "Nagari" in West Sumatera; "Suku" in East Sumatera; "Gampong" in Aceh; and “Negeri” or "Dati" in Maluku (Moluccan Islands).19 Community development can be seen as a program, a method, a movement, a process, as well as philosophy.20’21 The key word, however, is "process." Biddle and Biddle defined a process as "a progression of events that is planned by the participants to serve goals they progressively choose. The events point to changes in a group or individuals that can be termed growth in social sensitivity and competency."22 William Kimball and Manfred Thullen define community develop— ment process as ”a series of logical, identifiable, interre— 8Roland E. Warren, The Community in America (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1963), p. 9. 19R. Soepomo, Mengenal Desa: Serak dan Pengelolaannya Jakarta: PT. Intermasa, 1977), p. 15. See also Alfian, Sedikit Tentang Massilah Pernbanguuan Masyarahut Desa (Jakarta: Leknas, 1970), p. 2. 2 . . 0DaVid Brokensha and Peter Hodge, Community Development: §E_£E£§£E£ggagign (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co., 1969), p. 47. 21 . . . Paul H. Gessaman, "What 15 Community Development," in Community Development Unit II (Ames, North Central Regional Center for Rural Development, 1978). 22 . Dav1d Brokensha and Peter Hodge, 9p. cit. lated, and sequential come.“23 Its componen residents, application of group decision, act Community develo oriented as well as pr process is de-centrali method, goals of the p decision making partic reduced, there is a sh. and the process is weal mam, decision maki also reduced. The qua determined outside the and results of develop the community.24 Manfred Thullen community development: (l) The "commun' and based 0 done within (2) The "educat that commun 23Paul H. 6955a 24Paul H. 6953 34 lated, and sequential steps which result in certain out— 23 Its components are problem definition by community come." residents, application of systematic and analytic procedures of group decision, action, and evaluative technique. Community development as a process, then, is client oriented as well as problem oriented, and the decision making process is de—centralized. In community development as a method, goals of the program are set outside the community, decision making participation is reduced, motivation is reduced, there is a shift from problem solving to procedures, and the process is weakened. In community development as a program, decision making participation and motivation are also reduced. The quantity and nature of the outcomes are determined outside the community. The content, activities and results of development are for the agency and not for the community.24 Manfred Thullen listed 12 different approaches for community development: (1) The "community approach": holistic in nature and based on the premis that work has to be done within the community; (2) The "education approach": based on the premis that community problems are the results of inade— ‘\_ 2 . 3Paul H. Gessaman, 9p. Cit. 24 . Paul H. Gessaman, op. Cit. on the premi individual p (4) The “plannin approach: (5) The "commun' physical de low income p most problem facilities a (6) The "econom: the premis ' base is ess: (N (8) The "power the scenes. sions are (9) The "helpi help, loca premis tha in distrib (10) The "confl zation has 35 quate information; (3) The "human resource development" approach: individual and grass-root in nature, founded on the premis that to improve community individual potentials must be developed; (4) The “planning, design and architectural" approach: that the design is important; (5) The "community facilities improvement and physical development" approach: gives focus to low income people, based on the premis that most problems are the result of lack of facilities and services; (6) The "economic develOpment“ approach: based on the premis that a healthy and growing economic base is essential; (7) The "regional develOpment" approach: that community problems are too big to be solved by a single community; (8) The "power structure" approach: working behind the scenes. Its premis is that community deci— sions are made by power actors; (9) The "helping the disadvantaged" approach: self- help, local, and people oriented, based on the premis that most problems result from inequalities in distribution of decision making power; (10) The "conflict" approach: direct action and polari- zation based on the premis that it is useless to work 'withi The 'radica work within the system i misused and (12) The “revolu approach: . 'sick.‘ The "economic a - hm approaches that b: countries. Recently, been getting more att failure of the previo pressure of the donor poor . The purpose of < better living for the is done under the umb: reconstruction. In p: with community develo tries. Uma Lele defi living standards of t siding in rural areas ment self—sustaining . 25Uma Le 1e , The From Africa (Washingt tion, 1975) . 36 work 'within system', shake the system up; (11) The "radical change" or "reform" approach: work within system, based on the premis that the system itself is not that bad, it is just (12) The "revolution" approach or "total change" approach: based on the premis that society is 'sick.‘ The "economic approach" and "education approach" are two approaches that became a fashion of the 19505 in developing countries. Recently, however, the ”community approach" has been getting more attention. This is in part due to the failure of the previous approaches, and in part due to the The purpose of community development is to promote better living for the whole community. In rural areas, this iS done under the umbrella of rural development or rural reconstruction. In practice, rural development is synonymous With community development, eSpecially in developing coun— tries. Uma Lele defined rural development as "improving living standards of the mass of low—income population re— Siding in rural areas and making the process of their develop- ment self-sustaining."25 His definition is certainly appro- \ 25 ' lo ment: Lesson Uma Lele The DeSign of Rural Deve p . _ From Africa (Washington, D. C.: World Bank Research Publica _i__________ tlon, 1975). priate for the defin' process. The ‘onlyad' pimples of. co ppfiogramsm developi can be seen as the b' ment. In 1921 Tagor Reconstruction. The itscompleteness, ma respectful, acquaint their own country an of modern resources physical, social, ec Gandhi, in 1931, wit tried to make rural the basic wants of l: attitudinal change 0: Hodge, Tagore's attei was no rapport with ‘ could reach people, was a tendency to su tence . 2 7 The Ting Hs ien 26David Broken 40-41. 27Ibid., p. 43 37 priate for the definition of community development as a process. The only difference is its stress on rural areas. Examples of community development or rural development programs in developing countries are presented here. India can be seen as the birth place of community/rural develop— ment. In 1921 Tagore established an Institute of Rural Reconstruction. The purpose was to bring back life in all its completeness, making the villages self—reliant and self- respectful, acquainted with the cultural tradition of their own country and completed to make an efficient use of modern resources for the fullest development of their physical, social, economic and intellectual conditions. Gandhi, in 1931, with his famous non-violent approach, tried to make rural villages self—sufficient for meeting the basic wants of life. Both Tagore and Gandhi were attitudinal change oriented. According to Brokensha and Hodge, Tagore's attempt lacked financial support and there was no rapport with villagers. Gandhi, on the other hand, could reach people, but lacked thorough training and there was a tendency to substitute ideology for practical compe- 27 tence. The Ting Hsien Experiment was started in China in 1931 26 40—41. 27 David Brokensha and Peter Hodge, pp. cit., pp. Ibid., p. 43. under the leadership program cultural, types of education or experiment. The thr home type, and commu features. First, in a lot of extension e elementary schools, form was the "integr on the principle tha school, and the life the school curricul bring the school cur was to help to solve and home. It tried type of education ga and training for the the organization's n of the masses, and f for life, but to ren mass-education moven The Comi 11a P1 28 Y. C. James (Silang, Philippine: Development, 1975) . ngbid. , p. 7 30Akhter Hame. 38 28 It had a fourfold under the leadership of James Yen. program: cultural, economic, health and political. Three types of education were developed as the backbone of the experiment. The three types of education were: school type, home type, and community type. The school type had two features. First, in the form of the People's School with a lot of extension education systems for literacy programs, elementary schools, and leadership training. The second form was the "integrated village school" experiment, based on the principle that the entire community/village is the school, and the life of the village is incorporated in the school curriculum. The home type education tried to bring the school curriculum into the home. The purpose was to help to solve the problem of conflict between school and home. It tried to socialize the home. The community type of education gave more stress on further education and training for the graduates of the People's School in the organization's network. "To explore the potentialities of the masses, and find a way of educating them, not merely for life, but to remake life,"29 was the basic goal of this mass—education movement. The Comilla Project30 is an example of the 1950's 28Y. C. James Yen, The Ting Hsien Experiment in 1934 (Silang, Philippines: International Institute of Rural Development, 1975). ngbid., p. 7. 30Akhter Hameed Khan, pp. cit. community development developing countries from the United State Emil-ivevélopxdent Aca research activities - economic and social and action research. development center, structure for emplo projects, and agricu training center and China envied the Com' similar programs but 31 is an illus Project use of education as 1 same. The Chinese, 1 in the education/sch< an educational instri school to make it act their structural cha struggle, criticize, with irrigation work to land reconstruc ti 31Hsiang—po Le the People's Republi for Educational Deve 39 community development programs which were mushrooming in developing countries through international aid, especially from the United States. It started with establishing a Rural Development Academy in Comilla, 1958, with threefold research activities -— observational and survey about economic and social conditions, experimental projects, and action research. It had five program areas: a training development center, drainage and roads projects as infra- structure for employment, irrigation works, cooperative projects, and agriculture extension which combined the training center and the cooperative projects. At that time China envied the Comilla project. The Chinese had conducted similar programs but with different approaches. The Tachai Project31 is an illustration of the Chinese approach. The use of education as the backbone of the program was the same. The Chinese, however, first made structural changes in the education/school system. The commune was used as an educational instrument. Deformalization of the formal school to make it accessible to the majority was one of their structural changes. Their three key concepts were: struggle, criticize, and transform. Instead of starting with irrigation work and drainage, the Chinese gave priority to land reconstruction. According to Akhter Hameed Khan, 31Hsiang—po Lee, Education for Rural Development in the People's Republic of China (Essex: International Council for Educational Development, 1972). ‘ g. -‘a Project. He i learned from the Chin: nesia, the problem is becoming a communist that such a model can tion without transfon country, if, and only cerned about the poor the country. The Chilalo Agr Thai Rural Reconstruc Improvement in Camboé ment or community dew the programs , whe the] 3‘9‘Betru Gebreg: Ethiopia: An Evalua‘ Development Unit (Bll ment Research Center 33D. S. Liyasa« Participation in Devi Society and Action fr 34Phanom Smita ment,“ People's Part 35 Raymond E . B tial for Development culture Development $0 20 years after he established the Comilla Project, the Chinese approach and the prioritization on land recon— struction turned out to be more successful than the Comilla Project. He suggested that something can be learned from the Chinese Model. For a country like Indo- nesia, the problem is how to use the Chinese Model without becoming a communist state. The investigator believes that such a model can be adapted to the Indonesian situa— tion without transforming Indonesia into a communist country, if, and only if, the government is really con- cerned about the poor and can trust the people to "run" the country. The Chilalo Agriculture Development Unit,32 Sarvodaya, Thai Rural Reconstruction Movement,34 and Rice Production Improvement in Cambodia,35 are other examples of rural develop- ment or community development in Asia and Africa. In all the programs, whether it was basically economic development, 2Betru Gebregziabher, Integrated Development in Rural Ethiopia: An Evaluative Study of the Chilalo Agriculture Development Unit (Bloomington: PASITAM—International DeveIOp— ment Research Center, 1975). 33D. S. Liyasage, "Development in Srilanka," People's Participation in Development Vol. 2 (Calcutta: Indian FFHC Society and Action for Development FAO, 1973). 34Phanom Smitanada, "Thai Rural Reconstruction Move— ment," People's Participation Vol. 2. . 5Raymond E. Burton, Getting Agriculture Moving: Essen— tial for Development and Modernization (New York: The Agri— culture Development Council, Inc., 1967), pp. 5—11. if one into focus .7 lw ‘~ as' an instrument W The development is similar to the devc development. In the education, now it can formal as well as non education as a method from an individual ap Le‘I‘arte and Min “a philosophica community by pr needs of all of the local schoc bringing commux problems in an of community, : develop the cox self actualiza- This definition show is used as the cente It was not the case, the Indonesian situa easier to comprehend “— 36Clyde E. Led to Process (Midland: lgl 41 agricultural, or political, education always had a very important role. It is in this context that community edu— cation came into focus and is becoming more and more impor- tant as an instrument for change. Community Education The development of the concept of community education is similar to the development of the concept of community development. In the early days it meant only adult literacy education, now it can include almost any kind of education -— formal as well as nonformal. It is moving from community education as a method to community education as a process, from an individual approach to a community approach. LeTarte and Minzel defined community education as "a philosophical concept which serves the entire community by providing for all of the educational needs of all of its community members. It uses the local school to serve as the catalyst for bringing community resources to bear on community problems in an effort to develop a positive sense of community, improve community living, and develop the community process toward the end of self actualization." 6 This definition shows an American trend in which the school is used as the center of a community education program. It was not the case, however, in Asia or more specifically the Indonesian situation. Howard Hickey’s definition is easier to comprehend and does not necessitate the use of the H 36Clyde E. LeTarte, Community Education: From Program to Process (Midland: Pendell Publishing Company, 1972), p. 19. 'a process that . that affects th} a given comuni role of Communal} ditional concep identifying the community and ti (or the identif staff and leade the entire comm The word "assis the community itself The sentence "identif the community" is fel tial difference betwe community education c of this study. Commu fying community needs assessed, are the to; It is important the community educat: as there is a commun; concept is getting mi cation should not on cation but also the into practice. ‘w- 37Howard Hicke Community Education PP. 31-32. 42 school as catalyst although it does not close the possibility of including the school. He defines community education as: "a process that concerns itself with everything that affects the well—being of all citizens within a given community. This definition extends the role of Community Education from one of the tra— ditional concept of teaching children to one of identifying the needs, problems and wants of the community and then assisting in the development (or the identification) of facilities, programs, staff and leadership toward the end of improving the entire community."37 The word "assisting" in the definition implies that the community itself takes the major role in the process. The sentence "identifying the needs, problems and wants of the community" is felt by the investigator to be the essen- tial difference between the traditional and the latest community education concept. It is also the very object of this study. Community needs, the importance in identi— fying community needs, and how they can be identified or assessed, are the topics of the next two sections. It is important to note that, in such an approach, the community education process will not be ending as long as there is a community. That is why the lifelong education concept is getting more and more attention. Lifelong edu— cation should not only become the basic philosophy of edu- cation but also the "way of education." It should be put into practice. “*— 37Howard Hickey, et. al. The Role of the School in Community Education (Midland: Pendell Publishing Co., 1969), PP. 31-32. Definition The terms "prob community needs asses and sometimes differe related. odiorne define standard, important somebody will be co the standard involv tion represents the difference between t1 purposes, the standa: competency, a deviat. competency, and the the two . 39 In the Shorter defined as, "necessi stances of a case; i or possession, etc . ‘——._______ 8Larry Nolan ting Workshops (Ans P. 35. 39Larry Nolan 43 Section 2. Community Problems and Community Needs Definition The terms "problem" and "needs" in the context of a community needs assessment are sometimes used interchangeably and sometimes differently. It shows how the two are inter- related. Odiorne defines a problem as "a deviation from a standard, important enough to be solved, and to which somebody will be committed to a solution."38 In a community the standard involved is the desired condition. A devia— tion represents the present condition and the need is the difference between the two. Analogous to it, for learning purposes, the standard involved is the desired behavior or competency, a deviation represents the present behavior or competency, and the learning need is the difference between the two.39 In the Shorter Oxford Dictionary the term "need" is defined as, "necessity arising from the facts or circum— stances of a case; imperative call or demand for the presence or possession, etc. of something." The needs are sometimes Larry Nolan Davis, Planning, Conducting, and Evalua— ting Workshops (Austin, Texas: Learning Concepts, 1974), p. 35. 39Larry Nolan Davis, loc. cit. « ‘_ ti"? classified as "real n is a desirable elemen and would improve, a 'mithproblems recogni improve their situat' needs, but often the a person could feel for a diploma, but p income. How to know the felt need is no “Educational n discrepancy between or society) wants hi As can be seen the definition of ed and “need" are very and both imply discr tive condition of di discrepancy itself a For this reason, the changeably . The process 0: M 40Carol S . Cr Education" (Unpubli 1960) . 41Malcolm S. Education (New York 44 classified as "real need" and "felt need." The real need is a desirable element or condition that is lacking in, and would improve, a situation. Felt needs are what people with problems recognize as the elements necessary to improve their situation. Felt needs may also be real needs, but often they are not.40 By these definitions, a person could feel that he needs to get further education for a diploma, but probably his/her real need is additional income. How to know which is the real need and which is the felt need is not easy to answer. "Educational need” is defined by Knowles as "the discrepancy between what an individual (or organization or society) wants himself to be and what he is."41 As can be seen from the definition of problem and the definition of educational need, the term "problem" and "need" are very similar. The "problem" implies "need," and both imply discrepancy. The first describes the evalua— tive condition of discrepancy, and the second describes the discrepancy itself and the necessity to bridge the discrepancy. For this reason, the two terms are used together or inter— changeably. The process of identifying the problem and needs is 4OCarol S. Cramer, "The Diagnostic Process in Adult Education" (Unpublished Master Thesis, Indiana University, 1960). 41Malcolm S. Knowles, The Modern Practice of Adult Education (New York: Association Press, 1976), p. 86. i“; 'IV‘.’T.'?"I 3;“ «page; {5143 what needs assessmen "learning needs asse educational or lear needs assessment" if of a community as a educational . 42 W There are dif types of needs. On of human needs is a McIntosh, Klo into biogenic and d basic type of needs cal survival.43 The social and psycholog In classifying fication is difficul of individuals, the nation of the indiv the needs is by the another way of clas M . ”Note that h tlonal need" are tr 43Wm. Alex Mc D. Wilcox, "Theoret Soc1etal Process AE pp. 253-254. 45 what needs assessment is all about. It is called a "learning needs assessment" if its purpose is to identify educational or learning needs. It is called "community needs assessment" if its purpose is to identify the needs of a community as a whole —- educational as well as non— educational.42 Type of Need There are different ways and labels for classifying types of needs. On an individual level, Maslow's hierarchy of human needs is an example, as presented in Figure l. McIntosh, Klonglan and Wilcox classify human needs into biogenic and derived needs. The biogenic, vital, or basic type of needs are identified as universals of biologi- cal survival.43 The derived needs are of two categories, social and psychological. These are presented in Table 1. In classifying community needs, however,such a classi— fication is difficult to use. Although a community consists of individuals, the community needs are not the total combi— nation of the individuals' needs. One way to classify the needs is by the type of community institutions, and another way of classification is by the type of community 42Note that here the term "learning need" and "educa— tional need" are treated as synonymous. 43Wm. Alex McIntosh, Gerald E. Klonglan, and Leslie D. Wilcox, "Theoretical Issues and Social Indicators: A Societal Process Approach" in Policy Sciences 8(1977), PP. 253—254. Maslow emphasizes that the need for self-actualizatio 3 - ' is a healthy man'~ fl .' Isa-1" prime concern. A A Lo I . Most basic nee physical On the win satisfy be. MASLOW' S H N..— 44Malcolm S. F 46 function. Another possible way is by the type of govern- mental departments, or by general area of needs. There is no single accepted way for classification of needs at the community level. Self-actualization means actualizing one's potential, Maslow emphasizes that the need for self—actualization Need is a healthy man's for becoming everything prime concern. Self— one is capable of Actualiza- becoming. tion Esteem Needs Love, Affection, and Belongingness Needs 1 Safety Needs Physiological or Survival Needs Most basic needs have to do with survival, physically and psychologically. On the whole an individual cannot satisfy any level unless needs below are satisfied FIGURE 1 44 MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF HUMAN NEEDS 44Malcolm S. Knowles, op, cit., p. 24. =E.'L-" Basic Needs l . Nutrients 2. Bodily warm‘ 3 . Water 4 . Oxygen 5. Bodily hygi: 6. Exercise 7. Rest and 31' 8. Expulsion o: 9. Avoidance o. 10. Avoidance o 11. Sexual tens Derived Needs: Soci Prestige Acquisition Explanation Creature co beyond subs 5. Income 6. Employment prI—I . Derived Needs : Psyc . Affection ‘ Interactior Communicat . Protection 1 2 3 4 *‘T *Source: McIntosh , TABLE 1 BASIC AND DERIVED HUMAN'S NEEDS* Basic Needs 1. Nutrients 2. Bodily warmth and coolness 3. Water 4. Oxygen 5. Bodily hygiene 6. Exercise 7. Rest and sleep 8. Expulsion of bodily wastes 9. Avoidance of fear and injuries conditions 10. Avoidance of inclement environmental conditions ll. Sexual tension maintenance Derived Needs: Social 1. Prestige 2. Acquisition of knowledge and skills 3. Explanation of the meaning of human existence 4. Creature comfort (goods and services above and beyond subsistance) 5. Income 6. Employment Derived Needs: Psychological l. Affection 2. Interaction 3. Communication 4. Protection from the social misdeeds of others *Source: McIntosh, Klonglan, and Wilcox (1977) 47 --. :nlassification. ll. Type of Need by George H. Axinn‘ that characterize a ‘ was designed after h The seven community . marketing, personal 1 governance, and lear each other through a set into social, pol and physical environ Axinn explains to provide the prodr means of this funct transportation of 5 tion) seed, feeds, production, the app vities in an agricu. consist mostly of p M 45George H. Ax Development (East L Education, M.S.U. , 48 For the purpose of this study two classifications were made. First on the basis of a community functions classifi— cation, and the second on the basis of a general area classification. Type of Need by Community Function (Axinn Model). George H. Axinn45 identifies seven functional components that characterize a typical rural social system. The model was designed after he visited rural villages in Indonesia. The seven community functions are: supply, production, marketing, personal maintenance, health care delivery, governance, and learning. The functions are related to each other through a linkage infrastructure, and are all set into social, political, economic, religious, cultural, and physical environments. (Figure 2) Axinn explains the functions as follows: Supply Function. The end of the supply function is to provide the production function with its inputs. The means of this function include storage, exchange, and transportation of such inputs, as (for agriculture produc- tion) seed, feeds, fertilizer, and credit; and for other production, the appropriate raw materials. Learning acti— vities in an agricultural village related to supply may consist mostly of personal experiences with the regularities 45George H. Axinn, Non-formal Education and Rural Development (East Lansing: Program of Studies in Nonformal Education, M.S.U., 1976), pp. 7—13. soH uuuspoum .oucedz HnGOmHo DUGUEOQEOO HDGOH U UGDh 49 mucoEconH>cz Hmowm%cm pom Hop:ofiso.msoflmflaom. .wncHez HmCOmHo mucocanoo Hmcowuocom meanness: coH noospowm financing consumpti tion is to create th means of this functi resources as land, 1 energy. Learning re through repetition, experiment, demonstr and various media. and energy in produo Marketin Func - movement and arrange trade or consumptior counting and barteri substituted for gooc‘ The end for this fur of the production f1 include direct consx transportation, and of produce is class end of this functio operating within it function inc lude su 50 and accidents of nature. Production Function. Production concerns manipulation of the supply elements to create items which can be marketed (including consumption). The end of the production func— tion is to create the goods which the system may use. The means of this function include a combination of such resources as land, labor, capital, and technology with energy. Learning related to production may take place through repetition, guided practice, observation, play, experiment, demonstration, discussion, personal explanation and various media. Rural peOple spend much of their time and energy in production activity. Marketing Function. Marketing means the selection, movement and arrangement of produced goods for storage, trade or consumption. It also includes valuing goods, counting and bartering, bookkeeping, use of money when substituted for goods, and issuing credit to "customers." The end for this function is to dispose of the output of the production function. The means for this function include direct consumption, as well as storage, exchange, transportation, and processing of the output of production. Personal Maintenance Function. Individual consumption of produce is classified as "Personal Maintenance." The end of this function is to keep the individual's body operating within its cultural context. The means of this function include such activities as feeding one's self, ‘ 'theseibimlogical new satisfying social an sumption and other a Health Care Del tion is to ensure th well-being of the m- function include dis suggestions, as wel Governance Fun. maintenance of appr- and between the syst this function are tr of transactions via between the system a Learning Funct: ensure that each net things which need tt functions, and also tion) among the var system becomes more develops ends of be (vertical) differer Speech, hearing, ar 51 bathing, putting on and taking off clothing, grooming, participation in sleep, rest and recreation, and other similar activities. Almost as important as satisfying these biological needs for personal maintenance are satisfying social and psychological needs through con— sumption and other activities. Health Care Delivery Function. The end of this func- tion is to ensure the physiological (and psychological) well—being of the members of the system. The means of this function include dispensing of various substances and suggestions, as well as administration to the human anatomy. Governance Function. The end of this function is the maintenance of appropriate relationship among the components and between the system and other systems. The means of this function are through control or regulation of the flow of transactions via the linkages within the system and between the system and other systems. Learning Function. The end of this function is to ensure that each new generation understands how to do those things which need to be done in performing all of the other functions, and also to facilitate transactions (communica- tion) among the various functional components. As social System becomes more specialized, the learning function develops ends of both functional (horizontal) and status (vertical) differentiation. The means of this function are speech, hearing, and the other senses, facilitated by such _ t..-..= . - 5.2-3; pr .'ou€ ens-d: .; r531“.- :12“ .-.