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M. a . . r’ . \ \ I'll! I'E' I; lli'..l r .u , .| El 4' \llllWll\lllllllllllllllllllllllllIllllllllllllllml 3 1293 10463 1217 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH FOR CURRICULUM BUILDING: ESTABLISHING INTENTIONS IN ADULT RELIGIOUS EDUCATION presented by Burt David Braunius has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D Administration and degree in Curriculum 13k \M Major professor Date / ¢ 5:} MSUiJ an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH FOR CURRICULUM BUILDING: ESTABLISHING INTENTIONS IN ADULT RELIGIOUS EDUCATION By Burt David Braunius A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curriculum College of Education 1983 Copyright by BURT DAVID BRAUNIUS 1983 ABSTRACT PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH FOR CURRICULUM BUILDING: ESTABLISHING INTENTIONS IN ADULT RELIGIOUS EDUCATION By Burt David Braunius The study was concerned with the development of curriculum in- tentions through participation. The primary research questions were: What would happen if adults in religious education classes were to share collectively the responsibility for establishing their own educational intentions? What kind of decisions would they make? How would the program which they established be different from traditional adult religious education classes? The methodology of the research was participatory and ethnographic in nature. It was participatory, being grounded in such theorists as Dewey, Rogers, Goulet, Illich, and Freire, and as applied to non—formal educational research by Hall and Brigham. The methodology was ethno— graphic in that it used the qualitative, phenomenological, field study approaches of the social sciences; including participant observer, theory grounding (Glaser and Strauss), and model building approaches. Two participatory research groups were formed. They met on Sunday mornings in the fall of 1982 in separate churches in Jenison, Michigan. Burt David Braunius The groups met to study under the general theme "What are the Social Issues Which Should Concern Christians?" During the first meetings, generative themes were identified. Topics and procedures were then established co-intentionally. Data generated from the research groups was analyzed through the techniques of theory grounding (Glaser and Strauss). Categories to emerge were consistent with participative educational theory, primarily that of Freire and Rogers. The categories related to a participative approach. Contributing factors were: beginning apprehension; unity through acceptance; problem—posing dialogue; and reflection and action or praxis. Deterring factors were identified with a traditional per- spective. These were: authority and control, prescriptive methods, prescriptive planning, and the modernizing church. A final category of effect upon the researcher was described. The concluding results were expressed through a hypothesized, verbal, and dialogical model entitled, "Contrasting Approaches to Adult Religious Education". DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to Marlene, my wife. Your faith has nurtured my growth. Your supportive commitment has facilitated the completion of this project. Your love has enabled me to understand the biblical process of knowing, yada, The Scripture speaks of you in saying, "Strength and dignity are her clothing ... She opens her mouth with wisdom, and the teaching of kindness is on her tongue ... Many women have done excellently, but you surpass them all ... a women who fears the Lord is to be praised" (Proverbs 31:25—30). iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Appreciation is extended to those who have provided special assistance for the completion of this work. I wish to begin by thanking the members of my Advisory Committee. They are Charles Blackman, Joseph Levine, Ruth Useem; and Ted Ward. They enabled me to discover the liberating aspects of education, pro- vided the freedom to learn, and were willing to risk working with a re— constructionist. I am most grateful for the friendship and support of Ted Ward as major Professor. His ability to disequilibrate me re- sulted in many of the main concepts which have been synthesized into this dissertation. Next, appreciation is expressed to individuals associated with the Reformed Bible College. Dick Van Halsema, Paul Bremer, and Harold Bruxvoort are thanked for their willingness to be flexible about my teaching schedule while pursuing my program of studies. A high posi- tive regard is held of June Freswick for her exceptional typing and editing skills and her commitment to excellence. Finally, I wish to acknowledge relatives and friends who have provided encouragement. I am thankful for the prayerful support of parents, Josie and Lambertus Braunius and Gertrude and Willard Willink; and the patience of Marlene and our sons Stephen and Peter. iv fil'fl‘ ..u.‘ TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Viii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Viii CHAPTER I. PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Importance . . . . . . 3 Research Questions .. . . 5 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Summary of Procedures 8 II. PRECEDENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Educational Intents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lO Curriculum Intents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l4 The Preservative Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 The Productive Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 The Participative View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Curriculum Intents and Adult Religious Education . . . 42 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Rationale for Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . . 49 Objectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Generalizability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Rationale for Program Construction . . . . . . . . . . 54 Participatory Research Rationale . . . . . . . . . 55 Values of the Researcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Theoretic Research Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Building the Curriculum Model . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Criteria for Curriculum Model Building . . . . 65 Model Building Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 v vi CHAPTER Page IV. SITUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Historical Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7O Denominational Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Local Church Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Program Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 General Description of Program Beginnings . . . . . 86 Course Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 First Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Specific Descriptions of Programs Over Time . . . . 92 The Fellowship Village Group . . . . . . . . . 92 The Maranatha Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 V. OBSERVATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Contributing Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Beginning Apprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Unity Through Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Problem-Posing Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Reflection and Action Relating to Praxis . . . . . 150 Deterring Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Authority and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15S Prescriptive Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Prescriptive Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 The Modernizing Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Effect on the Researcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 VI. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Review and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Hypothesized Model: Contrasting Approaches to Adult Religious Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Participative Adult Religious Education Model Expanded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 General Expansion of Participative Categories . . . 178 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Intentions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Teacher Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Learner Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Group Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Program Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Biblical and Theological Referents . . . . . . . . 180 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Intentions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Teacher Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 E# .. :‘F— _ Charact'eris 't-i-cs -' rou'p slim-8'12! n ”- 1":"0- :I' Program Characteristics Methods........ Results . . . . . . . . ; Suggestions for Further Research Limitations and Contributions . I I I APPENDIXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O O C O o l o u a 0 l I o a o I I I O Q I O . U' . LIST OF TABLES TABLE Page 1 Participatory Research Groups Compared . . . . . . . . . . 85 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE Page 1 Philosophic and Theoretic Categories . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2 Classical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 3 Naturalistic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 4 Group Facilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 5 Conscientization Through Praxis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 6 Georgetown Projected Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 7 Ethnic Makeup of Jenison Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7S 8 Adult Education Curriculum Plan Chart . . . . . . . . . . . 79 9 Issues Generated by the Adult Class . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 10 Topics and Sub—topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 11 Freire Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 12 Rogers Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 13 Contrasting Approaches to Adult Religious Education . . . . 176 viii CHAPTER I PROBLEM If adult learners were to share collectively the responsibility for making curriculum decisions about the establishment of their own educational intentions, what kinds of decisions would they make? What would be the effect of these decisions upon the group? What learning outcomes could be expected? These are the kinds of questions that are raised by this study. The questions relate to one common iSSue, the determination of educa- tional purposes or intentions. Developments in curriculum construc- tion during recent years have accentuated the strategic role of edu— cational intentions (Gress and Purpel, 1978; Eisner, 1979; Pratt, 1980) in the development of curriculum theory. The values held by educators result in their educational intentions being expressed in such terms as: "education for cultural transmis— sion," ”meeting needs," or "1iberation.' These kinds of expressions of intent are seen in education in general as well as in church educa- tion. This project is directed toward the problem of the establishment 0f educational intentions in curriculum building for adult religious education through participation. It recognizes that approaches based Luaon educational intentions which value cultural transmission and meeting needs have often dominated curriculum building for religious education, just as they have been prominent in many areas of education in general. However, this research goes beyond the perspectives of cultural transmission and meeting needs. It explores the applicability of participative approaches to the establishment of educational inten- tions in church education. The perspective of Paulo Freire provides the foundation for this research. Others with participative approaches are consulted as well, where their positions support the findings of the participatory research groups. These include such educators as Dewey, Rogers, Illich, and Goulet. Purpose The purpose of this project is to describe and explain a partici— pative procedure for establishing curriculum intentions. It is based upon participatory research findings, expressed through the construc— tion of a hypothesized model, and focused upon the role of adult learners in becoming responsible for their own educational intentions in the setting of church religious education. The governing methodology is participatory research (Hall, 1980). The approaches of Glaser and Strauss (1967) for grounding theory, Becker (1958) for participant observation, and Beauchamp (1961) for curriculum theory are used to supplement the participatory research in providing a procedure for constructing a curriculum model. The establishment of educational intentions, whether they be H H H l Called ”goals, "objectives, aims,” or "intentions,' is a basic tileoretic curriculum concern (Eisner, 1979, p. 93). The procedure used for the formulation of these intentions is crucial to curriculum construction because these intentions express human values (Ragan and Shepherd, 1978, p. 327), suggest the direction that education should take (Caswell, 1978, p. 31), and help select desirable learning experiences (Herrick, 1965, pp. 91-96). Importance This research represents an attempt to View adult religious edu- cation in two churches from the View of the participants, including this writer, who was coordinator of the groups and is a member of one of the sample churches. Specifically, this project seeks to describe and explain the characteristics of participatory groups in the process of establishing their intents and carrying them out in learning groups. A hypothesized participative model is suggested as a result of the group experiences. The justification for the importance of a participatory approach to the research process is as follows: if the attitudes, behaviors, and thoughts of adults in learning contexts are to be understood by people who are going to be working with them, the researcher must join them and attempt to see reality as they understand it. How can leaders in adult education possibly facilitate the establishment of educational purposes that are of value to the participants if the leaders them- selves do not see reality from the perspective of the learners? Another reason for this study's importance is a matter of values. An emphasis on prescribing the content has caused some church educa— tors to View past curriculum approaches as oppressive (Elias, 1976; all!!! sud-trad minimum 'Vm"-£arj‘-‘-'la. . . . .'-'_ .‘ ‘L‘."P-': Ln Wynn, 1977). Monette points out that "Oppression would be said to exist by Freire in a society which unilaterally prescribes the content of education and measures the needs of students in terms of that con- tent and excludes any other content on the basis of its potential threat to vested interest" (1979 b, p. 544). Much of adult church education tends to be prescriptive. Now may be the time for the con— struction of a more liberating, participative perspective. Consequently, there is an expanding need for adult religious edu- cation which involves and respects its participants as responsible in and for the learning process. Adults, in many cases, are treated as if they need the same content and process structuring as children (Knowles, 1975). Programs and classes are provided for the adults to attend. Teachers and learners do not often share a co—intentional role (Freire, p. 56, 1970). Finally, a curriculum model based upon participatory research and grounded in theorists, such as Freire, has not been developed speci- fically for adult religious education. The writers of curriculum resource materials for church education may wish to give assent to liberating, humanizing education; but without a theoretic framework, there is difficulty relating these concepts to curriculum products. The value of such theoretic curriculum development is pointed out by Beauchamp: The primary relationships for curriculum theory have to do with the actual curriculum decisions such as continuity among goals and subject matter and evaluation, questions of design, relationships between the choice of curriculum planners and the acts of doing the planning and movement in practice (Beauchamp, 1961, p. 75). Research Questions The research questions related to this descriptive participatory resz..=EE; earch study are concerned with three areas. The first relates to a fl;:>- articipative approach for arriving at educational intentions. The sea: <¢:::: and involves changes occurring in individuals and groups as a result (szf' the research. The third is about the construction of a curriculum u1c2> <:fi. 1:0aches being characterized as liberation, conscientization, or S a l f—realization, or what? 2. What changes will take place in the church and community as a jcrir- eXFYFESsing educational intentions are made by some. Bloom and F153 8M2 r aJTe among the two most explicit. h; 12 Bloom uses the term "educational objectives.‘ These are defined as "explicit formulations of the ways in which students are expected to be changed by the educative process" (1956, p. 26). Even though "goal” is occasionally used by Bloom in re— clearly defined, the Word ferring to educational objectives. One person who clearly distinguishes between words of educational intent is Mager. A clear differentiation is made between objectives and goals. "An objective is an intent communicated by a statement describing a proposed change in a learner —— a statement of what the learner is to be like when he has successfully completed a learning experience" (l962, p. 3). “A goal is a statement describing a broad or abStra<:t intent, state, or condition" (1972, p. 35). This distinction made by Mager is affirmed by Caswell as a signifi— cant cc>ru:ern for curriculum development. He states that: The fundamental problem facing curriculum specialists is to establish a consistent relationship between general goals, on the one hand, and specific objectives that guide teaching, on the other (1978, p. 31). It is clear that many terms are acceptable for describing educa- H I ti‘Dnal iJJtentions. Yet, the term most often used is that of objective.‘ It Starhds out as the most frequently used term in the works of Bobbitt (1918) . Charters (1924), Tyler (1949), Bloom (1956), and Mager (1962). Cu'll‘riculum theorists almost unquestioningly point out the important f . urictlxans of objectives. Herrick claims that: Objectives define the direction of educational development. Objectives help select desirable learning experiences. Objectives help define the scope of an educational program. Objectives help define the emphasis to be made in an educa— tional program. 13 Objectives form one of the major bases for evaluation (1965, pp. 91-96). Ragan and Shepherd point Out that: 1. Objectives define the directions in which it is desirable for growth to take place... 2. Objectives provide a basis for the selection of learning experiences... 3. Objectives provide a basis for evaluation (1978, pp. 327, 328). ' In spite of the previously mentioned functions of behavior speci- fic objectives, there are voices which question their appropriateness. Eisner (1967, pp. 250-261), for example, challenges theoretic founda- tions of behavioral objectives on four counts: 1. the extent of accuracy in predicting educational outcomes; 2. the ways in which pre— cision. of stating objectives is affected by the subject matter; 3- tiles lack of distinction between standards of measurement and cri— teria frar judgment in some areas; and 4. the fact that distinction is not macie among means and ends and psychological conditions for constrlicting curriculum. 111 summarizing the above material, it is discovered that various Words Eire used to express educational intents. Differing levels of generality are attached to statements of intent, and statements of irltentiion are a valid and vital part of the curriculum construction DIRDCESSS. Such individuals as Eisner (1967) and Combs (1972) react aggaiUSt: objectives which are behavior specific, lack flexibility, and triink <3f education primarily in terms of prescribing individual per- fca rmarhze. There is, however, little disagreement about education being int - . . entlOnal. In fact, Eisner states, "No concept is more central to Cu . IWTICLllum planning than the concept of objectives" (1979, p. 93). ¥ 14 Curriculum Intents Viewed categorically, the titles of the various educational ph i losophies and theories have curriculum intentions implied within th a :ir names. Traditional distinctions use philosophical and theoreti- ca 1 terms. The headings of Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, Reconstruc- t i O mism, Existentialism, Behaviorism, and Analytic Philosophy ((3 zrnon, 1981) are typical. Others include Essentialism, Behaviorism, Pa r ennialism, Progressivism, and Humanism. The relationship of these ph i :Losophic and theoretic categories is proposed by Knight in Figure 1. Philosophies Educational Theoria flu-l mallsm Realism Bchanomm NwScholasthmn—-—> Pcmnmalnm Runnstmcuonmn' —>Futunsm Pragmatism Prtm1\m1—< Humanism Emicnualism fl Dachooling Figure l: Philosophic and Theoretic Categories (Knight, 1980, p. 90) Other sorts of groupings include those of Eisner: Development of C Q gnitive Processes, Academic Rationalism, Personal Relevance, Social Adaptation and Social Reconstruction, and Curriculum as Technology < l 9 79) . Gress and Purpel include the orientations of Romanticism, C111 tural Transmission, Progressivism, Radical and Transcendental De\7elopmentalism (1978) . Norton and Norton propose three areas: Con- C en t Permanence, Social Action for Contemporary Relevance, and Social C h 5- Inge (1936) . 15 All of the preceding are orientations to curriculum theory, each vi th a purpose of its own. Herrick has digested the possibilities 1'__ n to three orientations to curriculum: These three referents are (1) man's categorized and pre- served knowledge -- the subject field; (2) our society, its institutions and social processes; and (3) the indi- vidual to be educated, his nature, needs and developmental patterns (1965, p. 4). S ‘t:; .251 ted differently, the orientation is either subject-centered, social- c. e n tered, or individual—centered. The consideration of curriculum orientations or categorical g r onpings relates to the issue of educational values. Intentions are t) £53.:E; eed upon values. In fact, Ragan and Shepherd use these words of :i:1?1.1:;Light up by Caswell which include: Man 1. Who is man? 2. Why does he exist? 3. What is his relationship to his environment? Knowledge 4. What is knowledge? 5. How does man know? ... learn? 6. What is truth? 7. What is experience? How is it related to knowledge? Values 8. What are values? 9. How are values known? (1978, p. 57) The way in which the above questions are answered will determine *— gnaw? II ill! _5. I. . -- 4111.1 333.1: 16 C 1’1 6 way in which educational intentions are expressed. The point made j;.sE;- that "values provide the basis for selecting goals” (Caswell, 1978, F’ __ 31), and goals "suggest the direction education should take” (Caswell, ]_ 5;?) 177'8, p. 31). The diverse ways in which statements of educational intention are e:=y=;jl;> ressed have been surveyed. It has been shown that these statements r e f lect values. It will now be useful to identify how these curriculum g;<::> £53.:ls have been conceptualized historically. This work will divide curriculum development into three main (Dixz- :i_”£:’:Lcal interpretation of educational thought. So, too, a reidentifi- CEEEl't: i_on of these areas became necessary for this work as the precedent 11 t erature was examined. The three orientations to be described here are consistent with C3t2711.€er arrangements but were so labeled for historical and topical C:]~»53-1T:ity. They involve seeing the intentions of education as 1. Pre- S;e3 3:”\7aative, 2. Productive, and 3. Participative. ELEZEJEE IPreservative Approach The preservative approach was the primary perspective up until the t: - ZLTITIEE of the publication of The Curriculum by Bobbitt in 1918 (Gress eat 171‘:1 I?urpel, 1978), the first general work in the field. The preservative view is associated with such terms as "content 17 H H l H I stock of knowledge,’ and cultural transmission.’ It is €3111I3hasis, j;(:1e2ntified by Charters as relating to early Greek and Christian thought. He states the following: It would be expected that with the wholesale acceptance of Christianity by the people of Europe, the quadrivium and trivium of Greek civilization would have been Supplanted by books which more directly taught the rudiments of Christian culture. In this case the expected did happen to the extent that the administrators of the Christian church caused the establishment of catechetical and catechumenal schools. But as soon as instruction in the practices of the Christian church had been taught to those who so recently had been pagans, then the quadrivium and the trivium regained ascendancy and long remained the basis of school instruction in Christian Europe (1924, p. 3). Norton and Norton describe the preservative perspective in terms C>15 ea content emphasis, by stating: Many educators believe that there is a relatively distinct and unchanging body of subject matter which constitutes the basic materials of education. This content may be derived from the culture of Greece or from later civilizations. When it is mastered, a person has the disciplined and experienced mind which is the first characteristic of an educated person (1936, p. 25). Another way of referring to this perspective is in terms of the S‘t: <3 cfk of knowledge emphasis. This is evidenced when ... a collection of meanings arises which makes up the group's stock of knowledge and which each generation trans— mits more or less successfully to its descendants in a consciOus or unconscious process of education (Musgrave, 1973, p. 1). Cultural transmission is also a concept used for this perspective. I t S tates: [education's] primary task is the transmission to the present generation of bodies of information and the rules or values collected in the past ... educating consists of transmitting knowledge, skills, and social and moral rules of the culture (Kohlberg and Mayer, 1978, p. 61). l8 Zais describes what is here called the Preservative Approach as a gs-LJIDject Centered Curriculum Design. The essence of the subject design is the inherent nature of its organization. This, it is claimed, has been dis— covered by the content specialists, whose work, over the centuries, has resulted in the totality of all the sub- jects —— the classified and categorized cultural heritage of civilized man (1976, p. 398). In summary, the preservative approach is recognizable by the high \7za_3_ue it attaches to the transmission of the knowledge, skills, social 21r1.él moral rules of the past to the present generation. It seeks to c1:i_:s«:ipline the mind to master the meanings of a preserved body of sub— j ect matter. ITtmea. Productive Perspective The view that education is to be productive is seen in early books C’Ii- curriculum. It recognizes content, but the value of content is for t1fi»€e purpose of meeting social needs. Bobbitt, Charters, and Tyler are e=éeriences. He states that the way in which these experiences are to b ‘5: E1 part of curriculum building is through the scientific method of a jrléilytic survey. The curriculum may, therefore, be defined in two ways: (1) it is the entire range of experiences, both undirected and directed, concerned in unfolding the abilities of the g 19 individual; or (2) it is the series of consciously directed training experiences that the schools use for completing and , perfecting the unfoldment. Our profession uses the term in the latter sense. But as education is coming more and more to be seen as a thing of experiences, and as the work — and play — experiences of the general community life are being more and more utilized, the line of demarcation be- tween directed and undirected training experience is rapidly disappearing. When the curriculum is defined as including both directed and undirected experiences then its objectives are the total range of human abilities, habits, systems of knowledge, etc., that one should possess. These will be discovered by analytic survey (1918, p. 43). jfhis emphasis on the scientific, analytic process is an effort by 134:>t>bitt to insure educational productivity. The productivity approach is J_:i_1IItemporary emphasis as well. The emphasis of the past is described as - . . t) ‘Ei:1iig targeted toward communicating a set content. The way of thlrjnleeings and the way in which they learn. Psychology and Sociology should .EDEB able to describe the conditions requisite for learning. c. Learners Themselves. The needs (physical, social, and 1i_ritegrative) and interests of the learners determine the validity of <2»€:rtain educational objectives. Interests can be determined through jLtiterview, questionnaires, tests, and examination of records. d. Subject Specialists. The specialist is an authority on tZEJEE content in his field. He can suggest the way in which the material 3i»53 to be organized and the appropriateness of a topic for a given group. 2. How can learning experiences be selected which are likely to 1b) £3 useful in attaining the stated objectives? Here learning experiences are defined and ways of selecting t 1“Aem given. ¥ 22 The term learning experience ... refers to the interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he can re— act. Learning takes place through the active behavior of the student; it is what he does that he learns, not what the teacher does (Tyler, 1949, p. 63). Several principles are suggested for selecting learning experiences. a. In order to obtain a given objective, a student should ‘t> ea given the opportunity to practice the kind of behavior implied in th e objective. b. The learning experiences should be satisfying to the learner. c. The learning experiences designed should be possible for the learner to attain. d. There are many different kinds of experiences that can be us ed in achieving the same objective. e. Similar or the same learning experiences usually bring ab out several different learning outcomes. 3. How can these learning experiences be organized for effective 1 1‘18 truction? There are three criteria for effective organization. They follow: a. Continuity, which refers to "vertical reiteration of major CZ‘Llirriculum elements” (Tyler, 1949, p. 84). b. Sequence, which emphasizes ”the importance of having each =5;'L1<:cessive experience build the preceding one" (Tyler, 1949, p. 85). c. Integration, which horizontally helps ”the student in— :: jEIGEeasingly to get a unified view and to unify his behavior in relation t: (:3 the elements dealt with" (Tyler, 1949, p. 85). 4. How can the effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated? % 23 The measurement of whether or not objectives have been realized :i_£5 the basis of evaluation. The process of evaluation is essentially the process of determining to what extent the educational objectives are actually being realized by the program of curriculum and instruction. However, since educational objectives are essentially changes in human beings, that is, the objectives aimed at are to produce certain desirable changes in the behavior patterns of the student, then evaluation is the process for determining the degree to which those changes in behavior are actually taking place (Tyler, 1949, p. 106). a. The procedure of evaluation involves examination of the eeactent to which the objectives were realized. b. Identification of situations which will allow the student C>Ibportunity to express the behavior implied in the objectives. c. Examination, selection, and use of evaluation instruments. More recently six steps to curriculum development have been given b y Tyler . 1. Study the results of the present educational system to identify serious inadequacies... 2. Identify the parts of the total learning system that are not functioning effectively... 3. Specify what ought to be taught in the content field... 4. Consider the implications for making changes in other parts of the educational system (e.g. teacher training, instructional resources) that will be necessary as a result of curriculum improvements... 5. Estimate as realistically as possible the time and cost involved in each stage of development... 6. Dispatch teams of resource persons (e.g. administrators, teachers, researchers) to the field to assist in the implementations of curriculum improvement (Tyler, 1979, pp. 261, 262). The material from Tyler points to the necessity of the productive I31Jnction of education. Education is to achieve predetermined objectives t:7ficrough learning experiences determined by the educator. These ex- I2"E=1.-iences are to produce student change according to the structure of ¥ 24 t;117e system. Needs are identified by the educator for the construction (3 j? the curriculum. The productive perspective continues to be carried on beyond 1: :zfller, but is essentially built upon his four questions. Mastery ,1_¢E:earning (Bloom, 1968, 1976), goal attaining (Brookover, 1980), objec— t::i_x:es and goal analysis (Mager, 1962, 1972), learning projects (Tough, .1_S9 :79), and needs diagnosis (Knowles, 1975) are all associated with the I) Ireamises set forth by Tyler. In addition, the approach to determining eep>ic of needs assessment, since it is closely associated with the ID‘ITCDductive perspective. Needs assessment is an approach utilized as E3. E>asis upon which the educator creates objectives, constructs the t: eeeaching-learning strategy, and conducts evaluation. The use of the term ”need" in educational literature has been c3-C><:umented by Mazmanian (1977) and Monette (1977). There are three b asic types: 1. Basic human needs: A natural construct innate in the human C: <3>11ciition, e.g. safety and security (Maslow, 1968). 2. Felt needs: Wants and desires which identify the difference I)‘Eitmmen what is and what is missing (Knowles, 1970). 3. Normative needs: Desirable standards based on a value orien— t 3 tion (Monette, 1977). The second type, felt needs, is the one most commonly referred to .. my!” Irma mi 1': “.11..- mu: at'w .' -.u . -- :-.-_ In'T 25 jLn the literature. "The most common definition of need, as discussed j_n the literature pertaining to needs assessment, is a gap" (Mazmanian, 1977, p. 3). Needs assessment models use program planners or other experts in c:¢3njunction with learners, supervisors, and community representatives jf<3r making assessments (Trimby, 1979; Tyler, 1949). The models of Bergevin, Morris, Smith, Easley, Houle, Knowles, Ejf the vision for what ought to be. 2. Deliberation is the second 53 tzep. Here data are gathered, alternate solutions are identified and t:‘b1e best one is chosen. 3. Design is the final step. It is a descrip— t::i_on of the completed program. The naturalistic model, as illustrated :i_11. figure 3, incorporates the process of the scientific method through t11113 use of decision points during the deliberation stage. Deliberation Figure 3: Naturalistic Model The classical and naturalistic models constitute the two major EaSEDraroaches to needs assessment. Other models are not easy to classify It) Lit: are similar in that they follow a structured process by a skilled 1?1riculum planning. In summary, the productive model has been likened to the industrial ¥ 27 process. Through expert analysis of the educational context and existing curriculum, needs are assessed. From the needs assessment, objectives are formulated and learning experiences selected and struc— t: ured. Evaluation then measures the extent to which the objectives h ave been met, thereby identifying the learning which has been pro- duced. The preservative and productive approaches represent a large portion, but not all, of the ways of educational planning. A third grouping constitutes a major category of curriculum thought. It involves participative approaches. T he Participative View This perspective has purposes of education which stress the value Of learners as responsible participants in the planning process. The formation of purposes, the structures, and the subject matter of educa- t ion are drawn from the lives of the participants. Learner confidence, QI'I'eativity, and conscientization are points of emphasis. Two groupings of educators are described here as being of the P articipative perspective. First is the psychosocial humanist. Rogers, 1ward becoming a responsible agent in this real world" (Rogers, 1965, I? - 225). Three qualities are given as necessary for growth-facilitating Eitid freedom—promoting learning experiences. These are described from t:rie perspective of the facilitator. They are: l. congruence, E>€eing genuinely and openly oneself; 2. unconditional positive regard, 11.5rving a warm, positive and acceptant attitude; and 3. empathetic Llriderstanding, sensing the meanings and personal feelings of others (:Iiogers, 1965, pp. 225, 226). Educational planning is seen as group facilitation. Rogers pro- “f:ides ten guidelines (Rogers, 1969, pp. 164-166). 1. The facilitator has much to do with setting the initial cli- ITlate of the class experience. 2. He helps to elicit and clarify the purposes of individuals in tilie class and the general purposes of the group. 3. He relies on the desires of each learner to implement those I3"-_11:poses which have meaning for him. 4. He seeks to organize and make easily available the widest I:":>535ible range of learning resources. g 29 5. {e regards himself as a flexible resource to be utilized by t he group . 6. His response is to intellectual and emotional concerns of the c: lass, according to the intensity of their expression. 7. As the facilitator is accepted into the group, he expresses 'kmtimself as a fellow learner. 8. He takes initiative to share himself with the group, but not tzca impose his views upon it. 9. He remains alert to expressions of strong or deep feelings. 10. He endeavors to recognize and accept his own limitations. This process of group facilitation may be summarized into the five Lieey elements pictured in Figure 4 (Patterson, 1973, pp. 201, 202). 53 t;ructuring-)Listening-)Acceptance and Respect—9Understanding~§Responding Figure 4: Group Facilitation Dewey is an early representative of development as an aim of €2éarticipative in a socially democratic context. It is the democratic <::<3ntext emphasis of Dewey which puts him at the foundation of education ‘IE—CDIT social reconstruction. He refers to educational experiences as being "more in accord w r . . . . :1~t:h the democratic ideal to which our people are committed than do the g 30 I? rocedures of the conventional school" (Dewey, 1938, p. 33). The experiential approach of Dewey involves learner participation .gaxnd the subsequent reconstruction of the learner's past experience. CITIIis is summarized by McNeil and clearly stated by Dewey. Dewey "eamphasized learners' participation in formulating the purposes in- ‘orcplved in what was to be studied" (McNeil, 1981, p. 326). In "My Pedagogic Creed," Dewey states that "education must be c:c>nceived as a continuing reconstruction of experience; that the process Eltld the goal of education are one and the same thing” (Dewey, 1964, I) - 434). Participation is further urged in the statement: If the living, experiencing being is an intimate participant in the activities of the world to which it belongs, then knowledge is a mode of participation, valuable in the degree in which it is effective. It cannot be the idle View of an unconcerned spectator (Dewey, 1916, p. 338). He advocated a curriculum which was not to be subject-centered I) Lit rather built upon the experiences of the learner. "It is he and II<3t the subject-matter which determines both the quality and quantity <>1f learning” (Dewey, 1902, p. 9). In a discussion on the relationship of the child to the curri— Cllilum, the point is made that neither the view that a fixed subject IIlatter which is outside the child's experience and is to be imposed, 1‘lCDr the position that the child possesses the proper attitudes and £511Dilities to direct his own learning experiences are adequate. 11::Eii:her, the teacher is to understand the psychological development of t:-flee child, his capacities and attitudes, and then ”to determine the olitical and ideological orientation reflecting the struggles seen :1"t‘~ developing nations. Illich, Goulet, and Freire deal with the issues ¥ 32 related to liberation from oppression. They also see development as an aim of education, but their focus is on liberation from oppression. Illich may be identified with the participative view. He reacts against the technological nature of a productive approach to curriculum. He proposes new social structures for education (e.g., learning webs, 1970). His concern is that convivial institutions be established in society, rather than those which are manipulative. His application is particularly applied to schooling which is identified by him as manipu- lative. Illich objects to the notion that schooling itself is to be highly valued. He sees schools in industrialized societies as instruments of oppression. According to Illich, to be convivial is "to designate the opposite of industrial productivity." It means "autonomous and creative inter— course among persons, and the intercourse of persons with their environ- ment ..." It is ”individual freedom realized in personal interdepen- dence and, as such, an intrinsic ethical value" (1973, p. 11). Learning webs are proposed as the means for convivial structures of education to replace schools. The system of learning webs ... should have three purposes: it should provide all who want to learn with access to available resources at any time in their lives; empower all who want to share what they know to find those who want to learn it from them; and, finally, furnish all who want to present an issue to the public with the opportunity to make their challenge known (Illich, 1970, p. 75). Four kinds of webs are suggested. They are to provide: 1. reference services to educational objectives; 2. skill exchanges; 3. peer—matching; and 4. reference services to educators (Illich, 33 1970, pp. 78, 79). Illich is relevant to this work because of his concern for libera— tion. In Toward a Histogy of Needs, he is critical of industrial societies because needs are not naturally realized. They are, rather, created by the professions and advertising media. One's needs are controlled by the dominant power structure: The good citizen is one who imputes standardized needs to himself with such conviction that he drowns out any desire for alternatives, much less for the renunciation of needs (Illich, 1977, p. 31). The purpose of development for liberation through participation is seen in Illich, and while new educational structures are given, the issue of curriculum planning is not addressed. It is in Goulet and Freire that purposes and patterns of curriculum construction are de- scribed. Goulet is concerned with development as liberation (1979). He reflects a particular concern for the ethics of development (1971a, 1971b, 1974) and states that ”development is above all a question of values" (1971a, p. 35). Many of the issues addressed by Goulet are spoken to by Freire as well. One of these is liberation. Goulet states that ”to liberate means to set free... Within the special context of development, liberation connotes a victory over privilege, stagnation and depen- dency" (Goulet, 1979, p. 555). Liberation is never oppression. Three conditions are given for which liberation is necessary. 