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Michigan Stain University This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-CONCEPT AND THE ABILITY TO ANALYZE READING ACHIEVEMENT AMONG THIRD AND SIXTH GRADE CHILDREN presented by Martha Harriet Felton has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D . degree in Educat ion Major professor Date April 18, 1978 0-7639 © 1978 MARTHA HARRIET FE LTON ALL RI GHTS RESERVED THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-CONCEPT AND THE ABILITY TO ANALYZE READING ACHIEVEMENT AMONG THIRD AND SIXTH GRADE CHILDREN By Martha Harriet Felton A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Elementary and Special Education 1978 . Kurt.» a \\\ v ABSTRACT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-CONCEPT AND THE ABILITY To ANALYZE READING ACHIEVEMENT AMONG THIRD AND SIXTH GRADE CHILDREN By Martha Harriet Felton The purpose of this study was to seek information regarding the relationship of self-concept to a child's perception of his reading abilities in relationship to his peers and to his perception of his ability to use specific skills in reading on the third and sixth grade levels. This study examined the accuracy of both third and sixth graders in analyzing their reading skills and reading abilities. The population of this study was composed of all third and sixth graders from Beckwith School, Grand Rapids There were 45 Public Schools, Grand Rapids, Michigan. third graders and 38 sixth graders in the sample. The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and the Self—Analysis Reading Test, developed for this study, were administered to all the third and sixth graders as a group The Bader Individual Reading Analysis was adminis- Testing was completed test. tered to each student individually. Martha Harriet Felton during the first two weeks in November 1977. Scores from the Reading Sub-test of the Metropolitan Achievement Test, administered during the Spring of 1977, were obtained from the permanent records for the purpose of determining accu- racy of response on Part 1 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test. Both group tests were read orally so that reading vocabulary would not be a problem. The hypotheses were tested using nonparametric correlations, specifically, the Spearman Rank-Correlation Coefficient and the Mann-Whitney U Test. Statistical information was obtained from the Michigan State Univer- sity Computer and Data Processing Center using the SPSS-- Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, Vogelback Computer Center, Northwestern University, Version 6.5, MSU, September 16, 1976. The .05 level of confidence was adopted as being significant for the purpose of this study. Three research hypotheses were developed for study. Operational null hypotheses were derived from each of the research hypotheses. The three hypotheses were: I. There is a relationship between students' self- concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of reading ability in relationship to their peers. II. There is a relationship between third and sixth grade students' perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading and the accuracy with which they use those skills. III. There is a relationship between students' self— concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading. Martha Harriet Felton The findings on these hypotheses are as follows: Research Hypothesis I: A positive significant relationship was found between third graders' self-concept and accuracy of perception of reading ability in relation- ship to their peers. No significant relationship was found in this area for sixth grade students. There was a differ— ence between third and sixth grade students' self-concept at a .0290 level of significance. The third graders had lower self-concepts. The third and sixth grade students' mean rank was almost equal in the correlation of differ- ences between the accuracy of perception of reading ability in relationship to their peers. Research Hypothesis 11: Neither the third nor the sixth graders were accurate in perceiving their ability to use specific reading skills. The relationship found for the third graders reached only a .068 level of signifi- cance. Also, no relationship was found for the sixth graders. Researchgfiypothesis III: No significant relation- ship was found for either the third or sixth graders between their self-concept and the accuracy of their per- ception of ability to use specific skills in reading. How- ever, there seemed to be a trend which, with a larger sample size, might have yielded significant results. The difference between a third and sixth grader's accuracy of ability to use specific skills in reading was significant Martha Harriet Felton at a .0513 level, with the sixth graders being more accu- rate than the third graders. There are certain implications for future research which warrant mentioning. The study should be repeated with a larger sample size. A longitudinal research design might disclose information which would aid educators in developing more secure students in the public schools. There is also a need for additional research to develop more valid and reliable instruments to measure self- perception of reading abilities. There is a need to develop greater uniformity in usage of terms dealing with self-concept. Finally, there is a need for a detailed index or directory of available tests of self-concept. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer expresses deepest appreciation to Dr. Lois A. Bader, advisor, for the many hours of her time, guidance, and assistance, as well as her continuous encouragement and leadership during the development and culmination of this study. Appreciation is also expressed to the other members of the doctoral committee, Dr. Ben A. Bohnhorst, Dr. George Sherman, and Dr. Donald Nickerson, for their guidance and assistance. I am thankful to Phillip Runkel, Superintendent, for allowing me to use the Grand Rapids Public Schools for this research. I also appreciate the personal assistance of Dr. Joan M. Webster; and the official assistance of William Reaves, Director of the Office of Curriculum Plan- ning and Evaluation, Grand Rapids Public Schools, and Jason F. Kuipers, Principal of Beckwith School, Grand Rapids Public Schools. I would be remiss if I failed to recognize the two individuals who led me into the field of education and encouraged me to continue with higher study: Helen R. Kuite and Margaret J. Hamilton. But most of all, I wish to acknowledge my friends in the Fifth Reformed Church of iii Grand Rapids for their moral support and numerous prayers for my health and welfare during the entire preparation of this dissertation. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Chapter I. THE PROBLEM 1 Introduction to the Problem 1 Purposes 3 Importance . . . . . 4 Statement of Research Questions . . . . . 6 Explanation of the Research Questions 7 Research Hypotheses . . . . . . . . 9 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . 12 Organization of the Study . . . . . . . . 14 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 II. REVIEW OF RESEARCH AND RELATED LITERATURE . 16 Introduction to the Concept of "Self" . . 16 Thinking Related to "Self" . . . . . 20 Self— -Concept and Achievement in General . 24 Self— -Concept and Achievement in Reading . 29 Self— —Report or Self— -Ana1ysis of Reading Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 III. PROCEDURES AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . . . . 39 The Research Design . . . . . . . . 40 Description of the Instruments . . . . . . 43 The Self— Esteem Inventory by Dr. Stanley Coopersmith . . . . 44 The Self— Esteem Inventory as Adapted by Dr. Elda Wilson . . . . . . . 46 The Self— -Analysis Reading Test . . . . . 47 48 Chapter Page Individual Reading Analysis by Dr. Lois Bader . . . . 48 Metropolitan Achievement Test-—Reading Sub-Test . . . . . 48 Administration of the Instruments . . . . 49 Description of the Sample . . . . . . 49 Description of the Analysis Method . . . . 53 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS . . . . . . . 55 Introduction . . . . . 55 Statement of Hypotheses and Findings . . . 55 Summary . . . . . . . . . 62 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 63 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Findings . . . . . . . . . . 64 Discussion of the Findings . . . . . . . . 65 Limitations in the Findings . . . . . . . 67 Implications for Future Research . . . . . 71 APPENDICES A. TESTS USED IN STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 B. RESULT OF ACCURACY OF PART 1 AND PART 2, SELF-ANALYSIS READING TEST . . . . . . . . 110 C. SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF PART 2 OF SELF- ANALYSIS READING TEST ACCURACY BY ITEM . . lll BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 vi Table Bl. LIST OF TABLES Social-Economic Background by Parent Occupation Ethnic Background of Beckwith School, Grand Rapids, Michigan . . . . . . . . . Correlation of Third and Sixth Grade Students' Self— -Concept and Perception of Reading Ability in Relationship to Peers . . . . . . . . . Summary of Analysis of Third and Sixth Grade Students' Accuracy of Perception of Reading Ability in Relationship to Peers . . . . Summary of Analysis of Third and Sixth Grade Students' Self-Concept Scores Summary of Correlation of Third and Sixth Grade Students' Perceived and Actual Ability to Use Specific Skills in Reading . . . . Correlation of Third and Sixth Grade Students' Self— Concept and Perception of Ability to Use Specific Reading Skills . . . . . . Summary of Correlation Between Third and Sixth Grade Students' Accuracy of Perceived and Actual Ability to Use Specific Skills in Reading . . Summary of Hypotheses and Data Collected . Result of Accuracy of Part 1, Self- Analysis Reading Test . . . vii Page 51 52 56 57 58 59 6O 61 62 110 Table Page B2. Result of Accuracy of Part 2, Self- Analysis Reading Test . . . . . . . . . . 110 C1. Summary of Results of Part 2 of the Self— Analysis Reading Test Accuracy by Item . . lll viii Figure l. 2. LIST OF FIGURES Table of Variables Analysis of the Data Collection ix Page 40 5O CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction to the Problem Education has recently been receiving sharp attacks from many sides. Students complain that the educational system is not relevant for the times. Parents are demand- ing accountability for the tax monies. Educators are say— ing that too much is expected and there is too great a gap of knowledge which is ever-increasing. Administrators are seeking a solution to the criticism and pressures. It is within this setting that social psychologists are emphasizing the importance of the individual's percep- tion of "self" in relation to his intelligence and ability to learn. It is felt that the "functional limits" of one's ability to learn are established by his self-concept, which, in turn, is developed through interaction with "significant others" (mother, father, teacher, peers). Because the con- cept of self appears to be important in so many aspects of human behavior, the relationship of self-concept to the ability to analyze reading achievement was selected for examination in this study. A great number of studies have been designed to examine the relationship between self-concept and many 1 areas or facets of education. Recently attention has begun to turn to the study of self-concept and its rela- tionship to reading achievement. However, little has yet been done to study the effects of self-concept on a child's ability to analyze his own achievement in reading. The importance of students' self-concept is accepted by a large number of educators and psychologists. For example, Rogers (1952), Jersild (1952), and others have worked on the development of ideas first presented by Cooley (1909), Lecky (1961), and Mead (1934) with regard to the limits of learning as determined by the self-conception of ability. Many claim that children and adults accomplish only what they feel that they are able to do. It is considered important in the early ele- mentary grades for teachers to be trained in the area of helping children develop positive self-concepts. If self-concept is a limiting agent and a predictor of future accomplishments, it would be helpful to know if it becomes a significant factor in children's perceptions of their reading skills and abilities in relation to their peers. In addition, it would be helpful to know if there are changes in these perceptions as children mature. Will children in grade six who have studied reading for several years have more accurate perceptions than third graders with their limited experience of reading? When one considers reading difficulties, it becomes quite clear that concept of self (personality, emotion, and social adjustment) plays a large factor in success or failure of remediation (Strang, McCullough, & Traxler, 1967, p. 22). Does it play as important a part in the child's ability to see, understand, and analyze his own reading achievement, and, if so, what should this mean to educators today? Purposes The purpose of this study will be to seek infor— mation as to the relationship of self-concept to chil- dren's perceptions of their reading abilities in rela- tionship to their peers and to their perceptions of their specific skills in relationship to their actual ability ' to read. Specifically, information will be analyzed with respect to an interaction between grade and self-concept levels as measured by the score obtained on self-perception of reading abilities and skills. There has been no research in the past determin- ing if a third grader or a sixth grader is able to accu- rately analyze his ability and skills in reading. Therefore, this study will examine the accuracy of both third and sixth graders in analyzing their reading skills. Consideration will be given to determine whether a child with a high self-concept will more accurately analyze his ability and skills in reading than his counterpart with a low self-concept. 0f additional importance will be the examination of the possibility of the existence of a relationship between a child's self-concept and his abil- ity to perceive his reading achievements in relationship to his peers. Another purpose will be to gather information about self-concept and its effect on self-analysis. Much remedial work in different areas requires the individual to admit that he has a problem, whether it is in automo- bile driving or alcoholism. If this is also true in reading remediation, then a test to clarify self-perception of reading achievement and reading skills might prove to be helpful. This study may add information as to whether teaching to influence the self-concept in apositive way might be an effective and efficient method of instruction_ and remediation of reading in the elementary schools. Importance 1. Although there have been many research studies on various aspects of self-concept or self-esteem, little has been done on the individual's ability to analyze his own achievement in reading in relationship to his peers. Martin H. Jason and Beatrice Dubnow (1973) of Roosevelt University studied the relationship between self—perceptions of reading abilities and reading achievement. A review of literature was able to discover only that one within this general area. Therefore, it appeared that conduct— ing this study might prove to be educationally important. 2. Jason and Dubnow (1973) stated: Since no self-report scale involving reading appeared to be available, it was the basic intent of this present investigation to develop such an instrument and begin initial testing in order to make judgments concerning its potential useful- ness (p. 96). The instrument which they designed was a 22-item test called the Self-Report Reading Scale. The Self-Analysis Reading Test, developed for this study, is a more detailed analysis of skills in reading and rates the child in rela- tion to his peers. 3. The use of the Self-Analysis Reading Test may increase the child's ability to understand his weak- nesses or strengths in reading activities and may be another means of improving reading instruction or reme- diation. 4. The gathering of information about the self- concept and its effect on reading might provide areas for increased effectiveness in instruction and remediation. Arthur W. Combs (1962) and Earl C. Kelley (1962) believe that performance is limited by low self-concept. This is also supported by Wilbur Brookover (1965). As Butcher (1967) noted, If the self-concept is a limiting factor and if we can do something in the schools to improve it, then good teaching and administrative practices would require that we know and understand self- concept, and modify the classroom and schools to improve or assist the student in doing so (p. 10). 