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31LIBRARY
Michigan State
University

 

 

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Video Lighting: A Photographic Approach

presented by

David Lee Haggadone

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Master of Arts . Telecommunication
degree in ___.__,—__

Oar fl cg

(MajOLplofessor

Date 7/; 7/89

0-7639 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution

 

 

MSU

LIBRARIES

 

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remove this checkout from

 

 

 

 

 

   
  

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VIDEO LIGHTING: A PHOTOGRAPHIC APPROACH

By

David Lee Haggadone

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Telecommunication

1988

 

ABSTRACT
VIDEO LIGHTING: A PHOTOGRAPHIC APPROACH
BY

5i’???f

David Lee Haggadone

This thesis examines the application of photographic
lighting techniques to video production. Development of
specialized illumination skills is approached from a
technical perspective. Illumination concepts specifically
addressed include: 1) the natural laws which affect light
transmission, 2) production factors that interact with the
theories to alter the quality of illumination, 3)
determination of illumination intensity through either
reflected, incident, or spot measurement techniques, and 4)
application of the waveform monitor as an illumination
measurement device.

The technical discussion is placed within the context
of a single camera video production setting. The techniques
outlined in the thesis address two specific commercial
production areas: product lighting and video portraiture. In
the discussion of product lighting, illumination techniques
for reflective and matte surface objects are detailed. g9
portraiture, several illumination patterns are presented;.
along with a thorough discussion on their proper
application. Approached from a technical perspective,
photographic lighting techniques have high applicability to

video production.

———

Copyright by
David Lee Haggadone
1988

 

 

 

To Linda, with all my love

iv

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, special thanks are extended to Gary
Reid, Thesis Committee Chairman, for his time, energy and
input into this project. Through Gary, I have learned a lot
about the production process, and also about myself. I am
fortunate to have had the opportunity to learn from such a

talented individual.

Special thanks are also extended to Robert Albers for his
creative input and suggestions for the preparation of this
manuscript. Bob’s experience and insight into the production
process were extremely valuable in the development,

implementation, and execution of the production design.

I am very grateful to Don Kemp for his help and engineering
support. Don was always willing to explain some of the finer
points of television engineering to someone not quite as

adept to the engineering process.

Finally, I would like to thank Cecil Daniel, Production
Manager at WSAV—TV in Savannah, Georgia for his support.

Nobody could ask for a finer, or more creative mentor.

 

PREFACE

Before progressing into the fine details of the
production design, it is first necessary to describe the
motivation behind the development of the project. The seeds
for this production research project began to germinate
during a three year period during which I served as a
Television Director in the commercial production industry.
During this period, thousands of studio hours were spent
supervising product and portraiture sessions for local
advertising programming. Very early in my tenure however, I
became increasingly dissatisfied with the image quality
obtained using standard video production practices.
Certainly some technical limitations exist when working in
video medium. To blame inferior image quality on the
technical limitations of the imaging system, however, seemed
to be an excuse rather than an explanation. By comparing the
image quality of national advertising programming (typically
produced on film) against locally produced commercials
(which were videotaped) it became apparent that the local
commercials did not have the same "feel“. Local advertising
production tended to lock either 1) flat — lacking the
illusion of three-dimensionality, or 2) contrasty — with

dark shadows and brilliant highlights.

vi

Both observations seemed to indicate a lack of
understanding of the basic principles of television
lighting. In an effort to improve lighting skills, I
returned to the available literature which examined
television lighting techniques. Production texts used at the
university level however, provided little insight on how the
problem could be alleviated. Instructional material is
typically sub—divided into the techniques of television
lighting as it relates to the multi—camera production
process. Technical instruction primarily focuses on the
following production issues:

1) Scientific attributes of light transmission.
2) Fixture attributes and controlling mechanisms.
3) Light grid setup and dimmer control.

4) Fixture mounting and studio safety.

5) Base illumination requirements.

Artistic lighting instruction is typically limited to
fixture (key, hack, and fill) placement for creating the
elusive “Basic Lighting Triangle“. Proper application of
triangle lighting techniques will theoretically create an
electronic image possessing the illusion of depth.
Typically, triangle lighting techniques are illustratively
applied to the multi—camera production process. The basis of
this discussion is not to propose that the instructional
material is wrong, but rather that the lighting techniques
were sometimes applied to an inappropriate production

setting.

vii

Existing lighting instruction is based on illumination
control in the telgxisign production setting. The lighting
techniques were erroneously being applied to the process of
xidgg production. The differences between production
processes are more than semantical. Television production is
the process where multiple cameras are used. Therefore,
lighting design and instructional materials were developed
in which the primary goal was to facilitate subject and
camera movement. The primary goal in commercial production
(which exemplifies the xideg production process) is to
create highly controlled, aesthetic product images.
Application of television lighting techniques to the video
production process (which has an entirely different set of
production requirements) simply did not work. The primary
lighting problem, therefore, seemed to develop from
differences in the production process.

One day, more out of frustration than creativity, I
decided to light a model setup using an illumination
technique developed for portrait photography. Lighting
instruments were removed from the overhead grid, mounted on
floor stands, and placed in positions which emulated a
portrait photography session. The difference in terms of
image quality was startling. This photographic approach to
video lighting created an image that was attractive, and had

some of the reproduction qualities attributable to

viii

commercial film production. Though illumination contrast was
limited, shadow gradation in the portrait lighting approach
enhanced the illusion of three-dimensionality.

This thesis represents a continuation of that basic
finding, stumbled upon many studio hours ago. To the reader
it will hopefully answer some of the questions surrounding
the illumination process. If this work supplies the
motivation to others to build upon our collective knowledge
of lighting, then this effort will have been well

worthwhi 1e .

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES

INTRODUCTION
Literature Review
Production Design
Evaluatory Methodology

A LITTLE LIGHT THEORY
Illumination Quality
Light Reflection
Light Intensity Falloff
Conclusion

FIXTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Spot Lights

Scoop Lights

Broad Lights

Projection Lights

Modification Techniques
Diffusion/Reflection Devices

Additional Modification Techniques
Reducers
Blockers
Conclusion

LIGHT MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Reflected Light Metering
Incident Light Metering
Reflected Spot Metering

The Waveform Monitor

LIGHTING RATIOS, EXPOSURE CONTROL AND

TONAL REPRODUCTION
Contrast Ratios
Lighting Ratios
Relationship between Illumination and Exposure
Tonal Reproduction
Light Manipulation and Exposure Control
Conclusion

Page
xii

xiv

75
76
77
81
87
94
102

PORTRAIT LIGHTING TECHNIQUES
Fixture Placement Procedures
Subject Modeling
Subject Contrast
Basic Portrait Methods
Additional Portrait Illumination Techniques

Broad Lighting

Narrow Lighting

Frontal Lighting

Side Lighting
Conclusion

PRODUCT LIGHTING TECHNIQUES
Illumination Characteristics
Product Illumination Techniques
Product Illumination Quality and Control
Illumination Measurement