- ‘flfothet _. Minna-150 exp]. affects all other e- are normally resiste learning component p transactions on all frequency , fidelity cant change in a ru new skills related alterations of cult Section 3. Why Needs Assessment We have so far However, the questi< still needs answeri: gave answer to this reasons why needs a: According to L. least four purposes a direction; it ans continuation or giv clearly in the plan M 46Larry Nolan 52 instruments as schools, newspapers, radio, meetings, dance, drama, song, books, exhibits, telephone, drums, and a multitude of other channels of communication. Axinn also explains that a change in any component affects all other components and all linkages. Most changes are normally resisted by all aspects of the system. The learning component plays a unique role as a facilitator of transactions on all linkages, and serves to enhance the frequency, fidelity and capacity of the linkages. Signifi— cant change in a rural society involves not only learning new skills related to those functions but frequently the alterations of cultural norms. Section 3. Methods of Needs Assessment Why Needs Assessment We have so far reviewed the context of needs assessment. However, the question of the necessity of needs assessment still needs answering. The previous discussion indirectly gave answer to this question. Here are presented several reasons why needs assessment is important. According to Larry Davis, assessing needs serves at least four purposes: it gives a place to begin; it provides a direction; it answers the question "why?"; and it authorizes continuation or gives permission to stop. It can be seen clearly in the planning and evaluation cycle of a community 46Larry Nolan Davis, 9p. cit., p. 35. with: education program. a needs assessment is it certainly gives d 'a basis to stop or c Other reasons c programs based on I based on community on the needs}.7 and make an appropriate community as a whol and research findin that further enhanc Critics have q of educational syste needs of rural popul "...the incompa teaching and w) most severe in After visiting 47U.S . Departim A Guide to Needs As ton: U.S. Governme 48Dara S. Gill Problems of Determi 1977), p- 11. 49Philip Coomb How Nonformal Educa Press, 1974), p. 4. 50Kamla Bhas in (Bangkok: F .A.O . -U 53 education program as presented in Figure 3. Whether the needs assessment is conducted top—down or grass—roots, it certainly gives direction and a starting point, and a basis to stop or continue a program. Other reasons come from the assumption that educational programs based on learning needs, or community programs based on community needs, will be more successful if based on the needs,47 and it is assumed that in turn it will make an appropriate contribution to individuals and the community as a whole.48 The following are some observations and research findings in the field of community education that further enhance the assumption. Critics have questioned the relevance and adequacy of educational systems in the context of specific learning needs of rural populations. Coombsand Ahmed wrote: "...the incompatibility between what schools were teaching and what the people needed to learn, was most severe in rural areas."49 After visiting various projects, Bhasin50 reached the 47U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, A Guide to Needs Assessment In Community Education (Washing— ton: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 4. 48Dara S. Gill, Education For The Rural Youth — Some Problems of Determining Learning Needs (Paris: IIEP,UNESCO, 1977), p. 11. 49Philip Coombs and M. Ahmed, Attacking Rural Poverty: How Nonformal Education Can Help (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1974), p. 4. 50Kamla Bhasin, Participatory Training For Development (Bangkok: F.A.O.-—United Nations, 1976). . . -| 1‘. .- H q ' :n '- I "In 13 'll L'. Alb‘. J - II- . _ .- . f l I. l i' " I. a J I I Pr°8ram Operation NEEDS ASSESSMENT Iii *Source; 0's. Dep; 54 Needs / Assessment Analysis\ I i I l I I ‘ g 4! K/ Program ;.M-: Objectives /7! R / Program Operation Budgeting FIGURE 3 NEEDS ASSESSMENT IN THE PLANNING AND EVALUATION CYCLE* *Source: U.S. Department HEW (1976) . theirfdependence on: development prioriti of the people. For are formulating thee their problems, thei In Indonesia tt people‘s needs is re reports.51’52 E. Di should see the probi themselves . . . because lies, their jobs, t] 1 their belongings, P direct the agricult' 55 following conclusions. First, programs for development should be planned and implemented so that they lead to the creation of strong self-reliant communities and not to their dependence on outside agencies and groups. Second, development priorities should be based on the felt needs of the people. For this it is necessary that those who are formulating these programs know the people, understand their problems, their needs and their potential. In Indonesia this incompatibility of programs and people's needs is reported in several research and seminar 51,52 reports. E. De Vries suggested that ...rural economy should see the problems from the eyes of the peasants themselves...because the peasants themselves, their fami— lies, their jobs, their livestock, their consumption, their belongings, plans, hopes and fears, are the ones that direct the agriculture direction." Among the ten principles recommended by UNESCO as the basis for adult education, the first mentioned is the need to use the needs of the participants as the basis. It 51BP3K, Hasil Seminar Nasional Pendidikan Kedesaan (Jakarta: BP3K, 1976), pp. 3—4. 52LPIS, Beberapa Masalah Pembangunan Pedesaan: Suatu studi Kasus di Kecamatan Sayang, Kabupaten Demak, Jawa Tengah (Salatiga: Universitas Satya Wacana, 1976). 53E. De Vries, Masalah2 Petani Jawa (Jakarta: Bhratara, 1972), p. 11. (Translation by Kusumo Sutojo; adapted into English by the writer). says: "(a) it should participants a stamences in education; the .vileged group priority withi advancement . (e) be adapted seek the parti groups and co all levels."54 All these quot asseSsment is . How another question to Approach and Proced There are a va: needs assessment. suggested in the re; To meet the ed‘ Diggers suggest a 9 steps are: (a) identification (b) organization an professional gr 5 4Yearbook of 1979, Fourth Editic p. 108. 55Kevin J. Sw: Needs and Programs Leaders," Educatio: 56 says: "(a) it should be based on the needs of the participants and make use of their different experiences in the development of adult education; the most educationally underpri— vileged group should be given the highest priority within a perspective of collective advancement. (e) be adapted to the actual condition and seek the participation of individual adults, groups and community in decision making at all levels."54 All these quotations show how important needs asseSsment is. How to conduct needs assessment is, then, another question to be answered. Approach and Procedure of Needs Assessment There are a variety of approaches and procedures for needs assessment. The following are illustrations as suggested in the readings or as conducted in the field. To meet the educational needs of children, Swick and Diggers suggest a common-sense approach.55 The basic steps are: (a) identification of needs (selecting priority needs) (b) organization and communication of needs to lay and professional groups 54Yearbook of Adult and Continuing Education 1978— 1979 Fourth Edition (Chicago: Marquis Academic Media), ~ p. 1 8. 5Kevin J. Swick and R. Kim Driggers, "Educational Needs and Programs A Common Sense Approach For Educational Leaders," Education, Vol. 96, 1976, No. 3: pp. 276—277. ”I (c) selection of pr ((1) implementation '1»ng (e) :dfihehewent of i 1 fl.§‘3yc'a '1 .. .. . ‘3'” ‘1’”? f, f : u . 4* continuous impr at». . . According to B needs assessment th (a) listing the ful (b) determining its (c) assessing the are being achi cies) (d) determining wh' present and de to correct . According to I needs assessment, 1 requires the comp1< (a) identifying per (h) speaking the s (c) stating concer (d) finding the me (e) measuring and 6Barbara E. Reliability of Goa The Journal of Ed! pp. 184-188. 57U . S . Depar' 57 (c) selection of programs to meet needs (d) implementation of programs on an experimental basis (e) development of an on—going evaluation process to insure continuous improvement in the school program. According to Brittingham, the basic activities of needs assessment through a goal-ratings method are:56 (a) listing the full range of possible goals (b) determining its relative importance (0) assessing the degree to which the important goals are being achieved by the program (identifying discrepan— cies) (d) determining which of the discrepancies between the present and desired performance are the most important to correct. According to U.S. Department of HEW,57 a successful needs assessment, regardless of the size of the program, requires the completion of nine major steps: (a) identifying people and roles (b) speaking the same language (C) stating concerns and goals (d) finding the needs (e) measuring and ranking the needs 56Barbara E. Brittingham and Anton J. Netusil, "The Reliability of Goal Ratings in a Needs Assessment Procedures," The Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 69, no. 5, 1976, PP. 184-188. 57U.S. Department of HEW, op. cit., p. 7. (f) (g) (h) ti“), setting priorit determining the planning the pr continuous reas English and Ka needs assessment an (a) (b) (d) (e) (f) (g) planning to pla goal derivatio goal validatio goal prioritiz goal translati validation of goal re-priori futuristic inpr rerank goals select testing assessing the ( collate data g.‘ develop initia prioritize gap publish list 0 The seven steps of data produced in t 8Fenwick W . ment A Focus for Association For SI PPt 13-14. 58 (f) setting priorities (g) determining the feasibility of meeting the needs (h) planning the program (objectives and procedures) (i) continuous reassessment. English and Kaufman58 suggest 14 generic steps of needs assessment and a seven step follow up for action: (a) planning to plan: charting means and ends (b) goal derivation (c) goal validation (d) goal prioritization (e) goal translation: performance indicators and objectives (f) validation of performance objectives (9) goal re—prioritization (h) futuristic input to goal ranking (i) rerank goals (j) select testing instruments or evaluative strategies for assessing the current state (k) collate data gathered (1) develop initial gap or "need statements" (m) prioritize gap statements according to step (d) (n) publish list of gap statements The seven steps of post needs assessment which act upon the data produced in the needs assessment are: 8Fenwick W. English and Roger A. Kaufman, Needs Assess— ment A Focus for Curriculum Development (Washington, D.C.: Association For Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1975), PP. 13—14. (o)interpolate ga (p) conduct diagno implementation (ii?)‘“~‘budget for imp (r) fund strategie (s) implement stra (t) reassess gaps (u) repeat steps 0 These example assessment is a co zing needs is nece are two different tematic-logic appr UNESCO Regional Se as “a priori appro The first type of without going to t needs assessment. general goal and t tives through seve This is certainly The "environ: the learning need: 59UNESCO Reg W 1974), p. 11. 59 (o) interpolate gaps by program level (p) conduct diagnostic/planning sessions to develop implementation strategies to meet identified needs (q) budget for implementation strategies (r) fund strategies (5) implement strategies (t) reassess gaps Via feedback (u) repeat steps of needs assessment process. These examples show three things. First, that needs assessment is a continuing process; second, that prioriti— zing needs is necessary; and third, that at least there are two different approaches to needs assessment —— a ”sys— tematic—logic approach" and a "target—group approach." A UNESCO Regional Seminar identified the two approaches as "a priori approach" and 'environment—based approach." The first type of approach can be done, in the extreme case, without going to the field. In other words, an "arm chair" needs assessment. The process is started from a very general goal and then is broken down into behavioral objec— tives through several breaking-down and specification steps. This is certainly a system approach model. The "environment-based approach" implies understanding the learning needs of the "target" group in the particular 59UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia, Rural Youth and Out—of—School Education in Asia (Bangkok: 1974), p. 11. .g' MIPL‘..—7r.'i&e£ hoiiszfnmfim ‘I _ U . .. ' , * ‘ mtiaflma - ._ ,-._ +-.- arm-r! {fl ‘ " .. amateur! the ind H,- The focus is a part complex of economic sources, natural an actual and potentia the cultural values The first app purpose of designi though it is also - tematic approach f . experiment.60 It t Curriculum for the need ten more year: During that time, ( obsolescent. The second apj assessment. First adults who can be secondly, because problems more dire —~—-——.__.._ sosudijarto a cational Objective Educational Innova 60 environment or milieu (socio-economic-culture) of that group. The determination of the learning needs proceeds from an initial analysis and understanding of the milieu factors and the individual's interaction with them. The focus is a particular ecological system with its complex of economic and social relationships; its re- sources, natural and human, individual and institutional, actual and potential, utilized and underutilized; and the cultural values and traditions. The first approach is probably appropriate for the purpose of designing schools and college curriculum, though it is also questionable. A good example of a sys— tematic approach for curriculum development is an Indonesian experiment.60 It took five years to develop a National Curriculum for the K—12 school system. Probably it will need ten more years to see its relevance and effectiveness. During that time, emerging needs could make the curriculum obsolescent. The second approach is appropriate for community needs assessment. First, because it is primarily concerned with adults who can be trusted to make their own decisions; secondly, because it is concerned with solving community problems more directly and in a shorter amount of time than 60Sudijarto & Sutjipto, Setting Priorities Among Edu— cational Objectives (Saigon: SEAMEO Regional Center for Educational Innovation and Technology, 1974). O ' New fina mum :mm a ml - y, , v > d I. I f ’3 ' ' "1'" "' ’3!” 4“ fans stun-.13! . flit-1th} Problem be 3w ”.7.- .‘212'... ..I .-. . ._. ‘ .59!” . . -, ' mentation of the pr .5-' .. _ _.-. 'n approach for commu four implications:6 1. the ident‘ needs becomes a pa community and gove . 2. the appro . of attitudinal cha 3. it is ess do not form a sing: designed to meet t] as well as multifu 4. it implie needs are determin , people in the com for their cement, local milieu and r Techni ues for Cox " The real net difficult to iden‘ w 61ummsco Reg PP. 11-12. 61 the schooling system; and third, it can be done as part of the program, which is supposed to be a characteristic of a community education program, so that there is not a time lag problem between the preparation and the imple- mentation of the program. The adoption of the second approach for community needs assessment has at least four implications:61 1. the identification of the problems and the learning needs becomes a participatory activity involving the whole community and governmental agencies. 2. the approach recognizes the critical importance of attitudinal changes for community education programs 3. it is essential to recognize that learning needs do not form a single profile. Consequently the programs designed to meet these needs must necessarily be diverse as well as multifunctional. 4. it implies that not only the problems and learning needs are determined by a participatory process with the people in the community, but that the programs also draw for their comment, to the maximum extent feasible, on the local milieu and resources. Techniques for Conducting Needs Assessment "The real needs of the rural communities are really not difficult to identify. Felt needs, however, can be identified 61UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia, 9p. cit., pp. 11—12. " fishnets-1i- needs, I however, other tec cate directly with among others , are: delphi technique , . To conduct a . different techniqu- data to be collect sources. An obser data concerning en technique is suita documents in the c< or a questionnaire used for collectin Since this study c techniques, which and the "group app on these two techr Interview Ap; through face-to-—fa “._.—._.. 62APEID, UNE; Managing Educatio vance Level Works Delhi: 1977), p. 62 only in consultation with the people."62 This statement implies that the real needs can be identified by indirect consultation with the people. For example, observation. For the felt needs, which is the focus of this study, however, other techniques that in one way or another communi— cate directly with the people are needed. These techniques, among others, are: interview, gggup meeting, questionnaires, delphi technique, rating scales, or their combinations. To conduct a complete community needs assessment, different techniques are required because the types of data to be collected are of different kinds and from different sources. An observation technique is suitable for collecting data concerning environmental conditions. A documentary technique is suitable for collecting information from documents in the community or other sources, an interview or a questionnaire, or a group meeting technique must be used for collecting felt needs of the people in the community. Since this study chooses the interview and group meeting techniques, which are labeled as the "interview approach" and the "group approach," the remaining discussion is focused on these two techniques. Interview Approach, is a method of collecting data through face-to—face questioning. The questions asked 62APEID, UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia, Managing Education for Rural Development: Report of the Ad— vance Level Workshop on Education for Rural Development (New Delhi: 1977), p. 23. ‘_ icelia-fneschin, inter- neither valid nor i upon such factors a the kind of data re be interviewed, and the skill of the i as a research ins In terms of f- and nonstandardizeo "The standard precisely the a number of r questions mus1 Thus, we can I answers are d! rather than i1 There are two sub-‘ scheduled and the “The schedule question in a in the same 0 63William w. of Your Community 64Elizabeth 1 Sensitive Subject Social Workers, 1' 65Raymond L. and Tactics (Home 60. 63 usually are an open-ended type of question. Sometimes it is also called "reconnaissance survey."63 Sometimes the interview is conducted via telephone. According to Celia Deschin, interview as a method of research is neither valid nor invalid per se. "The validation depends upon such factors as: the problems to be investigated, the kind of data relevant to the problem, the persons to be interviewed, and the qualifications, the training, and the skill of the investigator who utilize interviewing as a research instrument."64 In terms of forms and style there are standardized and nonstandardized interviews. "The standardized interview is designed to collect precisely the same categories of information from a number of respondents and the answers to all questions must be comparable and classifiable. Thus, we can be sure that any differences in the answers are due to differences among respondents rather than in the questions asked."65 There are two sub—types of the standardized interview, the scheduled and the nonscheduled. "The scheduled interview not only specifies the question in advance but also uses the questions in the same order with each respondent. The 63William W. Reeder, Determining the Problems and Needs of Your Community (Ithaca: Cornell University, p. 2.) Elizabeth Herzog, et. al., Research Interviewing in Sensitive Subject Areas (New York: National Association of Social Workers, 1963), p. 19. Raymond L. Gorden, Interviewing: Strategy, Techniques, and Tactics (Homewood, Illinois: The Dorsey Press, 1976), P. 60. st. response «sea; or "tel- . ment of stands " "nonscheduled i record the res reduce the fre form, later, b The scheduled questions. The no ended questions. I tured interview."6 Trained and 5 tion to a given so interaction betwee competencies neede W cussion as "the process think and wor mation or sol This definition is tion. There are n that can be used 1 661nm, p. 67Hugo F. Re (London: Routled 68David w. v Introduction (Duh 64 nonscheduled interview gives the interviewer some choice as to the order of the questions, freedom to attempt alternative wordings of the same ques- tion, and freedom to use neutral probes if the first response to a question is not clear, com— plete, or relevant. To keep within the require- ment of standardized interview, however, the nonscheduled interviewer must either initially record the responses on a standardized form or reduce the free flow of information to a standard form, later, by the process of content analysis."66 The scheduled interview can have open—ended or closed questions. The nonscheduled interview has always open— ended questions. It is sometimes called a "semi—struc- tured interview." Trained and skilled understanding of people in rela— tion to a given social situation, and awareness of the interaction between interviewer and interviewee, are competencies needed by an interviewer. Group Meeting. David Wright defined small group dis- cussion as "the process whereby two or more people overtly think and work together in order to share infor— mation or solve a problem."68 This definition is suitable for the "group meeting" defini— tion. There are many kinds of small group meeting, however, that can be used for discussion. For example, brainstorming, 66Ibid., p. 61. 67Hugo F. Reading, A Dictionary of The Social Sciences (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977), p. 112. 68David W. Wright, Small Group Communication:; An Introduction (Dubuque: Hunt Publishing Co., 1975), p. l. lines to generate i individual. The p: (a) A "nominal phas' ideas in writilj sharing in roux by each indivic all members of The ideas are ' (b) A “discussion 1 Instead, each Suggesting an or exPlain the 65 buzz groups, input groups,69 and Nominal Group Techniques.70 The Nominal Group Technique (N.G.T.) is a process that brings persons together and uses some discussion guide— lines to generate ideas. It encourages idea input by each individual. The process involves three phases: (a) A "nominal phase" includes: the silent listing of ideas in writing by each individual in the group; sharing in round robin fashion of the ideas written by each individual; the recording of ideas until all members of group have no further ideas to share. The ideas are to be listed quickly, without discussion. (b) A "discussion phase" which is not free—wheeling. Instead, each idea is given attention. The person suggesting an idea is given the opportunity to clarify or explain the idea. The round robin discussion of ideas insures input by all group members without domination by any one. (c) A "voting phase" in which each individual privately and in writing ranks or rates items numerically. The group decision is based on the pooled outcome of indi— vidual votes. This form of voting insures that each member has equal impact in the group's decision process. 69Ibid., p. 5. 70Andre Delbecq and Andrew VanDeVen, Nominal Group Technique (N.G.T.): A New Process for Group Input and Decision Making (Unpublished leaflet). .‘I‘ chosen fo are des . According to W small group communi I'l. Individual more ideas ideas alor 2. In general are bettei alone . 3. Participa1 aid learn: 4. By and la: in groups decisions alone. 5. Small gro outlet fo Disadvantages of s Consuming; discuss minority vieWpoint Senous to be pro du tives are not agre In the N-G.T, minimal. If the 1 Will not ConSume ( \ 71 . DaVId w “ 72 L°°~ Cit. 66 This N.G.T. type of small group meeting is the one that was chosen for the purpose of this study, with small changes as are described in Chapter III. According to Wright, there are five advantages of small group communication/work "1. Individuals working as a group can provide more ideas than can an individual generating ideas alone. 2. In general, the solutions made by groups are better than those made by individuals alone. 3. Participation in small groups appears to aid learning. 4. By and large, individuals who made decisions in groups have more commitment to those decisions than if they made those decisions alone. 5. Small group communication serves a suitable outlet for ventilation."71 Disadvantages of small group communication are: time consuming; discussion often wasteful; often supresses minority viewpoints; group membership is often too hetero- genous to be productive; group goals, purposes and objec- tives are not agreed upon by the group participants. In the N.G.T. situation those disadvantages seem minimal. If the time for discussion can be structured, it will not consume too much time. Interview and Group Meeting techniques have been used in Indonesian rural villages. A combination of Learning Identification Cards, Interview and Group Discussion tech- 71David W. Wright, 92. cit., p. 8. 72Loc. cit. were asked to wri needed and what kl Interviews were a group discussion leaders. Data 93 cessed with a wei of the ranking of was no attempt to of the three tech Another atte Both interview ar for identifying 1 from three groups mal community lea 67 niques was used to identify learning needs and human resource in a unit of community in West Java73. Identi- fication Cards were distributed to respondents. They were asked to write down what kind of learning they needed and what kind of skills they could teach to others. Interviews were also conducted with nonleaders, and group discussion sessions were carried out with community leaders. Data gathered from the three sources were pro- cessed with a weighting procedure, to get final results of the ranking of need priorities. Unfortunately, there was no attempt to compare the effectiveness and efficiency of the three techniques. Another attempt was reported by Marzuki and Laoh.74 Both interview and group discussion techniques were used for identifying felt learning needs and community problems from three groups of villager: formal desa leaders, infor- mal community leaders, and nonleaders/participants. Des— criptive comparisons were made of the types of needs derived from the three groups in each teachnuique. From the data presented in the report, the investigator found the following information: 73A. Suryadi, Cara-Cara Untuk Mengidentifikasi Kebutuhan Belajar dan Sumber Belajar Dalam Masyarakat (Jakarta: BP3K, 1977). 74M. Saleh Marzuki and Laoh, Diagnosis of Community Needs in Relation to Basic Learning Package (Malang: SEAMEO Regional INNOTECH Project CB-BLP/PAJAR BERKEMAS, 1978) . many types of (b) Differences 0 priority of nu (c) Nonleaders se1 leaders than ‘ (d) Interestingly as a need by ' A study condi Aceh Province75 r. findings: (a) Learning need 68 (a) In both interview and group techniques the formal deed leaders identified fewer types of needs while the nonleaders/learners identified almost three times as many types of needs; (b) Differences occured among the three groups on the priority of needs identified; (c) Nonleaders seem to have more similarities with formal leaders than the informal community leaders; (d) Interestingly enough the literacy program was identified as a need by the nonleaders group only. A study conducted through an interview approach in Aceh Province75 resulted, among others, in the following findings: (a) Learning needs derived from two communities varied considerably; (b) Respondents inclined to state the needs in general terms; (c) The felt needs were real needs; (d) Two general area types of needs frequently mentioned were: home economics, and vocational skills. \— 75Fakultas Ilmu Pendidikan, Universitas Syah Kuala, Laporan Penelitian dalam Rangka Proyek Experimentasi Pusat Kegiatan Belajar Daerah Istimewa Aceh (Banda Aceh: FIP— U.S.K.,l976), pp. 36-37. of social clunge. of the individual of education's in zation. A new approa and community edu stress than befor pation and commun the emerging need There were 5 techniques and a assessment. In c priori approach" or, as prefered b approach" versus is what is seen a needs assessment. Among the t: the "group meetii Three studies of readings are rev for this study, the research . 69 Summary Concepts of community/rural development and community education have been reviewed in the context of theories of social change. Related readings show serious criticism of the individual—deficit theory of change and the "truism" of education's instrumental role in development and moderni- zation. A new approach is emerging in education in general and community education in particular which gives more stress than before to the importance of community partici— pation and community needs. This in turn is a basis for the emerging need for community needs assessment. There were several studies using different kinds of techniques and a recommendation of how to conduct a needs assessment. In contrast these can be classified as an "a priori approach" versus an "environment—based" approach, or, as prefered by the investigator, a "systematic—logic approach" versus a "community approach." The second approach is what is seen as the most appropriate one for community needs assessment. Among the techniques identified, the "interview" and the "group meeting" were chosen as the methods of this study. Three studies of a similar type were reviewed. These readings are reviewed and presented as a theoretical basis for this study, and/or background information in directing the research. u...1.l_ s,‘ Interview Ap I v I o- if“ 4:101 '92 wfl . ' I ‘ methods of field taupe " - - - "' - mt! _'_ ‘ approaches were a :I'J-J- 5.. . .. studied. How the how its data were ,.I ‘ This chapter ‘ undertaken. They preparation, fiel as the three sec - Sec The preparat tion of instrumer ment permission, selection of site instruments . Construction of Two instrum in the form of a approach guide, study. For the CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN OF STUDY Interview Approach and Group Approach were the two methods of field study used in this study. These two approaches were also the object of the research being studied. How the study was planned and conducted, and how its data were analyzed are described in this chapter. This chapter is organized in the order of the tasks undertaken. They can be clustered into three stages: preparation, fieldwork, and analysis. These are presented as the three sections of this chapter. Section 1. Preparation Stage The preparation of this study includes the construc— tion of instruments and procedural guides, getting govern— ment permission, selection and training of fieldworkers, selection of sites for the study, and trying out of the instruments. Construction of Instruments Two instruments for collecting data from the subjects, in the form of an interview approach guide and a group approach guide, were developed for the purpose of this study. For the use in the field, the two instruments had 70 Translation of In Two translat view Guide and th in Bahasa Indones translator was as Indonesia version The second transl Sunda translation done to double ch translation. Fou The mistakes were development," "ne takes were then r In terms of The two guides we and training of t Approval of Local To carry oui needed to get ap] well as the kabu; of the Office of Development, Min 71 to be translated into the local language —- Bahasa Sunda. The Interview Guide is presented in Appendix A, and the Group Approach Guide in Appendix B. Translation of Instruments Two translators were hired for translating the Inter— view Guide and the Group Approach Guide. Both were experts in Bahasa Indonesia as well as Bahasa Sunda. The first translator was asked to translate the original Bahasa Indonesia version of the two instruments into Bahasa Sunda. The second translator was asked to translate the Bahasa Sunda translation back into Bahasa Indonesia. This was done to double check the accuracy of the Bahasa Sunda translation. Four mistakes were found in the translation. The mistakes Were in the translation of the words: "self development," "need," "sex", and "discussion." These mis— takes were then remedied. In terms of time, the translation took three days. The two guides were then reproduced for try-out in a village and training of the fieldworkers. Approval of Local Government To carry out research in a village the investigator needed to get approval from the provincial government as well as the kabupaten office. A letter from the Chairman of the Office of Educational and Cultural Research and Development, Ministry of Education, was brought to the West u r .2 ”he «came - spasm“ eat-the central gov ‘lm—bfl To secure the app :':.