1. The first is the psychic paralysis or despair induced by the internalization of self-images which are 34 destructive of esteem and confidence... 2. A second feature of liberation is the sustained effort to overcome the political and economic constraints which block a people's creativity... 3. The third level at which liberation is sought is the over— coming of all servitudes to nature and to ignorance. A community is oppressed when it is technologically unable to master the destructive forces of nature (Goulet, 1979, p. 556). Therefore, liberation is necessary ... to remove major obstacles [the above conditions] impeding human development and, in the process of engaging people in the effort to overcome these obstacles, to transform hitherto passive human beings into active subjects creating their own history (Goulet, 1979, p. 556). An education process is provided for development which, according to Goulet, is grounded in the writings of A110 (Goulet, 1971a, p. 40). The emphasis of this process is upon the participative involvement of the persons to be developed according to their own values. Four stages are given: 1. Preliminary Synthesis. The investigator solicits from natural leaders in the community...their perception of what their total human existential situation is, what it means, and what it ought to be (Goulet, 1971a, p. 50). 2. Systematic Observation. This should occur at four levels. The first is that of primary groups or Sub—systems con- stituting natural units of daily life... A second level of observation is some limited sector of activity such as work, recreation, worship, or family relations. Third, there is the cultural system as a whole, whether it be the belief system (cognitive values), the set of norms, patterns of interaction, or the total network of social forces affecting cohesion and disruption. A fourth level touches upon the broad world view, or philOSOphy of life (Goulet, 1971a, p. 51). 3. Reflective Synthesis by the Research Team. Here the research team goes through 35 ... a reflective, critically conscious synthesis, as dis- tinct from the naive synthesis of the first stage... The purpose of these sessions is to begin formulating a reflec- tive synthesis of the value universe of the human group under study (Goulet, 1971a, p. 51). 4. Feedback of Reflective Synthesis to Populace. The final stage consists in resubmitting the critical synthesis obtained in Stage 3 to the informants who provided the naive syn— thesis in Stage 1. The choice of appropriate terms and symbols evidently depends on prolonged interaction between the research team and a representative portion of the interested populace. Informants of the initial phase may reject the synthesis elaborated, correct it, or accept it tentatively as a new outlook to be considered in their growing awareness of their own values and value evolution. They may endorse it, with or without qualifications, or they may not understand it (Goulet, 1971a, p. 52). The emphasis on development, liberation, and a participative methodology makes the work of Goulet similar to that of Freire. A similarity will also be shown to exist between Freire and Dewey. Freire, like Goulet, Illich, and Dewey, is classified as a social reconstructionist. The area of initial application of his edu- cational approach was to Latin American literacy and rural education programs. Kalvelage identifies concept similarities between Dewey and Freire (1974, p. 34). Dewey is almost never mentioned by Freire, Kalvelage sees Freire's writings as a sort of response to Dewey; that is, Freire reacts to and goes beyond him. These similarities which are mentioned by Kalvelage involve the fact that both are: 1. strongly influenced by Hegel; 2. able to integrate and apply the ideas of others; 3. committed to the integra- tion of theory and practice; and 4. committed to social change as the result of education. 36 Differences are also identified. These are: 1. Cultural: U.S. versus Latin American; 2. Political: Dewey not seeing U.S. society as oppressive; 3. Structural: Schools versus cultural circles; 4. Methodological: Dewey with vocational orientation which re— quired the equipping of experimental schools; Freire emphasizing the moral implications of method and stressing dialogue rather than facilities; 5. Age: Dewey — children, Freire - adults. Freire advocates a kind of education which is for liberation. He sees real education as conscientization (Freire, 1973, pp. 4—10). In his words conscientization is ... going beyond the spontaneous phase of apprehension of reality to a critical phase, where reality becomes a knowable object, where man takes an epistemological stance and tries to know. Thus, conscientization is a probing of the ambience, of reality (p. 4). Conscientization implies a historical commitment... It is a critical insertion into history...it asks men to fashion their existence out of the material that life offers them. The more they are conscientized, the more they exist (p. 5). Conscientization is further described as ... a seizing of reality; and for that very reason, for the very utopian strain that permeates it, we can call it a reshaping of reality. Conscientization demythologizes... Conscientization, then is the most critical approach con- ceivable to reality, stripping it down so as to get to know it and the myths that deceive and perpetuate the dominating structures (p. 6). Conscientization also involves an excruciating moment, a tremendously upsetting one, in anyone who begins to criti— cize himself, the moment when he starts to be reborn. Because conscientization demands an Easter. That is, it demands that we die to be born again...it is a denunciation 37 and an announcement with a historical commitment that adds up to heroism in love (p. 10)... For loving is not only a free act, it is an act for freedom. And love that cannot produce more freedom is not love (p. 10). Conscientization may be understood as an existential experien— tial encounter of an individual with reality so as to reshape it. In so doing, one recreates himself and rejuvenates his world. Conscientization is realized through an educational process called praxis. Praxis is achieved through the harmonious interaction of action and reflection. In education, the absence of action results in verbalism and the absence of reflection causes empty activism (Freire, 1970c, p. 75). Conscientization is defined in a note in Education for Liberation: Conscientisation is a process in which men, not as recipients but as knowing subjects, achieve a deepening awareness both of the sociocultural reality which shapes their lives and of their capacity to transform that reality. Conscientisation must be a critical attempt to reality, not just alienating small talk. It must, that is, be related to political involvement. There is no conscientisation if the result is not the conscious action of the oppressed as an exploited class struggling for liberation. What is more, no one conscientises any one else. The educator and the people together conscientise themselves, thanks to the dialectical movement which re- lates critical reflection on past action to the continuing struggle. Conscientisation is a social process taking place among men as they unite in common reflection and action upon their world. This occurs not through intellectual effort alone but through praxis, the unity of reflection and action. Conscientisation then does not stop at an awakening of per— ception but proceeds to action (Freire, 1975, p- 17)- The method of achieving conscientization is dialogical, involving action and reflection. This is referred to as praxis and is described with the following quotes: 38 Men are not built in silence, but in word, in work, in action — reflection (Freire, 19700, p. 76). It is an act of creation; it must not serve as a crafty instrument for the domination of one man by another. The domination implicit in dialogue is that of the world by the dialoguers; it is conquest of the world for the libera- tion of men (Freire, 1970c, p. 77). The requirements for praxis in dialogue are: first of all, love; second, humility; third, faith in man; and fourth, hope. This con- stitutes authentic education. Authentic education is not carried on by "A'' for "B," or by "A" about "B," but rather by "A" with ”B," mediated by the world —— a world which impresses and challenges both parties, giving rise to views or opinions about it (Freire, 1970C, p. 82). Figure 5 illustrates the relationship of conscientization to praxis. PRAXIS Dialogue J/ (:Ti’ Action :> Reflection < Conscientization Figure 5: Conscientization Through Praxis The methodology of Freire was initially used in teaching literacy to Latin American peasants (1970c). It is described as consisting of five phases (Freire, 1981, pp. 49—52). Phase One: Contextual Orientation. This is a study of the con- text of the lives of the people to determine the common vocabulary and the problem issues around which the process of reflection could develop. 39 The starting point for organizing the program content of education or political action must be the present, exis- tential, concrete situation, reflecting the aspirations of the people. Utilizing certain basic contraditions, we must pose this existential, concrete, present situation to the people as a problem which challenges them and requires a response - not just at the intellectual level, but at the level of action (Freire, 1970c, p. 85). There are three basic concerns for this area. 1. The project is proposed to the people for research with them. This is followed by observations of the culture totality to look at the codification of reality (Freire, 1970c, p. 102). The observations result in initial attempts to decodify reality. The product of decodi- fication is a list of fundamental contradictions: parents—children, man—woman, landlord—tenant. 2. Topical contradictions are presented to the participants who discuss them in small groups, which help them externalize their "generative themes" (Freire, 1970c, pp. 92, 104). These discussions are taped. 3. Tapes are reanalyzed for a new codification of generative themes which are presented back to the participants for discussion. Phase Two: Generative Words. It is with the apprehension of the complex of contradic- tions that the second stage of the investigation begins. Always acting as a team, the investigators will select some of these contradictions to develop the codifications to be used in the thematic investigation (Freire, 1970C, P- 100)- Words are selected from the vocabulary that have been discovered to be the most highly charged with existential meaning, most emotionally charged in content, and most typically are the eXpressions of the people. The criteria for word selection are: 40 l. The capacity of the words should include the basic sounds of the language. 2. The vocabulary should enable the learner to move from simple sounds to more complex. 3. Words should be chosen for their ability to confront social, cultural, and political reality. 4, These words should contain phonemic richness, phonetic diffi- culty and pragmatic tone (Freire, 1981, p. 51). In Spanish and Portuguese examples of such words are: slums, food, work, and rain. Phase Three: Creation of Codifications. Representation is made of typical existential situations of the group with which work is being done. These coded presentations are of problematic situations. Discussions of these move groups to critical consciousness. Phase Four: Elaboration of Agendas. Here agendas are developed as planning aids to educators. They are never rigid schedules. Phase Five: Preparation of Teaching Cards. As a result of input from an interdisciplinary team, teaching materials are developed of two types. 1. Cards or slides to break down words into parts for more care- ful analysis. 2. Sets of pictorial situations related to the words. These are designed to impress on the learner the image of the word and to stimu- late thinking about the situation. An example of a pictorial situation might be a picture of a factory sign announcing, ”No Work." The result of the above five phases is not only that of members 41 becoming literate, but also developing of critical judgment, becoming aware of oneself and the world, and being awakened to one's existential situation. The task of the group coordinator is to "represent" the thematic universe revealed by the investigation back to the people. He is to "represent that universe to the people from whom he first received I it -- and re-present' it not as a lecture, but as a problem" (Freire, 1970c, p. 101). The material prepared should stimulate a ' "perception of previous perception' and 'knowledge of previous knowledge'" (Freire, 1970c, p. 108) and prompt some sort of action. The Freire method ends with study materials being provided as resources for the continuing development of "cultural circles" (Freire, 19700. P- 113). The resources are in the form of a brief essay by the project coordinator and possibly essays by the team psychologist and sociologist, and includes bibliographic suggestions. These are used in conjunction with the slides, drawings, and filmstrips for study (or decoding) in the cultural circles. The ongoing study of the cultural circle is led by a coordinator who is a member of the group. Guidelines for coordinators include: Have faith in man...you need to love...the fundamental effort of education is the liberation of man...a cultural circle is a life and creative dialogue...be humble... ensure that the entire group participates...become a part of the group...respect the significance that the group attaches to materials...your task is not to analyze for the group, but to coordinate the discussion...seek to have a critical posture (Freire, 1971, p. 2). 42 Curriculum Intents and Adult Religious Education The preceding material about Freire contains references to moral and ethical issues (e.g., human dignity, liberation from oppression). This is because he has been identified by some as a religious educator (Fister, 1973; Elias, 1976; Goodwin, 1978). The roots of Freire's humanism are religious, or more speci— fically Christian and Catholic... Freire affirms transcen- dent being, God, and speaks of man's relationship to this being as central to his view of man and the world (Elias, 1976, p. 41). In writing about "The Educational Role of the Church in Latin America" (Freire, 1973b), Freire describes three kinds of churches. The traditionalist church, which is criticized because of its excessive emphasis on the world to come and its loyalty to the dominating social class. The modernizing church, which, although it is changing its practices and updating its positions, is criticized for still being loyal to the power elite. The prophetic church is committed to the liberation of the dominated classes and seeks to transform society H radically. This prophetic church cannot imagine itself being neutral, nor does it hide its preferences" (Freire, 1973b, p. 25). Freire says that "Christ was no conservative. Like Him, the prophetic Church must be a pilgrim, constantly on the move, dying always for a continuous rebirth” (Freire, 1973b, p. 27). In concluding his article on the Church and education, Freire states that North American churches do not have to go to Latin America to become prophetic. They have a role wherever slums and oppression exist. "Education will always be, for this prophetic line, a mode of action meant to change things, a political program for the permanent 43 liberation of man” (Freire, 1973b, p. 28). Groome (1980) develOps an approach to church education which relates to Freire and other areas of current psychological and socio— logical research. The topic addressed by Groome is Christian religious education, a shared praxis approach. It is intended for use in the catholic and protestant traditions. Groome describes the historical and biblical background of his approach. Then a method is given which in some ways is similar to that of Freire. Historically, ... theologians often favored an experiential/reflective way of knowing for their own enterprise, but when recommend— ing a process of Christian education, they assumed that they had already discovered what the people ought to know. As a result, they proposed a very didactic approach that would impart the message of Christianity without paying much attention to the lived experience of the learners (Groome, 1980, p. 159). Augustine is cited as an example of an early theologian/educator who believed in learning as a contemplative—active experience, yet in his work on catechizing, De Catechizandis Rudibus, he used a narrative approach. Other theologian/educators named are Aquinas and Luther. Biblically, knowing is described as a praxis process. Scripture references are also given which address the iSSues of oppression and justice. Eventually Christian educators came to assume that the process of knowing most appropriate to their endeavors began with statements of the "content" of the faith tradition (be that in biblical or Greek rationalist language) and conveyed that to people from outside of their lived experience with the intention that they apply it to their lives. Christian educators had departed as far from a biblical way of knowing as the philosophers had from a praxis one (Groome, 1980, p. 159). .42).??919- .-- 44 Knowing is discussed in its Hebrew context. The Hebrew verb for "know” is yada... For the Hebrews yada is more by the heart than by the mind, and the knowing arises not by standing back from in order to look at, but by active and intentional engagement in lived experience (Groome, 1980, p. 141). Groome's comments on knowing are similar to those of May: The etymology of the term demonstrates the prototypical fact that knowledge itself...arises out of the dynamic encounter between subject and object... The sexual metaphor indeed expresses the importance of encounter. In sexual intercourse the two persons encounter each other... It is a demonstration that the process of knowing is what is important (May, 1975, p. 86). Biblical passages which speak to church responsibility for the liberation of oppression and which relate to praxis are given by Groome. These include Isaiah 2:4, 25:6—8, 58:6—7; Psalms 98:1-2, 146:6-10; Matthew 11:3-5, 13:44-46; Mark 1:14-15; Luke 17:20—21; and James 2:14-18, 24. Having established a historical and Biblical basis for praxis in religious education, Groome describes the five steps of his shared praxis approach. 1. Present Action. The participants identify and name topics of present concern to them about their actions. 2. Critical Reflection. Probing is done on why actions are performed and what the intended consequences are. 3. Story and Vision. A presentation is made by the group leader about the topic being considered and the response it requires. 4. Dialectic between Stories and Stories. Participants are invited to discuss the relationship of the story given to their own life story. 45 5. Dialectic between Vision and Visions. Here there is oppor- tunity through dialectic to make and share a faith response (Groome, 1980, pp. 207-232). Groome has produced the most thorough contemporary work in which Freire is applied to religious education. Others have, however, also selectively drawn from the concepts of Freire and related them to church education. Wynn describes the relationship between liberation theology and education for liberation. Freire and Illich are identified as revolu— tionary theorists whose educational positions should be applied to Christian education (Wynn, 1977). O'Donnel points out that Freire, as well as Illich and Kozol, have a common characteristic which binds them and should be considered by religious educators. The characteristic is summarized as "educa- tion is a method of awakening, not a method of manipulation and indoctrination" (O'Donnel, 1981, p. 517). Wingeier reports on discovering and dealing with generative words in six cultures. The words were discovered by asking groups: ”(1) What three words best describe the realities of life in yOur country today, as you experience it? (2) What three words best describe your hope for the future of life in your country?” (Wingeier, 1980, p. 565). Schipani reinterprets Freire in the areas of epistemological and theological foundations in order to identify implications for Christian education theory. A resulting conclusion is drawn about the purpose of Christian education in general: 46 The purpose of Christian education is to enable people to appropriate the Gospel of the Kingdom of God by responding to the call to conversion and discipleship in the midst of the community of Jesus Christ, which is to promote social transformation for the increase of freedom, make accessible the knowledge and the love of God, and foster human whole— ness and personal development and fulfillment (Schipani, 1981, p. 212). Conclusion The above material from Groome and others shows the work of participative theorists (and Freire, in particular) to be a developing and significant foundational perspective for curriculum construction in religious education. Curriculum purposes are clearly an issue of importance to the participative approach of Freire and to religious education. He is seen to put more emphasis upon purpose (e.g. human liberation) than upon content. In fact, at one point the importance of specific subject matter in itself is played down. He states, "The specific subject matter of education is of little importance” (Freire, 1972, p. 28). Rather, emphasis is put in the areas of purpose and process, a concern which church educators also share. Education should enable indi- viduals to be united in a creative, active process which, through praxis, results in an awareness of and recreation of reality for libera— tion. For the dialogical, problem—posing teacher-student, the program content of education is neither a gift nor an imposition —- bits of information to be deposited in the students —- but rather the organized, systematized, and developed "re-presentation" to individuals of the things about which they want to know more (Freire, 1970, p. 82). This section has Surveyed the historical development of curriculum 47 purposes. It began with an emphasis on preservation of content and has progressed in the areas discussed to a participative, praxis process for human liberation. This dissertation reports an inquiry into participative approaches, such as the Freire method, and makes application to adult religiOus education programs. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY The research was participatory and descriptive in its methodology. It consisted of two participatory research groups. The data generated from these groups were analyzed in relation to the theories of selected participative educational writers (e.g., Dewey, Rogers, Illich, and Freire) with a view toward constructing a curriculum model. The resulting model provides a conceptual framework for the expression of hypotheses about the establishment of educational intentions in adult religious education. The research was exemplary of phenomenological studies (Ihde, 1977). It has also taken into account the orientations of symbolic interaction (Blumer, 1962), cultural value concepts and objectivity (Weber, 1949), participant observation (Becker, 1958; Cusick, 1973), case study (Gay, 1982), and sampling techniques (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) as a basis for observing, describing, analyzing, and explaining the experiences of the participatory re- search groups. The conducting of the groups was governed by the guidelines of participatory research (Hall, 1980). Glaser and Strauss (1967) and Beauchamp on ”A Curriculum Theory Model" (1961) provided a foundation for the stating of hypotheses through model construction. 48 49 This study was an attempt to answer the following research questions. 1. What happens when a group of individuals is given responsibility for the determination of their educational intentions? 2. How will educational intentions which are arrived at through participative procedures differ from those which have previously existed in a given church context? 3. What changes will occur in participants as they are in dialogue and discussion with each other? How will they be affected by a parti— cipative approach? 4. What changes will take place in the church and community as a result of the research groups? 5. What kind of a curriculum model will be hypothesized as a result of the participatory research experience? 6. How will the reSulting curriculum model differ from traditional conceptions of curriculum in the church? How will it differ from other participative approaches to curriculum construction? The above research questions were answered in the following manner. Two participatory research groups were engaged in similar churches. The groups utilized common starting points. They began with the prin- ciples and methods of participatory research. The same general topical area was announced to provide a thematic foundation. While in progress, data were gathered from the group meetings through phenomenological and ethnographic research methods. The findings were then described and explained, primarily through the social sciences approach for grounding theory. A detailed description of this process comprises the remainder of this chapter. 50 Rationale for Research Methodology The methodology used in research should be consistent with the assumptions of the phenomena being studied. Therefore, this section contains a brief description of the theoretic underpinnings for the research methodology. First, phenomenology is a philosophic perspective that provides a way for identifying, understanding, and explaining what is manifest. Ihde defines phenomenology as: an examination of experience that deals with and is limited by whatever falls within the correlation of experienced—experiencing. It proceeds in a prescribed order, starting from what appears as it appears, and questions retrogressively from the what of appearance to the how of experience and ultimately back to the who of ex- perience (1977, pp. 53, 54). The doing of research phenomenologically involves four rules: 1. Attend to phenomena. 2. Describe, but do not explain, the phenomena. 3. Horizontalize or equalize all phenomena initially. 4. Identify structural or invariant features (Ihde, 1979, pp. 38-39). The above features show a similarity between phenomenological thinking and that of the ethnographic nature of participant observa- tion. "In the social sciences, current ethnomethodology and the notion of 'participant observation' have links to the phenomenological tradi- tion'I (Ihde, 1979, p. 16). Second, symbolic interaction is a sociological construct through which humans are viewed as active and interactive in the creation and shaping of their social reality. Symbolic interaction, 51 according to Blumer, refers to "persons constructing individual and collective action through an interpretation of the situations which confront them" (1962, p. 92). He also describes the way in which human social behavior can best be studied: The position of symbolic interaction requires the students to catch the process of interpretation through which they construct their actions... To catch the process the stu— dent must take the role of the acting unit whose behavior he is studying... To try to catch the interpretive process by remaining aloof as a so-called 'objective' observer and refusing to take the role of the acting unit is to risk the worst kind of subjectivism——the objective observer is likely to fill in the process of interpretation with his own surmises in place of catching the process as it occurs in the experience of the acting unit which uses it (p. 188). The sociological perspective of social interaction speaks to the importance of the researcher being an acting participant and, in so doing, to catch the process which is being studied. Third, cultural concerns can only be correctly conceptualized when value concepts are recognized and respected. Methods in the social sciences that deal with cultural entities ought not to first of all measure an empirical reality, but rather describe the concepts of cultural reality according to Weber. The concept of culture is a value-concept. Empirical reality becomes 'culture' to us because and insofar as we relate it to value ideas. It includes those segments and only those segments of reality which have become signifi— cant to us because of this value-relevance... We cannot discover, however, what is meaningful to us by means of a preSuppositionless investigation of empirical data. Rather perception of its meaningfulness to us is the presupposition of its becoming an object of investi- gation (Weber, 1949, p. 76). L 52 The points made by Weber in the chapter on "Objectivity in Social Science" (1949) are that: 1. Objectivity of investigation ought to be treated differently in the cultural sciences than in the natural sciences; 2. "All knowledge of cultural reality, as may be seen, is always knowledge from particular points of view" (Weber, 1949, p. 81). The issue of point of view relates to the topic of objectivity. The concern for objectivity is not to be minimized in researching a cultural reality, such as in adult religious education classes. Objectivity Objectivity is dealt with by means of the researcher straight- forwardly identifying his own values, by doing investigation from a stance which openly and accurately attempts to delimit the research because of these values, by describing and explaining the way in which procedures and findingsxvere influenced by his values, and by seeking to be vulnerable to the values of the co-participants in the research groups. Because of the concern for objectivity, this researcher's educational values will be described in a later part of this chapter. All of this may seriously limit the scope of the generalizability of the research but, as LeCompte points out, "Although research results generated by ethnographers whose positions are limited in scope may be only narrowly applicable, they are none the less legitimate" (p. 37). The preceding conceptual areas describe the rationale for metho- dology. Another aspect, one which builds upon the conceptual, in— volves the application of methodology to research procedures. 53 Three procedural areas worth noting are participant observation, case study, and sampling. The approach of participant observation enables the researcher to be closest to the situation because he is a part of it. Cusick describes two levels of participant observer methodology. It ”1) de— scribes a social situation through the senses of the researcher and his subjects, and 2) explains the situation from the point of view of both the researcher and his subjects" (1973, p. 230). Five indices are given for this sort of research: time, place, social circum- stances, intimacy, and consensus (1973, p. 232). Model building is another characteristic which made participant observation desirable for this research. "In the post field work stage of analysis, the observer carries on the model building operation more systematically" (Becker, 1958, p. 659). The case study approach promotes in—depth investigation, descrip- tion, identification of relationships, explanation and the statement of hypotheses. The description of case study by Gay discusses characteristics which are appropriate to this project. A case study is the in—depth investigation of an individual, group, or institution. In education, case studies are typically conducted to determine the background, environ— ment, and characteristics of children with problems. The primary purpose of a case study is to determine the factors, and relationships among the factors, that have resulted in the current behavior or status of the subject of the study. In other words, the purpose of a case study is to determine why, not just what.... Case studies may, however, suggest hypotheses which can be tested using another method of research (Gay, 1982, p. 170). 54 Methods such as participant observation and case study, as well as the later—to-be—described approaches of participatory research, theory grounding, and model construction, always are affected by con- cerns for sampling. Sampling The research utilized theoretical sampling, rather than statistical random sampling. The theoretical sampling issue is described by Glaser and Strauss. Theoretical sampling is done in order to discover categories and their properties, and to suggest the interrelationship into theory. Statistical sampling is done to obtain accurate evidence on distributions of people among categories to be used in descriptions or verifications (1967, p. 62). Theoretical sampling is part of a social sciences perspective. It also relates to the way in which data are gathered and the kind of data collected. The position taken is that the issue of data collec— tion is governed by the social situation. What is collected is re- ferred to by Glaser and Strauss as "a slice of data:” In theoretical sampling, no one kind of data on a category nor technique for data collection is necessarily appropriate. Different kinds of data give the analyst different views or vantage points from which to understand a category and to develop its properties; these different views we have called slices of data (1967, p. 65). Among the many slices of data that may be collected, which one is the best to obtain? The answer is, of course, the collec- tion technique that best can obtain the information desired (1967, p. 66). Finally, regarding the sampling issue, the authors conclude that: ”The answer is technical, not doctrinaire" (1967, p. 66). 55 Generalizability While the generalizability of an approach that uses theoretic sampling is limited, the possibility of generalization is based upon the aSSumption that there are other churches with similar charac- teristics which will benefit from this research. Cusick points out that those who are involved in studies such as this "feel that men are more alike than they are different, and what is reasonable behavior for one human being in a given situation will, at least in some way be reasonable behavior for others given the same situation" (Cusick, 1973, p. 5). While it is true that this study is reflective of only two churches, it is likely that the reader can gain a better understanding of partici- patory and religious education in general. The rationale for methodology, in summary, is that of providing a phenomenological examination and explanation of a slice of social reality. It has described the educational experience of the re- searcher, who interactively created and caught the social process in a valuing cultural context. The methodology used helped to describe and explain what occurred in the participatory research groups. From that, a hypothesized model was constructed for a specified population. Rationale for Program Construction The participatory nature of this research led to program possi— bilities being anticipated but not manipulated. Therefore, the general characteristics of participatory research and of building a curriculum model are described here. 56 Participatory Research Rationale Participatory research is identified by Hall as a term that refers to the efforts "to develop research approaches which involve those persons who are the expected 'beneficiaries' of the research" (Hall, 1977, p. 10). It focuses on those who are traditionally 'researched' and involves them in the collection and interpretation of the data. Principles given for participatory research are the following: 1. A research process can be of immediate and direct benefit to a community (as opposed to serving merely as the basis for an academic paper or obscure policy analysis)... 2. A research process should involve the community or population in the entire research project from the formulation of the problem to the discussion of how to seek solutions and interpretation of the findings... 3. The research process should be seen as part of a total educational experience which serves to establish community needs, and increase awareness and commitment within the community... 4. The research process should be viewed as a dialectic process, a dialogue over time and not as a static pic- ture from one point in time... 5. The object of the research process, like the object of the educational process, should be the liberation of human creative potential and the mobilization of human resources for the solution of social problems... 6. A research process has ideological implications (Hall, 1977, pp. 10-13). The above principles identify the perspective of participatory research. In addition, Hall identifies it as a method particularly relevant to non—formal education. It, therefore, fits adult church education. He states, 57 In February, 1979, the Commonwealth Conference on Non- Formal Education held in New Delhi, recognized that the con- cept of participatory research should be the central mode of analysis for non—formal education (1980, p. 4). Hall also gives an example which illustrates the relationship between the phenomenological approach described under ”The Rationale for Research Methodology" and what can be learned through partici- patory research groups. Social science research often appears to produce a situa- tion in which a medical doctor tries to diagnose a patient's symptoms from around the corner and out of sight. The social scientist uses his 'instruments' to measure the response of the patient as though they were a kind of long stethoscope. The focus of the researcher has been on developing a better stethoscope for going around corners and into houses, when the real need is for the researcher to walk around the corner, go into the house and begin talking with the people who live there (Hall, 1975, p. 30). The intents of participatory research are stated in short and long terms. The immediate intent is to produce collective, locally—controlled knowledge which leads to action on problems directly and immediately affecting the participants in the research process (Hall, 1980, p. 6). The ultimate intent is that support be given to organization of people to transform society so as to eliminate dependency, exploitation, and oppression. A major issue of this kind of research is that of control; that is, Who is to provide the information? Who reaches the conclusions for the group? Who decides what actions are to be taken? In tradi— tional research these are the functions of the researcher. Ideally, participatory research puts them in the hands of the people and the researcher. 58 Research committees or teams are used in the process. Frequently, these are made up of members of the group and several outside resource persons. The committee or team is coordinated, but not dominated, by the participatory research specialist (Hall, 1980, p. 20). Teams and committees are among the methods used. Others include: study tours, seminars, camps, community assemblies, visual productions, cultural celebrations, theater, radio, surveys and discussions. The most common methods, however, involve small group dialogues and inter- views. The small group emphasis is valued because of the active, trans— forming nature of dialogue within these groups. Not only is it iden- tified with information gathering and problem resolution, but it has been effective in curriculum evaluation as well (Hall, 1980, p. 23). The consideration of method in participatory research precedes that of content. A methodology aimed at dialogue and problem solving involves the group in specifying content and stating the rationale. Hall points out that problems are identified collectively and involve a critical analysis of the social reality. That is, an understanding of the ypyg of a particular problem, or set of problems is as important to the problem-posing stage as is an understanding of the whats (1980, p. 18). The production of knowledge is to be a significant result of this research project, for the knowledge generated will be of immediate value to the group participants and will also be used by the researcher to build a curriculum model. Two kinds of knowledge are to be produced: 1. Collective knowl— edge is produced by the group members about themselves in their own 59 language and cultural forms; 2. Collective knowledge is produced by the group in cooperation with resource persons and a research specialist. The results are expressed through the language and technical terms of the dominant culture (Hall, 1980, p. 27). This project uses academic language and technical materials to compile and express its data for curriculum model building. Values of the Researcher The fact that participatory research was chosen is an expression of the values of this researcher and is based upon the position of precedent literature. The following values of the researcher describe his position in the areas of the purpose of research, coordinator/group relationship, group structure, methodology, and context. The purpose of the research project should be of direct benefit to those with whom, not upon whom, the research is conducted. The participants should see themselves and be seen by the project coordina- tor as the immediate benefactors of the research. The academic community is to learn, as well, from the production, translation and transmission of knowledge, but a primary consideration of research must be its impact upon the development of the group members both individually and collectively. Other concerns regarding research purposes are that of: 1. Participation, having learners establish their own purposes and procedures for development according to their perceived attitudes, interest, needs, and values. 