A TEST AMONG PRE - TEEN CHILDREN EXAMINING THE MEDIATION PROCESSES OUTLINED IN THE MODEL OF INTUITIVE MORALITY AND EXEMPLARS By Lindsay Hahn A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Communication Doctor of Philosophy 2018 2 ABSTRACT A TEST AMONG PRE - TEEN CHILDREN EXAMINING THE MEDIATION PROCESSES OUTLINED IN THE MODEL OF INTUITIVE MORALITY AND EXEMPLARS By Lindsay Hahn The present study test ed the mediation processes outlined in the short - term component of the model of intuitive morality and exemplars ( MIME ). The MIME holds that narrative media emphasizing certain moral intuitions can increase the accessibility of those intuitions in audi ences , which subsequently affect s related behaviors among audience members . The present study test ed this mediatio n process in a pre - teen audience . Previous s upport for this mediation model was limited to adults . P articipants ( N = 210; 48.8% female; M age = 11.74; age range 10 - 13) were exposed to one of five versions of a comic book. Each version was manipulated to emphasize one of four moral intuitions identified in the MIME , or no moral intuition. After exposure, participants complete d a measure of intuition accessibility ( M - MIA) , followed by a moral measure of intuitively motivated behavio r ( M - MIMB ) . The M - MIMB was designed to give participants the opportunity to share tokens with intuition - relevant others . Three major outcomes were observed : F or participants in all four moral conditions, exposure to a comic book emphasizing an intuition (1) directly increased both the accessibility of that intuition and (2) directly increased their sharing with intuition - relevant others . Moreover, (3 ) media was mediated by intuition accessibility in model s for care and (in one analysis) fairness, but no other intuition. T he findings are discussed in terms of their value iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without an army of people working behind the scenes with me. For all of their work, social support, and cheerleading along the way, I am eternally grateful. First and foremost, I am indebted to my advisor, Ron Tamborini. The dedication that he exhibits toward his students is simply immeasurable. I, along with many, owe my success to him. Had it not been for his consistent and unwavering support, there is simply no way I would be where I am to day. I must also thank my committee, Drs. Rene Weber, Gary Bente, and John Sherry for the time and expertise th ey devoted to both this project and the preliminary project that preceded it. The three of them helped me to think about my data specifically, an d communication science broadly, in more meaningful, impactful ways. I am especially grateful to Dr. John Sherry for helping a country girl from Appalachia feel capable of accomplishing anything. Conversations with him shaped who I am not only as a scholar , but also as a person. I am also grateful to Dr. Allison Eden for helping me grow as a scholar. Her mentorship and friendship played an integral role in the completion of my PhD. I am appreciative of her and the rest of the First and Second Tapirs for the ir support when the going got tough. I also thank my research assistants, Kaitlin Leen and Jenessa McCloskey. Further, I am grateful to Jenny Rosenberg, Phillip Reed, and JD Ponder for first instilling in me the idea that a PhD was possible. Finally, I owe the world to my family. David, Mom, Dad, and Levi, thank you for always supporting me through the rollercoaster that has been my college years. I could not have done this without your persistent love, encouragement , and cheerleading along the way. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES v i LIST OF FIGURES vi i INTRODUCTION 1 THE MODEL OF INTUIT IVE MORALITY AND EXEMPLARS 2 Intuitions 4 Intuition Accessibility 6 Intuition Accessibility as a Me chanism of Media In fluence 7 Mediation Indicated in the Short - Term Component of the MIME 9 Evidence of the mediation pro cesses indicated in the MIME 1 0 Applying the MIME to children 12 13 Overvi e w of the Current Study 16 METHOD 17 Sample 17 Procedure 18 Measures 19 M - MIA 19 M - MIMB 20 Additional measures 24 Stimulus 24 Basic story 24 Conditions 25 RESULTS 26 Manipulation Check 26 ion Pr ocess in Pre - teen Children 28 Post Hoc Analyses 33 D ISCUSSION 39 Overview of Findings 39 40 Reconceptualizing pros ocial and antisocial media 40 43 ation in pre - teen audiences 46 The Moral Measure of Intuitively Motivated Behavior ( M - MIMB) 49 Limitations 54 v Conclusion 61 ENDNOTES 65 APPENDICES 69 APPENDIX A: List of words used in the M - MIA. 70 APPENDIX B : Survey Instrument . 71 APPENDIX C : Plot point variations according to condition. 80 REFERENCES 83 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Frequency of intuition representatio ns in each comic condition. 27 Table 2. Means and standard deviations for accessibility indices and tokens shared. 28 Table 3. Path coefficients and indirect effect s for four mediation models in P rocess. 33 Table 4. Observed and corrected correlations for all model pa ths and model fit statistics. 35 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. The MIME 9 Figure 2. Results of care media tion analysis in Process. 29 Figure 3. Results of fairness mediation analysis i n Process. 30 Figure 4. Results of loyalty media tion analysis in Process. 31 Figure 5. Results of authority media tion analysis in Process. 32 Figure 6 . Results of care mediation analysis using product rule method. 36 Figure 7 . Results of fairness mediation analysi s using product rule method. 37 Figure 8 . Results of loyalty mediation anal ysis using product rule method. 37 Figure 9 . Result s of authority mediation analysi s using product rule method. 38 1 INTRODUCTION Previous research has shown that the accessibility of moral intuitions can mediate the i nfluence of media exposure on behavior al intention ( Tamborini Hofer et al., 2017 ) . Recent experimental work has begun to examine these processes in children, but to date has only accessibility. Guided by the model of intuitive morality and exemplars (MIME; Tamborini, 2013), the present study attempts to replicate existing work examining the influence of media content on pre - teen accessibility , and extend this work by investigating the ability of intuition accessibility to media t e the influence of media exposure on their actual behavior. This investigation goes beyond previous work on simple measures of judgment, but not resulting behavior (e.g., Cingel & Krcmar, 2017; Cingel, Sumter, & van de Leur, 2017; Krcmar & Cooke, 2001; Krcmar & Curtis, 2003; Martins & Wilson, 2012; Mares & Acosta, 2008; Mares & Braun, 2013). This paper begins with an overview of the MIME and its associated mechanisms, and follows with a d iscussion of research that sh eds light on the ability of intuitions to mediate the impact of narrative media content on audience behavior. It then goes on to describe previous research su pporting this mediation and the present study. 2 THE MODEL OF INTUITIVE MORALITY AND EXEMPLARS The model of intuitive morality and exemplars (MIME; Tamborini, 2013) draws on exemplification theory (Zillmann , 2002 ) and the social intuitionist perspective (Haidt, 2001) to explain narrative media content impact moral judgments and behav iors that result from these judgments . The MIME outlines a reciprocal relationship between media and audiences wherein , in the short - term, media content intuitive motivations (or intuitions) is thought to shape the importance that audiences place on th o se specific intuitions . In the long term, the importance that a udi ences place on these intuiti ons subsequently drive s the popular ity of and desire for media content featuring th em . As a result, writers and producers fe ature these popular i ntuitions in their content more often, which in turn increases the availability of these intuitions in media environ ments and the likelihood that they will reactivate the short - term processes outlin ed in the MIME. Although several models feature the reciprocal relationship between media exposure and audience response, t he MIME offers a unique perspective on the relationship between narrative media content , moral judgement , and behavior . The MIME distinguishes itself from most previ ous research o n media influence by (a) its and beliefs, and (b ) its application of broadly applicable theory from moral psychology outlining mechanisms that shape moral judgment and res ulting behaviors . First, and perhaps most importantly, the MIME descri be s the mechanisms that govern the media relationship to its audience in terms of resulting from changes in attitudes or beliefs , the MIME focuses on the mediating role of more 3 basal instincts that function intuitive ly as motivat ors . The se instincts, termed intuitions , are conceptualized as more primitive concepts than attitudes and are argued to be the foundation upon which attitudes and beliefs are constructed (e.g., Haidt & Joseph, 2007; Tamborini, 2013) . In doing this, the model buil discussion of a unique set of moral intuitions and the mechanisms that govern their influence. Second , the MIME makes detailed predictions about the manner in which media c ontent that highlights moral intuitions should influence specific classes of moral judgement and resulting behavio r in audiences . Notably, the class of judgments and behaviors resulting from any one intuition is, by nature, broad . For instance, observing an episo de of Law and Order in which detective s rightfully convict and imprison a murderer should in crease the accessibility of justice in audiences , strengthening the influence of justice considerations in subsequent judgments where fairness concerns are relevant . Yet the result of f avoring fairness over other values can manifest itself in a broad range of judgments related to justice, honesty, or equity , and in the subsequent elicitation of behaviors shaped by these judgments, such as decisions to punish, tell th e truth, or shar e . MIME predictions therefore go beyond previous accounts of media influence , which advocat e a pure rationalist approach to abstract modeling as a mechanism through which an observer l earns moral principles or standards (i.e., scripts) in one context and then applies them to other cases that rely on the same rules (e.g., Bandura, 20 0 1 ; Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963) . By contrast, the MIME maintains that media exposure can regulate intuition accessibility , and through this, afford some intuitions greater influence on subsequent moral judgments spanning a wide range of intuitively motivated behaviors and contexts. 4 The MIME draws its notion of intuitions from the social intuitionist perspective (Haidt, 2001) and MFT (Haidt & J oseph, 2007). Unlike rationalist perspectives offered by Kant (1964/1785) and Kohlberg (1964, 1981) which argue that moral judgment is the result of ca lculated, deliberate evaluation, the social intuitionist perspective suggests that intuitive gut - response s (intuitions) are the primary determinant of moral judgment , and that deliberative, rational responses occur when different intuitive preferences are in conflict within the mind of an audience member ( Lewis, Tamborini, & Weber, 2014 ; Tamborini, 2011). Building on this perspective, MFT reasons that moral judgments are the result of a distinct set of moral intuitions ( or instincts ) that are innate . T he current research operates under theoretical assumption s consistent with this belief . Haidt (2001) define s these intuitions as evolutionarily - developed, biologically - rooted sensitivities that produce positive or negative affect in response to actions that are inherently beneficial or detrimental to society (Haidt & Bjorklund, 2008; Haidt & Joseph, 2007; Tambo rini, 2013). These affective responses form the foundations upon which evaluations of right and wrong are made, and are thought to shape attitudes and behaviors. MFT (Haidt & Joseph, 2007) identifies five domains within which these foundations (i.e., moral intuitions) operate, and maintains that they exist and operate across all ages ( Hamlin, 2013; Turiel, 2008 ) and cultures (Miller, 2008). Intuitions The MIME adopts , which serve as the key mechanism through which it describes media influence on audiences . The five intuitions include: care, fairness, ingroup loyalty, respect for authority, and purity. The first intuition, care, is a sensitivity associated with Care might be 5 exemplified by positive affect in response to observ ing acts of kindness and providing support to those in need , or negative affect in response to observing acts of harm and indifference to those in need. Evidence of a care instinct is apparent even in you ng children who demonstrate a sensitivity to distressed others ( e.g., Martin & Clark, 1982; Sagi & Hoffman, 1976) and empathy - Waxler, Radke - Yarrow, Wagner, & Chapman, 1992; see also Hamlin, 2013; Turiel, 2008; and Warneken & Tomasello, 2009 for review s ). The fairness intuition is rooted in concerns for truth, justice, and equity. T h is might be exemplified by positive affect in response to observing acts representing the equitable distribution of resources and the upholding of justice , or n egative affect from observing acts of cheating and lying. Like care, considerable evidence support s the existence of this intuition in infants who value equal and/or equitable distributi on (see Swanson, 2016 and Turiel, 2008 for review s; see also Geraci & Surian, 2011 ; and Sloane, Baillargeon, & Premack, 2012 ). Ingroup loyalty is associated with a bias in favor of of outgroups. Ingroup loyalty might be ex emplified by p ositive affect in response to observing acts of , or negative affect from observing acts of betrayal or treason. Evidence for this intuition can be seen in research on young children demonstrat ing that infants like puppets who help similar others or hinder dissimilar others ( e.g., Hamlin, Mahajan, Liberman, & Wynn, 2013). Respect for authority represents a sensitivity favoring legitimate authority that is rooted in reverence for institutional dominance hierarch ies and social traditions . This might be exemplified by positive affect in response to observed acts that show respect ful obedience to 6 benevolent leaders , or negative affect in response to defiance and rebellion . Several studies have suggest ed that children as young as six years old in both Western and Eastern cultures (Kim & Turiel, 1996) understand social and organizational authority hierarchies (Laupa, 1991; Laupa & Turiel, 1986; Tisak, 1986). Finally, the purity intuition pertains to sacre dness and social decontamination. Purity might be exemplified by p ositive affect in response to observing acts of nobility or the temperance of hedonistic desires , and negative affect from observing socially degenerative excesses. Although purity is includ ed in investigations examining adult moral sensitivities (e.g., Graham et al., 2011; Koleva, Graham, Iyer, Ditto, & Haidt, 2012), n o known research illustrates the existence of this intuition in children. Moreover, there is considerable conceptual ambiguit y surrounding the purity intuition, as it is presently unclear whether purity may simply represent a sensitivity toward the combination of all other moral intuitions, a sensitivity toward some broader, more general moral righteousness, or something else al together. As such, this domain will not be included for inspection in the present study . Intuition A ccessibility Although each of these intuitions are thought to exist in all humans , the role they play in decision making is expected to vary across individuals and groups. S ome intuitions can become more accessible , and through this attain greater influence than other intuition s on subsequent moral judgment s and resulting behavior . One way that intuitions can become enduringly more accessible is th rough socialization , a process through which social group are passed on to subsequent generations . Haidt and Bjorklund (2008) argue d that humans have a unique specific domains of moral knowledge and, as 7 a resul t of fairness, ingroups, [ or In other words, socialization can afford greater influence to different moral intuitions . According to the social intuiti onist perspective, socialization can be thought of as a process that increas es the accessibility of particular moral intuitions . This strengthens the ability of those intuitions to guide moral judgment s and behaviors at the expense o f other, less salient intuitions. For children in particular, Haidt and Bjorklund (2008) note d tuning up of intuition accessibility (p. 210) . T he extent to which any one or any one set of (and subsequent behavior) is driven by this socialization process. S ocialization can occur as the outcome of direct moral education, peers, and various other influences ; however , mass media have been explicitly noted in MFT research as an agent of long - term socialization (e.g., Haidt & Bjorklund, 2008). The MIME adds to this perspective to also consider the potential of media exposure to impact the short - term accessibility of these intuitions. Intuition A ccessibility as a M echanism of Me dia I nfluence Building on exemplification theory (Zillmann, 2002) and social intuitionist logic, the MIME (Tamborini, 2013) suggests that media exemplars featuring specific intuitions can increase both the short - term and long - term accessibility of those intuitions in audiences, which can subsequently influence ju dgment s or behaviors. In this manner , the model posits that the influence of media exposure on judgement and behavior is mediated by intuition accessibility. Accordingly, specific intuitions are made more accessible in a receiver s mind 8 through recent or frequent exposure to exemplars that highlight the intuition. Recent exposure - term accessibility, whereas frequent exposure increases its long - term accessibility ( for reviews see Riddle, Potter, Metzgar, Nabi, & Linz, 2011; R oskos - Ewoldsen et al., 2002 ) . That is, both recent and frequent exposure to media content exemplifying certain intuitions can influence both the short - term and long - term hierarchies of intuitions in audiences. If an intuition s accessibility is increased to the point where it has become more salient than another intuition or set of intuitions, the MIME holds that th is more salient intuition will play a larger role in determining subsequent moral judgments or related behavior . For example, viewing a courtroom drama in which an attorney successfully brings a criminal to justice should temporarily increase the accessibility of fairness in audiences. If those viewers then found themselves in a situation where they had to make a choice influenced by confl icting moral considerations, fairness concerns should outweigh other equally relevant concerns. As such, if a viewer had to choose whether to let a friend cut in line (thereby violating fairness to uphold loyalty ) or not cut in line (thereby upholding fairness and violating loyalty ), the MIME would predict t hat