-::i' 3:5 I . r vincial Developme The Directorate 1 administrator des the study. The S the selected kabu . wrote a letter f0 ‘ letter of approva ted kecamatans (s were selected. A was no need for t the desa official kecama tans to dra desas. It took thre office, two days hours from the ke there was no dif: three desa chief Fieldworkers Sel To minimize Study, two fielc‘ 72 Java Governor's office of the Directorate of Social Politics asking his approval. As indicated by the name "directorate," this office is the representative office of the central government under the Ministry of Interior. To secure the approval, a recommendation from the Pro- vincial Development Planning Board was a prerequisite. The Directorate then wrote a letter to the kabupaten administrator describing the approval and the nature of the study. The Sub-Directorate of Social Politics in the selected kabupaten (i.e. Kabupaten Purwakarta) then wrote a letter for the investigator and his team as a letter of approval with three copies for the three selec— ted kecamatans (sub-districts) in which the three desas were selected. According to the kabupaten letter, there was no need for the kecamatan to write another letter for the desa official. The investigator, however, asked the kecamatans to draft an introductoryletter to the respective desas. It took three weeks to get approval from the provincial office, two days from the kabupaten office, and two to three hours from the kecamatans. With those letters of approval, there was no difficulty in securing the approval of the three desa chiefs. Fieldworkers Selection and Training To minimize investigator bias on the results of the study, two fieldworkers were specially recruited and trained af‘igrm ‘* ’j’db'fieeause the i work in rural vil Mew“ ' ‘ I. . ._ - tends to have mor ' for two reasons. all being moslems . ' male interviewer ‘ Second, male vill female interviews they have difficu interviewer has a with the responde The two fiel Both were staff m for Teacher Trair study, however , t training was give the other in cas< were conducted. for the fieldwor study, described and asked the tw the instruments instruments wit] 73 to conduct the fieldwork; one male and one female. The female fieldworker was selected to do all of the inter— views and group processes. A female was chosen to do the job because the investigator's experiences in field work in rural villages indicated that a female interviewer tends to have more advantages than a male interviewer for two reasons. First, women villagers, most if not all being moslems, are uneasy in talking alone with a male interviewer because of religious and cultural reasons. Second, male villagers show a greater "respect" to a female interviewer than to a male interviewer, or at least they have difficulty in refusing the interview. A female interviewer has a greater possibility for developing rapport with the respondents than a male interviewer. The two fieldworkers had experience in field study. Both were staff members of the IKIP at Bandung (Institute for Teacher Training and Educational Science). For this study, however, they were given special training. The same training was given to both of them so that one could replace the other in case it was needed. Three steps of training were conducted. First, the investigator, as the supervisor for the fieldwork, described the purpose and nature of the study, described in detail the procedures and instruments, and asked the two fieldworkers to further study and learn the instruments at home. They were asked to try out the instruments with one or two villagers or low income persons :erd e,rkers with to check the time the subjects , and the proceedings. in the field. A methods and proce fieldwork were co out was conducted Selection of Sit This study Java, Indonesia, study was of an e swadaya without a investigator, how choosing the two procedures. First, he p‘ in it. The prov Kabupaten Purwak because it was 1 where the study the investigator zations in all c 74 in the city. In the second step, they were asked to try out the group approach guide with a group of IKIP students. The try out had two purposes. First, to familiarize the fieldworkers with the guide and its procedures, and secondly to check the time needed, the level of understanding of the subjects, and to get some feedback from the group about the proceedings. The third step of training was conducted in the field. A desa was chosen as a "try out" desa. All methods and procedures which were designed for the real fieldwork were conducted first in this desa. How the try out was conducted is presented in the "Try—Out" section. Selection of Sites This study was concerned with rural communities in West Java, Indonesia, which were in the form of desas. Since this study was of an exploratory nature, it could use any desa swadaya without any sampling procedure to choose it. The investigator, however, tried to be more objective in choosing the two desas by conducting the following selection procedures. First, he purposely selected a province and a kabupaten in it. The province was West Java, and the kabupaten was Kabupaten Purwakarta (See Figure 4). West Java was selected because it was located within close proximity to Jakarta where the study was organized, and it was a province which the investigator knew as having the RK/RT community organi— zations in all of its desas. The Kabupaten Purwakarta was WEST JAV 75 M PHILIPPINES ' 0" ‘ .‘od'nui" ' Sumater. CODING: Kabupaten Purwa- _Karta (site of study) Province roads 5 Capital WEST JAVA @ Province capital 0 Kabupatens seats FIGURE 4 MAP OF WEST JAVA ‘1 firsssgem . m' its 1603.]. The second 5- (subdistricts) in a dam sample was matans -- an urb.. desa in the urban site. This desa, desa in the typic other six kecamat were Kecamatan Pa The third st of the two select chapter, the desa of this study. It because the desa desas. Each kecan "preparatory" de: In 1976, Kabupate the "established kecamatan severa These new desas also classified assumed to have 76 selected for similar reasons. It was located between Jakarta and Bandung (where the fieldworkers were recruited), the investigator himself was familiar with the area, and speaks its local language. The second step was the selection of three kecamatans (subdistricts) in Kabupaten Purwakarta from each of which a desa sample was selected. The kabupaten had seven Reca— matans -- an urban kecamatan and six rural kecamatans. A desa in the urban kecamatan was selected as the try out site. This desa, however, can be classified as a rural desa in the typical sense of the term "rural." From the other six kecamatans two were randomly selected. These were Kecamatan Pasawahan and Kecamatan Campaka. The third step was the selection of a desa from each of the two selected kecamatans. As described in the first chapter, the desa swadaya category was planned as the object of this study. It could not be done as planned, however, because the desa swadayas in the kabupaten were'preparatory" desas. Each kecamatan in Kabupaten Purwakarta had two to six "preparatory" desas, and seven to 13 "established" desas. In 1976, Kabupaten Purwakarta had only 70 desas. These were the "established" or original desas. In 1977, in each kecamatan several desas were split to build new desas. These new desas were classified as "preparatory," which were also classified as swadaya. Since preparatory desas were assumed to have a low level of community feeling and belonging -‘ I c-L-‘H: '- u' 2-'.' .. 41- .. - its" uew}!109”“‘°mi 7 antan X. We ." New: WSW . ma affected the id dents perceptio Desa Cihun and Desa Ciland Desa Cihuni wil Desa II. These Desa I was the the second from given by its ke swakarya catego Desa Cilan as the try out Try Out of Inst As mention pose. First, 1 ments and resea training device gator and his t A special repor which included For the t1 investigator SI 77 for its residents, the preparatory desas were excluded from the list of desas. All "established" desas whose area was split to make new desas were also excluded. It was assumed that the separation of a part of a community affected the identity of the desa community and its resi— dents perceptions of their community needs. Desa Cihuni was selected from Kecamatan Pasawahan and Desa Cilandak from Kecamatan Campaka. Hereafter, Desa Cihuni will be called Desa I, and Desa Cilandak as Desa II. These desas were not the lowest in ranking. Desa I was the third from the lowest, and Desa II was the second from the lowest according to the rank order given by its kecamatan. Both, however, were of the same swakarya category. Desa Cilangkap in Kecamatan Purwakarta was selected as the try out desa. This was also a swakarya category. Try Out of Instruments As mentioned earlier, the try outhad a twofold pur- pose. First, it was designed to double-check the instru— ments and research procedures, and secondly it was a training device for the two fieldworkers. Only the investi— gator and his team, however, knew that it was a try out. A special report was planned to be sent to the authorities which included the try out desa. For the training purpose there were three foci: the investigator supervised fieldworkers on the spot whenever sane purpose. interview or a - when needed bef- view or group 5 sessions were c- five days. By were trained an work. For the pu procedures the the level of um tions; the timil group session; ‘ to the study or as sampling, in ments interview type of supplem f ieldworker . The try on procedures and to four. The f were: Question #1 78 necessary; notes were made about the fieldworkers' mistakes and problems for further discussion; samples of recorded interviews and group sessions were also made for the same purpose. A brief review was made to evaluate an interview or a group session and refinements were suggested when needed before the interviewer started the next inter— view or group session. Nineteen interviews and three group sessions were conducted by the same female fieldworker in five days. By the end of the try out the fieldworkers were trained and familiar enough to conduct the real field- work. For the purpose of trying out the instruments and procedures the investigator gave attention to five aspects: the level of understanding of the respondents to the ques- tions; the timing and time needed for an interview and group session; the negative reactions of respondents to the study or questions; procedural arrangements such as sampling, invitation to the group sessions, room arrange— ments interviewing environment; and the availability and type of supplementary data to be collected by the second fieldworker. The try out resulted in the changing of the sampling procedures and the reduction of the questions from five to four. The four questions derived for use in the study were: Question #1: In your opinion, what are this village community's needs that must be accom- Question #2: Question #3 :: Question #4:; Among the re out desa only a f responses. In ot understood by the The statemer responses Were de in the try out tr 79 plished through development attempts to make this village community more advanced? Please mention as many as you can think of. Question #2: In your opinion, what are the needs of this village community that belong to self—development (educational) types of needs? Question #3: Choose the three most important needs you just mentioned in answering Question #1 and Question #2. Question #4: What is your most important need? Among the responses given by 47 subjects in the try out desa only a few could be classified as irrelevant responses. In other words the questions were highly understood by the villagers. The statements of the confidential nature of the responses were deleted from the guides. It was found out in the try out that by mentioning it the villagers became suspicious. The preliminary question asking the respon— dents if they were willing to be interviewed was also deleted in the fieldwork, and even in the try out after the third interview. The respondents were inclined to answer "No." When the question was deleted, there was only one respondent who refused to be interviewed in the try out desa. There were two respondents in Desa I who indirectly refused the interview. Those two were then replaced by other respondents. How the fieldwork was conducted is described in the next section. in Desa I and De Indonesia. Sinci were large, apprf in Desa II, samp adults in Desa I were stratified categories. As revealed in the number an plan. It was p1 In the actual sa In DeSa 1, three because they we: Section 2. The Fieldwork The population of this study were adult villagers in Desa I and Desa II in Kabupaten Purwakarta, West Java, Indonesia. Since the number of adults in the two desas were large, approximately 2800 persons in Desa I and 2500 in Desa II, samples were then selected. The sample of adults in Desa I was 47 and in Desa II 48 persons, who were stratified into leader/nonleader and male/female categories. As revealed in Table 2, there were slight changes in the number and composition of samples from the original plan. It was planned to get 48 subjects in each desc. In the actual sample, however, Desa I had only 47 subjects. In Desa I, three out of ten RK leaders could not be reached because they were out of the desa during the fieldwork and no replacement could be made. All 12 RT leaders in Desa I were included instead of ten as planned to avoid any bad feelings of the two RT leaders if they were not included in the sample. In Desa II, four RK leaders could not be reached for the same reason as in Desa I. To keep the number of subjects in each group close to the plan, three RT leaders and one desa leader were added. One RT leader was assigned to the interview approach, two RT leaders to the group approach, and one desa leader to the mixed leader-nonleader group approach. How the samples were drawn and assigned are described below. 80 ‘.r.‘l. ‘ 'I‘qll‘I-n \L-c I . . .mufl HZ H.H .H 02H 02 Una . .. , . Hz Hq .... ..«anfiflvfl mGHQEmm QGGCMHQ muUQhQn—m mmVZHmDONHnW Wm. \ANWMHQ Mm Nab-Hm ho mmqgm .HmDBHVAN QZAN QHZZANIHAN N anmAWH We]. . H b 7 a . n... I 9 u . a a ...._ I s n .1 H b .r. .... a .m H 9 ... a .. . u. ‘ on a . .1 .fl 3 .1 .3 ... m ..... m . Ju m ....m I _ on. n ..M. ’ . 5. z . L L 3 a . 9 ... m.— W. .L. ..o. . . Hmnoe n e ozone nopmoHQOZIHopmoq u wzq maono Hmpmwacoz n OZ 3oH>HmpsH “momoacoz Hz moonw Hmpooq 0A 3®H>HmpsH Hopmoq HA "ocecoo HH w H meQ HH mmoo HM#OB moonwazoz om om O'\ H O'\ r—i mm am am mH we OH OH m m O H 03 Ln N O r-l l O r-l I Hmmmoq Mm H Hmuoe “mommacoz 81 V O W OH Hmpmmq Hm HomMmA Mm Hmmummq Mmmn ill‘III‘II muUOnnsm monEom Hmdfio< monEom Umcsmam mUZHmDOmU Nm a . 7 .... we... “ 3 Vincents-u: ..‘,_.; CODING: - . - . ‘ -H-H 1 , Z ‘ I E Scale: 1: 30‘ 120 «90% o , . «ed ‘ ‘ ‘- To J. arta P o ‘,. —\ i” . 9‘96 {I u. ‘, S 13 0Q .-‘ C: , . O U. ang *0 J Tluhur" 7" Cit ’b' S a I a; " e: ' ....l y a .. .’.—sf... ' ll" 8mg: / 1 I. 353' - c ' .... x2. \. woo ./ - ,« ~———: in x as ./ jib-t. ‘ ‘1 on < m In. awahan. :1 3 . f. £3 (I) M fl Kabupaten Cianjur o Kabupa ten Bandung CODING: -.-.- Kabupaten (District) boundary H—H—i— Kecamatan (sub-district) boundary WProvince road ¢—--b Kabupaten roads Wrail road 0 Kecamatan seats @ Jatiluhur Dam Kecamatan 1 Scale: l:300,000 m Kecamatan II FIGURE 8 MAP OF KABUPATEN PURWAKARTA private) and two - were available in junior high schoo both of the two hJ in Purwakarta city! the educational en 149 religious prim six religious high high schools are 1 spread in four kec Table 5 for more c‘ Purwakarta C: but also the cent¢ kecamatans. Even each kecamatan, t the key markets f 121 in the kabupaten. Twelve junior high schools (4 were private) and two private higher education institutions were available in the kabupaten. However, eight of the junior high schools, five of the senior high schools and both of the two higher education institutions are located in Purwakarta city. This makes the city the center of the educational enterprise. In addition, there are also 149 religious primary schools (Madrasah Ibtidaiyah) and six religious high schools in the kabupaten. Two of the high schools are located in Purwakarta city and four are Spread in four kecamatans. See Appendix C, Table 4, and Table 5 for more details. Purwakarta City is not only the center for education but also the center for economic activities, entertainment, and of course governmental administration for all its kecamatans. Even though there are small market places in each kecamatan, the three market places in the city are the key markets for the whole kabupaten. One of the markets is a livestock market and is open every Monday and is thereby named the "Monday Market." The two other markets are mostly centers for agricultural products, one in the South and one in the North of the city. Although both are open daily, the market day of the North is Friday, and the market day of the South is Wednesday —— hence, "Friday Market" and "Wednesday Market." This kabupaten has 102 desas: 32 preparatory or ...- Si KECAMATAN FREE Purwakarta Pasawahan Jatiluhur Darangdan Plered Wanayasa M 122 swadaya desas, 52 swakarya desas, and 18 swasembada desas. They are organized in seven kecamatans as shown in Table 4. TABLE 4 NUMBER OF DESAS BY KECAMATAN IN KABUPATEN PURWAKARTA* SWADAYA/ KECAMATAN PREPARATORY SWAKARYA SWASEMBADA EQEAE Purwakarta 2 8 5 15 Pasawahan 6 9 l 16 Jatiluhur 3 6 l 10 Darangdan 6 5 4 15 Plered 6 9 2 17 Wanayasa 5 7 3 15 Campaka _£_ 8 2 14 TOTAL 32 52 18 102 *Data from Kabupaten Office, 1978. Kecamatan Purwakarta is the only kecamatan which can be classified as an "urban" kecamatan in Kabupaten Purwa— karta. Only four of its desas, however, are within the Purwakarta city boundary. A rural desa in Kecamatan Pur— wakarta was selected as a try-out site for this study. Kecamatan Pasawahan and Kecamatan Campaka were the two kecamatans selected for the study. The Two Kecamatans As revealed in Figure 8, the two kecamatans from which the desa samples were selected, are side by side in the North- ' ' Kecamatan I: Kecamatan Pa: preparatory desas. classified as swa« was selected from A map of the keca RANKING 0: NAME OF DESA Pasawahan Parakan Salam Ciherang Sawah Kulon Tanjungsari S i t u Selaawi CIHUNI (DESA Pondok Bungur Salem *Data fr Six pre The area of 26% is paddi—fiel the area in 1978 35% are farmers, Forty nine perce age. Income per (about US $60). 123 East part of the kabupaten. Kecamatan I: Pasawahan Kecamatan Pasawahan has 16 desas, six of which are preparatory desas. Of the other ten desas, nine are classified as swakarya and one as Swasembada. Desa I was selected from the ten desas as shown in Table 4.2. A map of the kecamatan is displayed in Figure 9. TABLE 5 RANKING OF DESAS IN KECAMATAN PASAWAHAN* NAME OF DESA CLASSIFICATION RANK Pasawahan Swasembada l Parakan Salam Swakarya 2 Ciherang Swakarya 3 Sawah Kulon Swakarya 4 Tanjungsari Swakarya 5 S i t u Swakarya 6 Selaawi Swakarya 7 CIHUNI (DESA I) Swakarya 8 Pondok Bungur Swakarya 9 Salem Swakarya 10 *Data from Kecamatan Office. Six preparatory desas are not included The area of Pasawahan is 6,663.5 hectares of which 26% is paddi-field. There was a population of 36,175 in the area in 1978. Among the 23,518 people who are working, 35% are farmers, 45% laborers, % traders, and 16% others. Forty nine percent of the population are under 20 years of age. Income per capita of Pasawahan in 1977 was Rp 25,000 - (about US $60). Desa I income per capita in that year was Kecamatan Plered CODING: #‘H-H Kecamatan ------ Desa bou w Kabupaten ' Desa. sea G) Kecamatar um Site of 5 Scale: 1: 175,00( 124 Kecamatan Purwakarta K Kecamatan Campaka x + + f P‘\.__../’1 /' f +Ciherang \ ” $ k a (‘”’"—--—"\ f Kecamatan f Wanayasa + f To Wanayasa Kecamatan Plered ‘ / \ Kecamatan Darangdan CODING: ++++++ Kecamatan boundary ------ Desa boundary y x 6———+ Kabupaten road a . Xx 0 Desa. seat t X G) Kecamatan seat :Pondok ,L BID Site of study Scale: l:l75,000 FIGURE 9 MAP OF KECAMATAN PASAWAHAN are popular lives of fishery stock. There are 18 and 15 religious 1 Nonformal educ ati include a radio 5 religious educati According to problems faced by pation in develo: from desa to deem lack of an irrig depend on rain we carry out vocatic Kecamatan I: The second of this kecamata city. The area the Pasawahan ar 36% dry land, at reservoir . The percent of the ' Source: 125 US $56.9 The main agriculture products are rice and seasonal fruits. Sheep, goats, water buffalo and cows are popular livestock. The kecamatan was also supplier of fishery stock. There are 18 primary schools, one junior high school, and 15 religious primary schools in the Pasawahan area. Nonformal education programs carried out in Pasawahan include a radio servicing course, home economics, and religious education for adults. According to the Head of the kecamatan, development problems faced by the kecamatan are lack of citizen partici— pation in development programs, lack of transportation from desa to desa due to the bad condition of the roads, lack of an irrigation system (70% of the paddy fields depend on rain water), and lack of trained personnel to carry out vocational training. Kecamatan II: Campaka The second kecamatan selected was Campaka. The center of this kecamatan is located about 18 kilometers from the city. The area is 18,591 hectares, almost three times the Pasawahan area. It is comprised of 36% paddy—field, 36% dry land, and 28% forest, mountain, plantation, and reservoir. The population was 52,928 in 1978. Forty five percent of the population are under 20 years of age. Among 9Source: Kabupaten Purwakarta Office. There were 1‘ preparatory/swada Desa II was selec: Figure 10 shows a RANKING ' w Cibening Cikopo Campaka Cibatu Cikadu Cibungur Cimahi Cirende CILANDAK Cibukamanah } *Source: 1 ‘ Four prep: The main ag rice, corn and w cows and ducks w is a producer of cities. In 1977 thq US $70. In the US $55 (one dol 126 the 28,000 people who are working, 57% are farmers, 26% unskilled laborers, 5% traders, and 12% were artisans, civil servants and others. There were 14 desas in Kecamatan II, four were preparatory/swadaya desas. The other ten desas from which Desa II was selected are listed in rank order in Table 6. Figure 10 shows a map of the kecamatan. TABLE 6 RANKING OF DESAS IN KECAMATAN CAMPAKA* NAME OF DESA CLASSIFICATION RANK Cibening Swasembada l Cikopo Swasembada 2 Campaka Swakarya 3 Cibatu Swakarya 4 Cikadu Swakarya 5 Cibungur Swakarya 6 Cimahi Swakarya 7 Cirende Swakarya 8 CILANDAK Swakarya 9 Cibukamanah Swakarya 10 *Source: Kecamatan Office Four preparatory desas are not included The main agriculture products of the kecamatan are rice, corn and watermelon. Country chicken, sheep, goats, cows and ducks were among their popular livestock. Campaka is a producer of bricks for its surrounding kecamatans and cities. In 1977 the per capita income of the kecamatan was US $70. In the same year, Desa II income per capita was US $55 (one dollar equals Rp. 415). lag-eel 1 Kabupaten Ker-swung Kecamatan ‘ 1. Purwakarta CODING: H—H Kecamatan boundary ---- Desa. boundal M Kabupaten IO M Rail road - Desa seat m Site of stud 0 Kecamatan se Scale: 1:250,000 127 I Kabupaten 1 Karawang x +*+§O¢V' Kecamatan Purwakarta H o "U c H S a: F m H r, m 0 H- FT k< CODING: ++++ Kecamatan boundary ---- Desa. boundary 3 0-—-¥ Kabupaten road «9969 Rail road a Desa seat mn Site of study 6 Kecamatan seat Scale: l:250,000 FIGURE 10 MAP OF KECAMATAN CAMPAKEA pomp-lated at ’leas‘ L schools with 125 also two junior h school, and 13 re mal education pro home economic cou course , carpentr Lack of citizen tion were among 1 W Table 7 11 physical backgro almost half tha respectively . Desa I. Rice p Desa I yielded In Desa I the p in Desa II only can be planted a dependence on The popu in 1978. The hectare. In D 128 In terms of education, 42% of the population have completed at least primary school. There are 31 primary schools with 125 teachers and 5,102 pupils. There are also two junior high schools, one of which is a religious school, and 13 religious primary schools. Among nonfor- mal education programs carried out in the kecamatan are home economic courses, womens farmer training, a massage course, carpentry, and religious education for adults. Development problems encountered by the Head of the kecamatan are similar to problems identified in Pasawahan. Lack of citizen participation, irrigation, and transporta— tion were among the greatest felt handicaps. The Two Desas Table 7 illustrates and compares the demographic and physical background of the two desas. Desa I area was almost half that of Desa II, 511 hectares and 1,026 hectares respectively. Paddy—field in Desa II was 8 times that of Desa I. Rice production in 1977, however, indicated that Desa I yielded over twice as much per hectare as Desa II. In Desa I the production was 4.8 tons per hectare while in Desa II only 2.2 tons. This was because in Desa I rice can be planted twice a year. In Desa II only once, due to a dependence on rain. The population was 3,361 in Desa I and 4,062 in Desa II in 1978. The density was 6.4 in Desa I and 4 in Desa II per hectare. In Desa I 18% of the population were under 20 years )‘x -I~. ofifif ‘1»??? r J r.’ W ’0 g' L) 93- 'x .| ‘ .‘fnor _ .1": ..f I y " l gro‘ 1" WC! 'EEMQGRAPEIC - - ' .' f t“. BACKGROUND AREA Paddy f POPULAT ION RICE PRODUCTI INCOME PER CA SCHOOLS : Prin Reli TEACHERS / PUP II COMMUNITY UNIl Language Religion Location: Fr CODING: * ** 129 TABLE 7 DEMOGRAPHIC AND PHYSICAL BACKGROUND OF DESAS* BACKGROUND DESA I A R E A 511.1 ha Paddy field (7%) POPULATION 3361 Under 20 yrs age (18%) Working: 1259 Farming (33%) Laborer (20.6%) Trader (28%) RICE PRODUCTION (1977) 4.8 tons/ha INCOME PER CAPITA (1977) US $ 56 SCHOOLS: Primary 2 Religious/Primary l TEACHERS/PUPILS: Primary 11/499 Religious 3/101 COMMUNITY UNITS: RK 4 RT 12 Language Bahasa Sunda Religion Islam (99.9%) Location: From City 16 km From Kecamatan 2 km NATURAL RESOURCE Rock CODING: *Source: Desa Offices ha = hectare km = DESA II 1026.4 ha (54%) 4062 (48%) 1375 (71.5%) (15%) ( 3%) 2.2 tons/ha US $ 55 2 2** 13/502 6/342** 5 21 Bahasa Sunda Islam (99.9%) kilometer **In 1977 there were 4 schools with 527 pupils. It dropped to 2 schools with 342 pupils because two schools were destroyed and lacked teachers. . I I 13% (1.9363 73?. llmakarta city.- ‘ j 3: kilometers away meters from the c to Desa I and the In terms of alike. There ar- still more tradi- e.g., harvest fi was still carrie- Both desas are p The population i lot more religiox were observed du: Although wa- it is more sever is no surface wa are a problem. tered by both de the government t in Desa I becaus the ground wate Desa II has a b production. Transporta lem as transpor 130 of age. In Desa II there were 48% under 20 years of age. Both desas are connected by a kabupaten road to Purwakarta city. (See Figuresll and 12) Desa I is only 3 kilometers away from the city while Desa II is 16 kilo— meters from the city. The "Wednesday Market" is nearest to Desa I and the "Friday Market" is nearest to Desa II. In terms of culture, both Desa I and Desa II are alike. There are indications, however, that Desa II is still more traditional in terms of their old customs —— e.g., harvest fiesta at the beginning of harvest time was still carried out in Desa II but no longer in Desa I. Both desas are predominantly Sundanese speaking desas. The population is predominantly moslem by religion. A lot more religious activities in Desa II than in Desa I were observed during the week of fieldwork. Although water for farming is also a problem in Desa I it is more severe in Desa II. During the dry season there is no surface water and during the rainy season floods are a problem. A drinking water supply problem is encoun— tered by both desas. Several water pumps, subsidized by the government through their development program, were idle in Desa I because the pipes were not deep enough to reach the ground water. If the irrigation problem can be solved, Desa II has a better potential than Desa I in terms of rice production. Transportation from desa to desa is not as much a prob— lem as transportation within Desa I or Desa II due to poor m5 [jigging-1"? 59%) .1319 ‘ .ig. :-. “gsiuioIiig‘ 31w4sl r. 1:1,". I To Purwakarta I II “II-v RK II Desa Sawah Ku101 To Pa 131 Desa Selaawi I, ~\\ /\ x ’l ) Kecamatan J “' / Purwakarta I / ’u‘ ) \ (~ // ) J,’ Desa Pasawahan I ‘ ~ Desa \ Sawah Kulon ‘ I was : / ---- Desa boundary " .... RK boundary H Kabupaten Road ¢—~¢ Desa road To Pasawahan Scale: 1:125,000 FIGURE 11 MAP OF DESA I CODING: --- Desa l 132 Desa Cimahi ,1“.\ ‘ -‘- enedmeg esaq "N U m m n: O H- W 9) a. C CODING: --- Desa boundary Uiiznde Desa ... RK boundary Cibukamanah {—9 Kabupaten Road +_—a Desa Road Scale: 1.150,000 FIGURE 12 MAP OF DESA II individuals is m in West Java: as to village. In ' the few roads the; Electricity ’ along the kabupai through Desa II I In both desc organizations 150: however, in Desa has begun to eme school superinte irrigation rehab that the “Mitra president of "Mj It is being cons another dam in 1 to Kabupaten Pu: able to use Jat the kabupaten. 133 road conditions. Motor—cycle taxis run by unlicensed individuals is mushrooming in both desas, and in many desas in West Java, as a fast form of transportation from village to village. In Desa I, however, this was limited due to the few roads that can be reached by motor—cycle. Electricity was available in the center of Desa I along the kabupaten road. Electric transmission lines pass through Desa II but no one has yet benefited from it. In both desas there are no well organized citizen organizations for the betterment of the community. Recently however, in Desa I a "Mitra Cai" (water user organization) has begun to emerge and under the leadership of a retired school superintendent has just reached their first objective -- irrigation rehabilitation. It was during this process that the "Mitra Cai" leader of this desa was elected as president of "Mitra Cai" of the entire Kabupaten Purwakarta. It is being considered by the central government to build another dam in Kecamatan Pasawahan which can supply water to Kabupaten Purwakarta as a compensation for not being able to use Jatiluhur dam, which is ironically located in the kabupaten. These are some of the important features of the two desas as an illustrative background to this study. Detailed data on the demographic background of the two desas and its kecamatans are presented in Appendix C, Tables 1 to 5. Data collecte the procedures 5.6 seven sections or the demographic < other six sectio: are organized ac) The six foci can Versus group app interview approa AS described were stated in 5 of no difference CHAPTER V RESULTS OF STUDY Data collected in this study and analyzed according to the procedures described in Chapter III are presented in seven sections of this chapter. The first section presents the demographic characteristics of the subjects. In the other six sections are presented data and analyses which are organized according to the six foci of this study. The six foci can be abbreviated as: interview approach versus group approach; effects of interview approach and interview approach on leaders/nonleaders; leaders versus nonleaders; Desa I versus Desa II; males versus females; and more—educated versus less—educated. As described in Chapter I the hypotheses of this study were stated in a directional manner with some predictions of no difference in outcome. For the purpose of statistical analysis, however, the hypotheses were stated in the null form. The directional hypotheses were treated here as the alternative hypotheses. Statistical analyses examined whether a null—hypothesis could be rejected or retained. If it was rejected, the respective directional/alternative hypothesis could instead be accepted. In a case where the directional hypothesis was 134 the same as the n null-hypothesis a hypothesis. The analyses according to each used to examine t Data and anal thesis being test presented in null is presented fir: regarding the re A brief summary An overall summa Closing of this Sectior \ A general de 135 the same as the null—hypothesis, the retaining of the null-hypothesis also meant the retaining of the directional hypothesis. The analyses of data are presented in this chapter according to each null—hypothesis. The results are then used to examine the respective directional hypothesis. Data and analyses are presented according to the hypo- thesis being tested. There are 23 hypotheses which are presented in null-hypothesis form. Each null—hypothesis is presented first followed by data, analyses, and a decision regarding the retaining or rejection of the null-hypothesis. A brief summary is presented at the end of each section. An overall summary of the findings is also made at the closing of this chapter. Section 1. Demographic Characteristics of Subjects A general description of the subjects' characteristics is useful as a referent in understanding the results of this study. Seven of the subjects' characteristics were recor- ded. These are: leader/nonleader status, sex, age, marital status, highest level of (formal) education, occupation, and number of children. As indicated in Table 8, 50 of the 95 subjects (or 53%) were nonleaders and 45 were leaders. Of the 45 leaders, seven were desa leaders, 13 RK leaders and 25 RT leaders. The analyses compares leaders and nonleaders without any mm NH MN WN mv mm. W _. 