5. Because of the importance of developing self- concept and because of the importance that reading plays in our schools and society, it is vital that these two areas he stressed and investigated from all possible facets. Nancy Prows (1967) experimented with three fourth grade classes and stated: The purpose of this study was to determine whether teachers could become sensitive to a child's self-concept and with this growing sensi- tivity alter classroom methods and procedures which would build positive self-concepts in chil— dren. A further purpose was to determine whether a more positive self-concept in children would result in an increased reading achievement (p. 87). The finding of a significant positive correla- tion between self-concept and student ability to analyze reading achievements might be of considerable value to the field of education. It is worth indicating that the findings of this study may have interest far beyond the impact of the study itself. Statement of Research Questions This study focused upon three broad questions. The three questions postulate the importance of the effects of self-concept on abilities of self-analysis in the area of reading. The questions were: (1) Is there a relationship between third and sixth grade students' self-concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of reading ability in relationship to their peers? (2) Is there a relationship between third and sixth grade stu- dents' perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading and the accuracy with which they use those skills? (3) Is there a relationship between stu- dents' self-concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading? From these three questions the research hypotheses were developed. Explanation of the Research Questions 1. Is there a relationship between third and sixth grade students' self-concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of reading ability in relationship to their peers? Many studies have been developed to deter- mine if there is a relationship between self-concept and achievement in several subject areas, as well as the relationship between self-concept and intelligence. There is no study available concerning self—concept and self- analysis of reading ability. Within education today, a child with severe read- ing difficulties is often given a battery of tests to reveal his weaknesses and strengths and specifically what errors he makes. However, all of these tests are intended to reveal the child's ability to the tester and not neces- sarily to the child himself. Within society today, the general philosophy in remediation and correction (alco— holics, poor drivers, child abusers, and other problems) is that the individual himself must be able to admit his weaknesses and faults. The Self—Analysis Reading Test, developed for this study, aims at helping the child to analyze and recognize his weaknesses and errors in reading. Many elementary school teachers are either unaware of the importance of self—concept or unaware of the pro- cedures and methods which might aid in bettering a child’s self-concept. It is important, therefore, to investigate experimentally these two considerations, self-concept and self-analyzation of reading, to better determine their relationship before prescriptive procedures are used in the classrooms. 2. Is there a relationship between third and sixth grade students' perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading and the accuracy with which they use those skills? Answers to this question should be helpful in many ways, as already indicated above. It would also be helpful to know if there is an effect over time. Sixth grade children, who have studied reading for several years, may perceive their ability in reading achievement more accurately than third grade children with limited experience in reading. A basic premise is that self—knowledge is valu- able. If a child can accurately determine with what skills he does not feel secure, then it may be reason— able to expect that he would be more apt to make greater gains in remediation. Also, if a child can accurately determine in what skills he excels, then this knowledge should make him feel more secure in the reading act and in attempting new challenges in reading. 3. Is there a relationship between students' self—concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading? Is there an interaction between grade level, self-concept level, and level of accuracy of perception of reading skills ability? Does one factor influence or control a mutual or reciprocal action upon the others? Teaching to raise the self—concept might, in turn, also raise the accuracy of analyzing. As a child realizes success in the accuracy of analyzing reading skills accomplishments, this success might accompany an increase in self-concept level. Research Hypotheses I. There is a relationship between students' self—concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of reading abil— ity in relationship to their peers. IHl: There is a relationship between third grade students' self—concept, as determined by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the accuracy of perception of their own reading II. III. IH : IH IH ' There 10 ability in relationship to their peers, as determined by the score of Part 1 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test. There is a relationship between sixth grade students' self-concept, as determined by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the accuracy of perception of their own reading ability in relationship to their peers, as determined by the score of Part 1 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test. There is a difference between third grade and sixth grade students' accuracy of perception of their reading abilities in relationship to their peers as determined by the scores of Part 1 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test. There is a difference between third and sixth grade students' self-concept as measured by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. is a relationship between third and sixth grade students' perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading and the accuracy with which they use those IIle IIH There skills. Third grade students can accurately perceive their ability to use specific reading skills as determined by the correlation of scores on Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test and the scores of the Bader Individual Reading Analysis. Sixth grade students can accurately perceive their ability to use specific reading skills as determined by the correlation of scores on Part 2 of the Self—Analysis Reading Test and the scores of the Bader Individual Reading Analysis. is a relationship between students' self-concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading. IIIle There is a relationship between third grade students' self-concept, as determined by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the accuracy of their perceptions of ability to use specific skills in reading, as determined 11 by the correlation of scores of Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test and scores of the Bader Individual Reading Analysis. IIIH : There is a relationship between sixth grade students' self-concept, as determined by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the accuracy of their perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading, as deter- mined by the correlation of scores of Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test and the Bader Individual Reading Analysis. IIIH3: There is a difference between third and sixth grade students' accuracy of perception of their ability to use specific skills in read- ing, as determined by the correlation of scores of Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test and scores of the Bader Individual Reading Analysis. Assumptions 1. It is assumed that the children in this study are representative of average elementary children in Beckwith Elementary School, Grand Rapids, Michigan. The findings may also be of interest for a broader population of elementary school children having similar character- istics as those sampled. However, the findings of this study are limited to the study sample itself. 2. It is assumed that the various instruments used are reliable and of sufficient validity to allow worthwhile and accurate conclusions to be drawn. 3. It is assumed that at the time the instru- ments are administered, the attitudes and needs of the participating students are accurately measured. 12 Limitations 1. This study was limited to third and sixth grade students in Beckwith Elementary School, Grand Rapids Public Schools, Grand Rapids, Michigan, which is one school in one particular school district. 2. The results of this study were dependent upon the instruments selected for administration in this study. The fact that self-esteem or self-concept may be diffi- cult to measure accurately must be acknowledged in order to avoid errors in interpretation. At this time, the instrument used to measure self-concept is considered by Robinson and Shaver (1974) to be one of the best we have available. They review the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory in the Measures of Social Psychological Atti- tudes as follows: "The . . . scales, in this author's opinion, represent the best of the current scales spe- cifically designed to measure self-esteem” (p. 56). Definition of Terms l. "Self-concept is the way in which an individual characteristically perceives himself in relationship to others, the teacher, the classroom and the school" (Combs, (1962, p. 51). Perkins (1958) defined the self—concept as "those perceptions, beliefs, feelings, attitudes, and values which the individual views as part or characteristic of himself" (p. 204). 13 Swartz (1972) defined it as "the evaluation the individual makes about himself and the degree to which he accepts himself in relation to his environment and the people he meets" (p. 11). 2. Positive, or favorable, self-concept is that evaluation in which the individual feels that he is cap- able, likable, worthy, and has the ability to do the given task. 3. Negative, or unfavorable, self-concept is that evaluation in which the individual feels that he is incapable, failing, unworthy, or lacking in ability to accomplish what others can do. 4. Reading achievement is the rank, score, or level of reading as determined by the Metropolitan Achieve- ment Test Reading Score administrated in May 1977. 5. Self-perception of reading ability refers to the child's View of how accomplished a reader he is. In this study it is determined by Part 1 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test developed for this study. 6. Specific skills of reading are those skills tested in the Criterion Reference Test developed by Dr. Lois Bader of Michigan State University. 7. Self-analysis refers to the way in which an individual describes himself or his abilities when he is asked to do so. 14 8. Normal classroom is a group of students in a particular school who display varied academic ability, and who are instructed together in a given subject within the regular school hours of the elementary school day. There has been no conscious effort to assign pupils to particular classrooms by ability, sex, race, or social relationship. 9. Perceived accuracy of reading ability, using measures derived from Parts 1 and 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test, refers to agreement between the childrens' self-perception of their ability with their actual ability. If a child said he could and actually was able to accomp- lish the task, or if a child said he could not and was actually not able to perform the task, then his self- perception was considered accurate. Organization of the Study This dissertation consists of five chapters. "Chapter I: The Problem" includes an introduction to and statement of the problem, purposes, importance, statement of the research questions, explanation of the research questions, research hypotheses, assumptions, limitations, and definition of terms. "Chapter II: Review of Related Research and Lit- erature” provides a general introduction to self-concept thinking and a review of research on self-concept and 15 achievement in general, self-concept and achievement in reading, and self-report or self-analysis of reading abilities. "Chapter III: The Research Procedure" presents the research design, description of the instruments, administration of the instruments, description of sample, and description of research method. "Chapter IV: Analysis of Data and Findings" des- cribes the setting and pupil population included in the study, and sets forth a statement of hypotheses and find- ings and an interpretation of the data. "Chapter V: Summary, Conclusions, Recommendations, and Implications" is a summary of the study, summarizing the findings, conclusions, implications for education, researcher's observations, and recommendations. Summary This chapter contains a description of the prob- lem which was selected for study. Three research ques- tions and hypotheses developed from them are formulated, along with assumptions, limitations, and definitions of terms. The organization of the study also is outlined. The next chapter presents a review of literature as it relates to the problem. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RESEARCH AND RELATED LITERATURE The purpose of this chapter is to discuss selected research and literature pertaining to the problem. No research study was found which dealt directly with chil- dren's ability to analyze their own reading achievement. There was only one study found that was in the general area of self-analyzing reading problems. However, there have been a multitude of studies on many facets of the role of self-concept in children's achievement. The present review of literature will concentrate primarily on current thinking related to the concept of ”self." This chapter is divided into five sections or topics: (1) introduction to the concept of ”self," (2) thinking related to the concept of "self," (3) self- concept and achievement in general, (4) self-concept and achievement in reading, and (5) self-report or self- analysis of reading abilities. Introduction to the Concept of "Self” For many years education has been an arena for con- troversy. Parents have organized pressure groups, 16 17 attended board of education meetings, voiced their con- cerns over radio and television, and written books and articles. Children have started protests and complained that the school is irrelevant. Governmental agencies have supported studies, financed experimental programs, and some have encouraged accountability (Lessinger, 1970, p. 31). Many and varied programs and systems have been attempted to solve the problems and calm the criti- cism. Textbooks have been reorganized, republished, and ”programmed" as the needed panacea, the cure for all the problems. Wide varieties of audio—visual aids have been developed and the training of teachers has been revised time and time again. Various facets of human personality have been examined and studies have been completed correlating these characteristics with areas of education. One area of concern is the area of the self- concept or self-esteem. Although the theory of self- concept can be traced back many years, it has only bloomed into full growth within the past 10 to 15 years. During this time many studies have been completed using self-concept as one of the variables. It has been during these more recent years that the importance of self- concept has been realized and in the future it is likely that efforts to improve students' self-concept will 18 become increasingly manifested within the public elemen- tary schools of the United States. Donald George Butcher (1967) stated: The premise that an individual's concept of "self” emerges from interaction with his society does not appear to be widely accepted by teachers of our public schools. Arthur Combs indicates that many of those teachers who do accept this premise continue to use methods and techniques that are traditional and expedient, and yet are in violation of the principles of self—discovery and self-realization for their pupils (pp. 2-3). He further expresses this feeling when he states: If the self-concept is a limiting factor and if we can do something in the schools to improve it, then good teaching and administrative prac- tices would require that we know and understand self-concept, and modify the classrooms and schools to improve or assist the student in doing so (p. 10). Again, Arthur Combs (1962), in Humanizing Edu- cation: The Person in Process, expresses the importance of self-concept in the schools when he says: We have been hearing much from the psycholo- gists in recent years about the importance of self-concept. We know of the crucial role it plays in every aspect of human behavior. We know, for example, that it is a basic cause of failure in all the school subjects. It deter- mines in high degree whether a person will be well-adjusted or maladjusted, effective or inef- fective, in his dealings with life, and it plays a primary role in the achievement of self- actualization. It is even fundamental in the growth and creation of intelligence itself. With such new knowledge of the importance of self- concept for human behavior, its exclusion from the classrooms is simply unthinkable (p. vi). 