t he viewer would be less likely to let the friend cut ( thus upholding fairness at the cost of loyalty ; Tamborini, 2013 ). T he MIME claims that the activation of one intuition c ould drive an entire class of judgments and behaviors resulting from that intuition . In the above case, an increase in the salience of the fairness intuition led to an equit able behavior, but it could have just as well led to behaviors of sharing, equal di stribution, or honesty. Hence, the MIME considers intuition 9 ac cessibility as a mechanism of influence judgments and behaviors. Mediation Indicated in the Short - Term Component of the MIME The mechanism of influence outlined by the MIME short - term processes suggest a simple mediation model in which exposure to media exem plifying an intuition in fluences the accessibility s related judgment and/or behavior (path B), and the influence of exposure to the media exemplar on related judgment / behavior (p (s ee Figure 1). Similar models have been put forward in other areas of research examining the manner in which environmental factors influence human behavior. These inquiries describe and test models that propose prime - to - behavior mechanisms (Wheeler & DeMarree, 2009; Wheeler DeMarree, & Petty, 2014). Like logic offered by the MIME, research on prime - to - behavior mechanisms explicates how the activation of different cognitive mechanisms can subsequently influence behavior. More precisely, this line of work sugges ts a mediation process where events in the environ ment serve as primes, which activat e cognitive mechanisms that facilitate behavioral outcomes. Research on prime - to - behavior mechanisms suggests support for dual - process theories which outline both automatic (i.e., intuitive) and controlled (i.e., deliberate) processes as 10 mechanisms of behavior al effects (see Gawronski & Payne, 2011; Sherman et al., 2014; Payne, Brown - Iannuzzi, & Loersch, 2016). This predicted mediation aligns closely with the short - term predictions of the MIME, which also draws from dual - process notion s of influence . In the MIME , media exemplars highlighting specific intuitions (i.e., environmental primes) increase the salience of those intuitions in audiences (i.e., activate cognitive mechanisms), which can influence subsequent behavior. Evidence of the media tion processes indicate d in the MIME . Research in different areas shows support for the mediation processes suggested by the MI M E. This includes evidence showing that media exemplars influence intuition accessibility (path A), that intuition acces sibility influences judgment/behavior (path B), and that intuition accessibility also accessibility. S ome of this evidence can be seen in recent experiments on college - aged adults . For instance, in two experimental studies, exposure to a courtroom drama containing exemplars highlighting both care and fairness temporarily increased the accessibility of both intuitions ( Tamborini Lewis et al., 2016; Tamborini, Prabhu, Lewis, Grizzard, & Eden, 2016 ) . In a third experiment , exposure to separate news stories containing exemplars highlighting either the plight of tornado victims or an Iran nuclear crisis temporar ily increased the accessibility of the care and authority intuitions respectively ( Tamborini, Prabhu, Hahn, Idzik, & Wang, 2014 ). Of particular interest to the present investigation , evidence for intuition accessibility has also been foun d in research on pre - teen child ren . In two experiments , children aged 10 - 13 were exposed to content highlighting either care, fairness, loyalty, or 11 authority . E xposure was varied by having children listen to different verbal prompts in the first study and reading different comic books in the second ( Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al., 2017 ). Results of both studies suggested that priming care, fairness, and loyalty increased the salience of those intuitions. In the second study , the priming eff ect for authority accessibility was found as well. Taken together, these findings offer strong support for contention that media content highlighting specific intuitions can increase accessibility , particularly when those audie nces are children ( see Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Klebig et al., 2017; Tamborini, Hahn, Prabhu, Klebig, & Grall, 2017) . Evidence supporting the second path in the model, that intuition accessibility can impact behavior , can be found in several other areas of research. For example, in research showing the relationship between intuition accessibility and video game - game choices , Joeckel, Bowman , and Dogruel ( 2012 ) demonstrated that moral accessibility decreased the probability of players committing moral violations in the game. W in - game moral violation decisions followed no discernable pattern. Similar studies by Tamborini , Bowman et al. (2016) and Weaver and Lewis (2012 ) found evidence that - game decisions were predicted by moral accessibility. Although little effort has been made to examine the entire mediation model, one investigation provides evidence that intuition accessibility can mediate the impact of media exposure on judgment s and behavior . In an experimental study manipulating exposure to news of the 2015 Paris terrorist attack , Tamborini , Hofer et al. ( 2017 ) found that exposure to news of a terrorist attack increased the salience of the authority intuition, which mediated the nega tive effect of the news story on donation intentions toward outsiders . This finding comes close to 12 providing support for the prime - to - behavior mechanism suggested in the short - term component of the MIME , as it shows mediation of behavioral intent. As such, mediation of actual behavior is still unobserved. Notably , this study look ed only at an adult sample and the . The present study attempts to examine th e mediating ability of fo ur of the five intuitions in pre - teen children. Applying the MIME to c hildren . If the temporary accessibility of moral intuitions and related behavior in adult population s can be shaped by exposure to media exemplars, th is effect occurs despite the fact th at the moral sensitivities in this population have been solidified by years of media exposure and other forms of socialization. Under these conditions , we might expect the likelihood of seeing any change in these sensitivities due to a single , brief media exposure would be limited. MIME logic suggests effects on both intuition accessibility and resulting behavior should be stronger for children than adults , given that zation (e.g., Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Klebig et al., 2017; Tamborini , Hahn et al., 2017) . It should be easier for media to influence the intuition accessibility and resulting behavior of children because the chronic structure of their intuitions ha s not yet become set as would be expected in adults. Preliminary evidence of this has been found in at least one study the intuition accessibility of attentive pre - teen children ( Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al., 2017 ). Although no direct comparison exists, the pre - teens appeared larger than this effect in comparable studies on adults ( e.g., Tamborini , Lewis et al., 2016; Tamborini , Prabhu et 13 al., 2016 ). Consistent with contention of stronger effects , prime - to - behavior researchers have suggest ed that behavioral primes (Harris, Bargh, Brownell, 2009, p. 11). The present study seeks to replicate and extend previous MIME research on pre - teen children by examining the extent to which intuition accessibility a cts as their behavior (see Figure 1). rough a MIME Perspective Most previous research investigating the effect of moral content in media on pre - teens ha s examined this influence without consideration of m oral intuitions or their accessibility. F or moral behaviors such as sharing and helping ( see Fisch, 2005 ), and immoral behaviors such as aggression and violen ce (see American Academy of Pediatrics, 2001; Anderson et al., 2003; Mares & Braun, 2013; Paik & Comstock, 1994). A lthough these studies do not look at intuition accessibility, they may have examined processes governed by intuition accessibility, without including this as a mediator in their research. Had they done so, intuition accessibility may have account ed for their findings. While this might seem inconsequential given that the models used could account for their findings, the inclusion of intuition accessibility would p rovide greater benefit because it would allow those co pre - teen children specifically , to understand how specific features in media content , related to the motivations that intuitively drive character behavior , judgments, and behaviors. For example, a recent study showed that exposure to a television show featuring intergroup conflict increased the likelihood that adolescents advocated for the social exclu sion of outgroup members (Mares & Braun, 2013). Although t his study did not take 14 intuition accessibility into account in its model, in line with MIME logic, we would argue that effect on social exclusion judgments was likely mediated by a n increase in the accessibility of the ingroup loyalty intuition. B oth high - conflict stimuli conditions exemplars highlighting out group bias. The first, an episode of , featured conflict between a protagonist and a rival group , both of whom are in pursuit of a boy. The second, an episode of Unfabulous , featured a protagonist who contemplat ed the idea of abandonin g her friends to join a new social group , realiz ed her new social group wa s mean, and eventually rejoin ed her original social group. In both of these episodes , ingroup loyalty wa s both exemplified by the protagonist and then associated with positive affect . Additionally , both episodes portray ed ingroup loyalty as (1) accompanied by humor, (2) tied directly to the storyline , and (3) highlighted with exciting, action - oriented visuals. A ll three of these narrative devices have been noted for their ability to strengthen Mares and Braun (2013) explain their findi ngs in accordance mental scripts from socially negative content. However, the MIME would explain these findings differently : V iewing narratives that associate reward with the upholding of ingrou p loyalty (in this case, by showing bias toward ingroup and against outgroups) increased the accessibility of ingroup loyalty in audiences , which led viewers to support the exclusion of out group me mbers . By drawing on a comprehensive theory of moral judgement on decision making. 15 Moreover, it does this in a manner that does not pre - define specific behaviors (e.g., social exclusion) as good or bad , without atten tion to the motivation for that behavior . Although some research in this area has considered motivations (e.g., Wilson et al., 2000 ), the various motivations included seem limited, and the features that distinguish them as moral (or altruistic) seem unclea r. B uilding on social intuitionist logic, the MIME provide s a wide - ranging scheme that de tail s unique dimensions of moral intuitive motivation s and the features that make them moral . For example, it would suggest that content featuring exemplars of ingroup loyalty would increase the accessibility of ingroup loyalty among audience members, and through this impact a whole host of judgments and behavioral outcomes involving ingroup loyalt y. These outcomes could range from those typically deemed beneficial to society, such as acts of team solidarity or patriotism, to those typically deemed detrimental to society, such as acts of social exclusion or bigotry. Without a coherent scheme for ide ntifying the dimensions of moral motivation and the mechanisms that shape their influence on moral judgements , it is difficult to determine their impact on behavior. When using an equivocal definition of right and wrong , content selected to represent behavior m ight easily exemplify another positive dime n sion of morality that has been overlook ed . If so, it should elicit positive audience outcomes along a dimension of morality uncon sidered during the act s se l e ction as an exemplar of bad/negative behavior . By focusing on motivations, t implications . T he present study attempts to advance work in this area by incorporating this focus in research examining the effect of moral intuitions in pr e - teen . 16 Overview of t he Current S tudy The MIME describes a mediation process in which media exemplars influence intuition accessibility (path A), intuition accessibility influences judgment/behavior (path B), and intuition accessibility Support for path A has been shown in adults ( Tamborini , Lewis et al., 2016; Tamborini , Prabhu et al., 2016 ) and pre - teen children ( Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al., 2017 ) . Qualified s upport for path B and the full mediation (path C) has been shown in one study with adults ( Tamborini , Hofer et al., 2017 ). Although this mediation has not been tested with children, intuition accessibility has likely shaped the findings of previous research on pre - teen children . However , intuition research . accurate , w e should see evidence of media increase the accessib ility of intuitions in adolescents, which should subsequently influence their behavior in these domains . To examine these claims, the present study test s the foll owing hypothesis : H1: The accessibility of the (a) care, (b) fairness, (c) loyalty, or (d) authority intuitions will mediate the influence of exposure to narrative content that highlights that intuition on pre - teen behavior related to that intuition . 17 METHOD hypothesis was tested on a sample of pre - teen children in a school environment. To manipulate intuition accessibility with media, pre - teens were presented one of five different stimuli in the form of comic books manipulated to highlight either one of the four moral intuitions, or no moral intuition (as a c omparison c ondition ) . P articipants then complete d the moral measure of intuition accessibility (M - MIA ; Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al., 2017 ) . Finally, participants played an economic game which we termed the moral measure of intuitively motivated behavior (M - MIMB) . In this game, participants were given tokens and the opportunity to keep the tokens for themselves, or share those tokens with three other people (targets ) in a manner that would exempl ify an act of care, fairness, ingroup loyalty, or respect for authority . Sample To estimate the sample size necessary for sufficient statistical power, an a priori Monte Carlo power analysis for indirect effects using correla tions was conducted using an R application built by Schoemann, Boulton, and Short (2017). Target p ower (1 was set at 0.80 , sample size was estimated in steps of five , 1000 repl ications were conducted, and 20 000 Monte Carlo draws were taken for each replication. The random seed was set at 1234 and the confidence level was set to 95%. Average c orrelation estimates were obtained from previous research for the a path ( r = .33 based on Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al., [ 2017 ] corrected for attenuation ) , b path ( r = . 22 based on Tamborini, Hofer et al., [ 2017 ] corrected for attenuation ) , and c path ( r = .09 based on Tamborini, Hofer et al., 2017) . Analysis revealed a sample size of N = 205 attentive participants wa s necessary in the present study . 18 Based on the expectation that slightly more than 60% of the child participants would pay close attention, a total of 310 participants ( 50 % female) in grades 5 - 7 ( M age = 11. 77 ) were recruited from two rural Pennsylvania middle school s . Participants were recruited via a parental consent form that was sent home to all students in grades 5 - 7. Parents were asked to consent child was selected for participation. Befo re partaking , participants were asked to sign a child assent form. Participants were compensated for finishing the study with small gifts such as pencil toppers, stickers, and toys. Eighty - eight participants reported paying only a little attention to the stimulus, and two reported not paying attention at all. Only data from participants who reported that they paid close attention to the stimulus w ere retained for further analyses. This resulted in a total of N = 21 0 participants who were included in the final analyses ( 48.8% female; M age = 11.74). Procedure Students who obtained parental consent to participate were seated together in their classroom w hile the researcher passed out 20 tokens and a p aper survey ( containing the assent, the M - MIA, instructions on how to complete the M - MIMB , and demographic questions) to each participant. The research er read the assent instructions aloud, and willing participants were then instructed to write their name on the assent form. Those willing to participate after the assent procedure were randomly assigned to one of the five conditions by being handed one of five versions of a comic book that ha d been manipulated to highlight one of the four moral intuitions or no moral intuition . After this, the researcher instructed participants on how to complete all survey items and the M - MIMB . Participants were instructed to (1) read their comic 19 book silently to themselves, (2) fill out a sur vey , and (3) make some decisions about who would get tokens they can exchange for prizes. The survey contained the M - MIA (which was completed before the M - MI M B) and additional demographic measures (completed after the M - MI M B). The entire duration of their participation lasted around 30 minutes. Measures M - MIA . In order to assess the extent to which each intuition was accessible in audiences after exposure to the comic, the moral measure of intuition accessibility (M - MIA) was emp loyed. The M - MIA is a scale developed specifically for use with pre - teen children and tested in research on adolescents between the ages of 10 and 13 years (Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al., 2017). The M - MIA provides participants with a list of four w ords ( each associated with one of the four moral intuitions) and asks them to choose which they think it is better or worse to be. Six sets of word s are included in the measure. Three sets contain positively valenced words representing each of the four intuitions, and three other sets contain negatively valenced words representing each of the four intuitions. Respondents are asked to choose the positive ly valenced words according to which you think it is BETTER to be and the negatively valenced words according to which you think it is WORSE to be. Although this scale was initially developed by Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al. (2017), several alt erations were made to the scale in the present study in order to improve its reliability. All words used in the present Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall (2017) version, can be viewed in Appendix A. 20 T he words participants chose were expected to correspond to the intuitions most accessible in