00 n as . H as %% mmaflmHZOZ\MWQ¢m—HH Nmm QZAN «GWMHQ Hm summm Mm. WHUmHhm—Dm .mHO mmnmzbz m man—..mmANH. kuoa n .H. “Hocmoaaoz u 1.2 “mocmoq H .H nocflcou H me 3 mm mm 2. mm mm mmndeZOZ\mm9wmq Nm QZd fimmm mm .xmm Mm mfiumbmbm mo mHmSDZ m magma. attempt to compal the three levels one category Of i as a leader and 1 In terms of They came from t leaders in the t‘ leader/nonleader Desa II were ver Eighteen per and over. All c leaders over 45 itself to nonlee There was no age in Table 9, the: than 26 years of Subjects, 16.8% between 26 and age - The propo same in both d9 Table 10 re of their Educat Years in school at lEast jUnior less than Six y Slightly higher Of the 17 junic 137 attempt to compare among leaders. The leader subjects of the three levels of community leadership were lumped into one category of leader and are presented in the tables as a leader and nonleader dichotomy. In terms of sex, only 25% of the subjects were females. They came from the nonleader samples only. All community leaders in the two desas were males. The proportion of leader/nonleader and male/female subjects in Desa I and Desa II were very similar. Eighteen percent of the subjects were 46 years of age and over. All of them were leaders. There were no non— leaders over 45 years of age because this study restricted itself to nonleaders between 18 and 45 years of age. There was no age restriction for leader subjects. As revealed in Table 9, there was only a single leader who was lower than 26 years of age. He was from Desa II. Of the total subjects, 16.8% were between 20 and 25 years of age; 30.6% between 26 and 35 years, and 35.8% between 36 and 45 years of age. The proportion in terms of age was approximately the same in both desas. Table 10 reveals the distribution of subjects in terms of their educational background on the basis of number of years in school. Only 18% of the subjects had completed at least junior high school level. Fifty two percent had less than six years of primary school. The leaders were slightly higher than the nonleaders in education. Eleven of the 17 junior high graduates or higher were leaders. But w“ dais. .wH ma _. Cr c r w . H QWWQ WU“ HH 4mmn— + H 4WHQ HH 4&me smUAN Mm WBUmmem .WO NHWQEDZ mmgWHZOZ\NWQANW.H wm QZAN 4&me Hm m MTHmAnfiH. thcl . . lulrFIsaIIIIII 138 AWOOHV mm Awm.mav ma Awm.mmv vm Amw.omv mN Aww.mfiv ma HH flmmfl + H deQ MMQ¢MQZOZ\mMQmmm AH>HO MMQMODCH H mo<0mmm< mm w# OE H# mZOHBmmDO OE mmmzommmm m0 NBHUHmHUmmm ZO mHquHH respectively . Question #1 and strong. The re strong but stil. It is inter; #2 asked for re Question #3 ask those already i ‘ a single respor K It can be argue (only three co: make these me the type of qu Specificity va It can be Question #1 ar between the ix city: and a 31 and a lower 11 153 #1 and Question #2 the Gamma values are H.662 and -.631 respectively. This shows that the relationship found on Question #1 and Question #2 on the specificity variable is strong. The relationship found on Question #4 is not as strong but still meaningful. It is interesting to note that Question #1 and Question #2 asked for responses in an open ended fashion whereas Question #3 asked for the three highest priority needs from those already identified, and Question #4 asked for only a single response in terms of an individual (not community). It can be argued that the limiting effect of Question #3 (only three community needs could be identified) tended to make these needs more general in nature and consequently the type of question asked had a powerful effect on the specificity variable. It can be concluded with 90% confidence that, based on Question #1 and Question #2, there is a strong relationship between the interview approach and a higher level of specifi- city, and a strong relationship between the group approach and a lower level of specificity. This is further sub— stantiated, though not as strongly, by Question #4. These data do not support Null—Hypothesis #2. This means that its alternative hypothesis, that the interview approach generates a higher level of specificity of responses (needs), can be accepted. Null-Hypothesis Data and an briefly in Tabl for the ANOVA r #2 because all as means-orieni needs which, f< needs. For th. “0 Significant and the means/ A COMPARISON CATEGORY 0F 154 The Means/Nonmeans Orientation Variable Null—Hypothesis #3. There will be no difference between the means/nonmeans orientation of needs derived from a group approach and the means/nonmeans orientation of needs derived from an interview approach (means/nonmeans orientation variable). Data and analyses to test this hypothesis are presented briefly in Table 20 (See Appendix D, Tables 6, 7, and 8 for the ANOVA results). There is no analysis for Question #2 because all responses to the question were categorized as means—oriented since Question #2 asked for educational needs which, for this study are classified as means—oriented needs. For the other three questions the analyses reveal no significant interaction between the approach variable and the means/nonmeans orientation variable. TABLE 20 A COMPARISON OF AVERAGES OF MEANS/NONMEANS ORIENTATION CATEGORY OF RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS #1, #3, AND #4. Variable & Category _N_ Average* Eta Question #1 EEEEEVieW 3; 1:8: .00 Question #3 éEEEEView g; 113% .06 Question #4 EEEEEVieW 57 $122 .12 *l = Nonmeans Oriented 2 = Means-Oriented As is shown between the inte for Question #11 #3 and #4. It : increases from < orientation. H1 means-oriented no difference b approach in ter needs. V In othe W Null-Hypothesi: 155 As is shown in Table 20, there are no differences between the interview approach and the group approach for Question #1, and only small differences for Question #3 and #4. It is interesting to note that there are increases from question to question toward a more means— orientation. However, all of the question yielded non- means—oriented needs. These data indicate that there is no difference between the group approach and the interview approach in terms of the means/nonmeans orientation of needs.' In other words, the Null-Hypotheses #3 is retained. The Type (of Need) Variable Null-Hypothesis #4. There will be no difference between the genre of needs derived from a group approach and the genre of needs derived from an interview approach (type variable). The responses in terms of their genre (i.e., types of needs) were classified in two ways. First, they were classified by community functions categories using the Axinn Model as described in Chapter II. Second, they were classified according to categories which are more meaning— ful to the different government ministries in terms of possible future implementation. While the Axinn Model could be useful for integrative planning, the second classi— fication would be more practical for distribution of res- ponsibilities among different ministries. Since data I were chosen as 4 Ship in additio: Type of Neel Data and an are presented i sented are base quencies and nc ted in Table 2] approach varial However, the La thereby indica‘ four types of group and inte (general COmmu needs most fre (community edL tWeen the two are‘ Product 156 Since data were of a nominal type, the Lamda statistics were chosen as a parameter to see the strength of relation— ship in addition to the chi-square statistics. Type of Needs by Community Functions (Axinn Model). Data and analyses for this classification procedure are presented in Table 21 and Table 22. Percentages pre- sented are based on the total number of responses (fre— quencies and not subjects) of each sub—sample. As indica— ted in Table 21 there is no significant relationship between approach variable and type variable except for Question #2. However, the Lamda statistics for Question #2 are small thereby indicating that it has no predictive value. The four types of needs most frequently mentioned by both the group and interview approaches in answering Question #1 (general community needs), are almost the same. They are: supply, governance, linkages, and religious function types (from higher to lower percentages). The four types of needs most frequently mentioned in answering Question #2 (community educational needs) were slightly different be— tween the two approaches. In the interview approach, they are: production, education, larger system and religious function types. In the group approach, they are: produc— tion, larger system, cultural, and education types. It should be noted that though Question #2 asked the subjects to identify educational needs, these needs were categorized according to their function (e.g. "Learning how to graft CHI-SQUARE j (QUESTION #1 BY COMMUNITY NEED BY FUNCTION 1 SUPPLY 2 PRODUCTION _——3 MARKETING mum MAINTENANCE RESET—EARE‘IIE’ DELIVERY \ GOVERNANCE 6 ________________ 7 EDUCATION \ RELIGIOUS 8 CULTURAL 9 EENIIGE?“““133 Inward m Outward LARGER 12 SYSTEM \ TOTAL % CODING n _ IA 1 GA 1 T : STATISTICS 157 TABLE 21 CHI—SQUARE ANALYSIS ON GENERAL COMMUNITY NEEDS (QUESTION #1), AND EDUCATION NEEDS (QUESTION #2) BY FUNCTION, AND BY APPROACH COMMUNITY NEED QUESTION #1 QUESTION #2 BY IA GA TOTAL FUNCTION n=397 n=594 l SUPPLY 22.3 21.4 2.7 3.8 PRoDUCTION 2 ----m MARKETING 3 ----m PERSONAL 4 MAINTENANCE 9.1 8.7 HEALTH CARE 5 ------ DELIVERY 4.1 2.0 2.7 1.8 1.9 1.9 GOVERNANCE 6 18.8 6.4 -m EDUCATION 7 Ill-m 12.7 RELIGIOUS 8 9-1 m- 9 0 CULTURAL . . m . LINKAGE: 1 — Inward 17.3 17.4 17.3 n Outward 0 . 5 1 . 0 LARGER 12 - TOTAL % 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% CODING: n number of responses (not subjects) % percentages are calculated from each column 3 IA = Interview Approach GA = Group Approach T = Total STATISTICS: £3 d;£; Significance; Lamda Question #1 11.765 11 (n.s.) .001 Question #2 18.674 8 .017 0.00 CHI-SQUI (QUESTIOI COMMUNITY NEED BY FUNCTION SUPPLY 1 . u— ‘ PRODUCT ION 2 . MARKETING 3 . PERSONAL MAINTENANCE 4. |\ HEALTH CARE DELIVERY 5 . 158 TABLE 22 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ON COMMUNITY PRIORITY NEEDS (QUESTION #3), AND INDIVIDUAL NEEDS (QUESTION #4) BY FUNCTION AND BY APPROACH COMMUNITY QUESTION #3 QUESTION _4 NEED BY FUNCTION = n=168 n= 280 n= 38 n= 57 mum PERSONAL MAINTENANCE 4. 10.7 7.1 36.8 22.8 28.5 HEALTH CARE DELIVERY 5. 1.8 1.1 mum ---m-- --l-m LINKAGE: Inward LINKAGE: Outward LARGER SYSTEM Coding: IA = Interview Approach; GA = Group Approach; T = Total; n = number of responses (not subjects); % = percentages are calculated from each column n STATISTICS: x2 d.f. Significance; Lambda Question #3 14.827 11 (n.s.) .032 Question #4 11.056 8 (n.s.) .042 mango tree" was as "Religious") - Comparing da interesting to I which were rare: ingly mentioned Question #3 important commu Questions #1 an sults of the ar of analysis frc important need community's ne show no signif approach varia Since the bP—tween indepe able (type), ; did not make . to reject Nul A Summary as indicated information. most importax SECond, the . tiOned in Q01 t10ned in Qu 159 mango tree“ was categorized as "Supply"; "Koranic study" as "Religious"). Comparing data for Question #1 and Question #2 it is interesting to note that the "Production" function needs, which were rarely mentioned in Question #1, were overwhelm— ingly mentioned in Question #2. Question #3 asked the subjects to choose the three most important community needs from those mentioned in answering Questions #1 and #2. Table 22 displays the data and re- sults of the analyses. It also contains the data and results of analysis from Question #4, which asked for the one most important need of the subjects themselves instead of their community's needs. Chi—square analyses on both questions Show no significant relationship between type variable and approach variable. Since the tables show no significant relationship between independent variable (approach) and dependent vari— able (type), it can be concluded that the two approaches did not make any significant difference. There is no basis to reject Null-Hypothesis #4. A summary of the two tables ranked for each sub—sample as indicated in Table 23, however, provides interesting information. First, the "Supply" function seems to be the most important one as perceived by the majority of subjects. Second, the "Supply" function was the most frequently men- tioned in Question #1 and was also the most frequently men- tioned in Question #4. In other words, the most important RANKIN COMMUNITY NEED BY FUNCTION ‘RKETING PERSONAL 160 TABLE 23 RANKING OF TYPE OF NEEDS BY FUNCTION, QUESTION AND APPROACH COMMUNITY NEED RANKING BY Question Question Question Question FUNCTION IA GA IA GA IA GA RRoEEcIIoE mum MARKETING 3 12 II M 9 PERSONAL MAINTENANCE 5 6 5 7 2 2 HEALTH CARE DELIVERY 8 10 7 9 9.5 11 EDUCATION 7 6.5 7 6.5 8 REIIGIGEG 8 III-- CULTURAL 9 10.5 9 9.5 11 Inward 3 2 2.5 l LINKAGE: Outward 10.5 12 11.5 11 LARGER 12 SYSTEM 6.5 5 3 2 8 6 5 3 CODING: IA = Interview Approach GA Group Approach Rank 1 -(B1anks) are for no responses; they are not assigned rank to show differences in distribution among subgroups. Highest, 12 = Lowest self-need (Ques quently mention responses were needs, then whe; Fourth, "Religi and high rankir. focus) but not Type (of Ne Data and a1 fication are s #4. Question allow further Question #2 wa used in the fi ti011“ categor3 Table 24 1 Ship between . variable for 161 self-need (Question #4) was the same as the most fre- quently mentioned community need (Question #1). Third, responses were more varied when asked about community needs, then when asked about their own self—need. Fourth, "Religious" function needs had fairly consistent and high rankings in the first three questions (community focus) but not for the fourth question (individual focus). Type (of Needs) by General Area Data and analyses of type based on a general area classi— fication are summarized in Table 24 for Questions #1, #3 and #4. Question #2 is displayed separately in Table 25 to allow further detail within the "Education" category. If Question #2 was classified according to the classification used in the first Table, it would be lumped in the "Educa— tion" category. Table 24 reveals that there is a significant relation- ship between approach variable and type (by general area) variable for Question #1 and Question #4. For Question #3, no significant relationship was found. However, due to the small size of the Lamda value it can be concluded that the relationship found in Question #1 and Question #4 has very weak predictive ability. The area most frequently mentioned by all subjects to Question #1 and Question #3 was “Infrastructure." Inter- estingly, "Infrastructure" received small response on Question #4 (individual focus) and "Health and Welfare" CHI-SQUARE (QUESTION AND INDIVIDUAL t INFRASTRUCTURES PUBLIC BUILDING AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITY DEV'T ORGAN. ECONOMIC UTILITIES EEAETE‘AND""“‘ WELFARE TRAINED Personnels \ EDUCATIONAL DEVELDREENT77“ IN GENERAL TOTAL % CODING: m QuestiOn QuestiOn Question 162 TABLE 24 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ON GENERAL COMMUNITY NEEDS (QUESTION #1), PRIORITY NEEDS (QUESTION #3), AND INDIVIDUAL NEEDS (QUESTION #4) BY FUNCTION AND APPROACH QUESTION #4 QUESTION #3 QUESTION #1 IA GA IA GA AREA OF NEEDS n=198 n= 397 n=112 n=168 INFRASTRUCTURES 1 29.8 25.4 28.6 26.8 PUBLIC BUILDINGS2 17. 7 16.9 14.3 18.5 3 4 COMMUNITY NEEDS BY AGRICULTURAL 2 7 2.4 COMMUNITY DEV'T ORGAN. ECONOMIC UTILITIES HEALTH AND 7 WELFARE 12 TRAINED 8 Personnels 9.10.5 EDUCATIONAL 9 6.11.3 19.6 28.0 5. 3 14.0 IN GENERAL 4.0 3. 6 7.1 10. 5 10. 5 TOTAL 100% 100% number of responses (not subjects) percentages are calculated from each column 2 CODING: n % STATISTICS: g3 ELL; Significance Lamda Question #1 23.913 10 .004 .010 Question #3 14.309 10 (n.s.) .028 Question #4 14.031 8 .050 .062 and "Economic“ received a lar the group apprg responses on a2! Table 25 dé tional categorj CHI EDU Basic Educ Cultural I 163 and "Economic" were the highest. The "Education" area received a large number of responses on Question #3 and the group approach showed a larger number of "Education" responses on all questions. Table 25 displays a detailed breakdown of the educa— tional category which was the focus of Question #2. TABLE 25 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ON COMMUNITY EDUCATIONAL NEEDS (QUESTION #2) BY GENERAL AREA AND APPROACH Community Educational Needs By General Area Basic Education . Cultural Education 39_- 5 . 9 Health & Home Economics Vocational Skills Educ. Agricultural Education Business & Industrial Education Others (General) = number of responses (not subjects) = percentages are calculated from each column 3 STATISTICS: X2 df. Significance Lamda 25.602 6 .003 .045 Table 25 s approach varia areas. Again: due to the 10 Though the the approach v area classific i cation, the we 1 1 Null-Hypothesi The Time Varia Null—Hypothesi Man-hours “Sing an inte as a measure approaches , each 311b~grot #5! the total group aPproa< each group t« The results . The tabl time for Pre approach . II areas. Again, however, the predictive ability is weak due to the low value of Lamda. Though there are more significant relationships between the approach variable and the type variable on the general area classification rather than the Axinn Model classifi- cation, the weakness of the relationship further confirms Null-Hypothesis #4. The Time Variable Null—Hypothesis #5. There will be no difference in the time needed to conduct a group approach and the time needed to conduct an interview approach (time variable). Man—hours per capita needed to conduct the study using an interview approach and a group approach is used as a measure for comparing the efficiency of the two approaches. Table 27 shows the total time (minutes) for each sub—group in the two desas. To test Null-Hypothesis #5, the total time allocated for interview approach and group approach is divided by the number of subjects for each group to get the time per capita value for each group. The results are presented in Table 26. The table indicates that the group approach needed less time for preparation and execution than the interview approach. The time needed for the interview approach per- subject is m0 of 50.8 minut to 20 .2 minut Null-HypotheSfi Interview In summa: section three approach var: Specificity , On the q‘ a greater nu 0n Specifici a higher lev approach. .1 conduct the half the tiI 165 subject is more than twice the group approach. A total of 50.8 minutes for the interview approach as compared to 20.2 minutes for the group approach. This means that Null-Hypothesis #5 is rejected. TABLE 26 AVERAGE TIME PER SUBJECT FOR EACH APPROACH Preparation Execution Total Approach Time Time Time (in minutes) (in minutes) (in minutes) 20. 22 In summary, of the five null-hypotheses tested in this section three were rejected and two were retained. The approach variable did account for differences on quantity, specificity, and time variables. On the quantity of response, the group approach yielded a greater number of responses than the interview approach. On specificity, however, the interview approach yielded a higher level of specificity of needs than the group approach. The total time average per—subject needed to conduct the assessment through the group approach was half the time used through the interview approach. On the means/nonmeans orientation and type of needs both the group approach and the interview approach yielded very similar results. Nonmeans-oriented needs are yielded from ll E ...... HH Ammo + H Emma %% . .. ._...l. 166 .Av.w u mm\owfiv Opflmmo Mom mafia mmmnw>m o . . Acv OED mafimamfiwase an Hmpou mafia EOHM pwumsmpc mH mdoumnsm comm MOM OSHA =Bm= OEHB HMDOB H BB . “TEHB Goflpcummmum I am . vmom HNmH £OOOHQm4 QSOHO HTUOUHQOZ\MUUOUA nomoummd QDOMO chmwacoz £0OOHQQ< QUOHO Hmpomq 30e>H®DCH HOUOUHCOZ hhm mmm mmm AmHv 3®H>HODCH HTUOOQ HH ammo + H «man 2 mzHe amneoa DEN mom omnmm Emumommma. m R mamas the quantiter variable. The and desa varia Discussion an Discussio When comp stated in dir- only the pred by the findin indicates an . be argued tha- approach vari to the classi that differen classificati The effe according to ment when op the fewer n number of re however, tha group appro less as com _ h......'.l.n Hm 167 the two approaches. Further analysis indicated that those differences in the quantity variable were not influenced by the desa variable. There was no two-way interaction of approach and desa variable on the quantity variable. Discussion and Summary of Findings Discussion When comparing these findings with the predictions as stated in directional hypotheses #1 to #5 in Chapter One, only the prediction on the type variable is not supported by the findings. Although it was not significant, data indicates an inclination toward the prediction. It can be argued that the weakness of relationship between the approach variable and the type of need variable was due to the classification system used in the analysis and that differences which exist were lost because of the classification system. The effectiveness of the group approach seems to vary according to the focus of the question asked in the assess— ment when open-ended questions are used. This is shown by the fewer number of responses to Question #2 and the greater number of responses to Question #1. The data indicates also, however, that the number of responses to Question #2 for the group approach and the interview approach were similarly less as compared to the number of responses to Question #1. Despite the decline, the differences between the interview approach and “g argued, then. to Question #2 has less effec matter of fac- than the Eta tain that the does influenc but it does n on the quanti question asks needs, the gr responses tha The decli be explained subjects lost after Questic the number 0 were more CO rather than and analyse needs, seem The sim view approa responses w this was be 168 approach and group approach is significant. It can be argued, then, that the decline in the number of responses to Question #2 does not mean that the group approach has less effect in Question #2 than in Question #1. As a matter of fact, the Eta value for Question #2 is greater than the Eta value for Question #1. Therefore, it is cer— tain that the differences in the focus of the question does influence the number of responses to the question, but it does not minimize the effect of the approach variable on the quantity of responses. In other words, whether the question asks about community needs in general or educational needs, the group approach will yield a greater number of responses than the interview approach. The decline in number of responses to Question #2 can be explained in different ways. First, possibly because subjects lost their interest in providing more answers after Question #1 was asked and answered, thus influencing the number of responses. Second, possibly because subjects were more concerned about their general community needs rather than educational needs. Observation in the field and analyses of Question #1, which showed few educational needs, seems to support this explanation. The similar effect of the group approach and the inter- view approach on the means/nonmeans orientation of the responses was expected. It is possible, however, that this was because there was no attempt made to further probe mation. Until of no effect 63 orientation va villagers are Summar of F1 So far as Focus #1 can . Finding #1. A- concerning th more effectiv of the quanti and more effi carry out the Finding #2 . A of specificit all subjects Finding #3. variable on Community ne means—orient Finding #4- variable on not have a .169 the answers to allow the subjects to provide further infor— mation. Until further research indicates, the finding of no effect of the group approach on the means/nonmeans orientation variable further strengthens the notion that villagers are nonmeans—oriented. Summary of Findings So far as these data indicate, the examination of Focus #1 can be summarized in four findings: Finding #1. As a method of collecting villagers opinions concerning their community needs, the group approach is more effective than the interview approach on the basis of the quantity of community needs elicited through it, and more efficient on the basis of man—hours needed to carry out the need assessment. Finding #2. An interview approach elicits a higher level of specificity of needs than the group approach, though all subjects tend to mention needs in nonspecific terms. Finding #3. There is no significant effect of the approach variable on the means/nonmeans orientation of the needs. Community needs are identified by all subjects in a non- means—oriented manner. Finding #4. Despite the significant effect of the approach variable on the quantity and specificity variable, it does not have a significant effect on the types of needs. huantit Vari . Null-Hypothes' To test fled into Lea Leader—Non-le (LNG), only 1 of variance 1 tion #1, as : show signifi #1, and bet and #2 comb‘ differences and Questio averages in interaction leaders in ders in LI: 170 Section 3. The Effect of Approach Variables __________ _________1_________________________ On Leaders, and On Nonleaders Quantity Variable (Among Leaders) Null—Hypothesis #6 There will be no difference in the number of community needs derived from leaders who participate in a leader—only group approach, an inter— view approach, and a mixed leader/ nonleader group approach (quantity variable). To test Null—Hypothesis #6, leader subjects were classi— fied into Leader Interview (LI), Leader Group (LG) and Mixed Leader-Non—leader Group approach (LNG). For the mixed group (LNG), only the leader responses were examined. Analyses of variance revealed significant interaction only on Ques- tion #1, as summarized in Figure 13. T—Test analyses show significant differences between LG and LNG in Question #1, and between LI and LG in Question #2 and Questions #1 and #2 combined. Analysis also indicates significant differences between LI and LNG in Question #1, Question #2, and Questions #1 and #2 combined. By examining the mean- averages in Question #1, the only question with significant interaction, it can be concluded, with 95% confidence, that leaders in LNG had a greater number of responses than lea— ders in LI, and with 90% confidence that leaders in LNG were also greater than the leaders in LG. No significant Quanti ty of Response #1 & # OJ U) C.‘ O Q. U) (D M 14.. O >~. u -.-4 u C'. m :5 O’ 171 Question #1* Question #2 Question #1 & #2 Combined T-Test (Level of Si nificance “mm-E- CODING: LI = Leader Interview LG = Leader Group LNG= Leader-Nonleader Group (nonleaders excluded) * = Anova significant at the .05 (n.s)= not significant FIGURE 13 AVERAGE QUANTITY RESPONSES FOR LEADER SUBGROUPS leader—nonleae responses tha approach, and who are assigl words, for On, leader group than leaders the intervie yield signif' Though Q were not fou be seen from findings frm These an (LNG)1J, LN sis (LG = LI however, is leader-nonle of response: than either Quantity Va Null-Hypot 172 differences, however, were found between leaders in LI and LG. This indicates that leaders assigned to a mixed leader—nonleader group approach gave significantly more responses than leaders assigned to a leader (only) group approach, and also significantly more responses than those who are assigned to the interview approach. In other words, for Question #1, leaders in the mixed leader-non— leader group approach yield significantly more responses than leaders in either of the other two approaches. Also, the interview and group approaches (leaders only) do not yield significantly different quantities of responses. Though Question #2 and Question #1 and #2 combined were not found to have a significant interaction, it can be seen from Figure 4.6 that they tend to support the findings from Question #1. These analyses partially reject the Null-Hypotheses #6 (LNG)>LI, LNG)ELG) and partially support the null—hypothe- sis (LG LI). This partial rejection of the null-hypothesis, however, is very useful in that it suggests that a mixed leader—nonleader group approach is, on the basis of quantity of responses, a more effective approach for leader subjects than either of the others (LI and LG). Quantity Variable (Among Nonleaders) Null—Hypothesis #7. There will be no difference in the number of community needs derived from nonleaders who participate in Data and 14 yield info between the for all ques Question #1, and #2 combi for nonleade indicate sig in NI and th are no signi: between NG a: that the Nul data indicat the basis of consisting 5 interview a; group approa Additiox in LI and L( pose, subje These furth cally the e 173 a nonleader—only group approach, an interview approach, and a mixed leader/nonleader group approach (quantity variable). Data and analyses of variance as summarized in Figure 14 yield information that there is significant interaction between the nonleader subgrouping and quantity of responses for all questions. The probability is as high as 90% in Question #1, 95% in Question #2, and 96% in Questions #1 and #2 combined. The data show the largest quantity for nonleaders in the NG sample. Further T—Test analyses indicate significant differences between the nonleaders in NI and the nonleaders in NG for all questions. There are no significant differences between NI and LNG, nor between NG and LNG in any of the questions. This means that the Null—Hypothesis #7 is partially rejected. The data indicate that nonleaders were more effective, on the basis of quantity of responses, in the group approach consisting solely of nonleaders (NG) rather than in either interview approach (NI) or the mixed leader—nonleader group approach (LNG). Additional analyses were conducted to compare leaders in LI and LG, and nonleaders in NI and NG. For this pur- pose, subjects in LNG were excluded from the analyses. These further analyses were carried out to examine specifi— cally the effect of the group approach and interview C #1 i .