PROGRAM DESIGN AND EVALUATION
Target Audience
Program Techniques
Lighting Techniques
Visual Production Techniques
Audio Techniques
Design Conclusion
Evaluatory Groups
Evaluatory Design
Evaluation Results
Evaluatory Conclusions

APPENDICES
Appendix A: The Scoop on Scopes (script)
Appendix B: Glamour Lighting (script)
Appendix C: Hot Shots/Hot Products (script)
Appendix D: Model Consent and Release Form
Appendix E: Video Lighting: A Photographic

Approach - Program Questionnaire

LIST OF REFERENCES

xi

104
105
108
110
111
116
120
125
131
136
141

143
144
156
158
167

170
170
171
173
175
177
178
179
182
184
204

208
232
261
279

280
284

LIST OF FIGURES

[151129113112

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

 

Illumination Quality

The Sun as a Specular Illumination Source
Modified Specular Illumination

Light Modification Methods

Light Modification Characteristics
Standard Diffusion Technique
Reflectance Angle

Textured Surface Reflectance

Light Energy Dispersion

Broad Illumination Instrument Design
Effects of Reflector Position

Effect of Fresnel Lens on Beam Dispersion
Light Intensity Falloff

Broad Light Fixture

Ellipsoidal Projector

Soft Box Illumination

Butterfly Illumination

Soft Box/Butterfly Positioning

Umbrella Lighting

Bounce Illumination

Illumination Intensity Modifiers
Illumination Quality Modifiers
Illumination Blockers

Patterned Illumination

Reflected Light Meter

Scenic Reflectance

Incident Metering

Extreme Reflectance Differential
Waveform Monitor Display

Waveform Display Information

Effect of Exposure Manipulation
Overlapping/Non-Overlapping Illumination
Manipulation of Background Illumination
Horizontal Positioning Techniques
Vertical Positioning Techniques
Background Texture Reproduction

xii

 

2183122111119

37

38 ‘

39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57

Illumination Dispersion Characteristics
Feathering Portrait Illumination

Bounce Illumination Technique

Broad Light Portraiture

Vertical Back Light Positioning

Narrow Light Portraiture

Narrow Key Light Modification

Frontal Light Portraiture

Butterfly Illumination

Side Light Portraiture

Bounce Fill Illumination

Shadow Classification

Zone Reproduction on the Waveform Monitor
Zone Size/Position on the Waveform Monitor
Frontal Lighting

Quarter Lighting

Side Lighting

Back Lighting

Light Tent Illumination

Bounce Illumination Technique
“Shuttering” Large Source Illumination

xiii

117
118
119
121
124
126
127
131
133
137
140
147
147
149
152
153
154
155
160
161
163

Hl-l @Q QQUQNNH

hi0

LIST OF TABLES

Table 111219

Light Intensity Falloff
Exposure and Contrast Data
Standard Reflectance Chart Values
Light Ratio Values
Exposure Ratio Values
Zone System Approach to Exposure
Zone System Calibration of
F—Stop Values
Zone System Adaption to Videography
Zone System Approach to
Lighting Control
Background Lighting Manipulation
Illumination Pattern Attributes

xiv

35
72
73
79

9O

91
92

95
99

156

INTRODUCTION

This thesis examines the advantages and limitations of
applying illumination techniques across differing media
forms. Specifically, lighting production techniques commonly
found in the cinematographic and photographic arts were
applied to the yideg production setting. Motivations for the
research are based, in part, on the following technological
changes:

1) increased technological sophistication of the
video reproduction system, and

2) a dramatic change in the methods used in the
process of production.

An important distinction is made between telgxisign and
xideg based on differences in the production process. These
differences are more than semantic. Though television and
video are both created through an electronic imaging
process, it is here that the similarities end. Television is
the production process historically rooted in the days of
live program recording and/or transmission. Lighting
techniques developed for television, are based on the
requirements and limitations of the multiple camera
production process. To facilitate subject and camera

movement, lighting fixtures are typically placed high above
1

 

2
the floor on a lighting grid. Technological advancements in
camera and electronic editing system designs have led to
evolutionary developments in the production process. An
increasingly greater amount of programming is being created
"film style”, utilizing a single video camera. This
distinction between production methods is the basis for
reevaluation of lighting techniques used in the production
setting.

Before discussing the specific research design, it is
first necessary to review the available production
literature. The literature reviewed for this thesis focused
primarily on lighting techniques utilized in the film arts.
The information derived from this review will be compared to
lighting and technical information contained within standard
instructional literature. It is hypothesized that lighting
techniques developed for the photographic arts can be

successfully implemented in the video production setting.

1., I B .
Certainly, limitations exist when applying production
techniques across differing media forms. Technically, 35mm
(millimeter) film stock has nearly ten times greater image
zgsglutign when compared against a broadcast television
signal (Mathias & Patterson, 1985). Present regulatory
allocations of the radio frequency spectrum inhibit the

transmission of a high resolution video signal. Unless world

 

 

 

3
standards are developed for the adoption of high definition
television (HDTV) transmission, the videographer will be
forced to accept this technological limitation.

Video also has limited tonal cantrast latitiude in
comparison against the photographic production process.
Contrast latitude is defined as the area between the
lightest and darkest portions of an image through which the
imaging system can accurately reproduce tonal gradations.
Film stock used in photographic and motion picture
production has an approximate contrast latitude of seven
f-stops. The photographic process represents a system
capable of reproducing a contrast ratio of 128:1. In a
properly exposed negative, the brightest element of the
scene can be 128 times brighter than the darkest portion,
with accurate detail being retained throughout the entire
tonal range. Present video camera technology limits
electronic reproduction to a total latitude of approximately
five f—stops, representing a contrast ratio of 32:1 (Mathias
& Patterson, 1985). Transmission limitations require further
bandwidth compression of a video signal to prevent
interference between broadcast frequencies. A transmitted
video image is compressed into a maximum contrast ratio of
approximately 20:1 (Fuller, 1982). Maximum system latitude
for a broadcast video image is therefore limited to
approximately four and one-half f-stops. In video, the

brightest and the darkest portions of an image cannot be too

4

far apart in brightness value. Video images which exceed
contrast limits will sacrifice scenic detail at either, and
potentially both ends, of the tonal range.

Initially, limited system latitude seems to present a
bleak outlook to videographers interested in implementing
film lighting techniques. Regardless of the videographers'
efforts, maximum system latitude is presently two to three
f—stops less than that attainable in film. To place this
argument into perspective, it is necessary to compare both
media against the reproduction latitude of the human eye. In
outdoor situations, the human eye may encounter and adapt to
lighting contrast ratios as high as 1000:1 (Mathias &
Patterson, 1985). Therefore, the contrast range the human
eye can adapt to is far greater than either media forms is
capable of recording. ”At present, there is no picture
reproduction system that can, without adjustment, handle the
variations of light intensity encountered in the real world“
(Millerson, 1982a). Because the eye is highly adaptable,
individuals attempting to record an image, regardless of
media, must develop the ability to distinguish between what
the eye sees and what the medium is capable of reproducing.