their minds . For instance, if fairness is made accessible in participants, it is expected that for the positively valenced items , they would choose words associated w ith upholding fairness (e.g., fair or tell the truth ) as best . For the negatively valenced items, it is expected that they would choose words related to violating fairness (e.g., unfair or lie ) as worst. To score responses on this measure, words associated with the intuition chosen (i.e., be st or wors t ) were coded as 1. Words associated with intuitions not chosen were coded as 0. Then, the number of times each word was chosen was summed for each of the four intuitions, resulting in 4 variables (a sum for care, fairness, loyalty, and authority). After this, the summed scores were divided by 6 to give the average score across all six items. Thus, four indices were created for each p articipant representing the percentage of times each intuition was chosen throughout the measure : one for care ( ordinal = .52 ) , fairness ( ordinal = .53 ) , loyalty ( ordinal = .64 ) , and authority ( ordinal = .57 ) . In this index, a score of 1 indicate d that the intuition was chosen in all six items, and a score of 0 indicate d that the intuition was not chosen in any of the items. M - MIMB . After finishing the M - MIA, participants completed the moral measure of intuitively motivated behavior (M - MIMB) . The M - MIMB is a new procedure developed to assess intuitively motivated moral behavior . It uses a protocol adapted from the dictator game (e.g., Benenson, Pascoe, & Radmore, 2007; Gummerum, Keller, Takezawa, & Mata, 2008 ; Kahneman, Knetsch, & Thaler, 1986 ). In this pro tocol , p articipants are given 20 tokens at the beginning of the game , followed by the opportunity to share th o se tokens with others (targets) or keep the tokens for themselves. P articipants were told that they would be able to exchange the token s 21 they kept for small prizes when the study was complete . In actuality, all participants received the same number (three) of prizes for their remaining tokens (even if the number was zero) when the study was completed. P articipants were shown pictures of three children (targets) who we re of a similar age to them. The first target represent ed an exemplar of care. The text under her photograph read: you. She is feeling pretty sad because her family has to move to a ne w town and she will have to make new friends. She has been crying a lot in school. The poor girl really needs help target represent ed an exemplar of grade above you. She is going to be the next president of her class and will be in charge of making new school policies. She is the most respected leader the school has ever had, and students always listen to her advice target represent ed an exemplar of l oyalty. The text under her photograph same neighborhood as you. Last year, she was a student in the same class as you are in now, and she even has the same birthday as you. So you have a lot more in common with her than the other tw The target pictures and their accompanying text were presented to participants in a randomized order. Once participants decided with which target (if any) to share their tokens , they place d the tokens in an envelope corresponding to each target . Any tokens they chose to not share were placed in an envelope they kep t for themselves. In order to familiarize participants with the M - MIMB procedure, participants completed a practice round of the M - MIMB during the 22 In line with previous research (e.g., Engel, 2011), it was expected that participants would donate more tokens to the targets who they deemed more deserving. Th e extent to which participants share d more of their tokens with the targets exemplifying care, authority, or loyalty was interpreted as indicating behavior driven by the accessibility of th at intuition. The extent to which participants distribute d their to kens equally among the three targets and the self was In accordance with this logic, five token sharing scores were computed for each participant. The first three were for care, loyalty, and authority. These three scores represent the number of tokens the participant shared with the target representing that intuition. The fairness token sharing score was computed by calculating the sum of the absolute value of 5 minus t he number of tokens shared with each girl and subtracting it from 20. Then, adding 10 and multiplying it by 2/3 to create a range from 0 - 20 ([ 20 - |5 i | +10] x 2/3 where i indicates the number of tokens given to each target ). Higher scores here indica ted a greater tendency to equally distribute tokens, and thus this was interpreted in line with a greater sensitivity toward fairness. The fi fth score calculated was the number of tokens participants kept for themselves. Two pilot tests of this measure we re conducted with separate samples of students. The first was conducted on a small convenience sample of pre - teen children ( N = 4; age range 8 - 12) to determine whether they judged (a) the picture selected to represent care as sadder than the other targets, (b) the picture selected to represent loyalty as more loyal than the other targets, and (c) the picture selected to represented authority as more of a leader than the other targets. These pictures were presented to the children without the background desc riptions used for the main study (i.e., those written to associate the person depicted with characteristics that 23 exemplify the intuition represented in each picture). The goal of this pilot test was simply to provide an initial determination of whether the pictures generally fit the categories for which they were selected to represent. Participants in this pilot test were asked to rate the extent to which each target looked (a) sad, (b) loyal, and (c) like a leader. Responses were obtained on a scale from 1 ( not at all ) to 10 ( very much so ). The results of this pilot test suggested the tendency for the pictures to fit the intended categories; with the picture of the care target rated as most sad, the loyalty target being as most loyal, and the picture of the authority target being rated high on leadership. Notably, though, the loyalty target was rated as slightly higher on leadership compared to the authority target. Because the M - MIMB does not use a picture of a target representing the fairness intuition, no pretest of fairness was obtained in the first pilot test. The second pilot test was conducted on a separate sample of participants ( N = 20, age range 10 - 13) in a classroom setting similar to the one used in the main study. Participants complete the M - MIMB after reading one of the five comics. This was done simply to ensure that participants understood the procedure and could complete it without problems. Simple means were examined to determine whether participants in different comic conditions showed a tendency to share with targets in the expected manner. Because of the small sample size, no statistical tests were conducted. However, vi sual inspection of the means suggested not only that participants understood the procedure, but also a tendency by them to share in a manner consistent with expectations. Based on these initial pilot tests, the decision was made to employ the M - MIMB in the main study in its original form. 24 Additional measures . Several d emographic variables , including age, sex, and grade level , were also measured and , based on the procedure by Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al. (2017), participants were asked to indicate t he extent to which they paid attention to the comic book while they were reading. To limit the effect of impression management biasing responses to this item, participants were asked to indicate if they: (1) found the story really interesting and paid clos e attention, (2) found the story a little interesting and paid a little attentio n, or (3) find the story very interesting and did not pay close attention. Although this create d a double - barreled item, the possibility of impression management was see n as more likely to bias responses to this question than the possib ility of a confound between attention to and liking for the comic . The entire survey instrument can be viewed in Appendix B. Stimulus The stimulus consist ed of five versions of a Cleopatra in Space comic book manipulated to highlight the upholding of either care, fairness, loyalty, authority, or no moral intuition. The different versions have been used in previous research and shown to increase the accessibility of their respective manipulat ed intuition ( Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al., 2017 ) . Basic story . In accordance with Fisch (2005) , the five comic versions all feature d the same general plot, differing only in specific areas tied to the relevant intuition. The general plot is as follows: Cleopatra, the main character, attends school with her friend, Akila. Cleopatra is then summoned to go on a mission wherein she must go to a nearby planet, retrieve a key that unlocks treasure, and return it to her commander . Cleopatra agrees , travels to retrieve the key, retrieves it, and attempts to go back to her spaceship. While she is on her way back to the ship, she is caught by the who want the key for themselves, and she 25 must decide what to do with it. S he makes a decision; heads back her ship and explains her decision to Akila. The story ends with Cleopatra flying into space to carry out her decision. Conditions . The plot varies at four specific points that are central to the story . It varies (1) when Cl eopatra and Akila arrive late to class and are asked a question by their professo r, (2) when t he Nebulans try to talk Cleopatra into giving them the key, (3) when Cleopatra decides what to do with the key, and (4) when Cleopatra makes it back to her spaceship and discusses her decision . At each of these four point s , exemplars are given to highlight the upholding of the relevant intuition in that condition . Variations in each condi tion can be viewed in Appendix C . 26 RESULTS Manipulation Check Prior to testing the central hypothesis , analyses were conducted to verify that the stimuli highlighted intuitions as expected . Although previous research has already verified the ability of the stimuli used in the present study to increase the accessibility of their respective intuition s (Hahn , Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al., 2017), prior research did not verify th e greater presence of content highlighting pertinent intuitions in respective comic conditions. C ontent analysis was conducted to confirm that the comic stimuli contained clear exemplars of the intuitions they were manipulated to highlight . This content analysis used a coding manual that has been implemented e.g., Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Klebig, 2017; Tamborini, Hahn, Prabhu, Klebig, & Grall, 2017 ). Two training where they learned how to code the presence/absence of moral intuitions in narrative media. i In this content analysis, the comic book pages served as the units of analysis. In all, 10 pages in each comic stimulus were manipulated to feature one or none of the four intuitions , and the remaining 31 pages appeared in every version of the comic stimuli . I ntercoder on all coded material, and was deemed acceptable for all four intuitions including care ( = .74), fairness ( = .86), loyalty ( = .80), and authority ( = 1.00). A third expert coder , , served as a referee to address coder disagreements. Next, in order to assess the extent to which any one comic stimulus highlighted exemplars of the four intuitions, a 6 ( page type : manipulated to feature care, fairness, loyalty, 27 authority, no intuition, or unmanipulated) x 4 (intuition: care, fairness, l oyalty, authority) chi - square was conducted , 2 (12, N = 46) = 106.91, p < .00 1, = .88 . Results revealed that, for pages manipulated to feature a moral intuition, each condition featured exemplars of its respective intuition substantially more th an any other intuition. For pages manipulated to feature care (adjusted standardized residual = 6.4) or fairness (adjusted standardized residual = 5.4), no other intuitions were coded as appearing on those pages. Put another way, on pages manipulated to fe ature care ( n = 10), care appeared alone on all 10 pages. The same was true of fairness ( n = 10) . For pages manipulated to feature loyalty (adjusted standardized residual = 5.5) or authority (adjusted standardized residual = 5.9), nine of the 10 manipulated pages were coded as featuring loyalty and authority , respectively. In both of these cases , one page was coded as featuring fairness, instead of the relevant intuition. Additionally, r esults revealed that the pages manipulated in the comparison condition (i.e., those manipulated to contain no morally laden content) indeed did not feature any moral intuition. T hose pages not manipulated (i.e., pages that appeared in every stimulus version) did not feature any one intuition more than others (althou gh each intuition did appear at least once on these pages , no intuition appeared more than twice) . Frequency counts of the number of intuition representations in each comic version can be seen in Table 1. Table 1. Frequency of intuition representations in each comic condition . Care Condition Fairness Condition Loyalty Condition Authority Condition No Moral Comparison Condition Pages Common to all Conditions Intuition Representation N pages = 10 N pages = 10 N pages = 10 N pages = 10 N pages = 10 N pages = 31 Care Representations 10 0 0 0 0 1 Fairness Representations 0 10 1 1 0 2 Loyalty Representations 0 0 9 0 0 1 Authority Representations 0 0 0 9 0 2 28 M ediation Process in Pre - teen Children A first look at each of the intuition indices from the M - MIA showed that participants selected each intuition as most important more often when it was primed in the comic book than when it was not primed . I n the M - MIMB , participants gave more of their tokens to targets that exemplif ied care, authority condition than when they were in any other condition . This pattern also held true for the fairness intuition, as participants in the fairness condition had higher fairness token scores on average than participants in any other condition . Means and standard deviations for intuition indices and token sharing scores from the M - MIMB in all conditions are shown in Table 2 . Table 2 . Means and standar d deviations for accessibility indices and tokens shared. Care condition Fairness condition Loyalty condition Authority condition No - moral Comparison condition Overall Intuition indices n = 45 n = 41 n = 49 n = 33 n = 42 N = 210 Care .48 (.28) .27 (.18) .26 (.24) .26 (.24) .33 (.24) .33 ( .25) Fairness .12 (.16) .36 (.25) .13 (.16) .11 (.14) .12 (.11) .15 (.18) Loyalty .13 (.18) .14 (.15) .36 (.20) .21 (.19) .21 (.21) .22 (.21) Authority .26 (.21) .34 (.23) .25 (.19) .45 (.21) .33 (.21) .32 (.22) Token scores Care 6.29 (3.34) 4.44 (2.18) 4.20 (2.69) 4.20 (2.82) 4.88 (3.14) 4.82 (2.94) Fairness 15.69 (3.25) 17.43 (2.96) 16.34 (2.95) 16.19 (3.23) 15.75 (3.13) 16.28 (3.13) Loyalty 3.67 (2.13) 4.16 (1.75) 4.65 (2.04) 3.46 (1.82) 3.41 (1.98) 3.91 (2.00) Authority 3.33 (2.67) 4.02 (1.68) 3.22 (2.09) 5.34 (3.07) 2.91 (2.03) 3.69 (2.36) K ept for self 6.71 (5.53) 7.37 (4.94) 7.92 (4.65) 7.00 (4.55) 8.81 (6.28) 7.58 (5.24) Note. Scores for primed intuitions are in bold. Standard deviations appear in parentheses. T he present study proposed a mediation model wherein reading a comic book that highlight s a particular moral intuition exemplar was predicted to influence moral be havior via the salience of that particular highlighted intuition. To test , four simple mediation model s were created for each intuition condition : one for the conditions of care, fairness, loyalty, and authority. In each model, condition was entered as the exogenous 29 variable with the relevant condition dummy coded as 1 and all other conditions coded as 0 . T he M - MIA index score of the relevant intuition was entered as the mediator variable, and the token score for the relevant int uition was entered as the outcome variable . Analyses were carried out u sing model 4 in the SPSS macro Process (Hayes, 2017) . ii In the first model, for care, participants in the care condition showed an increased likelihood of choosing the care intuition as most important in the M - MIA ( a = .20 , SE = .04 , p < .01, 95% CI [.12, .28]) . Furthermore , participants who chose care as more important tended to share more tokens with the care target , although the confid ence interval associated with this path was not fully above zero ( b = 1.53, SE = .82, p = .06, 95% CI [ - .09, 3.15]). A bootstrap confidence interval for the indirect effect ( ab = .31 , SE = .20, ) based on 5 ,000 bootstrap samples was just above zero ( bias - corrected 95% CI [.01, .81 ] ) . Beyond this evidence of mediation , t here was evidence that exposure to the care comic directly influenced the number of tokens donated to the care exemplar independent of care intuition salience ( = 1.55, SE = .51, p < .01, 95% CI [.55, 2.54]). As such, results for the care model revealed that exposure to the care comic book increased token donations to the care target and this relationship was mediated by care intuition salience . R esults of the path model for care can be seen in Figure 2. 30 In the second model, this time for fairness, participants exposed to the fairness comic showed an increased likelihood of choosing the fairness intuition as most important in the M - MIA ( a = .14, SE = .03, p < .01, 95% CI [.08, .20]), but this, in turn, did not influence fairness token scores ( b = 1.63 , SE = .1.24, p = .19 , 95% CI [ - .80, 4.06 ]). Examination of the indirect effect ( ab = .22 , SE = .20 ) failed to convincingly demonstrate mediation , as a bootstrap confidence interval based on 5,000 bootstrap samples crossed just below zero ( bias - corrected 95% CI [ - .03, .23] ) . Once again, however, independent of fairness intuition salience, t here was evidence that exposure to the fairness comic directly influenced cy to distribute their tokens equally , however ( = 1.20 , SE = .56, p < .05 , 95% CI [. 10 , 2.30 ]; see Figure 3 ) . T he model for loyalty showed no indication for mediation at all . Participants in the loyalty condition were more likely to choose the loyalty intuition as most important in the M - MIA ( a = . 19 , SE = .04 p <.01, 95% CI [. 13 , . 25 ]), but this did not go on to influence token donations to the loyalty target ( b = .41 , SE = .72, p = . 57 , 95% CI [ - 1.0 0, 1.81 ]). The indirect effect ( ab = .08 , SE = .15, ) failed to support mediation as the bootstrap confidence interval of 5,000 bootstrap samples clearly included zero ( bias - corrected 95% CI [ - .23, .36 ] ) . Once more, 31 however, r esults in this condition revealed that exposure to the loyalty comic had a direct e ffect on donate their tokens to the loyalty target , independent of loyalty intuition salience ( = .89 , SE = .35, p = . 01 , 95% CI [. 