2. Liberation, being anti-hegemonic, non—manipulative, and dis- indoctrinating. 60 3. Transformation, resulting in ideological and structural change in the group, community, and society in general. The coordinator is to have a high esteem for the other participants. Group members are to be viewed with a high positive regard. The rela— tionship of the coordinator to the group members should reflect genuineness, openness, and empathetic understanding. The relationship between the coordinator and the group is also to be characterized by considerate cooperation rather than directive domination. Research is to be with individuals, and not of or upon them. The participants, including the coordinator, have a commitment to each other for the duration of the learning experience. This commit— ment will have ethical and moral implications for their relationships, especially the relationship of the coordinator to the group. The group coordinator is responsible for the structuring of learning activities. This initially involves the establishment of the group climate. Here guidelines are given about expectations of parti— cipants and roles of responsibility. But, while structure is provided, individuals are not to be overtly or covertly controlled or manipulated. The coordinator seeks to make himself vulnerable to the interests and values of the group, receptive to their priorities. The structure of the group is to be convivial, that is, there should be creative and autonomous relationships among persons as they interact. Both individual freedom and group interdependence are highly valued assumptions. Methodology should be based upon approaches which are of exi— stential significance to the group. The learners are to be active I? 61 and interactive. The commitment to action makes it necessary to use methods involving discussion and dialogue. In terms of order, action should precede reflection with the result of individuals collectively bringing change to their reality. The context in which learning is to occur should focus upon problems which originate in the community or in the lives of the communal group. Research is to be centered in the specific existing, immediate, and concrete problems which are perceived as reality by a particular people. Theoretic Research Rationale The theoretical stance of this researcher has been reached by an examination of the positions in the literature. Macdonald identifies three groups of theorizers, which he groups according to the way in which they identify the purpose of curriculum theory. One group (by far the largest) sees theory as a guiding framework for applied curriculum development and research and as a tool for evaluation of curriculum development. Thus, theory becomes a springboard for prescribing and guiding practical activity in relation to curriculum (1975, pp. 5, 6). [The second group] is primarily conceptual in nature, and research would be utilized for empirical validation of Curriculum variables and relationships, rather than as a test of the efficiency and effectiveness of a curriculum prescription (1975, p. 6). The third group is referred to as the reconceptualist position. It sees theorizing as a creative intellectual task, not necessarily as a basis for prescription or empirical testing. Those in this position attempt 62 ... to develop and criticize conceptual schema in the hope that new ways of talking about curriculum, which may in the future be far more fruitful than present orientations, will be forthcoming (1975, p. 6). McNeil makes similar categorical distinctions, but he has two main categories. These are: soft curricularists and hard curricularists. Soft curriCularists model themselves after those in the humanities. Emphasis is upon the meaning of reality, the existential nature of the educational experience, and the need for an awareness of history. Hard curricularists are known for a strong concern about accurate descriptions, prediction and control of the education process, and systems to insure learning outcomes (1981, pp. 360-363). The approach taken to this project is of the reconceptualist and soft curricularist perspectives. However, as Macdonald points out, "Individuals who theorize may well operate in all three realms" (Macdonald, 1975, p. 6). The model to be developed here is for con- ceptual and functional reasons. It comes out of reflection about the actions of participatory research and seeks to provide a conceptual framework for the practice of church education. Building the Curriculum Model The approach taken to model building was according to the guide- lines of Glaser and Strauss for social research (1967). It was also structurally considerate of the work of Beauchamp (1961) on a curriculum theory model. Five stages were followed for the translation of research data into a theoretic framework for a curriculum model. These include: 1. Data Collection. The starting point is from previously 63 collected research data. This is referred to as ”collecting data from collected data" (Glaser and Strauss, 1967, p. 71). Using this approach, the terms "theoretical sampling" and ”data collection” are understood to occur simultaneously. The data are to be collected from the experience of the partici- patory research and selected writers. Notes will be taken from audio tapes of the participatory research meetings and from related litera- ture. 2. Coding. The second step involves the coding or categoriza- tion of the data. The purpose of this step is to organize conceptual areas accurately from the facts which have been gathered. It involves the analyst "coding each incident in his data into as many categories of analysis as possible” (Glaser and Strauss, 1967, p. 105). The coding process consists of noting categorical headings and topics alongside notes and material gathered in the data collection step. When coding an incident for a category, it is compared with other incidents in the same category. Examples of possible categorical headings include: liberation as an educational intent, co—intentional roles for coordinator and learners, praxis as a learning process, dialogue as a representative method. 3. Integrating Categories and Their Properties. As categorical incidents are compared with each other, properties emerge which, because of their specificity, begin to fit under emerging headings. Thus, there are two levels of theory which become known as categories and their properties. A category is a conceptual aspect or element of a theory. A property is a conceptual element or aspect of a category. 64 Examples of the distinctions between the two terms could be humanization as a property of the category of liberation and dialogue as a property of the category of praxis. 4. Delimiting the Theory. As theory solidifies, the need for major modifications decreases. Delimiting involves making changes ... on the order of clarifying the logic, taking out non— relevant properties, integrating elaborating details of properties into the major outline of interrelated categories and-~most important—-reduction (Glaser and Strauss, 1967, p. 110). There are two factors in delimiting: reduction and theoretical saturation. Through reduction, underlying uniformities in an original set of categories are synthesized into a smaller set of higher level concept. Parsimony of variables and scope of applicabilities are dimensions to reduction. Theoretical saturation occurs with the reappearance of coded incidents a number of times under the same category. Saturation adds bulk to coded data but nothing to theory. When a category becomes saturated, therefore, it is no longer necessary to record additional related incidents. 5. Writing Theory. This final step involves the writing of the coded, integrated, delimited data into the major themes of the theory. When the researcher is convinced that his analytic frame— work forms a systematic substantive theory, that it is a reasonably accurate statement of the matters studied, and that it is couched in a form that others going into the same field could use--then he can publish his results with confidence (Glaser and Strauss, 1967, p. 110). Data collection. In general, data collection was through the following activities: 65 l. Coordinating the weekly class meetings in the two churches. 2. Attendance of church activities. This included worship ser- vices, primarily at Fellowship because of membership there, and other meetings (i.e., Congregational meetings, participating in a youth activity, attending a parents' meeting, supporting a car wash, attending a teachers' business meeting, and other such functions). 3. Informal interviewing through telephone calls abOut class projects, in conversations at a supermarket where "everyone” shops, during coffee after church. In a sense the informal interviewing process was, and still is, a way of life, because it is constantly ongoing. 4. Formal in-depth interviews toward the end of the project with the pastors and education committee chairmen. 5. Use of records, such as the minutes of past educational committee meetings, yearbooks on church statistics, handbooks for church leadership. 6. Observation. The meetings were all taped, and these tapes were edited, with selected portions being typed. This yielded over one hundred pages of data. In addition, individuals were asked weekly to respond in writing on 3"x5" cards to the effect of the group on their thinking, feelings, and actions. There was also an evaluation meeting. Finally, field notes were written each Sunday afternoon which reflected upon the experiences of the two groups. These field notes provided more than another hundred pages of data. When these field notes and the class data were compiled, they formed more than 275 pages of descriptive data. These notes were then coded according 66 to the guidelines of Glaser and Strauss (1967). Criteria for Curriculum Model Building. FOur criteria were followed. These Were described by Glaser and Strauss as being con- cerned with how the theory would be applied in the field and were applied to curriculum construction. They were: 1. Fitness. ”That the theory must fit the substantive area to which it will be applied" (1967, p. 238). 2. Understanding. The theory must "be understandable to the people working in the Substantive area" (1967, p. 239). 3. Generality. The categories of the theory described by the analyst . should not be so abstract as to lose their sensitizing aspect, but yet must be abstract enough to make his theory a general guide to multi—conditional, ever-changing daily situations (1967, p. 242). 4. Control. The theory is to be expressed in a flexible enough manner so as to allow the user control in "revising his tactics of application and in revising the theory itself if necessary" (1967, p. 245). Model Building Defined. The approach to constructing a curriculum model for this research is consistent with the reconceptualist, participatory research, phenomenological, and social sciences approaches. Model building is defined in a number of diverse ways. The issue of diversity may be best described by Nuthall: The term model suffers from the ambiguity that comes from constant usage in a variety of contexts. In general, it can be said that a model may be used for imitation, description, explanation, prediction or persuasion (Nuthall, 1973, p. 47). 5"."J "In"; 'Jf'fj‘ "77 i; 3' ‘ ' I 67 Other representative definitions include the following. Houle uses the word synonymOusly with theoretic framework. He calls it "the fundamental theoretical construct used in a situation to plan or analyze an educational design" (1972, p. 231). Boring provides a definition which states: The model represents an habitual form of thinking, one of man's devices for bringing his enormously complex experience within the compass of his limited cognitive facilities...it works out a limited system of relationships and may skip over the problem of whether the system applies in a par- ticular case (1959, p. 385). Beauchamp says, "The model is not a mathematical system in any way. The only prediction is that it will work. It is logically derived and at least partially tested in operation" (1961, p. 97). Other works describe specific models. Theories of Instruction, edited by Macdonald and Leeper (1965), contributes to the beginning of model building theory about instruction. Models are given for Instruction Based on Information System Concepts and Problem Solving. The Second Handbook of Research on Teaching by Travers (ed.) (1973), gives examples of three major types of models. They are for: l. Behavior—control or behavior-modification; 2. Discovery learning; and 3. Rational learning (Nuthall, pp. 47—76). Adults Teaching Adults by Verduin (1974), provides a Perceptual Theory model. Some have related models to teaching styles saying, "in its simplest form, one model of teaching might be called 'the lecture' or 'the telling' model" (Ward and McKean, 1983, p. 14). From the above examples, it should be obvious that the term ”model" can be understood in a variety of ways and that the procedure 68 chosen for model building must fit the nature and style of the re— search. The choice of model building procedures could be complex because of the variety of definitions and because a large part of this re— search relates to Freire who writes within the context of critical theory. Goldman cautions against any attempts to systematize and con- struct a closed theory when dealing with data from Freire (Goldman, 1978). This kind of systematic thinking is often characteristic of model construction. He defines critical theory and summarizes its critical elements. Its genesis can be best understood as a continuing dialogue with closed systems ... critical of these closed systems (p. 32). The crucial elements of the critical theory paradigm are as follows: The dialectical relationship between subjects and objects; the crucial relevance of theory which has implications for action and vice versa; the importance of the dialectic mode of thinking, which in turn implies the capacity to think negatively--to negate what is before one because 'the whole is true and the whole is false;' the importance of wholes over parts which implies that nothing exists in isolation from anything else, thus the need to be able to see the particular in the universal, the process of history in the present, and the fact that multi—determined, complexly mediated explanations of social reality are the only ones which can come close to the truth; the need to bring philosophy and history to bear on social analysis in order to be able to speak about what is not immediately before ones eyes; the self—conscious commitment to be critical of what exists, which means an ever growing commitment to the position that liberation is what must be striven for in every field of intellectual endeavor; the belief that man is potentially a self-defining being, capable of being a maker of culture as opposed to an object of history——that this characteristic sets him apart from other creatures in a fundamental way, and that he remains dehumanized until these potentialities are being fulfilled (Goldman, 1978, pp. 44, 45). 69 As a result of understanding Freire in the light of critical theory, the formulation of a model was viewed as a dialectic and developmental process, not as a closed system. The general guidelines of Glaser and Strauss, and Beauchamp were followed. These were, however, used flexibly, as organizational aids and not as manipulative devices. They helped to initiate and guide the process. The intention of model building was to represent a theoretic frame of thought without rigid systematization or manipulation. The concept of theory is important, but the representation of theory ought not to be manipulative. Freire speaks to the value of theory in saying, ”without revolutionary theory, there is no revolu- tionary movement" (1970, p. 102). Goldman's interpretation of Freire in the light of critical theory gives guidance into the kind of model which should be con- structed. He cautions against models such as the "Alschuler-Smith Coding System" because ”the understanding which the coding system and other similar systems in the empiricist tradition provide, is inadequate and sterile” (1978, p. 91). Consequently, while Beauchamp (1961) provided a frame of reference because of his application of theory to curriculum model building, his procedure was not determinative of the approach taken in this research. Rather, models of participative theorists were consulted as representa- tive structures. Examples of these are: Banking vs. Problem—posing Education of Freire (1970, pp. 57-74) and the Traditional vs. the Person- Centered School (Rogers, 1977, pp. 69-74). CHAPTER IV SITUATIONS The situations of the participatory research groups are described in this chapter. These are first described in the context of their settings within the community, denomination, and local congregations. Next, data are provided to illustrate the development of the groups over time. The findings of this chapter become the basis for the next chapter where observations are made to explain the findings of the participatory research group experience. Setting The Maranatha and Fellowship Village churches are located in the Jenison/Georgetown community. Jenison was one of the early Grand River settlements in western Michigan. Historical Context The community was first settled in 1835 for its timber and agri- cultural resources. It remained a rural area with two grocery stores, a flour mill, and a gas station in a village setting of about 20 homes until the Second World War. The trading area was limited by a small city two miles to the east and the Grand Rapids metropolitan area some 10 miles away. The little community had two churches: a Congregational church 70 71 which merged with a church in a neighboring city in the 1930's, and a Christian Reformed Church which began in 1875. Shortly after the Second World War, the public school district discontinued two of the three elementary schools and bused the children to the Grandville school district. The parents of the Christian Reformed Church, however, continued to‘maintain an expanding private school. The school's 50th anniversary was celebrated in 1980. During the 1950's, expansion was gradual. A few farms were plotted for residential development to make room for homes for re— turning servicemen; but most of the people living in Jenison were na- tive to Jenison and, therefore, the character of the community did not really change. Two additional Christian Reformed churches were started in the community to relieve a severe space problem in the First Christian Reformed Church. In the 1960's, the 1-196 highway project was extended to Jenison. This linked the community with Grand Rapids in a matter of minutes and contributed heavily to the rapid population growth during that decade. The community grew at a phenomenal rate of 121 percent between 1960 and 1970 as nearly 8,000 new residents were added (MacTavish, 1979, p. 6). Three additional Christian Reformed churches were started to take care of the large influx of people, along with a Reformed church and a Baptist church. The predominant church membership was Calvinistic. A feature writer, Mary Kramer, for the Grand Rapids Press commenting at that time said: Not long ago, if you lived in Jenison and professed to be a regular churchgoer, the odds were heavy it was a Calvinist portal you passed through each Sunday (Kramer, 1978, p. 1). .flehiu -;-—. *2 '~-.'-'. 31'»! miniflfi‘ .--'.:.. .1 ‘ l. - .: '- .. ..II. - .- ... HI]: 72 In 1965, Rev. Peter Larsen, pastor of Holy Cross Lutheran Church, can— vassed the entire area which covered 2,300 homes. He reported that 80 percent of homes at that time were either Christian Reformed or Reformed. That has, however, changed. As Jenison and the surrounding area grew, it attracted hundreds of new homeowners each year. The diversity of the people can be seen in the new churches that came into being during the 1970's. Both the United Methodist Church and the Holy Redeemer Catholic Church began in 1976. Within two years the United Methodist Church grew from 70 to 140 families and the Catholic church grew from a parish of 300 families to 475. During the same decade, the Lutheran Church planted a church which has also grown at a rapid rate. In spite of this, the Calvinistic, Reformed lifestyle remains dominant in the community, as the ratio is still 2 to 1 in favor of Calvinists for those who claim to be members of a church. This is seen in small things like families bowing in prayer on a regular basis before eating at local restaurants. It is also seen in the makeup of the Township Board which governs the Jenison area, with every member of the Board belonging either to the Christian Reformed denomination or to the Reformed Church of America. It is also reflected in the local Christian schools which form one of the largest schools affiliated with Christian Schools International. One may also find the impact of the Calvinistic churches reflected in Sunday observance. Churches are usually filled to overflowing, with most congregations holding a morning and evening worship service. Although two large chain stores are open on Sunday, along with two convenience stores, Sunday is primarily a day of rest and worship and quiet family activities, with most business and many 73 recreational activities being restricted. A study of the population of Georgetown Township (the government unit for Jenison) done by the Kent—Ottawa Planning Commission (MacTavish, 1978, p. 3) shows the projected growth for the area: 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 9,600 17,615 23,000 28,000 33,000 (approx.) Figure 6: Georgetown Projected Population In 1982 the population was 26,750. These figures show the continuation of the extremely rapid rate of growth experienced between 1960 and 1970. The maximum projected growth for the area is 40,000, according to Gerald De Windt, the chief executive officer of the township. He does caution that several factors could change this. First, the area no longer enjoys a significant difference in the cost of housing. At one time, the same home could be purchased in the Jenison/Georgetown area for $4,000.00 to $6,000.00 less than any other area in the Grand Rapids metropolitan area. This was due in large part to land costs and to non—union labor as most homes were built and sold by individual craftsmen. Today, lots for individual homes are in the $15,000.00 range. Secondly, some of the land which was projected for normal size lots has been changed to 3 to 5 acre homesites. Thirdly, the high cost of homes in Jenison, compared with older areas of Grand Rapids, will force many young families to purchase their first home in another area. A possible c0unter to these negative factors is the planning of a large condominium complex on an existing golf course with good access to the Interstate highway. At the present time, there are no large apartment 11 film 1mm ...: «9:13 I.“ ' a-e-irr'» -. = . ... m" :Jm ..I '.f-_ 74 complexes to provide housing for the newly married or the single person. The area continues to be a young and developing community. In 1970 the median age was 19.9. This was increased to 23.1 according to the 1976 special census. This is the lowest median age for any community in the greater Grand Rapids metropolitan area. Nearly 70 percent of the residents Were under the age of thirty—five in 1979. One of the reasons for the increase in median age is the develop- ment of three condominium units for retirees. These units usually have a waiting list and construction of more units continues. People from the Grand Rapids and surrounding areas are among those who buy into the complexes, along with Jenison natives who are trading their homes for the condominiums. An interesting pattern in education exists in the area. It has already been noted that in the 1950's two of the three public schools serving the area were closed and the few students were transported to a neighboring school district. That has changed. Today the Jenison public school system includes six elementary schools, a junior high and one of the most modern and well-equipped senior high schools for its size in the area. Parents still have the option of educating their children through the Christian school system, which includes learning facilities for grades K through 12. Grand Valley State College campus is located ten miles from the community. Grand Rapids offers a junior college, Calvin College, Aquinas College, a business college, and several Bible colleges. Along with these institutions of higher learning, the larger state universities offer off-campus courses leading to graduate degrees at a Grand Rapids location. 75 The 1980 CenSus gives a glimpse at the ethnic makeup of the Jenison area. American Total White Black Indian, Eskimo Asian Other 26,104 25,846 70 49 77 62 Figure 7: Ethnic Makeup of Jenison Area Another description is seen in the homes of a given community. In a recent report by a department of Grand Valley State Colleges, the following quotation is found: An afternoon drive through the township reveals the variety and the well—distributed availability of single family houses. The average price of a new single family house, purchased in the first three months of 1979, was approxi- mately $56,000.00; the average of all sales in Georgetown during the same period, including older houses and condo- miniums, was approximately $51,000.00. (Georgetown Township Assessor, April 1979) ... there is considerable diversity among the people purchasing houses. People from low, middle and upper income levels, and between the ages of 22 and 70 are evenly distributed among this group (MacTavish, 1979, p. 6). Homes are usually well—cared for, and the community has an attrac- tive appearance. All of this reflects the apparent stability of the home and family life in Jenison. The population under investigation comprises those adults who volunteer to attend church education classes in churches of a Reformed and Presbyterian heritage. Adult education classes are most fre— quently offered on Sunday before or after the morning worship service and Wednesday evening. The Sunday morning time has been chosen for this study because it is the more standard and commonly accepted time for adult classes. The sample was constructed of volunteers from two churches who 76 responded to announcements in the church bulletins and newsletters or to a presentation made to an existing class. The participants in the study were members of the Maranatha Christian Reformed Church and the Fellowship Village Christian Reformed Church. The Fellowship group met for thirteen weeks from September 19 through December 12 at 9:00-9:50 a.m. each Sunday morning. It continues to meet weekly and be coordinated by this researcher. The Maranatha group met for eleven weeks from September 26 through December 5 at 11:30 a.m. to 12:20 p.m. each Sunday morning. Its par- ticipants wish to continue. However, the existence of the class is dependent on approval from the Adult Church Education Committee and the church board. While not a problem for class members, there have been timing and procedural questions raised by the chairman of the Adult Church Education Committee and the pastor. Denominational Context These two churches are in the same denomination, the Christian Reformed Church. The denomination has its roots in the reformational thinking of John Calvin. Various names are used to describe churches of this heritage, including: Reformed, Presbyterian, and Calvinistic. Ethnically, the denomination traces its roots to the Netherlands. The majority of the members in the denomination, and especially in the sample churches, are of this heritage. Theologically, the church adheres to confessional statements which were developed by Dutch reformers. These include the Heidelberg Catechism, the Belgic Confession, and the Canons of Dort. 77 Numerically, in 1980, the Christian Reformed denomination con— sisted of approximately 815 congregations, which were made up of around 67,700 families in the United States and Canada. The denomination has only recently begun to emphasize adult educa— tion. A 1974 denominational report implied that many adult learners are: ... people who, while they are up-to-date and knowledgeable in nearly everything else--are coasting through life as 'ordinary Christians' with a theological understanding of a twelve year old" (Board of Publications, p. 41). By 1978 a proposal was approved for the development of adult curriculum materials. The recommendations for adult education curri- culum development were as follows: We recommend concentrated attention on our general Reformed and specifically Christian Reformed heritage, distinguishing between this heritage and cultural tradition, in order to foster growing understanding of, appreciation for, and participation in, the work of this part of Christ's church... We recommend that our adult education program be developed with a core curriculum which provides systematic and con- tinuing instruction in a variety of subjects, and which is designed to equip the saints for ministry... We recommend that we develop a curricular plan which incor— porates the 'perceived needs' of the churches into a compre- hensive and well—balanced program for adult education. This does not imply a 'once for all' static curriculum, but does cite the need to produce a curriculum rather than publishing occasional and unrelated materials... We recommend primary stress on foundational courses, so that specific issues may be identified and dealt with in the larger context of Christian doctrine and ethics. Re— sources for further study should be recommended where possible... We recommend that throughout this curriculum a continuing stress be placed on the implications and outcome of know- ledge in the life of the students, recognizing the need for new skills as well as new information... 'H'IE'I - l1..- ' ".'_ I ‘I'I-u- :6 78 We recommend that our curriculum help persons to distinguish the various winds of doctrine swirling through the church world... We recommend that the adult education program incorporate as much flexibility as possible to facilitate use by a variety of groups meeting on different schedules and for different purposes. But we recommend further that specific suggestions be developed explaining to the churches how they can best organize groups to utilize the adult education curriculum... We recommend that extensive leader aids be produced with the adult education curriculum (leader instructions, manuals, guides, etc.), and that additional leadership training be provided as early as possible. We recommend continued primary reliance on printed materials in adult education with secondary reliance on other audio- visual materials... We recommend that the adult education curriculum be divided into relatively short units of study and produced in a simple format without extensive mandatory reading. We further recommend, however, that churches be challenged to set higher expectations for adult education and to encourage all members to make tangible commitments to such education... We recommend that the Education Department staff continue to be alert to such developments, and be willing to learn from the experience of others. We further recommend that our adult education curriculum be promoted for use in circles beyond the denominational boundaries of the CRC... We recommend that, in the development of all curriculum materials, particular sensitivity be shown to questions facing the church especially in our age, for example: 'What is the Bible and how is it to be understood7', 'What are appropriate roles of women in church and society?', 'How should Christians respond to economic disparity between nations and races?‘ (Board of Publications, 1978, pp. 244- 246). The following curriculum plan chart identifies the con- tent areas for study. Most of these are currently available. 79 .AHmN .a .wsma .mcouumuaapaa mo atmomv uumno swam Esasuwuuao COHumusvm uH3w< "w wuswwm E35: 39:! 9522.0 2:. .m $.32 3:2... £226 2? d EEEE 3.2.9.5 abuts—.0 2F .0 .CEES— to. :23}:ch 35:20 2:. .m EEEE 93.50 3 .CEEE ”huts—.0 BC. .< 9.532: 3..on ugséco < >~:.w.z=>~ Zn HES—=0 .mO >QOm MI... ”> ZO.m_>_Q .538 s ”as: d :53qu sane—C. 9:31— .0 «Eamiocfiw a 3 meta.— .m .80 seem 95: .< m:_._o>0u 3.58 33.30 < Q00 LO MUZMmm—mm MI... Z— 02:54 0>. ZO_w.>.Q Ago—25.9%.. 5th .31. 2: .o 2:580 ...— A§o_o_mu_uum. sous—.0 2.. .o 2::qu .m Ago—0:809 cotmiaw .o 05:89 .0 Ago—03.50. EEO .0 05.2900 .0 A>m0_onot;.:<. an: .o 05:80 .m Que—02.... «50 .o 2::qu .< :3: :0 $382.23. “Satori .vcfiw o. cum—m <= 25> vacuum @3528. E 20555 tom— .0 3250 .Q 3.25. 5?... .0 ..513.50 .0 >o>u=w EwEquU mean—out... .n 6090 12:256.."— uzh .< ...—8.30.50 «Ea 6920 6.86 2 32m <: "can; 3:... mm: 10..— IFDMP J: ZOE—>2. E82: £8.20 con—3.3. 523.50'358 0:22.: a .< Coin 55:0 c3125... €82 E 9:25.233. .o 2:83”. .Q boar: 5.550 5362 new cots—E23. .0 >55: guts—.0 1:6:qu was 30.25. .m 62.8.. 1335 .< 9.133 858 Sofa—8 < 0:952. Z. «203 waO “: 20.2.50 ...—con 935 .o $596.5 uommfi of .o 5?;— uauséco < Stow .Ctzw .m .302. 035 1333?... .0 8:5: .0 note. mEoméo :< 8.5m :o_.3o>om .< mdDFm—xUW Qmm0 afinm usoaawm 86 General Description of Program Beginnings A brief written description was discussed with representatives of both of the churches in order to receive permission to lead the groups. At Fellowship, the Chairman of the Education Committee was approached to ask about starting a new group. The proposed group would have been in addition to the existing Adult Church School Class. As a member of Fellowship church, this researcher had somewhat fre- quently attended the class, but had been relatively uninvolved in church activities other than worship because of teaching and study obligations. The chairman, Harry, suggested that the topic and approach being proposed would be of interest to the present class, that they might welcome the leadership and change, and that the person leading the group would not mind. In fact, Harry did not want a new group being established. Course Description. This researcher then individually described the proposed group to the class leader, Herm, and the pastor. Next, a presentation was made to the class. The course topic and description which follows were distributed and discussed. It was also mentioned that this was a part of dissertation research. The class of around twenty regulars voted for the course and this researcher became their ”teacher" for the 1982—1983 church school year. TOPIC: What are the Social Issues Which Should Concern Christians? (an approach to adult church education through participatory learning experiences) 87 DESCRIPTION: This course deals with social problems of importance to adults in the church. The problems studied will be those identified and chosen by the participants. The learning methods to be used are designed to encourage contri- butions by all group members. The group will be involved in a process of problem identification and evaluation. It is assumed that individuals will take responsibility for the development of their own learning and the development of the group as a whole. (c.f. Appendix A) The second church, Maranatha, was chosen for several reasons. Having two groups would add to the generalizability of the research. A second church group could serve as a security factor should problems arise in the first church or should unexpected group process diffi- culties occur. In addition, more data about determining educational purposes would be generated by Working with two groups almost simul- taneously. Maranatha Church is only two blocks from this researcher's house. In addition, because it is in the same denomination, same community, and founded for the same reason (eliminating overcrowdedness in other churches), it was a logical choice. Since there were no adult church school classes on Sunday at Maranatha, but there had been occasional pastor's classes in the morning after the worship service, it was possible to propose a class at that time. The arrangement would make it possible to meet with the group from Maranatha and Fellowship each Sunday morning within an hour and a half of each other. ;!i 88 Access was gained to Maranatha church by proposing the group to the senior pastor, Dr. Thomas Trienstra. Permission was perhaps aided by the fact that he is a guest instructor, conducting one course, at the school where the researcher teaches. The pastor got approval for the group from the Adult Education Committee and church board. He also helped promote the activity through bulletin, newsletter, and pulpit announcements, as well as by attending several of the meetings himself. The two groups began and ended in similar ways. The same guide- lines were used in planning learning activities. Almost identical procedures were used to identify the present, existential situation with the participants (Freire, 1970, p. 85). First Meeting. The first meeting was for the purpose of introducing the course, defining the term ”Social Issue," and getting acquainted. An orientation to participatory research and the values of the researcher were also provided at that first meeting. These were summarized, explained, and discussed under the following headings: Learning is for Development Groups should be Creative, Supportive, and Liberating Relationships are to be Positive, Cooperative, and Considerate Participation is to be in Problem Identification, Planning, Implementing Procedures, and Evaluation (Brigham, 1981). A handout was also distributed on ”Learning Through Participation" (Appendix B). A social issue was defined as "a condition growing out of human interaction that is considered undesirable by a significant number of 89 people who believe it can and must be resolved through preventive or remedial action" (Dressler, 1969, p. 465). After defining "social issue," the groups were asked to name examples of what they thought might be social issues or problems of concern to Christians. Fellowship people suggested abortion, unemploy— ment, and teacher strikes. Maranatha participants gave nuclear issues (war and energy), racial prejudice, abortion, unemployment, drinking, and drugs. These initial lists were put on poster board. They were the beginning of cummulative lists of social issues which were constructed by the groups and from which they decided on the topics of study. Of course, the lists and groups were consciously kept apart. Each group was a social entity unto itself with no knowledge of what the other was doing. Beginning with the first meeting, poster board was used with marking pens to visualize main points or write down class input. Neither room had a permanent chalkboard. Because of the researcher's access to unlimited amounts of poster board, and the fact that poster board seemed to be a less school-like medium, it was used throughout the meetings. H Any use of the word medium" brings up the issue of methodology. The variety of methods used had common characteristics and, in most cases, were similar for both groups. The criteria used for selecting methods sought to establish consistency between the methods. a par— ticipatory research approach, the procedures of participative theorists, and the writer's educational values. Methods to be used 90 had to receive an affirmative answer to the following questions. 1. Is it the kind of method that other participatory researchers might use (i.e., Brigham, 1981)? 2. Does it have the potential to lead the learners into an exis— tentially significant experience? 3. Will it encourage participants to be active and interactive? 4. Will it cause learners to think problematically and make value decisions? 5. Will it promote discussions and dialogue? 6. Will it encourage collective decision making? A separate bibliography of books containing participative methods is given in Appendix C. Appendixes D through R describe methods which are representative of those used. Name tags (tents of 4"x6" cards) were used to establish identity. There was time for each person to say something about himself, but the planned "Biographical Guessing Game" (Appendix K) was postponed until the following week for both groups. The meetings closed with individuals being asked to bring in newspaper and magazine clippings about social problems. Those present were also asked to complete what they could of the "Social Situation Survey Sheet" (Appendix S) and bring it to the next meeting for discussion. These were beginning attempts to identify generative words and themes. Another procedure attempted in both groups was for the purpose of receiving feedback from the participants about the way in which they were feeling about and being affected by the meetings. This was first 91 done through a handout sheet which was distributed at the beginning of the meetings, called an "Interaction Bulletin" (Appendix T). It contained spaces to summarize: 1. Reactions to the previous meeting; 2. Activities for this meeting; and 3. Actions and reactions result— ing from the meeting. By the fourth meeting this approach had lost its limited effectiveness and another way was attempted. The second procedure for soliciting feedback involved the use of 3"x5" cards. They were distributed at the beginning of each meeting. Participants were asked to put down their name and then any reaction to the following statement: If you have done anything differently or thOught about anything differently or participated in anything more or have been more conscious of anything because of what we have been talking about, particularly last week ... jot down what it was. This method helped provide a record of attendance and provided some useful data. By the time the groups were ready for their evaluation meetings on December 5, 1982 (Maranatha), and December 12, 1982 (Fellowship), these too had lost most of their value. The procedure used for evaluation was one more example of a similarity in group work. The evaluation approach was a generalized adaptation of the model described by Stake (1972). His concern was for the relationship between what is intended and what occurred. The evaluation questions which were asked were based upon the orientation guidelines given at the first meeting. An "answer—free" format was used in question formation (Payne, 1951, p. 32). The evaluations are summarized at the end of the next section, where the development of each of the groups is described separately. 