- 4550. u. undonwvm mo. huaucmao 174 Quantity of Response NI NG LNG NI NC LNG N1 NG LNG Question #1* Question #2** Question #1 & #2 C omb j_ nedv'n'n': T-Test (Level of Significance) -NI vs. NG NI vs. LNG NG vs.LNG CODING: N1 Nonleader Interview NC = Nonleader Group LNG= Leader-Nonleader Group (Leaders excluded) * = ANOVA significant at the .10 level = ANOVA significant at the .03 level \~— ANOVA significant at the .01 level not significant FIGURE 14 AVERAGE QUANTITY OF RESPONSES FOR NONLEADER SUBGROUPS Emanaemarsumey' or not there . nonleader var in the quanti 29, and 30. TWO- TO 0 of ariation -| Nonleader Variable/ Category I Interview Group Total 175 approach in a “pure" form without the mixed group. A two—way analysis of variance was used to examine whether or not there is two-way interaction between the leader— nonleader variable and the approach variable on differences in the quantity variable. This is shown in Tables 28, 29, and 30. TABLE 28 TWO—WAY ANOVA ON QUANTITY OF RESPONSES TO QUESTION #1, BY LEADER/NONLEADER VAND BY APPROACH Source Signifi— of Sum of cance of ariation Squares F F Leader/ Nonleader 50.882 1 50.882 5.244 .025 __n . Variable/ Category Leader Nonleader Total :Interview 5.32 Eta (Approach) = .27 Group 6.59 Eta (Leader/ nonleader) = .34 Total 6.63 5.17 5.45 2 Multiple R = .189 Table 20 cant interact interaction b: was, however, independent vI Comparisons OE and nonleader' the group app than the nonl F The eta v 3 accounted for ted for by tr variables, as Gives a highs variance can variables. ' 176 Table 20 indicates that for Question #1 there is signifi- cant interaction between approaches and also significant interaction between the leader—non leader variable. There was, however, no two-way interaction between these two independent variables (approach and leader-nonleader variables). Comparisons of means in each cell shows that both leaders and nonleaders had a great average number of responses in the group approach. The leaders were higher in both approaches than the nonleaders. The eta values show that the leader—nonleader variable accounted for a greater portion of the variance than accoun- ted for by the approach variable. The combination of both variables, as can be seen from the multiple R squared value, gives a higher predictive value. In this case, 19% of the variance can be accounted for by the combination of both variables. This suggests that a better prediction of indi— vidual responses can be made when both independent variables are known. However, the predictive power of the independent variables alone and together can be considered low. Table 29 displays analysis for Question #2 which also Shows significant interaction between approaches, and be- tween leader—nonleader variables, but again no two-way interaction is detected. Comparison among means, as also revealed in Table 29, shows that the conclusion for Question #1 is also appro- priate for Question #2, with the exception that the means are lower in each cell than in Question #1, and both leaders and nonleader in means betw approach. TWO- TO 1 Leader/ Nonleader 177 and nonleaders showed approximately similar differences in means between the interview approach and the group approach. TABLE 29 TWO-WAY ANOVA ON QUANTITY OF RESPONSES TO QUESTION #2 BY LEADER/NONLEADER (EXCLUDE LNG) AND BY APPROACH Degree Signifi— cance of Variation Squares Freedom Leader/ Nonleader . 18.801 4. 566 279.969 . 344.263 71 4.809 Variable/ Category Leader Interview Eta (Approach) Eta (Leader/ Group Nonleader Total 4.44 . . Multiple R2 Data on quantity of responses for Question #1 and #2 com — bined also indicate significant interaction with either the approach or leader—nonleader variables, but no signifi— cant two—way interaction between these two variables on the dependent variable (quantity). Table 30 shows the results of this analysis. Source ! of S ariation 1 Nonleader Variable/ Category Interview Group" Total 178 TABLE 30 TWO-WAY ANOVA ON QUANTITY OF RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS #1 & #2 COMBINED BY LEADER/NONLEADER AND BY APPROACH Signifi- cance of Leader/ Nonleader 96.992 1111111 1191.11 11.1.1 Variable/ Category Leader Nonleader Total Interview 8.02 Eta (Approach) = .36 Group 11.0 Eta (Leader, Total 10.60 8.42 9.51 Nonleader = .28 Multiple R2 = .18 Comparison among means indicates that the conclusion for the two questions separately is also the same as when they are combined. Based on these analyses it is reasonable to conclude that the approach variable did make a difference on the quantity of responses as did the leader-nonleader variable. The lack of significance of the two—way interaction be~ tween the approach variable and the leader—nonleader vari— able further supports the confirmation of the alternative of. responses Discussion It was pr], 1 The results oi is only parti. an inclinatio: l LG, and LNG, differences w ' i.e., LNG ) LI strengthened vated to prod they are wor} Will be more with other n. 179 hypothesis that the group approach yields a greater number of responses in both leaders and nonleaders. Discussion It was predicted that LI < LNG) LG, and that NI ( NG ) LNG. The results of this study indicated that the prediction is only partially supported by the data. Though there was an inclination of increased number of responses for LI, LG, and LNG, and for NI, LNG, and NG, the significant differences were only between LNG and LI, and NG and NI -— i.e., LNG)LI, and NG)NI. Although partial, the findings strengthened the argument that leaders will be more moti— vated to produce (in this case number of responses) when they are working with their followers while nonleaders will be more motivated to produce more when they are working with other nonleaders. Psychological and cultural explana— tions are both appropriate for the phenomena. In terms of group dynamics, a leader can only function and exercises his leadership when there are followers. The leader is also associated with more knowledge than the nonleaders. When the nonleaders are around, the leader may be motivated to show that the status belongs to him/her. In this case the leader may try to identify more responses than the nonleaders. On the other hand, nonleaders, especially in rural Indonesian communities, may be reluctant to express their opinion when their leaders are around. Otherwise, they will be motivated to exercise their leadership among the nonleaders bY conmunity nee As indica a linear incri was small, or2 ted to formal' Summar 0 As the da be summarized Finding. approach in v pating, but I approach in V Se W Null‘HYPOthe To test Was divided Sample. An are PIESent 180 nonleaders by showing off their knowledge about their community needs. As indicated, however, this explanation did not show a linear increase as expected. Possibly because the sample was small, or because the leaders in this study were limi- ted to formal leaders. Summary of Findings As the data and analyses indicated, the finding can be summarized as follows. Finding. Leaders yield more responses in a group approach in which both leaders and nonleaders are partici— pating, but nonleaders yield more responses in a group approach in which the participants are all nonleaders. Section 4. Leader Versus Nonleader The Quantity Variable Null—Hypothesis #8. There will be no difference in the number of community needs derived from leaders and the number of community needs derived from non— leaders regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs. To test the hypothesis, the total sample of this study was divided into a leader sub—sample and a nonleader sub- sample. Analysis of variance was conducted and the results are presented in Tables 31, 32 and 33. As reveal: interaction b leader) and t ariation Variable/ Category The Tab: resP0nses t] 181 As revealed in Table 31, there was a highly significant interaction between the independent variable (leader—non— leader) and the quantity of responses to Question #1. TABLE 31 ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE ON QUANTITY OF RESPONSE TO QUESTION #1 BY LEADER/NONLEADER Signifi— Mean cance of Square F Variable/ Category Leader Nonleaders . Multiple R2 The Table shows that leaders gave a greater number of responses than did the nonleaders. The averages were 7.62 and 5.35 respectively. The Multiple R squared value indi— cates that the leader—nonleader variable accounts for 11.4% of the variance. There is also significant interaction found on Question #2 as indicated in Table 32. Although both leaders and nonleaders gave less responses to Question #2 than their responses to Question #1, the leaders still yielded a higher quantity of responses than the nonleaders. The averages "are 4.74 and The R squared tion #2, only the leader—no ONE-WAY ANA5 TO ”182 are 4.74 and 3.65 for leaders and nonleaders respectively. The R squared value was lower than Question #1. In Ques- tion #2, only 5.6% of the difference can be attributed to the leader—nonleader variable. TABLE 32 ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE ON QUANTITY OF RESPONSE TO QUESTION #2 BY LEADER/NONLEADER Degrees Signifi— Mean cance of ariation Freedom Square F F Variable/ Category Leaders ETA Multiple R2 .24 .056 Nonleaders H The quantity of responses to Question #1 and #2 combined, counting duplicated responses only a single time (non—over- lapping) was also analyzed and is presented in Table 33. It shows a significant interaction between the leader—nonleader variable and the combined quantity of responses. The lea- ders were greater than the nonleaders with the averages being 11.83 and 8.77 respectively. The R squared value was the same as Question #1. This means that 11.4% of the differences can be accounted for by the leader—nonleader Source of ariation Variable/ Category Leaders Nonleaders These da 183 variable. TABLE 33 ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE ON QUANTITY OF RESPONSE TO QUESTIONS #1 AND #2 COMBINED BY LEADER/NONLEADER Source Degrees Signifi- of Sum of or Mean cance of ariation Squares Freedom Square F F Between 210.088 210.088 11.354 111111-13 1333.313 13.334 1838.400“ 20.504 Variable/ Category ETA Nonleaders . Multiple R2 These data and analysis indicate a significant inter- action between the leader—nonleader variable and the quantity variable, which shows a higher quantity of responses for leaders as compared to nonleaders. It can be concluded, then, that the Null-Hypothesis #8 is rejected. In other words, its alternative hypothesis that leaders can identify more community needs than the nonleaders is supported by the data. The Specificity Variable Null—Hypothesis #9. There will be no difference in the specificity of needs derived from Data and ses to the qu the leader—no #2 as is show relationship Gamma values which suggesi relationship Interest at the two 1 all QUestion 96%. This 1 184 leaders and the specificity of needs derived from nonleaders regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs. Data and chi—square analyses of specificity of respon— ses to the questions showed significant relationship with the leader-nonleader variable for Question #1 and Question #2 as is shown in Table 34. There is shown no significant relationship for Question #3 and Question #4. However, the Gamma values are very weak for Question #1 and Question #2 which suggests low predictive pOWer though a significant relationship as been shown. Interestingly, the percentage of leaders who responded at the two lowest levels of specificity is very high for all questions. These percentages range from 68.9% to 96%. This indicates that though there is a difference between leaders and nonleaders for Question #1 and Question #2 in favor of leaders being more specific, all respondents provided extremely general rather than Specific responses. These data support Null~Hypothesis #9 that there is no difference between leaders and nonleaders on the basis of specificity. The Means/Nonmeans Orientation Variable Null-Hypothesis #10. There will be no difference in the means/nonmeans orientation of needs «* ZOHHmHDd m¢ ZOHHmmDO Na onBmmDO as ZOHBmmoo mmmndm9202\mmmnqu Mm ¢# OH H# mZOHBmmDO OB mmmzommmm mo NBHUHhHummm ZO mHmNHdz¢ MNdDOmIHmU um mamda 185 mHH. Am.:v m hmo.v v OHH.I .m.:v m mmw.m m ONO. mo. w vmm.oa N wmm.l no. v mm®.m H mmamm “mocooHMAc Hm JMJW Nx filmmflmmwmm "mflmhamca mMMSWmlflno .m GESHOO zoom Eouw poucaooaoo “muowflQSm n a “HMMOB w¢ OB aw mZOHBmMDO .mmmecmosom H B “mnwcmoamoz n AZ “muopmoq n saw v a -H ’U 0 U H mmeMA Analysis The results a that there is der-nonleadeJ of their reS] of means sho‘ interesting responses in question. Q Question #3 needs, and C tEd and non: can be conc.‘ ted. In Ot‘ 186 derived from leaders and the means/ nonmeans orientation of needs derived from nonleaders regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs. Analysis of variance was used to test the hypothesis. The results are presented in Table 35. This table shows that there is no significant interaction between the lea- der—nonleader variable and the means/nonmeans orientation of their responses for the three questions. A comparison of means shows small differences for each question. It is interesting to note the increases toward means—oriented responses in both leaders and nonleaders from question to question. Question #1 is very heavily nonmeans-oriented; Question #3 is beginning to show some means—oriented needs, and Question #4 is almost split between means—orien— ted and nonmeans—oriented needs. With this in mind, it can be concluded that Null-Hypothesis #10 cannot be rejec- ted. In other words, there is no difference between leaders and nonleaders on the basis of a means/nonmeans orientation of their responses. The Type (of Need) Variable Null—Hypothesis #11. There will be no difference in the genre of needs derived from leaders and the genre of needs derived from nonleaders regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs. COMPARISON OF TO QUES QUESTION | # ! .1 1 1 Type (of Data and needs reveal three questi community fu relationshi; tionship is 187 TABLE 35 COMPARISON OF AVERAGE MEANS/NONMEANS ORIENTATION SCORES TO QUESTIONS #1, #3, & #4 BY LEADER/NONLEADER AVERAGE SCORE FOR QUESTION MEANS/NONMEANS MULTIPLE SUBJECT ORIENTATION R SQUARED Leaders Nonleaders Leaders _Nonleaders Leaders Nonleaders Type (of Need) by Community Functions Data and chi—square analyses of the genre (type) of needs reveal a non—significant relationship on the first three questions when classified according to the 12 community functions (Axinn Model). On Question #4 the relationship is significant at the .03 level. The rela— tionship is not strong (Lamda = .099). Since Question #4 was concerned with self needs and not community needs, it is possible to treat the analysis Of Question #1, #2 and #3 differently than Question #4. The non—significance of Question #1, #2 and #3 suggest that the Null-Hypothesis #11 has been partially proven. This means that there is no difference between leaders and nonleaders on the basis of general community and educational needs. However, the significant relationship on Question #4 indicates a difference between leaders and nonleaders on the basis of their self needs and consequently partially sup Table 36 1 the four ques tions. Data on 1:: similar distn nonleaders. as seen by bc nance," and " #2, educatior Larger Contei highest rank: to Question = mentioned in one of the t "SuPP1Y" and as first fol no agreement highest rank 188 partially supports a rejection of the Null—Hypothesis #11. Table 36 displays a rank ordering of the responses for the four questions according to the twelve community func- tions. Data on the ranking of community needs indicates a similar distribution of perception between leaders and nonleaders. The three most popular general community needs as seen by both leaders and nonleaders are "Supply," "Gover— nance," and "Inward Linkage" needs (Question #1). Question #2, educational needs, shows "Production", "Education in Larger Context", and "Education (Basic)" as the three highest ranking needs. The three highest ranking answers to Question #3 indicate slight differences with the three mentioned in Question #1. "Religious" needs are seen as one of the top three priorities for Question #3 along with "Supply" and "Inward Linkage". Question #4 indicates "Supply" as first followed by "Personal Maintenance." There was no agreement between leaders and nonleaders as to the third highest ranking for Question #4. Among the non—popular needs, "Outward Linkage" was commonly Viewed as the least needed, followed by "Health Care Delivery" and "Marketing" needs. Type (of Need) by General Area Analysis on the basis of the types of needs as classi— fied by the general area classification indicates a highly significant relationship between the leader—nonleader variable RA BY FUNCTION OMMUNITY NEEE BY FUNCTION RODUCTION ERSONAL INTENANCE EALTH CARE ELIVERY OVERNANCE DUCATION 189 TABLE 36 RANKING AND CHI-SQUARE ANALYSES OF TYPES OF NEEDS BY FUNCTION, BY QUESTION, AND BY LEADER/NONLEADER Questio Questio Question Question #2 #3 #4* NLLNL—_ UPPLY PRODUCTION __ __ ARKETING _— OMMUNITY NEED BY FUNCTION PERSONAL I‘INTENANCE IEALTH CARE DELIVERY OVERNANCE IDUCATION PELIGIOUS ULTURAL IINKAGE: Inward IINKAGE: Outward IARGER SYSTEM U1 U1 ..b [—1 ._a U1 I“ C) Leaders CODING: L NL = Nonleaders 1 = Highest rank 12 = Lowest rank * Chi—square = 16.768 significant at .03 and the type is no signif' As reveal (Lamda) are w a relationshi variables, tt ful to be use #2. The dif! seems to lie ties (Questi1 The thre are the same structure , “ in General." tioned by t1". leaders. Tl Development cultural" n< priority f0: expected to In term and nonlead (i.e. , "Eco on the thir as the thi: in General 1 190 and the type variable for Question #2, #3, and #4. There is no significant relationship for Question #1. As revealed in Table 37 and Table 38, the relationships (Lamda) are weak. This means that even though there is a relationship between the leader-nonleader and type (area) variables, the strength of the relationship is not meaning- ful to be used as a prediction measure for Question #1 and #2. The difference between leaders and nonleaders, then, seems to lie on the ordering of their community needs priori- ties (Question #3) and their self-needs (Question #4). The three responses ranked highest on Question #3 are the same for leaders and nonleaders. They are "Infra— structure," "Public Buildings," and "Community Development in General." Note, though, that the first priority men— tioned by the leaders is mentioned as second by the non- leaders. The least frequently mentioned are "Community Development Organization," "Trained Personnel," and "Agri— cultural" needs. It is interesting to note the low priority for "Agricultural" needs which could have been expected to be high in a rural environment. In terms of their self—needs (Question #4), leaders and nonleaders agree on their first two priority needs (i.e., "Economic" and "Health & Welfare"), but disagree on the third priority. Nonleaders indicate "Educational" as the third priority while leaders indicate "Development in General." RANKING A1 BY GENERAL 3 | COMMUNITY NEE} BY AREA OF NEEDS: INFRASTRUCTUR“ PUBLIC BUILDI‘I AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITY DEV ' T ORGAN . ECONOMIC UTILITIES HEALTH AND WELFARE TRAINED Personnels w DEVELOPMENT IN GENERAL CODING: STATISTI Questio: Questio] Questio 191 TABLE 37 RANKING AND CHI-SQUARE ANALYSES OF TYPES OF NEEDS BY GENERAL AREA, BY QUESTION, AND BY LEADER/NONLEADER COMMUNITY NEEDS Question Question Question BY #1 #3 #4 AREA OF NEEDS L NL AGRICULTURAL COMMUNITY DEV'T ORGAN. ECONOMIC UTILITIES HEALTH AND TRAINED EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN GENERAL CODING: L = Leader; NL = Nonleader l = Highest rank/ 10 + Lowest rank STATISTICS: §3 ELL; Significance Lamda Question #1 9.044 9 (n.s.) .009 Question #2 21.568 9 .01 .122 Question #4 12.151 7 .09 .097 CHI-SQUARE AN AS CLASS LE | COMMUNITY El Nan BY AREA BASIC EDUCAT CULTURAL EDU HEALTH & HON. EDUCAT ION VOCATIONAL / s EDUCATION AGRICULTURA] PRI SONERS AI EDUCAT ION OTHERS (GEN: x2 = 22. Lambda = 192 TABLE 38 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ON EDUCATIONAL NEEDS (QUESTION #2) , AS CLASSIFIED BY GENERAL AREA CLASSIFICATION: LEADER VS. NONLEADER (IN RANKING) COMMUN ITY EDUCAT IONAL NEEDS BY AREA OF NEEDS L BASIC EDUCATION 4 CULTURAL EDUCATION 2. 3 QUEST ION # 2 I HEALTH & HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION 3 . 1 . 5 VOCAT IONAL/SKILLS ‘ EDUCATION 4 l . 5 2 l AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 6 —: PRISONERS AND INDUSTRIAL . EDUCATION 6 . 5 5 ? OTHERS (GENERAL) 7. 7 7 ‘ x2 = 22.443 d.f. = 5 Significance Lambda = .060 .0004 These da- Null-Hypothe (Question #1 reject the ml community neé When thei the communitj genre of heel it seems tha rejection of #2, and #3 s In other wor exists when when commun: Discussion Discuss Regardl it was pred be less spe ferent type ever, suppi The notion their com the findin be a gap 1: needs . 193 These data and analyses yield information that support Null—Hypothesis #11 on the basis of general community needs (Question #1) and educational needs (Question #2) and also reject the null—hypothesis on the basis of priority of community needs (Question #3) and self-need (Question #4). When the examination of genre of need according to the community function (Axinn Model) is combined with the genre of need according to the general area classification, it seems that only responses to Question #4 support the rejection of Hypothesis #11. The responses to Question #1, #2, and #3 support the retention of the null—hypothesis. In other words, a difference between leaders and nonleaders exists when self needs are elicited. No difference exists when community needs are elcitied. Discussion and Summary of Finding Discussion Regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs, it was predicted that leaders will identify more needs, be less specific, be nonmeans—oriented, and identify dif- ferent types of needs than nonleaders. The findings, how~ ever, support only the prediction on the quantity variable. The notion that leaders have different perceptions of their community needs than nonleaders is not supported by the findings. In other words, there does not appear to be a gap between leaders and nonleaders on their community needs. Summa So far a summarized a Miner community th! similarly pe; to be achiev 1' Finding in the needs Finding ception ab01 1 A in how they Analyse the desa va are tested The Quantii Null—Hypot? Data nificant 194 Summary of Findings So far as the analyses indicated, the results can be summarized as three findings as follows: Finding #1. Leaders identify more needs regarding their community than nonleaders, but both leaders and nonleaders similarly perceive their community needs in terms of goals to be achieved rather than as ways to achieve the goals. Finding #2. Both leaders and nonleaders are nonspecific in the needs they identified. Finding #3. Leaders and nonleaders have Similar per— ception about their community needs but they are different in how they rank their priority self—need. Section 5. Desa I Versus Desa II Analyses were conducted to examine data in terms of the desa variable used to elicit the needs. Four hypotheses are tested and presented in this section. The Quantity Variable Null—Hypothesis #12. There will be no difference in the number of community needs derived from Desa I and the number of community needs derived from Desa II regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs. Data and analyses as shown in Table 39 indicate sig- nificant differences only on Question #2, in which Desa I showed a gre as compared - the .01 level #1 and #2 con but on the be; COMPARI: ON THE ' NUII-Hypot} 195 showed a greater quantity of responses than Desa II (4.96 as compared to 3.43). The difference is significant at the .01 level. On the basis of Question 1 and Questions #1 and #2 combined, the Null-Hypothesis #12 can be retained, but on the basis of Question #2 the hypothesis is rejected. TABLE 39 COMPARISON OF MEAN-AVERAGES DESA I AND DESA II ON THE QUANTITY OF RESPONSES TO QUESTION #1,#2, AND #1 AND #2 COMBINED QUESTION DESA I DESA II (n-43) (n=47) .32 "m #l combined *** 9.53 * p .10 (Eta = .03) ** p .001 (Eta = .33) *** p .10 (Eta = .15) The Specificity Variable Null—Hypothesis #13. There will be no difference in the specificity of needs derived from Desa I and the specificity of needs derived from Desa II regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs. Analyses on specificity indicate a significant rela- tionship only on Question #3. AS displayed in Table 40, the relationship for Question #3 is Significant at the .01 level: and th tionship in city. CHI-i RESPONS 1 Level of S ecifici‘ Null-H3 0f Questio] Question # The Means/ NUII‘HYpot 196 level, and the Gamma value of .564 indicates a strong rela— tionship in which Desa II showed a higher level of specifi- city. TABLE 40 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS* ON SPECIFICITY OF RESPONSES TO QUESTION #3: DESA I VS DESA II Level of DESA I DESA II Soecificity (n-47) (n=48) *Significant at .01; Gamma = .564 Null-Hypothesis #13, then, can be retained on the basis of Question #1, #2, and #4, and rejected on the basis of Question #3. The Means/Nonmeans Orientation Variable Null—Hypothesis #14. There will be no difference in the means/nonmeans orientation of needs derived from Desa I and the means/ nonmeans orientation of needs deri— ved from Desa II regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs. K 1 Data and a single Sign showed a high than Desa II Table 41. T1 #1, and #4. can be retai rejected on COME OF I 197 Data and analyses to test the hypothesis again indicate a single significant finding on Question #3, in which Desa I showed a higher average of means/nonmeans oriented needs than Desa II (1.42 and 1.13 respectively), as shown in Table 41. There is no Significant differences on Question #1, and #4. It can be concluded that Null-Hypothesis #14 can be retained on the basis of Questions #1 and #4, and rejected on the basis of Question #3. TABLE 41 COMPARISON ON MEANS/NONMEANS ORIENTATION OF RESPONSES TO QUESTION #1, #3 and #4: DESA I VS. DESA II QUESTION DESA II #1 #3* #4 *p .01 (Eta = .33) The Type (of Need) Variable Null-Hypothesis #15. There will be no difference in the genre of needs derived from Desa I and the genre of needs derived from Desa II regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs. Type (of Need) by Community Functions Data and analyses on type of needs as classified by community function classification are presented in Table 42. k v: onfiwwDO m: zo—Bmmno .—<...o.r1_.:o P so (dra/ECEFCC _ .-. HH Emma .m> H sumo Awe 08 as monBmMDOo L 11...? p . _ 1 I1 2 20755.0 b u WZOHBUZDh NEHZDESOU WQWHZ .HHO WWQNH ZO WH N? WHNANH _ ‘ 202.950 ‘ Nmn QWFKHWWANHU WQ WNQANZQ mmfibomleU >..r> .1. ...: 198 emm. «coo. m 92.3 I .5335 was. Nooo. AH www.0m ma COS—mono :o. mmo. m mvw.m~ NG coflumwso :2. coo. HM mvav H: :oquwoso SEEN. AMEN L ET. m. .L . c N n .. USERS fl CE—JOU :Ucc ESL..— Uouoasofimu cum wcvcuccptcm H a “Amncoflbsm uocv momccnmcu do .5952 n : "mcwoou cos ooH oeH co” eo_ can can can can can cos a aeeoa v.e A.» c.m v.m m.o~ a.e_ ~.w~ 2.x m.m o.LH .NA mzmsm>m «mecca o.o s. o.o e.L c.e o.c o.c m. m. v.2 .AH cuczuso "moou o.c o.o H.~ a. q.~ m._ c. m.~ s.~ n.~ H.m .m >mm>Hamo mmeHzDzzoo HH ammo .m> H «mom 2; OS 2 monemmso. "mZOHBUZDm MBHZDEEOU Mm QWHmHmm m.v v.5 a.» ~.h .oa a1mmzmu 2H Hzmzanm>mo m.o~ N.v o.n~ m.vm w.m~ w.mm o.o m.w o.mH .m q.va .h mmdhamz oz< =Bqmo ufiHzozzou q._ o.o a.~ m.~ m.~ ~.m h.w m.> m.m .m A xmm wm 02¢ mflHfiEmm OZ mmmzommmm m0 MBHUHMHUmmm ZO mHmMHMH 48% of the m of the femal males as con In three not signifi< levels of S] that in all while some males and f the task of needs made in nature : It is discrimina quantity, be reasons the highel Show a rej 0n the ba Based eXCept fC retained. 208 48% of the males were rated as level 1 while only 17% of the females were so rated. At level 2, 36% of the males as compared to 75% of the females. In three other questions, even though differences were not significant, the trend Shows females as having higher levels of specificity. It is also interesting to note, that in all four questions there was no female at level 5, while some males were at level 5. In Question #3, all males and females were not higher than level 3. Possibly the task of choosing the three most important community needs made them choose responses that were more general in nature so that it could include the more specific needs. It is interesting that though Question #2 did not discriminate between males and females on the basis of quantity, it did on the basis of specificity. It could be reasonable to expect that the higher the specificity the higher the quantity. The research, however, does not show a relationship between quantity and specificity on the basis of sex. Based on this analysis it can be summarized that except for Question #2, the Null-Hypothesis #17 can be retained. Comparison on Means/Nonmeans Orientation Variable Null—Hypothesis #18. There will be no difference in the means/nonmeans orientation of needs derived from males and the means/ Data anCi no significi 1 averages of: ted in TablA 1 averages fr CON AND RI 20.9 nonmeans orientation of needs derived from females regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs. Data and analyses on this dependent variable indicate no significant differences on three of the questions. The averages of males and females for each question are presen- ted in Table 49. Note the increasing trend of mean— averages from question to question. TABLE 49 COMPARISON AMONG MEAN-AVERAGES OF MALES AND FEMALES ON MEANS/NONMEANS ORIENTATION RESPONSES TO QUESTION #1, #3, AND #4. QUESTION #1 #3 #4 Note: Differences between Male and Female are not Significant Since data for these questions indicate no differences between males and females on the means/nonmeans orienta- tion of their responses, Hypothesis #18 cannot be rejected. Type (of Need) Variable Null—Hypothesis #19. There will be no difference in the genre of needs derived from males and the genre of needs derived from females regardless of the approach Type by Co . Data and ding to thel 50. Chi-sq} ship betwee: Question #2 was found f are small f #4 the rele On Que: similar di: identify. same for b nance“ , an the males 210 used to elicit the needs. Type by Community Function Data and analysis on type of needs as classified accor— ding to the 12 community functions are presented in Table 50. Chi—square analyses indicated a significant relation- ship between the sex variable and the type variable for Question #2, #3, and #4. No significant relationship was found for Question #1. The Lamda values, however, are small for the first three questions. For Question #4 the relationship is stronger (Lamda = .315). On Question #1, both males and females indicate a similar distribution on the type of community needs they identify. The three most popular types of needs are the same for both males and females, i.e., "Supply“, "Gover— nance", and "Inward Linkage." On Question #2, 38% of the males identified "Production" educational needs, while 65% of the females also identified the "Production" type of educational needs. Males are more varied than females on educational needs. On Question #3, the males' three highest priorities were "Supply", "Governance" and "Religious" needs, while females indicated "Production," "Inward—Linkage,“ and "Religious" needs. Thus, only on "Religious" needs did both males and females agree on priority. On Question #4 males again indicated "Supply" needs (54%), and females indicated a different type of need —— .3 239mm... III —. a. a ........ mm Mm QZfl ZOHBWWDO Mm ewZOHBUZDh NBHZDEEOU Mm mnHmHmHz .WO mum—”Amway ZO mHmefln—JNZAN mmANDOWIHmU om MHQmHANH. HQNGHMHAN? um Zlfl mam. o. . msH. vH w pom mH we :oHumwso moo AH maa.a~ ma coaumoso NH . . . H poo m omo Hm ~¢ :oHumwzo . m .C . oHo A o HH one w H* :oHmezo 25qu “00:00." a: a . . 