21 , 1.56 ] ; see Figure 4 ) . Finally, in the model for authority, participants exposed to the authority comic showed an increased likelihood of choos ing the authority intuition as most important in the M - MIA ( a = .16, SE = .04, p < .01, 95% CI [.08, .23]), but participants who chose the authority intuition as most important were no more likely to show increased donations to the authority target ( b = - 1.02 , SE = .73, p = . 16 , 95% CI [ - 2 . 46 , .41 ]). A bootstrap confidence interval for the indirect effect ( ab = - . 16 SE = .13, ) based on 5,000 bootstrap samples clearly crossed below zero, ( bias - corrected 95% CI [ - .19, .02 ] ) . Like the first three models, however, results from the authority model revealed that exposure to the authority comic did directly increase donat ions to the authority target , independent of authority intuiti on salience ( = 2.14 , SE = .43, p < .01, 95% CI [ 1 . 29 , 2.99 ] ; see Figure 5 ) . 32 Overall, each model revealed that exposure to a comic book featuring a moral intuition participants donated tokens to a target who exemplified that intuition. iii Because there was no equivalent measure - - MIA, there are no equivalent tests for the impact of exposure - - - nce to mediate sharing behavior . However, the MIME would predict that participants in the no - moral comparison condition should keep more tokens for themselves. This prediction comes from MIME logic suggesting that exposure to any moral condition should result in participants sharing more tokens to a relevant intuition target , and as such, participants in any moral condition should share more tokens overall than participants in the no - mo ral comparison condition . This directional hypothesis was tested in a separate Mann - Whitney test was conducted to examine the impact of exposure on tokens kept for self. Results revealed that participants kept more tokens for themselves when they were in the no - moral comparison condition ( M = 8.81, SD = 6.28, Mdn = 7.00) than when they were in a condition highlighting a moral intuition ( M = 7.30, SD = 4.97, Mdn = 6.00), U = 3980, z = 1.29, p = .05 (one - tailed), r = .09. 33 Additional analyses testing for mediation were less uniform. The model for care was consistent with mediation, however, no other models showed support for this effect. Results of all path analyses are presented in Table 3 . iv Table 3 . Path coefficients and indirect effects for four mediation models in Process . Path coefficients Indirect effects Model 1 - Care To M - MIA (M) To Token - Score (TS) Estimate Bootstrap 95 % CI with percentile method Bootstrap 95% CI with bias correction from condition (C O ) .20 (.04)** 1.55 (.51 ) from M - MIA (M) 1.53 (.82 )** C O M TS .31 (.20) [ - .03, .74] [.01, .81] Total effect (c ) 1.85 (.48)** Model 2 - Fairness from condition (C O ) .14 (.03)** 1.20 (.56)* from M - MIA (M) 1.63 (1.24) C O M TS .22 (.20) [ - .11, .66] [ - .03, .23] Total effect (c ) 1.42 (.53)** Model 3 - Loyalty from condition (C O ) .19 (.04)** .89 (.35)** from M - MIA (M) .41 (.72) C O M TS .08 (.15) [ - .24, .35] [ - .23, .36] To t al effect (c ) .97 (.32)** Model 4 - Authority from condition (C O ) .16 (.04)** 2.14 (.43)** from M - MIA (M) - 1.02 (.73) C O M TS - .16 (.13) [ - .44, .05] [ - .19, .02] Total effect (c ) 1.98 (.42)** Note . * indicates significance at p < .05 level and ** indicates significance at the p < .01 level. Standard errors are in parentheses. Post Hoc Analyses Ad ditional analyses beyond those outlined in the proposal for this dissertation were conducted in an attempt to correct for measurement error in each of the four models. v After correcting for measurement error, a path analysis procedure that relies on a product rule was performed (Hunter & Gerbing, 1982; Hunter, Gerbing, & Boster, 1982) . This post hoc procedure involve d multiplying (a) the correlation of co ndition with intu ition salience by (b) the correlation of intuition salience with token scores to obtain a predicted correlation between exposure 34 condition and token scores. For example, if r condition, salience = .3 0 and r salience, token score = .2 0 then the causal model p redicts r condition, token score = (.30)(.20) = .06. C orrection for attenuation due to measurement error for use with these additional path analyses was achieved us ing . Spearman (1904) maintained that a true correlation can be calculated by dividing an observed correlation by the square root of the product of the reliabilities for each variable in the correlation . In the present study, both the con dition variable and the token score variables were assumed to have reliabilities of 1. As such, measurement error in the mediator could be corrected for each model in two steps . Step one , d ivid e the observed correlation between condition and the relevant M - MIA score by the square root of the relevant M - . Step 2 , apply the same correction to t he observed c orrelation between the relevant M - MIA score and the relevant token score . Following this, a predicted correlation between condition and the relevant token score can be calculated using the product rule (Hunter & Gerbing, 1982; Hunter et al., 1982) , and model fit can be assessed using a chi - square goodness of fit test an d a constructed 95% confidence interval . Hunter and correction , is implemented below for each of the four models. The observed and corrected correlations for all paths in all models , as well as all fit statistics, are shown in Table 4 . 35 Table 4 . Observed and corrected correlations for all model paths and model fit statistics . Observed Corrected To M - MIA (M) To Token - Score (TS) To M - MIA (M) To Token - Score (TS) z 2 95% CI Model 1 - Care 1 .86 3.45 [ - .01, .27] from condition (C O ) .3 3** .26 ** . 4 7 .13 (.07) # from M - MIA (M) .20 ** .28 Model 2 - Fairness 1.43 2.04 [ - .06, .22] from condition (C O ) .30 ** .18 ** .41 .08 (.07) # from M - MIA (M) .14 * .19 Model 3 - Loyalty 2.00 * 4.00 * [ - .07, .27] from condition (C O ) .39 ** .21** .49 .07 (.07) # from M - MIA (M) .12 .15 Model 4 - Authority 4.43 ** 19.61 ** [ - .14, .14] from condition (C O ) .2 7** .31 ** .34 - .00 0 1 (.07) # from M - MIA (M) - .0 0 1 - .01 Note . * indicates significance at p < .05 level. ** indicates significance at the p < .01 level. # indicates the predicted correlation (using the product rule) after correcting for measurement error. Standard errors of the correlations between condition and the relevant token scores are in parentheses. For care, a fter correcting for measurement error , the predicted correlation between th e care condition and the care token score was .13 ( SE = .07) . The difference between the predicted correlation and the obtained correlation was .13 . With a sample size of N = 210 , this difference is interpreted as moderate and , thus , the model is said t o fit. This can be further show n when considering that the z - score associated with this difference is not statistically significant, z = 1.86 , p > .05, and 2 = 3.45 , p > .05. Even further, the obtained correlation between the care condition and the care tok en score ( r = .26) fits within the corrected 95% CI of [ - .01, .27 ], again suggesting model fit. Despite all other indicators suggesting that the care model fits, it is worth noting that the constructed 95% CI crosses just below zero . Although a widened con fidence interval is a consequence of correcting for measurement error ( see Spearman, 1904), the . Results of the path model for care can be seen in Figure 6 . 36 For fairness, based on the corrected correlations in the path model, the predicted correlation between the fairness condition and the fairness token score was r = .08 ( SE = .07). The difference between the obtained and predicted corr elation was .10, which is a relativel y small difference within a sample size of N = 210 . Thus, again, the model is said to fit. This is complemented by the fact that the z - score associated with this difference is not statistically significant, z = 1.43, p > .05, and 2 = 2.04, p > .05. Moreov er, the obtained correlation between the fairness condition and the fairness token score ( r = .18) fits well within the corrected 95% CI [ - .06, .22]. Once again, d espite all other indicators suggesting that the fairness model fits, it is worth noting that the constructed 95% CI cross es zero , this time at a magnitude almost as big as the standard error . Again, this type of widened confidence interval (1904) c orrect ion for measurement error , however st be interpreted with caution (see Figure 7 ) . 37 Third, for loyalty, after correcting the correlations in the path model for measurement error, the predicted correlation between the loyalty conditi on and the loyalty token score was r = .07 ( SE = .07). The difference between the obtained and predicted correlation is .14 , which considering the size of the standard error, suggests the model does not fit. G oodness of fit tests further confirm that the m odel does not fit , z = 2.00 , p < .05, 2 = 4.00 , p < .05. Finally, although t he obtained correlation between the loyalty condition and the loyalty token score ( r = .18 ) does fit within the corrected 95% CI [ - .07, .21 ], this corrected interval cross es zero. Thus, almost uniformly, the indicators suggest that this model does not fit the data (see Fig ure 8 ) . 38 Finally, for authority, based on the corrected correlations in the path model, the predicted correlation between the authority condition and the a uthority token score was r = - .0 0 01 ( SE = .07), which differ s substantially from the obtained correlation ( r = .31 ), resulting in failure on all model fit indicators , z = 4.43 , p < .01 ; 2 = 19.61 , p < .01 ; corrected 95% CI [ - .14, .14 ] ; see Figure 9 . 39 DISCUSSION The primary goal of this investigation was to replicate recent research examining mechanisms explicated in the MIME and to extend this research to pre - teen children. More specifically, it attempted to demonstrate that media content emphasizing specific moral intuitions could influence the accessibility of those intuitions among pre - teen audience members and , through this , a ffect their subsequent behavior. This section begins with an e contributions of the present concludes with a discussion of how a MIME - based approach to understanding the prosocial and antisocial influence of media exposu influence on children. Overview of F indings The results of this study showed that exposure to media content emphasizing unique domains of moral intuition s directly influenced both the salience of emphasize d intuition s in audiences, and the number of tokens audiences shared with a target person that exemplified sensitivity to that intuition. By showing this , the data suggest that media content emphasizing different moral intuitions may not only a ffect the likelihood that young audiences will act more altruistically overall but may also determine the specific domains within which the a ffected behavior will manifest. Expressed in terms of the present study , exposure to media content can not only lead pre - teens to share , but to share in ways that represent predictably and meaningfully different behaviors . Beyond support for these direct effects, this study produced limited evidence for the predicted mediation model. F or care and (according only to the results 40 of the product rule method ) - relevant sharing behavior was mediated by intuition salience. There was no evidence of mediation for the models based on the loyalty or authority intuitions . Contributi Research Taken together , t several ways. First, this research re - nces in psychology. These advances define moral judgment in terms of upholding and violating a set of specific moral intuitions instead of using a simple distinction of good and bad . Second, it demonstrates that narratives media that exemplif y sensitivity to these specific moral intuitions strongly affect behaviors the altruistic behavior of pre - teens . Fourth, it introduces a , called the moral measure of intuitively motivated behavior (M - MIMB) , which simultaneously measures behavior related to the specific moral intuitions thoug ht to motivate that behavior. This section begins behavior and goes on to discuss implications for the MIME, as well as the implications for using the economic g ame in media effects research. It ends with a discussion of factors that may have contributed to the lack of mediation, the implications of each, and suggestions for future research in this area. Reconceptualizin g prosocial and antisocial media . Analyses suggesting that exposure to media content featuring any of the four moral intuitions can directly increase not only the 41 e xtent to which young readers deem tho se intuitions important, but their performance of intuition relevant sharing behavior s have import . I n particular, they (1) provide support for an approach that may add conceptual clarity to so - called prosocial and antisocial media effects . A great deal of mass communication research focuses on t he study of prosocial and antisocial media content, as well as the effects resulting from exposure to this content ( e.g., Bushman & Huesmann, 2006; Coyne et al., 2018; Hogan & Strasburger, 2008; Mares, 1996 ; Mares & Woodard, 200 5 ) . Yet , scholars concerned with these classifications of media content or behavioral outcomes do not seem to agree on one definition for these terms . Some have defined p rosocial content simply in terms of behavior that help s others (e.g., Anderson et al., 2010; Gentile et al., 2009 ; Coyne et al., 2018 ) , while others define prosocial by offering lists of specific behaviors, such as helping, comforting, sharing, and cooperating (Batson and Powell, 2003) , or altruism, counter - stereotyping, positive interaction, and self - control (Mares, 1996). Antisocial has been defined in a similar manner, with some scholars characterizing antisocial content and behavior simply in terms of physical aggression ( Anderson et al. , 2010; Paik & C o mstock , 1994 ), while others offer list s of behaviors normatively considered to be antisocial, such as hostility, manipulativeness, and a lack of empathy (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) . O ne could easily imagin e contexts within which the labelling of such behaviors may deviate from these norm s (e.g., a surgeon detached from feelings of empath y during a high - risk operation) , and also imagine other behaviors normatively identified as good or bad that are absent from these lists . 42 T he broad and imprecise manner in which these terms have been conceptualized in past research suggests that the terms may describe a range of media content , or outcomes resulting from exposure to this content . This may be beneficial in efforts to investigate effects on pre - defined behaviors identified as normatively prosocial or antisocial . H oweve r , current conceptualizations surrounding prosocial and anti social media content , along with outcomes resultin g from exposure to such content, are less useful for attempts holistic influence . With its focus on moral intuitions, t he present study begins to offer conceptual clarity to research in this area. Instead of describing media content or its influence on audience judgments and behaviors based on normative determinations of good or bad, a MIME - based approach to examining media content and its influence would construe prosocial and antisocial behavior respectively in terms of the upholding and violation of moral intuit ions. T ability to show that media can affect these intuitive moral motivations for behavior offers a t han previous accounts . We believe this has great value. influence observed in the present study, t h e MIME - based approach to examining media moral intuitions and related behavioral outco mes provides s influence that not only offers greater precis ion but also does not change based on the context in which it was observed . For examp le , judgments of social exclusion (e.g., Mares & Braun, 2013) may be considered normatively bad or good depending on the context in which such influence is considered. This 43 could be problematic when attempting to apply resea rch findings from one culture ( in which bias against outgroups is considered offensive ) to another ( in which suspicion of outsiders may be necessary for survival). Reconsidering social exclusion as a behavior motivated by the upholding of ingroup loyalty removes the prescriptive labels of good or bad, and allows social context. The value of the ability to p resent research findings that are not bound by the subjec tive labeling of individual researchers should not be understated . The ability of science to remain as objective as possible when presenting research findings is especially important in the context of often fraug ht with trepidation from concerned publics ( e.g., Heid, 2017; Rideout, 2017 ) . A MIME - based approach to this area of research potentially offers a less subjective examination of specific content features that may influence young audiences behaviors . The t exemplifying moral intuitions. The present s directly a ffects both the salience of the intuition emphasized and behaviors exemplifying sensi tivity to that intuition comprehensive scheme not only outlines a set of unique moral intuitions that can help distinguish and identify the representation of moral intuit ions in media content, but also offers accessibility of these intuitions among audiences members as well as related judgments and behaviors. This approach should have c onsiderable value for scholars attempting to study allows researchers greater precision in attempts to identify both 44 (a) the specific features of narrative content that may produce socially beneficial or detrimental outcomes in audiences, and (b) the specific areas of behavior affected by these features. First, a MIME - based approach would benefit researchers attempting to identify specific features in media content that can influence pre - teen rs and Previous content analytic work has suggested that media narratives popular among very young children tend to highlight the importance of the moral intuitions, whereas narratives that are popular among older children do so to a lesser degree (e.g., Hahn, Ta mborini, Prabhu, Klebig et al, 2017; Hahn et al., 2018; Tamborini, Hahn et al., 2017). This same research shows that content creators build in positive and negative reinforcement cues that may shape the extent to which these intuitions are portrayed as des irable or undesirable. Although only descriptive in nature, these content analytic findings suggest a possible range of narrative content cues that exist in popular media; the likes of which could be investigated for their potential to facilitate both intu ition accessibility and related behavioral outcomes. Integrating findings from educational media research (e.g., Fisch, 2005) with MIME logic would suggest that scholars and parents looking to encourage specific behaviors in children could craft a media di et for children that highlights the importance of intuitions that motivate needs might present children with narratives that