92 Specific Description of Program Over Time The general description of characteristics and qualities common to both groups provides an introduction to the beginning group processes. Each group will now be described separately, as a unique social entity. The Fellowship Village Group. The first group to be described is the Fellowship Village Christian Reformed Church Group. The context, atmosphere, and characteristics of the group prior to the participatory research will be identified, followed by a de— scription of the composition of the group and the group meetings. THE GROUP IN THE PAST Last year at group meetings the atmosphere was similar to that of other adult church education groups which this researcher had attended. Its past characteristics are based upon the observations from somewhat regular attendance at classes over the past two years. The group began at 9:00 a.m. each Sunday morning. Just prior to that time, the 15 to 20 members arrived and seated themselves in the chairs which were spread in a large circle. They arrived in silence. Greetings may have been in the form of a pleasant smile, but little or nothing was said. Even though most had attended the group for more than three years, there was no natural interpersonal communication, no small talk——just silence until the meeting began. When the meeting was to start, the group leader, Herm, began with an opening prayer. Herm was a lay person from within the church. He was someone acceptable to the group, recommended by the Education Committee, and approved by the Consistory. 93 After beginning with prayer, Herm opened the study manual and read the first question. He usually commented on the answer himself and then waited for others to respond. The comments or answers by the group members were stated in terms of their opinions. Persons gave their views and then the leader went on to the next question. There was little cooperative interaction, no consensus, persons made their own points without listening very well to others or their positions. The leader read each question individually, offering comments and receiving them until the group was out of time or out of questions. At 9:50 a.m. everyone would leave, as quietly as they came, but now more hurriedly because they had to find their children and a seat in the auditorium before the worship service began at 10:00 a.m. The space where the group met was called the Fireside room. It was of ample size, 20' x 20', and warmly decorated. There were green carpet and drapes, panelled walls, plenty of light from large windows, a red brick fireplace, grandfather clock, piano, as well as a kitchen- ette area containing an electric range, refrigerator, sink, and counter space. The chairs were cushioned and they were upholstered to match the carpeting. The class size seemed to have accomodated itself to the room. Any time there were nearly thirty present it felt con— gested. The room lent itself to educational activities which emphasize social interaction. One limitation was that there were no desk tops or tables upon which to write. 94 THE NEW PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH GROUP A typical meeting of the participatory research group had twenty- five persons present, with two or three more men than women. About two— thirds were together as married couples, one-third married persons whose spouses were teaching children's church school classes or were at home. Ten were in the age group of 26-35 years, eleven in the 36—45 range, with two being 46-55, and two being 55—65. All were married with children. No single, widowed, divorced, or separated persons were present. They averaged three children per family. One mother brought her baby to class. The men were all employed full time, while the women were all house~ wives. One-third of the women held part—time jobs. Representative occupations of the men were builder, electrician, maintenance, executive, truck driver, delivery and warehouse worker, produce clerk, engineer, sales representative, teacher, respiration therapist, marketing and management person, and financial supervisor. The women who work had the positions of receptionist, secretary, medical assistant, salesperson, waitress, and cook. All members were high school graduates, five had some college, four were college graduates, three had done graduate work. The socio—economic makeup of the group was generally representative of the congregation as a whole. The group met thirteen times from September 19 to December 12. The meetings are summarized here and examples of the discussion dynamics are given as well. The material is presented in the sequence in which it occurred to satisfy a research concern raised by Becker: 95 Readers of qualitative research reports commonly and justifiably complain that they are told little or nothing about the evidence for conclusions or the operations by which the evidence has been assessed ... But qualitative data and analytic procedures, in contrast to quantitative ones are difficult to present adequately (1958, p. 659). The solution suggested by Becker is also followed. He refers to it as the presentation of a "natural history" of the evidence: ... presenting the evidence as it came to the attention of the observer during the successive stages of his conceptuali- zation of the problem. The term 'natural history' implies not the presentation of every datum but only the charac- teristic forms data took at each stage of research (1958, p. 660). The First Meeting: Beginning Apprehension The first meeting has already been summarized in terms of the input which this researcher gave as group coordinator. At that meet— ing, however, there were questions by participants about class proce— dures. Ken, an engineer in his early 50's, was concerned with the motives for using and achieving participation. Ken: This is really an attempt to draw us out, isn't it? Burt: Yes. A part of my role has to be to encourage every— body to participate. I'm doing a lot of talking now, and that's necessary because this is the introductory part of our meetings. Ken: I say this is a sneaky way of doing it, really. We can sit here and talk, but now you're going to get us to write it out too——one way or another. Let's put our cards down on the table. Burt: Well, okay, I want to tell you about putting cards down on the table. That's a good point. Because there is nothing underhanded or sneaky about this ... The premise of the kind of research that is being done here is called 'participatory research' and it is described on this sheet of paper (Appendix B). If you'd like a copy to read about it in more detail, you're welcome to. And it has an approach to it which I think a Christian as an educator has to have, and that is that people, regular peeple, have to be involved in the creation and understanding of their own knowledge. 96 The following comments and dialogue were observed in response to the first meeting by its participants. Two individuals were discussing the class in the hallway. The first said, "I wonder where he's going to take us." The second responded, "You mean, you wonder where we are going to take ourselves." Other individuals reflected similar responses. Another person, Carla, wrote a note which said, "I am not sure what to think. The premise is new and I'll have to see where we are in three or four weeks. I'm excited about it and hope it will lead to some meaningful discussions and decisions." Reflecting upon the group, one person wrote, "I feel uncomfortable not knowing what we are going to do each week." This was because the initial meetings were process—centered. They had sought to identify the context or contextual orientation of the participants and to determine generative words and themes. Because of the topical uncertainty which was expressed, an agenda was distributed for each meeting on the "Interaction Bulletin" (Appendix T), and activities were discussed for future weeks. An opportunity was provided for further identification of social issues through completion of the "Social Situation Survey Sheet" (Appendix S) and the request to bring in magazine and newspaper clippings abOut social issues. The Second Meeting: Problem—Posing Dialogue The second meeting was for further identification of social issues. Group members passed around new5paper and magazine clippings and dis- Cussed them, shared responses on the Social Situation Survey Sheets, and 97 played the "Biographical Guessing Game” (Appendix K). From those activities, social issues were given for posting. By the end of the second meeting, the following list of social issues had already been generated: abortion, censorship of television and books, creation vs. evolution in public schools, sexually—oriented advertising, shared time between public schools and private schools, soft—porn cable television, third world issues regarding hunger and refugees, teacher strikes, and unemployment. Books were made available on a variety of social issues at the end of this second meeting. They were intentionally broad from a religious and non—religious perspective and were borrowed from local libraries. Five books were checked out. The Third Meeting: Reflection The third meeting was also used for contextual orientation. The "Realities of Life" card game was used for contextual orientation (Wingeier, 1980). Each member was given three white cards and three yellow cards. On the white cards each person was asked to write: "What three words best describe the realities of life in your community?" On the yellow cards, the question was: "What three words best describe your hope for the future life in your community?” Responses to the discussion after completing these cards were first through the use of general terms, like "busy" and 'peaceful," but later expressed more existentially relevant concepts like, "unemploy— ment" and 'parental authority." A portion of the class discussion illustrates emerging data. 98 Carla: I put down too busy. Not only thinking of church but also working in this community. Rob: I had that too. Herm: Busy. Life's a hassle around here. Martin: Congestion, that relates the same, doesn't it? Yes, congestion. Marilyn: I put peaceful. Burt: Yes. Isn't it interesting that you can have the same concepts together? Peaceful, as well as busy, both going on. It's interesting to hear some of those come out. Others? Sherry: I used the word traditional. Burt: Traditions. Yes. Anyone else? Do you want to talk about whether those things are desirable or undesirable? Is the community the way it should be? Do we like a busy and affluent community with traditional values? It does have a sense of peacefulness about it that has you getting away from some of the busyness too. Sherry: I used my word traditional in both a positive and negative way. Positive aspect of traditional would be those traditions that could help us as people. But also there are traditions in the community that hinder us from further growth. Burt: Yes. Whenever you get tradition you hinder growth, right? Because you say it has to stay one way ... What about your yellow cards? What kind of words did you have down on yellow cards that you're willing to share? The question was, what words describe your hopes for the future of the community. Marilyn: I put employment. A lot of people are unemployed. Burt: Okay. Did anyone else do that? Joyce: 1 had jobs fp£_pp£_children. Tim: I put down parental authority. We are in such a rushed community. I find myself doing that, then I'm not avail— able to administer that authority. Burt: Any other key words down for the hope of the future community? Boris: I put down lack gf_fellowship. Burt: What do you mean by that? Boris: We might be called a Christian community, but as Christians we can fellowship closer together, see each other's concerns. The discussion was concluded with a summary that identified themes related to the words about which group members expressed the most intense feelings. The themes were employment, family iSSues, and fellowship among members of the church community. The cards were 99 collected for future analysis by an advisory committee made up of volunteers from the class. The list that follows was constructed from the Realities of Life card game, issues identified at the previous two meetings, and addi— tional clippings and suggestions submitted by members. General Issues abortion/right to life censorship: t.v., books creation vs. evolution in public schools sexually orientated advertising soft-porn. cable t.v. quality of life in Jenison shared time between public and private education teacher strikes third world obligations: refugees unemployment/jobs/strikes voluntary prayer in public schools other third world issues: tech— nology (use and abuse) corporate crime responsibility for the aging drinking drugs smoking war — Middle East oppression in El Salvador family problems racial prejudice welfare social status exploiting underprivileged uncontrolled growth in Jenison hunger, Figure 9: Realities of Life: Words with Social Problem Implications Present Reality poor parks busy school problems traditional intersection/ M21 and Main police protection no exercise facilities jobs for our children poor tax base high standard of living getting crowded street construction unpaid bills congestion Future Reality peer pressure - kids and adults more family oriented radical fellowship employment stores closed on Sunday reasonable growth Issues Generated by the Adult Class An advisory committee was formed as a way to have members from the group participate in a preliminary synthesis of the subject matter. It was suggested that a group of four or five could meet to review the topics generated this far and organize them according to topical 100 themes. The suggestion was also made for beginning the meetings with coffee for those interested. Volunteers were readily available after the meeting. Five offered to be on the committee, one to get coffee. The committee met once and constructed the following list of topics and sub—topics from the previously compiled list. Human Life Minority Groups abortion and divorce racial prejudice responsibility for aged welfare Family Local Community unemployment quality of life in Jenison drinking, drugs, smoking school problems social status employment unpaid bills Sunday store openings family problems uncontrolled growth in Jenison peer pressure police protection high standards of living street construction busy lifestyle poor tax base International Media third world obligations: censorship: books, t.v. hunger, refugees, technology sexually orientated advertising war: Middle East soft-porn. cable t.v. oppression in El Salvador exploitation of underprivileged Other Issues corporate crime radical fellowship public schools: teacher strikes, prayer, shared time, evolution vs. creation Figure 10: Topics and Sub-topics The Fourth Meeting: Reflection and Action The fourth week was for reaching consensus about the topics and sub—topics for future study. The procedure used was to have small groups reach consenSus, have one representative from each small 101 group meet with the other representative for mediation and compromise, and have the small group discuss the recommendations of their repre— sentatives. Then in large group discussion-style the group reached consensus. During the small group meetings, it became obvious that partici- pants were ready to start studying specific social issues. When asked if they needed more time, one person answered, and the remainder shared the same feeling, "No. Let's get a topic(s) and start on the material." Signals were coming from participants that they did not want to spend more time on topic selection and purpose identification. Rather, a kind of topical saturation had occured: there was a restlessness to move on. Further purpose identification (e.g., structure, time per topic, etc.) activities would have to be incorporated into further meetings as subjects were being discussed. The discussion which follows was by the representatives of three small groups. It illustrates the topical interests of the groups and, therefore, the concessions and interaction that had to occur to reach consensus. The representatives were Boris, a lawn care products sales- man, in his early thirties; Mack, a marketing and management executive in laser technology, in his late thirties; and Ron, a truck driver, in his late thirties. Boris: We, in summarizing, said that our topic would be the family and our sub-topic would be a high standard of living. We felt that all the other sub—topics would be covered underneath that topic. Mack: Our group had quite a few different ideas. We did come to a consensus and it was that We did not want to spend time with the family. We figured that we spend a |-.' '33- ... ,. ... ..i': A. '- 102 lot of time with the family dealing with groups that we meet with from day to day. It was a consensus of our group to turn outward from what we are doing and look further than our own family groups. We zeroed it down to local community, and under local community we added a few categories that are not listed presently. One was that we would like to see an abortion group together under local community. As the first subheading, "How do we deal with divorce and abortion in our community?" Ron: My group basically had a consensus that we would like to study the family. That was their number one priority. We didn't go into the sub-topics. We just went down the list as far as priorities go. Number one was the family. The three group leaders went back to their small groups to mediate the needs of the other groups. Then a large group discussion was coordinated during which consensus was reached about the topics to be studied. The topic decided upon became Family Issues, with sub—topics being: abortion, divorce, drinking, drugs, and a high standard of living, including social status. After class, a conversation with Ron asking his thoughts on the topics decided upon illustrated something of the value of interdepen— dence in reaching consensus. He said, "I would not have chosen those topics, but because we decided as a group, we should do them." He was willing to cooperate because he was a part of the process of decision making. The Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Meetings: Unity through Acceptance The following three weeks were spent identifying changes in family living and in discussing abortion. By this time a book had been selected, one with readings on topics the group had chosen. Pamphlets and journal articles were also photocopied; for example, 103 materials were obtained from Planned Parenthood and Right to Life to provide readings on contrasting views on abortion (Appendixes U and V). Abortion was an emotionally charged issue for the persons in this group. It was difficult to coordinate these discussions because feelings were so intense. At the first meeting on abortion, the discus- sion began so rapidly that it was necessary to say, ”We haven't even started this discussion, and we're getting it from all sides." Then later, as dialogue got more involved and complex, this coordinator remarked: Okay. Now, friends, before this gets to run wild on us, let's take a few minutes and get some issues identified which cause us to believe that perhaps this isn't one of those things that you can just snap your fingers and get an instant answer. It may be that you haven't looked into the abortion issue enough at this time and all your infor- mation is from Christians who say it is wrong and that's been it. Now there are some deeper things starting to come out. Willingness to describe personal experiences and attitudes indi- cated a high degree of participation. The contributions seemed to enhance the awareness that individuals had of each other and of the complexity of the issues. Examples of this kind of communication are: Harry: I'm just sitting here listening and I think I get the impression that everybody here thinks abortion is murder. Now that's true. If I were an observer who didn't know this group sitting here, then I could reach that conclusion too. And another impression that I get is that everybody here says, 'I'm not going to do it.’ I can tell you from experience that as far as murder is concerned, there isn't a person sitting here in this room under proper circumstances who would not kill. Ella, who is in her forties and became pregnant in her late thirties: 104 Just like with our son, Bill, when I first was pregnant. I have to admit that the thought of an abortion came to my mind, but my doctor said, 'Why don't yOu let God take care of it.' Ron: This abortion thing is also a symptom of something that's even prior to it, and that is sexually doing your own thing, whatever feels good, do it. We're stepping back one more. We've already allowed ourselves our fun time, and now we don't want to take any of the conse— quences. Boris: I have a problem with whose life should be spared if either the mother or child must die at delivery. If it's a known fact that the mother is going to die or there's a very good possibility of her dying from it, I think I would abort. Mainly, because I put it in my relationship with Shirley. If I knew that she was going to die when having this baby, that would be a very diffi- cult decision, but I think I'd rather keep my wife. Although I know that if we say, 'Where's your faith in God?’ I would think that God gave us a mind to use and, hopefully, Him and I can work that out. But it's a tough situation all around. The women present were at one point asked to discuss the issue among themselves, while the men kept silent and listened. Their comments illustrated something about the role of the church and about the necessity of an acceptant attitude. The first thing would be not to let the church know we had one ... I think that the abortions being done before any- body knows she is pregnant, many of us wouldn't know about it. So I think that if there was someone I knew who had one, that person needs a lot of love and understanding and support. The discussion on abortion seemed to operate on several levels. Three levels which stood out were the emotional level, the moral level, and the political level. Emotionally the women, in particular, expressed the need for showing Support and understanding for those dealing with abortion and the having of an abortion. On the moral level, individuals stressed the belief that an abortion is the taking of a life; and that under any circumstances if life is being taken, it 105 is to be equated with murder and is, therefore, morally wrong. On the political level, emphasis was put upon the importance of voting for candidates who hold a right—to-life position. The initiative and analysis for these conclusions came from within the group, and was summarized by the group coordinator. The Eighth Meeting: Problem—Posing Dialogue and Church Authority The eighth week began the discussions on the topic of divorce. The Problem Analysis Method was used (Appendix N). The method asks the questions: What is the problem? What needs must be met to solve it? Which of these needs are most important? What would people have to do if they were serious about meeting the most important needs? What will you do to meet one or more of these needs? The discussion began by asking, "What is the problem?" The approach to defining the problem involved asking: "What are examples of the problem and its causes?" and "How are people affected by the problem in our family, community and church?" The discussion proceeded with individuals first telling why they thought divorces occurred and then by giving examples from personal experience. Reasons given for divorce included: Terry: I think that people have the wrong expectations. They don't understand what marriage is. Ken: I think there's another problem. Women and men are now becoming equal, really. They both have rights to themselves. Each person stands on his own. In the Christian Reformed Church particularly women have been homemakers, they sat at home, and they've suffered a lot of things at the hand of man, and they've been silent partners. I agree with that trend. Women should have rights like men. They should exist as free—standing 106 individuals. How do you enter into a healthy marriage in the Christian Reformed Church? That's a very diffi- cult issue. After reasons for divorce were given, personal examples were pro- vided which illustrated the reality of divorce in the lives of the par- ticipants. The reasons given included wrong expectations and changes in roles. The personal examples which follow relate to changes in atti- tudes toward the permanency of marriage, being shunned, and the lack of forgiveness by church members. Ed: I've got two brothers who are divorced. I really don't know how to handle it ... Both of them decided they didn't want to be married anymore. They married young. Jay: The problem with a relative of mine that got divorced was when he remarried. They shunned him. Invitations to his remarriage created a bigger stir than the divorce. We didn't go to it. The family, uncles, aunts, cousins, did not go. They felt that going to the remarriage would be an indication of their saying it was okay to divorce and it's okay to get remarried. Terry: This question always comes up, 'Where is our for- giving spirit in a situation like that?’ And I have a sister who married a divorced person. And where's the forgiving spirit? What makes the sin of divorce greater than the sin of stealing or the sin of lying? It seems like the issues we've been talking about the last couple of weeks, abortion, killing, we can capi- talize on that. We know we're not going to do that. We can capitalize on divorce, but we know we probably won't do that, if it's that sinful. But, we go to work on Monday and we lie, that's easy. Or any other of the 10 commandments. We don't love our neighbor as we shOuld. That's easy to do. Burt: What I'm trying to do now is get a statement of the problem. I'm wondering what we want to say the problem is as we approached the topic of divorce. Is it some— thing to the effect of, 'What are some ways in which we can apply biblical principles, such as life—long commit— ment of individuals to each other, to the reality of marriage relationships today?' Is that the kind of thing we want to say? Ken: You said a real mouthful there. Burt: You all said that is the situation, though, right? In other words, we could discuss this problem without having had this previous discussion and we could say, 'Well, what does the Bible say about divorce?’ Or we could Spend all the time looking at those proof texts, 107 but I'm not sure that's what we want to do in terms of what we've just been discussing. What does it mean in applying these concepts to life? Suddenly the realization came that the group was not yet ready to state or agree upon the problem. An issue that began to emerge during the abortion discussion was about to be expressed more strongly, the church. There were a complexity of concerns coming out, seemingly all at the same time. At one point it was said that acceptance is needed, at another the church must preach more against divorce. ... we need to know where the church stands on this issue.‘ As these things were being said, individuals were reflecting from their own experiences. The discussion continued as it related to the church and divorce. Carla: The church has to make it tolerable for people that find no way out but a divorce, really, because now-a-days they're ostracized or shunned. The whole framework has to be right. Joyce: Isn't there a church in the Grand Rapids area where a lot of divorced people seem to congregate? I don't know if they're driven to that, or if they come there to be accepted, or what. Burt: Your point is? Joyce: I'm not saying, hey, go there. Burt: No. Your point is that something is causing people to go to that church. Joyce: Acceptance. Sherry: I think we run into a lot of problems with divorce, and there are a lot of problems whether to be divorced, or have an abortion that we don't hear enough about them. We do hear certain things about divorce, but we don't hear, 'Here's where we stand.' Other individuals affirmed the need for a more authoritative role to be taken by the church with the following statements: Ken: I'd say it's a problem of the people, a problem of the preacher, a problem of the consistory. There's something to it. They're all involved in this situation. Either singly, or one—to—one, or as a group, how are we going to handle it? The minister has to preach God's 108 Word. Go about preaching on an issue, like on abortion, that's not what he's called to do. He's to preach God's Word. And these things do apply to us. I mean, I would look at it from the point of view as far as preaching goes, that he would mention about divorce. Burt: How can we handle divorce? What would it mean to you to work with a person who's divorced? How would you handle it? The point about the church and its pastor taking a clear stand on the issue of divorce was one about which several group members showed strong emotional feelings. Finally, group members had expressed themselves enough to be ready to take a position on the problem. "Is the problem: 'We do not know what the Bible teaches and our church believes about divorce,’ or is it: 'How can we apply our biblical principles to the realities of our marriage relationships as they relate to divorce?'" Consensus was reached about the latter as the problem for discussion at the next meeting. As a researcher, it was realized that the identification of edu- cational purposes relates not only to the initial establishment of the course of study, its rationale and subject content, but, as each meeting takes place, the purpose for that meeting must be established in terms of its relevancy and existential significance to the parti— cipants. Such was the case with divorce. It was important for the group to discuss and decide that they did not need to hear more of the theology of the issue, but rather had to discover how to cope with the relational aspects of the problem in terms of their biblical values. When group members are asked, "What do you think is the problem?" "What are your attitudes toward this issue?" they respond. And when they respond in a self—revelatory way, it will, in many cases, surprise 109 the coordinator. Acceptance and trust in the group were revealed when a person told about something personal like not knowing how to relate to his brothers who are divorced. Or when someone else talked about problems in the family because going to the wedding of a relative who was being married for the second time seemed to condone the past divorce and present remarriage. Examples at this level of trust and personal involvement required fresh approaches to the establishment of educational intentions. The Ninth Meeting: Reflection and Acceptance By the time of the next meeting, the coordinator felt a new awareness and understanding of divorce and began the meeting by sharing the following thoughts. When you had a stable community, you knew what the expec- tations were, and the family had no reason to be pulled apart. Now it's pulled in all different directions. The impact on personal relationships and the impact of changes in social structures may lead us to believe that the cause of divorce is not first of all spiritual, but social. So I said to myself, maybe I ought to give more thought to the fact that problems that people are having should be dealt with on a level of the church in helping them to communicate better and give more things like trust in each other. We should build more things like commitment, without making strong judgmental acts, 'Here's what's wrong and why.’ And that's what the meeting did to me. So I wondered, did anything happen to you that you want to talk about a minute before we get going? Did your thinking shift at all or has it changed through your reading, thinking, and conver- sation relating to divorce? This introduction led to more openness of thinking about the issue and resulted in additional suggestions being given for resolving the problem. The intention of the meeting was to develop relational guidelines for coping with divorce. The discussion questions were: What are some 110 of the most important ways of preventing divorce? And, What are some of the most important ways of helping those who are going through a divorce or are divorced? The answers to these questions were reflected upon from the readings and personal experiences. The entire group discussed them together. The answers which were contributed by members were summed up at the end of the meeting by the group coordinator. So let me summarize what we've said and then we'll be finished. Some of the things we talked about in terms of ways of preventing divorce had been: (1) to emphasize activities that help husbands and wives get closer together, like Marriage Encounter; (2) to have clear role definitions that couples establish together as to who does which things and why; (3) to not have rapid, impulsive marriages, but encourage people to take time to sort themselves and their values through; (4) to have churches which emphasize pre- marital counseling and training; and (5) the last thing I heard was to try and have marriages themselves which are model marriages and establish patterns for children. In terms of working with the divorced, the things that we heard, by way of giving encouragement, were: (1) to try and avoid taking sides because there are always two sides and you're not always sure which is which; (2) to encourage activities by church people which express understanding, respect, and concern for people who are experiencing divorce; (3) to remember that divorce never just affects two people, it always affects the extended family and there is also a need to express encouragement to those children and others who are related; (4) to let people know what your position is, but at the same time you're saying, 'Here's what I feel about it, and I still care about you, and I want to have the relationship with you in spite of the fact that you are doing something of which I don't approve;' and (5) the last thing I heard was that, although not in these exact words, you have to live with the consequences of your own behavior and if there is a problem that comes up regarding Christian lifestyle and living, you can't afford to ignore that. You've got to say, 'Well, here are the consequences. There has to be restitution and there has to be a proper relationship between behaviors and principles of Christian living.' ‘L 111 The Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Meetings: Problem—Posing Iialogue The last topic for discussion was drug abuse. The agreed upon area of discussion was regarding substances other than alcoholic beverages. By this time, many participative methods had been used, each seeming to be getting closer to a desired dialogical process. There seemed to be an increased growth on the part of the group's ability to discuss and the ability to facilitate. The group process directed the thoughts of the coordinator to Freire (1970c). In re- reading him about the problem-posing method, the following discussion questions were constructed: 1. What is a general definition of the problem? 2. Where, in what situations, does this problem most frequently occur? 3. What are examples of this problem in the world of our experiences, that is, in our present, perceived reality? 4. Why has this become a problem in the experiences and situa— tions which are real to us? 5. Now, what is a specific definition of the problem as it relates to the reality of our experiences? 6. What can be done to change our society so that we can be free from the problem? (What can be done to transform our world so as to create a new reality and liberate us from this problem? How can we do it?) This was the first of three meetings on the topic of drug abuse. The activity of this meeting was to identify situations and experiences regarding drugs which were real to the participants. Again, there was 112 a high level of experiential sharing. Examples of the situations and experiences described include: Ed: Persons I work with smoke marijuana, not at work though because we work with heavy equipment. Harry: A sister of mine became addicted to a prescription medication and had to be hospitalized for five weeks to withdraw. Jane: My sister and brother-in—law experimented with marijuana. But that's all it was, experimentation. Isn't that sort of thing normal for yOung people? Marilyn: My neighbor's child plays at a friend's house where the parents smoke pot. She asked me if she should let her son play there. They're nice people. I didn't know what to say. At the end, the issues were summarized. It seemed most important to me that the level of sharing or unveiling of situations was close to the personal reality of the participants. The second week on the topic of drugs (week eleven) was a continua- tion of the first. More information was accumulated about experiences of group members with drugs and reasons why there is a drug abuse problem. Additional examples were: Harry: My brother is very actively involved in what they call Teen Challenge. It's something for fighting the drug problems among young people. My wife also has some good friends that belong to Alcoholics Anonymous, and the thing that really strikes me is that they have taken what we have had all the time and that's the Heidelberg Catechism and that's the only thing that works. You first gotta realize that you, the alcoholic, can't handle it (alcohol) yourself, that it's a sin .. When asked about the 12 guidelines of Alcoholics Anonymous and if anyone could bring them, Vi, Harry's wife volunteered to get a copy of them and bring them to class. Joyce: Our kids get a lot of temptation to get into drugs. The best thing that we can do is give them correct information about it. To point out to them what it does to your body and mind and what the biblical prin— ciples are about it. m 113 The purpose of this meeting was to reach conclusions about the prevention of drug abuse that were reflective of the experiential reality of the members. Individuals were asked to come up with specific examples of pro- cedures for solving the problems of drug abuse. This was done in small groups. The recommendations of the small groups were written on poster board which was cut in the shape of capsules. These were en- titled, ”Capsules to Counteract Drug Abuse." The small groups came up with recommendations for the large group. The recommendations given by grOup members were as follows: 1. Have meetings designed for parents on Christian parenting, to bring more information on this subject to parents. Parents and children could be combined together to talk about drugs, to hear each other's views. The church paper can tell what happened at the meeting. 3. I think we kinda got down to the basics. We had God's Word from the pulpit, that the minister bring out what God's Word has to say about things like that (drugs). 4. Ways of treating each other. Acceptance. Where people are. We may not like their behavior, but they're still people. Sometimes we shun people because they're not like what we expected of them. We put the heading Social Gospel, meaning much like from the pulpit type. I think what parents have diffi- culty with is that you preach a gospel of what the Bible says, but we don't interpret how it applies to each of us. We each go home and each try to struggle with, well this is what I expect, and this is what another family expects. We don't know where we're going. I think we need some leadership in that area. What I think one of the things we need much more of is a social gospel, a combination of what we have traditionally preached from the pulpit, but I don't think that is good enough. It has left us go on Our own. But also not the other side with a social gospel which has forgotten what the Bible says. N a We need more of a meshing so that we have better guide- lines under which to operate. 5. A thing that was brought up: We should have a list of people within our church. If other people in our church 114 have a question about drugs or something like that, one of these social problems, who could we turn to? In our church we have these people, we have police peOple, we have social workers, attorneys, and so forth, people within our own church family, people that we and our kids know. Burt: Yes, let's make up a resource booklet, 'Whom to See if You Have a Question!‘ That could be a project for the future. In summary, there was consensus that personal values had to be lived more and discussed more in the home. Also, it was said that the church must speak more clearly and explicitly to the issue. One interesting comment was about the social gospel. It was out of character to the traditional stance of the church. Also valuable as an action response to the meeting was the idea of constructing a resource book of helping persons. At the end of the meeting there was a note from Ken which said, "Small groups are a most effective way of promoting free and open discussion. It works!" The Thirteenth Meeting: Evaluation The thirteenth and final meeting before the Christmas break was for evaluation. Following is a summary of the responses to the evalua- tion form (Appendix W) questions: 1. When thinking about our group, what examples or thoughts do you have about how you, others, or the group as a whole have developed since we began? 2. How would you, in your own words, describe our group struc- ture? Have you seen creativity, supportiveness, interdependence, liberating attitudes, community spirit, or what? 3. What comes to your mind regarding our relationships? Do you feel that persons have had a high regard for each other? Was there a 115 cooperative and considerate spirit? 4. How do you now feel about adult education through participa- tion in such areas as problem identification, planning, learning pro— cedures, and evaluation? 