Through maturation of the production process, the film
arts have actively developed both subjective and objective
methods for replicating natural lighting conditions.
Successful cine/photographers have trained themselves to
interpret what they see in nature, and the manner in which

it will be recorded.on film (Ritsko, 1979). To evaluate

5
tonal contrast and determine exposure, film technicians rely
upon the use of a light meter. This technical instrument
provides data that allows the photographer to evaluate
lighting contrast between highlight and shadow illumination
zones. Replication of natural illumination conditions on
film is accomplished by manipulating light and shadow
density within reproduction limits of the recording system.
Videographers could also benefit from the use of a light
meter. A light meter provides highly useful illumination
data. Through proper usage, the videographer can manipulate
illumination patterns, containing them within contrast
reproduction limits of the video medium.

Inherent to most video production settings is a
technically sophisticated illumination measurement device.
The ggyefgzm_mgnitgr is an engineering instrument for
technical evaluation of the video image. Most production
texts have not examined the value of the waveform monitor as
a method for evaluating subject contrast and exposure. In
their book, Elggtrgnig_§in§mntggrgphy, Mathias and Patterson
(1985) describe how the waveform monitor can function as a
measuring device for making lighting and exposure
judgements. Essentially the waveform monitor operates as a
sophisticated spot meter, analyzing the entire video signal.
When used properly, the waveform monitor can provide the
video professional with excellent and usable lighting/scenic

information.

6
Though film stock has greater contrast latitude,
suggested lighting ratios in color photography are generally
quite low. A three f—stop range (8:1 contrast ratio) is
suggested for normal color filming, with a four f—stop range
(16:1 contrast ratio) suggested for dramatic photographic
effects (Ritsko, 1979). Therefore, photographic lighting
techniques are potentially applicable to the video
production process. The suggested contrast range is easily
contained within the limited latitude of the video
reproduction system. The primary difference between media
formats is measured in terms of total contrast latitude. In
film, a three f—stop differential represents a smaller ratio
with respect to maximum reproduction limits. Therefore, to
create the same aesthetic illumination quality, the
videographer will likely find it necessary to reduce the
lighting ratio by adding an appropriate amount of fill light
to the shadow area (Mathias & Patterson, 1985).
Technological advancements in video camera design have

also greatly influenced the potential quality of the
resultant images. Technological improvements generally
address two specific issues:

1) increased camera sensitivity requiring lower

‘base illumination levels, and.
2) improved tonal gradation within reproduction

latitude of the imaging system.

7

Through advancements in pick-up tube design, current
camera technology is capable of reproducing 72 discernible
shades of gray (Mathias & Patterson, 1985), at considerably
reduced illumination levels. Increasing camera sensitivity
is viewed as a major step forward, providing the
videographer with greater control in balancing illumination
and providing accent/highlight illumination opportunities
(Wurtzel, 1983). Essentially, technological advancements in
camera sensitivity enable the videographer to re-access
standard lighting practices. According to Fuller, "Newer
video cameras which can handle a greater range of contrast
and lower light levels are making it increasingly easier to
capture nuances of lighting thought to be the exclusive
domain of film.“ (Fuller, 1982, p. 73).

Creative lighting techniques once exclusively in the
domain of film production may now be applicable to the video
arts. According to Mathias, "Many of the common practices in
video lighting stem from technical or engineering
considerations that are no longer relevant. Today’s
production cameras are much more sensitive and stable than
older cameras for which studio lighting techniques were
developed” (Mathias & Patterson, 1985, p. 176).‘

Slow adaption of photographic lighting techniques may
be rooted in the production industry’s definition of ghgt
video is and ho! production is accomplished. Historically,
television programming developed out of live broadcast

production techniques. Consequently, lighting techniques

 

8

were developed for television production situations that
facilitated several cameras with multiple shot positions.
Multiple camera techniques necessarily involve compromises
in lighting design. Since illumination patterns needed to
accommodate several camera locations, the solution was to
create ”flat” lighting patterns. Therefore, the
technological inferiority associated with video has simply
been the development of compromised lighting techniques
(Mathias & Patterson, 1985). Because media professionals
have traditionally approached video as a rapid delivery
medium, lighting has generally taken a back seat to
expediency. According to Fuller, ”the apparent harshness of
video is therefore caused by poor lighting, rather than some
inherent flaw in the medium” (1982, p. 73).

Technological advancements now enable the videographer
to approach production assignments from an entirely
different perspective. An increasingly larger percentage of
programming is created using a single video camera. As in
the film arts, single camera production provides the
opportunity to custom design the lighting pattern for
specific visual effects. Traditional lighting instruction
primarily emphasizes techniques useful in the multi-camera
production process. This lighting approach does not meet the

creative requirements of the single camera production

process. “The solution to multi-camera production has

 

 

9
typically been flat overhead lighting. The problem is that
very few people working in video are able to do good
lighting" (Millerson, 1982a, p. 10).

Videographers in general, lack an understanding of
traditional film lighting techniques. This argument,
however, should not be construed as a condemnation of
traditional video production literature. Application of film
lighting techniques have only become possible through the
technical and evolutionary development of the video medium.
Several authors reference the difference between production
styles. According to Wurtzel (1983): "The later two media
(cine/photography) provide the lighting director with the
luxury of lighting a subject for one particular angle at a
time. Television does not allow this when a program is shot
with multiple cameras which are continuously moving to new
shot positions throughout a production. One lighting setup
must be adequate for all shots and all angles" (p. 154).

Through a review of the available literature, it was
concluded that the application of film lighting techniques
to the video production setting had not been fully explored.
This lack of information represents a significant gap of

knowledge in the video production industry.

2 1 I' D .
To test the applicability of film lighting techniques,
it became necessary to develop a video program which

incorporated film lighting fundamentals. Based on the

—_—

 

 

10
literature review, the following instructional issues seem
pertinent to this study. In his book Lighting_fgrdLQQgtign
Mgtign_fiigtu:§s, Ritsko states: “Learning lighting control
and lighting effects is probably best accomplished by
working with subjects or sets within a limited space, and by
using close—ups to determine the lighting pattern” (1979, p.
56). By limiting shot parameters, students of video lighting
will better understand lighting control/effects due to the
relatively small space they have to concentrate on.
Millerson concurs and adds: "Portraiture forms a high
proportion of all photography and deserves particular
attention to any study of lighting” (1982a, p. 133).

Approached from this point of reference, additional
research was conducted on specific film lighting techniques
used in portrait and commercial product photography. From
this information, an instructional videotape was created
which applied some of the lighting techniques used in the
film production industry. Development of an instructional
program provides an excellent vehicle to test the
application of lighting techniques across different
production formats.