show reward for care motivated behavior s as part of the main storyline. The same could be done for other moral intuitions. Other insights derived by combining logic from educational media and MIME research could similarly help those seeking to identify additional features of narrative content t hat might promote desirable 45 outcomes in young audiences. starting point with scholars crafting narratives for such purposes. Using a MIME - based approach to examine both media content and its effect o n moral behavior, i t may also be interesting to replicate existing studies that did not initially consider the potential influence of intuition accessibility (e.g., Cingel & Krcmar, 2017; Cingel et al., 2017; Krcmar & Cooke, 2001; Krcmar & Curtis, 2003; Ma rtins & Wilson, 2012; Mares & Braun, 2013 ). This approach may not only provide insight regarding of the specific content features that accounted for their effects, but it would also allow these studies to be understood within a more comprehensive framework . Second, a MIME - based approach could provide researchers with greater precision in attempts to predict distinct behavioral domains that may be affected by media narratives. MIME logic describes how exposure to specific media content can regulate intuitio n accessibility and shape intuitively motivated judgments and behaviors within discernible domains that are broadly generalizable. benefit by understanding how moral intuitions may be manifest in their o utcome measures, as For instance, the effect of exposure to a narrative highlighting the importance of upholding the ingroup loyalty intuition might manifest itself in a broad array of re lated behaviors, including some normatively considered prosocial (e.g., supporting local charitable foundations) and others considered antisocial (e.g., ostracizing outgroup members). If only one or the other outcome is measured, different conclusions woul 46 both outcomes might alter our understanding of the processes governing this phenomenon, An example of this can be seen in re search suggesting that children are more likely to advocate for social exclusion after observing social exclusion on television (e.g., Cingel et al., 2017; Mares & Braun, 2013). These studies explain their findings with logic proposing that children acquir e negative mental scripts from media exposure, which lead to behaviors that closely mirror those scripts. Although this script logic may indeed be accurate, it is possible that such outcomes are better explained by other mechanisms. A MIME - based approach m ight accessibility of the ingroup loyalty intuition, which was made accessible by content cues in the narrative highlighting the value of this intuition. Had other behav iors exemplifying sensitivity to ingroup loyalty been measured, we might have seen that exposure not only increased social exclusion, but also increased school spirit, or acts related to self - sacrifice for the benefit of ingroup members. Future researchers interested in this proposition could induce the accessibility of ingroup loyalty (or any other intuition) in children, and then present them with a battery of behavioral options that exemplify sensitivity to the emphasized intuition. Those interested in t his line of inquiry might use the stimuli developed for the present study. Content analysis on these stimuli already show the extent to which the frequency with which exemplars of different moral intuitions are represented in each version of the narrative. mediation in pre - teen audiences. T he results of the present study also have implications for the mediation processes outlined by the MIME. Logic from the MIME suggests that media content highlighting specific moral intuitions can in crease the 47 accessibility of those intuitions in audiences (path A), that intuition accessibility influences influence on behaviors (path C). Results of the present study replicated findings from Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al. (2017) demonstrating the ability of media exposure to influence intuition accessibility in pre - teen children (path A), and also extended the findings of previous investigations by illust rating the direct influence of exposure to media content highlighting these moral intuitions on pre - found for both path B (found in the care intuition model, and in the fairness model when u sing Gini coefficients vi ) and the full mediation (path C; with the care and fairness intuition models). processes makes an important contribution to existing research on - term and long - previous evidence showing that even very brief media exposure can activate the short - term mediation process identified in the MIME, an d from its ability to show this influence for the first time in a pre - teen audience. At the same time, this partial support must be considered with great caution, as models for only one of four moral intuitions showed strong support for mediation, the mode l for a second intuition showed support for mediation using some analytical procedures but not others, and models for the final two moral intuitions failed to provide any support for mediation. To the extent that this research can offer initial support f intuition accessibility mediates the effect of media content emphasizing moral intuitions on 48 in the relationship between media and audiences helps us understand the manner in which media can shape what audiences consider to be right or wrong. The findings here strongly suggest that media content can directly influence the real world decisions that children make In addition, though limit ed, there is some evidence that this influence may be guided by intuition accessibility. Particularly with children, the present study lays the groundwork for future investigations of both the short - term and long - . In the short - term, future research could work to examine the effects of exposure to stimuli in brief exposure to comic book stimuli provided an initial test of - term processes, but replication of this method using longer narrative forms that may afford more concrete and emotional moral intuition exemplars would be a welcome next step in this line of research. The fact that findings here suggest m questions regarding the extent to which chronically accessible intuitions may give way to a more lasting influence on au dience behaviors. In the long - term, repeated exposure to content featuring a more enduring focus on intuitions may show stronger evidence of the mediation. - term processes may offer stronger evidence of the mechanisms go 49 conducted with children, as both previous research (Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Klebig et al., 2017; Tamborini, Hahn et al., 2017) and the present study (also see Hahn, Tamborini, Pr abhu, - - term and long - term processes, future studies should work to test the speculation th The Moral Measure of Intuitively Motivated Behavior (M - MIMB) . The present study used a new procedure developed to assess intuitively motivated moral behavior. The M - MI M B uses a protocol similar to a popular economic game, the dictator game (e.g., Engel, 2011). The M - MIMB provides an experimental technique for assessing real behaviors in a real moral arch. research has historically relied largely on measures of behavioral intention prompted by hypothetical moral dilemmas (e.g., Krcmar & Cooke, 2001; Krcmar & Curtis, 2003; Martins & Wilson, 2012; Mares & Braun, 2013; also see Krcmar & V alkenburg, 1999). This has been done despite noted differences in participant responses between hypothetical and real - life moral dilemmas (see Bostyn, Sevenhant, & Roets, 2018). As such, the M - MIMB adds considerably to existing research on moral dilemmas, both with adults and children. Its contribution is twofold, making when confronted by moral dilemmas. First, one of the main benefits of using the M - MIMB is its ab ility to simultaneously measure four separate behavioral outcomes of narrative content which exemplify a sensitivity to care, fairness, loyalty, and authority. Aside from the pragmatic value of obtaining four scores 50 from one task, the M - MIMB ability to identify the unique underlying motivation (or cause ) of a is particularly useful. Previous studies examining the effects of so - to determine specific causes of the sharing observed, or if they do not observe a relationship, they are unable to determine why (e.g., Ostrov, Gentile, & Crick, 2006). This is due in part to the fact that these studies do not investigate the specific feat ures of media content that may have been responsible for prompting (or not) an act of sharing. This is also due in part to the fact that previous research content could lead to broa 2006). importance of a variety of different moral intuitions, it becomes difficult to predict the outcomes one might expect to observe (or not). television shows and movies according to how (1) violent and (2) educational they were. They then modeled these ratings as predict Longitudinally, they found no relationship between media exposure and subsequent prosocial behavior. This findi ng may come as no surprise considering that there would be no reason to expect that exposure to violent media narratives (i.e., narratives emphasizing violations of care) ness) or activities in groups (i.e., acts motivated by ingroup loyalty). Even if such media emphasized the 51 behavior measured. Due to the fact that Ostrov et al. did not measure specific content features, it is impossible to determine the range of content cues their participants may have been exposed impossible to separate media e authority. The MIME - based logic offered in the present study would overcome this limitation by distinguishing unique features of moral intuitions in media content. Moreover, the inclusion of the M - MIMB would provide the type of specificity to behavioral measures needed to identify different areas where effects and no - effects are expected. Perhaps erroneously, Ostrov et al. (2006) concluded there was no relationship between violent media exposure a nd subsequent prosocial behavior. Had Ostrov et al. (2006) taken into account the content features participants were exposed to and offered a corresponding measure of relevant outcomes such as the M - MIMB, their potential to observe effects in areas represe nted in their media content would have been improved. - MIMB forces Because of this, and considering the large number of studies that have historically set out to examine the effects of Bushman & Huesmann, 2006; Coyne et al., 2018; Hogan & Strasburger, 2008; Ma res, 1996; Mares & Woodard, 2005 ), the development of the M - research. Additionally, the M - 52 could supplement traditional measures of morality such as questi onnaires and interviews which are often limited to simple measures of judgment, but not resulting behavior (e.g., Cingel & Krcmar, 2017; Cingel, Sumter, & van de Leur, 2017; Krcmar & Cooke, 2001; Krcmar & Curtis, 2003; Martins & Wilson, 2012; Mares & Acost a, 2008; Mares & Braun, 2013). Second, the M - MIMB adds to existing knowledge surrounding factors that may influence measure fairness preferences to one target (Kah neman et al., 1986). The modifications to this measure in the present study allowed participants to judge the deservingness of multiple targets, each of whom exemplified the upholding of a unique moral intuition. The ability to commit the same moral act (s haring) to a range of similar yet distinct targets allows for a fine - tuned approach to studying moral behavior and how it might change as a result of exposure to media content that highlights specific moral intuitions. As Harbaugh and Krause (2000) have p ointed out, the Nash Equilibrium ( - MIMB is no different. Although this study did not present the game as a competitive event, the Game theory would predict that once participants und erstood how to obtain the most benefit at the least amount of cost, all participants should make decisions in line with the Nash Equilibrium (Harbaugh & Krause, 2000). However, in the present study, only 4.8% of participants kept all tokens for themselves (i.e., achieved the Nash Equilibrium). 53 Harbaugh and Krause (2000) argued that any tokens shared in a dictator - style game equate essentially to measurement error in play ing the game. T hat is, they argue that participants only share tokens because they do n ot know how to achieve the Nash Equilibrium. This would suggest that repeated iterations of the game should decrease the error, and thus decrease the number of tokens participants would share. However, Harbaugh and Krause (2000) found that repeated iterati ons of the dictator game result in participants sharing more tokens with each round, which would suggest that other factors, perhaps those driven more by social intuitions rather than egocentric intuitions, seem to come into play. In the present study, nea rly all pre - teens opted for a losing game - play strategy, simply for the purpose of acting altruistically (see Engel, 2011). From a learning model perspective, this finding may appear disheartening. However, from the social perspective of moral psychology, this finding may suggest that pre - teens have an innate tendency toward altruism that is not easily dampened , even if it means acting altruistically at the cost of winning a game (see Harbaugh and Krause 2000). From a developmental media effects perspective , var i ations in the pre - altruism in this study might be seen as the result of exposure to media content highlighting altruism manifest can be ma nipulated via narrative media content. In this manner, the results of the present study begin to offer insight into how judgments about deservingness are made. Through exposure to a narrative that highlights the importance of an intuition, audiences can be made to believe others are more or less deserving of benevolence. Moreover, the fact that intuition accessibility mediated the effect of exposure to media content on token donations in two of the four cases suggests that the mechanism 54 driving participants importance individuals place on intuitions. Limitations Five main limitations are present in the current study. First, although the present study makes several contributions to research observed in only two of the four instances. There are several possible reasons why this might have been the case. A first possibility is that the stimuli used in the present study may have produced overrid ing accessibility instead of the dominant accessibility anticipated. The MIME suggests that media can make different intuitions dominantly or overridingly salient in an audience accessible that it precludes marginalize other domains during rational Each comic book stimulus in the current study was initially crafted to induce dominant intuition salience in readers. However, this may not have been the case w hen considering that the main character violated aut hority in every condition except the one in which she upheld it. This is due to the fact that, in each case, she had the opportunity to obey to her commander or act on behalf of another moral intuition (or no moral intuition). Although content analysis cle arly established the emphasis of the target intuition in each stimulus condition, this does not guarantee dominant salience. Notably, it is difficult to determine whether media exposure has induced dominant salience. No research to date has established a p rotocol to make this determination, though recent efforts to do so are underway 55 (Klebig, 2018). Content showing the character violate authority in four of the five conditions (i.e., in all but the authority condition) in order to uphold the target intuitio n may have facilitated overriding salience rather than dominant salience in readers. Because overriding salience would suggest that audiences are at least partially aware of another, less important intuition, it is possible that overriding intuition salien ce may not mediate the relationship between exposure to moral media content and intuition relevant behavior. Perhaps it is only dominant salience that can mediate this link, and the awareness of another, less important intuition (in this case, authority) w eakened the indirect relationship between condition and token donations in the M - MIMB. Alternatively, perhaps the type of salience created by an predicted med iation model. Presumably, such moderation would occur in the path linking intuition accessibility to moral behavior (the b path). For the models that failed to show evidence of mediation, the b path failed to reach statistical significance, which could sug gest the presence of an unmeasured moderator affecting this relationship. A second possibility for the lack of mediation observed in the present study is that in tuition accessibility and moral behavior are separate outcomes that are not causally related. If any evidence of mediation for any model. Added to this, measureme nt error always results in attenuated effects, which would suggest that if the M - model coefficients would only get stronger. As such, given that the models for care and fairness 56 od, and the care model fits using Process (Hayes, 2017), despite the measurement error, this possibility also seems unlikely. A third possible factor contributing to the lack of mediation observed is that the M - MIA does not measure any aspect of moral int uition salience. Indeed, it could be that the M - MIA measures some other phenomenon entirely, while ignoring altogether moral intuition accessibility. This option, too, seems unlikely given evidence in this and previous research (e.g., Hahn, Tamborini, Prab hu, Grall et al., 2017) showing the M - validity, and predictive validity from both the stimuli used in the present study and instructional anecdotes used by Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al. (2017). A fourth possibility c ould be that the M - MIA measures deliberative response, instead of intuitive response as it was designed to. One of the most popular measures of moral intuition salience for adults, the Moral Foundations Questionnaire (MFQ; Graham et al., 2011), has been cr iticized in a similar manner. Using a 5 - point scale, the MFQ is a self - report measure that asks respondents to choose how much they agree or disagree with value judgments regarding behaviors thought to be related to different intuitions. Such a decision ta sk would seem to take deliberation, raising questions regarding whether MFQ responses are a good measure of concepts said to be intuitive. Notably, the one study to date that has shown support for the ure intuition salience as their mediator (Tamborini, Hofer et al., 2017). By contrast, the M - MIA asks children to choose which intuitions are better to uphold or worse to violate. Although we would argue that choosing one intuition over another is much mo re likely to represent a gut reaction than rating agreement with specific, detailed behaviors along a 5 - 57 point scale, it is still arguable that responding to the M - MIA requires some level of deliberation. This measure may have activated deliberative thought for two reasons. First, intuition scores