19 This agrees with Clayton J. Lafferty (1962), who said: For the past decade it has been widely recog- nized among educators that a self-concept was an important factor in the determination of how chil- dren act, learn, and later function in life. Hardly a publication exists in education today that does not, in some way, make reference to self-concept as perhaps a more important predic- tor of success or failure than even the child's intellectual ability. . . . There is overwhelming evidence that self-concept is related to success— ful function in learning and later adjustment of life. . . (p. 1). Moreover, as Hurley (1969) points out, the general failure of poor children to learn often results from a "self-fulfilling prophecy" held by the school personnel. Hurley believes that when teachers and administrators have fixed ideas about poor children's inability to succeed, the children will respond by failing. In other words, the lack of self—esteem fostered in many disadvantaged homes is too often reinforced by school experiences (Downing, 1973, p. 522). Therefore, one must wonder why so few in education are concerned about the self-concept of their students. Too many people in our schools have an inadequacy of self-concept and so little ability to cope with the problems of life. In his book, The Child in the Educa- tion Process, D. A. Prescott (1957) describes the results of inadequacy of self-concept: An inadequate concept of self, so common in our culture, is crippling to the individual. When we see ourselves as inadequate we lose our "can-ness." There becomes less and less that we can do (p. 379). Lafferty (1962) confirms this when in a study of values that defeat learning he found that significantly 20 more children who under-achieve seem convinced that they cannot, by their own effort, alter the course of a fail- ing experience: 2 = .05. The atmosphere of the classroom can increase or decrease a child's self-concept. Hayes (1967) states: The task suggested here, it should be pointed out, is not, according to self-theorists such as Combes and Rogers, one of changing the student's behavior, but is one of creating a situation in which changes in perceptions will be encouraged and facilitated. Only as a child has the oppor- tunity to have experiences which will alter his concepts about his schoolwork, his teacher, his peers and other significant models can the concept of self be changed (p. 39). A strong and positive self-concept is important to the student and to his success in life in general. Also a negative self-concept is most damaging and restric— tive to life. Schools have the responsibility to provide the atmosphere and experiences that will strengthen the self-concept of the students. Thinking Related to "Self" It has been within the last few years that self- concept has been considered important and it has not yet fully filtered into the elementary, secondary, and col- lege classroom. Patterson traced the development of the Rogerian Self-Theory and commented that the self is today becoming of central importance in all theories of personality. Truly, the theory of self is being developed by a great number of educators and psychologists. For 21 example, Rogers (1952), Jersild (1952), Symonds (1951), and Combs and Snygg (1959) have worked on the develop- ment of ideas first presented by Cooley (1909), Lecky (1961), and Mead (1934). Mead, a self-theorist, feels that the self—concept is the conscious core of individual behavior which bridges the gap between perceptions and behavior. Lecky (1961) theorizes that what one can or cannot do or learn depends greatly upon how he has learned to think of himself. Through their studies, and others' research, a vast amount of knowledge about the self has been developed. The theories of how self-concept is developed are also most interesting. Mead (1934) states that because of its social nature, self is not present at birth and that very early experiences play an important role in the development of self. Lecky (1961) develops the idea further when he expresses the feeling that the way an individual is treated by his parents and significant others in his life determines the development of the self-concept. The values of others act as a mirror in the unfolding of the self. Much research is now available to show that the development of self-esteem requires a climate in which children are valued and in which they experience success. Longitudinal studies by Murphy and Moriarty (1962, 1976), for example, document the progression of the child's "experi— ence of mastery and triumph" as setting the stage for greater effort in the next experience. Yarrow (1964) has focused attention on the difficulties 22 the absence of a mother figure poses for the devel- opment of a positive concept of self. Clark (1955) and Deutsch (1967) have studied how poor images of self are developed by children whose experience leads them to conclude that they are not as good, clever or attractive as other children. Gordon (1969) tells us that children learn from their total environments, which include people, language, objects, events, and their own responses—-all of which have direct impact on their self-esteem. Black (1974) investigated self-concept as related to achievement and age in so—called "learning dis- abled" children in regular public school classes. He reported that the presence or absence of test- documented reading retardation appears to be a more significant factor in determining one's self-concept than the identification of an academic problem by the school. From such studies we know well that certain con- ditions are necessary for children to function com- fortably enough to attend to tasks at hand and to experience success in them. They must be free of the need to hide or to protect themselves from what they view as risks, frustrations or embarrass- ment. They require assurance that their efforts will be recognized and valued. We foster good self—images in children when we help them understand and accept themselves, when we provide them opportunities for creative activi- ties and other experiences that increase their self—confidence, when we value their differences (Suchara, 1977, pp. 292-93). As the development of theories of self has been presented, there has also developed a difficulty with semantics. Some have used ego and self synonymously. Chein (1944) and Smith (1950) . construe the ego as a motivational-cognitive structure built up around the self and working interdependently in reference to the self, but apart from awareness. Awareness is central to self-concept as defined by Combs and Snygg, Jersild and Rogers (Hayes, 1967, p. 14). Therefore, the following definitions reflect the differ- ences in meanings of self-concept: 23 Ausubel: The self-concept is an abstraction of the essential and distinguishing characteristics of the self that differentiates an individual's "self-hood" from the environment and from other selves. In the course of development various evalu- ative attitudes, values, aspirations, motives, and obligations become associated with the self-concept. Combs and Snygg: The self—concept is an individual's attempt to reduce his self organization to its essence so that he may be able to perceive and manipulate it effectively; it is the generalization of self which aids in perceiving and dealing with self. Dinkmeyer: The self-concept is really the individual's anticipation of his general acceptance or rejection in a given situation. Fink: The self-concept is the attitudes and feelings a person has regarding himself. Jersild: The self-concept is a composite of a per- son's thoughts and feelings, strivings and hopes, fears and fantasies, his view of what he is, what he has been, what he has become, and his attitudes pertaining to his worth (Hayes, 1967, p. 15). Ruth Strang: The self-concept is what the person thinks himself to be. Although the self-concept develops to some extent during school years, it is resistant to change. As a central core or radix of personality, which has a persistent, pervasive influence on all aspects of an individual's life, it would obviously be related to reading achieve— ment. . . . In general, children with high or mature self-concepts tend to achieve higher in proportion to their potential, as measured on an intelligence test, than do children with low self-concepts. This tendency was evident as early as kindergarten, and continued through elementary school and among col- lege students. It seems as though the self—concept shapes an individual's approach to reading (Strang, 1968, p. 70). Although there are some differences in the defini- tions of self, there is general agreement that self is important to the individual. Many concur that the self- concept can be changed and the school holds a primary 24 responsibility for development of self-concept. Jersild (1952) goes further when he connects self-concept with mental health: The concept of self provides a key to the under- standing of mental health. According to the impli- cations of the self-concept, the healthy individual is true to himself, his "real self." He is authen- tic. He has integrity within himself. His concep- tion of himself, to the extent that he has formulated it, is substantially valid (p. 10). The general thinking about self stresses the importance of positive self-concept for success in school and in the future and for good mental health. Likewise, negative self-concept is a deterrent. Self—Concept and Achievement in General ’One of the most puzzling questions in education today is why some children with ability do not succeed in their studies while other children do better than is expected of them. Combs and Snygg (1959) feel that the capacity for intelligent behavior and development of abilities are rooted in the self-concept. Again, Combs hypothesizes that "a person with an adequate self-concept will meet life expecting to be successful; therefore, he will behave in a manner which will bring about success." Also, Combs states that "a person with an inadequate self-concept will feel unable, that he cannot succeed, and he will behave in a manner which will not lead to success" (Butcher, 1967), p. 60. 25 Many researchers have examined the relationship between a student's self-concept and his achievement. These findings are explicit and consistent. Reeder (1955), Coopersmith (1967), Brookover (1965), and Hayes 1967) all reported very similar relations to exist between achievement and self-concept, in that self- concept was consistently related to achievement in a posi- tive way. In the case of Thelma A. Reeder (1955), using a sample of elementary school children, it was determined that students with low self-esteem have lower grades than students with higher self-esteem. Darlene Swartz (1972), in her study of "The Relationship of Self-Esteem to Read— ing Performance,” stated: Coopersmith designed a study to identify char- acteristics which might be antecedents of self- esteem. He collected information from several sources. The Self-Esteem Inventory was adminis- tered to 102 fifth and sixth grade students. Coopersmith also utilized information he collected from interviews and questionnaires to parents. He analyzed counseling sessions assessed by psycholo- gists. As part of the study, Coopersmith identified four basic conditions which seemed to characterize the homes of children with high self-esteem. A combination of two or more of the following con— ditions in the home seemed to help the child develop a more positive self-esteem: (l) the parents showed consistent and marked acceptance of the children, (2) the parents clearly defined and enforced limits, (3) the parents respected the individuality of the child, and (4) the parents themselves had high self— esteem (p. 17). Coopersmith (1967) found that a personal convic- ‘tion of adequacy provides the prerequisites for effective cc th ac st is ac1 ThL 0th If abi. a l: ment 26 focusing of efforts even in stress-laden situations. "Academic achievement becomes a testing ground for future success and is the object of considerable concern and emotional investment" (p. 124). One of the largest research projects in this area was done by Dr. Wilbur B. Brookover and a research team from Michigan State University in 1967. This six-year longitudinal study examined the "effects of individual perception, or self—concept, based on the symbolic inter- actionist theory of G. H. Mead." Mead's theory consists of the general hypothesis that the "functional limits" of a person's ability to learn are determined by his self- concept of his ability. This conception is developed through interaction with "significant others." As an active part of organic life, the organism does not simply react to all stimuli around it, but rather it selects stimuli in relationship to its ongoing activity. Activity is present from the start and the stimuli do not gauge activity but are important in the furthering of activity. Thus, the "self" selects stimuli from the "significant others" about him and incorporates this within itself. If a child perceives that his "significant others" (teachers, peers, and parents) do not have faith in his ability to learn, his self-concept of this ability becomes a limiting factor on school accomplishments and achieve- ments. Brookover (1965) found the following: 27 l. Self-concept of ability is significantly related to school achievement of seventh-grade boys and girls. The correlation is .57 for each sex. 2. Self-concept of ability is significantly related to school achievement in seventh grade when measured intelligence is controlled. The correla- tion, with measured intelligence partialled out, is .42 for boys and .39 for girls. 3. High-achieving groups have a significantly higher mean concept of ability than do low-achieving groups with comparable measured intelligence scores. 4. Self—concept of ability is positively related to the image of ability the individual perceives sig- nificant others hold of him when parents, teachers, and peers are identified as significant others. 5. Parents were named by nearly all students as both ”important in their lives" and "concerned about how well they do in school." School personnel, other relatives, and peers were named by many in response to each question, but by smaller proportions and usually after parents were named (Butcher, 1967, pp. 36-37). Shaw, Edson, and Bell (1960) compared the self- concept of bright achiever and bright underachiever stu— dents in high school. Their results agree with a later study by Shaw and Alves (1963) that self-concepts of the two groups were significantly different. Violet Quimby (1967) studied eleventh and twelfth grade students and concluded that the self-idea relationship of the achiever was significantly higher than the self-idea relationship of the underachiever, confirming previous research in which a low self-concept was related to under-achievement. It appears that parents, peers, and significant others affect the self-concept of individuals. Davidson 28 and Lang (1960) found that children's perception of teachers' feelings toward them was correlated positively and significantly with self-perception. The more posi- tive the child's perception of the teacher's feelings, the higher the child's achievement. In a group of 203 middle-school-aged children, they found that teacher feelings, as the child perceives them, have an effect on school adjustment. Staines, in his report of an experiment conducted abroad . . . concluded that teaching methods can be adapted so that definite changes in self can be planned and effected in the classroom: 2 = .01. According to Staines, the self can be deliberately produced by teaching methods. The inference derived from these findings is that it is essential that teachers communicate positive feelings to their stu- dents and thus not only strengthen self-appraisal but also stimulate academic growth (Hayes, 1967, pp. 34-35). M. M. Helper (1955) cites parental influences as an important factor in shaping the self—concept. He experimented applying reinforcement stimulus-response concepts with 50 boys and he concluded that reward tech— niques can be an important method for shaping self-concept and encouraging learning. His research showed that cor- relations between parents' evaluation of their children and the child's self-concept tend to be small but con- sistently positive. Further support of the position that significant others affect the self—concept of individuals is found in Clarke's (1960) study. He found a positive relationship between a student's academic performance and 29 his perception of the academic expectancies held for him by significant others. Therefore, there is general agreement that the self—concept of an individual influences in either a positive or