1’ . # .o. .m a c Nx .moHSmHscsm m :EDHOU some EOuu oeucHzo~mU out mcocuccvgco n w “.maocwnsm Hog. momcoawwn uo LGQEDZ n c "UCHUOU can cos ses oer co_ can cos oo_ cos :1 : a Aesop m.~ m.HH m.mH o.o 0.0 5.5 m.h w.h .NW w2w9m>w II , muomdd e.L m.“ o.o e.e c.e a. e.2 c. .LH cuczuac "WU¢XZHH a.ea c.o~ m.cs o.o o.o c.c m.e_ m.mH ".5H .oH ccmxcH "m0oo a.~ m.~ ~.A ~.H H.H m.m c.e ~.m .m sam>aqma m¢m n+2 n+5 h 2 ha: L 2 h+2 m 2 mDEDZ mqmm DZC 1 r111 :11 y 1 I 1: 1 11! 111 1) yFHZDZSOU Mu ZCHEmmDO Ne ZOHEmm:O H: ZOHFmEDO WHm¢Hm¢> xmm Mm 024 ZOHBWMDO Mm .mZOHBUZDm MBHZDESOU wm mommz m0 mmmMB ZO mHmNH¢Z< mm¢DOmIHmU om MHmdfi "Personal M- that female' community he variability types of ne} Further one out of both the ma "Religious" females fir "Productior The ane type of ne« needs (Que: HYpothesis way: "There types of 3 their sell on general these gro The by G Data general a between 1 #2- Tab: 212 "Personal Maintenance" needs (46%). This could suggest that females can differentiate better than males between community needs and their own needs. Notice also the variability of needs among males, and the more homogeneous types of needs among females. Further examination of Question #1 and #3 show that one out of three of the most popular needs changed for both the males and females. While males first indicated "Religious" needs they changed to "Linkage—Inward" needs, females first indicated "Supply" needs and changed to "Production" needs. The analysis shows differences between sexes on the type of needs they perceive except on general community needs (Question #1). In order to fully reject the Null- Hypothesis #19, it would have to be worded in the following way: "There are differences between males and females on types of educational needs, community priority needs, and their self-needs as classified by community function, but on general community needs there is no difference between these groups." Type by General Area Data and analysis on type of needs as classified by general area indicated a single Significant relationship between the sex variable and the type variable on Question #2. Table 51 shows the analysis on Question #2 (Community Basic 8 Culture Health Home E< Vocatir Skills Agricu Busine Indust Others COD] STAT 213 Educational needs). As revealed in the Table, the relation- ship is fairly strong (Lamda = .327). There was no signifi- cant relationship found on the other three questions. TABLE 51 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ON TYPE OF NEED FOR QUESTION #2 BY GENERAL AREA, BY SEX Educational Need By General Area Basic & Cultural Health & Home Economics Vocational/ Skills Agricultural Business & Industrial Others( General) CODING: n = number of responses (not subjects) = percentages are calculated from each column 2 STATISTICS: x2 = 52.145 d.f. = 5,- significance = .0000 Lamda = .337 On educational needs, males and females indicated dif— ferent general areas of needs. Females identified educa- tional needs in the area of "Health and Home Economics" as needed by their community, while males identified "Agri- culture“ as 0n the « partially 1: Discussion 1 As a su] be concludel of response cate that i between mal types of ne of the othe fully reje< responses ‘ did not di 214 culture" as their community needs. On the basis of Question #2, Null-Hypothesis #19 is partially rejected. DiScussion and Summary of Finding As a summary to this section on sex differences, it can be concluded that except in the Means/Nonmeans Orientation of responses (Null—Hypothesis #18) data and analyses indi- cate that in one way or another there are differences between males and females on quantity, specificity, and types of needs. It does not mean, however, that all three of the other hypotheses (Hypothesis #16, #17, and #19) are fully rejected. The findings Show that males gave more responses to Question #1 (general community needs), but did not differ from females on Question #2; females showed a higher level of specificity on Question #2, but did not differ from males on three other questions; both males and females had similar perceptions of what are the general community needs, but they had different perceptions of educational needs, community priority needs, and their own self needs; and both males and females perceived needs in terms of an outcome instead of in terms of a means to achieve an outcome. Discussion The hypothesis that differences of sex roles in a rural village biases the perception of males and females on their community needs is challenged by the findings. There general co"l needs they ' However quantity of in favor ofl Question #ZE exist due t tional Indo It is possi willing to continued. difference The id than males males is r males and Question : 215 is no difference between males and females on the type of general community needs or on the type of educational needs they identify. However, it is interesting to note that in terms of quantity of responses there is a significant difference in favor of males on Question #1 but no difference on Question #2. It was hypothesized that differences would exist due to the role differences in sexes and the tradi— tional Indonesian woman‘s role which is rather inhibited. It is possible that the women respondents became more willing to respond as the process (group or interview) continued. This might be a reason for the lack of sex differences on Question #2. The idea that since females tend to be less talkative than males it will make their reSponses more general than males is not supported by the findings. Not only did males and females indicate nonspecific responses to Question #1, but opposite to the prediction, it turned out that females were more specific than males on educa— tional needs. This finding indicates that quantity of response and specificity does not necessarily corre- late. Summary of Finding Finding. Male nonleaders identify more community needs than female nonleaders, yet females appear to be more specific on educational needs than males. subjects in; this study . relationshi‘ 91131113 Null—Hypoth 216 Section 7. Educational Differences This section presents data and analyses on the exami— nation of educational background (years of schooling) of the subjects in relation to the four dependent variables of this study. Four hypotheses are stated to examine this relationship. Quantity Variable Null—Hypothesis #20. There will be no difference in the number of needs derived from less— educated subjects and the number of needs derived from more-educated subjects, regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs. Tables 52, 53 and 54 reveal data and analyses to test Null-Hypothesis #20. In all Tables, data indicate signifi— cant interaction between the educational variable and the quantity variable at greater than the .01 level of confi- dence for all questions. As Table 52 reveals, the average number of responses seem to be positively correlated with the educational background of the subjects. There is a trend toward a linear increase in the number of responses as the education level moves higher. On Question #2, as shown in Table 53, there is not a similar trend as for Question #1, nor is there for Question #1 and #2 combined (Table 54). What is interesting is that the highest highest qua, than 11 yea number of cm 6 years of 1 education a responses t OF RESI Question years" C 217 the highest educational level did not always yield the highest quantity of responses. The subjects with more than ll years of education, for example, identified a fewer number of community educational needs than those who had 6 years of education. However, those with six years of education and over always yielded a greater quantity of responses than those with less than six years of education. TABLE 52 ONE-WAY ANOVA ON QUANTITY OF RESPONSES TO QUESTION #1, BY EDUCATION LEVEL Source Signifi— of cance of Variation 555.55 — 864. 232 — 10.167 1003.789 89 11.279 Eta = .37 Variable/ Category None l—5 years 5.17 6—8 years 7. 63 . 2 _ 9-11 years- 7 69 Multiple R — .139 >11 years 8 0 Further analysis of the means indicates no significant differences among means for all questions, except between the " > ll years" and the "less than 6 years" categories in Question #1, and between the "9-11 years" and the "1—5 years" categories in Question #2. Between ithin Total Variable/ Category None 1— 5 yea] 6- 8 yea] 9—ll yea: 11 yea 218 TABLE 53 ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE ON QUANTITY OF RESPONSES TO QUESTION #2: EDUCATION LEVEL SOURCE DEGREES SIGNIFI— OF SUM OF OF MEAN CANCE OF VARIATION SQUARES FREEDOM SQUARE F F 130-206 E 32.552 347.616 4.090 7.960 .001 Variable/ Category None 1- 5 years 6- 8 years ETA 9—11 years Multiple R squared 11 years TABLE 54 ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE ON QUANTITY OF RESPONSES TO QUESTION #1 AND #2 COMBINED: EDUCATION LEVEL OF SIGNIFI— SUM OF MEAN CANCE OF SQUARE FREEDOM SQUARE F F 414.362 — 103.590 1424.038 16.753 6.183 .001 1838.400 a 20.656 Variable/ Category N Mean -m m- SOURCE DEGREES None 1— 5 years 6- 8 years 9—11 years 11 years ETA Multiple R squared .47 .225 From * can be cone for 14% of #2, and 22. greater tha the approac These nificant c< educationa among mean that Null- Specificit Null—Hypot 219 From the Multiple R squared in the three tables it can be concluded that the education variable did account for 14% of the variance in Question #1, 27.2% in Question #2, and 22.5% in Question #1 and #2 combined. These are greater than the proportion of variance accounted for by the approach, desa, or leader-nonleader variables. These analyses indicate that though there is a sig— nificant correlation between quantity of responses and educational level, there are no significant differences among means that indicate a linear increase. This means that Null—Hypothesis #20 is only partially rejected. Specificity Variable Null-Hypothesis #21. There will be no difference in the specificity of needs derived from less—educated subjects and the specificity of needs derived from more—educated subjects regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs. Data and analyses on specificity of responses indicate no significant finding except for Question #4 which is Significant, at the .04 level. However, since the measure of relationship (in this case, Lamda value) is small and not significant, it can be concluded that Null-Hypothesis #21 is supported by the findings. In other words, Null- Hypothesis #21 cannot be rejected. Means/Nonm: Null-Hypo ‘ Tab] means orie interactic nonmeans ( no basis TAM Null-Hypo 220 Means/Nonmeans Orientation Variable Null—Hypothesis #22. There will be no difference in the means/nonmeans orientation of needs derived from less—educated subjects and the means/nonmeans orientation of needs derived from more-educated subjects regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs. Table 55 shows data and analyses on the means/non— means orientation of the responses. There is no significant interaction between level of education and the means/ nonmeans orientation variable in all questions. There is no basis to reject Null—Hypothesis #22. Type (of Needs) Variable Null—Hypothesis #23. There will be no difference in the genre of needs derived from less— educated subjects and the genre of needs derived from more-educated subjects regardless of the approach used to elicit the needs. Data and analysis on type of needs as classified by community function reveal significant relationships on Question #1, #2, and #4, but no significant relationship on Question #3. The Lamda values, however, are all very small, which indicate a very weak relationship between the education variable and the type (by function) variable. COMPA? RES ‘ EDUCATION LE CODING 221 TABLE 55 COMPARISON ON MEANS/NONMEANS ORIENTATION RESPONSES TO QUESTION #1, #3, and #4: BY EDUCATION LEVEL EDUCATION LEVEL None 1-5 years AVERAGE MEANS-ORIENTATION Q#l Q#3 Q#4 .25 .20 9—11 years ) 11 years - Eta 19 Multiple R Squared .035 .061 .042 Number of subjects CODING: Question N Q 1 Nonmeans-Oriented 2 Means—Oriented (Chi—squar= Table 9 to Comp. most frequ. are presen' and educat. popular ne by all sub #2). Note priority n most freqt is an indi ground ov( “Governan 222 (Chi—square analyses data are presented in Appendix C, Table 9 to 12). These findings support the Null—Hypothesis #23. Comparison among sub-samples on the type of needs most frequently identified in answering the four questions are presented in Table 56. As the Table reveals, the "supply" and education for "production" needs seem to be the most popular needs in the two desas and are similarly viewed by all subjects across education levels. (Question #1 and #2). Note, however, when they are asked about the top priority needs in the community (Question #3), the needs most frequently identified are "Inward—Linkage Needs." There is an indication that the subjects with an educational back— ground over 11 years of schooling are more concerned with "Governance" rather than "Production" needs. Type (of Needs) by General Area Data and analyses on type of needs as classified by the general area show significant relationship on all four questions. Again, the Lamda values are small and Suggest a weak relationship in the four questions and are too weak to be meaningful as predictors. Therefore, it further supports the retention of Null—Hypothesis #23. Data and alayses are presented in Appendix C, Tables 13 to 16. Comparison among the three most frequently identified general areas of needs for all of the four questions are shown THE 0F NEED EDUCATION LEVEL (Years of school) NONE 1- 5 6- 8 9-11 223 TABLE 56 COMPARISON AMONG EDUCATIONAL LEVEL ON THE THREE MOST FREQUENTLY IDENTIFIED TYPE OF NEEDS (BY FUNCTION) FOR QUESTION #1, #2, #3, #4. EDUCATION LEVEL (Years of school) NONE 1- 5 6- 8 9—11 RANK 1 RANK 2 Inward-Link Supply Supply Supply Governance Production Production Production Production Larger Syst Inward—Link Religious Inward—Link Inward-Link Governance Personal M. Supply Supply Inward—Link Governance Supply Inward-Link Larger Syst Larger Syst Larger Syst Education RANK 3 Religious Relig./Gov. Inward-Linkage Religious Governance Religious Religious Educ./Culture Larger System Supply/Governance Supply/Religious Inward-Link Production Supply Supply Governance/Supply Personal M. Personal M. Larger System/Supply Governance Supply/Per— Larger System Larger System Production Production Product./Perso- nal M. sonal Maintenance in Table 5 in Questio the basis Notice tha needs, the ted differ is conside 0n educati Economic" level educ schooled s In 5 backgroun< ceived ne for 14% t his Edu the quant (years of Press the less~edu< 224 in Table 57. The Table indicates that the needs identified in Question #1 are similarly identified in Question #3 on the basis of the most frequently mentioned needs (Rank 1). Notice that while four sub-samples indicate "Infra Structure" needs, the highest level of education () 11 years) indica— ted different needs (i.e., "Trained Personnel"). There is considerable variance on their self—needs (Question #3). On educational needs (Question #2), "Health and Home Economic" needs are identified by all of the four higher level education groups, but "Agricultural" by the None schooled subjects. In summary, it can be concluded that formal educational background does not make a meaningful difference in per— ceived needs except on the basis of quantity which accounts for 14% to 27% of the variance. Discussion and Summary of Finding Discussion Education variable has differential effect only on the quantity of response. Probably because education level (years of schooling) made the more-educated subjects ex— press themselves better, orally or in writing, than the less—educated subjects. Finding The more the formal educational background of the villagers, the more likely they will identify a greater number of community needs, and the more likely their self co 2 THREE (BY GENE} EDUCATION I LEVEL I ! :1 (Years of ' school) ~-—_ -—_——_ 225 TABLE 57 COMPARISON AMONG EDUCATIONAL LEVEL ON THE THREE MOST FREQUENTLY IDENTIFIED TYPE OF NEEDS (BY GENERAL AREA) FOR QUESTION #1, #2, #3, AND #4 EDUCATION LEVEL (Years of school) NONE #l Infrastruct. Public Bldg Health 1- 5 Infrastruct. Public Bldg Health 6- 8 Infrastruct. Public Bldg Education 9—11 Infrastruct. Public Bldg/Education ) ll Trained Infrastruct. Education Personnel NONE #3 Infrastruct. Education Public Bldg 1- 5 Infrastruct. Public Bldg Education 6- 8 Infrastruct. Education Public Bldg 9—11 Infrastruct. Education Public Bldg ) 11 Trained Economic Personnel/Others (General) NONE #4 Health Economic Education 1- 5 Economic Health General Dev't 6- 8 Economic Health Education 9-ll General DethEconomic Health/Educ. 7 ll Trained Economic/Health Personnel NONE #2 Agricultural Basic & Cult Health & Home Econ l- 5 Health & Agriculture Basic & Cul- Home Econ tural 6— 8 Health & Agriculture Basic & Cul- Home Econ tural 9-ll Health & Basic & Cultural/Vocational Home Econ ) 11 Health & Home Econ/Agriculture *Question #2 has different classification categories. (All Educational needs) needs will does not d' orientatio Further Di: in terms of general co the order and desa v tity of re be made be variable : or to exp? concernin tion! 6123 This mean needs car educatio] 226 needs will be specific. Educational background, however, does not differentiate the specificity and means/nonmeans orientation of community needs. Further Discussion Looking at the rank ordering of independent variables in terms of their eta values on quantity of responses on general community needs (Question #1), from high to low, the order is sex, education, leader/nonleader, approach, and desa variables. This means that a prediction on quan— tity of responses in terms of general community needs can be made best on the basis of the sex variable. The desa variable is the weakest basis on which to make a prediction or to explain the variance. On the number of responses concerning educational needs, the rank ordering is: educa— tion, desa, approach, leader—nonleader, and sex variable. This means that differences on the basis of educational needs can be explained/predicted best on the basis of the educational background of the subjects. Second, only fifty percent of the variance can be explained by the total combination of the five independent variables of sex, education, approach, desa, and leader— nonleader. The combination of desa and approach variables, for example, explain only 18.3% of the variance for Question #2, and only 4.5% of the variance for Question #1 and #2 respectively. The sex variable explains 16% and 1% for Questions #1 and #2. The educational variable explains variance f the five v ances for further or variables between 16 educationa reveal, 16 higher edt Anal approach . of needs related w no relati variables Villagers but this This hour tural va: Th1 Position of need is SUSpe the tYpe Way that 227. 13.9% of the variance for Question #1 and 27.3% of the variance for Question #2. As revealed in Figure 15, the five variables explain only 46% and 54% of the vari— ances for Question #1 and Question #2 respectively. If further cross—analyzed, the effect of the independent variables on the quantity of responses show that differences between leaders and nonleaders are affected by their educational background and sex differences. As data reveal, leaders were all males and had a relatively higher educational background. Analyses on specificity indicate that only the approach variable differentiates the level of specificity of needs -" that specificity of responses are strongly related with the interview approach. On the other hand, no relationship exists between the five independent variables and means/nonmeans orientation. This means that villagers are not only homogeneously nonmeans-oriented, but this homogenity is not affected by different approaches. This homogenity can be explained, most likely, by the cul~ tural variable. The fact that differences in sex, education, leadership position, approach, and desa did not differentiate the type of need identified by the subjects was not as expected. It is suspected that the classification procedure for examining the types of needs influenced the type variable in such a way that differences which existed were lost in the process. The analyses of types of needs on the basis of a general 228 54% QUESTION #1 Unexplained Education Approach 4.4% Leader/Nonleader 11.4% 45.4% Unexplained pproach QUESTION #2 ' .....hpucvi outl“".”. Education FIGURE 15 THE PROPORTION OF VARIANCE FOR QUESTION #1 AND #2 EXPLAINED BY INDEPENDENT VARIABLES area class relations functiona Another pg are homogd communityl If a fied by ti problems c it can be the real! linkage," and very also in o 229 area classification which indicated more significant relationships, although weak, than on the basis of a functional classification seem to support the argument. Another possible explanation, however, is that Villagers are homogeneous on their perceptions concerning their community needs. If a further comparison is made of the needs identi- fied by the villagers and the environmental and human problems of the two desas as seen by the research team, it can be concluded that the identified felt needs mirror the real needs of the communities. The "supply," "inward- linkage," and "governance" needs, for examples, are real and very important issues in both desas, and most likely also in other rural villages in Indonesia. In Desa I, for example, the "governance" needs were very strong. The weakness of leadership of the desa chief could be seen very clearly by an outsider and is felt stronglyby the villagers. This desa was an under-achiever as compared to its potentiality in human resources as well as natural resources. If there were not informal leaders who came forward, there would be no sign of a development program at all in Desa I. Villagers are waiting for a new and creative desa leader. It can be predicted that in the next election (1980) the desa chief will not be reelected. About 60% of the "governance" needs were needs for better leadership, and villagers' involvement in the Village policy and decision making processes. Although the propor— tion of were only in the st interestin I be very re | governmeni who have i ment it b Looking f in the in is an ind by their on “gover On cerns was were real done by 5 bEtterme the tech 230 tion of the subjects who identified "governance" needs were only 16%, the fact that this type of need came out in the study is very interesting and encouraging. It is interesting because it was assumed that villagers would be very reluctant to give opinions that criticize their government. It is encouraging, because without citizens who have the courage to criticize their leaders or govern- ment it is difficult to develop a democratic community. Looking further at the percentages of "governance" needs in the interview approach and in the group approach, there is an indication that villagers were only slightly influenced by their presence in a group in expressing their opinions on "governance" needs. On educational needs, the villagers' greatest con— cerns was education for "production." Again, these needs were real needs. There are a lot of things that can be done by the villagers to increase their incomes and the betterment of their community. Resources are there, but the technical know—how is missing. Summary The findings for the six foci of this study, divided into their 23 directional hypotheses are presented in Table 58. Detailed significant testing results can also be found in Appendix C, Table 17. The following is a description of Table 58. 231 TABLE 58 SUMMARY OF THE ANALYSES OF DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES BY FOCUS BY VARIABLE, AS INTERPRETED FROM THE TESTING OF THE NULL-HYPOTHESES Focus Variable Directional Hypotheses Conclusion (Yes or No) Interview Interview Group Group #1 Quantity Specificity Means/ Orientation Group = Interview (Nonmeans oriented) Group # Interview Type of Need Group Interview Time #2 Quantity LI LNG LG NI NG LNG Nonleaders Nonleaders Leaders Leaders #3 Quantity Specificity Means/ Orientation Type of Need Nonleaders Nonleaders Leaders Leaders #4 Quantity Specificity Means/ Orientation Type of Need #5 Quantity Females Specificity Females Means/ Orientation Females Type of Need Females #6 Quantity More Less schooling schooling Yes Specificity More Less schooling schooling No Means/ More Less Orientation schooling schooling Yes Type of Need More Less schooling schooling No Coding LI LG LNG NI NG = of Table 58 Leader Interview approach Leader only Group approach Mixed Leader—Nonleader Group approach Nonleader Interview approach Nonleader—only Group approach 10) 232 TABLE 58 -- CONTINUED Coding of Table 58 l) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) Yes LNG LI but LNG = LG. This was significant only for Question #1. Yes for all questions on Community needs, but only that NG NI and not NG LNG. Significant only on self—need on the basis of type by functions, and not significant on general community needs on the basis of type by general area. Only for education needs. Only for community priority needs. Only for community priority needs. The measure of relationships are weak. No for educational needs. Only for self need. Only for educational needs. Fin Gro approach through i in terms ment. gig An specifici tend to n Egg The variable Villager: achieved De on the q Signific aPProach Focus # I H? Le which b( 233 FOCUS #1. Group Approach vs. Interview Approach. _________ ________________________________________ Finding #1 Group approach is more effective than an interview approach in terms of the quantity of community needs elicited through it, and more efficient than the interview approach in terms of man-hours needed to conduct the needs assess- ment. Finding #2 An interview approach elicited a higher level of specificity of needs than a group approach, though villagers tend to mention needs in nonspecific terms. Finding_#3 There is no significant effect of the approach variable on the means/nonmeans orientation of the needs. Villagers identify their community needs as ends to be achieved rather than as means to achieve the ends. Finding #4 Despite the significant effect of the approach variable on the quantity and specificity variables, it does not have significant effect on the types of needs. Both interview approach and group approach elicited similar types of needs. FOCUS #2. Effect of Group Approach and Interview Approach on Leaders and on Nonleaders Finding #5 Leaders yield more responses in a group approach in which both leaders and nonleaders are participating than in an interv' leaders 0 Fin- ._——— Nonl in which i interview approach. FOCUS #3. Fig Lea than nonl perceive achieved {2 Bo needs th resPect: 234 an interview approach or a group approach consisting of leaders only. Finding #6 Nonleaders yield more responses in a group approach in which the participants are all nonleaders than in an interview approach or in a mixed leaders—nonleaders group approach. FOCUS #3. Leader vs. Nonleader Finding #7 Leaders identify more needs regarding their community than nonleaders, but both leaders and nonleaders similarly perceive their community needs in terms of ends to be achieved rather than as ways to achieve the ends. Finding #8 Both leaders and nonleaders are nonspecific in the needs they identified. FOCUS #4. Desa I vs.Desa II Finding #9 Desa I appears to be different from Desa II in their educational needs, yet they appear to be similar in other respects. FOCUS #5. Male vs Female Finding #10 Male nonleaders identify more community needs than female nonleaders. Yet, females appear to be more specific on educat? FOCUS #5. fl” Finq _— The the more community be specif different and the 1 All that vil not bett priate g assessme 235 on educational needs than males. FOCUS #5. Educational Differences Finding #11 The more years of schooling background of the villagers, the more likely they will identify a greater number of community needs, and the more likely their self—need will be specific. Educational background, however, does not differentiate the specificity, means/nonmeans orientation, and the types of community needs identified. All in all, the analyses and finding clearly indicate that Villagers know what are their community needs. If not better, at least as good as their leaders. Given appro- priate guidance, the villagers could make a community needs assessment by themselves. comci The the effec and an in assessmer a group a a higher ponses,« the admi approach tionship leader/r variable tion, a: T] that we: regardi ment. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION, AND RECOMMENDATION The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness and the efficiency of a group approach and an interview approach as methods for community needs assessment. More specifically, this study examined whether a group approach generates a greater number of responses, a higher level of specificity, more means—oriented res- ponses, different types of needs, and needs less time for the administration of a group approach than an interview approach. In addition, this study examined whether rela- tionships exist between the independent variables of desa, leader/nonleader, sex, education, and the dependent variables of quantity, specificity, means/nonmeans orienta— tion, and types of responses. This chapter presents the conclusions and implications that were drawn from the study and recommendations are made regarding further study in the area of community needs assess— ment. Conclusion and Implication Based on the analyses, findings and discussions, the conclusions of this study and its implications can be formu— lated as follows. 