on the M - MIA are relative to other intuitions, whereas the intuition scores on the MFQ are of absolute salience (i.e., not dependent upon one another). The M - MIA could be problematic in this regard due to the fact that although an intuition may have been accessible, the measure of each intuition remaining high was dependent on other intuitions being scored low. Second, the M - MIA presents respondents with broad behaviors that they can interpret on their own, whereas the MFQ features value statements that respondents can agree/disagree with. The broad behaviors used in the M - MIA may have led participants to deliberate about what they h could work to develop a measure for children that is similar to the moral foundation - affect - misattribution procedure (MF - AMP) used by Tamborini, Prabhu et al. (2014; 2016). The MF - AMP is a measure that assesses the extent to which each moral intuition i s does this by measuring both (a) the degree to which respondents believe a stimulus to be positive or negative and (b) the time it takes them to respond. Both th e MFQ and the MF - AMP were deemed too complex for pre - teens in the present study to comprehend, and as a result, neither measure was adopted. However, it may be possible to incorporate certain characteristics of these measures into the M - MIA in order to imp rove it. This is especially the case with the response time measurements used in the MF - AMP. That is, it may be possible to resolve the debate of whether the M - MIA evokes intuitive or deliberative response by assessing response latency. Faster response tim es would suggest whether responses to the M - MIA were 58 relying on gut reactions or thoughtful deliberation (e.g., Lewis et al., 2014; Tamborini, Prabhu et al., 2016). This type of response time measure could also be used to identify which words in the M - MIA elicit quick responses. Such information could be used to identify good or bad items in Finally, latency measurements could be incorporated with the M - MIA scoring procedure to create a timed version of the M - MIA, using the time it takes to choose an item as a supplementary indicator of accessibility. Once again, this may improve both the reliability and validity of the measure. Although all of the above are potential problems, we think the most plausible explanation for the lack of mediation in the loyalty, authority, and (with Process) fairness conditions may be that the M - MIA is in need of further development given its low reliability. A second limitation, and perhaps the most likely factor contributing to the failure of two mediation models, is that the M - MIA suffers from low reliability. As mentioned above, low reliability due to measurement error should have attenuated the mediated effect. As such, if reliability were improved, a mo re accurate test of mediation could be conducted. It is possible that improved reliability in the M - MIA, particularly for the loyalty and authority intuitions, would reveal evidence supporting the mediation predicted in this study. Although the present stu dy replicated the stimuli and most aspects of the M - MIA exactly as they were used in Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al. (2017), decisions were made in the present study to alter several words used in the M - MIA. This was done solely in an attempt to impr ove the measure both in - MIA reliabilities to Hahn, 59 the present study range from ordinal = . 52 to .64, whereas those reported by Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al. (2017) range from ordinal = .68 to .83. Thus, future researchers looking to validate the M - MIA should return to the version of the M - MIA reported by Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al. (2017). Differences between the two The third limitation i n this investigation stems from the fact that the study lacked a true control group. A true control group, wherein participants completed the M - MIA and M - MIMB before exposure to a stimulus would have been useful in that it would have provided baseline meas ures of both intuition accessibility in the M - MIA, and token donations in the M - MIMB. Although the inclusion of an additional group to represent a true control would have been desirable, the decision to exclude a sixth condition was made based on consider ation of (a) indications from the power analysis regarding the number of subjects needed in the study, and (b) the limited number of pre - teens available for participation in this study. As such, the decision was made to randomly assign all available partic ipants to one of the five existing measurements, it is impossible to rule out the possibility that some aspect of reading any version of the comic book could have i nfluenced participant responses to both the M - MIA and the M - MIMB. As such, future researchers should incorporate a true control condition in order to obtain baseline measurements of both intuition accessibility and moral behavior. The fourth limitation co ncerns the fact that this study did not examine predictions along the lines of purity. The decision to omit predictions regarding purity from the present study was made due to conceptual ambiguity surrounding this intuition. This ambiguity exists not only in 60 media psychology literature but also in evolutionary psychology literature, and may be a barrier to research related to this concept. Future researchers should work to not only better define what the purity intuition may entail, but also develop investi gations seeking to demonstrate its existence as an innate moral sensitivity. A final limitation worth considering is our use of the M - MIMB. Although findings suggest s in the M - MIMB, the lack of mediation observed for loyalty and authority (and fairness when examining the Process results) warrants future investigations. As detailed above, there could be a whole host of reasons why the mediation failed in two of these c ases. One possible cause of this not mentioned above, however, deals with the measurement produced by the M - MIMB. has unique value, all indicators are dependent on each other. As such, indicators of reliability were impossible to gauge. To address the possibility that this measure may be problematic, future researchers could attempt to implement a repeated - measures design wherein participants make multiple decis ions through multiple iterations of the M - MIMB. Future researchers could also vary the number of tokens they initially grant participants in order to determine whether this influences the proportions they are willing to share. Finally, a think - aloud proced ure could be implemented wherein participants are asked to explain their decisions to share. This would help researchers understand why participants shared with the particular targets as they did, and it could also lend insight into whether pre - teens perce ive of the measure (or the number of tokens) in a manner left unconsidered by the researchers. 61 Conclusion The present study began with an attempt to test the mediation logic of the MIME (Tamborini, 2013) in pre - teen children. Although the findings offer l imited support for this logic, perhaps more importantly, the findings provide convincing evidence that media can have a direct impact on both the value systems and behaviors of pre - teens. Put another way, exposure to media content can not only lead pre - tee ns to share, but can also influence the types of people with whom they decide to share. Children are bombarded with media content, and the fact that identifiable features of the media content they consume can influence their real - life moral judgement prov ides both and educational outcomes in children who may otherwise not have access to the types of morally relevant lessons offered in media content. The same fact provides pause because it is development, as new technologies become relied on more as socializing agents and little is known about how moral intuitions will be represented within these technologies. Children aged 8 - 12 reportedly spend about 6 hours a day with media content, including television, internet, games, social media, print media, and music (Common Sense Media, 2015). Questions regarding the potential ne gative impact that exposure to this much media may have on children has been expressed by concerned scientists (e.g., American Academy of Pediatrics, 2016), the general public (e.g., Kear, 2009), and even technology developers (e.g., Lumb, 2018). Similar w orries regarding the impact of narratives on children has existed since ancient times, as evidenced in questions raised by Plato in The Republic 62 listen to any stories that anyone happens to make up, and so receive in to their minds ideas This concern has not diminished in modern day society, and given the vast number of organizations whose focus is devoted to protecting children Academy of Pediatrics, Canadian Academy of Pediatrics, Common Sense Media, Media Matters, etc.), it does not appear as though this concern will dissipate any time soon. judgments and behaviors, but how this influence occurs is particularly noteworthy for those concerned about what children get from narrative media. To the extent that intuition and those conc emphasize particular intuitions in order to direct their children toward those values they feel are most important. Although both MFT and the MIME contend that intuitions are innat e , and thus always exist in children of any age, immersing a child in a media environment that consistently highlights selected intuitions should promote t ). might ask where media researchers should go from here. Perhaps we keep in vestigating lists of good and bad behaviors linked to media exposure, or conduct meta - analyses of existing Yet both approaches seem wanting. The first path would l ikely result in disconnected studies 63 that investigate loosely connected attitudes and behaviors that are potentially impacted by exposure to media content. Whereas the second path seems premature, as meta - analysis of theoretically unconnected studies seems incapable of providing an adequate foundation for - analyses & Woodard, 2005), m uch remains to be accomplished. Until questions regarding the basic questions of media influence processes seems dubious. A more promising path for advancing understan dings in this area of media influence on children, irrespective of context. To date, little progress has been made toward developing this type of understanding, a nd though far from adequate in this regard, a MIME - based a more comprehensive view of the relationship between media and moral judgement. This attempt is furthered by recen t studies that extend MIME research to examine egoistic, or self - interested, non - moral intuitive motivations (Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Klebig, 2017; Tamborini, Hahn et al., 2017; Tamborini, Lewis et al., 2016). In doing so, this program of research strives to understand The natural progression of MIME research to include motivations stemming from eg oistic motivations in the structure of children's narratives is apparent in recent content Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Klebig et al, 2017; Hahn et al., 2018; 64 Tamborini, Hahn et al., 2017 sionability and the effects media may have on young audiences as a result, research examining the manner in which an emphasis on egoistic intuition s overdue. With the inclusion of egoistic intuitions in recent MIME - based content schemes of seems feasible . 65 ENDNOTES i Although the reliability of using trained human coders to code the representation of moral intuitions in media content has recently been called into question (see Weber et al., 2018), human coders were used in the present study. This was due to the fact that altern ative methods for extracting the representation of moral intuitions in media content are, at present, underdeveloped. To date, alternative methods for extraction include crowd - sourced approaches using a large number of un - trained human coders, or word - coun t methods using developed dictionaries such as the Moral Foundations Dictionary. In the present study, we did not use a crowd - sourced approach because trained expert coders were available and known to code moral intuitions reliably. We assessed coder relia accepted threshold of .80. Only the indicator for care fell just below the .80 threshold. Although the use of a word - count approach would have mitigat ed problems of reliability, it would have introduced even greater validity concerns. The MFD, in its current form, is not sensitive enough to measure many of the words and utterances used in the present study to exemplify sensitivity to the four intuitions . For example, using the MFD would have meant that relevant exemplars in the care comic condition ( e.g., supporting those in need has been key to all survival. Who can tell me why giving aid would not b e coded as representing care. ii Analyses were also conducted in order to replicate Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall et al., (2017). Four one - way planned contrast ANOVAs were conducted using planned contrast coefficients, comparing the relevant intuition M - MIA score in its respective condition to all other conditions. The relevant intuition index score was then entered as a dependent variable in each ANOVA. For the care index, there was a significant effect of condition on the care index, F (4, 212) = 7.03, p < . 01, 2 = . 12. Planned contrasts comparing the care index in the care condition to all other conditions showed that the care index was significantly higher when it was primed ( M = .48 , SD = .28) than when any other intuition was primed ( M = .27, SD = .23 ), t (208) = 2.50 , p < .01 (one - tailed) . Fairness scores were also influenced by condition, F ( 4, 212) = 5.34 , p < .01, 2 = . 09 . Planned contrasts revealed that fairness scores were higher when fairness was primed ( M = .36 , SD = .25 ) compared to when any other intuition was primed ( M = .12 , SD = .14 ), t (48.12) = 3.42 , p < .01 (one - tailed ; [ F = 7 .16, p < .01] , so degrees of freedom were adjusted from 208 to 48.12). A third ANOVA indicated that loyalty scores were influenced by condition as well, F (4, 212) = 11.51 , p < .01, 2 = . 18. Again, the planned contrasts showed that loyalty scores were higher when loyalty was primed ( M = .36 , SD = .20 ) than when any other intuition was primed ( M = .17 , SD = .18 ), t (208) = 6.16 , p < .01 (one - tailed) . The final ANOVA indicated that authority scores were also influenced by condition overall, F (4, 212) = 5.37 , p < .01, 2 = .09 . Planned contrasts again revealed that the relevant intuition score, this time for authority, was higher when authority was primed ( M = .45 , SD = .21 ) than when any other intuition was primed ( M = .29 , SD = .21 ), t (208) = 3.89 , p < .01 (one - tai led) . Replica ting Hahn and colleagues, results of these ANOVAs suggest that exposure to media content highlighting a specific intuition led participants to choose that intuition as more important more often than when any other intuition was highlighted. iii Although i t is likely that excluding participants who did not pay close attention to the stimulus would have attenuated the magnitude of effect observed in the main analyses, the theoretical and pragmatic value of excluding participants who did not pay attention to the stimulus was deemed more important. Nevertheless, we replicated the mediation analyses with the inclusion of participants who indicated that they paid a little attention ( N = 302). Findings revealed largely the same pattern of results for all models. More generally, exposure to the different comic conditions (a) increased the accessibility of the four related intuitions, (b) increased sharing for the intuition relevant target, (i.e., both the a path and the c path were significant in ea ch case), and (c) showed mediation only for the care intuition. Specifically, i n the care model, participants in the care condition were more likely to choose the care intuition as most important in the M - MIA ( a = .14, SE = .04, p <.01, 95% CI [.08, .21 ]), and participants who chose care as more important also share d more tokens with the pictured girl who exemplified care ( b = 1.51, SE = .67, p < .05, 95% CI [.19, 2.84 ]). A bootstrap confidence interval f or the indirect effect ( ab = .22, boot SE = .12 ) base d on 5,000 bootstrap samples was statistically significant ( bias - corrected 95% CI [.04, .53 ]). T here was also evidence that exposure to the care comic directly influenced the number of tokens donated to the care exemplar independent of ca re intuition salie nce ( = 1.94, SE = .42, p < .01, 95% CI [1.11, 2.77 ]). Next, in a 66 second model, p articipants in the fairness condition were more likely to choose the fairness intuition as most important in the M - MIA ( a = .08, SE = .02, p < .01, 95% CI [.04, .13 ]), but s cores on the M - MIA did not influence fairness token scores ( b = 1.22, SE = 1.01, p = .23, 95% CI [ - .78, 3.21 ]). Examination of the indirect effect ( ab = .10, boot SE = .10 ) via a bootstrap confidence interval based on 5,000 bootstrap samples was not entirely above z ero (bias - corrected 95% CI [ - .05, .36 ]), suggesting no mediation. However, exposure to the fairness comic did influence equal distribut ion of tokens regardless of fairness intuition salien ce ( = 1.21, SE = .43, p < .01, 95% CI [.37, 2.06 ]). Third, p articipants in the loyalty condition were more likely to choose the loyalty intuition as most important in the M - MIA ( a = .13 , SE = .03, p <.01, 95% CI [.08, .19]), but M - MIA scores did not influence token donations to the loyalty exemplar ( b = - .41 , SE = .59, p = . 48, 95% CI [ - 1.58, .74]). The indirect effect ( ab = - .05, boot SE = .09 ) suggested a lack of mediation as the bootstrap confidence interval of 5,000 bootstrap samples was not entirely above z ero (bias - corrected 95% CI [ - . 27, .10 ]). There was, however, a direct effect of exposure to the loyalty comic token donation s to the loyalty exemplar ( = .1.37, SE = .29, p < .01, 95% CI [.80, 1.93 ]). Last , for the authority model, participants in the authority condition were more li kely to choose the authority intuition as most important in the M - MIA ( a = .07, SE = .03 , p < . 05, 95% CI [.01, .14 ]), but M - MIA scores did not predict authority token donations ( b = - .24 , SE = .58, p = .67, 95% CI [ - 1.39, .90 ]). A bootstrap confidence interval for the indirect effect ( ab = - .02, boot SE = .05 ) based on 5,000 bootstrap samples was not entirely above ze ro, (bias - corrected 95% CI [ - .14, .05 ]). Similar to other models, there was a direct effect showing that exposure to the authority comic d irectly influenced = 2.09 , SE = .34, p < .01, 95% CI [1. 