Following is a brief description of the program
developed for this research project. This program was
designed to explore the application of film lighting
techniques to the video production setting. The primary goal

of the program was to develop an instructional method which

 

 

11
demonstrated both basic and advanced photographic lighting
fundamentals. The primary audience for this program is:
1) college students with advanced production
experience, and
2) professionals working in the video production
industry.
Following is a brief outline of the instructional

content found in Wanna

W

This segment begins with a brief explanation on the
difference between how the human eye and video camera react
to light. Once completed, the program continues with an
in-depth analysis of the methods used to measure
illumination. Light intensity is typically measured by using
either one, or a combination of the following devices:

1) Reflected Light Meter
2) Incident Light Meter
3) Reflected Spot Meter (or waveform monitor)

The advantages and disadvantages of each measurement
device are demonstrated. The program emphasizes the use of
an incident meter and the waveform monitor for determining
accurate illumination and exposure data. Due to the highly
technical nature of the waveform monitor, a greater
proportion of time is spent explaining monitor display and

setup/calibration procedures.

12

Additional information includes the production methods
used to determine lighting ratios. Lighting ratios are
commonly expressed for:

1) Overlapping, or
2) Non—overlapping illumination patterns.

Light ratio computation is fully explained through the
use of on-screen examples.

A commonly used film lighting technique is applied to
the video production setting. Called "pegging the key tone”,
this technique is developed by film directors to ensure
lighting and exposure continuity.

The program continues with a thorough explanation of
the method used to calibrate an incident light meter.
Calibration procedures are demonstrated for aligning the
sensitivity of the meter with the reproduction sensitivity
of the video camera.

This segment concludes with a thorough review of the

instructional material covered within the program.

E I : II E l E E] I' II'
Program two begins with a thorough description and

demonstration of standard lighting and modifying

instruments. Fixtures and modifiers applicable to the

standard video production setting include:

13
1) Spot Lights
2) Scoop Lights
3) Umbrella Lighting
4) Soft Box Lighting
This demonstration includes a description of the

advantages/disadvantages of each illumination/modifying

source. Particular attention is placed on shadow quality and

density produced by each illumination instrument.

The remainder of the program concentrates on the four
basic illumination patterns used in glamour photography.
Presented within the program are the following illumination
patterns:

1. Broad lighting

2. Narrow (Short) lighting
3 Frontal (Notan) lighting
4. Side (Rembrandt) lighting

Included within the demonstration is commentary on the
attributes and disadvantages of each glamour lighting
technique. Applicable lighting demonstrations are created
with a variety of instruments to illustrate the effects
created by different illumination instruments.l

Manipulation techniques are also demonstrated for
controlling shadow placement and the key/fill lighting

ratio.

‘4?-

1 4
We

Program three begins with a comparison between the
procedures used in portrait and product videography. The
primary difference between illumination patterns is based on
subject reflectance and contrast. In product lighting,
contrast and reflectance is typically far greater than that
encountered in portraiture.

The demonstration continues with an exploration into
product setup and lighting design. Object characteristics
are discussed, and the three primary zones of illumination
are illustrated. The illumination zones apparent are:

1) Highlight Zones
2) Lit Zones, and
3) Shadow Zones

The combination of these illumination zones provides
important visual clues to the viewer on object shape,
texture, color, depth and dimension.

The remainder of the program focuses on the application
of photographic lighting techniques to the video production
setting. Several professional photographic techniques are
demonstrated through the usage of on—screen examples.
Special features include illuminating problem setups
(glassware, reflective metal) commonly found in commercial
product videography .

Again, the demonstration program concludes with a

review of the instructional material.

*4-

15
W

This program is essentially a self-paced, instructional
tool designed to aid the student and working professional in
developing their own lighting style. The study of lighting
techniques is a highly personalized art form, lacking
definitive right/wrong answers. The illumination material
should not to be construed as a conclusive method for all
production situations. If photographic lighting were
approached as such, it would be placed into the realm of
science, rather than art.

Testing methodology is, therefore, based on
ascertaining the effectiveness of the program to motivate
and inform the target audience. An appropriate testing
instrument should yield audience opinion on:

1) the merits/value of the content, and
2) acceptability/clarity of presentational style.

Program effectiveness is therefore best evaluated based
on data collected via questionnaire and focus—group
discussion. Through this two-pronged testing approach,
audience attitudes and opinions have been collected on the
lighting and instructional techniques utilized within the
'program.

This thesis production has been tested against two

‘primary audience groups. They are:

l6

1) Advanced production students within the
Department of Telecommunication, Michigan
State University.

2) A panel of working professionals from within
the video production industry.

Both groups were selected for program testing based on
the following reasons. First, the concepts demonstrated
within the program require more than a basic comprehension
of the video production process. The design of the program
assumes a certain technical level of expertise, and
progresses from that point. Second, an instructional need
exists for the development of illumination techniques within
both production audiences. As demonstrated by the literature
review, instructional material used at the university level
emphasizes illumination techniques applicable to the
television, not video production process. With respect to
the student audience, advanced illumination instruction can
be highly beneficial to future professional development.
Finally, the program is designed to demonstrate illumination
challenges commonly found in local commercial production.
This production niche is an area where many students begin
their professional career. The professional panel solicited
for program review reflects that production niche, since
most of the professional evaluators work primarily in the
commercial production sector. Though both groups represent
different levels of production expertise, the program is

designed to provide an instructional platform for the

 

 

 

17
development of advanced illumination techniques. Therefore,
the primary goal of the production is to create an
instructional package for the study of advanced illumination
concepts.
A thorough analysis of the comments and criticisms
obtained via questionnaire and focus-group discussion can be

found in the concluding chapter of this thesis.

A LITTLE LIGHT THEORY

A thorough understanding of the natural laws which
govern light transmission is essential to any study of
creative lighting techniques. In video production all
lighting decisions should be based on satisfying both:

1) the technical requirements of the video
reproduction system, and
2) the artistic/creative image design criteria.

Successful and creative lighting control, however, is
predicated on fulfilling the technical requirements of the
video reproduction system. The focus of this chapter is an
examination of the key scientific attributes of light
transmission. This chapter also examines how certain
production factors interact with the key illumination axioms
‘to alter the transmission and dispersal of light energy.
Subsequent chapters will focus on 1) the methods used to
measure illumination intensity, and 2) the technical
limitations of the video reproduction system. Comprehension
of the scientific attributes of illumination provides a
foundation on which all creative lighting decisions should

be based.

18

l9
1]] . I. Q 1'!

Several terms are commonly used in the photographic
arts to classify illumination. Specular light is the quality
of illumination typically associated with ”hard“ light
sources. Direct sunlight or theatrical spotlights are hard
(specular) illumination sources. Highlight, lit and shadow
zones created by specular illumination sources are dense,
sharp, and well directed. Diffused light sources have the
opposite quality attributes. Diffused light sources are
classified as having “soft” illumination characteristics.
Soft, even illumination is the quality of light associated
with an overcast sky. The directionality of diffused
illumination is less clearly defined, because shadow density
is typically very light. Finally, the Transfergfidge is the
transitional region on an object, where illumination changes
from the lit zone to the shadow zone. The transfer edge will
be either hard (specular) or soft (diffused) dependent upon

the quality of light used for primary illumination.