236 Conclusio A g ment in r approach, used in 7 is to col needs, hc Whichever through i approach< the comb assessme view app needs fr A series then be first 51 activit View ap Strateg WhiCh c lL—l 237 Conclusion #1 A group approach as a method of community needs assess- ment in rural desas is more preferable than an interview approach, if effectiveness and efficiency are the criteria used in choosing a method. If the objective of the assessment is to collect data on a higher level of specificity of needs, however, the interview approach is most appropriate. Whichever method is chosen, the types of needs identified through it will be similarly reliable. Since the two approaches have their own advantages and disadvantages, the combination of the two approaches in a community needs assessment seems very useful. For example, first an inter- view approach could be conducted to collect specific community needs from leaders and educated individuals in the community. A series of group approaches involving nonleaders could then be carried out to discuss the needs identified in the first stage, decide priorities, and probably further organize activities to fulfill the needs. In other words, an inter— view approach and a group approach could be used aSpreliminary strategies in organizing a community development program, in which community education is the key process. Implication This conclusion, put into practice, implies that community education workers should be trained in using both interviewing and group meeting techniques as methods of needs assessment as well as methods of training the villagers in In ‘ it is imp leaders w results cg leader-no The meaningfu I their par the villa their pr< communitj is for t1 Conclusi If and non] then ecu leaders View ap] of the Program approac rn aPprox: from 1 238 the community education process for community development. In order to get greater inputs from the nonleaders it is important to conduct a group meeting for the non- leaders without their leaders participating in it. The results could then be presented and discussed in a mixed leader—nonleader group meeting. The group approach for needs assessment will be more meaningful to the villagers and therefore will enhance their participation if it is used as a vehicle for getting the villagers involved in the decision making process of their programs. This will be in accord with the Indonesian community education philosophy that "community education is for the people by the people." Conclusion #2 If it is true that there is no gap between leaders and nonleaders on their perception of their community needs, then community needs can be assessed from the community leaders alone, or from nonleaders alone, through an inter— view approach or through a group approach. If the purpose of the assessment is to develop a community development program that needs villager involvement, however, a group approach involving nonleaders is strongly suggested. Implication Since the results of community needs assessment are approximately similar in terms of type of needs identified from leaders and from nonleaders, in a situation where the time to c1 with comm community leaders i poses. S can show excuse on Even thou group aPE assessme: and thus describe( in decis endeavor Conclusi \ 239 time to conduct the assessment is limited, a group approach with community formal leaders can suffice for identifying community needs. The minggon (weekly meeting) of community leaders in the desa can be easily used for assessment pur— poses. Such an "emergency" of needs assessment, however, can show bad planning. It is worse if it is used as an excuse on behalf of the central government or planners. Even though the needs assessment through a leaders-only group approach will yield valid results, the effect of such assessment will not enhance the villagers' participation and thus will minimize the probability to succeed. As described in the first implication, participation of villagers in decision making is imperative in any community education endeavor. Conclusion #3 Since the quantity of community needs derived from villagers varied significantly on the basis of their years of schooling, sex, and leader/nonleader status, the sampling frame of a community needs assessment should take into account these variables. In other words, a stratified ran— dom sampling by schooling background, by sex and by leader/ nonleader is highly suggested. Implication Conclusion #3 has two implications. First, the community education workers and participants, who are the persons who would conduct the needs assessment, need to know how samples - seems to for the tional be field, hi such as é of low e< techniqui sub-grou difficul such a s sampling gator be valid re tivenes: as a ba: with th 240 know how to carry out a rather complex selection of samples —- a stratified random sampling technique. It seems to be a difficult task for the villagers and even for the community education agent with their low educa— tional background to do such a task. Experience from the field, however, indicated that a random sampling technique such as a "lottery" system is easily understood by villagers of low educational background. A stratified random sampling technique is basically drawing lotteries from different sub—groups of the villagers. Therefore, it would not be difficult to train them, if necessary, in how to conduct such a sampling technique. This use of an appropriate sampling technique is considered important by the investi- gator because the needs assessment is supposed to yield valid results in terms of the real needs and representa- tiveness of the community. Otherwise, it cannot be used as a basis to make a community education program compatible with the needs of the people in the community. Second, a stratified random sampling technique requires to know beforehand the specific demographic backgrounds of the Villagers, such as sex, years of schooling, leader/ nonleader status, etcetera. This means that such data should be available in the respective desa office. Unfor— tunately, however, such data are not always available in the desas, especially in terms of the educational background. It is highly recommended that a desa census be conducted in the preliminary process of a community develOpment program. Data from Conclusio It! asking on general t are not c needs. igg Tht any lear include are nonm This mea through made ca] of the : really Cisenes Whether Further Will a] instrur is ale by vii exampl Stated 241 Data from the census can be used for many purposes. Conclusion #4 It is not enough to assess community learning needs by asking only for educational needs. There are needs of a general type that can be used to assess learning needs which are not covered in the answers to the question on educational needs. Implication The most direct implication of conclusion #4 is that any learning needs assessment of a desa community should also include questions about community needs in general. Villagers are nonmeans—oriented and less aware of their learning needs. This means that their learning needs should be analyzed through their general needs. How such analyses could be made cannot be recommended from this study. Further probing of the subjects‘ responses is suggested to know what is really meant by the subjects. This will increase the pre— ciseness of the needs and hopefully will give clues of whether their needs are learning or nonlearning oriented. Further analysis of how to meet the nonlearning needs will also indicate whether a training step is needed as an instrument to achieve the goal of meeting the needs. It is also important to note that an educational need felt by Villagers might not be a real educational need. For example, if a need to learn how to repair motorcycles is stated by a subject, it might be an expression of a need for a job. In by the vil nonlearnin_ villagers or skills‘ the only 5 or group m The ha adix It means i amples f0] followers goals to 1 or means knowledge therefore an import 242 a job. In other words, there are educational needs felt by the villagers that indicate signs or symptoms of their nonlearning needs, and there are other needs felt by the villagers that imply the acquisition of certain knowledge or skills — i.e. learning needs — as the first or probably the only step to meet the need. Probing in the interview or group meeting can unfold the real need. The fact that the leaders are also nonmeans oriented has a discouraging implication for community development. It means that the leaders who are supposed to be good ex— amples for nonleaders are in the same condition with their followers —— occupied more by their needs in terms of goals to be achieved rather than by the alternative ways or means of how to achieve the goals. The awareness and knowledge about alternative ways for achieving needs is therefore needed to be inplanted in the villagers. It is an important learning need, and the acquisition of it will increase the creativeness of the villagers, which is a golden key for development. This is an example of why there is an importance for a community development program with stress on human resource development. The importance of such attributes as creativity, inno- vativeness, achievement motivation in development and moder— nization have been documented in a wide range of research reports (McClelland: 1960; Hagen: 1961; Everett M. Rogers: 1969). Two studies in West Java further confirmed that such attributes are associated with the level of economic develop— ment of c« The mic leade in West JI who have 3 desa indi! individua less deve thesis of that the educated the autoc family a1 Th1 readers a city a West Jav 243 ment of communities. The first one is the Sukartini study comparing econo— mic leaders in a developed desa and a less developed desa in West Java.1 Her study indicated that the individuals who have influence on the economic system in a developed desa indicated a more innovative personality than those individuals who had influence on the economic system of a less developed desa. The study confirmed Hagen's hypo- thesis of innovative personality. Her study also revealed that the innovative economic leaders had a common background, educated in a democratic family atmosphere. Similarly, the autocratic economic leaders came from an autocratic family atmosphere. The second study was a comparison between library readers in more advanced and less advanced communities in a city and two desas conducted by Mohammad Suparman2 in West Java. His study indicated that readers in more advan- ced communities are significantly more associated with reading materials of more "achievement motivation" content and the readers in less advanced communities are more sig- nificantly associated with reading materials of more "power lSri Patmah Sukartini, "Tokoh—Tokoh Yang Memegang Peranan Ekonomi di desa yang relatip maju dan di desa yang relatip kurang berhembang" (Unpublished Master Thesis, IKIP Bandung, 1969). 2Mohammad R. Suparman, "Buku Bacaan Yang paling Kurang menarik para pengunjung taman bacaan rakyat di kota dan di desa" (Unpublished Master Thesis, IKIP Bandung, 1969). motivation Thes support t1 creativit% and the in decision n study. Conclusio It 1ar educa at the : Sub~dis an ends Educatj With SI the Sui 244. motivation." These two studies are highlighted here to further support the importance of nurturing such attributes as creativity, innovativeness and achievement motivation, and the importance of a democratic atmosphere in community decision making as implied by the conclusions of this study. Conclusion #5 It is unwise to believe that similar desas have simi— lar educational needs. Implication Conclusion #5 has an implication that a nation—wide survey (of needs assessment) as a basis for planning community education programs at the village level is not a good practice. There are differences of educational needs among desas which have to be considered, beside the similarities, to make the program compatible with the respective village needs. In other words, needs assessment should be decentralized at the village level, or at least at the subdistrict level. This further implies the need for establishing an organization—mechanism in at least the sub—district level, (kecamatan) that will facilitate such an endeavor. During the last four years the Ministry of Education and Culture in Indonesia has been experimenting with such an idea of establishing a coordinative body at the sub—district level for nonformal (community) education programs. has been a planning t tice, suck the exper: lems and : villagers dramatica administr failed tc The can be de wider im the cour biased; approach very dif 0n the 1 It is a: honest difficu the den Princit of Suck Scheme SCheme GNP I b' 245 programs. Unless coordination among government agencies has been achieved and delegation of authority of development planning to local communities becomes the policy and prac— tice, such a framework is doomed to fail. A lesson from the experiment indicates that increased awareness of prob— lems and needs, the eagerness and creativity of the villagers through a participatory planning process, were dramatically killed by the fact that other sectors of the administration system, for example banking regulations, failed to meet the needs of the rural poor. These are five conclusions and their implications that can be derived from this study. All indicate clearly a wider implication for the need and importance to reverse the course of development from an urban biased to a rural biased; and from a top—down approach to a grass-roots approach of planning and development. This, of course, is very difficult, if not to say impossible to do, especially on the part of the people in power with vested interest. It is also difficult to do even if the people in power are honest and willing to make such a great decision. These difficulties, however, will be meaningless if seen from the democratic and humanistic values which are very dear principles of Indonesia, and the prospect of better effects of such a scheme. Probably a rural biased development scheme will not be as fast as an urban biased development scheme in terms of the increase in income per capital or GNP, but high income per capita with unbalanced distribution of income The invesy per capita than high of the pee .. ; approach how the v subsidy t grams in making p could the PIOgress addition: less pro< by the g Villager If the e tion of it is dj done. T1 SUCh hu] 246 of income among people is not fair, if not to say immoral. The investigator believes that moderate increases of income per capita with well-distributed income is a lot better than high income per capita with only a small proportion of the people benefiting from it. As a suggestion to start exercising the grass~roots approach to planning, the government can ask and supervise how the village communities can use the annual development subsidy to the villages for the purpose of development pro— grams in the Villages through a participatory decision making process. Additional subsidy and other facilities could then be given to the villages which show reasonable progress in their self-help development programs, and additional supervision given to villages which show less progress. Given the trust and adequate supervision by the government, the investigator believes that the villagers can organize and manage their own course of life. If the equality of individuals is secured by the constitu- tion of the Republic and in the constitution of One God, it is difficult to believe that such an approach cannot be done. The history of mankind shows that the violations of such human values, as democracy, were checked by human nature through bloody fighting. It is our duty to learn from history and try to hinder such a tragedy in the future. Recommend. So E an intervi community therefore‘ to the mai study are difficult: which wer other wor studies a easily. Fin focusing BY SO do the find the diff differer Six focj 247 Recommendation for Further Research So far as the investigator knows, this study comparing an interview approach and a group approach in assessing community needs assessment is the first of its kind and therefore can also be seen as an exploratory study. Due to the many intervening variables, the results of this study are not specifically conclusive. There were many difficulties in handling the data and presenting the results, which were hard to comprehend in designing the study. In other words, further studies are needed. The following studies are among those which possibly can be handled more easily. First, a series of similar studies can be conducted focusing only on a specific category of respondent at a time. By so doing, more definitive conclusions can be made, and the findings for each focus of study can be used to analyze the differential effects of the approach variable for different categories of villagers. In other words, the six foci of this study can be separated into six or more single studies. For example; the effect of an interview approach and a group approach on male villagers; or the effect of an interview approach and a group approach on female nonleaders; etc. Second, similar studies should be conducted with instruments that provide for probing questions (i.e., ask further information from the subjects in terms of what they meant bY it was su responses further p the respo Thi and the g ther infc assessing ment act: is first listed. material approach approach used car the same Could be versiOn Figure 248 meant by their responses). As indicated in the discussion, it was suspected that the nonmeans-oriented nature of the responses was probably because no attempt was made to further pursue the meaning of the responses as seen by the respondents. Third, a study using both the interview approach and the group approach can be carried out to provide fur- ther information of the usefulness of the two methods in assessing community needs in the context of community develop— ment activities. In such a study, an interview approach is first conducted and types of needs are identified and listed. The results can then be used as discussion material in the second stage of the study using the group approach. The rank ordering of types of needs in the two approaches can be compared. The sequence of the methods used can be reversed. The subjects of the study can be the same category of villagers in the two approaches or it could be two different categories of villagers. The last version, for example, can be designed as described in Figure 16. FIGURE 16 A STUDY DESIGN SUGGESTED FOR THE SUCCESSIVE COMBINATION OF APPROACHES Interview Approach . Group Approach Thi There are but there findings; study has The direc and spec: then, it on commu study si this stu Ke the inve approaci has bee] is adds in a co involve for the is Very in this 249 Concluding Remark This study reveals important and interesting results. There are hypotheses which are supported by the findings but there are also hypotheses which are challenged by the findings. Further research is certainly needed. This study has created more questions to be further examined. The direction of the new questions, however, are more clear and specific than before. As an exploratory study, then, it gave functional inputs for further research on community needs assessment methodology. For sure, another study similar to this can learn from the mistakes made in this study. Keeping in mind the possible human error in the study, the investigator believes that his bias toward the group approach as a better method for a community needs assessment has been supported to some extent by the findings. If there is added the positive potential effect of a group approach in a community needs assessment that asks for the real involvement of villagers in the decision making process for the betterment of their community, the investigator is very sure that the effect will be greater than as revealed in this study. He is anxious to test this in practice. .Wde APPENDICES APPENDIX A. INTERVIEW GUIDE 1. 2. English Version Bahasa Sunda Version APPENDIX KEYWORDS I Thank you Introduce name occup. task . Why she, selecte, TWO me 250 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW GUIDE (English version) INTERVIEW GUIDE KEYWORDS MESSAGE Thank you I would like to thank you for the allocation of time you give to talk with me. Not to make you confused, let me first introduce myself and what is the purpose of visiting you here now. Introduce your My name is (SURYANI ZAHIR), as you can name see from this letter. I am a leo- occupation turer at IKIP Bandung. The Office task and purpose of Education Research and Development, Ministry of Education and Culture, asked me to visit several villages in this Kabupaten (District) in an attempt to collect villagers' opinions concerning their community needs or problems in development. Such in- formation would be very useful to help Government attempt in directing development plan in the villages, so that develOpment programs will be more relevant with the village community's needs. Why she/he is In this village there are 48 persons selected and how. from whom I intend to collect their opinions. They are men and women, leaders and nonleader. Those 48 persons are selected randomly (through a lottery) from the list of households in the village office. You are one of the 48 persons that are selected in the lottery. Thus, we did not select people according to their economic status (poor or rich), nor on their education background. The purpose is that the 48 persons could be seen as representative of this village. Two methods Half of the 48 persons I will inter— view one by one at their house. You are one of them. That is why I come to you now. The other half will be asked their opinions in group meetings. What is e from reSP . Does res: ; understa: Start th What is expected from respondent Does respondent understand? Start the interview 251 I will ask you four questions and several information about yourself. It will take about 30 minutes. From you I expect answers that really come from your own opinion and feeling. Feel free to say whatever comes into your mind after I asked a question. Those questions are not intended to test you. There is no wrong answer. The right answer, however, is the honest answer from you. Do you understand? Please, do not hesitate to ask any question if you have one. (If there is no more question, and respondent seems to understand it, start asking the First Question) If you understand already, let us begin with the first question. GROUP: Date: FIRST QUE Asl ment. Be Governme; active pé activity importani help in Secondly lems whi only the about th carried their ov II your vii hweto village develop advance P m m are ne capita thrOug Self-c Stand: commu needs tion, of ne 252 GROUP: L N NO.: [:3 DESA: l 2 Date: Hour: to FIRST QUESTION As you already know, we are now in the era of develop- ment. Beside development programs being carried out by the Government, it is expected that the people themselves take active participation in developing their own village. The activity of Village development by its own people is very important. First of all, the Government needs citizens help in accomplishing the purpose of National Development. Secondly, each village has its own development needs or prob- lems which might be different from other villages, and only the villagers themselves who know more and can feel about them. Thus, village development programs that are carried out by its own people would be more relevant with their own needs. In the context of Village development just mentioned, your village must, of course, have development needs that have to be accomplished. In your opinion, what are this village community's needs that must be accomplished through development attempts to make this village community more advanced? Please mention as many as you think or feel. ANSWER: Those which are needed by this Village community are: SECOND QUESTION Among those needs of this village community there are needs that can be accomplished when there is money or capital, but there are also needs that can be accomplished through self-development of each villager. The meaning of self-development is to increase one’s knowledge, under— standing, and skills in many areas. In your opinion, what are the needs of this village community in general that belong to this category of need? In answering this question you can mention again those needs which are mentioned in your answer to the first ques- tion, if they can be classified as self~development type of needs. W Am and the opinion ANSWER : communit FOURTH answeri lmporta ANSWER: 253 SECOND ANSWER: The needs of this village community that can be accomplished through development attempts that prioritizing self—development of its villagers are: THIRD QUESTION Among those needs you mentioned in answering the first and the second questions, choose three that according to your opinion are the most important needs of this village community. ANSWER: The three most important needs of this village community are: FOURTH QUESTION Among all of those community needs you mentioned in answering the first and second questions, which is the most important need for yourself? Please mention only one need. ANSWER: For myself, the most important need is: ADDITIONAL INFORMATION As I told you earlier, I need several additional infor- mation about yourself. These information are for statisti- cal use only. I do not need to write your name and address. The information needed are: 1. Sex : Male Female 2. Age : Years d , “”"éomp‘fle tee ___Senior High Classrh___ ” _ _ ' - completed senior H gh“(' “'" .i._) 1 Higher than Senior High " ' 1 1 (Describe: ) # Other (Describe: ) 5. Occupation 6. Number of Children: persons. Permit t KEYWORDS Respondent Comment? Thank You Permit to go. 255 MESSAGE I have no more questions to ask. Do you have any comment about it? You are welcome to ask any questions if you have. Or perhaps you would like to add your response that just came into your mind? If you do not have any question or comment, I better stop our talk up to this time. I now have work to do, and I have to visit some other persons. Thank you very much for the time and opinions you give to me. Please permit me to go. POKO EUSI Basa ngan} Sebutkeun - ngaran - pagawea | - tugas j maksud Sababna Dua ca: 256 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW GUIDE ( Bahasa Sunda version) POKO EUSI Basa nganuhunkeun Sebutkeun: - ngaran - pagawean — tugas jeung maksud Sababna kapilih Dua cara PADOMAN WAWANCARA EUSI NU DITEPIKEUN Langkung ti payun abdi ngahaturkeun nuhun ku sadiana Bapa/Ibu nampi abdi natamu kadieu. Supados Bapa/Ibu henteu ragu—ragu, langkung ti payun abdi bade ngajelaskeun saha abdi sa- reng naon maksadna abdi dongkap ka dieu. Sapertos diserat dina ieu katerangan, ngaran abdi ( ). Abdi digawe di IKIP Ban-. dung. Tapi dina waktos ieu abdi keur ngaja - lankeun tugas ti Badan Penelitian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Departemen Pendidikan dan Ke- budayaan di Jakarta. Tugasna nyaeta ngumpul- keun pamangih-pamanggih warga desa ngeunaan pangabutuh masyarakat desa dina raraga pang- wangunan/pembangunanmasyarakat desana masing— masing. Eta pamanggih-pamanggih warga desa teh bakal aya gunana, boh keur pamatentah atanapi keur desana sorangan, dina nangtukeun pembangunan desa. Misalna supaya pembangunan di masing-masing desa bisa leuwih cocog jeung nu dipikabutuh ku desana. Ti desa Bapa/Ibu ieu aya 48 urang anu bakal ditaros pamanggihna; awewe-lalaki, kaasup warga desa biasa jeung pamuka masyarakat. Nu 48 urang teh dipilih sacara dilotre make daftar cacah jiwa anu aya di kantor desa.Ka- leresan Bapa/Ibu kalebet salah saurang anu kapilih dina eta lotre.Maksadna dilotre teh, supaya anu 48 urang tea tiasa dianggap nga— gambarkeun masyarakat desa ieu. Nu 48 urang tea, satengahna ditepungan hiji- hiji, satengahna deui ditaros pamanggihna sa- cara rombongan dina riungan di desa. Bapa/ Ibu kelebet anu kedah ditepangan hiji-hiji, nya ieu pisan sababna abdi dongkap ka dieu. Naon nu di ti res Naha resp geus ngg ) Nimitian Naon nu diharep ti reSponden Naha responden geus ngarti? Mimitian Wawancara 257 Ka Bapa/Ibu abdi bade naroskeun opat sual jeung sababaraha keterangan panambah anu bakal merlu- keun waktu kirang-langkung satengah jam. Ti Bapa/ Ibu diharepkeun jawaban anu sabebasna sareng sa- jujurna, anu karasa atanapi kapikir ku Bapa/Ibu. Ieu sual-sual teh sanes dimaksudkeun kanggu nguji Bapa/Ibu. Teu aya jawaban anu lepat. Anu diharep- keun teh mung pamanggih Bapa/Ibu anu sajujurna. Kumaha Bapa/Ibu parantos ngartos kana maksad ieu paguneman. Upami teu acan ngartos, atanapi bilih aya patarosan sateuacana abdi ngawitan naroskeun sual kahiji, mangga tong asa-asa taroskeun ka ab- di. (Lamun teu aya pertanyaan jeung responden kaci- ri geus ngartieun, mimitian ku Sual Kahiji). Upami Bapa/Ibu parantos ngartos, mangga ayeuna urang ngawitan ku Sual Kahiji. Di t\ C) 258 mwfifij ~0 [:1 eat: Tanggal : Jam : SUAL KAHIJI Saperti Bapa/Ibu geus pada terang, ayeuna urang teh keur aya dina waktu pangwangtman/pembangiman. Salian ti maha—usaha pembangunan nu dijalan— keun ku Pamarentah, diharepkeun yen masyarakatna sorangan milu aktip dina usaha ngabangun desana masing-masing. Kaaktipan penbanqman desa ku jalan usaha masyarakat sorangan teh kecida pentingna. Kahiji, memng Pamrentah merlukeun bantuan rayat keur suksesna pengwangunan. Kadua, tiap desa tang- tuna oge boga kabutuhan-kabutuhan atawa masalah-masalah panqwangunan nu be- da, nu ngan warga desana sorangan nu bakal leuwih nyaho jeung bisa ngarasa- keunana. Ku kituna usaha pengwangunan ku masyarakatna sorangan teh bakal leuwih cocog jeung kabutman masyarakatna sorangan. Dina rangka pembangunan desa nu geus disebutkeun bieu, desa Bapa/Ibu ge tang- tu boga kabutuhan-kabutuhan penbangiman nu perlu dicumpman. Nurutkcun pa- manggih Bapa/Ibu, naon nu dibutuhkeun ku umumna warga desa ieu, nu kudu di- cumponan ku jalan usaha penbangunan, supaya ieu masyarakat desa teh bisa leuwih maj u ? Sebutan sing loba nu kanyahoan atawa karasa ku Bapa/nau. JAWABAN : Nu dipikabutuh ku umumna masyarakat ieu desa nyaeta : KELOMPOK sum. not? Diantara- lamun aya unggal w, kanyaho, keun Bap ll kana jen H but tadi kana go] J AWABAN § 259 mom. . [:1 E .. E D C] unggal warga desa ieu. Mekarkeun diri teh hartina nanbahan atawa ningkatkeun kanyaho, elmu jeung pangabisa diri sorangan ngeunan rupa-nipa hal. Nurut- keun Bapa/Ibu neon kabutuhan-kabutuhan umumna masyarakat desa ieu anu kaasup kana jenis kabutuhan ieu. Bapa/Ibu meunang nyebutkeun deui naon nu geus dise- but tadi tiheule dina ngajawab sual kahiji lamun hal eta ceuk Bapa/Ibu kaasup kana golongan kabutuhan mekarkeun diri. JAWABAN : Kabutuhan-kabutuhan umumna masyarakat desa ieu anu bisa dicum— ponan ku usaha pembangunan anu ngutamakeun make jalan mekarkeun diri tiap warga desa ieu nyaeta ‘ SUAL KATI LU Diantara kabutuhan—kabutuhan nu ku Bapa/Ibu geus disebutkeun dina jawaban kahiji jeung kadua, pilih tilu nu ceuk Bapa/Ibu paling panting. JAWABAN : Tilu pangabutuh ieu masyarakat desa nu paling panting nyaeta M“— H ————————.——————_——— Sapert ngeuna Ngarar ieu : ICELOMPOK : E [I No. C] masn: [:1 a SUAL KAOP AT Diantara kabeh kabutuhan masyarakat desa ieu nu disebutkeun ku Bapa/Ibu dina jawaban nu ka hiji jeung kadua, mana nu keur Bapa/Ibu sorangan pang pentingna. Sebutkeun hiji kabutuhan wungkul. J A w A B A N : Keur abdi sorangan mah kabutuhan nu pang pentingna teh nyaeta: m KATERANGAN PANAMBAH Saperti nu ku abdi geus dibejakeun, abdi perlu sababaraha katerangan pananbah ngeunaan Bapa/Ibu sorangan. Hal ieu ukur keur kaperluan statistik wungkul. Ngaran jeung alamat mah teu perlu, nu perlu teh nyaeta sababaraha katerangan ieu l. Rupa jasmaniah : Lalaki Awewe F} E 2. Umur geus kawin randa/duda 3. Tangtungan rumah tangga can kawin 4. Pendidikan buta huruf kelas _ SD tamat SD kelas SLP ( ) tamat SLP ( ) SLA ( ) tamat SLA ( ) X‘ (D ,_. E leuwih luhur ti SLA (sebutkeun:____) laina deui, nyaeta 5. Pagawean i 6. Jumlab anak : urang. POKO EUSI Komentar Basa ngah Permis i - 0K0 'EUSII. ' ' ' In: an. an :MvM-‘A‘rmvr—yw ' ,r r Komentar ? Mung sakitu sual-sual nu ku abdi ditaroskeun ka Bapa/Ibu. Upami Bapa/Ibu aya komentar dina _ l eta hal, atanapi aya hal anu bade ditambihkeun anu tadi hilap atanapi kirang dina ngajawab A I sual-sual tea, mangga sebatkeun sacekapna. Basa ngahuhunkeun Upami teu aya deui tambihan ti Bapa/Ibu, rupina dicekapkeun sakieu bae ieu obrolan urang teh. Sakali deui abdi ngahaturkeun nuhun kana bantu- an Bapa/Ibu. Permisi Kumargi ngabujeng waktos, abdi bade permios bae. oOo APPENDIX B. GROUP APPROACH GUIDE 1. English Version 2. Bahasa Sunda Version APPENDIX KEYWORDS Thank yd coming l Introduc name 262 APPENDIX B: GROUP APPROACH GUIDE (English Version) KEYWORDS Thank you for coming Introduce your name -- your task -— what for? Why she/he is selected and how Two methods GROUP APPROACH GUIDE MESSAGE Ladies and Gentlemen, first of a 11 I would like to say thank you very much for your cooperation and come to this meeting. As you already knew, my name is ( ), fieldworker from the Office of Edu— cational Research and Developmen t, Ministry of Education and Culture, Jakarta. My task is to collect villagers' opinions concerning village community's needs for developing their villages. The opinions of villagers would be very useful to help Government attempt in directing development plan in the villages, so that development programs will be more relevant with the village commun needs. In this village there are 48 per ity's sons from whom I intend to collect their opinions. They are men and women, leaders and nonleaders. Those 4 persons are selected randomly (through a lottery) from the lis households in the Village office You are among them who are selec in the lottery. Thus we did not select people according to their economic status (poor or rich), on their education background. The purpose is that the 48 perso 8 t of ted nor ns could be seen as representative of this village. Half of the 48 persons are interviewed one by one at their house. The other half will be asked in group meetings. You are among those who are going to be asked in the group meeting. is why we are here now. That Discussi, w I I . KEYWORD What is expected from respondents Discussion rules 263 Masses I will ask you four questions and several information about your- selves. It will take approximately two hours. Those questions are not intended to test you. The questions will ask only about your opinion after group discussion is over. This group discussion will be arranged as follows: 1. I will distribute a four cards questionnaire to you and a pen- cil. You have to open one card at a time if I told you so. 2. I will read aloud the question. At the same time, you can also read it silently on the card in front of you. For you who cannot read, just listen to me carefully. If necessary I will read it again to make it clear for you. 3. Before I let you say your res— ponse to the question, I will ask if there is anyone among you who does not understand the question yet. 4. If all of you understand the question already, I will ask your response one by one in turn —— clockwise or counterclockwise. While someone is taking his/her turn and giving his/her response orally, the others are not allowed to interfere or give any comment. The person who is giving his/her response, on the other hand, is not allowed to criticize others' opinions given earlier. However, if his/her opinion is similar with the previous speaker, he/she can say: "Idem or similar with Mr/Mrs ......... opinion. Locate I cannot I Summary procedt Genera discus Confié Rennie Locate who cannot write. Summary of procedures General discussion Confidential 264 MESSAGE 5. After all of you take your turn, I will give ten minutes for you to discuss your answers. In this occasion you can criticize, give comment, give agreement or dis— agreement with others' opinions. You could add further argument to your opinion. During this dis- cussion time, I will function as facilitator. 