5. When the group resumes (or if it were to be repeated), how could it be improved? What are some things of which you would like to see more or less? 1. This first question asked about how the individual or the group as a whole had developed since it began meeting. There were twenty responses to this item. Over half used words that express an appreciation for development in openness. These are representative expressions: "There has been a more open feeling among the group. Most ' "Developing more openness and members are free to express their opinion;' discussion." The development of awareness and trust was also reflected by statements like: "I think we have learned to first listen and then to form our opinions. To first keep an open mind." "I did not think a group such as this existed at FElIOWShiP) with such open, honest attempts to discuss problems;” "We can share more personal experiences;” ”The group seems to have grown more in concern for others. There seems to be an awareness of some of our needs which normally in a group one V would not discuss;' ”We as a class developed concerns for others. Showed interest in others and their problems.” Three individuals expressed reservations about development. One person, after saying that there is now a more open feeling where people are free to express their opinions, commented: "I felt, however, that 116 the ideas that were presented tended to be what was expected of conser— vative Christians, rather than representing a broad spectrum." Another said that people are more open, "Like coming out of a shell, but still more should talk." The third individual concluded, "Essentially we discussed many interesting things, but never came to concrete resolu- tions. Therefore, I don't feel I have changed in any significant area." 2. Eighteen responded to the second question which asked for a description of the group structure in such areas as creativity, suppor- tiveness, interdependence, and community spirit. Almost everyone who responded indicated an awareness of supportive- ness and acceptance. One member felt there was a "lack of creativity, ' A few saw the beginning interdependence, and liberating attitudes.’ of liberation. One person liked the management approach to problem solving. Representative quotes are: "I liked the group since it started. I believe the structure is conducive to liberating attitudes;" "I think we have all tried to work together and respect each other's opinion. I feel if one of us comes with a particular problem, we would be able to get help and ideas without criticism or being shunned;” ”I think we have all changed some of our ideas about abortion and mari— juana. A broader thinking of the problems that create these situations;" ”Have seen a growing desire to disregard ethnocentric approaches, and to start thinking; ”Started the class with reservations. Found the " "All the above (creativity, supportiveness, class very supportive; interdependence, liberating attitudes, community spirit), plus some good original thinking. People not afraid to express their opinions;" and, ”Supportive spirit—-good, creativity on part of members--poor, 117 leader-—super." 3. There were also eighteen responders to the question about relationships which reflect high regard, a cooperative and a considerate spirit. There was consenSus that group members demonstrated a coopera— tive and considerate spirit. However, most made no comment about a high regard. Three were not sure about high regard. Representative quotes, including the three on high regard are: ”All these are growing. The leader reminded me of my bad tendency to get too acerbic, argumen- tative, and controversial on more than one occasion. This was splendid. I think within their own worlds of concerns this group does exhibit the Spirit of Christ;" "I have good feelings about the group. I think that everyone in the group has a genuine respect for each other and cooperation has been good;" "My eyes have been opened to some people as to increasing my regard for some others. Some people that I never thought much about really came across, and I think people were coopera- tive and considerate. At times maybe a bit rigid in their views, but generally open;" ”We are careful not to hurt others, offend others." Those speaking to the issue of high regard wrote: "People show respect for each other, not necessarily high regard for each other;” "Coopera- tive and considerate spirit, yes. Not too sure of 'high regard' in some discussions;” ”A high regard for persons has to be a long and hard process. I do not think it is brought about in a few meetings." 4. The question regarding feelings about education through parti- cipation in problem identification, planning, learning procedures, and evaluation had twenty responses. Nineteen of the twenty expressed approval, some enthusiasm. Speaking negatively, one person wrote: 118 "Workable procedure, but I really don't feel I've learned anything to make me grow as a person or as a Christian." Several referred to it as a stimulator of their thinking. They made these comments: "I feel it's been good because it causes you to really stop and think;" "I enjoyed the learning techniques you used. Giving concrete examples of what we would like to see for the future of Jenison, etc., helped me to think clearly;" "It forces us to think seriously and come to our ' A few seemed to see participatory learning as owu conclusions.’ uniquely significant. The following are representative quotes: ”I like it. But it is so different from the 'come to class, sit down and listen.’ I find it is taking me time to adjust and learn to use the class to its fullest. Being out of school for so long, I find it hard to sit down and articulate an idea and come to a decision;" "Excellent way since this causes most of the group to regard the topics as more relevant to their own needs. Also, something that amazed me is the depth of topics, and the number of them that can be found this way. I have never seen a group that has caused me to think about them as a group, rather than individuals. This has been a new experience;" ”It is easier to tackle a problem in a group because of more input. Any job is made easier when everyone carries their share;" and finally, "It's good to hear problems identified. You become more sensitive to your fellow Christians. I become more aware of problems (I personally feel very sheltered in this community)." 5. The last question asked how things could be improved for the future, or What would the participants like to see more and less? There were fifteen responses to this item. Over half expressed approval 119 of the class as presently constructed, using such terms as "very happy," ' Four individuals wanted "good group," and "like the way it is goingN to see more "Biblical study, maybe but not sure?" "examples from Scripture," "quote Scripture." One person wished for "more creativity in sources for answers. Introduce members to authors of both controversial and non—controversial material." Another suggested, "I would like to see more closure at the end." Several individuals responded by strongly affirming the value of the group, and even wanting to see the process applied to other groups. In their own words, "I think the leader has 'pulling' comments out of people, getting people done a super job of to decide things without their knowledge sometimes. Thank you;" "We should attempt to get more people involved in these kinds of groups—— another class on Sunday morning;' and "Please let's use these ideas in church groups other than this group." The evaluation forms summarize the way in which participants related in writing to the participatory learning process. An additional observation was made of the way in which group members orally responded to the forms. When filling them out, comments could be heard for the first time that directly associated learning with schooling. Some of these were: "Do you mark off for spelling;" "I feel like I'm taking a test;" and "Is it cheating to look at someone else's paper?" "I remember one teacher who would mark an essay question as wrong if he couldn't read the first paragraph." These comments are a reminder of the fact that adult education may experience difficulties, not because of what it is, but simply 119 of the class as presently constructed, using Such terms as "very happy,” "good group," and "like the way it is going." Four individuals wanted to see more "Biblical study, maybe but not sure?" "examples from Scripture," "quote Scripture." One person wished for "more creativity in sources for answers. Introduce members to authors of both controversial and non—controversial material." Another suggested, "I would like to see more closure at the end." Several individuals responded by strongly affirming the value of the group, and even wanting to see the process applied to other groups. In their own words, "I think the leader has 'pulling' comments out of people, getting people done a super job of to decide things without their knowledge sometimes. Thank you;" "We should attempt to get more people involved in these kinds of groups-- ' and ”Please let's use these ideas another class on Sunday morning;' in church groups other than this group." The evaluation forms summarize the way in which participants related in writing to the participatory learning process. An additional observation was made of the way in which group members orally responded to the forms. When filling them out, comments could be heard for the first time that directly associated learning with schooling. Some of these were: "Do you mark off for spelling; ”I feel like I'm taking a test;" and "Is it cheating to look at someone else's paper?" "I remember one teacher who would mark an essay question as wrong if he c0uldn't read the first paragraph." These comments are a reminder of the fact that adult education may experience difficulties, not because of what it is, but simply 120 because of the past experiences which individuals have had in elementary or secondary schooling. Nelson points this association out. "The average adult is a battle—scarred veteran in classroom instruction, so he is wary of additional group study" (Nelson, 1971, p. 194). The Maranatha GrOup. The second group was at Maranatha Christian Reformed Church. It met for eleven weeks, September 26 through December 5, 11:30 a.m. to 12:20 p.m. on Sunday mornings. The idea of a Sunday adult education class after the morning service was new to Maranatha Church. While there had been occasional pastor's classes for new members, a regularly scheduled, continuing adult learning group had not been attempted. The implementation of a first-time class meant the establishment of new patterns for those who were interested in participating. It involved more promotional work than was anticipated, and was, therefore, in some ways more time—consuming than Fellowship. However, it also became a more refreshing experience, because it was new to the church. The designated room was the Consistory (or board) Room. The room is 15' x 20' and is dominated by a huge conference table. The table virtually fills the room. Around the table are cushioned, armed chairs which swivel, tilt, and roll. The room, as well as the church, has a colonial architectural style. It is well-lighted and gives an Open feeling because of the large windows on two walls. In addition, there are a countertop, cupboards, and credenza. The counter area was used for coffee, which the pastor prepared. There were no educational aids in the room. So, again, poster board, marking pens and an easel were used. Sitting around the table 121 was conducive\to the discussion format. On two occasions, when the grOup size was approximately 20, the room felt crowded. Attendance leveled off to between 10 and 15 to fit the room. Describing the makeup characteristics of the participants is more difficult for Maranatha Church than for Fellowship. One reason for this is that Maranatha was a new group, organized for the first time. While there was a core group, some individuals came to only one or two of the meetings. There were more than twenty present at two meetings, but only four at another. Also, the Maranatha group was somewhat more diverse in age, employment, and marital status. An evaluation meeting was conducted at the end, with eleven par— ticipants present. These persons were representative in number and in their general characteristics of the group as a whole. They con— sisted of six men and five women. Age groups represented were: one in the 26-35 range, three in the 36—45 area, four in the 46-55 group, two who were 56-65, and one who was 88 years old. While nine were married, there was only one married couple (husband and wife) who attended together. Two were widowed women. Vocationally, a variety of areas was represented. One woman worked full—time as a Community Health Nurse. Another woman did part- time child care work. The other three women were housewives. The men were employed in the areas of sales, construction, insurance, accounting, and one was a C.P.A. They described themselves as middle class. Educationally, all had completed high school, three had finished college and had done at least some graduate level work, and three had 122 completed some sort of specialized educational training, such as business school, or nursing school. Participatory learning seemed to be a new and much appreciated concept to these individuals. Two mentioned that they had attended other adult church education classes but never actively participated. The First and Second Meetings: Pastoral Dominance The first and second meetings at Maranatha were similar to those of Fellowship. A description was made of the course, the governing participatory research guidelines, and the term "social issue" was defined. Here, however, the interpersonal communication dynamic was different. This was a small group, six at the first meeting, eight at the second, and only four at the third. Besides that, there was a turn-over between meetings. Because of the size of the church and diversity of the group, most participants did not know each other on a personal basis before coming to the class. The general format for the first meeting has already been described. Of interest to this research is the coordinator's descrip- tion of the participatory process in response to group questions. The dialogue which follows also provides an example of the status of the pastor. He was not trying to dominate or coerce, but the way in which he made statements and raised questions led to a fitting of the group into the existing pattern of adult education in this church. Burt: If you're like most people, you're feeling a little uncertain now. 'Hey, where's this thing going to go?' 'How long is it going to last?' 'What's our course outline going to be like?’ And, 'How fast do We go 123 through our topics?' 'How many topics will we cover?' 'Which ones will we cover first?‘ 'And how will we get the information about them?‘ If you're like most, you will be asking these questions right now, but I can't answer them right now. You'll have to trust me and I'm trusting you. We'll have to work at this together. I can't define which issues we should do, if we don't know ourselves which issues affect people around here the most. That's the premise. But, I can promise you that at some point one of these weeks we'll together come up with a structure. We'll make a course outline, and we'll decide how we're going to go abOut learning, and which topics we're going to cover, and how we'll do that, and how many weeks we'll need, as well. And that will all be according to what this group feels will be best. Okay. I'm ready to stop talking. Are you going to ask any more questions? Pastor: You don't have a specific length of time, Burt? Burt: Right. I'd be very happy to do whatever is in the normal framework that you as a church would expect for adult education, or whatever this class would like as a group. I'm really not sure. I've said to myself, 'If we want, I'll take the whole year for it.' I've just cleared my schedule for that long. Pastor: I'm just wondering for people that are commiting themselves to the class, whether there ought to be a terminating point where they say, 'I'm commiting myself for 10 or 12 weeks.' Then, I can see what will easily happen is that the class will begin to develop its structure. There will be liberation and there will be interdependence of community. Then we could opt again for another 10 weeks if they wanted, because we only covered two social problems and there must be a dozen of them. I'm wondering if that might be a possi- bility for the class to say, 'We'll go so many weeks and then we can reopt.' We may take a full year because there are a number of social problems that need a solu- tion. The suggestion of the pastor was clear. Try this project for 10 to 12 weeks. If it works, consider doing it again after the first of the year. But do not think of this as a long—range commitment. Consequently, after the group identified the social issues of interest, it met for a total of eleven weeks. Four of these were used to identify topical areas of Study. 124 A list of topics was established through the use of the Social Situation Survey Sheets, newspaper and magazine clippings, and the Biographical Guessing Game. The Third Meeting: Problem—Posing Dialogue By the third meeting, the accumulated list of topics included: abortion; community center (church responsibility to and for senior citizens); drinking drugs; nuclear issueS-—energy and war; public school issues--prayer, and creation vs. evolution; racial prejudice; Sunday openings; unemployment; and youth problems. A consensus reaching activity was planned for the third meeting. But there were only four people present. The discussion that follows traces, through representative excerpts, how the members present analyzed their situation and committed themselves to the group. The pastor was not present. The participants in the discussion, in addition to the coordinator, were Brent, an accountant, in his late twenties who had a child attending church school at the same time that this class met; Mark, a former school principal, in his early forties, who is a sales represen— tative for an educational fund raising firm; and Fred, a sales repre— sentative for a packaging corporation, in his early forties, who is also chairman of the Adult Education Committee. Burt: I think we're in a spot where we have to realistically look at the fact that there are five of us here and reach some kind of decision, don't you think so Fred? Fred: As far as continuing? Burt: Yes. We've only had three meetings, and we've had a rapid turnover in these three meetings for whatever factors. I don't know whether the nature of the topic, or the nature of the time, or the nature of the process 125 of it being a participatory process, or whatever the reason, we haven't been growing as a group. Mark: You know, I've asked some people, and they've said, 'What meeting? I haven't read about it or seen announce— ments in the bulletin. Or, was it?‘ Brent: It was announced off the pulpit quite a few times. Fred: I noticed there's been a lot of good promotion on it. Burt: I was looking at the issues that have been suggested as I was getting ready for this meeting. Looking at the nature of the topics, I think we have a number of issues here that would be tremendously interesting to study. This one about senior citizens is good, but it's one among many good ones. Issues relating to young people, issues relating to drugs, drinking, unemployment and abortion, prejudice, nuclear issues, and Sunday openings-—Rich mentioned something of that last time. There are substan- tial issues here that churches need to be dealing with, no question about that. And they're really not. I guess what's equally exciting to me is that these issues came from among us even though we were small. They came from among us and there's an awareness of the fact that Christians need to be doing some research on these things, and we need to be taking a position as indi— viduals. But as to whether or not we are able to study these because of our size, and whether it's profitable for us to do it right now, I don't know. You all have been faithful and it's appreciated. Fred: I guess I've had some of the same thoughts, because it doesn't seem to be growing in numbers. We seem to be getting smaller. I'm questioning whether the time might be a problem. We're a church of young families and I tend to think that perhaps Sundays are very impor- tant to our people. Right after church is the time we go home. Generally, it is about the only time that you can spend time with your families. I think Sunday dinner is about the only time I can get all of our kids at the table. And just as a suggestion, if we conclude that it might be the timing, we could perhaps work it into a Wednesday evening adult education series of six, eight weeks, something like that, if you would be interested in looking at it in that type of a setting. Mark; I was just thinking here. You know our Sunday School is in full swing now again, but we are losing some there because some of those teachers said, 'Well, we can only be at one place.’ Burt: That's true. Any other comments? Brent: I was just going to say. This time works out good for me. If it was during the Week it wouldn't. With Sunday School right now and I can be here at the same time my kids are in Sunday School. 126 Fred: I've got a friend who's Baptist, and they're really big on adult education. They have regular Sunday School classes for adults, and most adults participate in them. YOu know, while the children are in Sunday School, they meet. That's really a big thing. They have good par- ticipation, and it's kind of sad to see this. Mark: I think that many people are very careful about making decisions on what they are about to attend. They have to sort out, especially in this area, among so many things they can go to on Sunday. I think that I'd like to see this thing go at this time and date, if possible. I don't know if it's going to help, but I think that the sooner we have topics and we can announce those topics, advertise those topics, that we're going to touch and spring a response on certain people's parts. I think that process of sorting out and coming to con- clusions, there is a tendency to say, 'Well, let some- body else do that.‘ So, if next week you're going to have a discussion about, let's say, unemployment and its consequences, you outline some of these things and put some disturbing questions to be identified, well that might shake a few people. I'm not sure, but I'd like to see us give that a try. Burt: Well, yOu know, one of the things we could do if we kept the group going would be today to identify a half dozen topics and say we'll take one each time and promote it, as you said. Right? We could say, Community Center and Obligation to the Aged for next week. We c0uld say the following week, Abortion: Two Sides of the Issue. And the following time we could do Drugs: Impact on Our Immediate Community. Now, I'm willing to be here, if you're willing to be here. But, I guess I don't want to do it just for the sake of doing it. If a couple of you are willing to be here, I'm willing to keep doing it and see. It wOuld be an experiment for you as well as for me, you see. Can we see it making some kind of impact? Maybe in the future you would decide that there's some potential and we've got to work at it. I don't know. Having talked about the value of the group, individuals were one—by-one given an opportunity to identify their feelings toward con— tinuing the group. Brent, Mark, and Mrs. VanderPuy all committed them- selves to the group for future meetings. Fred did so also, but with reservations. His comments reflect the frustrations of an Adult Education Committee Chairman who is puzzled by the lack of response to 127 many fine programs. Fred: I have to be honest, I have mixed emotions. Burt: I sensed that. I appreciate your being open about that. FIEd: I get a little frustrated with some of the things that do happen in the education program because of lack of involvement and I guess I'm to the point where I've been involved for approximately three years and almost to the point where I can say, 'Oh I can't get anything going.' You have something and five or ten people come out. Is it worth it? What's the use? So you have to forgive me a little bit for some negative feelings, because I'm kind of to that point. Personally, I would like to really give it a fair try again and, as a group, maybe try it for a few more weeks, putting a couple of the topics down that we're going to discuss that week, as Mark Suggested, and see if we can't generate a few more people coming. And then if we can't, then we seem to be going nowhere. Then I think we tried. Now that there was commitment to making a meaningful learning experience, the discussion turned to how the group could decide what it would study and how it could grow. First, more publicity was suggested. Then, the idea came to poll adults in the Wednesday night adult education class to see which of the topics sounded most interesting to them. Mark: What are the guidelines the consistory has for announcing? Is it possible for a poster to be put in the narthex? That way, when the people come to the church it gets their attention, and then our message: 'Attend social issues and learn about this today at 11:20.' Burt: Well, if we would want to plan for the next weeks and identify some topics, I'd be very happy to make up some posters and put them up. Will you show me where, FIEd, and get me permission to do it? I'll have them there on Sunday morning. And, in fact, we could do 'this Sunday' and 'next Sunday' sort of thing, so that people who aren't quite ready when it first hits them in church could be anticipating it. Put it in the bulletin as well, right? Coffee provided. Mark: See, today you have to try to get to the top of the list somehow. You have to use every kind of advertise- ment and any kind of sales technique that you know. And if you're concerned about numbers, if you want people 128 here, let's say numbers of 10 to 12, you're going to have as much Support as you can get, I think. And it isn't because people don't necessarily want to come. They say, 'Well this may be more important than that.' And if something really grabbed them, they would say, 'Boy, I'd like to hear about this because this vitally affects me, and I want to talk about it.' They would cancel a whole bunch of other things that are in their minds right there in church and say, 'I'm going to that group.' Burt: Here we go. We should identify issues and then we've got to think in terms of topics. I think we could keep entirely in this list. It's a good list, reflecting needs in the community. We might add another one or two if they come to your mind. (Topics were reviewed. They included unemployment, drugs, nuclear war, community center, racial prejudice, and abortion.) Fred: Abortion is politically a pretty live issue right now, isn't it? Yes. Particularly in this state. One candidate is running for it and another against it. I don't think it's a subject that, if you polled everyone in our church (probably 99 percent of them are against abortion), is necessarily a relevant topic to the people of our church. Mark: That is an interesting idea. Why don't we take this list and poll the adults in other education classes to find out what issues they're interested in? Fred; I wonder how we could do that. Mark: Just put the list on paper and say, 'These are the issues that are mentioned in the social issues class. Please give us your ranking and use numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, so on.' Burt: I'll make up a form, if yOu would want to circulate it. Fred: Yes. We could easily do that. Burt: You would circulate it if I make up a list. Fred: Yes. I'd be happy to do that. Mark: And if we get a 60 percent return, we'll have a better rating than we have now. It's not going to take them longer than 2 minutes to do it. Fred: What will we do with those reSults? Burt: Use it next week and say, 'Okay, this is what the people think. This is the order in which we want to take them.' Okay. Then the following week we'll start a topic. That'll give us a little extra time for getting some materials together. Alright? 129 Many things happened as a result of the preceding discussion. There was no longer an uncertainty about the stability of the group, because at least five persons were strongly committed to it. There was also an active analysis of the situation. The topics, time, partici— patory approach, interests of those present, and perceived needs of the community were all discussed. The conversation was the beginning of frank and open communica- tion. It was of a group struggling. Goals, as well as frustrations, were shared. Resulting from the conversation was a planned strategy for pro— moting the project and a commitment to arrive at consensus regarding topics on the following week. The group seemed to flounder in frustration until a purposeful commitment was made. Then, in reaction to the difficulty of deter— mining purpose, an intensified motivation developed to create a meaningful learning experience. The Fourth Meeting: Unity The fourth meeting had 12 present. A report was given of the survey results of the Wednesday night class. Those present were asked to work, first in small groups, and then as a total grOup, to reach consenSus about the topics for study in future weeks. There was a readiness for consensus. There was an adequate number present, and they knew enough about the subject areas to make up their minds easily. It was as if a kind of saturation level had been reached. The topics for study became: the Community Center, abortion, 130 unemployment, substance abuse, and public school issues—-creation vs. evolution and prayer. The Fifth and Sixth Meetings: Reflection and Action The fifth meeting was intense, with a great deal of obvious emo— tional interest. The purpose of this meeting was to discuss the pro- posed building of a Community and Senior Citizen Center next door to the church. Mark brought two guest speakers from a Senior Citizen's group to tell about the topic. Part of the reason for an immediacy of interest was that the issue was coming up for a township vote the following week. Following a presentation by the two representatives for the Community Center, the pastor was the first to speak. His stance was against the issue. Other group members seemed not to be speaking first of all to the issue, but to whether or not they agreed with the pastor. His role as an authority figure is obvious in the text that follows. Note the references to him by the other speakers. Pastor: I guess I wish, in a sense, that this building would be for senior citizens only. I foresee less problems if it were just for senior citizens. I see a host of problems for our churches and traffic that these churches generate. To have another place between us which would be used for wedding receptions, art fairs, and a whole bunch of other things, is a real concern to me. What goes on in that building is a concern, because I hear from the sheriff's department that when we have dances in the public school they also have problems with drinking and drugs, and there's a lot of patrol that has to go on there because of that. This is not a very good setting. Now there's nothing that would keep anyone from having a dance there with teenagers or older people. Then it's possible to have some of the same problems that the school presently has and has had over a number of years, which is a concern to me. The other matter, I 131 guess, is who regulates what happens within the building. Now this may be jumping and worrying, and that's why I say I wish it were for senior citizens only. Rick: It is very rare that I disagree with the pastor. While I share his concerns about the immediate locality, I could not vote for a building purely for senior citi— zens. Why does the community or government owe me anything just because I hit 65? Morris; I guess I could appreciate the building. I think it's great. But, as the pastor said, my question is one of control. What if someone decides it's okay for them to have a basketball game there on Sunday morning? The meeting was a difficult one to chair because of some extreme differences of views, including the strong position taken by the pastor. It should be noted that Rick and Morris spoke with reference to the pastor. The reaction of apprehension by the group was a picture of what was to come when this proposal was voted on during the November 2 election. The proposed Community Center was overwhelmingly defeated. The topic for the sixth week was abortion. Group members were assigned various roles (Appendix Q). For example, some were normal contributing members; some were initiators, who began discussions; some were clarifiers, who asked for redefination of vague points; some were summarizers, who brought major points and loose ends together; some were evaluators, who kept the group posted on its progress. The excerpts which follow are brief. They are in response to the group being given material from two positions. The pro—abortion position and the anti—abortion position. The excerpts illustrate the diffi- culty individuals have in role playing when they are not accustomed to it. It could also illustrate the difficulty a person may have in acting out and describing a position other than his own, even if it is for the sake of role playing. Traditional points of view also Surfaced during the discussion. 1 132 Morris was to take the role of a pro—abortion person. He said: Morris: I've heard this argument and it's kind of indicated in this one now, too. If I held to this position, here's what I would say. If you've got a mother or father who have some impairments, some real mental impairments or mental and physical impairments, and you know that child's going to have some terribly physical and mental impairment, and so forth, and he'll be a drag on society, and it will be expensive to keep that child going; then, under those circumstances, it might be justified to abort that child. You know, they can even test for those defects ahead of time, so they know with 100 per- cent accuracy that that child is going to be either terribly misformed, or will live a very short life, or something like that. Then it could be justified. Hal responded, stating, but yet questioning, his traditional perspective. Hal: I was going to say now, of course, I was brought up that way. I think the same too. But I sure really do believe that life begins at conception, and that taking a life, in short, is wrong. But yet, I wonder now, too, in God's sight, is killing that baby any different in sin than if I go and gossip about somebody and run another person down? Now how does the group feel about something like that? Is it any more sin in God's sight for taking that human life than would my telling and hurting someone else? Mrs. VanderPuy also reflected a traditional perspective: Mrs. Van.: We were always taught in our meetings that if God created them impaired, God created sustenance for them. That means if it be physical, but also materially. That means everything. And I believe that, and I've seen that. Walter: It seems as if the group at this point is actually saying to each other we believe certain givens. And I think that's where we always have a tougher time withOut making it an emotional decision. Burt: Okay. Thank you. Now maybe what you'd like to do is take your normal role. Pastor: May I start with a question? Because I'd like to pick up on this emotional thing. I get the feeling that if I were to make a decision on abortion, I would very clearly make it a solid decision on the basis of the ethics given in the Bible. If suddenly I'm turned into that situation and it's my family or me, I think I would find a lot of justifiable reasons why I should 133 be the exception. I think Christians come at a point where the pressures are so huge in their life that they almost throw to the wind any argument that would be against them. I'm asking of the group, how can we be sensitive to each other? How can we in our talking support each other sufficiently so that we don't follow the whim of the minute or the pressure of the minute but follow what is ethically right? Mark: I'd just like to pose a hypothetical question re- garding some things that our pastor has mentioned, too. We've had two very emotional issues in this area of Michigan in the last three months. One was a 12 year old girl in Kalamazoo. The other a 13 year old from Grand Rapids. Now let's suppose that in Emmanuel Christian School, a 5th grader was raped and became pregnant, what would be the response of the Christian people? How would we handle that? And let's suppose it was violent. I mean there were other things involved, people were injured in a household, too. Would we say to that 5th grader, 'Well, we're sorry you will have that child'? It poses an emotional thing. Fred: It's so easy. We can look at it when it's someone else. From the spiritual standpoint, though, as Pastor Tuinstra says, once it hits you, then we start to look at things very logically, and very personally. And if that was your daughter, even going a step further than Mark. And not just somebody else's, but it was your daughter that it happened to. I would like to be able to talk to some of the younger people. I'm sure none of us here has really faced this. I don't know of any— body who's had an abortion. Maybe Pastor Tuinstra does because of his situation. But I bet you most of us don't know of anybody who's had an abortion. It would be something to talk to some of the younger people, even some of our kids and hear really what they think about this. Burt: Am I concluding correctly that as a group, we're saying very clearly that the issue of abortion is a moral issue and it is the taking of a life? However, it is also such an emotional issue. I mean, am I hearing you say this, that after a while we find out of someone who has had an abortion, we ought to not be so quick to condemn and judge. We should realize that maybe there have been more factors entering in on this thing than the cold rational facts. There have been these emotions that have taken place. These ought to cause us to have an attitude which somehow really goes out of its way to seek for understanding, to communicate love and caring, and to try and help them cope with it. If it's an emotional iSSue, it's got to be a rational issue later. Right? And when it becomes a rational issue, all kinds of guilt and other kinds of feelings 134 become associated with it. And that would perhaps be the big concern. As well as talking about its impact on society, what is its impact on younger people? How do they handle that? What are the consequences for them in the way they treat others and the way they treat themselves as a result of it? The text of the abortion issue reflects a variety of concepts. Hal and Mrs. VanderPuy spoke from a traditional perspective. When the pastor spoke, individuals made reference to his point, "as Pastor says." Words of acceptance were shared by participants for each other and by participants for those who were dealing with difficulties re- lating to a social problem, Such as abortion. The Seventh Meeting: Unity through Acceptance A growing sense of empathy and willingness to reflect on personal experiences was seen during this seventh week. During the discussion on unemployment, Lloyd, an unemployed accountant, shared his feelings. He said: I'm unemployed at this time and you go through these feelings of lacking self-worth that the group has been talking about. Yes, I had feelings of frustration, defeat, and worthlessness. It's hard to deal with. The Eighth Through Tenth Meetings: Acceptance and Reflection The remaining meetings at Maranatha were on public school issues and substance abuse. The substance abuse meeting was the final topic before the evaluation meeting. The depth of discussion on substance abuse was present, including experiential reflection, interaction, awareness, analysis of self and situations, and synthesis. A group dynamic grew rapidly over a ten- week period. 135 Mark began this meeting by talking about his knowledge of drug abuse in the Jenison community. Mark: Everytime I ride past this one teens' place here on Baldwin, I think of an emotional experience with a group of people in this community. The parents spent $30,000 to try to get their son off drugs. The mafia just went after them to pay up or get Out of Jenison. But the other thing that strikes me, I guess, is that the people who have not had to deal with it in any form or fashion, deny that it's important to deal with. If you deal with a group of people and ask them what we should do to make young people alert and if we should try to find out if something is going on, the typical response will be, 'As long as we don't hear anything about it, let's not mess with it. Let's not meddle. Let's not poke into it to see what's going on.' The Community Education Association, when we started studying it about a year ago, found out the locations for getting drugs. The Grand River, down with the protection of all the grasses and trees down there, was where a lot of our junior high students met. That's where it was passed around. Thrifty Acres (the restaurant on the upper floor) and the high school in Jenison were also drug trafficking areas. Of course, once they're involved in it, they have all the spots marked where they can meet people. I think, though, I should say, too, that sometimes there is that real attempt for peer pressure. I think when I was at school [as principal] there was a tremendous amount of pressure put on my kids, because if they could get them to tumble, they felt they really had it. The same thing is true with any school teacher, especially at junior high and senior high. And incredible amounts of pressure will be to come to parties and give it a whirl. And if they can only get them. Then, of course, the kids want to be in. They don't want to be out, and so they are torn apart if they don't participate. Will: I was listening here and I'm like the community out there who says this isn't a problem, because I haven't had it directly in my home. I know a little bit about it, but not very much. What I hear is, 'That's his problem,‘ or 'That's my neighbor's problem.’ 'It doesn't affect me so directly so I don't worry about it too much.‘ Now I'm probably a little bit of that school myself. I shouldn't feel guilty. What Mrs. Smith said about self—image is one of the real problems. People and teenagers don't have a real good feeling, idea, about themselves, and their parents apparently don't help that along because in some cases they don't have a good feeling about themselves. 