Transfer Edge

   

Specular Illumination ' Diffused Illumination

Figure 1. Illumination Quality

 

 

 

20

To classify illumination quality, the videographer
needs to examine the shgdggg created by the illumination
source. Light sources are classified as being specular
(small) or diffused (large) according to:

1) the density of the shadow created by the
source, and

2) the glaritx of the transfer edge between lit
and shadow zones.

In a rather backward manner, illumination quality is
determined by the fihndgxs which are attached to, and cast
from, the subject.

The first lighting axiom to consider, can be simply
stated as follows:

”The quality of illumination is dependent upon the
size of the light source relatiye to its distance
from the subject (object)."

To fully understand the implications of this accepted
principle, consider the illumination quality associated with
the sun on a bright, cloudless day. Though our sun is
several thousand times larger than the earth, it is
classified as being a small (specular) illumination source.
The distnnge light energy from the sun must travel to reach
the earth’s surface, decreases its effective size relative
to the surface it illuminates. If the sun were to be moved
closer to the earth’s surface, illumination quality would
change. The sun would become a larger light source directly

proportional to its distance from the earth. It is important

45-9»

 

 

21
to note that illumination.gunlity and intensity are not

related terms. Intensity is a measure of light energy which
falls upon, or is incident to, a surface plane. Illumination
quality is a set of descriptive characteristics about
incident illumination.

This analogy can also be applied to the video
production setting. For example, a twelve inch fixture can
be either a specular (small) or diffused (large) light
source when used to illuminate a six inch sphere. When used
at a relatively close working position, the fixture is a
large light source taking on the qualities associated with
diffused illumination. Increasing the working distance
between the source and the sphere decreases the relative
size of the illumination source. As the distance between the
fixture and object is increased, illumination quality will
become increasingly more specular.

Returning to our sun analogy, shadows which are
attached to and cast from an object, classify the sun as a
specular illumination source. On a bright cloudless day,
shadows will be dense, and the transfer edge between lit and
shadow zones will be hard, sharp and well directed.

0\

Figure 2. The Sun as a Specular Illumination Source

22

When clouds envelop our sky, however, illumination
quality from our specular light source changes. Shadows

which were previously dense, sharp and well defined, become

soft and diffused.

 

.muz‘c: :53."

Figure 3. Modified Specular Illumination

Because the distance between the sun and earth is
essentially fixed, the sun will always be a specular
illumination source. Clouds however, act as a natural
modifier of illumination quality. When specular illumination
passes through cloud cover, the intense parallel rays of
light energy are broken and scattered. The clouds act as a
natural diffuser by modifying specular illumination. Being
considerably closer to, and larger than the subject, light
energy projected through a cloud cover will have diffused
illumination characteristics. Though the origination point
of illumination does not change, the cloud cover essentially
becomes the new illumination source.

This natural modification technique can also be adapted

to the video production setting. For example, a specular

23
light source can be modified to produce diffuse illumination

by simply scattering the parallel rays of illumination. This
can be accomplished through one of two methods:
1) project illumination through a plane of
diffusion material, or
2) reflect illumination from an adjacent surface
plane.

Both methods, of course, assume that the plane used to
modify the original light source is considerably larger,
zelntiyg to its position from the subject. When direct
illumination strikes the subject only from the
projection/reflection plane, that plane becomes the

illumination origination point.

Projected Illumination Reflected Illumination

O O

 

 

 

 

I 4/

Figure 4. Light Modification Methods

24
Based on our knowledge of this lighting axiom, the

following two methods can be utilized to modify illumination
quality in the video production setting:
1) position the illumination source closer, to
increase its size relative to the subject, or
1 2) project/reflect illumination from a larger
surface plane to increase the effective size
of the fixture.

As the surface plane used to modify specular
illumination is moved away from the subject, it becomes
smaller (more specular) relative to the size of the subject.
The closer the projection/reflection plane, the larger it is
relative to the subject. Therefore, illumination quality
also changes relative to modifier-to—subject distance. The
lighting axiom holds constant, regardless of the lighting
method used.

 

Decrease Effective Size Increase Effective Size

6—— )r

 

Diffuser

 

 

Figure 5. Light Modification Characteristics

25
Standard production practice for diffusing fixture

output, is to place scrimming material at fixture position.

Diffusion —_flfl_fl__fl_____,_n———fl—-*—

\

Figure 6. Standard Diffusion Technique

 

 

 

This diffusion technique reduces fixture intensity, but
does not significantly alter the specularity of the
instrument. The effective size of the light source remains
constant, because the relative distance between illumination
point and subject has not changed. Illumination intensity
changes proportional to the transmission efficiency of the
diffusion material used. To increase the effective size of
the illumination source, it is necessary to increase the

size of the diffusion plane relative to the fixture—subject

distance.

I' II B E] I'
Since we have already touched on reflected lighting
techniques, let’s continue the discussion with a thorough
examination of another lighting axiom:
“The angle of incidence equals the angle of

reflectance.”

26

Light reflects from any surface plane proportional to
the angle at which light strikes that plane. For example, if
light strikes a surface at a 45 degree angle, light will

reflect from that plane at an opposite 45 degree angle.

Incidence Reflectance

45 45

Figure 7. Reflectance Angle

The above analogy oversimplifies the reflective
properties of light energy. Pure application of the axiom
assumes a flat, highly reflective surface plane. In the
production setting, the videographer will be typically faced
with surfaces that have radically different reflectance
characteristics. Consider for example, the reflective

properties of a roughly textured surface.

27

/

Surface Illumination /‘

 

Luminance

Figure 8. Textured Surface Reflectance

As the example illustrates, surface reflectance is
primarily dependent upon surface characteristics of the
surface plane. The undulations of a textured surface modifys
illumination by redirecting light energy into more than one
reflected angle. Light striking a textured surface will not
reflect as uniformly as illumination striking a smooth
and/or glossy surface plane. Therefore, object surfaces can
also be classified according to surface reflectance
characteristics.

The previous illustration also indicates that
terminology changes after light energy reflects from a
surface plane. Light generated from a fixture is referred to
as incident illumination. Light reflected from a surface
plane back toward camera viewpoint is referred to as
luminance. It is important for the videographer to

understand the distinction. Luminance is a measure of the

28
light reflecting properties of an object or surface.

Luminance values of scenic content are likely to be
different even when scenic elements are lit with equal
illumination intensity. This is a common phenomenon,
particularily when objects with different surface
characteristics are used.