negative way the achievement of that indi— vidual both in school and in all activities of later life. A ray of hope is seen in the fact that the self—concept can be changed by schools, teachers, peers, parents, and those called significant others. Thus, it is of extreme importance that teachers be made aware of this knowledge and trained to communicate positive feelings to their students and provide a secure atmosphere in order to stimulate academic growth. Self-Concept and Achievement in Reading Many studies have been made that tend to confirm the theory that self—concept is an important part in effective classroom operation. Ellis (1962) felt that an individual is taught that because others dislike or dis— approve of a person who fails to master something, then that person should accept this evaluation and make it his own. Educators are becoming more aware that success in school functions and in reading achievement and a posi- tive self-concept seem to co-occur. The relationship of self-concept and success also appears to be correlated at very young ages. Wattenberg and Clifford (1964) found 30 that a negative view of self is already established in some children before they enter school. They examined the relationship of self-concepts to achievement in begin- ning reading. Approximately two years after the initial testing in first semester of kindergarten, the same group was retested. Although about one-half of the children had gone to Catholic schools, one-half remained in public schools. This injected different methods of teaching reading in the fdfir schools involved. Wattenberg and Clifford (1962) concluded that measures of self-concept obtained upon entering kindergarten seem to be predictive of their later accomplishments in beginning reading more than were measures of intelligence. This might be par- tially explained by understanding a vicious circle which perhaps gets established. Quandt (1972) describes it as follows: Children . . . who come to school believing that they will not succeed in reading, as well as chil- dren who gain this concept at a later time, may become victims of a self-fulfilling prophecy. Believing that they will not succeed in reading, their behavior and efforts during reading instruc- tion contribute to making their expectations come true (p. 9). Also, "A child who, for whatever reason, develops negative self-perceptions may see himself as inadequate (Beretta, 1970, p. 235). Alma Cross Homze (1962) states, If a child is highly proficient in extracting ideas from the printed page and he recognizes 31 this, he will have a positive approach to reading. He is able to read, therefore his concept of him— self is as a "reader" (p. 212). The relationship between perception of self and utilization of intellectual ability is circu- lar—-one reinforces the other. The self—rejecting individual is poorly motivated. He gives up too easily and cannot keep his mind on his work. It often seems as though children who come to read- ing clinics cannot read because they believe they cannot read. When they are helped to succeed in simple reading experiences, they begin to see them- selves as readers, and their attitude toward them- selves improves. The improvement of the self-concept might be expected to lead to improvement in reading, and improvement in reading to a more positive self- concept. Both reading improvement and a more positive self-concept might be facets of a central core of personality or ego strength. Which aspects should be emphasized would depend upon a diagnosis of the situation. It would depend on the origins of the reading difficulty and the self-concept, the special skill of the teacher in reading instruction of mental health, and the composition of the rela- tionships within the class group (Strang, 1968, p. 70). Mary Lamy (1962) also explored the relationship between children's self—perceptions in kindergarten and again in first grade and their achievement in reading in the first grade. Her hypotheses were: 1. There is a positive relationship between children's perceptions of themselves and of their world while in kindergarten and their subsequent achievement in reading in the first grade. 2. There is a positive relationship between children's perceptions of themselves and of their achievement in reading in the first grade. 3. A combination of the intelligence scores and perception ratings of children (a) in kindergarten and (b) in the first grade will have a higher rela- tionship with their first grade reading achievement than will either set of scores separately (p. 3). She accepted these hypotheses and concluded: 32 . . . A child's self-concept, and the percep— tions he holds of himself in relationship to various aspects of his world are not only related to, but may be factors in, his subsequent reading achievement. Also, experiences with reading seem to influence the child's evaluation of himself. The self-concept has been shown to be a condition of subsequent achievement in reading as well as an outcome of school experience (p. 72). Another interesting study was done by Donovan D. Lumpkin (1959), who examined the relationship between self-concept and achievement in reading. He matched 25 over-achievers and 25 under-achievers according to chrono- logical age, mental age, sex, and home background. He concluded: Overachievers in reading revealed positive self- concepts, a higher level of adjustment, and saw themselves as liking reading as well as feeling confident in the reading task. Underachievers had predominantly negative self-concepts regarding their school experiences, and felt that other people viewed them negatively. The underachievers in the study showed a desire to be different from the self they perceived (p. 325). The self-evaluations made by achieving and retarded readers was studied by Gladys Toller (1967). She states, "Significant differences existed between the achieving and retarded reader groups in the areas of acceptance, adequacy and security, as well as in personal self and social self" (p. 89). Toller found that retarded readers felt they were less accepted, less adequate, and less secure than the achieving readers. Rose Francis Spicola (1960) from Florida State University studied seven correlates of reading achievement 33 including self-concept. The data revealed that boys who perceive themselves very low in learning ability were lowest in reading achievement as measured by the Stanford Reading Achievement Test. Of this group of boys, 57 per- cent were average or above average in mental ability. "The most persistent and pervasive influence is the individual's self-concept and self-ideal," says Ruth Strang. The self-concept may be predictive of reading improvement. It also affects, and is affected by, reading improvement. On the primary level, children's self-concepts were, in general, more predictive of reading achievement than their scores on the Detroit Beginning First-Grade Intelligence Test given near the end of the Kindergarten year (Strang, McCullough, & Traxler, 1967, p. 22). The individual's approach to reading is pro- foundly affected by his self-concept. By helping students to change their self—concept we can help them to change their ways. However, this is more easily said than done; one's self-concept is deep- rooted and persistent. It can be changed only by repeated experiences of success. The role of the reading teacher is to provide materials and instruc- tion that will enable the student to see his own progress and gain recognition and approval from the persons who are significant in his life. Negative self-concepts are built up in many subtle ways. They derive, in part, from the nega— tive comments of parents, teachers, and classmates and from repeated experiences of failure. The child or young person becomes fearful of making mis- takes, afraid and ashamed to be wrong again. Self- confidence, on the other hand, arises when others show a positive expectancy that the individual can close the gap between his present performance and his potential; it is reinforced by experiences of success (Strang, McCullough, & Traxler, 1967, p. 457). 34 "A Study to Determine Some Relations Between Changes in Reading Skills and Self—Concepts Accompanying a Remedial Program for Boys with Low Reading Ability and Reasonably Normal Intelligence" was completed by Lester Seay (1960). He used a matched experimental group of low reading ability and a control group without serious reading deficiency. The experimental group had about four months of individualized reading instruction for 45 minutes two or three days a week in the reading clinic. "Changes in social self—concept levels and changes in total self-concept levels seem to be positively associated with experiences in a clinical remedial reading program" (p. 96). Changes in level of vocabulary, comprehension, and total reading skills associated positively, but not significantly, with the changes in self-esteem. In a study of the relationship of self-concept and reading among fourth and sixth graders, Bledsoe (1967) found that reading achievement was significantly related to self-concept for the boys and girls in fourth grade and the sixth grade boys. A low but significant correlation between self-concept and reading achievement was found by Sears (1970). Purkey (1970) stated that generally self- concept and academic achievement are significantly related. "Research studies indicated that when the child achieved success in reading, it enhanced the possibility 35 for a more positive view of himself" (Swartz, 1972, p. 39). The student who has developed a positive self- esteem appears to be able to cope with new situa- tions better than the student with a poor self- esteem. Research studies indicated a positive relationship between reading achievement and self-esteem (Swartz, 1972, p. 39). Research evidence also indicatestfluu;"convergent thinking, divergent thinking, and self-concept are all important dimensions to be considered in a study of reading" (Hatcher, Felker, & Treffinger, 1974, p. 4). This section has reviewed the research and litera- ture regarding self-concept and achievement in reading. The research shows that self-concept is often a predictor of reading achievement and is positively related to achievement in reading. This relationship holds up for both negative and positive self-concept. Self-Report or Self-Analysis of Reading Abilities When Martin H. Jason and Beatrice Dubnow (1973) of Roosevelt University in Chicago did their study entitled "The Relationship Between Self-Perceptions of Reading Abilities and Reading Achievement," they were unable to locate any studies employing self-report scales which involve specific reading abilities. However, in an International Reading Association publication, they state: One projective instrument (Reading Apperception Test) that dealt specifically with reading was 36 developed by Hake. The test, designed to evaluate covert motivations of good and poor readers, con- tains ten ambiguously drawn pictures depicting children in various reading situations. When the instrument was administered to a sample of 80 sixth grade pupils, the results revealed, among other findings, that below average readers had signifi- cantly lower self-concepts than above average readers. Since no self-report scale involving reading appeared to be available, it was the basic intent of the present investigation to develop such an instrument and begin initial testing in order to make judgments concerning its potential usefulness (p. 96). A Self-Report Reading Scale was then developed. This 22-item instrument requires only ”yes" and "no" answers to questions designed to measure the perceptions of elementary school children regarding their reading abilities. This test was examined but was not chosen for the present study due to lack of attention to under achievement and relationship to peers and to self-analysis of specific skills. Since no suitable test was located for this study, the author designed a group test, The Self-Analysis Read— ing Test, consisting of two parts. Part 1, with 15 items, was aimed at aiding in locating where the child sees himself‘in relationship to other students in the class and where he feels he is having difficulty in reading. PartEL with 10 items, all "yes” and "no" answers, pinpoints the skills where the child sees himself as having difficulty. (See Appendix A.) 37 Summary This chapter has reviewed selected literature relating to this investigation of the relationship between third and sixth grade children's self-concept and their ability to analyze their reading achievement. It was divided into five parts, namely, introduction to the concept of "self," thinking related to the concept of "self," self-concept and achievement in general, self- concept and achievement in reading, and self-report or self-analysis of reading abilities. The literature pertaining to the history and development of the theory of self-concept was examined to provide a foundation upon which to build. The history of the theory of self was presented through the writings of G. H. Mead, Donald Snygg, Arthur Combs, Earl Kelley, Prescott Lecky, Arthur T. Jersild, and others. Differ— ences in the definitions used by these theorists were presented and numerous studies were cited which found a consistent, positive relationship between self-concept and success or adjustment in future life. There is general agreement that a positive self-concept is important and a negative self-concept is a deterrent to successful adjustment and to progress in life. Next, writings about the relationship of self- concept to achievement were critiqued. It seemed important to review as much as possible the materials that examined 38 this relationship of self-concept to achievement in gen- eral and to achievement in reading. Again, a consistent, positive relationship between self-concept and achievement was discovered. Wattenberg and Clifford state that self- concept is a better predictor of future achievement in reading than were measures of intelligence. Lecky feels that self-concept provides the limits of learning, which agrees with the findings of Coopersmith when he says that the self-concept determines the focus upon studying and, therefore, learning. Hurley calls this factor a "self— fulfilling prophecy." Jersild connects self-concept with good mental health. Also, Brookover and others have found that high-achieving groups have a significantly higher self—concept than do low—achieving groups and that the reverse is also true. Furthermore, Hurley and Combs express the feeling that the schools are not fostering an atmosphere to develop a strong and positive self- concept and often teachers show little knowledge of the importance of the self-concept. The final phase of this chapter concentrated on the materials regarding self-report or self-analysis of reading abilities. There were no tests nor studies dis- covered regarding this topic with the exception of one unpublished study by Jason and Dubnow reviewed in a maga— zine article. CHAPTER III PROCEDURES AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The purpose of this study was to compare the relationship between children's self-concept and their ability to analyze their reading achievement on the third and sixth grade levels. The three major research hypothe- ses postulated the importance of pupil self-concept with reference to abilities of self-analysis in the area of reading. The study focused on the following three ques- tions: (1) Is there a relationship between third and sixth grade students' self-concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of their reading ability in relation- ship to their peers? (2) Is there a relationship between third and sixth grade students' perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading and the accu- racy with which they use those skills? (3) Is there a relationship between students' self-concept and the accu- racy of their perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading? From the three questions, research hypotheses were developed. In this chapter, the research design is given. The hypotheses are stated, the instruments are described, 39 40 and the population is reported. Also included is a des- cription of the analysis process. Perception of perception of Self— Reading Ability Ability to Use Concept in Relationship Specific Skills to Peers Third Graders Sixth Graders Figure 1.