136 Rick: You say that smoking also goes along with self image and peer preSSure? That’s in my family. I see it as a peer pressure. It's the thing to do. It's becoming less, but it's still a strong thing as I see it around the junior high school. After all, there are very many families who have not given this type of example to the children and the children are still using it. We have a prime example of that a few years ago. Some of you may remember it. We had some very dear cousins of ours in another part of the country, who had a son who got in bad trouble. He ran away and lived with the wrong kind of people. He got somewhere in the west Michigan area here, we didn't know exactly where he was, and one night he turned up on our doorstep. He said he'd endangered his life, he was no longer able to contribute to the group, and they were threatening him that they would kill him. He stayed overnight with us. Well, he ended up staying for 3—6 months. We laid down some very specific rules: no drugs, go to church with us once a Sunday, no smoking upstairs. He did pretty well with us. He would Show up on Sunday morning looking as grubby as he could, in hopes that I would say that I wouldn't take him to church that morning. He said he remembers turning up at church pretty grubby, but he went to church with us. And that went along pretty well for some time. Now his parents didn't smoke, didn't drink. Maybe a bit, but certainly not to excess. He didn't learn from them. He has a very, very poor self image. We had one terrific experience. We kept all prescription drugs out of the way. One night he did find high blood pressure pills. He was just desperate for something, and he got into those drugs. That was serious because he really lowered his blood pressure tremendously. We didn't know for a while what it was. I called the poison control center and they were very helpful, but finally my son got hold of the police department. They advised us to take him down to Butterworth Hospital. They pumped his stomach. We were all pretty miserable, because it took all night for them to do it. But he lived through it, and that was quite an experience for all of us. The meeting concluded with statements encouraging church support community social agencies. Burt: What you're saying is that the church should give some recognition to those kinds of groups (Tough Love, A.A., Drug Abuse Prevention) and efforts. Rick: I think so because maybe some of those people are part of our group. I don't know that. But if it's that 137 active of a group, they must have somebody from the community in it, some yOung people and families who need our Support. Anita: I have a thought, though, that we sometimes get to the point where we think that everyone has to have a cer- tain amount of expertise to deal with some of these problems. But sometimes the simplest answer may come from a Simple person that might touch the life of some- body. Burt: That is a good point. I guess one of the things I hear you say you are interested in is that people, no matter what their situation, have to have an openness to help each other. Anita: Well, I think as Christians we don't all have exper- tise in the social or judicial or political realms. But as Christians, just a simple answer or a touch may be enough. Burt: We don't have to wait, or hold back and think that's somebody else's job to do. Anita: I don't think we always have to turn that over to a social worker or a psychologist or a police officer. Burt: That's really the main point. If more people would have that attitude of, 'How can I help?', there'd be less being turned over to the specialists, like drug abuse counselors. After the meeting, as Rose and Anita were leaving, they were talking about the meeting. Rose said, ”I really enjoy this group and will hate to see it end." The discussion on substance abuse concluded with members saying that the church Should more actively recognize and work with community groups providing support for those experiencing drug-related problems. It was also mentioned that encouragement and support is everyone's responsibility. The Eleventh Meeting: Evaluation The eleventh week at Maranatha was the final meeting. Part of the class time was spent summarizing the issues of previous weeks. The remainder was used to complete the written evaluation. 138 After the summary and before the written evaluation, Rick, a retired C.P.A. and core member, spoke for the group: I'd like to make one comment. I know that as a group we'd like to thank you. I don't think I've ever really enjoyed a group discussion as much as I have this. And that's partly because of the group participation and a side effect that I have personally experienced. I have grown to appreciate and to love many members of this grOup much more because I have never heard them express themselves as well as I have here. I would like to see this expanded to a regular discussion group. I would hope that sometime in the future you would feel free to lead it. That would involve many more people. The questions and answers which follow are the entire response of the Maranatha group to the evaluation questionnaire. They are given in full and then summarized. 1. When thinking about our group, what examples or thoughts do you have about how you, others, or the group as a whole have developed since we began? Members of the group became more open and trusting of one another. Various viewpoints were openly discussed and most people felt comfortable. We have, I think, developed into a more thinking, talking, expressing group of individuals. I saw development. More participation and contributions as the weeks went by. Certainly, people became more com- fortable in the group as they got to know each other. Because of the open discussion at times, we did become more of a family group. Appreciated the abilities of others, not realized before. I like the idea of forming groups for discussions on topics of general interest——social issues was excellent—-another one, current issues. I would be interested in Bible classes in a different category. Much more active participation and ideas. More open for answering questions. 139 2. How would you, in your own words, describe our group struc— ture? Have yOu seen creativity, supportiveness, interdependence, liberating attitudes, community spirit, or what? The group was willing to express thoughts that would help others become informed and gain insight. Many expressions by individuals were supportive in nature. Agreement wasn't necessary to have respect and a good dis— cussion. Opinions and other points of View were respected. The tone for this was set by the leader. He did a good job on this. The comments and ideas expressed were always 'Christian.' Very impressed with how the group grew from very small and without direction into a large group that grew together and seems ready to continue. Very comfortable ... much in evidence. I've seen an unusual amount of supportiveness, community spirit of love. Group has been rather open ... Helpful. 3. What comes to your mind regarding our relationships? Do you feel that persons have had a high regard for each other? Was there a cooperative and considerate spirit? The group was willing to express themselves freely without fears. Again, the leader did this very effectively. Making several verbal statements to maintain a good comfort level. We came to know others and their feelings that were never known before, even though we've been part of this church for years. Yes, we did have a high regard for each other, and everyone did feel free to contribute because of this. No one put each other down. It was a caring group. A feeling of respect for each other grew out of our meetings, even those we did not know very well. 4. 140 Have appreciated members of our group much more than before, although our backgrounds and approaches differ. There was a cooperative and considerate spirit. How do you feel about adult education through participation in such areas as problem identification, planning, learning procedures, and evaluation? More of this could be done so as to identify areas our church could investigate to help our church members and the community. I think it is very necessary today. Serious discussion on current problems with Christian perspective is really necessary. It was a new and different format for me and I enjoyed it and learned from it. You did a great job in helping to identify concerns, feelings in analyzing the problems. We were bucking at an age old problem of 'teacher stand in front of class and talk, people sit in seat and listen!‘ I think, in time, this concept can work—-it seemed to in this class. Sometime I felt the discussion moved too slow-—I appreciate more forthright material being given. Would like to see more expanded participation. The best way to learn is to participate ... Learned much. If this type of a group were to be repeated, how could it be improved? What are some things of which you would like to see more or less? Could have used more thme. The introduction maybe could have been shorter, but then the introduction did help to loosen up the group prior to the discussion. Allow more time for discussion and consensus. I'd like to see more resources and resource people be a part of any topic under diSCussion. I'd like to see our church take a more active role in community development and affairs. l... 141 While we identified and discussed so many problems, I'd like to see this develop further, and perhaps begin to solve these issues. I'd like to see a Sunday morning 'Sunday School' Adult class in this church as a result of your leadership. At times our group became too large to have active partici- pation. I don't have a solution, other than breaking up the class into smaller segments, each working to reach con- sensus on a particular part of the problem. I learned from others. It was worthwhile, and I did not have to push myself to attend. The subjects were exciting and worthwhile. Topic decided on early. It could be longer, because we were just beginning to feel comfortable-—many more topics yet to be discussed. Would like to see continued group of this type in connection with our adult ed. program. We would spend more time on subjects. One subject per time period does not always work out. We have heard many opinions on many issues but have not come to any real conclusions. Some times, all the different conclusions create doubts, rather than stability. Have some questions handed out a week in advance, so we can evaluate them. Summarizing the responses of the Maranatha group, the overall response to the participatory experience was positive and appreciative. Individuals looked upon it as a new and refreshing way to learn. Participants described the development of openness and a trusting climate. They wrote about an atmosphere of support and community Spirit that enabled persons to express themselves freely. References were made to the fact individuals appreciated and respected each other. No one felt put down. Participation was valued. It was described as being in contrast with the sit and listen format. Suggestions were made that future 142 meetings should be longer. Evaluation of both groups occurred not only through the evaluation forms on the last week before the break, but also by means of the Interaction Bulletin, filling out 3”x5" cards, and informal conversa— tion. This was an on—going or formative type of evaluation. The on—going process was similar in both churches. It revealed a few apprehensions about participation at the beginning. But as the meetings continued, the process became more meaningful. Often indi- viduals also expressed a new awareness of the subject matter which was being studied. On some occasions, actions were identified by learners. The written comments of one Fellowship member illustrate a developing appreciation for participatory learning. At the beginning she wrote: I'm not sure what to think. The premise is new and I'll have to see where we are in three or four weeks. I'm excited about it and hope it will lead to some meaning- ful discussions and decisions. During the evaluation meeting on the thirteenth week of class, her comment was: I like it. But it is so different from the 'come to class, sit down and listen.‘ I find it is taking me time to adjust and learn to use the class to its fullest. It is forcing me to stop and analyze different issues, which otherwise I might have made a snap judgement on and set it aside. There appear to be certain categorical realities associated with attempts to establish educational purposes through participative learning experiences. These relate to beginning apprehension, group unity through acceptance, problem posing dialogue, reflection and action in group decision making. They will be described and explained in the next section, CHAPTER V OBSERVATIONS The purpose of this section is to describe and explain character— istics that are associated with the establishment of educational inten- tions through participation. Characteristics will be described which were observed in the participatory groups and from interviews with edu— cation committee chairmen and the pastors of the two churches. Descriptions of characteristics relating to the weekly meeting are given in summary fashion with little new data introduced. Descriptive data of the views of selected individuals who were interviewed are given in greater detail. The findings are explained by concomitant literature of partici— pative theorists. As the data were reviewed, the best explanations for what occurred were from Freire, Rogers, and Dewey——in that order. The material which follows is divided into three main categories. The first is relating to those factors which have contributed to the determination of educational intentions through participation. The second is about those factors which deter the involvement of partici— pants. The third describes the effect of the participative approach on the researcher. Contributing Factors The factors contributing to adults determining their purposes have 143 144 been arranged into four categories. These involve: 1. Beginning Appre— hension; 2. Unity through Acceptance; 3. Problem-Posing Dialogue, and 4. Reflection and Action as it relates to Praxis. Beginning Apprehension Beginnings of the group Were characterized by a degree of apprehen- sion and anxiety. This apprehension was not because of a lack of Structure, nor was it because of a lack of resources. Rather, it re— sulted from learners coming to realize that the reason for the group's existence was dependent upon their participation. The content, as well, would be determined by their interests; and the methods would have to be those through which they would be willing to give active participation. The structures for group learning were always outlined in advance, either through handout sheets or on poster board. They included such activities as Biographical Guessing Game (Appendix I), Realities of Life Card Game, discussion of Social Situation Survey Sheets (Appendix Q); as well as other discussion, rank ordering, and consensus reaching methods about social issues. There were also many resources provided. During the second through fourth meetings, approximately fifteen books were brought to class each time. These were about the social issues which had already been iden- tified at the first meeting. They were from local libraries and inten- tionally represented diverse and conflicting positions. Five books were checked at the second meeting, a few more at the other meetings. Apprehension at the beginning of any new experience is probably normal, but, it seems more intense when learning is through participation. 145 There are many examples of this. The comments of Ken at the beginning of the Fellowship group were revealing. He said, "This is a sneaky way of doing this ... Let's put our cards on the table." At Maranatha, the group took three weeks, and dwindled down to four persons before its members established a commitment to each other and the participatory learning process. Notes from the participants and field notes also showed uncertain— ty. Statements from group members said, "I feel uncomfortable not know— ing where we are going," "I am not sure what to think," and "I think that the sooner we have topics and we can announce those topics ... that then we're going to touch a spring of response on certain people's parts." Initial frustration, apprehension, and anxiety seem necessary to the process, although these may be in varying degrees of intensity. Describing the beginning of the learning group for the liberation process, Freire says that it "is born in the labor which brings into the world this new man” (Freire,.l970c, p. 33). Rogers describes attitudes: "For students who have been taught by more conventional means, there is a period of tension, frustration, disappointment, dis— belief" (Rogers, 1965, p. 233). From frustration comes determination, commitment, and the desire to create a meaningful experience. Apprehension standing alone might discourage individuals, causing them not to participate and even not to return. However, apprehension within the supportive climate of the research groups encouraged participation. A climate of acceptance, a general topical area of learning which was of interest to the learners, and leader competence in process—oriented education were probably other factors which caused 146 persons not to be discouraged, but, rather, challenged by the experience. Unity Through Acceptance The description of the weekly group meetings was replete with examples of participation. Specific methods involving dialogue were identified. Examples of the discussion characteristics and content were provided. Participative procedures were given for problem identifica- tion, planning, methodology, and evaluation. All of these had examples of group unity and acceptance. Two primary characteristics of the participative approach described by Freire are a unity among the members and a mutual involvement in problem—posing dialogue. These two characteristics can be explained by points made about them by Freire and illustrated by comments of group members. First must come unity between the group coordinator and the people. The leader enters "into a communion with the people” (Freire, 1970c, p. 47). This is also described as cooperation which is achieved through communication (Freire, 1970c, p. 47). "One cannot speak of an actor, nor simply of actors, but rather of actors in intercommunication" (Freire, 1970c, p. 123). Essential to the role of group coordinator is a unity with, and an acceptance of and by the people. There was a feeling of achievement when Harry, chairman of the Fellowship Education committee, charac- terized the coordinator as a "regular person". He was describing the way in which class members are more participative when a layman conducts a class, than when it is taught by a clergyman. He said, "When you get a regular layman like yourself or me, they will open up.’ His remark was valuable in light of Freire's comment: "The practice of . _J" 147 problem—posing education entails at the outset that the teacher-student contradiction be resolved" (Freire, 1970c, p. 67). Group unity was reflected by the groups in their appreciation for a climate of group acceptance. Members were willing to cooperate and be considerate of each other. Examples of the importance of acceptance as it relates to a unified group climate may be seen in the comments by two Maranatha participants. After class, one of the women, Rose, expressed appreciation for the class and the way in which it was conducted. She said, "This is good, because we are listening to and learning from each other.” After another meeting, Anita expressed appreciation for the quality of the interaction. She said, "Now people are starting to help one another understand the issues. It is as if we want to break out of the shelteredness of the Jenison community." There were two kinds of acceptance reflected. One was about the need to accept one another in a spirit of cooperation and considera- tion. The other was to accept individuals who are "different" because of the social problems being experienced. Acceptance by group members of one another surfaced as a topic in a number of ways. First, it was pointed out at the beginning that an assumption of the coordinator was that "Relationships are to be posi- tive, cooperative, and considerate." While not being aware of the extent of the importance of this assumption at the beginning, it came out in group discussions and during the evaluation meeting. Next, individuals were willing, and even wanted, to listen to each other's positions, even though they may not have been in agreement with them. Examples were seen in the discussion on abortion at Maranatha 148 church. Mrs. VanderPuy said, ”We were always taught in our meetings that if God created them [the newborn] impaired, God created sustenance for them." Later, Mark spoke in favor of abortion in some situations, as in the case of the pregnancy of a local fifth grade girl who had been raped. He said, "Would you say to the fifth grader, 'Well, we're sorry you will have to have that child?'" The spirit of acceptance freed individuals to explain their views Without being threatened. Acknowledgement of this kind of in—group acceptance and respect in Spite of differences appeared many times on the evaluation forms. One example reads, "We came to know others and their feelings that were never known before, even though we've been part of this church for years." An acceptance by group members of each other is one of the qualities that Rogers emphasizes as a climate-establishing requirement for the leader. It is a caring for the learner, but a nonpossessive caring. It is an acceptance of this other individual as a separate person, a respect for the other as having worth in his or her own right. It is a basic trust—~a belief that this other person is somehow fundamentally trustworthy (Rogers, 1980, p. 271). The second area of acceptance which was valued by participants was for those experiencing social problems outside of the group. When topics were discussed, there were constant expressions of support for those with social needs. On the topic of abortion, a woman said, "I think that if there was someone I knew who had one, that person needs a lot of understanding and support.‘ Also, another person said, "Where is our forgiving spirit in a situation like this? It seems 149 we've been talking about the last couple of weeks, abortion, killing, we can capitalize on that. We know we're not going to do that ... If it's that sinful. But, we go to work on Monday and we lie, and that's easy." Another way in which a desire for acceptance was expressed was through the use of the word ”shun.’ Several individuals used it, one member to describe how the family treated a relative who married a divorced person: "They shunned him.‘ It was used by another person to describe attitudes toward those who abuse drugs: ”Acceptance where people are. We_may not like their behavior, but they're still people. Sometimes We shun people because they're not like what we expected of them." The need for acceptance seemed strong. It may be that the groups were made up primarily of persons at the level Maslow refers to as ' This level is described as one where "belongingness and love needs.' the person "will hunger for affectionate relations with people in general, namely for a place in his group, and he will strive with great intensity to this goal" (Maslow, 1954, p. 89). This hunger was apparent at meetings. The summary given by RiCk on the importance of acceptance at the last Maranatha meeting reflects its importance to the groups. "I have grown to appreciate and to love many members of this group much more, because I have never heard them express themselves as well as I have here." Problem—posing Dialogue was used as a means for stimulating praxis, reflective thought and action. In fact, as group coordinator, there was the intentional goal not to be a depositor of information; but, 150 rather, to encourage analysis and critical thinking, to pose problems, to Summarize participant's views, and to guide in the concluding con— census reaching process. All of the topics suggested and studied came from group members. Whenever resource materials were provided, attempts were made to provide materials with contrasting views, so as to stimulate critical thought. Freire calls this problem-posing education and distinguishes it from a banking information depositing approach: "'Problem—posing' edu- cation; responding to the essence of consciousness--intentionality-- rejects communiques and embodies communications" (Freire, 1970c, p. 66); "Problem-posing education makes them critical thinkers. Banking educa— tion inhibits creativity and domesticates" (Freire, 1970c, p. 71). The use of the problem-posing approach to dialogue through which learners reach a higher State of critical consciousness follows three guidelines. It is done: a) in an active, dialogical, critical and criticism—stimulating method; b) in changing the program content of education; c) in the use of techniques like thematic 'breakdown' and 'codification.' Our method, then, was to be based on dialogue, which is a horizontal relationship between persons (Freire, 1973, p. 44). Reflection and Action Relating to Praxis The active, dialogical, critical method stimulates individuals to re— flection and action. While this reflection and action was not there in the sense that any major social reconstruction was in evidence, it was present to the degree that persons identified having a new awareness of social issues and the learning process. The quotes which follow shortly may provide an inkling of greater critical thinking and conscientization to come. With 151 each group, however, having met for only three months, it is difficult to predict the ultimate results. Yet, it is worth noting that even these beginning results show a greater amount of critical awareness and action than when this researcher was using more traditional, information-giving methods in the past. One kind of reflective thought which was seen in the groups relates to the willingness of persons to think about and share from their own experiences. Many examples of this took place during meetings: Ed told about a divorced relative; RiCk described what it was like to have a relative, a drug abuser, stay with them and overdose; and Lloyd related his feelings about unemployment. Typical comments were also remarks like: ”I did more thinking about the issue;” "... conscious of how drugs and alcohol are related. Never thought of it that way;" "During voting we were aware of the positions of candidates." Reflective thought may also be related to a consciousness about the learning process. Just thinking about the way in which learning occurs may be more unique to participative than to passive approaches. Examples of comments showing reflection on the process are: "Small groups are a most effective way of promoting free and open discussion. It works!;" "Realizing the discipline required for reading when the self motivation is somewhat lacking;' and "I haven't figured out yet how a group could become so productive." One of the church school teachers said of her spouse: My husband is coming to the adult social issues class ... Last night he was reading some material he picked up in class. He never reads. He hasn't been interested in things like that before. 152 Reflective thought also related to the reaching of group conclu— sions. Reflective conclusions were reached by such procedures as small groups giving reports of their answers to a problem, by the coordinator summing up what was said on a given issue, and by the group reaching consensus. Group consensus reaching seemed to be the most meaningful kind of conclusion. It was experienced at Fellowship and Maranatha during the first few meetings as the groups arrived at their areas of topical study. The statement of Ron at Fellowship will be remembered, where he said, "I would not have chosen those topics, but because we decided as a group, we should do it." Field notes on the third meeting of the Maranatha group also reflected the importance of consensus reaching. One of the most significant things about this meeting was that individuals came to grips with their own desires to meet. There were reasons given why other people were not interested. Suggestions were made as to how the group could be more effective. And, the individuals present, only four members and the coordinator, made a decision to continue as a group, deal with topics, and invite others to participate. The descriptions of many of the weekly meetings identified con— sensus reaching conclusions. Perhaps, there is a similarity between this level of thought and what Goulet refers to as ”reflective synthesis." He defines this term as a new systemization of information which is drawn from a previous analysis of separate aspects of a situation (Goulet, 1971b, p. 51). The potency of consenSus may lie in its use of involving every- one interactively, in the reaching of a new decision, their decision, through synthesis. 153 The preceding levels of reflection are in part explained by ' It involves Dewey. One term that he uses is ”reflective attention.I judging, reasoning, and deliberation. It means, he says, that the individual "has a question of his own and is actively engaged in seeking and selecting relevant material with which to answer it, considering the bearings and relations of this materia1——the kind of solution it calls for" (Dewey, 1902, p. 148). Reflective attention was also later referred to by Dewey as thinking involving "active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends" (Dewey, 1933, p. 9). Reflection is also a term used by Freire. But he says that to be of value, it must be associated with action (Freire, 1970c, p. 75). The process is called praxis. Reflection without action results in mere verbalism. Action without reflection is empty activism. Some actions identified by group members that illustrate praxis follow. (They were always associated with reflection.) "Decided to vote for the Community Center;" "Talked with a township commissioner about the Community Center;” "Thank you for this type of group discussion-— it has encouraged me to read and pursue more information on these impor- tant issues. I would like to be more involved in trying to solve some of these problems;" "I discussed this issue at work where we have many different viewpoints." Of the two, action and reflection, it was easier to identify reflection than it was action. In summary, reflection was in evidence in both of the groups. This, at the beginning of this section, was 154 illustrated with examples of willingness to share, analysis of per— spectives, and conclusions through consensus reaching. Often the reflection was done through action-oriented methods. Activity methods were described as small grOup discussions, poster making, learning games (such as the Biographical Guessing Game), and a variety of problem-centered approaches to group discussions. There were some resulting social actions as well, although only on a small scale. They were identified by several persons in regard to how they voted, discussed an issue at work, and pursued more infor— mation about subject areas of interest. The groups were perceived by the participants more as study- learning groups than as social activist groups. However, the beginnings of involvement by members of both groups suggest that more active social involvement will follow. The importance and distinctiveness of dialogue as an educational method was emphasized by Freire. Dialogue is thus an existential necessity. And since dialogue is the encounter in which united reflection and action of the dialoguers are addressed to the world which is to be transformed and humanized, this dialogue cannot be reduced to the act of one person's 'depositing' ideas in another, nor can it become a simple exchange of ideas to be 'consumed' by the discussants (Freire, 1970c, p. 77). The descriptions and explanations given so far have discussed four categories of characteristics about the participatory research group experiences. These were: 1. beginning apprehension; 2. unity through acceptance; 3. problem—posing dialogue; and 4. reflection and action related to praxis. While involved in the dynamics of the participatory learning, it 155 is easy to lose sight of how unusual this kind of learning structure is to adult religious education. During the last tw0 weeks of the group process, the key decision makers regarding adult education programs were interviewed. These individuals were the pastors of Fellowship Village and Maranatha churches, the Chairman of the Adult Education Committee of Maranatha, and the Chairman of the Education Committee at Fellowship Village. The section that follows describes the perception of adult educa— tion by these church leaders and explains how it is in contrast with the participatory approach. Deterring Factors The way in which adult church education is viewed by the pastors and committee chairmen is in contrast to that of the participative process in several important areas. These include the way in which authority and control is exercised, the content and structure of the curriculum, and the use of methods. This section will describe these issues and then seek to explain them in terms of the way in which Freire characterizes churches. The de- scriptions largely use data from interviews, but some material from the group meetings is used, since Dr. Tuinstra attended several of these meetings. Authority and Control The authority and control exercised by a pastor are described here in two ways. One, illustrations are given of the way in which the pastor was deferred to by other learners when in a class. The other is regarding his thoughts on the ideal curriculum structure. 156 Dr. Tuinstra of Maranatha Church attended three or four of the meetings. Whenever he was present, he became the person making the most contributions and the person whose contributions were most often referred to. It should be mentioned here that this was, most likely, not intentional on his part. He is a warm, soft—spoken, pleasant, considerate and tactful individual. He is neither insecure nor ego— centric. He is simply, I believe, fulfilling a social role expectation. Nonetheless, he dominated. At the first meeting of the Maranatha group, his questions, "You don't have a specific length of time?" and "I'm just wondering for people that are commiting themselves to the class whether there ought to be a terminating point?" led us to conclude that it would only meet for eleven weeks. When discussing the concept of a Community Center to be built next to the church, the pastor spoke first, giving his objections. Dis- cussion Which followed made reference to the pastor. "It is very rare that I disagree with the pastor," and "as the Pastor said." When discussing the issue of abortion, he was referred to: "I'd just like to pose a hypothetical question regarding some of the things I II that our pastor has mentioned, too.‘ Later another responded, as Pastor Tuinstra says." Following these meetings, field notes contain these notations regarding the Maranatha group. No one member or small group of members should be determina— tive of the structure and content of the discussion. Group development requires that all the group members provide inputs, interactions, and make decisions. The primary con- cern is not what fits the existing church organizational structure, not what one or a few dominant members Suggest, but what all the learners present feel fits their best in- terests. 157 The second illustration of pastoral dominance relates to thoughts on educational planning. During an interview on his views of adult church education, Tuinstra suggested two approaches which he prefers. One is the liberal arts model, the other is military method. His description follows: I feel that something like a college that determines certain basic courses is a desirable model-~that the church ought to look at what is required to develop a believer and to make that believer mature in Christ ... So that, you could say that a person mature in Christ ought to have this know- ledge of theology, this knowledge of biblical content, this knowledge of how to evangelize, and this knowledge of his own person and his own gifts ... One of the ideal things would be a military 201 file model ... where you would take a career officer and say, 'This is what a career officer needs,’ and then as time goes along, he's got to fit in those categories. A person shouldn't have all biblical knowledge. It shouldn't be all theology or all evangelism. So that you say, in order to be well—rounded as a believer, if you haven't had any biblical courses yet, you have someone sitting down with that person and saying, 'In all your courses, you're concen- trating in these areas. You really ought to balance that out ' I guess I would call it the liberal arts approach of the church. That is basically how I would determine what should be taught in adult church education classes I really would seriously like to see people working on this military 201 type of thing. I would really like to see them first having a core foundation and then specialize. My concept of adult education really is to have people walk through What you might consider almost the equivalent of a two year Bible college curriculum. I would like to be able to give degrees, to give a certificate as a recognition of the effort made and content and meaning of a program of study. It should be mentioned that the pastor of the Fellowship church had a similar point of view, although not as clearly worked out as m‘ 158 that which was described above. He had a content—orientation, with information—giving presentations by subject specialists. Describing the ideal adult church education classes, he said, "We would get someone in ... some of these men who will come in for a series of lectures or presentations." The second issue relating to authority and control was regarding the place of women in the groups. While the groups were almost balanced in the number of men and women participants, men dominated the meetings. They did not dominate Fellowship as much during later meetings as they did at first. But the men still spoke more. One by one, the participatory process made it socially acceptable for women to speak. Notations were made of this: "fourth week, Marilyn spoke for the first time; fifth week, Crystal and Ella contributed; sixth week, Jane made her first remarks." Small groups and a climate of acceptance may have aided this process. One example of a woman speaking in relation to church authority was on the topic of abortion. She said, ”The first thing would be not to let the church know we had one.” When on the topic of divorce, one of the men brought up the issue of the role of women. ''In the Christian Reformed Church, particularly women have been homemakers. They sat at home and they've suffered a lot of things at the hand of man, and they've been silent partners." Another situation in class that affected women was a religious procedure that was followed at the beginning of each class. It was reading a verse(s) from the Bible that related to the topic, and saying a prayer. At first, only men were signed up for this responsibility. 159 Then a husband and wife did it together (she read and he prayed). About half—way through, a woman was to do it but she asked to have her name taken off the list, because she was uncomfortable with the idea. Finally, at the thirteenth meeting at Fellowship, a woman volunteered and followed through. That was a "first" for the group and an evidence, although a small one, of social change. The above areas are subject to interpretation. Some may be justi— fied in drawing conclusions about oppression, seeing pastoral figures as those who oppress from within and women as the oppressed. To a limited extent there may be oppression. It is a matter of degree, however, and not to be equated with the same kind of oppression that is spoken of by Freire in Brazil or other developing areas. The pastors in these churches may be directive and prescriptive. They may dominate meetings. But, they are also very self-less. They care for the oppressed, the suffering, and the needy. Domination would seem more present than oppression, according to a dictionary meaning of the terms. Oppression: "unjust or cruel exercise of authority or power” (Webster's, 1961, p. 589); Domination: "exercise of power in ruling" (Webster's, 1961, p. 246). It may be best to conclude that these pastors have been shaped by a western socio-economic and educational system whose values have been assimilated and assumed to be correct. There would appear to be domineering qualities, but not at the full measure described by Freire. The oppressor consciousness tends to transform everything surrounding it to an object of its domination.... everything is reduced to the status of objects at its disposal (Freire, 1970c, p. 44). 160 The degree of domination will also be seen under the headings of methods and programs. These both come together in the area that ”one of the basic elements of the relationship between oppressor and oppressed is prescription" (Freire, 1970c, p. 44). Prescriptive Methods The methods used in the participatory research used were described by learners as being different from the methods to which the learners were accustomed. One of the first times that the difference became obvious was in a note from someone at Fellowship, which said, "It is so different from the 'come to class, sit down, and listen' emphasis.’ The lecture, sit and listen", approach came out as the most normal and preferred procedure for adult religious education in the interviews conducted with the church pastors and education committee chairmen. The normal and preferred method for teaching was described by Fred, Adult Education Committee Chairman of Maranatha Church, as the lecture method. He said about teachers in his church, "Most of them would lecture. Most of them will use either an overhead (projector), chalkboard, or handouts." When asked about his personal point of View as to what kind of methods should be used in adult religious education, Fred's answer was the lecture for these tw0 reasons: I think yOu have to look at a couple things when you answer that question. I think you have to remember that people are coming from a busy day. And I think most people that come are in a mood to sit and listen. That's just a personal observation. I think that if you had too much involvement with the people, they're not going to come because they don't just want to continue working. We've talked about this in 161 terms of, let's say, a real in—depth Bible study. There's only a limited number of people in the church that really want to get into an in—depth Bible study where they've really got to work at it and Spend two to three hours of preparation on a Bible study seven days a week. There's not a lot of people who want to get involved in that. So then you're limited. Number two, I think that we've had a pretty balanced combination. I think that everybody's willing to go and sit and answer questions if they feel like answering, but don't feel obligated to if they don't want to. They want to come and sit there and relax and listen. There are certain people who want the involvement, but they're the people who have been sitting home all day. They love to get out and love to talk. So they can participate, but what I said originally, I think it's a personal observation where I think that most people want the lecture type. The perspective on methodology, in summary, is that the preferred method would be the one that gives the appropriate information in an interesting manner to those who sit, relax, and listen. Fred was a regular member of the Social Issues group. When asked if he thought that more was learned through participation, than in traditional "sit and listen” classes, he agreed that more was learned through involvement. But, with the following description, he pointed to the way in which adults have come to view learning as a passive activity. We've been taught that way our entire lives. When we've gone to church, we've been taught that way. We sit and we listen. We don't get involved at all. When we go to catechism we're also taught that way. When we go to Sunday School, we sit and listen to the Sunday School lesson. And so we've had that influence. When our people want to go to adult education, they don't view that as something to go where they have to work at it. They view it as sit and listen. Let the speaker stand up front and talk. When Harry Fretter, Chairman of the Education Committee at Fellowship, was asked about the kinds of methods that are used most frequently in 162 adult education, his answer was: It is basically a lecture method. For some reason or another, when you get a preacher or even a seminarian, people don't want to diSCuss as quickly. They want to listen. When you get a regular layman like yourself or me, they will open up. That always seems to be that way. I know, like when Rev. Weigers would try and try and try, and they just wouldn't open up. I work on Wednesday night, but I understand the same thing on Wednesday night happened with Rev. Faber. Prescriptive Planning Educational planning in the two churches is most frequently thought of in terms of speakers and topics. Education committees plan the events for the adults whom they hope will attend. The idea of adult learners being consulted or having a participative role in the process was unique to the participatory research in the two churches. The process by which educational planning is done for adult religious education classes at Maranatha church is described below. It is probably similar to the way many adult education classes are planned in Christian Reformed Churches in the Grand Rapids area, and perhaps other areas and other denominations as well. What we had done in the past was we had a meeting and we kind of jointly decide what we wanted. We'd go through a couple of the books [speakers bureau booklets available from the public relations departments of local colleges] that the colleges would pass out. Some people may have given us names of people that were interesting. We kind of brain- stormed for an hour or two and say, 'Okay, let's try to get so and so for the fall series. Let's try to get so and so for the winter series.’ And the chairman always ended up making all the phone calls to these people to try to line them up. When I had to get committee members for the new year, some of those were carry-over members. Some of the static I heard was that they didn't get involved encugh. So what I decided to do was to get them involved. How I did that was, we still met as a committee, a number of times, but I would break the group down into groups of two or three. (We had 163 about ten altogether. So it's a big committee, almost too big.) But, what I did then was to break into groups of two or three and say, 'You are going to be in charge of getting a fall series going.' Then we'd kind of talk about it as a total group, some of the topics we might like to have or some of the speakers we might like to have. Then I would leave it completely up to them to get in contact with the people, take care of the bulletin announcements, just kind of do all the leg work. So, they're getting involved. And it helps me, too, because I don't really have a lot of time to do all that work. ' Summarizing the process, committee members look at lists of speakers, ask around the church and community about ideas for speakers, think about what or whom people will be interested in hearing, and then make their plans. For example, the way in which a Wednesday evening adult education series would be planned is described as follows: Two or three people are responsible for that Wednesday night program. And we're brainstorming, but they've got to make the decision. In other words, the whole group says, 'I kind of like the looks of this topic.’ And, someone else might say, 'We had that last year. We had something similar to that. This speaker speaks on Such and such. Maybe We ought to try him.' So then what we will do is, we'll have another meeting maybe a month later. Each group will then come back with the names of a couple of speakers that they've talked to or they've called on. They found out some more information about it. One group came back to us and said, 'This is how it works. There's five or six speakers, or however many we need, and the topics can range from such and Such to such and Such. Does this sound good?' And then everybody kind of said, 'Yea. I think that sounds good,‘ or 'No, I don't like that.' We just kind of blend it together and usually they've got a little idea of what we're looking for so that when they come back we may have two options or even more than two. The pastor of Fellowship described a planning preference which is similar to that carried on at Maranatha- 164 I think the trend today, from everything I've been told and I agree with it whole—heartedly, is to offer small courses, elective type courses for eight or ten weeks on a given subject. And people are much more willing to commit them- selves to a course for eight to ten weeks if they know that there is an end point to it. There's something psychological about knowing that its going to end after that time and they'll commit themselves to that; Whereas, a lot of times they're rather fearful about joining a society, thinking that, 'Oh boy, I'm going to be stuck with this for the next 20 years!' That's one of the things that I would like to see more of in the adult education programs of our churches-—where we would get someone in, perhaps an outside speaker. We've been trying to do this the last couple of years-—getting some of these men who will come in for a series of lectures or presentations. That's one of the things I would like to see more of in adult education in the church. Even in California we were moving in that direction. You have to be in an area where you have that kind of person available who can teach these things. As a result of planning that looks for topical experts, classes are defined in terms of the people who lead them. When describing adult education at Maranatha, Fred gave the following description. We had Dr. DeBoer from Calvin and he did a six week series on the parables ... a good solid crowd, average about 50 or 60 people, and it held. We usually find at the end of five or six weeks it starts dropping off, but he held the people. We had Rev. Shell of Reformed Bible College. He Spoke on the minor prophets ... Our church knew of Rev. Shell's reputation because we've used him a lot. We had Dan Veltman, and he did a series on deceit in the media. We have Rev. Bill Rigg coming this winter, and his topic is going to be something along the lines of what the Bible has to say about divorce. The prominent place of the names of the adult education speakers is in contrast to what Freire and Dewey say about the planning of edu- cational programs. 165 They both say that thinking of learners must precede thinking of content. "It is to the reality which mediates men, and to the percep- tion of that reality held by educators and people, that we must go to find the program content of education" (Freire, 1970c, p. 86). "When education is based in theory and practice upon experience, it goes without saying that the organized subject-matter of the adult and the specialist cannot provide the starting point" (Dewey, 1938, p. 83). The Modernizing Church The preceding descriptions of the churches in which the partici— patory research groups were conducted would be classified by Freire as l 2 Modernizing rather than Traditional or Prophetic Churches (Freire, 1972). That is, they are not thoroughly Traditional in being loyal to the dominating social class, but, neither are they primarily Prophetic in seeking to commit themselves to the dominated classes and radically transform society. Rather, the church of the Modernizing sort "wants structural reforms, but not a radical transformation of structures” (Freire, 1972, p. 23). The Modernizing church, as described by Freire, adapts a conser— vative, reformist position in relation to society. It is loyal to and 1The term Modernizing Should not be confused with the issue of modernism that divided American Presbyterian churches in the 1920's. The modernism debates related to the issues of the truthfulness of Scripture, virgin birth, and the resurrection in reference to the Auburn Affirmation and other liberal initiatives. 2The term Prophetic here is meant to apply to the responsibility of the church to work for the liberation of the oppressed. It is not to be equated with the historic, Reformed use of the word which is almost exclusively in reference to the teaching of the Scripture and the doctrines of the Reformed faith. 4 166 functions according to the existing historical and social Structures. The approach to education of the Modernizing Church is described as follows: The modernizing church's concept of education and education's goals, as well as its implementation of education, are always tailored to harmonize with the general lines of its policy. And so, though it talks of 'liberating education,' that education is conditioned by its notion of liberation as an individual effort--a change of heart, not a social and historical endeavor by men. For that reason too, it stresses techniques. As a modernizing church sees it, a liberating education means no more than liberating the pupils from their blackboard, from passive classes and bookish curricula; it means just providing slide projectors and other visual aids, dynamic class plans and technico-professional instruction (Freire, 1972, p. 25). It is presently difficult to anticipate the effects of the parti- cipative approach upon the churches. However, one area of effect which is easier to identify is its effect on this researcher. This effect on the research will be the final category of this section. It is followed by a hypothesized model for adult religious education. Effect on the Researcher The final category to be discussed is Effect on the Researcher. Personal values have already been identified along with a commitment to attempt to live with these and their consequences. These values were identified under Section Three: Methodology. In addition to these, a particularly high regard is held for the point made by Goulet: "the investigator should make himself vulnerable ... existential immersion is indispensable to gain understanding of the motivational dynamics at work in societies” (Goulet, 1971, p. 39); and the stance suggested by Freire that dialogue must be permeated with faith, hope, love, and humility (Freire, 1970c, p. 79). The effects of these commitments had 167 a profound effect on the way in which the learning process was ex— perienced as a coordinator/participant. A few examples of these are that of: l. Becoming more dependent upon the local community as a source of knowledge, than upon academic institutions and textbooks. A month had been spent during the summer researching social issues in libraries and curriculum centers in the greater Grand Rapids area. In fact, articles were indexed in related periodicals (back three years) ‘in the libraries of Grand Valley State Colleges, Hope College, Reformed Bible College, and Calvin College. This researcher was going to be prepared. However, when topics were chosen by the groups, other sources became more obviously appropriate. For instance, when the Maranatha group wanted to study unemployment, the most readily accessible and relevant information was available locally. The Jenison Community Education building had an agency called, "Job Club”. The Director, Lisa, had resource material available on the effects of unemployment, procedures for applying for a job, and information about the ”Job Club" program. Lisa was also interested in establishing a link with the church groups. When preparing for the discussions on abortion, Planned Parenthood and Right to Life were consulted for resources. When the Maranatha grOup wanted to discuss a Community Center which was being proposed next door to the church, representatives of the project were invited to discuss it with the group. In addition, 168 group members volunteered, when asked, to bring in books, brochures, and newspaper clippings for sharing and discussion. The concern for academic resources became, instead, a concern for community resources. And, these community resources were not the ones that had been anticipated. 2. Becoming attached to people who had not been known before. The process of being coordinator of two groups, with a commitment to the people, requires involvement. Participatory learning activities helped the coordinator and members to begin knowing each other. Shared responsibility meant contacts during the week; sometimes in person, as with an Advisory Committee meeting, but more often via the phone. The telephone became an important vehicle for mediated interpersonal communication. The implications of developing relationship were not anticipated. There is now a certain amount of involvement in problems in people's lives; confidences and frustrations are shared. 3. Becoming an officer in the church. This point was the most surprising. There had previously been little regular involvement or responsibility to the Fellowship Village Church. Yet, by December the researcher was elected to the Consistory (church board) and to the position of President of its Executive Committee. While it is impos- sible to determine how individuals reasoned in their voting, there would seem to be some relationship between coordinating the adult church education class and being elected to the board of the church. 4. Becoming more fully aware of the relationship between theory 169 and practice. Prior to the participatory research group meetings, they were thought of as being almost incidental to this research. It has been realized more fully through the social experiences of this process that the interpretation of language (words) is based upon our percep- tion of social reality. The social experience of the groups has in- fluenced the way in which the participative theorists were interpreted and applied to this research. A survey of the above points Should enable the reader to realize that this was an overwhelming experience that stimulated and inspired. It is unfortunate that more people do not have the opportunity for Such learning. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS The preceding chapters have described the problem, precedent literature, methodology and findings of the project. These chapters will now be reviewed and used to construct a hypothesized model and raise questions for further research. Review and Summary This study began by asking the questions, What would happen if adults in religious education classes were to collectively share the responsibility for establishing their own educational intentions? What kind of decisions would they make? How would the group process be affected? and, How would the program which they established be different from traditional adult religious education classes? A survey of precedent literature showed that educational inten- tions have been expressed historically in different ways. Early definitions viewed the purpose of education to be the transmission of culture. Later, a concern was developed for the meeting of needs. A subsequent and recent intent was described in association with learning for reconstruction. This progression of intents was iden— tified in the literature of education in general and in religious education literature, as well. The concept of education for reconstruction was shown to be 170 171 related to participative approaches of learning. Representative theorists of participative learning whose positions were described were Dewey, Rogers, Goulet, Illich, and Freire. Two participatory research groups were worked with on Sunday mornings in the fall of 1982. The Fellowship Village church group met for thirteen times, and it continues to meet and be coordinated by this researcher. The Maranatha church group met for eleven weeks. There were many similarities between the groups, especially in the topics they selected and responses that were demonstrated. There was no collaboration between groups. The groups were structured according to the following participa- tive guidelines: learning is for development; groups should be crea- tive, supportive, and liberating; relationships are to be positive, cooperative, and considerate; participation is to be in problem iden— tification, planning, implementing procedures, and evaluation. These were explained as being consistent with the values of the researcher. A theme was identified in advance as the general area for learning. All participants attended because of an interest in this area of study. The topical theme was stated in question form. What are the Social Issues Which Should Concern Christians? The first meetings were used to identify generative themes through discussion and class—conducted surveys. The coordinator did not directly provide content information about any issue. Rather, he facilitated group processes for the identification of issues and con- sensus reaching about specific topics of study. 172 The approach taken toward program materials and methodology was that they were to be relevant to the immediate perception of social reality of the participants and were to contribute to group—centered- ness through dialogue, problem posing, and praxis. Feedback and evaluation were conducted during the on—going process of the meetings and through evaluation meetings at the end. Categorical characteristics of the meetings were described and explained as a result of analysis of taped meeting dialogue, inter— views, investigation of the community and churches, and field re— searcher's notes. These characteristics were determined primarily through the techniques of theory grounding (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). The categories to emerge were consistent with participative edu— cational theory, primarily that of Freire, but also Rogers, and, to a lesser extent, Dewey and Goulet. The categories related to a participative approach were: Con- tributing Factors, Deterring Factors, and Effect on the Researcher. The properties which contributed to a participative approach became: 1. Beginning Apprehension; 2. Unity through Acceptance; 3. Problem- Posing Dialogue; and 4. Reflection and Action or Praxis. The deterring factors were seen to relate to a more traditional perspective. They were: 1. Authority and Control; 2. Prescriptive Methods; 3. Pre- scriptive Planning; and 4. Modernizing Church. The final category was that of Effect on the Researcher. Its properties were: 1. Depen— dence upon Community; 2. Attachment to People; 3. Involvement in Church; and 4. Awareness of Theory/Practice Relationship. 173 The final phase of this project follows. It involved the con- struction of a hypothesized model for adult religious education. The model which follows is verbal and dialogical, rather than diagram— matic and systematic. It is in the same family models as those developed by Freire (1970c, pp. 59—74) and Rogers (1977, pp. 69-74). A summary of these two follows on figures ll and 12. One characteristic of the Freire and Rogers models is that they are in contrast to a traditional and opposing position. A contrast also emerged in this project as data were gathered from the research groups. It was particularly articulated by the pastors and committee chairmen. 174 Assumm .ss .uokaa .muamumv Homo: oufionm ”AH opowflm moonwummxo :fi nUHH .muflammu wcwmmSm .muflcwflp nuwz muuonnsm o>fluu< "macho .m zufl>wumouo .:0fiuom .wflmonu stm can mfimxamcm o>fiuowawwu .xuo>oo Imfiv .wcfl>aomlaoanoua .oswoamfim "mnocumz .q mamas: .umxamumo .umxcwsu Hmofiufluo .o>Humuwaoou .msoum moumcflvuooo numzomoe .m xuflamou Hafiuow Hagucoumflxw wuwuooou we cowumoouoa .muwsumoa cuflz mocmwuooom :H wwmoao>mv %Hamc0flucou:flloo newswoum .m oaaowm ww>uom .Eoumkw wonmflAQMumm mo mmoCm=Ofiomcoo Hmowufluo .:0fiumuonaa swan: "omoausm .H awvoz mcflmomnaoanoum uoaaflw on 0» maowmo> .wuommno “cowocwfl .wmumaowfl .Hm:v«>HmCH "msouo coaums IquCfl wo ummmcmuu aflumEoummm .coHuwu Iwawu .COfiumNfluoaoE .musuooq ”mwocumz mwcfiaafiomflv .mwvwa I3ocx mufimoaww mam mommomwom uuwzomwe Eoummm mo>umw .owwmazocx wmumHDEDUUN mqumcmuu .vo>woo Icouwum .wwnwuomwua .EnOmwca "Enumoum Eoumzm o On mamsww>flwCfi ummw< Homomusm Emuwxm wcwxcmm 175 Askuao .aa .akaa .mumwomv Honoz muowom "NH muswwm wcflcumma o>flmm>quIMWMH co mammnasm mammafls mo uwcumoa xn %Hflumaflum mums coaumnam>m mcaaanumaeloamm wow Auwafiaflmcommou muaooom pmcuqu wcficRmoH wCHsowucoo wofluouwow co mooom oumaflao wowsumwa m>fluMuflHflomm anouw m nuflB no ocoam amumoua G30 mmoam>ov umcummg moousowwp mowcumoa we huoflpm> movfl>oua poumuflawomm wwwooum wcwcumma How zuwaflnwmcommwu moum:m yOumuflHwomm HOOSUm empouCGUIsomuom use comuwa oaonz cos» omnumu .uooaamucfi :o mammcasm wouocwfl mooam> UflumuooEoQ umwm CH umox ucmwsuw EDEflcHE m um mH umsue Eoouwmmao :H was“ smflumuflu05u3< mzmno unocsum .Hozoa mommwmmoa uozumwe omvmazocx mo ucaofim monommms meo .:H musom ousuqu mw>flooou ucmvsum .wwvmazocx mommwmmoa umLome Hooaum HchWuoemuH may Hypothesized Model: 176 Contrasting Approaches To Adult Religious Education A proposed, hypothesized model is now presented in two stages. The first, by means of figure 13, summarizes the participative process in contrast with the traditional process. The characteristics of each category were formulated as a result of the data-gathering phases of this research. The second stage expands upon the categories of the Participative Approach to Adult Religious Educati on. These categories are stated in terms of hypothesized definitions, and followed by questions for fur- ther research. This approach acknowledges that "a principal purpose of models is to suggest research hypotheses" (Ryans, 1965, p. 59). Traditional Adult Religious Education I. The church is assumed to have a fixed structure. The educa- tional program is hierarchi— cally organized, patterned after the schooling model, with a fixed content and systematic procedures. 2. The intention is for the stu- dent to receive an understand- ing of the cultural heritage and tradition so as to be in— corporated into a system of beliefs and practices. 3. The teacher is a subject specialist, who authorita— tively imparts information to the recipients. l. Participative Adult Religious Education The church is assumed to be a flexible structure, "always reforming." The educational program is structured to be of relevance to the participants. Its organization and content are to be meaningful to the immediate cultural context. The intention is co—intention- ally determined by learners. It emerges from a climate in which persons are free to in- terpret their own reality. As such, group members are freed to participate in a liberating re— construction of their individual and group experiences. The teacher humanely coordinates participative, dialogical learning experiences. 4. 177 Traditional Adult Religious Education Students are dependent upon 4. teacher control. They passive- ly receive information which has been judged by the teacher to be of importance. The climate is characterized 5. by individualism and distance. The structure is teacher and subject centered for the trans- mission of information to individuals. The program is developed by 6. curriculum specialists in an isolated environment. It serves the existing social systems by prescribing materi— als and procedures according to the perceived needs of the writers and publishers. It is bookish. The methods are those which 7. transmit information for in- tellectual development. Lec- ture and memorization are primary examples of "sit and listen" methods. The results are increased 8. understanding or skill in prescribed content areas and a social conformity. Participative Adult Religious Education Learners are independent and interdependent persons of dig- nity, who assume responsibility individually and collectively for active involvement in co— intentionally determining the content and process of their own education. The group climate is character- ized by unity, acceptance, and cooperation. The structure is democratic, group centered, and convivial. The program is co-intentionally developed by coordinator and participants according to the existential interests of group members, using locally developed resources. The methods are those which in— volve action and reflection in a collective, valuing, group- building context. Examples are dialogue, problem—posing, and experiential discovery learning. The results involve change for the reconstruction of experience and of dominating or oppressive social structures. Figure 13: Contrasting Approaches to Adult Religious Education Participative Adult Religious Education Model Expanded The following categories expand upon the characteristics of the -;A 178 participative side of the model. This expansion is done generally and then in terms of biblical and theological referents. General Expansion of Participative Categories While the categories given here provide a more comprehensive description of the participative side of the model, they also are used to establish a link with the selected theological referents in the next section. Assumptions. The assumptions of this approach are that: educa- tion is for a liberating reconstruction of the experiences of indi- viduals and groups; leaders must, above everything else, be humane; in quality, quantity and motivation, learning is increased through interactive and collective participation; group climate can either [enhance or stifle development; the educational programs that are most meaningful to the participants are those which are relevant to their self-perceived and collectively defined interests; while religious edu- cation is primarily theological, in process it should be first of all sociological and secondly psychological in its orientation. Intentions. Intentions are co—intentionally determined by learners. It emerges when persons are free to interpret their reality. As such, group members are freed to participate in a liberating reconstruction of their individual and group experiences. The reconstruction of experience is achieved by the responsible participation of group members as a community of believers in Jesus Christ in dialogue actively reflecting and reflectively acting upon His Word and His world. A resulting critical consciousness enables 179 individuals to recreate their understanding of reality, promote personal and group development, and foster social change. Teacher Characteristics. The primary function of teachers is to be coordinators of participative, dialogical learning experiences. They are to be characterized as persons of faith, hope, love, and humility, as persons who are in communion with learners through genuineness, openness, understanding, and a high positive esteem, and as persons who provide co—intentional leadership, materials to which the group attaches significances, and a constructively critical example. Learner Characteristics. Learners are viewed as individuals of dignity and worth, rich in experience and able to collectively and individually assume responsibility for their own learning. They learn through active participation with others. Through dialogue, they are able to develop a critical consciousness of their own per— ceived social reality. Through reflection and action, working in unity, they will accept responsibility for a variety of levels of participation and act upon their perception of reality so as to change themselves and the social structures around them. Group Climate. The group climate is to be characterized by unity, acceptance, and cooperation. Learners and coordinators are united in accepting and prizing one another. A collective, coopera— tive, and considerate spirit facilitates a sense of group—centeredness. Democratic ideals are valued. A convivial structure is sought, so that relationships may be creative and freely interactive. 180 Program Characteristics. The program is to be based upon the perception of reality of the participants, group members, and coor- dinators, through analysis of the concrete, existential reality of the socially perceived community characteristics. The participants' perceived interests are the starting point of the program, rather than the organized subject matter. Direction for the program is to be found in, through, and with the participants, rather than by the books. The most meaningful resource materials are those which are gathered and developed within the local community. Methods. The methods are those which involve the group in active participation. Methods related to dialogue, problem—posing, discus- sion, reflection and action, collective decision making, discovery learning, creativity, and experiential and expressional learning are preferred. Results. Anticipated results are the individual and social reconstruction of experience. It is expected that individuals will give evidence of having a new awareness of reality, of having reshaped their own perception of reality, and of seeking to transform existing social structures. Action and reflection working together in praxis should result in a level of critical consciousness, leading indi- viduals to stimulate change. Biblical and Theological Referents The proposed model is directed toward the context of religious education within churches of the reformed and presbyterian heritage. Following are representative biblical and theological references 181 which support the categories of the hypothesized model. While the referents are not intended to be comprehensive in scope, they do provide theological foundation. Assumptions. Flexibility of structure and responsiveness to its members is a basic value of reformed and presbyterian churches. Theologically the church is referred to as institution and organism. As organism, it is a manifestation of all the gifted individuals who comprise its membership. As institution, it is formed and functions according to the leadership of its office bearers. But of the two, the institution is subordinate to the organism. The two are co-ordinate in a sense, and yet there is also a certain subordination of one to the other. The Church as institution or organization (mater fidelium) is a means to an end, and this is found in the Church as or— ganism, the community of believers (coetus fidelium) (Berkhof, 1939, p. 567). Intentions. Three concepts support the previously described intentions of adult religious education. These are cooperation, participation, and liberation. Cooperation and participation may be associated with the concept of the Communion of the Saints. This means First, that believers, all and every one, as members of Christ, are partakers of Him and of all His treasures and gifts; second, that everyone must know himself bound to employ his gifts readily and cheerfully for the advan— tage and salvation of other members (Heidelberg Catechism, Question 55, Board of Publications, 1959, p. 31). Liberation is pointed out in Isaiah 1:17 (”cease to do evil, learn to do good; seek justice, correction oppression ...") and in 182 such references as Psalm 9:9, 17:9, and Jeremiah 30:20. Teacher Characteristics. Those providing any kind of religious leadership, including teachers, are never to dominate. Calvin cites II Corinthians 13:10 as a basic leadership style. Leadership "was to avail only for edifiction, was to wear no semblance of domina- tion ..." (Olin, 1966, p. 77). Matthew 23:1-36 advocates humility. I Corinthians 13 points to faith, hope, and love; with love being superior. Learner Characteristics. Learners are to be treated with dig- nity. They are image bearers of God (Genesis 1:26, Psalm 8:5-8) with responsibility to be stewards of the created universe. They are n referred to as "a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation (I Peter 2:9). The promise is given that believers "reign with Him eternally over all creatures” (Board of Publications, 1959, p. 27). Group Climate. The atmosphere in adult religious education is to be characterized by warmth and interdependence. The interdepen— dence is seen in the identification of the church as a body with all of its parts functionally interdependent (I Corinthians 12:12-26, Ephesians 4:9-16). Calvin describes the church education process in maternal terms, saying that she must "nourish us at her breasts" (Calvin, 1957, p. 283). Program Characteristics. The orientation of programming to the existential realities of the participants is a basic characteristic 183 of education in the Bible. Parents were told to teach children ”when you sit in your house, when you walk by the way, and when you lie down, and when you rise" (Deuteronomy 6:7). Epistles were written to specific churches (e.g. Corinth, Ephesus, and Rome) in the midsts of their life struggles. Prophets taught in response to specific situations, including oppression. Therefore, the nature of the formulation and implementation of the program of adult religious education is primarily dependent upon the participant-learners and their social context. Secondarily, it is concerned with the resources which they determine to be of importance. Methods. Methods involving participation and dialogue are seen in the New Testament and Old alike. The methods of Jesus as a teacher caused people to participate in dialogue, to discuss dilemmas, to interpret their own reality, and to make individual and group changes. These methods have been categorized in terms of Stein's use of "Overstatement ... Hyperbole ... Pun ... Simile ... Metaphor ... Proverb ... Riddle ... Paradox ... A Fortiori Argument ... Irony ... Use of Questions ... Parabolic or Figurative Actions ... and Poetry” (Stein, 1978, pp. 7-33). A case is also made for learning through events and experiences by Nelson. He points out that in biblical cultures learning was thrOugh life and simulated life experiences. An example of these events is seen in Old Testament festivals such as Passover and the Feast of Tabernacles. These "draw us into thought, word, or action so that we must respond to the conditions we face" (Nelson, 1971, p. 89). 184 Results. Individual life change and social change have always been associated with the results of Christian education. However, they have not always been expected or anticipated. Biblical passages which emphasize reconstructionist results include: ”You will know the truth, and the truth will make you free" (John 8:32). "All who believed were together and had all things in common; and they sold their possessions and goods and distributed them to all, as any had need" (Acts 2:44, 45). ”'These men who have turned the world upside down have come here also'" (Acts 17:6). "If anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation; the old has passed away, behold the new has come" (II Corinthians 5:17). Suggestions for Further Research The description of the curriculum areas suggests a need for addi— tional research. The following are examples of questions which this research has raised. Research in educational assumptions and intentions: 1. What quantitative and qualitative factors indicate a readi— ness of individuals to participate in the establishment of educational intentions and in the total learning process? 2. How are the personality characteristics of individuals who participate different from those who prefer more passive learning con- texts? 185 3. What criteria could be established to identify learner appre- hension and to prevent frustration and withdrawal? 4. What is the correlation between attitude characteristics and level of participation? 5. What is the relationship between group climate and the inten- sity of learner participation? 6. How do the intentions established by learners reflect their perception of social reality? 7. Could culture free criteria or guidelines be provided to more accurately aid in the identification of generative themes? Research in teacher/learner characteristics: 1. How could a teacher education program be developed for adult religious education that would lead to facilitative personal qualities in adult leaders? 2. What educational process skills are most important for group coordinators, and how should these be taught? 3. What research and planning abilities are necessary for the discovery and development of community based resources? 4. How is learner self—perception related to the way in which a learner is perceived by other members of a group? 5. How can degrees of learner change be identified through the life of a participatory learning group? Research in group climate: 1. What characteristics differentiate a participative climate from a non—participative climate? 186 2. How does the issue of group climate differ between groups in different cultures? 3. What similarities and differences are there between the way leaders and learners perceive group climate characteristics? Research in program and methods: 1. What kind of learning structures and methods inhibit partici— pation and social change? 2. What kind of learning structures and methods encourage parti- cipation and social change? 3. What structures and methods provide maximum participation in a large group learning context? 4. Is there a resulting relationship between methodological change within a group and social change within the community in free societies? 5. Are there humane uses of educational technology? In what ways, or to what extent, does technology humanize or dehumanize the dialogi- cal process? 6. What factors or influences are perceived by participants to effect consensus reaching? 7. In adult religious education, what learning situations are the most suitable for participatory approaches? Under what circum- stances are methods for information giving or indoctrination to be used? Research in results or outcomes: 1. What criteria could be established to identify and determine the minimum acceptable learning outcomes? What would be the roles of 187 the learners and the leaders in such a determination? 2. What coordinator qualities are necessary to accept the often unpredictable outcomes of participatory learning? 3. What comparisons and contrasts would exist between sample groups in the same population, under similar conditions, if they learned or were taught by contrasting approaches, i.e., lecture vs. problem- posing dialogue? What social and psychological difference could be identified? Limitations and Contributions The points made by Ewert about the limitations of the participative process are also appropriate for this research. 1. Requires skillful coordinators. Coordinating dis— cussion ... requires patience and skill. Some coordinators have neither the temperament nor the ideological commit- ment necessary to facilitate the process of self-directed change. 2. Intimate knowledge of language and culture. Leading discussions ... requires an intimate understanding of the cultural context, including language and cognitive structures. 3. Deliberate pace of change. A process of analysis that incorporates an entire community frustrates those with specific timetables and an action orientation ... 4. Difficulty of praxis. The transition from talking about problems to solving them is frequently difficult. People disagree on what should be done, how, and when the action should begin. Some are always ready to move while others want to discuss the situation further. 5. Structural limitations. The decodifications in this study resulted in small, incremental actions following changes in perspectives about the nature of change and the role of external agents in that process. There were not, however, major structural changes in the community. (Ewert, 1981, p. 41). 188 In addition to the above points, it should also be added that if there is not a congruence between the intentions of the coordinator and those of the group, the expectations of the coordinator for the level of group participation may be unrealistic. Also, there may be ten- sions between the group and the larger institution in which it finds itself. A reconstructionist group within a domineering institution will likely experience conflict. On the other hand, there are many contributions that a participa— tive approach will make to adult religious education. According to the way in which this project was received in the churches, the contribu- tions should more than compensate for the limitations. The participative approach in the sample groups appeared to increase experiential involvement, to establish intentions which were meaningful to the learners according to their perception of social reality, to be relevant to their interests and problems, to create an atmosphere of acceptance and expectancy, and to stimulate action and reflection. In addition, there is a relationship between participation and educational intentions. Dewey states that there is no point of greater importance than ... the participation of the learner in the formation of the purposes which direct his activities in the learning process, just as there is no defect in traditional educa- tion greater than its failure to secure the active co- operation of the pupil in construction of the purposes involved in his studying (Dewey, 1938, p. 67). This study has attempted to describe and explain a participatory process for the determination of educational intentions. The emphasis 189 must be put upon the fact that this is a process and that it is still continuing in one of the groups. The need for attention to such process concerns is important and its value has been identified for religious education: The development of religious education has been so closely tied to the publishing of written materials that there is an overwhelming bias toward content issues and relative inattention to process concerns (Roberts, 1980, p. 513). It is hoped that this work will be a helpful explanation of one significant aspect of the educational process. It has brought to light the fact that there are a number of mutually interrelated par- ticipative characteristics which work together to enable a group to express and act upon its own curricular intentions. 