To achieve creative lighting control, the videographer
needs to consider the reflective characteristics of the
object(s) within a scene. Surface characteristics (texture
color, form) modify illumination and affects the luminance
values of scenic content. In order to apply an appropriate
lighting pattern, the videographer first needs to ascertain
the reflective attributes of scenic elements. These

attributes include surface texture, and the absorptive

quality of the reflecting surface. Any attempt to completely

classify surface reflectance values would be fruitless, due
to the variety of surfaces encountered in the production
setting. Some general guidelines, however, are offered.
Mirrors have a highly reflective surface, and redirect
nearly 100% of the light incident to the surface. Aluminum
foil is also an efficient reflector, but the reflectance
value can be decreased by texturing the smooth surface.
Cloth has a wide range of reflectance values, ranging from
satin (high) to felt (low). Finally, rough wood and stone
has minimal reflectance due to surface texture and
absorption which inhibits parallel light rays from being

redirected in an opposite (but equal) angle.

“4‘

29

The angle at which illumination strikes a surface plane
also affects the luminance reflected from that plane. For
all practical purposes, illumination striking a surface from
0-45 degrees off axis will reflect light proportional to:

1) the intensity of illumination, and
2) the reflective properties of the surface plane.

As illumination is moved farther off—axis, luminance
decreases disproportionally. By increasing the illumination
angle (relative to the object—lens axis), the fixture will
illuminate an increasingly larger surface area. The
‘mathmatical calculation for determining luminance fall—off,
is called the Cosine Law. This law is stated as follows:

Illumination = (lumens/distancez) X 008 angle

In practice, calculation of luminance fall-off is
unnecessary. Luminance intensity can be easily determined in
the video production setting through various measurement
techniques. The videographer however, should be aware of the
effect the incident angle has upon surface luminance values.

Therefore, the axiom; ”The angle of incidence equals
the angle of reflectance” provides the videographer with
accurate, but inadequate information. In practice, Object
reflectance is dependent upon: 1) the efficiency of the
reflector, 2) the incident angle of illumination, and 3) the

absorptive quality of the reflecting surface.

 

30
I'llll .l £1] E:

The final lighting axiom to be considered can be simply
stated as follows:

”Light intensity decreases inversely proportional

to the square of the distance."

There are certain misconceptions surrounding this basic

law of illumination. Light intensity does not “die off" as

it is projected from an illumination source, rather it

"spreads out” illuminating increasingly larger hypothetical

planes.

Fixture

/
\

 

 

 

 

\
// \

 

d1 d2
Figure 9. Light Energy Dispersion

In practice, the inverse square law is applicable gnlz
with lighting fixtures that produce diverging rays of

illumination. Fixtures such as Scoops, Broads and Soft

lights fall within this instrument classification. These

instruments have a fixed illumination point, and are

designed to create for broad illumination coverage.

 

 

 

 

 

 

f'\
«I *

‘16

Figure 10. Broad Illumination Instrument Design

Illumination produced by fixtures with variable focal
points and/or which utilize a focusing lens, does not
”falloff“ in the same manner. Spot lights with a fresnel or
condensing lens array belong in this fixture classification
category. Basically, spot fixtures are designed with
illumination modifiers built into the instrument.

Variable focus instruments modify illumination by
varying the distance between the lamp and the internal
reflector. Decreasing the lamp—to-reflector distance
increases the coverage area of the instrument. By increasing
the coverage area, the videographer will be decreasing
fixture intensity. Focusing (increasing) fixture output to a
smaller coverage area is achieved by increasing the

lamp—to-reflector distance.

32

Flood Position Spot Position

Reflector

/
<5
Lm/

Figure 11. Effects of Reflector Position,

 

The addition of a lens to the front of fixture, further

rue

modifies illumination transmission. A Fresnel lens acts
essentially as a magnifying glass, redirecting light into

parallel rays of illumination.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Reflector Lamp Lens
/ CL]? » ..
..__._\ >

Figure 12. Effect of Fresnel Lens on Beam Dispersion

33

Light Intensity Falloff (LIF) is therefore difficult to
determine due to the variety of fixture and modifier devices
used in the production setting. Beam dispersal and fixture
efficiency is dependent on the design of the instrument and
the modifying technique used to project fixture output. With
spot light fixtures, transmission efficiency is also
dependent on 1) surface reflectance of the focal plane and
2) the design of the focusing lens. Condensing lenses
typically found on Ellipsoidal instruments have radically
different transmission characteristics when compared against
Fresnel lens design.

A workable adaption of this lighting axiom is crucial
to further development of light manipulation techniques.
Intelligent fixture placement will allow the videographer to
control both light intensity and the falloff ratio.
Experience will proyide additional knowledge with regards to
the transmission characteristics of specific illuminating
instruments. For the purpose of continuing this discussion,
illumination measurement assumes usage of an instrument
whose output falls off inversely proportional to the square
of the distance.

Therefore, light intensity falloff (LIF) can be
mathematically determined by dividing the square value of
the comparitive distances (d). Simply stated, light
intensity falloff is expressed as the the following ratio:

LIF = d1 9:123:

‘46-

34

This ratio provides the videographer with a methodology
for determining intensity falloff between two hypothetical
planes. By inputing distances into the ratio, the
videographer can determine the amount of light falloff

(denoted as a percentage) between the two planes.

LIF = d12/d22 10' 1g'
= 10' 2/12' 2 %
= 100/144
= 69.4%

 

 

 

 

 

\Q

d1 d2
Figure 13. Light Intensity Falloff

Only 70% of a fixture’s intensity will be incident to a
surface plane 12 feet from the illumination source, in
relation to illumination intensity 10 feet from the source.
In the photographic arts, illumination intensity is
commonly expressed in foot—candles. A foot-candle is a
measure of light energy from a single candle (quantified in
lumens) which falls upon a hypothetical plane, one foot away
from the candle. For simplicity of measurement, a standard
energy level has been assigned the value of one foot-candle
and all measuring devices adhere to this standard.

~4-

 

 

35

Through mathematical computation, the videographer can
determine foot-candle (fc) intensity between any two
illumination planes. For example, if illumination intensity
measured 100 foot—candles at 10 feet from the illumination
source, approximately 70 foot—candles will fall on a surface
plane measured 12 feet from that source. The following table
provides precise data on light intensity falloff at

distances of 10 to 20 feet from the illumination point.

Table 1. Light Intensity Falloff

mmzlaggdlinzzam mm

100
11 100 121 100/121 82.6 -17.4
12 100 144 100/144 69.4 -30.6
13 100 169 100/169 59.2 -40.8
14 100 196 100/196 51.0 -49.0
15 100 225 100/225 44.4 -55.6
16 100 256 100/256 39.0 -61.0 +
17 100 289 100/289 34.6 ~65.4 *
18 100 324 100/324 30.9 -69.1
19 100 361 100/361 27.7 -72.3
20 100 400 100/400 25.0 -75.0

Manipulation of light intensity falloff can be
approached from two perspectives. First, by doubling the
working distance, intensity will decrease to one—fourth of
the original level. One hundred foot-candles measured at 10
feet from the fixture will falloff to a level of 25 foot
candles, twenty feet from the illumination source. Second,
as the distance from the illumination point is increased,
the falloff differential between planes will decrease. When
‘lighting a scene in which the distance between surface

planes is predetermined, the videographer can use the

r_____.