--Table of variables. The Research Design The design used is a simple correlational study. The variables are represented in Figure l. Hypothesis I deals with the correlation of self-concept with self— perception of reading ability in relationship with peers. Hypothesis III correlates the self-concept with self- perception of ability to use specific skills in reading. The accuracy of this self-perception of ability to use specific skills in reading is the main thrust of Hypothe- sis II. Each of the research hypotheses was converted into the null form to make an appropriate statistical hypothe- sis. 41 I. There is a relationship between students' self-concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of reading abil— ity in relationship to their peers. IHo IHolz X 1: In SC There is no relationship between third grade students' self-concept, as determined by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and accu- racy of perception of their own reading ability in relationship to their peers, as determined by the score on Part 1 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test. this case the statistical hypothesis is: Xar’ where the symbol X denotes the third grade, the symbol sc indicates self-concept score, and ar stands for the accuracy of self-perception of reading ability in relation to peers. IHo : 2 Thi There is no relationship between sixth grade students' self-concept, as determined by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the accuracy of perception of their own reading ability in relationship to their peers, as determined by the score of Part 1 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test. 3 became IHoZ: Y : Y . The symbol Y denotes sc ar sixth grade, while so is self-concept, and ar is the accu- racy of self-perception of reading ability in relation to peers. IHo : IHo : X ar 3 In There is no difference between third grade and sixth grade students' accuracy of perception of their reading abilities in relation to their peers as determined by the scores of Part 1 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test. the case of Research Hypothesis IH it becomes 3’ Y . ar 42 IHo : There is no difference between third and sixth grade students' self-concept as measured by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and by Part 1 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test. 4: Xsc = Ysc' This hypothesis converted to IHo II. There is a relationship between third and sixth grade students' perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading and the accuracy with which they use those skills. IIHol: There is no relationship between third grade students' perceptions of and accuracy in their ability to use specific reading skills as determined by the correlation of scores on Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test and their scores on the Bader Individual Reading Analysis. When ase stands for estimated perception of abil- ity to use specific reading skills, and asa represents the actual ability to use specific reading skills, then the hypotheSIS becomes: IIHolz Xase f Xa s a lIHoZ: There is no relationship between sixth grade students' perceptions of and accuracy in their ability to use specific reading skills as determined by the correlation of scores on Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test and their scores on the Bader Individual Reading Analysis. Using the same symbols as above, this becomes IIHo : Y f Y 2 ase asa III: There is a relationship between students' self- concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading. IIIHolz There is no relationship between third grade students' self-concept, as determined by the Coopersmith Self—Esteem Inventory, and the 43 accuracy of their perceptions of their abil- ity to use specific skills in reading, as determined by the correlation of scores on Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test with scores on the Bader Individual Reading Analysis. In this case, IIIHo becomes the following: IIIHO : X 1 so 1 X w : ' m ' f asezasa hen ase asa 1s the co parison o perception of ability to use specific skills in reading and actual ability to use specific skills in reading. IIIHoZ: This IIIHo : There is no relationship between sixth grade students' self-concept, as determined by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the accuracy of their perceptions of ability to use specific skills in reading, as determined by the correlation of scores on Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test with scores on the Bader Individual Reading Analysis. then becomes IIIH02: Ysc : Yasetasa° There is no difference between third and sixth grade students' accuracy of perception of their ability to use specific skills in reading, as determined by the correlation of scores on Part 2 of the Self—Analysis Reading Test and scores on the Bader Indi- vidual Reading Analysis. The form of this hypothesis would be: IIIHo3: X = Y as :as e a as :as e a Description of the Instruments The entire third and sixth grades of Beckwith Elementary School, Grand Rapids Public Schools, Grand Rapids, Michigan, were given the following tests to measure 44 student performance in the areas of reading and self- concept: 1. The Self-Esteem Inventory by Dr. Stanley Coopersmith 2. The Self-Esteem Inventory as adapted by Dr. Elda Wilson 3. The Self-Analysis Reading Test designed for this study 4. The Individual Reading Analysis by Dr. Lois Bader 5. Metropolitan Achievement Test, sub—test Reading, scores obtained from the scores of the Grand Rapids Public Schools The Self-Esteem Inventory by Dr. Stanley Coopersmith The instrument used for studying self-concept of pupils was the Self-Esteem Inventory developed by Stanley Coopersmith. Dr. Coopersmith (1967) selected items from the Rogers and Dymond (1954) scale and original research. He adapted these items for use with children. Several items were added. Five psychologists classified them as indicative of high or low self-esteem. Then, the items were tested for comprehensibility with a group of 30 children. Fifty items were finally selected in the areas of peers, parents, school, and personal interest. A lie scale of eight items was added, making the inventory total 58 items. Coopersmith also used a behavioral rating scale for teachers and numerous interviews with parents. 45 The inventory was initially administered to two fifth and two sixth grade classes consisting of both boys and girls. Each positive answer on the inventory received a score of two. The scores ranged from 40 to 100, with a mean of 82.3 and a standard devia- tion of 11.6. The test—retest reliability after a five-week interval was .88 (Swartz, 1972, p. 43). The inventory was later administered to a total of 1,748 children in public schools in central Connecti— cut. "These children were more diverse in ability, interest, and social background than the initial sample” (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 10). The mean for the boys was 70.0 and for the girls, 72.2. The test—retest reliability after a three-year period with a sample of 56 children from this population was .70. There are no exact criteria for high, medium, or low self-esteem as these will vary with the group being tested. Coopersmith has employed the upper quartile as indicative of high esteem, the lower quartile as indicative of low esteem, and the interquar- tile range as indicative of medium esteem. This Self- Esteem Inventory has been used with many ages. Recently Coopersmith has used a briefer scale of 25 items picked from an item analysis of the responses to the longer form by 121 selected children. "The shorter form correlated over .95 with the longer form" (Robinson & Shaver, 1974, p. 84). This shorter form had remained unpublished previous to the publishing of the book, Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes by Robinson and Shaver (1974). They state: 46 Taylor and Reitz (1968) found a .90 split-half reliability for the long form. No data are avail— able for the shorter form but it would probably be somewhat less stable due to the shorter length. . The present author has found correlations of .59 and .60 between the short form and the Rosenberg scale for college students (N about 300). Weinberg (personal communication) reports a correlation of .63 between the Soares scale and the longer Cooper- smith scale and .60 between a derived picture test and the long scale (Getsinger et al., 1972). Taylor and Reitz (1968) report a correlation of .45 between the CPI self—acceptance scale and the longer Cooper- smith scale, and correlations of .42 to .66 with other scales. Ziller et al. (1969) found correla- tions for males of .46 with the Bills scale, .37 with the Cutick scale, and .02 the Ziller scale; for females, the correlations were .17, .23 and .04 respectively (p. 84). ' Coopersmith (1967) found that in most of his group, self-esteem and tested intelligence followed the same rank order, but that his Low-High group (low in self-esteem, high in esteem by others) apparently ignored their high intelligence as a basis for self- evaluation. His total correlation between subjective self—esteem and intelligence was .28. . . . Corre- lations with achievement tests are also variable, .. . but generally agree with Coopersmith's (1967) finding of .30 (Piers, 1969, pp. l6, 18). The Self—Esteem Inventory as Adgpted by Dr. Elda Wilson In 1972, Dr. Elda Wilson of Bradley University adapted the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, with the author's permission, to make it easily understood for younger children. She changed each statement answered with "like me" or "unlike me" to a question with "yes” or "no" answers. For example: "1. I spend a lot of time daydreaming." became "1. Do you think you spend a lot of time daydreaming?" Terms were changed in only two answers: 47 38. I have a low opinion of myself. 38. Do you think bad things about yourself? and: 54. I usually feel as if my parents are pushing me. 54. Do you usually feel as if your parents want you to be doing too many things? She field tested it on some 600 primary students with satisfactory results. It was validated at Northern Illinois University, The Foundation for Independent Edu- cational Research. The Self-Analysis Reading Test This group test is divided into two parts. Part 1 aids the teacher in seeing what the child feels is his position within the class and where he feels that he has difficulty in reading. There is a range of 0 to 15. Items 2, 3, 6, and 7 ask the child to compare his ability in reading to his peers by name. The answer, when com- pared to the results of the reading sub-test of the Met- ropolitan Achievement Test, will determine if the child has accurately placed his own reading ability in rela- tion to his peers. The other items on Part 1 of the test reveal the child's self—perception of his reading ability in such areas as speed, sounding out words, and difficulty of materials. Part 2 asks the child how he perceives his ability in specific skills of reading. There are 10 questions answered with a "yes" or ”no.” "No” answers 48 on these 10 questions of Part 2 will show areas where the child feels he is unable to function with ease and secu- rity. Part 2 answers will be correlated with certain parts of the Bader Individual Reading Analysis which will determine the accuracy of the child's perception of his ability with specific skills in reading. Individual Reading Analysis by Dr. Lois Bader This criterion reference test of specific skills was developed by Dr. Lois Bader of Michigan State Univer- sity in 1976. It provides for the individual testing of 15 skills needed in the reading act. Ten parts of this test correlate with Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test and were used to determine the accuracy of response of the Self-Analysis Reading Test, Part 2. Eighty per- cent mastery on Dr. Bader's test will be considered to indicate skill adequacy. Mgtropolitan Achievement Test—-Reading Sub-Test The raw score and grade placement score from the Metropolitan Achievement Test administered during the Spring of 1977 were obtained from permanent records located in the school. These scores were used to deter- mine the accuracy of the Self-Analysis Reading Test, Part 1. 49 Administration of the Instruments The testing for this study was accomplished dur- ing the fall of 1977. The Self—Esteem Inventory and the Self-Analysis Reading Test were administered during one morning or afternoon session. The raw score and grade placement score of the Metropolitan Achievement Test-- Reading sub-test were obtained from the permanent records located in the school. The Individual Reading Analysis was administered individually after the other tests were completed. Both group tests were read orally so that reading vocabulary would not be a problem. Figure 2 pro- vides a chart of data collection. Each pupil was identified by an individual number. Basic data for each pupil regarding the following were compiled: 1. Grade 2. Sex Metropolitan Achievement Test Score-—Reading sub—test Description of the Sample The sample tested consisted of all the third and sixth grade boys and girls from Beckwith Elementary School, Grand Rapids Public Schools, Grand Rapids, Michigan. The lie factor of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory was used to eliminate any student with incorrect response of greater than three on the eight lie questions. The sample 50 then consisted of 45 third graders and 38 sixth graders, totaling 83. Method of Test Administration Date Level Coopersmith's Orally--item Fall 6 Self-Esteem by item in a 1977 Inventory group Self-Esteem Orally--item Fall 3 Inventory as by item in a 1977 adapted by group Dr. Elda Wilson Self-Analysis Orally—-item Fall 3 & 6 Reading Test by item in a 1977 group Bader's Indi— Individually Fall 3 & 6 vidual Reading 1977 Analysis Metropolitan Group Spring 3 & 6 Achievement 1977 Test--Reading sub-test Figure 2.--Analysis of the data collection. Grand Rapids, second largest city in the state, has a population of 197,649 according to the final popu- lation counts of the 1970 U.S. Census. However, greater Grand Rapids (the city and surrounding areas) ranks 67th in the nation with a population of 539,225. The Grand Rapids Public School System, second largest in the state, 51 has 40,648 pupils enrolled and is considered a "metro— politan core district." Beckwith School has a total enrollment, includ- ing kindergarten, of 313 children. Table l of this report gives the social-economic background of the classes used in the sample and Table 2 presents the ethnic break- down of the school. The area in which the school draws the majority of pupils is diverse in nature. There is a range in houses from government-subsidized housing to homes in the $100,000 bracket. Table l.-—Social—economic background by parent occupation. Sktfled Umfidllai Manager Professional Sales A.D.C.a labor Iabor gig: 6% 24% 14% 32% 18% 6% gm? 8% 16% 12% 30% 26% 8% aAid for Dependent Children. The children tested represent a normal classroom, defined previously as: . . a group of students in a particular school of varied academic ability, the members of which are instructed together in a given subject within the regular school hours of the elementary school day. 52 There has been no conscious effort to assign pupils to the particular classroom by ability, sex, race or social relationship, etc. Table 2.——Ethnic background of Beckwith School, Grand Rapids, Michigan (taken from the Fourth Friday Report). Number of Percentage of Children School White 246 78.6% Black 58 18.5% American Indian 0 0.0% Asian 6 1.0% Latin or Hispanic 3 1.0% Permission for testing this group was obtained from Jason Kuipers, Principal of Beckwith Elementary School, the parents concerned, the teachers involved, and from the Superintendent of Schools through his representative, William Reaves, Director of the Office of Curriculum Plan- ning and Evaluation, Grand Rapids Public Schools. Although the findings of this study will be limited to the population which was used as the sample for research, there may be possible implications for other third and sixth grade public school children in other school situa- tions which may have like or similar characteristics. 53 Description of the Analysis Method All the correlations were computed from the raw score information which was punched on IBM cards for processing. Data were machine analyzed by the Computer and Data Processing Center of Michigan State University. Statistical information'was obtained from the SPSS-- Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, Vogelback Computing Center, Northwestern University, Version 6.5, MSU, September 16, 1976. The hypotheses were tested using nonparametric correlation. The specific tests used were the Spearman Rank-Correlation Coefficient and the Mann-Whitney U Test. Summary The results of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inven- tory, the Self—Analysis Reading Test developed for this study, the Bader Individual Reading Analysis, and the recorded scores of the Metropolitan Achievement Test—- Reading Sub-Test were gathered at the Beckwith Elementary School, Grand Rapids, Michigan, during the fall of 1977. The raw data were punched on IBM cards and taken to the Computer and Data Center, Michigan State University, for machine analysis. This chapter included the statistical hypotheses stated in the null form, the research design, the 54 description of the instruments, the administration of the instruments, the description of the sample, and the des- cription of the method of analysis. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS Introduction This chapter will present the data obtained from the sample. Findings and interpretation for each hypothe- sis will be presented. The complete data used in this study are on file with the Director of the Office of Cur- riculum Planning and Evaluation, Grand Rapids Public Schools, 143 Bostwich, N.E., Grand Rapids, Michigan 49503. The 5 percent level (.05) was chosen as the level for rejection of the null hypothesis being tested. It was selected as being sufficiently precise for the condi- tions of this study. Therefore, if the chance probability was five times in one hundred or less, then the reflected difference was presumed not to be able to happen by chance, and the null hypothesis was rejected; but if the reflected difference might happen more than five times in one hundred (.05) through the influence of chance, the null hypothesis was not rejected. This reflects a 95 percent surety in preventing mistaken interpretations. Statement of Hypotheses and Findings The hypotheses were presented in Chapter III in the null form to make appropriate statistical hypotheses. 55 56 Hypothesis I was in turn divided into four sub-hypotheses. Hypotheses II and III were divided into two and three sub-hypotheses, respectively. These will be restated with the findings for each one. I. There is a relationship between students' self-concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of reading abil— ity in relationship to their peers. Table 3.--Correlation of third and sixth grade students' self-concept and perception of reading ability in relation- ship to peers. Spearman Correlation Third Grade Sixth Grade Coefficient .2523 .0928 Number 45 38 Significance .048 .290 IHolz There is no relationship between third grade students' self-concept, as determined by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the accuracy of perception of their own reading ability in relationship to their peers, as determined by the scores on Part 1 of the Self- Analysis Reading Test. Using the Spearman Correlation, this null hypothe- sis is rejected. The coefficient for the third graders' relationship between the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and their accuracy of perception of their own reading ability in relationship to their peers turned out to be 57 .2523. The significance of this is .048. Thus, there is a significant positive relationship discovered. IHoZ: There is no relationship between sixth grade students' self-concept, as determined by the Coopersmith Self—Esteem Inventory, and the accuracy of perception of their own reading ability in relationship to their peers, as determined by the scores on Part 1 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test. Again, the data were tested by using the Spearman Correlation. The coefficient was .0928. This renders a significance figure of .290. Therefore, this study failed to find a significant relationship between sixth graders' self-concept and the accuracy of their percep— tions of their reading ability. The null hypothesis could not be rejected. Table 4.--Summary of analysis of third and sixth grade students' accuracy of perception of reading ability in relationship to peers. Mann-Whitney U Test Number Mean Rank U Z Two-tailed P Third Grade 45 42.4 837.5 -.1652 .8688 Sixth Grade 38 41.5 IHo3: There is no difference between third grade and sixth grade students' accuracy of perception of their reading abilities in relationship to their peers as determined by the scores on Part 1 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test. 58 Null Hypothesis IHo could not be rejected. The 3 mean rank of each group is almost equal with the third graders' mean rank of 42.4 and the sixth graders' mean rank of 41.5 on the Mann-Whitney U Test. The significance is .8688. From the information available, it can not be concluded that there is a difference. Table 5.--Summary of analysis of third and sixth grade students' self-concept scores. Mann-Whitney U Test Number Mean Rank U Z Two-tailed P Third Grade 45 36.7 616.5 2.1833 .0290 Sixth Grade 38 48.3 IHo : There is no difference between third and sixth grade students' self-concept as measured by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. Hypothesis IHo is rejected with a 97.1 percent 4 surety or a .029 probability using the Mann-Whitney U Test. The mean rank for the sixth grade students was higher than that of the third grade students. 59 Table 6.--Summary of correlation of third and sixth grade students' perceived and actual ability to use specific skills in reading. Spearman Correlation Third Grade Sixth Grade Coefficient .2266 -.1l47 Number 45 38 Significance .068 .247 II. There is a relationship between third and sixth grade students' perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading and the accuracy with which they use those skills. IIHolz There is no relationship between third grade students' perceptions of and accuracy in their ability to use specific reading skills as determined by the correlation of scores on Part 2 on the Self-Analysis Reading Test and the scores on the Bader Individual Reading Analysis. This hypothesis could not be rejected. The result of the Spearman Correlation measured a significance of .068 which possibly reflects a borderline relationship but does not reach the criterion of .05 established for this study. IIHozz There is no relationship between sixth grade students' perceptions of and accuracy in their ability to use specific reading skills as determined by the correlation of scores on Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test and the scores on the Bader Individual Reading Analysis. 60 This hypothesis also could not be rejected. The significance figure of .247 does not approach the .05 criterion. III. There is a relationship between students' self- concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading. Table 7.--Correlation of third and sixth grade students' self-concept and perception of ability to use specific reading skills. Spearman Correlation Third Grade Sixth Grade Coefficient .1762 .1536 Number 45 38 Significance .124 .179 IIIHo : There is no relationship between third grade students' self-concept, as determined by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the accuracy of their perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading, as determined by the correlation of scores on Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test with scores on the Bader Indi- vidual Reading Analysis. This hypothesis could not be rejected. The sig- nificance of .124 does not approach the criterion of .05. IIIHoZ: There is no relationship between sixth grade students' self—concept, as determined by the Coopersmith Self—Esteem Inventory, and the accuracy of their perceptions of ability to use specific skills in reading, 61 as determined by the correlation of scores on Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test with scores on the Bader Individual Reading Analysis. Hypothesis IIIH02 also could not be rejected. This study failed to find a significant relationship between these variables on either the third or the sixth grade level. Table 8.—-Summary of correlation between third and sixth grade students' accuracy of perceived and actual ability to use specific skills in reading. Mann—Whitney U Test Number Mean Rank U Z Two-tailed P Third Grade 45 37.5 651.0 1.9493 .0513 Sixth Grade 38 47.4 IIIHoB: There is no difference between third and sixth grade students' accuracy of percep- tion of their ability to use specific skills in reading as determined by the correlation of scores on Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test and scores on the Bader Indi- vidual Reading Analysis. This hypothesis comes very close to being able to be rejected, in View of the .0513 level of signifi— cance. However, the differences measured did not quite meet the criterion established. There is at least per- haps a hint in these data that sixth grade students might 62 be more accurate in perceiving their ability to use spe- cific skills in reading than third grade students. More intensive research might confirm the hint discovered here, if, for example, the sample size were to be larger. Table 9.-—Summary of hypotheses and data collected. Level of . . Result Significance Statistical Test IHol Rejected .048 Spearman Correlation IHoz No finding .290 Spearman Correlation IHo3 No finding .8688 Mann-Whitney U Test IHo4 Rejected 0290 Mann-Whitney U Test IIHo1 No finding .068 Spearman Correlation IIHo2 No finding .247 Spearman Correlation IIIHo1 No finding .124 Spearman Correlation IIIHo2 No finding .179 Spearman Correlation IIIHo3 Borderline .0513 Mann-Whitney U Test Summary This chapter gave the data obtained from the sample. The hypotheses were restated in null form and the statistics used for testing were given. A summary of the results is included in Table 9. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter contains a summary of findings. Discussion, conclusions, and implications are included, and the researcher's recommendations for further study are given. Summary The purpose of this study was to obtain and analyze data and to draw implications from those data which would in some part answer the following research questions: 1. Is there a relationship between third and sixth grade students' self-concept and the accuracy of their perceptions of reading ability in relationship to their peers? 2. Is there a relationship between third and sixth grade students' perceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading and the accuracy with which they use those skills? 3. Is there a relationship between students' self-concept and the accuracy of their per- ceptions of their ability to use specific skills in reading? The following tests were administered during November 1977: 63 64 l. The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory 2. Dr. Edna Wilson Buchanan's modification of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory 3. The Self—Analysis Reading Test developed for this study 4. The Bader Individual Reading Analysis The scores of the Metropolitan Achievement Test (Reading) were obtained from the official records of the children and were used in determining accuracy of Part 1 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test. Null hypotheses, based on the research questions, were tested for differences which might be rejected as not occurring by chance at a .05 level of probability. A table (Table 9, page 62) was presented at the end of the previous chapter. Table 9 summarizes the results of the statistical tests of the significance of observed differences on the tests used. Two sets of differences were found to be signifi- cant at the .05 level. One set of differences was border- line at p = .0513. Findings This study found a significant positive relation- ship between third grade students' self—concept and the accuracy of perception of their own reading ability in relationship to their peers. No significant difference was found in the measures of this same relationship for 65 sixth grade students. Although there was a significant difference between third and sixth grade students' self- concept--third graders scored lower—-no significant dif- ference was found between third and sixth grade students' accuracy of perception of their own reading ability in relationship to their peers. There was no evidence found in this study of a significant relationship between either third or sixth graders' perceptions of their ability to use specific reading skills and the accuracy in using those skills. Also, no relationship was found for either third or sixth graders between their self—concept and accuracy of per- ception of ability to use specific skills in reading. At a .0513 level of significance, the difference between third and sixth grade students' accuracy in perceiving reading ability came very close to the .05 criterion for rejection. On these latter measures, the sixth graders' observed scores averaged higher than the third graders' scores . Discussion of the Findings Some possible factors which may have contributed to a positive relationship found for third graders between their self—concept and their perceptions of their ability with respect to their peers may be found in characteris- tics of third grade activities. Third graders usually 66 spend a proportionately greater amount of time in reading circles, where they hear their peers read aloud. This might allow third graders some advantage over sixth graders in determining their perception of reading abili- ties in relationship to their peers. But the further finding which the present data reveal is that third graders with more positive self-concepts are better than others in assessing their own relative abilities with respect to their peers. Also to be considered is the factor that word recognition is emphasized more in the teaching of begin- ning reading than it is after a child has developed a more extensive vocabulary. Moreover, oral reading is often used to determine a child's skill in word recogni- tion. Consequently, more oral reading is done in the early elementary grades. Since word recognition or lack of word recognition is perhaps more easily observed than are other reading skills, third graders may be «expected to have a clearer view of their abilities in these respects in comparison to their peers than do sixth graders. The tests of the hypotheses dealing with the accuracy of perception of third and sixth grade students' ability to use specific skills proved to be fruitless. No significant relationships were found. 67 There was one other measured difference which came very close to meeting the significance criterion of a probability of .05. The test of the hypothesis compar- ing third and sixth grade students' accuracy in perceiv- ing their skill abilities resulted in a difference with a probability of .0513. This borderline significance suggests that sixth grade students might be more accu- rate in perceiving their ability to use specific skills in reading than third grade students. If the sample size had been larger, the .05 criterion might have been sur- passed. It is interesting to examine in more detail the results of Part 2 of the Self-Analysis Reading Test item by item as found in Appendix C. When third and sixth graders were not accurate in their self-perception of their ability to use specific skills in reading, approxi- mately twice as many third graders over-estimated their ability while the sixth graders under-estimated their ability by almost twice as many students. This would tend to agree with the self-concept findings of Ketcham and Morse (1965) and Coopersmith (1967). Limitations in the Findings This study was designed to try to throw further light on relationships between student self-concept and perceptions of reading ability. Several of the differences 68 tested, however, failed to reveal significant relation- ships. One or more of the following conStraints appeared to have contributed to the inability of the present design to uncover whatever relationship might in fact exist. Sample size, for example, may have been a con- straining factor. The sample size was decreased from the original number due to the lie factor within the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. All students answer- ing more than three incorrect responses on the eight lie factor questions were eliminated from the data. However, it is felt that the resulting decrease in sample size, especially within the third grade, may have been primarily a factor of semantics or a factor of lack of maturation rather than a lie factor per se. The concept and impli- cation of the words ”always" and "never" used in several of the lie questions appeared to have been confusing to the third graders. For example, question 41, "I'm never shy," and 48, "I always tell the truth," were answered incorrectly by several third graders. Three or more of this type of error deleted those students from the data and lowered the total sample size. Several hypotheses, not rejected in this study, reflect trends but not at significant levels. The small sample size of this study might be extremely important in consideration of these trends. With a larger sample, 69 trends might have been established and the null hypotheses rejected at a significant level. 