6. When time is up (after 10 minutes), I will ask each of you to write your final answer to the question. Choose the answers that according to you the most suitable answers for you. You write the answers in the space underneath the ques— tion. If the space is not enough, use the opposite page of the card. If you cannot write, please memorize your answers. I will help you later after this meeting is over. In this case I ask your cooperation to stay here a little bit longer than the others. These are the procedures we are going to do in this meeting for each of the four questions. I will read the question aloud; you speak out your answer in turn; open discussion for ten minutes; and closed by writing your final answer individually. After all questions are asked and answered, there will be a general discussion led by ( ). It is important to know that even though you write your answers in the cards and I will ask several infor— mation about your age, occupation, education, number of children, but your name and address will not be recorded. So your answers will be kept confidential. We also do not want to ask you about any secret thing. if perm DIST AND Start I Read a Motiv neede Discu 265 KEYWORDS MESSAGE Permission for If you do not mind I will record tape recording your discussion in this tape recor- der, so that I can get a complete record about your opinions. If you do not allow me to do so, how— ever, I will not insist. But then I have to depend my recording only on my own notes, which could be incomplete. What do you think? Could I use tape recorder? Prepare the tape if permitted. DISTRIBUTE CARDS AND PENCILS. Start with EXAMPLE To make the procedure of discussion Clear for you, let us begin with an example. 1. Please open the first card in front of you. In this card there is an example question. I will read it aloud for you. Listen carefully. Read aloud 2. "In your opinion, can this village be classified as developed or not?" 3. Let us start answering the question orally. Do not write your answer yet. Please begin from Mr/Mrs... on my left, then take turn to your left. Please begin.. Motivate if (Do it until all get their turn. needed Motivate respondent who reluc- tant or shy to give his/her response to speak) Discussion 4. Now I will give you five minutes to discuss your responses. Please start. It is your floor. I will sit here as facilitator and time recorder. (Let them do their own discussion. Ask a person to speak first if no one starts the discussion. Ask probing question if necessary. Stop speaker who talking irre- levant things). Write t Check under: Open card First KEYWORDS Final Answer Write the answer. Check if all understand Open second card First Question 266 MESSAGE 5. Time is up (for discussion). You have heard others' responses to the questions, and discuss their arguments. Now you have to make up your mind and choose your own final answer which according to you the most appropriate one. Your final answer could be the same with your answer before dis— cussion. It could also be a new one as a result of listening and joining the discussion. Your answer could be the same with some others' responses, it could be different. It does not matter. What does matter is, that the res- ponse you are going to write is the most suitable one for your opinion and feeling. You under- stand? Now, please write your response in the space underneath the ques— tion. Those who cannot write please memorize the answer, be— cause I will help you to write it later. These are the steps we are going to follow in answering the four ques- tions. Any question about the procedure? You understand it already? Very good. Now let us open the second card. It contains the first question. Please flip the first card and fold back like this, so that the second card now on the top. Listen carefully, I will read the question aloud. FIRST QUESTION. (Do steps 1 to 5) KEYWORDS _____._———- open Thii Second Q Third Qu Open the Fourth Additic Informs KEYWORDS Open Third card Second Question Third Question Open the last card Fourth question Additional Information Lead respondents to fill the answer. Two other field— worker can be asked to help. Collect the card if done except those who cannot write. General discussion Those who cannot write asked to split from the group to another place. 267 MESSAGE Please fold this second card like the first one. Now you are facing the third card containing the second and third questions. SECOND QUESTION (Do steps 1 to 5) THIRD QUESTION (Do steps 1 to 5) Please open the last card. It contains the fourth question and additional information. FOURTH QUESTION (Do steps 1 to 5) ADDITIONAL INFORMATION For these additional information will not need to be discussed in the group. You give your answer by giving check mark like this (V) examples on the blackboard). Or write additional information in the appropriate Space. You only check one for each question. (Give I have asked all of the four ques— tions and you have answered them. Now this meeting will be closed with general discussion. Those who do not write their answers yet, please follow me to another room. I will help you one by one to write your answers. Mr. Romli will replace my place as facilitator. -'é" KEYWORDS Interviewer the special one by one. discussion f rest. a J Closing/ Thank you NOTES: WheI reS} abo1 fie if- lef 268 KEYWORDS MESSAGE Interviewer help the special group one by one. General discussion for the rest. GENERAL DISCUSSION (Describe to the group) 1. What is the purpose of this sur— vey and how the information will be useful. 2. Invite the group to give their comments or to ask questions in connection with the questions or survey as a whole) Closing/ (If discussion is over or has to be Thank you stopped because the time is up, say thank you to the group for their willingness to participate in the group meeting. Let them take the pencil as a present). NOTES: When the discussion is in the second step (individual response) facilitator should make accurate notes about each individual responses. The two other fieldworkers should do the same. It should be done if tape recorder is not used. Change the course of taking turn from left to right, left to right, etc. QUESTION i In your opin or not? ANSWER In 11 as (Ques infc Guié ““ Wm 'w- riif. .. in: , am; in “saunas; w‘”m""“' ‘ ' ' ' “W W _ _ x In your opinion, can this village be classified as developed or not? ANSWER In my opinion, this village can be classified as . (Question #1, #2, #3, and #4 and additional information are the same as in the Interview Guide). POKO EUSI Basa nganuhunkg Sebutkeun ngar; - pagawean - tugas jeung maksud Sababna kapil Dua cara 270 APPENDIX B: GROUP APPROACH GUIDE (Bahasa Sunda version) POKO EUSI Basa nganuhunkeun Sebutkeun ngaran - pagawean — tugas jeung maksud Sababna kapilih Dua cara PADOMAN DISKUSI KELOMTOK EUSI NU DITEPIKEUN Langkung ti payun abdi ngahaturkeun nuhun ku sadiana BapaZ/IbuZ ngahadiran ieu riungan. Nami sim kuring ( ). Abdi digawe di IKIP Bandung. Tapi dina waktos ieu nuju ditugaskeun ku Badan Penelitan Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan,Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebuda- yaan di Jakarta, ngempelkeun pamanggih-pamang- gih warga desa ngeunaan kabutuhan masyarakat desa dina raraga pangwangunan/pembangunan desa masing-masing. Katerangan ngeunaan kabutuhan- kabutuhan warga desa teh gede gunana, boh keur pamarentah atawa desana masing-masing, dina usaha pembangunan desa. Misalna supaya pemba— ngunan desa leuwih cocog jeung kabutuhan desana masing-masing. Ti desa ieu aya 48 urang anu bakal ditaros pa- manggihna, awewe-lalaki, kaasup warga desa bi— asa jeung pemuka masyarakat. Nu 48 urang teh dipilihna sacara dilotre make daftar cacah jiwa anu aya di kantor desa. Bapa-bapa jeung Ibu-ibu teh kalebet warga desa ieu anu kaleresan kapilih dina eta lotre. Nu 48 urang tea satengahna ditaros pamanggihna sacara ditepangan hiji-hiji ka bumina masing- masing. Anu satengahna deui ku abdi ditaros sacara rombongan/kelompok. Bapa-bapa sareng Ibu- ibu kalebet golongan anu ditaros pamanggihna sa— cara kelompok. Eta maksadna urang kempel dina waktos ieu. POKO EUSI Nam nu dipikah ti kelompok Aturan diskus i. POKO EUSI 271 EUSI NU DITEPIKEUN Naon nu dipikaharep Ka BapaZ/IbuZ abdi bade naroskeun opat sual ti kelompok Aturan diskusi sababaraha katerangan panambah, anu bakal meryo- gikeun waktu kirang-langkung 2% jam. Eta sual-sual teh sanes dimaksudkeun kanggo ngu- ji BapaZ/IbuZ. Sual-sual anu bakal ditaroskeun teh ngan ngeunaan pamanggih BapaZ/IbuZ masing- masing sabadana diskusi kelompok. Jalana diskusi kelompok engke bakal diatur kieu: l. Ka BapaZ/IbuZ bakal dibagikeun kartu-kartu sual. Hiji-hiji eta kartu teh kedah dibuka upami ku abdi tos dibejaan. 2. Abdi rek macakeun heula sual nu kahiji. BapaZ/IbuZ kenging ngiring maca kartu nu aya dipayuneun BapaZ/IbuZ dina hate.Ka BapaZ/Ibu2 anu teu acan tiasa maca, cekap ngadangukeun bae sing taliti. Upami peryogi, abdi bade macakeun eta soal sakali deui supaya jelas. 3. Saacana dijawab, ku abdi dipasihan kasempetan ka BapaZ/IbuZ bisi aya taroskeuneun upami teu jelas. 4. Ku cara giliran, abdi bade menta ka Bapa2/Ibu2 supaya ngajukeun pamanggihna masing-masing sacara lisan. Dina waktu aya saurang anu keur nyebutkeun pamanggihna, teu meunang aya nu ngaganggu. Nu keur nyarios oge teu kenging ngiritik pamanggih Bapa2/Ibu2 anu ti heula. Tapi upami pamanggihna sami sareng anu ti pa- yun, Bapa2/Ibu2 tiasa nyebatkeun yen pamanggih Bapa/Ibu sarua jeung Bapa/Ibu...ANU... 5. Saberesna sadayana kabagian nyebatkeun pamang- gihna masing-masing, bakal aya kasempetan sual-jawab (diskusi) anu lamina sapuluh menit. Dina ieu kasempetan, Bapa2/Ibu2 kenging masi- han katerangan nguatkeun atawa ngiritik pa- manggih Bapa/Ibu anu sejenna. Ringkesan Diskusi umum “Wang direl Sadiakeun a1 rekaman lamu diidinan. POKO EUSI Ringkesan Diskusi umum Meunang direkam? Sadiakeun alat rekaman lamun diidinan. 272 EUSI NU DITEPIKEUN 6. Saparantos beres diskusi, ku abdi bakal di- penta jawaban ti Bapa2/Ibu2 masing-masing. Pilih jawaban anu nurutkeun pamanggih Bapa/ Ibu sorangan paling cocog. Eta jawaban teh kedah diseratkeun dina handapeun sual anu di- taroskeun tea, anu tos disadiakeun kanggo eta jawaban. Upami tempatna teu cekap tiasa di- sambung dina kertas kosong sapalihna. Upami Bapa/Ibu teu tiasa nyerat, jawabanana supados diapalkeun bae heula. Engke upami sadayana sual tos diajukeun, ku abdi bade dibantuan nyeratkeunana.Disuhunkeun ridona sabada diskusi Bapa/Ibu anu teu tiasa nyerat supaya calik di dieu heula rada lami meueusan’ Tah kanggo tiap Sual anu bade diajukeun bakal dimimitian ku abdi ngabacakeun sualna. Jawaban lisan sacara giliran diharepkeun ti Bapa2/Ibu2 masing-masing, disambung ku diskusi (sual-jawab) sabebasna salami 10 menit. Sarengsena diskusi, Bapa/Ibu masing-masing kedah nangtukeun jawabanZ anu paling cocog keur Bapa/Ibu sorangan sarta nyeratkeun eta jawaban dina kertas sualan. Sarengsena sadaya sual tos dijawab, bakal dia- yakeun diskusi umum anu bakal dipimpin ku Bapa ( ). Peryogi dijelaskeun, sanaos abdi bakal nyatet katerangan ngeunaan yuswa, padamelan, pendidikan, sareng jumlah putra Bapa/Ibu, ari jenengan sareng alamat BapaZ sareng Ibu2 mah moal dicatet. Upami Bapa2/Ibu2 ngidinan, ieu diskusi teh ku abdi bade direkam. Maksadna supaya pamanggih- pamanggih BapaZ/IbuZ dina diskusi teh henteu aya anu kaliwat dicatetna ku abdi. Kumaha kinten- kintena tiasa direkam atanapi henteu? POKO EUSI Bagikeun kartu jeung patlot. Mimitian ku Con Baca sing taril Bere motivasi 1amun diperluk Diskusi Milih jawaban sorangan 273 POKO EUSI EUSI NU DITEPIKEUN Bagikeun kartu sual Ieu kartu sual ulah waka dibuka sateuacan dibe- jeung patlot. bejaan ku abdi. Mimitian ku Conto Ngarah jelas, hayu urang ngawitan ku hiji conto, kumaha carana ieu diskusi kedah dijalankeun. l. Bukakeun kartu sual. Halaman kahiji aya Conto. Baca sing tarik 2. "Nurutkeun pamanggih Bapa/Ibu naha ieu desa teh kaasup golongan desa nu maju atawa teu acan?" 3. Urang mimiti giliran ngajukeun jawaban masing- masing sacara lisan. Ulah waka nyerat. Mangga ngawitan ti Bapa/Ibu palih kencaeun abdi, te- ras nguriling ka palih kenca. Bere motivasi (Teruskeun giliran nepi ka beresna) lamun diperlukeun. 4.Bapa2/Zbu2 ku abdi dipasihan waktu lima menit Diskusi kanggo sual—jawab (diskusi). Mangga nyanggakeun ka sadayana. Abdi mah mung bade jadi tukang ngukur waktu bae. (Antep maranehna sina diskusi sabebasna. Penta saurang ngajukeun pamanggihna ngeunaan jawa- ban nu sejen, lamun teu aya anu wani ngamimi- tian diskusi. Bere motivasi ku jalan nanyakeun pamanggih saurang nu hadir anu beda jeung nu sejena. ) Milih jawaban 5. Waktu diskusi tos seep. Bapa2/Ibu2 parantos sorangan ngadangu jawaban-jawaban nu sanesna sareng katerangan-katerangan tambahan dina diskusi. Ayeuna Bapa2/Ibu2 masing—masing kedah netepkeun jawaban (2) nu dianggap ku Bapa/Ibu paling cocog ceuk pikiran Bapa/Ibu sorangan. Eta jawaban-jawaban teh tiasa bae sami sareng jawaban nu ku Bapa/Ibu disebutkeun sacara lisan, atawa tiasa oge jawaban anyar tina ha- sil ngadangukeun diskusi. Jawaban Bapa/Ibu mungkin bae sarua jeung jawaban Bapa/Ibu anu sejena, tapi tiasa oge beda tinu sanes. Eta mah moal jadi naon-naon. Anu penting mah, eta jawaban teh kudu nu paling jitu atawa cocog nurutkeun pamanggih Bapa/Ibu nyalira. POKO EUSI Tuliskeun jawah (Pariksa nu t6“ bisa nulis) Cek geus ngart atawa acan? Buka kartu kac Sual kahi ji (Lakukeun (langhah l - Buka kar tu k. Sual kadua (Lakukeun (langkah l-E _Sua1 ka t i In (Lakukeun (langkah ]_ - POKO EUSI Tuliskeun jawaban (Pariksa nu teu bisa nulis) Cek geus ngarti atawa acan? Buka kartu kadua Sual kahiji (Lakukeun ) (langhah l - 5) Buka kartu katilu Sual kadua (Lakukeun ) (langkah 1-5) Sual katilu (Lakukeun ) (langkah l-S) 274 EUSI NU DITEPIKEUN Mangga ayeuna geura seratkeun eta jawaban Bapa/ Ibu dina tempat nu tos disayagikeun.Nu tau tiasa nyerat, apalkeun bae heula jawabanana. Tah kitu carana nu ku urang bakal dipigawe dina ngajawab sual-sual anu ku abdi bakal diajukeun. Bisi aya nu bade naroskeun tata-cara ieu sateu- acana ngawitan ku Sual anu saleresna, mangga tong asa-asa. Kumaha parantos ngartosIteu acan? .......(Lamun dianggap geus pada ngarti, mimitian ngajukan sual kahiji.) ....... Upami sadayana tos ngartos, hayu urang ngawitan . Mangga buka halaman kadua.Lipetkeun bae lambaran kahiji sacara kieu (Bere conto). Dina lambaran kadua aya Sual Kahiji. Dangukeun sing leres abdi rek maca sual kahiji. SUAL KAHIJI J.sgt Ayeuna mangga buka lambaran katilu anu eusina sual kadua sareng sual katilu. SUAL KADUA -.._-__-__—__--__..__--__..-___--__.._----____-_.._.._... SUAL KATILU J.s.t POKO EUSI Buka kartu kad Sual Kaopat (Lakukeun ) (langkah 1-5) Katerangan Panambah (Bimbing resp ngajawab hij katerangan p bah. Bisa di ku anggota t Kumpulkeun ka sualan Jalankeun di ..... ~~~~~~ POKO EUSI Buka kartu kaopat Sual Kaopat (Lakukeun ) (langkah 1-5) Katerangan Panambah (Bimbing responden ngajawab hiji-hiji katerangan panam- bah. Bisa dibantu ku anggota team) Kumpulkeun kartu sualan Diskusi Umum (Nu teu bisa nulis pisahkeun) Jalankeun diskusi 275 EUSI NU DITEPIKEUN Ayeuna mangga buka kartu kaopat,kartu paling ahir. Eusina Sual Kaopat sareng katerangan tambahan. SUAL KAOPAT J.s.t KATERANGAN PANAMBAH: Ieu katerangan panambah ngeunaan diri Bapa2/Ibu2 diperyogikeun kanggo kaperluan statistik. Nami sareng alamat Bapa/Ibu henteu peryogi dise- ratkeun. Jawabanana cekap ku Bapa2/Ibu2 diserat- keun ku cara nyeratkeun tanda curek (V) dina tempat nu disadiakeun anu paling cocog, dihareu- peun katerangan anu dimaksud. Upami parantos, eta kartu—kartu sual ku abdi bade dikempelkeun. Patlotna mah mangga bae candak kanggo oleh-oleh. _--——____________—__—-..——___-_____-___—--___--—__ Sadaya sual tos ditaroskeun sarta dijawab ku Bapa/Ibu sadayana. Hatur nuhun. Ayeuna kasempetan kanggo sual-jawab ngobrolkeun hal-hal anu tadi didiskusikeun. Ka Bapa/Ibu anu teu acan nyeratkeun jawabanana, mangga ngalih tempatna.Tuturkeun bae abdi. Ieu diskusi teh saterasna bade dipingpin ku ( ). ...—....-_--—_—_—__-__-__-___--_—___-_.._—_~___-__—_- Lamun diskusi geus anggeus atawa disetop sabab waktuna beak, saacana dibubarkeun kudu ngucapkeun nuhun heula ku sadiana responden hadir dina ieu riungan sarta mikeun pamanggihna masing-masing. _-_-_____-__.-_——_-_-_-_-—-_--....-___—-—_-.._—___—--— ._ | .-._ . .'- - ._ . : _ I .- . '. ‘ '.- J 'u 1' ' -‘ v i . - . ' :1 APPENDIX C Table l to Table 17 Am THMPOTN GHV NBHZDESOU Nm ~WNNH. Hm WHHBHZDEOU mmB .mO HNHW QZawnn H Hang“: 276 MHO>mmwmm MMB<3 m.mmm.mm szezooz w.mmm.mm oz< emmmom o N HH H HH H csmo poo mm m cm Zmmm mmmso smm mmHson mm mstmsoaam smm.a mmmmmmm AH>Ho wmm.aa coo.m smsmoozH mac: oms.s smmmmHm \smozammom gaszc Han.sm mmmomaq Hmo.mq mmmqozHZD DMBMQQSOU I as am as smm A11 TOTAL NEED BY yrs yrs yrs yrs FUNCTION n=164 n=210 n=101 n=32 n=594 = 87 PERSONAL MAINTENANCE 12.6 HEALTH CARES DELIVERY . . . 2.0 8 RELIGIOUS 14.9 I4.9 3.I 9 LINKAGE: 10 Inward 31.0 18.3 13.3 12.9 15.6 17.3 LINKAGE: 11 LARGER 12 SYSTEM 2.3 6.7 12.4 5.9 9.4 8.1 TOTAL % 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% CODING: n = number of responses (not subjects) = percentages are calculated from each column n o\° STATISTICS: X2 d.f. Significance; Lamda 73.739 44 .003 .039 COMMUNITY NEED BY I FUNCTION SUPPLY l MICE MARKETING ‘ PERSONAL z MAINTENAN< HEALTH CARI DELIVERY GOVERNANCE EDUCATION RELIGIOUS CULTURAL LINKAGE: I Inward LINKAGES-l Outward LARGER SYSTEM I \‘ TOTAL 285 TABLE 10 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ON GENERAL COMMUNITY NEEDS (QUESTION #2), BY FUNCTION, BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL EDUCATION (in years) COMMUNITY NONE NEED BY FUNCTION n-58 SUPPLY L- U. . . . PERSONAL 4 MAINTENANC: HEALTH CARE 50 DELIVERY LLPULPS :E—: m- Inward Outward: =-10 . 0 SYSTEM CODING: n = number of responses (not subjects) % = percentages are calculated from each column 2 STATISTICS: N3 d.f. Significance; Lamda 79.409 32 .0000 .027 SUPPLY W MARKETING W MAINTENANI HEALTH CAR DELIVERY GOVERNANCE EDUCATION_ RELIGIOUS 286 TABLE 11 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ON COMMUNITY PRIORITY NEEDS (QUESTION #3) AS CLASSIFIED BY FUNCTION, BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL EDUCATION (in ears) COMMUNITY NONE NEED BY yrs FUNCTION n= 96 PERSONAL MAINTENANCE . . . . 8.6 HEALTH CARE'. ; DELIVERY 1.1 I i 8 9 SULPULPL mun-”am LINKAGE: 10 Inward 23.5 16.7 18.3 25.6 8.3 19.3 LINKAGE: 11 Outward 1.2 2.6 0.7 LARGER 12 SYSTEM 5.9 7.1 TOTAL % 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% CODING: n number of responses (not subjects) % percentages are calculated from each column 3 STATISTICS: X2 d.f. Significance; Lamda 41.356 44 (n.s.) .034 CHI-SC (QUEsf COMMUNITY 1 NEED BY FUNCTION EPILE— PRODUCTION MARKETING PERSONAL MAINTENANC HEALTH CAR DELIVERY GOVERNANCE EDUCATION RELIGIOUS CULTURAL Won] Inward LINKAGE: J Outward W m & CODING STATIS' 287 TABLE 12 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ON INDIVIDUAL PRIORITY NEED (QUESTION #4) BY FUNCTION, BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL EDUCATION COMMUNITY NEED BY FUNCTION SUPPLY (in years) “H 10.7 15.4 m MARKETING PERSONAL MAINTENANCE HEALTH CARE DELIVERY i—mmm— -—-- EDUCATION 8 9 LINKAGE: 10 Inward 5.9 3.6 0.0 2.1 LINKAGE: 11 Outwardl LARGER SYSTEM TOTAL % l00% 100% 100% 100% l00% CODING: n = number of responses = subjects) % = percentages are calculated from each column n STATISTICS: K3 d.f. Significance; Lamda 45.664 32 .05 .093 | 1: STRUCTURES PUBLIC 2 BUILDINGS AGRICUL- ‘ TURAL COMMUNITY I DEV'T ORG. ECONOMIC UTILITIES HEALTH AND WELFARE TRAINED Personnels EDUCATIONZ DEVELOPMEI IN GENERA] TOTAL CODING: STATIST 288 TABLE 13 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ON GENERAL COMMUNITY NEEDS (QUESTION #1) BY GENERAL AREA, BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL COMMUNITY EDUCATION (in years) NEEDS BY 6—8 9-11 >11 TOTAL AREA OF yrs yrs yrs NEEDS n=211 n=101 n=32 INFRA STRUCTURES PUBLIC BUILDINGS AGRICUL- COMMUNITY 4 DEV'T ORG. ECONOMIC UTILITIES HEALTH AND WELFARE TRAINED Personnels CODING: n = number of responses (not subjects) % = percentages are calculated from each column n STATISTICS: N3 d.f. Significance; Lamda 75.989 36 .000l .008 COMMUNITY NEEDS BY AREA OF NEEDS INFRA I STRUCTURE . PUBLIC BUILDINGS AGRICUL- TURAL COMMUNITY DEV'T ORG. ECONOMIC UTILITIES HEALTH ANI WELFARE TRAINED Personnel: EDUCATION DEVELOPME IN GENERA fl“; Cod STP 289 TABLE 14 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ON COMMUNITY PRIORITY NEEDS (QUESTION #3) BY GENERAL AREA, BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL COMMUNITY EDUCATION (in years) NEEDS BY NONE 1-5 6-8 9-11 )11 TOTAL AREA OF yrs yrs yrs yrs NEEDS n=51 n=96 n=82 n= 39 n= 12 n=280 INFRA 1 STRUCTURES 29.4 25.0 28.0 35.9 8.3 27.5 PUBLIC 2 SUILPIUSS PIS PUP ILL -m ISS AGRICUL— 3 PUPLL mm WELFARE TRAINED 8 Personnels9 DEVELOPMENT IN GENERAL 3.9 . TOTAL 100% Coding: n = number of responses (not subjects) % = percentages are calculated from each column STATISTICS: X2 d.f. Significance; Lamda 62.578 36 .004 .031 GENERAL LEVEL BASIC EDUCATION CULTURAL—'— EDUCATION HEALTH AND HOME Eco- NOMIC EDUCATION VOCATIONAL, SKILLS EDUCATION AGRICUIEIEE EDUCATION BUSINESS—— AND INDUS- TRIAL EDUCATION 5THER§“"— (GENERAL) \ Iw CODING: STATISI 290 TABLE 15 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ON COMMUNITY EDUCATIONAL NEEDS (QUESTION #2) BY GENERAL AREA, BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL COMMUNITY . EDUCATIONAL EDUCATION (in years) NEEDS BY NONE 1-5 6-8 9-11 > 11 TOTAL GENERAL yrs yrs yrs yrs I LEVEL n=58 n=88 n=128 n= 84 n= 17 n=375 BASIC EDUCATION 17.2 14.8 16.7 5.9 13.3 CULTURAL HEALTH AND HOME ECO- NOMIC EDUCATION 15.5 38.6 29.7 22.6 29.4 28.0 SKILLS EDUCATION 17.0 15.6 22.6 11.8 16.3 AGRICULTURA EDUCATION 39.7 20.5 27.3 15.5 BUSINESS AND INDUS— TRIAL EDUCATION (GENERAL) 1.7 CODING: n = number of responses (not subjects) % = percentages are calculated from each column B STATISTICS: X2 d.f. Significance; Lamda 50.815 24 .001 .031 CHI-SQ (QUESTId COMMUNITY NEEDS BY AREA OF NEEDS _— INFRA ; STRUCTURES: PUBLIC BUILDINGS W TURAL COMMUNITY DEV' T ORG. ECONOMIC UTILITIES HEALTH ANI WELFARE TRAINED Personnels W DEVELOPMEI W TOTAL_ CODING STATIS 291 TABLE 16 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ON INDIVIDUAL PRIORITY NEEDS (QUESTION #4) BY GENERAL AREA, BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL COMMUNITY EDUCATION (in years) NEEDS BY AREA OF NEEDS 7 INFRA STRUCTURES EUELIE—__— BUILDINGS AGRICUL— TURAL COMMUNITY DEV'T ORG. ECONOMIC UTILITIES HEALTH AND WELFARE TRAINED Personnels 100% 100% 100% 100% CODING: n = number of responses (= number of subjects) % = percentages are calculated from each column n STATISTICS: X2 d.f. Significance; Lamda 48.991 28 .008 .100 292 TABLE 17 SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS NULL HYPO- THESIS AND BASIS FOR JUDGMENT (SIGNIFICANCE) DECISION VARIABLE Q#1 Q#2 Q#1 Q#3 Q#4 #1(Quantity .046 .007 .016 ’— — rejected #2(Specificity) .0002 .004 - n.s .064 rejected #3(Means/Non— means) n.s - - n.s n s retained #4(Type by Function) n.s .017 — n.s n.s retained (Type by area) .004 .003 - n.s .05 retained* #5(Time) rejected #6(Quantity)/ Leader 05 n.s n s — — partial #7(Quantity)/ Nonleader .10 .05 .01 — partial #8(Quantity) 001 .025 .001 - rejected #9(Specificity) 07 .03 — n n.s retained #10(Means/Non— means) n.s — — n n.s retained #11(Type—Func- tion) n.s n.s - n.s .03 partial (Type—Area) n.s .0004 - .01 .09 1 partial #12(Quantity) n.s .01 n.s — — partial #13(Specificity) n.s n.s. — .01 n.s partial #14(Means/Non- means) n.s n.s — .01 n.s partial #15(Type—Func- tion) .000 .012 - .0002 .0004 reject** (Type—Area) 0001 005 - 0000 003 4 reject** #16(Quantity) .005 n.s .015 — — partial #17(Specificity) n.s .03 — n.s n.s partial #18(Means/Non- means) n.s — - n.s n.s retained #19(Type—Func- tion) n.s .007 - .002 .014 partial (Type—Area) n.s 000 - n.s n 5 partial #20(Quantity) .012 .001 .001 - - partia1*** #21(Specificity) n.s n.s — n.s .04 retained #22(Means/Non— means) n.s — — n.s n.s retained #23(Type—Func- tion) .003 .000 - n.s .05 retained* (Type—Area) .001 .004 — .008 .001 retained* CODING: Q = Question n.s = Not significant * ** *** Not used to test the hypothesis Relationship is very weak Relationship is weak Not all means are different from each other Focus 1. 0f 1 tWO were Ii é approach i of quantit time neede ponse and the group interview from the g orientatic approaches Focus 2. x 293 Description of Table 17 Focus 1. Interview Approach Versus Group Approach Of the five null-hypotheses, three were rejected and two were retained. Data indicate that the interview approach is different from the group approach on the basis of quantity of responses, specificity of responses, and time needed to conduct the assessment. Quantity of res— ponse and time needed to conduct the assessment favored the group approach. Specificity of response favored the interview approach. The interview approach is not different from the group approach on the basis of means/nonmeans orientation and genre (type) of needs elicitied. Both approaches yielded nonmeans-oriented reSponses. Focus 2. Effect of Interview Approach and Group Approach on Leaders and Nonleaders Data and analyses for focus 2 indicate partial rejec— tion of both of the null—hypotheses. For leaders, signifi- cant interaction between the approach variable (leader— only group approach, mixed leader/nonleader group approach, and interview approach) and the quantity variable was only shown for Question #1, and hence the null-hypothesis was only partially rejected. For Question #1, general community needs, the mixed leader/nonleader group approach (LNG) yielded a significantly greater quantity of needs than either the leader—only group approach (LG) or the interview approach (LI). When asked about educational needs, there was no sup nonleaders variable - 1. paring paE #1, #2: a only betwe only group only parti yielded a the nonle: Focus 3. Of were reta that the of respon hypothesi on Specif 0f reSpor level of responses Genre (t3 leaders. differen lEaders only par 294 was no superiority among approaches for the leaders. For nonleaders, significant interaction between the approach variable and the quantity variable was shown on Question #1, #2, and #1 and #2 combined. However, the T—test com— paring pairs of approaches showed significant differences only between the nonleader-interview (NI) and the nonleader- only group approach (NG) and hence the null hypothesis was only partially rejected. The nonleader—only group approach yielded a significantly greater quantity of needs than the nonleader interview approach. Focus 3. Comparison Between Leaders and Nonleaders Of the four null—hypotheses, one was rejected, two were retained and one was partially rejected. Data indicate that the leaders generate a significantly greater quantity of responses than nonleaders thereby rejecting null— hypothesis #8. Leaders and nonleaders are not different on specificity of reSponse or means/nonmeans orientation of response. Both leaders and nonleaders generate low level of specificity of responses and nonmeans—oriented responses, therefore retaining null—hypotheses #9 and #10. Genre (type) of needs was different for leaders and non— leaders only when asked Question #4 (self—needs). No difference on the basis of genre of needs was found between leaders and nonleaders for the other questions thereby only partially rejecting null-hypothesis #11. Focus 4. ,4 Of t three were cant diffe of needs a the hypotk quantity c nonmeans < similar re significal three dep. tion of U Focus 5. 0f three wer ence betw means/non groups yi 0f quanti 295 Focus 4. Comparison Between Desas Of the four null-hypotheses, one was rejected and three were partially rejected. Data indicate a signifi— cant difference between Desa I and Desa II on the ranking of needs according to genre. However, the rejection of the hypothesis has weak predictive value. In terms of quantity of response, specificity of response and means/ nonmeans orientation of response both desas yielded very similar responses. However, a single question yielded significant differences between desas for each of these three dependent variables and hence the partial rejec- tion of the three null—hypotheses. Focus 5. Comparison Between Sexes Of the four null—hypotheses, one was retained and three were partially rejected. Data indicate no differ— ence between male and female nonleaders on the basis of means/nonmeans orientation of their responses. Both groups yielded nonmeans—oriented responses. In terms of quantity of responses, males yielded a greater quan— tity on Question #1 and combined Question #1 and #2. Males and females were not different on Question #2. In terms of Specificity, females yielded higher specificity of responses on Question #2 with no difference between males and females on the other questions. In terms of genre of need, male and females had different rankings on Question #1 tmn#l. Focus 6. 1 Of t one was pa ponse, Que to level c Questions basis on 6 However, 1 yielded a years of < rejects ti education the Speci 0r respom the three 296 Question #2, #3 and #4. There was no difference on Ques— tion #1. Focus 6. Comparison on the Basis of Educational Background Of the four null-hypotheses, three were retained and one was partially rejected. In terms of quantity of res— ponse, Question #1 yielded quantities in direct relation to level of education. Though Question #2 and combined Questions #1 and #2 yielded differences in quantity on the basis on educational level it was not directly related. However, it showed that six or more years of education yielded a greater quantity of responses than less than six years of education. This finding, therefore, only partially rejects the null-hypothesis. Grouping subjects by educational k)ackground, however, yield no difference in the specificity of response, means/nonmeans orientation or response or genre of needs. 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