190 APPENDIX A ADULTS DISCUSS SOCIAL ISSUES An adult education class will study the topic: What are the Social Issues Which Should Concern Christians? The course deals with social problems of importance to adults in the church. The problems studied are to be those identified and chosen by the participants. The learning methods to be used have been designed to encourage contributions by all group members. The group will be involved in a process of problem identification, analysis, and evaluation. It is assumed that individuals will take responsibility for the development of their own learning and the development of the group as a whole. Three phases are planned for the first meeting. Each phase is in response to one of the following questions. First, How shall we decide on which social issues to study? Second, What are the social issues we are going to study? Third, How should we study these social issues? These three phases are followed by a study of the issues them- selves. The class is coordinated by Burt Braunius of Reformed Bible College. All adults interested in learning about Christian concerns for social issues through participatory learning experiences are invited. 191 APPENDIX B LEARNING THROUGH PARTICIPATION The procedure being used for the study group is referred to as participatory research in educational literature. It is structured according to the following stages. Problem Identification. The first step in the cycle is to identify the problem to be addressed. Participatory research as a method of problem identification is based on the philosophy that people should be involved in all stages of the research effort, so that they may benefit from the knowledge gained and act to bring about social change (p. 3). Participation in Planning. ... Project planning involves an important sequence of steps. First of all, broad develop- ment goals need to be selected ... The specific objec— tives, or ways of attaining the goals, must then be iden— tified ... These steps are followed by an examination of various routes for reaching the objectives, assessing the resources required by and the probable consequences of each alternative, choosing an approach and deciding how to evalu— ate progress (p. 4). Implementing Projects. Participatory planning is an ongoing process that continues throughout the next stage, the imple- mentation of the project. Since participation in implemen— tation is widely considered the most essential ingredient for project success, the project must serve to realize participants' goals and provide them with tangible benefits (p. 4). The methods associated with participatory learning are described in this article as those which are non-manipulative. They include discussing. brainstorming, role-Dlaving. acting out problem situations. problem solving, group building games, peer teaching, participant made visual aids, drama, radio, tape recording, video cassette, and listening forums followed by discussion. Cultural appropriateness is an important factor in deciding upon method. The above quotes are from a monograph edited by Earl K. Brigham;- Can Participation Enhance Development? M.S.U. Non-Formal Education Information Center, N03 20, 1981. 193 APPENDIX C BIBLIOGRAPHY 0F PARTICIPATIVE METHODS Adult Education Association. How to Lead Discussions. Chicago: Adult Education Association, 1956. . How to Teach Adults. Chicago: Adult Education Association, 1960. ‘ Bergevin, Paul E. Design for Adult Education in the Church. Greenwich, Conn.: Seabury Press, 1958. . Adult Education Procedures. Greenwich, Conn.: Seabury Press, 1963. Borman, Ernest G. Discussion and Group Methods. N.Y.: Harper & Row, 1969. Craig, Robert L. Training and Development Handbook. N.Y.: McGraw- Hill, 1967. Cross, K. Patricia. Planning Non—traditional Programs. San Francisco: Jossey—Bass, 1974. Davis, Larry N. Planning, Conducting and Evaluating Workshops. Austin, Texas: Learning Concepts, 1974. Henry, Nelson B. (ed.). The Dynamics of Instructional Groups. Fifty-ninth Yearbook, Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, 1960. Hill, William F. Learning Thru Discussion. Beverly Hills: Sage, 1962. Hoopes, David S. (ed.). Readings in Intercultural Communication. Vol. 5. Pittsburg: Intercultural Programming, 1976. Hyman, Ronald T. Improving Discussion Leadership. N.Y.: Teachers College, 1980. lngalls, John D. A Trainers Guide to Androgogy. Waltham, Mass.: Data Education, 1972. Kelter, John W. Group Discussion Processes. N.Y.: Longman's, Green, 1957. Kidd, J. R. How Adults Learn. N.Y.: Association Press, 1959/1973. 194 Knowles, Malcolm S. Informal Adult Education. N.Y.: Association Press, 1950. Leypoldt, Martha M. Learning is Change. Valley Forge: Judson Press, 1971. Loughary, John W. Producing Workshops, Seminars, and Short Courses. Chicago: Association Press, 1979. Maier, Norman R. F. Problem Solving Discussions and Conferences. N.Y.: McGraw—Hill, 1973. McKeachie, Wilbert J. Teaching Tips. Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1969. Miles, Matthew B. Learning to Work in Groups. N.Y.: Teachers College, 1969. National Board of Y.M.C.A. Training Volunteer Leaders. N.Y.: National Board of Y.M.C.A., 1974. Osborn, Alex F. Applied Imagination. N.Y.: Charles Scribner's, 1963. Pusch, Margaret D. (ed.). Multicultural Education: A Cross Cultural Training Approach. LaGrange Park, 111.: Intercultural Network, 1979. Stanford, Gene. Learning Discussion Skills Through Games. N.Y.: Citation Press, 1969. Verduin, John R. Adults Teaching Adults. Austin, Texas: Learning Concepts, 1977. Zelko, Harold P. Successful Conference and Discussion Techniques. N.Y.: McGraw—Hill, 1957. 195 APPENDIX D BRAINSTORMING Purpose Brainstorming is a method used to help a group list solutions to a common problem while judgment is suspended from the solutions suggested. It attempts to accumulate a host of ideas in a non- critical, spontaneous fashion. Procedure The steps involved in setting up the brainstorming session involve: l. The group coordinator developing a statement of the problem to be brainstormed in clear, simple, and specific terms. This may be distributed or shown in written form. In addition, the background of the problem and examples of the kinds of ideas sought as suggested solutions may be provided. This information should be distributed at least two days before the meeting. 2. The session itself begins with a review of the problem and a statement of guidelines for the activity. These are: a. Criticism must be ruled out. Evaluation is conducted later. b. A free—flow and spontaneous spirit is encouraged. The wilder the better. c. Quantity is desired. The more ideas produced, the greater the possibility of finding useful solutions. d. Combining and building upon previously stated ideas is helpful. This establishes a chain reaction effect which 196 results in new ideas. 3. A secretary should be appointed to record the ideas so that the leader can concentrate on conducting the session. 4. Evaluation of the ideas takes place at a subsequent meeting. This may be by selected representatives or by the entire group. Brainstorming sessions last between 15 and 45 minutes. Time depends upon the nature of the problem and character of the group. Materials which are helpful for brainstorming are memos describing the problem which are distributed before the session, lined and numbered pages, and pencils for the secretary. Bibliography Miles, Matthew B. Learning to Work in Groups. N.Y.: Teacher College, 1959, p. 34. Osborn, Alex F. Applied Imagination. N.Y.: Charles Scribner's, 1963, pp. 152—196. 197 APPENDIX E BUZZ SESSION Purpose This activity provides a way by which a large group can, to a degree, participate in small group discussions. The small groups meet simultaneously to discuss a topic or complete a task. Procedure The group leader in preparation must have a clear purpose and a particular assignment for the buzz groups which will be agreeable to the participants. Small groups (buzz groups) of 4 to 6 persons are formed to discuss and resolve the same problem or iSSue. In forming the groups, the leader must be concerned with: the leadership of the small groups, the manner in which they will report on their discussion, and who will speak for each group. The buzz session is best for giving variety and support to a meeting which is dominated by information giving. The small groups need only to meet for around 10 minutes. A few minutes of this time should be alotted to getting acquainted and recording conclusions. Materials and facilities needed for this method include pencils, paper, and chairs that can be easily reorganized. Bibliography Bergevin, Paul; Morris, Dwight; Smith, Robert M. Adult Education Pro- cedures. Greenwich, Conn.: Seabury Press, 1963/1966, pp. 191—194. Knowles, Malcolm S. Informal Adult Education. N.Y.: Association Press, 1950, pp. 77, 78. 198 APPENDIX F CASE METHOD Purpose The case method is used to reveal solved problems and issues which relate to a particular situation, enable learners to consider various interpretations of a particular situation, and help individuals develop analytical skills. It is a written report which describes an event, incident, or situation which a group can analyze and discuss. They range in size from less than 500 to more than 3000 words, depending on the complexity of the situation and the nature of the group. Procedure The writing of a case study should be in answer to the questions: What background material should be described? Who said what to whom? What were the effects of the situation? What conclusions should be reached to resolve the problem under consideration? The discussion of cases often goes through four stages: condemna— tion and aggressive evaluation, frustration and rejection, widening perceptions, and alternative solutions and resolutions. The case method may be used in conjunction with the debriefing techniques of role play, buzz group procedures, and the general guide- lines of group discussion. It is always important that it concludes with solutions, resolutions, and application to other real life situations. The time required for this activity depends upon the complexity of 199 the case and the number of participants. The materials required are written case studies, pencils, and paper. Bibliography Bergevin, Paul; Morris, Dwight, and Smith, Robert M. Adult Education Procedures. Greenwich, Conn.: Seabury Press, 1963, pp. 209—211. Craig, Robert L. and Bittel, Lester R. Training and Development Handbook. N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, 1967, pp. 174—205. Sattler, William M. and Miller, N. Edd. Discussion and Conference. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice—Hall, 1954, pp. 347-361. 200 APPENDIX C CONCENSUS REACHING ACTIVITY: "MOST SERIOUS SOCIAL PROBLEMS" Purpose In discussion, a group should be able to arrive at a consensus for the solution of a problem. This means that everyone should be in agreement with the conclusion which has been reached. Working to reach a consensus identifies the intensity of group values to parti— cular problems. Procedure The purpose of this activity is to provide an experience during which the group develops consensus. If a topic like social concerns is being discussed, the group mem- bers can be asked to decide in order of importance the social problems they personally consider most harmful. They are to rank the problems, using 1 for the most harmful, 2 for the second most harmful, etc. The ranking should be done individually in five minutes. Then participants are to be divided into groups of six to eight to discuss their rankings until they reach a consensus and develop a group rank order list. Allow a 30 minute maximum. After the allotted time or when consensus has been reached, de- briefing questions should be discussed. These can include: How did the group go about dealing with disagreements? Which members felt badly because they had to give in to group opinion? Would taking a vote have been an effective procedure? Is vote taking desirable? Paper, pencils, a written list of randomly vi and chairs which can be easily rearranged are necessary ' activity. Bibliography Stanford, Gene and Stanford, Barbara Dodds. Learning Discussion Skills Through Games. N.Y.: Citation Press, 1969. 202 APPENDIX H CONSENSUS REACHING ACTIVITY: "SHOULD THE CHILD BE TAUGHT"--PARENTAL VALUES Purpose A discussion about value orientations relating to childhood edu- cation aims to aid learners in identifying the culturally based nature of many values. Procedure Learners should be organized into small groups of three or four. Each group is assigned one of the ”Should the Child" questions on the following page to discuss. Allow about ten minutes to reach agreement as to how to answer the question. Reassemble and ask each group to describe their answer and the thinking behind it. Discussion will often bring out conflicting conclusions about each question. The leader should point out differences. Discussion should lead participants to a greater understanding of the cultural relativity of many of their values. The total time for this activity is at least 30 minutes. Paper, pencils, and the "Should the Child" questions are the necessary materials. Bibliography Pusch, Margaret D. (ed.). Multicultural Education: A Cross Cultural Training Approach. LaGrange Park, 111.: Interculteral Network, 1979, pp. 143, 144. 203 SHOULD THE CHILD LIST 1. Should the child be taught to respect and accept obligations to parents or to become an independent person? (Each sentence begins with Should the Child be Taught —- this introductory phrase will not be re—written for each question.) 2. ... to control or use the natural environment or to value and derive spiritual sustenance from it? 3. ... that we are progressing toward better and better life or that we should appreciate what we have? 4. ... to be motivated by the challenge of competition or by the benefits of cooperation? 5. ... to judge people according to separate or specific actions or as a whole person? 6. ... to relate to many people and have many friends or to have only a few deep friendships? 7. ... to confront problems and interpersonal relations directly‘ or to be sensitive and avoid embarrassing confrontations with people? 8. ... to think that what they do or achieve is more important than who they are, the quality of their being? 9. ... to believe that work and play should be separated or woven together so that play or personal enjoyment occurs during their work? 10. ... to feel that everyone is equal or that there are levels of status relative to age, family role, profession, education, etc.? 204 APPENDIX I DISCUSSION: GENERAL GUIDELINES Purpose Group discussion is a co-intentional, co—operative conversation about a topic of mutual interest to the participants. It provides an opportunity for learners to share their ideas and experiences with others for the purpose of solving some problem or deciding upon some action. It assumes a willingness to share ideas which will contribute to the thinking of others as well as an openness to change ones views on the basis of what is learned from others. Procedure Effective discussions have as their foundation: leaders who facilitate, not manipulate; participants who cooperate, not dominate; a topic that stimulates, not debilitates; and a seating arrangement that accommodates, not frustrates the group communication process. The following steps inSure problem identification, consideration, and resolution in discussion. 1. Begin with a problem or issue that is clearly understood by all. group members. This may mean advance preparation by participants or orientation to the problem prior to the discussion. 2. Agree upon causes of the problem. 3. Survey the possible solutions. 4. Choose the seemingly best solution. 5. Reach consensus that the solution resolves the originally stated problem. 205 Discussions need time to develop. A 45 minute minimum is sug- gested. Chairs should be in a circle. A round table discussion is desirable where individuals wish to take notes. Paper, pencils, and photocopies of content to be discussed will aid the process. Bibliography Bergevin, Paul; Morris, Dwight; Smith, Robert M. Adult Education Procedures. Greenwich, Conn.: Seabury Press, 1963/1966. Kidd, J. R. How Adults Learn. N.Y.: Association Press, 1959/1973. Knowles, Malcolm S. Informal Adult Education. N.Y.: Association Press, 1950. 206 GROUP DISCUSSION WORKSHEET NAME: Statement of Problem Significant Information on the Problem Key Causes of the Problem Alternative Solutions Consensus of Best Solution References 207 APPENDIX J DISCUSSION: PERCEPTUAL RELATIVITY Purpose Points of view are often based upon seeing an issue from one vantage point. Individuals are not easily willing to understand or shift to another point of view. This activity gives a viSual example of different perceptions of reality. Procedure Show the picture of the "Ambiguous Lady" or other perception pic- tures to the group with the overhead projector. Ask everyone to write down what they saw. Ask group members to describe what they saw. Regarding the ”Ambiguous Lady," have those individuals who saw one or the other describe what was seen until all can see both the old woman and the young girl. Discuss feelings and attitudes about: influences of environment on perception, stereotyping, and other reasons for differences of opinion. The materials necessary for this activity include an overhead pro- jector, screen, and perception pictures. It should take around 15 minutes. Bibliography lngalls, John D. A Trainers Guide to Androgogy. Waltham, Mass.: Data Education, 1972, pp. 169—176. Pusch, Margaret D. Multicultural Education. LaGrange, 111.: Inter- cultural Network, 1979, pp. 110, 111. 208 209 APPENDIX K GETTING ACQUAINTED: BIOGRAPHICAL GUESSING GAME Purpose Members of a new group are helped to get acquainted through this activity. The biographical topics which are chosen also provide ini— tial insights into value positions held by participants. Procedure During a three minute period everyone is to guess out loud the biography of one of the members. Guesses can be made about general characteristics such as place of birth, parents, education, interests, employment, and present family or about more specific characteristics such as those to be studied by the group. For example, under the heading of "social issues," topics could be introduced regarding the role of women in society, nuclear disarmament, world hunger, or racial prejudice. At the end of three minutes the person is to spend up to another three minutes telling how close the guesses came to the truth. Then the next person becomes the object of the game. If the group is small this activity can involve the total group. A larger group may be broken into sub—groups of four to six persons. Bibliography Y.M.C.A. Training Volunteer Leaders. N.Y.: National Board of Young Men's Christian Associations, 1974, p. 12. 210 APPENDIX L GROUP DISCUSSION: "AS IF ..." ACTIVITY Purpose Normally, persons believe that there is a cause-effect relationship between their values and behaviors, between premises that they hold and the outworking of societal structures. Through discussion, partici- pants are able to pursue the implication of several statements which reflect specified social values. Procedure Divide the group into pairs or triads, and assign each to consider in detail what a society would be like if it were based on one of the premises listed on the "As If ... Worksheet”. Allow 15 minutes, then regroup and report to the entire group, eliciting other comments as well. The discussion may be concluded with examples of consistencies and inconsistencies between what is believed and how society is struc- tured. Bibliography Hoopes, David S. (ed.). Readings in Intercultural Communication. Vol. V. Pittsburgh: Intercultural Programming, 1976, p. 160. 211 AS IF ... WORKSHEET In the space provided, describe what society would be like IF it believed implicitly: 1. in a non—technological approach to life rather than one that values the benefits of technology. 2. that the rights of groups are more important than those of the individual. 3. that all communication must be through written or spoken word. 4. that the preservation of human life be valued more highly than the quality of human life. 212 APPENDIX M ORGANIZING ACTIVITY Purpose The organizational framework of the group is decided through this activity. Discussion is centered around problems of organizational structure. Should organization be rigid or loose? How much control is needed and who should provide it? How should leadership be shared? These are among the issues which should be resolved through this dis- cussion. Procedure For this activity, the group coordinator gives the task of deter— mining the organizational framework to the entire group. He then steps back and turns the group loose to perform it. He in no way makes suggestions or interferes. Through this process, the group should in— ductively come to an agreeable definition about a desirable structure. The procedure begins with students seated in a circle and the coordinator on the outside. Only the following directions are given: "You are to decide upon a new coordinator and on how the group is to be organized so that all who are present can actively participate in it. The entire group must agree upon the answer and appoint someone to describe the procedure in writing." The directions are to be repeated until all understand them. Then the coordinator is not to talk to the group until the problem is solved. The activity should take 45 minutes to an hour. Bibliography Stanford, Gene and Stanford, Barbara Dodda. Through Games. N.Y.: Citation Press, 214 APPENDIX N PROBLEM ANALYSIS METHOD Purpose This method begins with a statement of the problem by the group leader. From the starting point of the problem statement, a systematic process is followed to identify needs, rank them in order of priority, and make commitments for their resolution. Therefore, the purpose of the method is to involve all participants in an immediate resolution of a problem. The value of the conclusion is judged in terms of the willingness of members to support the final solution. Procedure The procedure involves seven steps. 1. Stating the problem. 2. Making a refined problem statement. 3. Providing evidence to support the problem statement. 4. Determining what needs to happen to solve the problem. 5. Separation of learning needs from nonlearning (decisional, structural, environmental) needs. 6. Assigning of priorities. 7. Testing of commitment. Bibliography Davis, Larry N. Planning, Conducting and Evaluating Workshops. Austin, Texas: Learning Concepts, 1974, pp. 40-44. 215 APPENDIX 0 POSTING PROBLEMS Purpose The method of posting problems provides a way for participants to express problems about either the content or process of the learning group. These expressions inform the leader and other participants without causing defensive reactions. The purpose for posting then is to make public individual concerns so that those which are most worthy of consideration can be discussed by the group at a later time. Procedure The procedure should be used when a new topic is being introduced, a new process initiated, or when there is a need for faciliting the open expression of member anxiety. To use this method the leader asks the group to identify their problems and concerns on a given topic. The problems voiced are written down on chalkboard or newsprint by the leader or a secretary. Care must be taken that the intended meaning is understood. The leader may briefly restate the problem to clarify its meaning. Then other problems can be asked for. The list which has been generated is used for future discussion and problem solving. The purpose of posting problems is not for evaluation or solution but rather it is for problem identification. Materials necessary for this activity include chalkboard, chalk, and eraser, or newsprint and markers. Around 15 minutes may be allowed for McKeachie, Wilbert J " ‘réaéhi‘h‘g‘r’igs. ’ ‘i’éa‘ifi‘g‘ésfif ' 1969, pp. 15-17. 217 APPENDIX P RESPONSIBILITY BUILDING ACTIVITY Purpose This activity illustrates the role of the participant in the dis- cussion group as that of being a responsible learner. The point of the activity is for members to realize that for a discussion group to be effective, all of its members must be making responsible contributions. Procedure The group is seated in a circle. The members are given a question to discuss about which everyone will know something from his own experience. An example of a question which could be discussed is: What social issue is most important to our group? The rules for discussing the question are: 1. every person must contribute; 2. members are to contribute in random order, not just in consecutive order around the circle. The group is divided into two parts if it is large. If there are tWO groups, each discusses the assigned question. The section which has followed the rules explicitly in the shortest period of time is the winner. If there is only one group, a time limit should be set on the discussion. Debriefing type questions which may be asked after the discussion include: How did the group decide in what order individuals were going to speak? Who kept order? What means were used to encourage the more 219 APPENDIX Q ROLE PLAY Purpose Role plays help people see themselves more clearly, learn inter- personal communication skills, understand the dynamics of roles and relationships, and provide concrete illustrations of abstract concepts. Procedure The written role play can be constructed through the following steps: 1. Identify the general problem area; 2. Collect specific facts about the situation; 3. Identify the specific purpose of the play; 4. Write out the role play. This last step should include written descriptions of the background and setting, specific data about player roles, an observation guide for group members, and debriefing questions for final analysis. The implementation of the play normally consists of three parts: the warm—up, the role play itself, and the debriefing. The warm—up prepares group members for the activity itself. It provides a climate in which participants develop an attitude of appre- ciation for the event as it is described and its contents introduced. The role play itself has the participants assuming, as nearly as they can, the assigned roles, keeping in mind the goal of the role play, and enjoying the role without attempting to entertain. The debriefing should ask questions of the group. These include: How did you feel when you realized what the situation was like? What 220 was a major concern of yours as the situation progressed? Can you describe any "ah ha" concepts that you had during the play? What could be said about other life situations such as this? Bibliography Bergevin, Paul; Morris, Dwight; and Smith, Robert M. Adult Education Procedures. Greenwich, Conn.: 1963, pp. 135-147. Craig, Robert L. and Bittel, Lester R. Training and Development Handbook. N.Y.: McGraw—Hill, 1967, pp. 206-224. Ward, Ted. ”Designs for Role Play." Unpublished document, 1978. 221 APPENDIX R SOCIAL STATUS ROLE PLAYS Purpose Social status is not a remote abstraction, but it is a reality in every group. Attitudes and behaviors are affected by this issue. The Suggested role plays are an aid to identification and understanding of this issue. Procedure Following is a starter list of situations which illustrate social status. 1. facing a judge in traffic court for having run a red light; 2. asking a professor for an extension on a term paper; 3. ordering a hamburger in a small restaurant; 4. asking a pastor to explain a church teaching; 5. meeting the Governor at an official function; 6. making an appointment with a busy doctor or lawyer; 7. discussing, briefly, with,the principal of the school a disciplinary problem that has occurred in your classroom. These role—plays should be done rather completely. Participants should be asked what preparatory steps would be taken for the encounter, i.e., clothes, grooming, etc. The leader should be prepared to supply details of background and setting, i.e., if the other person is of the same or a different cultural background, etc., if requested. Each role- play should be discussed and analyzed in terms of what behavioral changes 222 the participant displayed and how cultural origin influences behavior in situations of this nature. Other details regarding the preparation and implementation of role plays may be found on the sheet entitled "Role Play." Bibliography Pusch, Margaret D. (ed.). Multicultural Education: A Cross Cultural Training Approach. LaGrange Park, 111.: Intercultural Network, 1979, p. 148. 223 APPENDIX S SOCIAL SITUATION SURVEY SHEET General Information Think about the individuals present at the first group meeting. From what you knew about them before the meeting or from what you heard at the meeting: ' a) What kinds of work do they do? b) How do they spend their leisure time? c) What kind of family relationships do they have and how do they feel about these relationships? d) What are their attitudes to people who are socially and economically above or below them? e) What words are used to express their feelings? What words express happiness? What words express frustration? Social Problems A social problem is a situation which is perceived as a dehumanizing dilemma encountered by a group of people. Use the following questions as a basis for identifying the problems which are closest to the lives of persons in the group: a) What phrases have persons used (in the group or friends of yours) that may express social problems? Write several, exactly as they were spoken. b) What attitudes have you observed recently in individuals around you that may be the result of a social problem? c) Briefly describe one social problem situation which you have observed that made the strongest immediate impact upon your feelings. 224 APPENDIX T INTERACT ION BULLETIN Meeting Date 1. Reflections from our last meeting: group coordinator's summary of the reactions of participants to our last meeting. 2. Activities for this meeting. a. Connections: a devotional reflection about the relationship of a personal life situation to a biblical concept which has social implications. b. Learning activities: planned experiences through which partici- pants share responsibility for their own learning. 3. Actions and reactions resulting from this meeting. a. What actions will you take as a result of this meeting? b. What feelings do you have about the meaningfulness of the meeting, the quality of your contributions, the contributions of other group members, and those of the group coordinator? 225 APPENDIX U PRO-ABORT ION MATERIAL I. THE BENEFITS OF LEGAL ABORTION While public health and social benefits alone are not a reason to favor legal abortion (i.e. we should be for free choice even if there were no such benefits). it is nonetheless legitimate to take note of them. Reduction in deaths to women. During I973. the first year that abortions were legal nationally. there was a 40 percent drop in maternal mortality from abortions Deaths from illegal abortions dropped from 39 in l972 to three in 1976. Reduction in infant deaths. Adolescents and poor women are apt to ha\e less prenatal care and therefore run a greater risk of ha\ing a premature deliyery. They and other women with medical problems also have a greater risk ofhaying unhealthy babies. Where women have had the option of legal abortion. there has been a decline in the infant mortality rate. For example. in New York City in 1969 (before abortion was legal). the infant mortality rate was 24 4 per 1.000 live births, compared with l7.8 in 1977. Reduction in high-risk adolescent births. Teenage mothers and their babies face considerably higher health risks than women in their 20‘s. For example. the death rate from complications of pregnancy is l3 percent greater for lS-l9-year-olds and 60 percent greater for girls 14 or younger compared with women in their early 20:. Babies born to teenagers are two to three times more likely to die in their first year than babies born to women in their early 20's. The availability of legal abortion has enabled many teenagers to postpone childbearing Also. teenage mothers are more likely to experience financial hardship. limited education. reduced , em lmment o ortunities. and unstable marria es than women who 05! one childbearin P . PP E P P until their 20's. Diagnosis ofbirth defects. With the availability ofamniocentesis for the detection ofgenetic or metabolic defects, women who were afraid to have a child because of known genetic traits are now able to have a child and be assured it is normal before birth. Reduction in out-of—wedlock births. Children born out-of-wedlock tend to be disadyantaged in terms oftheir physical and economic wellbcing. accordingtoseyeral research studies. Since nearly three in four (74%) ofthe women obtaining abortions in 1975 were unmarried, widowed or divorced, legal abortion has prevented some out-of-wedlock births from occuring. even though the proportion of such births continues to rise. Benefit to society. Unwanted children often receive less parental care and attention than their peers; they may be disadvantaged psychologically, socially, and economically. Parents of unwanted children are more likely to abuse them. in l975. 840 children under the age of 14 were murdered by their parents; a national survey estimated that in 1975 between 460.000 and 750,000 children were beaten to'the point of injury by their parents.’ The availability of abortion may help to reduce the incidence of unwanted children and thereby reduce the abuse and depriyation inflicted on children in our society. 226 APPENDIX V PRO-LIFE MATERIAL In May, 1968, the American Colleges of Obstetrics and Gynecology officially stated," . . . the inherent risk of an abortion is not fully appreciated, both by many in the profession, and certainly not by the public.” In February, 1971, Dr. J. K. Russell, Chief of Obstetrics and Gynecology at the University of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, England, reported, ”The public got the idea that therapeutic abortion is easily and quickly done and carries few complications. This is wrong. There are complications." Dr. Paul Brenner, who helped liberalize California’s abortion law, said in April, 1972, ”Now, five years later, I am appalled at the conditions under which the vast majority of these now-legalized procedures are being performed." Mothers who abort their babies may suffer infection, hemorrhage, sterility, blood clotting, brain damage, perforation or laceration of the womb and other dangerous complications and, later in life, tubal pregnancies, chronic miscarriage or premature birth. Is it enough for you simply to believe abortion is wrong? Or must you do more to protect the right to life of unborn infants who cannot speak for themselves? Many people say they will not oppose abortion because (1) they would like to reduce the number of ”unwanted” children, (2) they believe in women's rights, (3) they are reluctant to impose their moral or religious beliefs on the rest of society. Let’s look at the facts. First there is a great shortage of babies for adoption. If an expectant mother does not want her child, isn't it better to let the child be born and adopted by a couple who wants children than to kill the child by abortion? Second, although many women’s rights proponents say a woman has a right to do what she wants with her own body, does this include the right to destroy the body and the life of the human being (perhaps another tiny woman) within her womb? Finally, let’s take the question of imposed morality. The morality —— or lack of it — in a society is set by the people within that society. You are a member of this society, of this state. You have a voice — and a civic obligation — to help provide the atmosphere in which you want your children and your children’s children to be raised. You must speak for the unborn child. You must talk to friends, relatives, neighbors — and convince them the unborn child is a human being with a God-given right to life. You must make them understand that killing by abortion should be opposed as vigorously as any other destruction of human life. Ir 227 APPENDIX W ADULT EDUCATION CLASS EVALUATION When thinking about our group, what examples or thoughts do you have about how you, others, or the group as a whole have developed since we began? How Would you, in your own words, describe our group structure? Have you seen creativity, supportiveness, interdependence, liberating attitudes, community spirit, or what? What comes to your mind regarding our relationships? Do you feel that persons have had a high regard for each other? Was there a cooperative and considerate spirit? How do you now feel about adult education through participation in such areas as problem identification, planning, learning procedures, and evaluation? When the group resumes (or if it were to be repeated), how could it be improved? What are some things of which you would like to see more or less? 228 PERSONALITY PROFILE Name (optional) 1. I am ____ male ____ female 2. Age _____l9—25 ____ 36—45 ____ 56—65 ____ 26—35 _____46—55 _____66 & over 3. I am _____ single _____ widowed _____ separated _____ married _____ divorced 4. Do you have children? _____ How many? _____ What ages? ____ 5. Employment classification _____ student ____ unemployed _____working part—time ____ housewife working full-time retired other 6. How many years have you been a member of this church? 7. How long have you attended adult church education classes on a regular basis? 8. What is your educational background? high school college graduate school some college or specialized education. What kind? 9. How would you describe your social—economic status? lower class middle class lower middle class upper middle class upper class 10. In what ways have you participated in adult learning experiences in church in the past (e.g. read Scripture, prayed, contributed to dis— cussion, conducted class, other)? 229 APPENDIX X IMPLEMENTING PARTICIPATIVE ADULT RELIGIOUS EDUCATION The guidelines which follow are intended to provide an overview of principles and procedures for establishing participative learning groups in adult religious education. The guidelines briefly describe some of the unique characteristics of a participative approach. 1. Approach the group experience with the aSSumption that learning is through active, group participation. This does not mean that there cannot also be other times of individual instruction in which learners are recipients. Rather, it establishes a context in which persons accept responsibility for determining purposes, processes, content of the materials, organizational structures, and procedures for evaluation. 2. Communion between the group and the coordinator is a primary relational requirement. All participants are to be highly esteemed and treated with dignity. The group coordinator is to be a person of faith, hope, love, and humility. Leadership is co-intentional, seeking relevance and vulnerability to the lives of the participants. 3. Begin the grOup process with a general area of interest, topical domain, or with no topic at all. The topics and content must emerge from discussion process. Suggested beginning governing assump- tions to share with the group include: learning is for development; groups should be creative, supportive, and liberating; relationships 230 are to be positive, cooperative, and considerate; participation is to be in problem identification, planning, learning procedures, and evaluation. 4. Procedures should be provided through which individuals can concretely analyze and describe their perception of reality. Topics for study may then be selected by participants according to their self—perceived interests. The direction of the group learning experience is to be found in, through, and with persons rather than in textbooks. 5. Define the specific interests of the group through the for— mation of an advisory committee. The committee should be made of four to six volunteers from the larger group. These persons meet with the coordinator to construct a proposal for class approval. The proposal is to include such considerations as weekly topics, recommended readings, meeting structures, and a description of participant and coordinator responsibilities. 6. Methods should provide for active, concrete participation in learning experiences and reflective attention upon these experiences. Discussion type methods which deal with problematic situations are mandatory. Ask the following kinds of questions. What is the problem? Where, in what situations, does this problem most frequently occur? What are examples of this problem in the world of our experiences, that is in our present, perceived reality? How shall we redefine the problem so that it relates to the reality of our experiences? What can we do to free ourselves from the problem and create a better social 231 situation? 7. Select and produce resource materials which, where possible are gathered from and developed within the local community. Begin with the interests of the participants. Then, look for materials within the community (e.g. newspapers, magazines, community agencies, church and public libraries). Finally, turn to books and curriculum publishers where they support the interests and perceptions of the participants. 8. Results are to be expected which go beyond intellectual knowledge and toward the individual and social reconstruction of experience. A group which is free to change has the potential of being a threat to the church as institution. 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We'd appreciate an opportunity to read it when you've finished. Cordially, BOA D OF PUBLICATIONS A. Ja es Heynen tive Director AJszo cc: H. Smit 7.530 KALAMAZOO AVENUE SE 0 GRAND RAPIDS MICHIGAN 49560 0 TELEPHONE 610/141-169 Andrews University Press, Berrien Springs, Michigan 49104 March 23, 1983 Burt D. Braunius 1588 Southlawn Jenison, MI 49428 Dear Mr. Braunius: You have our full permission to use the illustration on page 90 of Philosophy and Education by George Knight in your Ph.D. dissertation. Dr. Knight is the originator of the illustration. I assume, of course, that your footnotes will give proper credit for the source. Sincerely, .'13 . - . envoy; idiom] Robert E. Firth Director REFzss MICHIGAN STQTE UNIV. LIBRQRIES lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 31293104631217