1 and IIIHoZ are concerned with the relationship between self-concept and ability to use Hypotheses IIIHo specific skills in reading. Tests of both hypotheses failed to reject them. Again, sample size may have been an important factor. Both of these hypotheses seem to reflect a relationship but not at significant levels within this study. The self-concept scores of this sample resulted in the sixth grade achieving a higher score than the third grade in the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. Coopersmith (1967), Donaldson (1974), Reed (1972), Ketcham and Morse (1965), and others have consistently found that the self-concept increases after entering school until third grade, and then there is a decline through the remaining grades of the elementary school. Ketcham and Morse stated that at grade three self—concept is high, then there is a significant drop at grade five, and a gradual build-up until grade eleven. "For the young child school is a secure place for mental health but as they grow older it is less so." If the sample size had been larger or the sample had been more random, it is possible that the results may have been consistent with the results of other research in the field. However, one possibility which 70 might in some degree influence the results of the Cooper- smith Self—Esteem Inventory in this case might be the fact that the sixth grade class has been on a program of functional level testing during their school life. Since they were tested on the level in which they functioned, they have had the experience of success in testing and been able to function successfully in the testing act. Lafferty (1962) stated, "There is overwhelming evidence that self concept is related to successful function in learning and later adjustment of life. . . ." Again, Mead's theory that the "self" selects stimuli from the "significant others" about him and incorporates this within himself would reinforce that this group of sixth graders, through successes in school, may have achieved both a higher self-concept and higher achievement than the means expected of a random sample. A further generally constraining factor might have been a ceiling effect which may have influenced the conclusions of several hypotheses. The sample tested not only said that they could accomplish the task assigned, but they actually were able to do the task. However, sufficient error in one or two items prevented accuracy of the whole test on a significant level. This ceiling effect may have been caused by a higher ability in reading than would normally be expected. The school ranks sixteenth out of 45 of the Grand Rapids Public 71 Schools in estimated ranking of richest to poorest. According to the Michigan Assessment Test scores for fourth grade students, Beckwith School was second in the city in reading. This relatively high reading test score might explain the ceiling effect. Homze (1962) adds insight into this when she states, A child who, for whatever reason, develops nega- tive self-perceptions may see himself as inadequate. . If a child is highly proficient in extracting ideas from the printed page and he recognizes this, he will have a positive approach to reading. He is able to read, therefore his concept of himself is as a "reader." Strang (1968) goes further to state that "the relationship between perception of self and utilization of intellectual ability is circular--one reinforces the other. . . ." Implications for Future Research The above findings and limitations in the findings suggest the following implications. 1. Throughout this study there is indication that a larger sample size might have allowed trends to be indicated. This study should be repeated using a larger sample size. 2. Replication of this study should be conducted using a randomized sample in order to obtain more reliable results. 3. It is possible that results from different areas of the country and different grade levels might 72 indicate interesting and informative findings. This study should be repeated using different grade levels of ele— mentary and secondary school. 4. Replication of this study should be conducted using a longitudinal research design so that growth or lack of growth in reading can be compared to changes in self-concept. 5. Reliable instruments to test the self— perception of human beings are very difficult to design and evaluate. The instruments used in this study were not completely adequate for the assigned tasks. There is a need for additional research to develop more valid and reliable instruments to measure the self—perception of reading abilities, especially with respect to a larger range of abilities. There are numerous instruments designed to evaluate the self-concept of children and adults. However, there is no one detailed directory of self-concept tests and no uniformity of terms. It is dif— ficult for a teacher or school to obtain sufficient information to select the most desirable test to be utilized in determining how a student perceives himself and his ability. Such testing of pre—school and elemen- tary students might alert school personnel to provide assistance for those children who need it to become more fully functioning individuals. 73 6. There is a need for further study of the importance of self—concept and self-perception to an individual's ability to learn. Since self-concept appears to be a limiting factor to learning in some cases, studies should be accomplished to develop a clearer understanding of self-concept. Also, studies should also be accomp- lished to provide information on the value of a standard— ized self-concept testing program in the elementary schools. Healthy self—concept appears to be related to future success. To be able correctly and positively to evaluate oneself is a valuable ability. Jersild (1952) states, The concept of self provides a key to the under- standing of mental health. According to the impli— cations of the self-concept, the healthy individual is true to himself, his "real self." He is authen- tic. He has integrity within himself. This principle is also practiced by Alcoholics Anonymous in their requiring that an individual must realize and express that he has a drinking problem before he receives help. In the area of reading, children who can recog- nize their reading problems may tend to succeed better and in shorter periods of time than those who are unaware or unable to perceive their problems. This self-perception factor might be of great importance in remedial situations. Accurate self—analysis might permit children to be more cooperative and willing to work on remediation in reading. 74 Self-analysis presumably might help individuals see and understand themselves more clearly and it might be con— ducive to good mental health and good learning practices. The present study was not capable of shedding much addi- tional light on whether or not these relationships exist. There are suggestions in the present findings, however, which would appear to warrant further study along the lines of the present design. 7. There is a need for research into developing some uniformity of terms dealing with self—concept or self-esteem and for some detailed index or directory of self-concept tests available. APPEND ICES APPENDIX A TESTS USED IN STUDY APPENDIX A TESTS USED IN STUDY Correlation of Test Numbers Self-Analysis Reading Test Bader's Individual Reading Part 2 Analysis Question 1 is Beginning consonants Beginning blends Change beginning sound Short vowels Long vowels @001.wa Two vowels 10 Compounds 0040501an 11 Prefixes 12 Suffixes 9 l4 Syllables 10 15 Context 75 76 SELF-ANALYSIS READING TEST Martha H. Felton (:) 1978 Name Grade Se PART 1: Draw a ring around the right answer or fill in the blank. as well as 1. In my classroom I read almost as well as the good readers. poorer than 2. In my class I read as well as , , and . 3. In my class I read poorer than , , and . better than 3 4. I am reading equal to other [6} graders. poorer than faster than 5. In my class I can read equal to others. slower than 6. I read faster than , , and . 7. I read slower than , , and . too hard. 8. In my reading book I find the material just right. too easy. exciting and interesting. 9. In my reading book I find the material -sometimes exciting and interesting. boring most of the time. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 77 [can } finish my work without others helping me. can not C” o g a o o I ‘ } finish my work within the time I am given. can not In reading I find the sound of letters ‘2:::} to sound out. In reading I find that putting letters and sounds together to make too hard } for me to do. easy new words { easy too hard} for me to read. I find the short words { [can } read the long words of 5 or more letters. can not PART 2: Put an X in the right space. 1. YES NO Can you hear and know the beginning letter sounds (consonants) of words?.......................... ....... Do you hear and know the beginning blends? Exmple: Em ......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO If you are given a word, can you change the first letter or add a letter at the beginning of the word to make it into a new word? ..................... Do you know the sound of a short vowel in a word? .... Do you know the sound of a long vowel in a word? ..... When there are two vowels in a word, do you know how to say them? Example: 129k ..................... Sometimes two words are put together to make a new word. Example: door and gay make doorway. These are compound words. Can you say compound without too much difficulty? ............................ ......... Do you find it hard to read and understand words with prefixes (subway) and suffixes (manly)? ........ Can you divide words into parts or syllables? ....... If you don't know a word, can you usually guess the word by what makes sense in the sentence? . ...... 1?. 13. 14. 15. 16. 18. 19. 20. 78 INDIVIDUAL READING ANALYSIS Letter Names Consonant Sounds Consonant Blends Initial Consonant Substitution Short Vowel Sounds Long Vowel Sounds Reversals Common Vowel Digraphs Blending Sounds to Form Words Compound Words Common Prefixes Common Suffixes Phonograms/Silent Letters Syllabication Contextual Analysis Dolch List -- Sight Words Reading Level -- Informal Placement Procedures Analysis of Oral Reading Testing Record Individual Progress Record Lois A. Bader © ”76 Michigan State University 0) CT' >< CD (6 :5 it: ..J 'N Test: Directions: Look For: What May Be Done: l— >o_~i- 79 5: C3) 1: 00 :3 xx‘o O> LI..><-H s>.o (35.0 It: u—4 .3 (1‘ :11 :3 (;3 t’) -\ '8 13!'| J-SZUJIUJ :VISH Test: CONSONANT SOUNDS Directions: With LIST A give these directions: ”point to the letter that begins the word I say: man, soap, run, long, no, fast, zip." With LIST B give these directions: "point to the letter that begins the word I say: piano, dog, win, cat, yellow, tap, kite, joke, house, go, big." With LIST C give these directions: "point to the letters that begin the word I say: chop, that,where, ship, phone." Look For: 1. Record all sounds not known. 2. Record all sounds made in error above the unrecognized stimulus letter. What May Be Done: Charts with key word pictures, games, tracing, discrhmination activities: (1) which words begin the same: go get; big mig. MS J1 Test: Directions: Look For: What May Be Done: 81 +9 Ids WS 5 J0 JJ. JD 19 1d 15 CONSONANT BLENDS LIST A say, "point to that begin the word I plate, slow." LIST B say, "point to that begin the word I brown, tree, dress." LIST C say, "point to begin the word I say: street? us JOS :3 18:1 :8 NH 3V 13!1 J0 ad 14 1Q the letters in the first line say: cloud, fly, blue, glue, the letters in the second line say: crown, from, grow, pretty, the letters in the third line that sweet, small, snow, screen, splash, 1. Record all sounds not known. 2. Write all sounds made in error. Use word wheels games, charts, discrimination activities ex. ch:talk éflalk shave éfip 1'01 185 Test: Directions: Look For: What May Be Done: 82 uoi u ueu E UBS 5| - 5| INITIAL CONSONANT SUBSTITUTION The first word in each box is a common phonogram. Say: "Read the first word." (If the student doesn‘t know it, tell him the word.) Then say "read the second word in the box." (Pause) "Now read the last word in the box." Ability to substitute 7 out of 10 consonants. Use word wheels. Work with rhymes. Use games and use cloze activities ex: can pan He run. 83 5. Te 8 t : SHORT VOWEL SOUNDS Directions: Say, "I am going to say some words. Listen and point to the letter that makes the middle sound in the word I say: mop - I mop the floor - mop fed - I fed my dog - fed bag - I have a bag of groceries - bag tip - The waiter gets a tip - tip mud - I walked in a mud puddle - mud sit - Sit on the chair - sit met - We met a friend - met tap - Tap your pencil - tap tub - wash in a bath tub - tub cob - Corn on the cob - cob Look For: Two correct associations for each vowel. W Give auditory training, use rhymes and charts. an!» aunt 188M eioq aunp nw Test: Directions: Look For: What May Be Done: 84 wgew 8181 91:41 eAtu axes egA isef auod as an oq q_. LONG VOWEL SOUNDS Say, "Try to read these words as well as you can, even if you never saw them before." Students use of all long vowel sounds. (Remember some vowel generalizations do not hold more than 75% of the time and should not be taught as rules.) Use key words, charts, games, matching activities. sdoi Jei' uai Test: Directions: Look For: What May Be Done: 85 deI uo 98M 10d UOM MBJ Hes ou 18d REVERSALS (omit, if tendency is not suspected) Say, "Read these words as fast as you can!" A student who retains the early tendency of some children to reverse words, was for saw, on for no, etc., will usually slip if he reads the test words rapidly. Permit the student to overlearn gag of the confusing words. Next, give practice exercises that will force him.to attend to word beginnings, for example: a. Circle the word part that is different: lop, top. c. He went to the of the tree. pot tap Encourage the student to look at the first letter of the word and think of the beginning sound of the word he needs in the context of a sentence or paragraph. 86 IMOf {neu Arid 1101 A01 inoto Item Roof 8. Bait; COMMON VOWEL DIGRAPHS Directions: Say, "Here are some words you probably don't know. Try to read them as well as you can." Look For: Note carefully any vowel digraphs missed. What May Be Done: Charts as a permanent reference for pupils may be helpful. Study patterns, or word families. Note exceptions. Ulu ‘ioq 6109 ‘Q!Bl ilnx ‘ewed Test: Directions: Look For: What May Be Done: 87 ‘189 ‘elof ‘anxs ‘IGGX ‘W!l ‘1gu ‘weex ‘awOI ‘fiew ‘eqor ‘aan ‘18p ‘aqu ‘edoo ‘an BLENDING SOUNDS TO FORM WORDS Say, "Here are some nonsense words. They really are not words at all, but I'd like to see if you can read them.” If a student knows the consonant and vowel sounds, as well as the two common long-vowel patterns, and can blend sounds, he should be able to read the nonsense words listed here. The nonsense syllables are used to prevent the student's recalling words he knows by sight. Avoid overemphasis of single-letter phonics. Use experience stories and charts, if student has serious difficulty in blending. Test: Directions: Look For: What May Be Done: 88 ieoqesnou ieamiaxseq Jadwnfiaded usemaeo XUBq;u5!U asaoqxiom 10. COMPOUND WORDS Say, "Read these nonsense words as well as you can.” Failure to pronounce these test words with confidence indicates the need for corrective teaching of compounds. Introduce the basic principle of compounds. Provide practice in making and dividing compound words. uedap iamuoo JBOSJ ugmxa UHJUQ piu0Jd 89 Iieseq 1!U9Jd 119M“! dsislp Ofiun uequs Test: Directions: Look For: What Mav Be Done: 11. COMMON PREFIXES Say, "Here are some more nonsense words. Read them as well as you can." Carefully listen to the pronounciation of the prefix units that begin each nonsense word. A failure to recognize nearly all the prefixes indicates the student is weak in the ability to visualize word parts. Provide practice Opportunities for the common prefixes as visual units. Less common prefixes should be taught as visual units with their meanings taught in context of their academic or vocational areas. 90 aneinoi {nipueq Jafinf ssaIanp aouepuod iseiaiem lUBUan U°!llI!U aAgpueq AIwOOJ fiugxgs iuanto snoqni ssauxooq 12. Test: COMMON SUFFIXES _irections: Say, "Read these nonsense words as well as you can." Look For: Carefully note the specific suffixes with which the student experiences difficulty. He should be able to see the suffixes as visual units. Provide practice with the common suffixes as visual units. Use charts or patterns. Add endings to common words. Use word wheels or games. Ehét May Be Done: sfipnl punOJ lufileJls inl!lNP9q r—] (O m n Look For: What May Be Done: 91 ueaoo iufige iqfinoq ptnoo qfinOJ qfinet ufinOJu1 iufiii 13. PHONOGRAMS: SILENT LETTERS Read these words as well as you can. Unknown patterns. Review words with similar patterns. Use charts or commercial material. Start with a familiar word. 92 anwnl JQAIOAGJ BugJepgds adoosoaogw Jeqwnono alxugJM ABPJGISQA uogiewigiuoo lUBlJOdw! paiueoos 14. 3329 SYLLAB ICAT ION Directions: Look For: What May Be Done: Say, "Divide these words into parts by marking the parts (draw lines between the syllables). Observe the student as he divides the words into parts and attempts to read them. Uncertainty and confusion will indicate that he is not accustomed to seeing mutisyllabic words by parts. Introduce syllabication orally to the student. Provide practice in dividing common words in the cvc/cvc pattern, cv/c and the final 1e patterns, but be sure to note that there are exceptions. 