42, 2.77]). iv The main analyses in this study were conducted assuming a normal distribution. Due to concern from one committee member (Dr. Rene Weber) surrounding the non - Gaussian distribution of the token scores, a second set of analyses was conducted that could accommodate for count outcomes which are non - normally distributed. Under the assumption that the token scores were count outcomes, this set of analyses relied on a Poisson distribution. Poisson - based analyses were not included in text r variances. This indicates overdispersion, which violates one of the characteristics of a Poisson distribution. Second, the token scores show evidence of normality, which is supported by a lack of skewness (all estimates are within +/ - 1.2), and kurtosis (estimates for three of the variables is within +/ - 1.4, except authority which did indicate kurtosis with an estimate of 7.44). Third, and perhaps most importantly, the fairness token score calculation resulted in the score being a non - integer, and thus i t is unable to act as a parameter in a mediation model using a Poisson distribution for non - inclusion in text, in order to address Dr . the set of analyses using the Poisson dist ribution are presented below. These analyses included constructing three semi - parametric mediation models (one for care, loyalty, and authority) using the package elevant condition variable modeled exogenously and dummy coded as 1, with all other conditions coded as 0, (b) the relevant M - MIA variable entered as a mediator, and (c) the relevant token score entered as the dependent variable. These models are considere d semiparametric because the path with M - MIA scores as an outcome (the a path in the mediation) can be modeled parametrically, but the paths with token scores as an outcome (the b and c paths in the mediation model) must be modeled nonparametrically using a Poisson distribution. In order to handle the fairness token scores, another committee member (Dr. Gary Bente) suggested analyzing the fairness scores by calculating Gini coefficient s . To make comparisons based on inequality concentration for the fairness condition, Gini coefficients (see Morgan, 1962) were calculated and modeled as the outcome variable in a mediation model in Process (Hayes, 2013). First, for care, a linear regression was estimated with the dummy coded care condition as a predictor and the care M - MIA scores as an outcome. Results revealed that exposure to the care comic significantly predicted care M - MIA scores, b = .21 ( SE = .04), F (1,208) = 27.59, p < .01. Next, a Poisson regression model was estimated with both the care condition and care M - MIA scores as predictors and care token scores as an outcome. In this indicating overdispersion. Results revealed that care condition (exp( b ) = 1.33, robust SE = 1.10, p < .01, 95% CI [1.11, 1.59]) acted as significant predictors of care token scores , but care M - MIA scores did not (exp( b ) = 1.35, robust SE = 1.19, p = .08, 95% CI [.96, 1.90]) . Additionally, the model overall did not indicate good fit, log likelihood ratio (207) = 413.17, p < .01. Finally, using these two estimated models, a semiparametric mediation model was constructed and tested using the package 67 indirect effect; b = .34, p = .10) based on 5,000 Monte Carlo draws fell just below zero (BCa 95% CI [ - .02, .87] indicating no mediation. Echoing results o f the Poisson regression above, however, there was evidence of a direct effect of the care condition on care token scores ( b = 1.52, p < .01, BCa 95% CI [.49, 2.54]). For the loyalty model, a linear regression was estimated with the dummy coded loyalty con dition as a predictor and the loyalty M - MIA scores as an outcome. Results revealed that the exposure to the loyalty condition significantly predicted loyalty M - MIA scores, b = .19 ( SE = .03), F (1,208) = 37.08, p < .01. Next, a Poisson regression model was estimated with both the loyalty condition and loyalty M - MIA scores as predictors and loyalty token scores as an outcome. In this model, revealed that the loyalty condition (exp( b ) = 1.25, robust SE = 1.09, p = .01, 95% CI [1.05, 1.48]) acted as a significant predictor of loyalty token scores, but loyalty M - MIA scores did not (exp( b ) = 1.12, robust SE = 1.21, p = .74, 95% CI [.77, 1.61]). Additiona lly, the overall Poisson model did not indicate good fit, log likelihood ratio (207) = 296.52, p < .01. Using the two estimated models for loyalty, a semiparametric mediation model was constructed for loyalty in R. A nonparametric bootstrap confidence inte rval for the average causal mediated effect (i.e., indirect effect; b = .08, p = .57) based on 5,000 Monte Carlo crossed zero (BCa 95% CI [ - .28, .35] again indicating no mediation. Again, however, results showed a significant direct effect of the loyalty c ondition on loyalty token scores ( b = .90, p = .01, BCa 95% CI [.18, 1.65]). Finally, for the authority model, a linear regression was estimated with the dummy coded authority condition as a predictor and the authority M - MIA scores as an outcome. Results r evealed that the exposure to the authority condition significantly predicted authority M - MIA scores, b = .16 ( SE = .04), F (1,208) = 16.02, p < .01. Next, a Poisson regression model was estimated with both the authority condition and authority M - MIA scores as predictors and authority token scores as an outcome. In this model, the ratio of the 4, again indicating overdispersion. Results revealed that the authority condition (exp( b ) = 1.66, robust SE = 1.13, p < .01, 95% CI [1.30, 2.12]) acted as a significant predictor of authority token scores, but authority M - MIA scores did not (exp( b ) = .76, robust SE = 1.22, p = .23, 95% CI [.51, 1.14]). The overall Poisson model also did not indicate good fit, log likelihood ratio (207) = 352,11, p < .01. Combining the two estimated models for authority, a semiparametric mediation model for authority was con structed in R. A nonparametric bootstrap confidence interval for the average causal mediated effect (i.e., indirect effect; b = - .19, p = .19) based on 5,000 Monte Carlo crossed zero (BCa 95% CI [ - .64, .06] again indicating no mediation. Once again, howeve r, results showed a significant direct effect of the authority condition on authority token scores ( b = 2.21, p < .01, BCa 95% CI [1.13, 3.71]). In order to examine the effect of the fairness condition assuming a non - Gaussian distribution, Gini coefficient s were calculated for each participant using the R package DescTools. It is widely accepted that the Gini coefficient is the best single indicator of inequality and income concentration (e.g., Morgan, 1962). Gini coefficients can range from 0 to 1, with lower scores indicating more equal income distribution, and higher scores indicating maximum inequality between people. Using Process (Hayes, 2013), a simple mediation model was constructed (model 4). In this model, the dummy - coded fairness condition was e ntered as the exogenous variable, the M - MIA fairness score was entered as the mediator variable, and the Gini coefficient for each participant was entered as the outcome variable. Results revealed that participants in the fairness condition were more likel y to choose the fairness intuition as most important in the M - MIA ( a = .13, SE = .03, p < .01, 95% CI [.08, .19 ]), and participants who chose fairness as more important also had lower Gini coefficient scores (indicating they donated more equally; b = - .27, SE = .11, p < .05, 95% CI [ - .49, - .04 ]). A bootstrap confidence interval f or the indirect effect ( ab = - .04, boot SE = .02 ) based on 5,000 bootstrap samples was statistically significant ( bias - corrected 95% CI [ - .08, - .01 ]). T here was also evidenc e that exposure to the fairness comic directly influenced the Gini coefficient independent of fairness intuition salience ( = - .11, SE = .05, p < .05, 95% CI [ - .21, - .01 ]). v Some scholars may advocate for the use of structural equation modeling (SEM) as an alternative method of accounting for measurement error. Although SEM can be useful in this regard (e.g., when considering measurement models by themselves), it can also lead to paradoxical results concerning local path fit and global model fit. This can occur in two ways. First, if a measurement model does not fit due to measurement error but the surrounding structural model features ample parameters, the model would likely fail on measures of global fit. This is especially the case when the measureme nt model contains many indicators of the latent variable(s). That is, a model can fail tests of global fit even when the theoretical structural paths one set out to test are strong. If SEM were conducted on the present data, this scenario may apply to the models of care and fairness, as the local structural paths for each are ample, but each would feature a weak measurement model (due to measurement 68 error). On the other hand, a second way this paradox can manifest occurs when a model has a strong measuremen t model but a weak structural model. Models can succeed when assessed globally, even when the local structural paths are weak, so long as their measurement model is strong. That is, the model could be said to fit globally based solely on the measurement mo del indicators, even when the theoretical paths one set out to test have clearly failed. If SEM were conducted on the present data, this scenario may apply to the models of loyalty and authority, as each model would have contained a latent mediator with re latively strong indicators, but the theoretical paths in both models have clearly failed. SEM thus was not employed in the present study, as assessing model fit would ultimately be biased by both (1) the number of indicators to the latent mediators, and (2 ) the strength of their association to the latent mediators. vi See supra note iv and accompanying text. 69 APPENDICES 70 APPENDIX A : List of words used in the M - MIA . Note. Differences from Hahn, Tamborini, Prabhu, Grall - MIA are in parentheses. Care Fairness Loyalty Authority Caring Fair Loyal Obedient Kind Truthful ( Honest ) Teammate s ( Teammate ) Respectful Help Share equally ( Equal share ) Listen to adults ( Obey ) Cruel Unfair Disloyal Disrespectful Mean ( Hurtful ) Dishonest ( Unequal share ) A traitor Disobedient Harm Lie Double cross your friend Break the rules ( Disobey ) 71 APPENDIX B : Survey Instrument . We are doing a study to learn about people who read . We are asking you to help because we read comic books . If you agree to be in our study, you are going to read a comic book and then give you some treats t hat you can divide up . You can ask questions about this study at any time. If you decide at any time not to finish, you can ask us to stop. If you sign this paper, it means that you have read this and that you want to be in the study. If is paper. Being in the study is up to you, and no Your signature: _________________________________________ Date _____________ Your printed name: _________________________ _____________ Date _____________ 72 Please rank the following words by which you think it is BETTER to be. Do so for each of the three blocks. Just put a number 1 next to the word you think it is better to be and a number 2 next to the word you think is next best, and so on. Word Your ranking Rock Stick Leaf Flower 73 Please rank the following words by which you think it is WORSE to be. Do so for each of the three blocks. Just put a number 1 next to the word you think it is better to be and a number 2 next to the word you think is next best, and so on. For thi s one, which do you think it is WORSE to be? Word Your ranking Circle Triangle Square Oval 74 Now decide how many tokens each person will get. Under each picture is a description of the person you will be sharing with, so make sure you read about them before you decide to share! You can keep all the tokens yourself, share them equally, or give more to some people than others. 1. Put how many you want to give the first person in envelope #1. 2. Put how many you want to give the second person in envelope #2. 3. Put how many you want to give the third person in envelope #3. 4. Put how many you want to keep for yourself in in envelope #4. 1 2 3 This is the square man. He is happy. This is the triangle man. He is surprised. This is the circle man. He is excited. 75 76 Please rank the following words by which you think it is BETTER to be. Do so for each of the three blocks. Just put a number 1 next to the word you think it is better to be and a number 2 next to the word you think is next best, and so on. Word Your ranking Kind Truthful Teammates Respectful For the final ranking, which do you think it is BETTER to do? Word Your ranking Caring Fair Loyal Obedient Word Your ranking Listen to adults Share equally Take your Help 77 Please rank the following words by which you think it is WORSE to be. Do so for each of the 3 blocks. Just put a number 1 next to the word you think it is worse to be and a number 2 next to the word you think is next worse, and so on. Word Your ranking Disrespectful Unfair Mean Disloyal For the final ranking, which do you think it is WORSE to do? Word Your ranking Disobedient Dishonest A traitor Cruel Word Your ranking Double cross your friend Harm Lie Break the rules 78 Now decide how many tokens each person will get. Under each picture is a description of the person you will be sharing with, so make sure you read about them before you decide to share! This time you are playing the game for real. You can keep all the tokens yourself, share them equally, or give more to some people than others. 5. Put how many you want to give the first girl in envelope #1. 6. Put how many you want to give the second girl in envelope #2. 7. Put how many you want to give the third girl in envelope #3. 8. Put how many you want to keep for yourself in in envelope #4. 1 2 3 She is a new student in the grade below you. She is feeling pretty sad because her family has to move to a new town and she will have to make new friends. She has been crying a lot in school. The poor girl really needs help . She is a student in the grade above you. She is going to be the next president of her class and will be in charge of making new school policies. She is the most respected leader the school has ever had, and students always listen to her advice ! She lives in the same neighborhood as you. Last year, she was a student in the same class as you are in now, and she even has the same birthday as you. So you have a lot more in common with her than the other two people. 79 1. How old are you? 2. What grade are you in ? 3. Are you a boy or a girl? interesting you found it just in case we want to show it to other kids your age. In the comic book you just read, how interesting did you find the story? Di d it keep your attention? A) I found the story really interesting and paid close attention. B) I found the story a little interesting and paid a little attention . C) I find the story very interesting and did not pay close attention. 80 APPENDIX C : Plot point variations according to condition . Note . These variations are adopted from Hahn, T amborini, Prabhu, Grall et al. ( 2017 ). For plot points 1, 3, and 4, condition differences exist only in keywords, while the bulk of the text remains the same for all conditions. The main text for these scenes is presented under the plot point descriptions, and the location key word differences are denoted by (A), (B), and (C) in the plot point description. The keywords that vary for these locations in each condition ar e in each of the corresponding intuition columns. Plot point 1: Care Fairness Loyalty Authority No Moral Comparison (A) Supporting those in need (B) Giving aid (C) Supporting those in need (A) Truth and justice (B) Treating everyone the same (C) Treating others the same (A) Sticking together (B) Siding with your group (C) Siding with your group (A) Following the orders of our leaders (B) Doing what your superiors tell you to (C) Our leaders know how to [make] (A) Seeking happiness (B) Following your dreams (C) Following your dreams Plot Point 2: Nebulans try to talk Cleo into gi ving them the key by saying: Care Fairness Loyalty Authority No Moral Comparison came and took everything we have . They burned our homes and left us with nothing . Now our people are homeless , our children are starving, and we have no money to buy food or shelter . The did not know it, but the treasure belonged to our forefathers . They lost the key to the vault here centuries ago. The key and the treasure it unlocks were theirs . And now pretend to be our friend . Humans and Nebulans have never been friends . So why should we think you are different ? It is ours, not really are our plan to do with it? We know Commander Collins ordered you to bring the treasure to the Grand Council. You do what he says . Nobody, not even your boss, should tell you what to do . want the key to the treasure! for that key for years! It unlocks a vault filled with riches beyond your wildest dreams . You could never spend all the gold and 81 treasure is the only thing that can save our people save us by giving us the key. Without the treasure it holds, our people will die . But you can stop all our suffering it belongs to this injustice , by giving us the key. You know it is rightfully ours friend , give us the key. If not, you are our enemy so we are against you and your people Ignore Commander Collins and give us the key. Yo u orders from diamond s . You would never know w hat to Plot point 3: Cleo thinks (A) when deciding what to do with the key, and then says/ does (B): Care Fairness Loyalty Authority No Moral Comparison the Nebulans need it more than me and I anyone to suffer just because I chose not to aid them. After all, supporting those in need creates a better world, and without support, . I can make it to Helios another day. The Nebulans need this to support their injured. They should have ing to support you! Let me get the treasure for you. bring it back time, I suppose the Nebulans are right. If their forefathers left this treasure here then they deserve some of it. After all, treating others the way you want to be treated is important. I can split the treasure and give some to them and to Commander Collins. They can each take a portion take a part . Let me get the bring some back for you and my species is scary , and I do with the power the treasure holds. No wonder people are suspicious of these guys. I them . My people would be in great danger if I gave them the key, so I must si de with my group . After important to stick with your group so they stick with you . ( going to give it to the Commander. I suppose I should listen to him . He really is a good leader . And it is important to listen to your leaders . They know what's best. I guess my Helio vacation can wait until return it to my commander . Now how am I supposed to get away from the (B) Cleo runs away ld be great to have that treasure for myself. I can already see me swimming on Helios in my new bikini! Do they really think the key to have to travel what I was made to do, and always drea med just give that up. Now how can I get away from the Nebulans? (B) Cleo runs away 82 to assist you and command er. You (B) Cleo runs away Plot point 4: Akila asks Cleo what happened and Cleo replies (A) and (B): Care Fairness Loyalty Authority No Moral Comparison been a change in plans. I have to give the treasure to the Nebulans. They need me woman once told me that supporting those in need is the most important thing .. been a change in plans. I have to give a portion of treasure to the Nebulans. It belongs to them.. dividing it up is the right thing to woman once told me that justice and treating others the same are the most important things in the w those crazy creatures tried to get me to abandon my group and give them the key. We have to remain devoted to our people besides... a wise woman once told me that siding with your group is the most important thing in the crazy creatures tried to get me to ignore Commander and give them the key instead! We have to follow Commander wise woman once told me that following the orders of our leaders is the most important thing in the .. uh.. been a change in plans. going for the treasure ourselves. ( besides... a wise woman once told me that following your dreams is the most important thing in the 83 REFERENCES 84 REFERENCES American Academy of Pediatrics. (2001). Media violence. Pediatrics , 108 , 1222 - 1226. American Academy of Pediatrics. (2016). American Academy of P ediatrics announces new . Retrieved from: https://www.aap.org/en - us/about - the - aap/aap - press - room/Pages/American - Academy - of - Pediatrics - Announces - New - Recommendations - for - Childrens - Media - Use.aspx American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental d isorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L. R., Johnson, J. D., Linz, D., ... & Wartella, E. (2003). The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in th e Public I nterest , 4 (3), 81 - 110. doi: 10.1111/j.1529 - 1006.2003.pspi_1433.x Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B. J., Sakamoto, A., ... & Saleem, M. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in Eastern and Western countries: A meta - analytic review. Psychological Bulletin , 136 , 151 - 173. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018251 Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media P sychology , 3 , 265 - 299. Bandura, A., Ross, D. , & Ross, S. A. (1963). Imitation of film - mediated aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66 (1), 3 - 11 . Batson, C. D. & Powell, A. A. (2003). Altru ism and prosocial behavior. In I. B. Weiner (Ed.) Handbook of p sychology (pp.463 - 484) . Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Benenson, J. F., Pascoe, J., & Radmore, N. (2007). Children's altruistic behavior in the dictator game. Evolution and Human Behavior , 28 , 168 - 175. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2006.10.003 Bostyn, D. H., Sevenhant, S., & Roets, A. (2018). Of mice, men, and trolleys: H ypothetical judgment versus real - life behavior in trolley - style moral dilemmas. Psychological S cience , Advance Online Publication . https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617752640 Bushman, B. J., & Hu esmann, L. R. (2006). Short - term and long - term effects of violent media on aggression in children and adults. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 160 , 348 - 352. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.160.4.348 Cingel, D. P., & Krcmar, M. (2017). Prosocial televisio udgments, and moral reasoning: T he role of social moral intuitions and perspective - 85 taking. Communication Research , Advance Online Publication . doi: 10.1177/0093650217733846 Cingel, D. P., Sumter, S. R., & van de Leur, J. (2017 ). The role of social context during television others. Media Psychology , Advance Online Publication. doi: 10.1080/15213269.2017.1378111 Common Sense Media. (2015). The common sense census: M edia use by tweens and teens . Retrieved from: http://cdn.cnn.com/cnn/2017/images/11/07/commonsensecensus.mediausebytweensa ndteens.2015.final.pdf Coyne, S. M., Padilla - Walker, L. M., Holmgren, H. G., Davis, E. J., Collier, K. M., Memmo tt - Elison, M. K., & Hawkins, A. J. (2018). A meta - analysis of prosocial media on prosocial behavior, aggression, and empathic concern: A multidimensional approach. Developmental psychology , 54 , 331 - 347 . doi: 10.1037/dev0000412 Dunfield, K., Kuhlmeier, V. A. prosocial behavior: Helping, sharing, and comforting in infancy. Infancy , 16 , 227 - 247. doi:1.1111/j.1532 - 7078.201.00041.x Engel, C. (2011). Dictator games: A meta study. Experimental Economic s , 14 , 583 - 610. doi: 10.1007/s10683 - 011 - 9283 - 7 TelevIZIon, 18, 10 - 14. Gawronski, B., & Payne, B. K. (Eds.). (2011). Handbook of implicit social cognition: Measurement, theory, and applications . New York, NY: Guilford Press. Gentile, D. A., Anderson, C. A., Yukawa, S., Ihori, N., Saleem, M., Ming, L. K., ... & Rowell Huesmann, L. (2009). The effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behaviors: International evidence from correlational, longitu dinal, and experimental studies. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 35 , 752 - 763. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167209333045 and unequal distributions o f resources. Developmental Sc ience , 14 , 1012 - 1020. doi: 10.1111/j.1467 - 7687.2011.01048.x Graham, J., Nosek, B. A., Haidt, J., Iyer, R., Koleva, S., & Ditto, P. H. (2011). Mapping the moral domain. Jou rnal of Personality and Social P sychology , 101 , 366 - 385. doi: 10.1037/a0021847 86 Child Development , 79 , 562 - 576. doi: 10.1111/j.1467 - 8624.2008 .01143.x Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review , 108 , 814 - 834. doi:1.1037/0033 - 295X.108.4.814 Haidt, J., & Bjorklund, F. (2008). Social intuitionists answer six questions about morality. In W. Sinnott - Armstrong (Ed.), Moral psychology: Vol. 2. The cognitive science of morality (pp. 181 217). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. (2004) . Intuitive ethics: How innately prepared intuitions generate culturally variable virtues. Daedalus , 133 (4), 55 - 66. doi:10.1162/0011526042365555 Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. (2007). The moral mind: How 5 sets of innate intuitions guide the development of many c ulture - specific virtues, and perhaps even modules. In P. Carruthers, S. Laurence, & S. Stich (Eds.), The innate mind (Vol. 3, pp. 367 391). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Hahn, L., Tamborini, R., Klebig, B., Novotny, E., Grall, C., Hofer, M., & Lee , H. (2018). The representation of altruistic and egoistic motivations in popular music over 60 years. Communication Studies , Advance Online Publication . doi:10.1080/10510974.2018.1447493 Hahn, L., Tamborini, R., Prabhu, S., Grall, C., Novotny, E., & Klebig, B. (2017, May). Testing the model of intuitive morality and exemplars in children. Paper presented at the 67 th annual meeting of the International Communication Conference, San Diego, CA. Hahn, L ., Tamborini, R., Prabhu, S., Klebig, B., Grall, C., & Pei, D. (2017). The importance of altruistic versus egoistic motivations: A content analysis of conflicted motivations in Communication Reports , 30 , 67 - 79. doi:10.1080/08934215.2016.1251602 Hamlin, J. K. (2013). Moral judgment and action in preverbal infants and toddlers evidence for an innate moral core. Current Directions in Psychological Science , 22 , 186 - 193. doi: 1.1177/0963721412470687 Hamlin, J. K., Mahajan, N., Liberman, Z., & Wynn, K. (2013). Not like me = bad. I nfants prefer those who harm dissimilar others. Psychological Science , 24 , 589 - 594. doi: 10.1177/0956797612457785 Harbaugh, W. T., & Krause, K. (2000). Children's altruism in public good and dictator experiments. Economic Inquiry , 38 , 95 - 109. doi: 10.1111/j. 1465 - 7295.2000.tb00006.x Harris, J. L., Bargh, J. A., & Brownell, K. D. (2009). Priming effects of television food advertising on eating behavior. Health P sychology , 28 , 404 - 413. doi: 10.1037/a0014399 87 Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression - based approach . New York, NY: Guilford Publications. Heid, M. (2017, Oct.). We need to talk about kids and smartphones . Time Magazine . Retrieved from: http://time.com/4974863/kids - smartphones - depre ssion/ Hogan, M. J., & Strasburger, V. C. (2008). Media and prosocial behavior in children and adolescents. In L. Nucci & D. Narvaez (Ed.) Handbook of moral and character education (pp. 537 - 553). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum . Hunter, J. E., & Gerbing, D. W . (1982). Unidimensional measurement, second order factor analysis and causal models. In B. M. Straw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 4). Greenwich, CT : JAI Press . Hunter, J. E., Gerbing, D. W., & Boster, F. J. (1982). Mac hiavellian beliefs and personality: Construct invalidity of the Machiavellianism dimension. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 43 , 1293 - 1305. doi: 10.1037/0022 - 3514.43.6.1293 Joeckel, S., Bowman, N. D., & Dogruel, L. (2012). Gut or game? The influence of moral intuitions on decisions in video games. Media Psychology , 15 , 460 - 485. doi: 10.1080/15213269.2012.727218 Kahneman, D., Knetsch, J. L., & Thaler, R. H. (1986). Fairness and the assumptions of economics. Journal of B usiness , 285 - 300. http:/ /www.jstor.org/stable/2352761 Kant, I. (1964). Groundwork of the metaphysic of morals (H. J. Paton, Trans.). New York, NY: Harper Torchbooks. (originally published in 1785) Kear, N. (2009). Is TV really that bad? Retrieved from: https://www.parents.com/ba by/development/intellectual/is - tv - really - that - bad/ Kim, J. M., & Turiel, E. (1996). Korean and American children's concepts of adult and peer authority. Social Development , 5 , 310 - 329. doi: 10.1111/j.1467 - 9507.1996.tb00088.x Klebig, B. (2018). The influence of intuition dominance on attention to relevant exemplars in media narratives. U npublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University. Koleva, S. P., Graham, J., Iyer, R., Ditto, P. H., & Haidt, J. (2012). Tracing the threads: How f ive moral concer ns (especially p urity) help explain culture war attitudes. Journal of Research in Personality , 46 , 184 - 194. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2012.01.006 Krcmar, M., & Cooke, M. C. (2001). Children's moral reasoning and their perceptions of television violence. Journal of Communication , 51 , 300 - 316. doi: 10.1111/j.1460 - 2466.2001.tb02882.x 88 Krcmar, M., & Curtis, S. (2003). Mental models: Understanding the impact of fantasy violence on children's moral reasoning. Journal of Communication , 53 , 460 - 478. doi: 10.1111/j.1460 - 2466.2 003.tb02602.x Krcmar, M., & Valkenburg, P. M. (1999). A scale to assess children's moral interpretations of justified and unjustified violence and its relationship to television viewing. Communication Research , 26 , 608 - 634. doi: 10.1177/009365099026005004 L knowledge, and social position. Developmental Psychology, 27, 321 329. doi:1.1037/0012 - 1649.27.2.321 Laupa, M., & Turiel Child Development, 57, 405 412. doi:1.2307/1130596 enjoyment and appreciation. Journal of Communication , 64 , 397 - 416. doi: 10.1111/jcom.12101 https://www.engadget.com/2018/06/04/ios - 12 - lets - parents - limit - kids - screen - time/ Mares, M. (1996). Positive effects of television on social behavior: A meta - analysis. Philadelphia , PA : The Annenberg Public Policy Center. Mares, M. L., & Acosta, E. E. (2008). Be kind to three - legged dogs: Children's literal interpretations of TV's moral lessons. Media Psychology , 11 , 377 - 399. doi: 10.1080/152132 60802204355 Mares, M. L., & Braun, M. T. (2013). Effects of conflict in tween sitcoms on US students' moral reasoning about social exclusion. Journal of Children and Media , 7 , 428 - 445. doi:1.1080/17482798.2013.785972 Mares, M. L., & Woodard, E. (2005). Po sitive effects of television on children's social interactions: A meta - analysis. Media Psychology, 7 , 301 - 322. doi: 10.1207/S1532785XMEP0703_4 Martin, G. B., & Clark, R. D. (1982). Distress crying in neonates: Species and peer specificity. Developmental P sychology , 18 , 3 - 9. doi: 10.1037/0012 - 1649.18.1.3 Martins, N., & Wilson, B. J. (2012). Social aggression on television and its relationship to children's aggression in the classroom. Human Communication Research , 38 (1), 48 - 71. doi: 10.1111/j.1468 - 2958.2011.0 1417.x Miller, G. (2008). The roots of morality. Science , 320 , 734 - 737. doi:1.1126/science .32.5877.734 89 Morgan, J. (1962). The anatomy of income distribution. The Review of Economics and Statistics , 270 - 283. doi:10.2307/1926398 Nash, J. (1951). Non - coopera tive games. Annals of M athematics , 286 - 295. Ostrov, J. M., Gentile, D. A., & Crick, N. R. (2006). Media exposure, aggression and prosocial behavior during early childhood: A longitudinal study. Social Development, 15 , 612 - 627. doi: 10.1111/j.1467 - 9507. 2006.00360.x Paik, H., & Comstock, G. (1994). The effects of television violence on antisocial behavior: A meta - analysis. Communication Research , 21 , 516 - 546. doi: 10.1177/009365094021004004 Payne, B. K., Brown - Iannuzzi, J. L., & Loersch, C. (2016). Replica ble effects of primes on human behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 145 , 1269 - 1279. doi: 10.1037/xge0000201 Riddle, K., Potter, W. J., Metzger, M. J., Nab i, R. L., & Linz, D. G. (2011). Beyond cultivation: Exploring the effects of frequency, recency, and vivid autobiographical memories for violen t media. Media Psychology, 14 , 168 - 191. doi: 10.1080/15213269.2011.573464 Rideout, V. (2017). Parents, children & m edia : A Kaiser Family Foundation survey. Retrieved from: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED542901.pdf Roskos - Ewoldsen, D. R., Roskos - Ewoldsen, B. & Carpentier, F. R. D. (2002). Media priming: A synthesis. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effect s: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 97 120). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Sagi, A., & Hoffman, M. L. (1976). Empathic distress in the newborn. Developmental Psychology , 12 , 175 - 176. doi:1.1037/0012 - 1649.12.2.175 Schoemann , A. M., Boulton, A. J., & Short, S. D. (2017). Determining power and sample size for simple and complex mediation models. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8 , 379 - 386. doi: 10.1177/1948550617715068 Sherman, J. W., Gawronski, B., & Trope, Y. (Ed s.). (2014). Dual - process theories of the social mind . New York, NY: Guilford Press. Sloane, S., Baillargeon, R., & Premack, D. (2012). Do infants have a sense of fairness? Psychological Science , 23 , 196 - 204. doi:1.1177/0956797611422072. Spearman, C. (190 4). The proof and measurement of association between two things. The American Journal of P sychology , 15 (1), 72 - 101. doi: 10.2307/1412159 90 Swanson, A. (2016, Apr. 25). The disturbing thing scientists learned when they bribed babies with graham crackers. The W ashington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/04/25/the - disturbing - thing - you - learn - when - you - bribe - babies - with - graham - crackers/ Tamborini, R. (2013). Model of intuitive morality and exemplars. In R. Tamborini (Ed), Media and the moral mind (pp. 43 - 74). London, UK: Routledge. Tamborini, R., Bowman, N., Prabhu, S., Hahn, L., Klebig, B., Grall, C., & Novotny, E. (2016). The effect of moral intuitions on decisions in video - game play: The role of temporary and chronic int uition accessibility. New Media and Society , 20, 564 - 580 . doi:10.1177/1461444816664356 Tamborini, R., Grizzard, M., Bowman, N., Reinecke, L., Lewis, R. J., & Eden, A. (2011). Media enjoyment as need satisfaction: The contribution of hedonic and nonhedonic needs. Journal of Communication , 61 , 1025 - 1042. doi: 10.1111/j.1460 - 2466.2011.01593.x Tamborini, R., Hahn, L ., Prabhu, S., Klebig, B., & Grall, C. (2017). The representation of altruistic Commun ication Research Reports, 34, 58 - 67. doi:10.1080/08824096.2016.1227312 Tamborini, R., Hofer, M., Prabhu, S., Grall, C., Novotny, E., Hahn, L., & Klebig, B. (2017). The impact of terror attack news on moral intuitions and moral behavior towards outgroups. Mass Communication and Society , 20 , 800 - 824. doi:10.1080/15205436.2017.1342130 Tamborini, R., Lewis, R. L. Prabhu, S., Grizzard, M., Hahn, L., & Wang, L. (2016). influence on the accessibility of altruistic and egoistic motivations. Communication Research Reports, 33, 177 - 187. doi:1.1080/08824096.2016.1186627 Tamborini, R., Prabhu, S., Hahn, L., Idzik, P., & Wang, L. (2014, May). on the salience of moral intuitions: Testing the reliability of the Intuitive Motivation - Affec t Misattribution Procedure (IM - AMP). Paper presented at the 64 th annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Seattle, WA. Tamborini, R., Prabhu, S., Lewis, R. J., Grizzard, M., & Eden, A. (2016). The influence of media exposure on the ac cessibility of moral intuitions and associated affect. Journal of Media Psychology , Advance Online P ublication . doi: 10.1027/1864 - 1105/a000183. Child Development, 57, 166 176. Turiel, E. (20 08). The deve l opment of morality. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.) Handbook of child psychology (pp. 473 - 516). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 91 Zahn - Waxler, C., Radke - Yarrow, M., Wagner, E., & Chapman, M. (1992). Development of concern for others. Dev elopmental Psychology , 28 , 126 - 136. doi:1.1037/0012 - 1649.28.1.126 Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2009). The roots of human altruism. British Journal of Psychology , 100 , 455 - 471. doi:1.1348/000712608X379061 Weaver, A. J., & Lewis, N. (2012). Mirrored morality: An exploration of moral choice in video games. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking , 15 , 610 - 614. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2012.0235 Weber, R., Mangus, J. M., Huskey, R., Amir, O., Swanson, R., Gordon, A., Khooshabeh, P., Hahn, L., & Tambori ni, R. (2018). Extracting moral foundations from text narratives: Relevance, challenges, and solutions. Communication Methods and Measures , Advance Online Publication . doi:10.1080/19312458.2018.1447656 Wheeler, S. C., & DeMarree, K. G. (2009). Multiple mec effects. Social and Personality Psychology Compass , 3 , 566 - 581. doi: 10.1111/j.1751 - 9004.2009.00187.x Wheeler, S. C., DeMarree, K. G., & Petty, R. E. (2014). Understanding prime - to - behavior effects: Insights from the active - self account. Social Cognition , 32 (Supplement), 109 - 123. doi: 10.1521/soco.2014.32.supp.109 Wilson, B. J., Donnerstein , E., Linz, Kunkel, D., Potter, J., Smith, S. L., Blumenthal, E., & Gray, T. (2000). Content analysis of entertainment television: The importance of context. In J. T. Hamilton (Ed.), Television violence and public policy (pp. 13 - 45). Ann Arbor, MI: The Uni versity of Michigan Press. Zahn - Waxler, C., Radke - Yarrow, M., Wagner, E., & Chapman, M. (1992). Development of concern for others. Developmental Psychology , 28 , 126 - 136. doi:1.1037/0012 - 1649.28.1.126 Zillmann, D. (2002). Exemplification theory of media inf luence. In J. Bryant & D. Zillman n ( E ds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed.) (pp. 19 - 41). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.