36

Inverse Square Law to control intensity falloff. For
example, holding the distance between scenic planes constant

at 4 feet, the following phenonemnon will be observed.

LIF = d1‘/d22 LIF = d12/d22
LIF = 102/141.-2 LIF = 402/44?
LIF = 100/196 LIF = 1600/1936
LIF = 51: LIF = 82.6%

Increasing the effective working distance provides a
method for reducing light intensity falloff between scenic
planes. Reduction of light intensity falloff, however, is at
the expense of lowered base illumination levels. Light
energy differences can also be determined through

calculation of the Inverse Square Law.

LIF = d12/d22

LIF = 102/4oze

LIF = 100/1600

LIF = 1/16 < ‘
LIF = 6.25% ' ,

Only 1/16th of a fixture’s intensity will be measured
at a point 40 feet from the source, compared to the

intensity measured at 10 feet. If illumination measured 100

 

foot-candles at ten feet from the light source, intensity
will fall off to 6.25 foot-candles forty feet from the
illumination point. To restore illumination intensity, it
will be necessary to multiply fixture output by the factor
at which intensity has decreased. For example, if a 500 watt
fixture measured 100 foot-candles at 10 feet, an 8,000 watt
fixture would be needed to supply 100 foot—candle intensity

at 40 feet from the illumination point (500w X 16 = 8,000w).

37
Conclusion

Before progressing into a discussion on the fuction and
measurement of illumination intensity, it is necessary to
conclude this chapter with some additional general lighting
information. The videographer should realise that several
production conditions exist which prohibit pure application
of the above axioms.

Of primary concern are the illumination characteristics
produced by various light fixture designs. Beam dispersal
and transmision efficiency vary greatly, and are dependent
upon the design criteria of the manufacturer. Even
instruments within the same classification have different
illumination characteristics. Literature published by the
manufacturer, may provide the videographer with detailed
information on the performance of a fixture.

Lamp design also plays an important role in beam
dispersal characteristics. The size and shape of the glass
envelope influence light transmission. Beam dispersal is
non-linear when measured at the illumination point due to
the different surface planes through which light energy must
pass. As the effective working distance increases, the
importance of non-linear transmission decreases. Literature
published by lamp manufacturers recommends a minimum working
distance of ten times the size of the illumination source.
For example, a twelve inch fixture should be used no closer
than ten feet from the subject (12” X 10 = 120“/12” = 10’).

This guideline is primarily applicable to open-face lighting

we»

38
instruments. Fixtures which shield from direct lamp

illumination (ie. soft lights) are designed specifically for
close—up working conditions.

Though the usage of Tungsten Halogen lamps is assumed,
the videographer should be aware that non-Halogen lamps have
different illumination characteristics. Halogen lamps burn
at their rated color temperature and maximum output
throughout the life of the lamp. Non—Halogen lamps
(typically found in older fixtures) decrease in color
temperature and rated output as the age of the lamp
increases. In order to achieve consistent results, Halogen
lamps are recommended.

This chapter has focused on some of the scientific
attributes regarding light classification, reflectance, and
transmission. These axioms represent the basic knowledge
needed for any endeavor in creative lighting to be fruitful.
From this perspective, the videographer will be able to make
accurate lighting decisions based on a technical knowledge

of illumination.

 

FIXTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Before exploring the application of illumination in the
video production process, it is necessary to review the
illumination characteristics produced by commonly used
lighting instruments. The illumination theories outlined in
the previous chapter provide a theoretical understanding of
light transmission characteristics. Lighting fixtures,
however, modify and control illumination in distinct ways.

This chapter will, therefore, examine the illumination
attributes of lighting instruments commonly used in the
video production setting. The fixtures frequently used are:

1. Spot Lights (lens and lensless),
2. Scoop Lights,

3. Broad Lights, and

4. Projection (Ellipsoidal) Lights.

A brief examination of several light modification
techniques used in the professional film industry and their
application to video production is also included.
Illumination modifiers most commonly used include:

1. Soft Boxes,
2. umbrellas,
3. Gobos, and.
4. Patterns (cockies).

39

L—__; .

 

 

40
By understanding the operational characteristics of a
light fixture and lighting modifier, the videographer can

design illumination patterns consistent with the creative

motivations of the scene.

MB

Spot lights are typically used to provide the primary
source of illumination. The primary illumination source is
generally referred to as the "key” light. The key light,
however, refers to primary light intensity and
directionality and is not a function of fixture design. Any
fixture can be used as a key light as long as the intensity
of the fixture is stronger than any other illuminating
source. The key light also supplies the viewer with
information on the quality (specular or diffused) of the
illumination source. Because our solar system naturally has
one illumination source (the sun), viewers subconsciously
interpret production settings with a multitude of shadows as
having "unnatural" illumination characteristics.

Spot lights are typically chosen for key illumination
based on their projection characteristics. Spot fixture
illumination can be focused through optical or mechanical
means, concentrating and projecting light energy over great
distances. When used at a distance, spot fixtures are
classified as being small illumination sources. Small source
illumination (relative to subject/object size) will be

specular and the shadows created by the instrument will be

 

 

P

41
hard, sharp and well directed. Therefore, illumination
quality produced by a spot fixture is typically associated
with illumination produced by the sun (on a clear day) or a
theatrical spotlight.

Due to its highly directional and intense beam,
illumination from a spot light is easily controlled. When
projected through an optical lens, light energy is focused
into intense parallel rays of illumination. The most common
lens used in spot fixture design is called a Fresnel lens.
Figure twelve in the previous chapter details how a Fresnel
spot light optically modifies projected illumination.

A lensless spot light uses a mechanical method for
focusing and projecting light energy. Lensless spot
instruments are commonly used in remote production lighting
because they are small, lightweight and easily portable.
Spot fixtures of this design focus illumination by changing
the distance between the lamp and the reflector housing.
Figure eleven in the previous chapter details the mechanical
method used to modify projected illumination.

Lensless spotlights represent a design compromise in
terms of illumination quality and control. Light energy
projected from this instrument has non—linear dispersion
characteristics, particularly when used in the "spot“
position. Lacking a focusing lens, illumination control is
also limited because light energy disperses rapidly as the

distance from the source to the subject is increased.

 

42
Wight:

Scoops are used in the production setting to provide
diffused illumination, the quality of light associated with
an overcast sky. Though primarily used as a secondary light
source, scoops can also be used for ”key" illumination. When
used as a key illumination source, the shadow density which
defines illumination quality will be light, with subtle
gradation at the transfer edge. Through examination of the
transfer edge, the videographer can classify the quality of
the illumination source.