93 “alas I inq ‘ 88M | '188Jis aux epis an; 01 01 pen I '1381 awso sul 'JSUJOO eqi Jeo aui ses iou | 'leaJlS paSSOJO | 88 fiugug8J 88M 1| 15. Test: CONTEXTUAL Directions: Say, "This story has some words missing. Try to read the story by guessing the missing words." Look For: If the student does not know most of the words, he is weak in his ability to use context clues as an aid to word identification. What May Be Done: The student needs controlled practice in using context clues. Explain that many words can be guessed if the pupil is "making sense" while he reads. Prepare other materials of a similar nature. Use newspapers, old literature or content area books on student's grade level, blocking out key words. see: Kottmeyer, wm. Teachers ggide for Remedial Regding, Webster Publishing Company. :_-J c 0“ o mbLAIM‘ a o O o O\OC‘O\JO\ on... L“ 4:» ‘1.) r\\ C . O O \J' 4—‘ w IV I—‘ a o o . 0 by in did all had its ask many does has but black fast help brown four from around long away cold full before live her down give came at good are have may cut goes he jump kind first hot grow every make funny let again can fall best like here done get carry 16. THE BASIC SIGHT WORD LIST a be do any him into as keep going his just blue ate both bring found for always little after could five better laugh low draw gave call Dolch Basic Sight Word List. 94 it big go an drink if am know and far buy find eat hold green eight made because look about clean fly been light hurt don't got come Garrard Press. sit not red six put no yellow please take my own out Open try us with shall who some wish ran then see that when thank want me of too start round on you pick ten much under new one myself UP white she write very well read tell saw there which those went Champaign, Illinois to we seven show right or your play they must off now only never upon was sleep would sing work run their say these where this were the so walk stop pull Old yes pretty today together over our once CWO use ‘wash small why soon will ride them said three what think warm 95 PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING THE INSTRUCTIONAL LEVEL FOR READING To determine the instructional level for reading, one of the following methods may be used: 1. A Standardized Test 2. Informal Diagnostic Test To find the instructional level in reading by the Informal Diagnostic Test Method, follow the procedures listed: Use any basal set of readers or graded series for adults. . Estimate the student‘s reading level and select the reader that is one grade below your estimate. 3. Choose three selections from each reader; plan to use one for oral, one for silent reading and one for listening. 4. Have the student read one page (this should be read on sight). If he misses more than 5% of the words, the material is too difficult; there- fore test him at an easier level. If he doesn't miss 5% Of the words, give him progressively more difficult material until he does. In other words, if he misses two or more words out of twenty running words, the material is too difficult for him. 5. Comprehension should be checked by asking inferential and factual type questions after silent reading. The student should comprehend at least 75% of what is read at the instructional level. 6. Read selections above instructional level to the student and ask literal and inferential questions to determine listening comprehension level. (Typewthe selections and questions for recording Of errors in question responses) .NJF" 0 INDEPENDENT READING LEVEL is the level at which a student can read with ease and complete understanding--the level at which he does extensive supplementary and unsupervised library reading. THE INSTRUCTIONAL READING LEVEL is the highest levelcfll which the student is able to read with success under the teacher's guidance. THE FRUSTRATION LEVEL is the level at which the student "bogs down” because he is unable to comprehend what he is trying to read. COMPREHENSION (fact and Independent Instructional Frustration inference questions) ReadingiLevel Level Level 90% score 75% score Less than 50% VOCABULARY (based on 100 pupil able to pupil able to pupil fails to running words) pronounce 95% pronounce at pronounce 10% of words least 90% or more of words ORAL READING Natural, Natural, Jerky, unnatural, rhythmical, rhythmical many substitutions, well phrased well phrased omissions, and repetitions The above categories are only general guides for oral reading. Silent reading is most important, but ability here must be inferred . Listening comprehension indicates student‘s immediate potential for learning to read the material. 10. ll. 12. 13. 96 ANALYSIS OF ORAL READING How any of the error words are sight words? These are words youngsters should know instantly. Words that they should have memorized visually in first and second grades. Frequently they don‘t lend themselves to phonetic analysis. Sight word examples: they, was, some. Look at the part of the word in which he is making errors. a. Do errors appear 1n the beginning of words? This is often where we have the consonants. No errors here may indicate he has all the sound symbol association of consonants. b. Does he confuse words in the middle? This is where the vowels appear. It may be he does not have sound symbol association for the vowels. c. Does he miss many word endings or word beginnings: §_,§Q, tion, pre, con? Consider the part of speech of the error: does he make a substitution in the same part of speech? Does he seem to have any strategy for multi-syllabic words? Does he seem to be able to use context clues? a. Can he predict that a word or phrase might appear? b. Can he make a suitable substitution if he does not know a word? Consider syntax analysis -- when he makes a substitute for a sentence part, does he retain the surface structure? Does he make substitutions indicating he understands the deep structure? Does he recognize consonant combinations: 3h, sh, etc.? Does he recognize vowel combinations: ou, oi etc? Does he recognize silent letter phonograms, examples, ight, ough? What might be the reader's strategy for word recognition? a. When some students come to a word they don't know, they will spell it. b. Some will generalize to a word that has the same configuration and call the similar word. c. Some will look at the beginning letters plus context, and call a suitable substitute that begins with the same letter or letters. d. Some will use context and ignore sound-symbol association. Some readers substitute sounds, words or phrases from their own colloquial speech. Some readers have difficulty in recognizing words in isolation, but not in context. NAME 97 DATE TEACHER 1. Letter Names: TESTING RECORD INDIVIDUAL WORD ATTACK ANALYSIS B A I S C D F E P T N L R nave trite fate Z J U H G N X Q K V Y N 0 r o n l m y t v k p z i a j u s h b c g w d f x q e 2. Consonant Sounds List A: r n l m z s f List B: y t k p j h b t g w d List C: sh ch th wh ph 3. Consonant Blends List A: bl fl g1 pl 51 cl List B: br cr dr fr gr pr tr List C: scr sn sm spl str sw 4. Initial Consonant Substitutions £2 13 22. £3. £2 san rin bon gat dit han min fon lat pit 5. Short Vowel Sounds e i o u a 6. Long Vowel Sounds bo de fi sa mu dune pone jeet vie soke bote weal maim lune kibe \D 0 ll. 12. 13. Reversals pal no saw raw ten won pot was on lap Common Vowel Digraphs jook wail clout foy toil play haul jowl Blending Sounds To Form words rud, cope, bive, del, jobe, mag, lome, keam, lim, keel, slue, jote, Compound Words workhorse nightbank carwash paperjumper basketmeet houseboat Common Prefixes sub pro un en dis ex in re pre con be de Common Suffixes ness ous ment ing ly ive tion ant est ance less er ful able Phonograms/Silent Letters fight through laugh rough could bought eight ocean 98 tar tops rute, pame, nit, faib, dat, bot, beautiful straight round fudge kult dote hin 99 14. Syllabication accented important confirmation yesterday wrinkle cucumber microscope spidering revolver fumble 15. Contextual Analysis It was raining as I crossed street. I not see the car the corner. The came fast. I had to to the side the street. I was wet, but I safe. 100 INDIVIDUAL PROGRESS RECORD NAME TEACHER Skill Needs* Instructional O 1. Letter Names Reading Level* 0 2. Consonant Sounds (3 3. Consonant Blends pp 0 C) 4. Initial Consonant Substitutions p 0 O 5. Short Vowel Sounds 11 o () 6 Long Vowel Sounds 12 o 0 7 Reversals 21 o () 8 Common Vowel Digraphs 22 o 0 9. Blending Sounds to Form Words 31 o O 10. Compound. Words 32 o ()1 . Common Prefixes 4 o O 12. Common Suffixes 5 0 0 13 . Phonograms /Silent Letters 6 o ()14. Syllabication 0 15. Contextual Analysis Observations Sight Words* 0-75 PP 0 76-120 p 0 121-170 1 0 171-210 2 0 211-220 3 O Standardized Test Results Comprehension Abilities Interests * (Punch or check those achieved) Lois A. Bader Michigan State University 101 Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory PLEASE PRINT Name Age School Grade Sex M/F Date Directions On the following page, you will find a list of statements about feelings. If a statement describes how you usually feel, put a check (/) in the column "LIKE ME." If the statement does not describe how you usually feel, put a check (/) in the column "UNLIKE ME!" There are no right or wrong answers. Example: Like me Unlike me I am a hard worker. ( ) ( ) There are 58 statements to be answered. Begin at the tOp of the following page and mark every statement. Administration time about 12 minutes. 10. ll. 12. l3. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 102 Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory Form A--58 items I spend a lot of time daydreaming. I'm pretty sure of myself. I often wish I were someone else. I'm easy to like. My parents and I have a lot of fun together. I never worry about anything. I find it very hard to talk in front of the class . I wish I were younger. There are lots of things I'd change about myself if I could. I can make up my mind without too much trouble. I'm a lot of fun to be with. I get upset easily at home. I always do the right thing. I'm proud of my school work. Someone always has to tell me what to do. It takes me a long time to get used to anything new. I'm often sorry for the things I do. I'm popular with kids my own age. My parents usually consider my feelings. I'm never unhappy. I'm doing the best work that I can. I give in very easily. LIKE ME UNLIKE ME 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 103 I can usually take care of myself. I'm pretty happy. I would rather play with children younger than I am. My parents expect too much of me. I like everyone I know. I like to be called on in class. I understand myself. It's pretty tough to be me. Things are all mixed up in my life. Kids usually follow my ideas. No one pays much attention to me at home. I never get scolded. I'm not doing as well in school as I'd like to. I can make up my mind and stick to it. I really don't like being a boy-girl. I have a low opinion of myself. I don't like to be with other people. There are many times when I 'd like to leave home . I'm never shy. I often feel upset in school. I often feel ashamed of myself. I'm not as nice looking as most people. If I have something to say, I usually say it. Kids pick on me very often. My parents understand me. LIKE ME UNLIKE ME 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 104 I always tell the truth. My teacher makes me feel I'mnot good enough. I don't care what happens to me. I'm a failure. I get upset easily when I'm scolded. Most people are better liked than I am. I usually feel as if my parents are pushing me. I always know what to say to people. I often get discouraged at school. Things usually don't bother me.- I can't be depended on. LIKE ME UNLIKE ME Mark with an x 10. 105 Dr. Edna Wilson Buchanan's Modification of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory Name Do you think you spend a lot of time daydreaming? Are you pretty sure of yourself? Do you often wish you were someone else? Do you think you're easy to like? Do your parents and you have a lot of fun together? Do you ever worry about anything? Do you find it very hard to talk in front of the class? Do you wish you were younger? Do you think there are lots of things about yourself you'd change if you could? Do you think you can make up your mind about things without too much trouble? YES NO 10. ll. 12. l3. 14. 15. l6. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 106 Do you think you're a lot of fun ‘UD be with? Do you get upset easily at home? Do you think you always do the right thing? Are you proud of your school work? Does someone always have to tell you what to do? Does it take you a long time to get used to anything new? Do you often feel sorry about the things you do? Do you think you're popular with kids your own age? Do you think your parents usually consider your feelings? Are you ever unhappy? Do you think you' re doing the best work that you can? Do you think you give in very easily? ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. YES NO 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 107 Do you think you can usually take care of yourself? Are you pretty happy? Would you rather play with children younger than you? Do you think your parents expect too much of you? Do you like everyone you know? Do you like to be called on in class? Do you think you understand yourself? Do you think it's pretty tough to be you? Do you think things are all mixed up in your life? Do kids usually follow your ideas? Do you think people pay much attention to you at home? Do you ever get scolded? Are you doing as well in school as you'd like to? 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. YES NO 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 108 Can you make up your mind and stick to it? Do you like being a boy-girl? Do you think bad things about yourself? Do you like to be with other people? Are there times when you' d like to leave home? Are you ever shy? Do you often feel upset in school? Do you often feel ashamed of yourself? Do you think that you're as nice looking as most people? If you have something to say, do you usually say it? Do you think kids pick on you very often? Do you think your parents understand you? Do you always tell the truth? 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. YES NO 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 109 Does your teacher make you feel like you're not good enough? Do you care what happens to you? Do you think you're a failure? Do you get easily upset when you're scolded? Do you think most people are better liked than you are? Do you usually feel as if your parents want you to be doing too many things? Do you always know what to say to people? Do you often get discouraged in school? Do things usually bother you? Do you think you can be depended on? 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. YES NO APPENDIX B RESULT OF ACCURACY OF PART 1 AND PART 2, SELF—ANALYSIS READING TEST Table APPENDIX B RESULT OF ACCURACY OF PART 1 AND PART 2, SELF-ANALYSIS READING TEST Bl.-—Resu1t of accuracy of Part 1, Self—Analysis Reading Test. Over- Under- N Accurate Estimated Estimated Third grade 45 176 (55.8%) 75 (23.8%) 64 (20.3%) Sixth grade 38 140 (52.6%) 85 (31.5%) 41 (15.4%) Table B2.--Result of accuracy of Part 2, Self-Analysis Reading Test. Over- Under— N Accurate Estimated Estimated Third grade 45 349 (77.5%) 67 (14.8%) 34 (7.5%) Sixth grade 38 324 (85.2%) 19 ( 5.0%) 37 (9.7%) 110 APPENDIX C SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF PART 2 OF SELF-ANALYSIS READING TEST ACCURACY BY ITEM H ....I APPENDIX C SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF PART 2 OF SELF-ANALYSIS READING TEST ACCURACY BY ITEM Table Cl.——Summary of results of Part 2 of the Self—Analysis Reading Test accuracy by item. Over— Under- Accurate Estimated Estimated Third Grade (N = 45) 1. Beginning consonants Sounds 4O 0 5 2. Beginning blends 44 0 1 3. Initial consonant substitution 40 O 5 4. Short vowel sounds 43 l 1 5. Long vowel sounds 37 7 1 6. Common vowel digraphs 32 12 1 7. Compound words 42 1 2 8. Common prefixes 28 3 l4 9. Syllabication 9 36 0 0. Contextual analysis 34 7 4 Sixth Grade (N = 38) 1. Beginning consonants Sounds 38 O 0 2. Beginning blends 38 0 0 3. Initial consonant substitution 37 0 l 4. Short vowel sounds 33 O 5 5. Long vowel sounds 34 1 3 6. Common vowel digraphs 38 0 O 7. Compound words 38 0 0 8. Common prefixes l7 0 21 9. Syllabication l8 l8 2 0. Contextual analysis 33 O 5 111 B I BLI OGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Beretta, Shirley. "Self-Concept Development in the Read— ing Program." Reading Teacher 23 (December 1970): 232-39. Bledsoe, J. "Self-Concept of Children and Their Intel- ligence Achievement, Interests, and Anxiety." Childhood Education 43 (1967): 436-38. Brookover, W. B. Self-Concept of Ability and School Achievement. II. U.S. Office of Education Cooperative Research Project No. 1636. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1965. Butcher, Donald G. "A Study of the Relationship of Student Self-Concept to Academic Achievement in Six High Achieving Elementary Schools." 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