The primary usage of the scoop light is to provide
secondary illumination to the image. When used as a "fill“
illumination source, the videographer must determine both
appropriate positioning and intensity with respect to the
primary illumination source. Positioning is most often based
on providing illumination to the shadow zone created by the
primary illumination source. Appropriate fill lighting
should reduce, but not eliminate the shadow density created
by the key light. Shadows provide the viewer with
information on surface texture and object dimensionality.
Fill intensity should never conflict with the key light
effect, or eliminate shadows created by the key.

Scoop lights are designed to spread illumination over a
large surface area. The lamp is suspended within a parabolic
reflector which disperses light energy into non-parallel

rays of illumination. Lacking a focusing mechanism, scoop

43
illumination is difficult to control. Figure ten in the
previous chapter details the manner in which scoop
illumination is dispersed.

Since scoop lights have softer illumination
characteristics, they are often used to add overall has;
illumination to the image. Base illumination is the light
energy necessary to create an electronic image in the video

medium.

W

Broad Lights are similar in design and function to
scoop fixtures. The primary design difference between
fixtures is that broad lights have a shallower parabolic
reflector, with rectangular dimensions. The following
diagram details the design of the broad illumination

instrument.

    
    

Figure 14. Broad Light Fixture

The reflector within a broad light is designed to
inhibit the hemispherical spread of illumination. This
instrument is primarily designed to illuminate background

surface planes. Broad lights can also be used to provide

44
overall base illumination in the production setting.
Classified as a small light source, illumination produced by
a broad fixture has greater specularity than scoop lights
used for the same purpose. Having specular and relatively
uncontrollable illumination characteristics, broad
instruments should never be used for either key or fill

illumination coverage.

Engjectinn Lights

Projection instruments are commonly used in video
production for projecting illumination effects. The most
common effects projector found in video production is an
ellipsoidal spotlight. Having a very small diaphragm,
illumination quality produced by an ellipsoidal light has
the greatest specularity.‘ This instrument is rarely used as
the key source, and never for fill or base illumination
coverage. Since an ellipsoidal instrument emulates the
illumination quality projected from a theatrical spotlight,

it can be applied as such in the video production setting.

 

 

 

Ref lector/Lamp Tray \‘ Lens Array
” A
Housing
—__>.
\. I 0 ———>
_—>

Diaphrzm~vj>

Figure 15. Ellipsoidal Projector

45

An ellipsoidal fixture utilizes a condensing lens array
to focus and narrow beam spread. Incorporated into fixture
design is a tray that allows insertion of a metallic disk
between the light path and the condensing lens array. By
changing the distance between the lamp/reflector housing and
the condensing lens, the videographer can manipulate the
focus of the pattern projected onto a background surface
plane.

The illumination characteristics of an ellipsoidal
instrument limit the usefulness of this instrument in the
standard production setting. Though a highly efficient
projection instrument, its usage is best reserved for

projecting patterns onto background surface planes.

H i'E' l' I l .
Several devices have been developed to manipulate
illumination quality, intensity, and light/shadow placement.

Modification devices generally fall into two specific
categories:
1. Diffusion/Reflection
2. Reducing/Blocking
Devices within these classifications are designed to
manipulate the illumination quality and intensity projected

from an illumination source.

46
11.“. CE [1 l' D .

Soft boxes and Butterflies are commonly used in the
film production setting to change the quality of
illumination produced by a small light fixture. Fixture
output is projected through a translucent diffusion panel,

spreading illumination over a larger surface plane.

 

 

Diffusion Panel

 

 

Housing/Reflector

Figure 16. Soft Box Illumination

Fixture -
Diffusion Panel
+

Figure 17. Butterfly Illumination

 

 

 

 

 

LIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlIllI----------::_

f

47

Soft Boxes and/or Butterflies are particularly useful
in both studio and remote production applications. By
projecting illumination through translucent diffusion
material, this manipulation technique alters the quality of
illumination produced by a small light source. Since large
source lighting tends to wrap around surface contours, the
transfer edge between illumination zones will display soft,
subtle gradation.

Several disadvantages of this modification technique
need to be considered in the planning stages of production.
First, illumination intensity will be considerably reduced
as illumination passes through the diffusion material.
Although intensity reduction is dependent upon the density
of the diffusion material used, a reduction of 50% (one
f-stop) provides an approximate starting intensity loss.
Second, when illumination is projected through a translucent
diffusion panel, light intensity falloff will be greatly
increased. To maximize the soft light quality produced by
this modification method, the videographer will most likely
find it necessary to use the modifier close to subject
position. Recommendations on working distance vary according
to the illumination effect desired. Generally, the
subject-to—modifier distance should equal the longest
dimension of the modification device. For example, a
six-foot modifier should be placed approximately six feet

away from the subject.

48

6’

 

H

6’

 

 

 

Figure 18. Soft Box/Butterfly Positioning

Soft boxes are large, bulky, and require additional
light stands for support. Because they require a large
amount of floor space, the videographer may find they are
best applied to the single camera production setting.
Finally, proper ventilation is necessary to prevent creating
a fire hazard. The videographer must allow for ventilating
air space between the fixture and the diffusion plane to
prevent overheating the diffusion surface.

Umbrellas use a reflection method for changing the size
of a small light source. Umbrellas are commonly used in the
photographic industry, particularly for glamour portraiture.
Instead of projecting light through translucent diffusion
material, illumination is bounced off a reflective parabolic
surface. Though umbrella lighting is a soft illumination
technique, the parabolic reflector produces greater

specularity and control than soft box illumination.

49

 

‘K

Figure 19. Umbrella Lighting

As with other large source illumination techniques,
light energy reflected from an umbrella falls off rapidly as
the distance from the source to the subject is increased.
When used as either a key or fill illumination source, the
difference between illumination zones (highlight, lit and
shadow) will be minimal, with subtle gradation at the
transfer edge. Commonly used for portraiture, umbrella
lighting de-emphasizes facial modeling, creating a light and
youthful appearance.

The disadvantages of umbrella lighting are similar to
other soft illumination modification techniques. Fixture
efficiency is considerably reduced, and dependent on the
surface reflectivity of the modifier. The specularity of the
illumination source can be changed through selection of the
surface material. For example, a white umbrella will produce
softer illumination than an umbrella with a reflective
silver surface. The videographer should also remember that
illumination reflected from an umbrella surface is dispersed

and somewhat difficult to control.

50

Reflectors (or bounce cards) provide an additional
method for modifying projected illumination. Reflectors can
be constructed or purchased in several configurations and
surface reflectance values. Reflective surfaces commonly
used in the production setting include: Mirrors, Gloss/Matte
Aluminum, Gloss/Matte Foam Core, and Gloss/Matte Black
modifiers.

Reflectors are used to redirect light into unlit zones
of the subject/object. To properly place a reflector, the
videographer should consider the light reflectance axiom.

Since “the angle of incidence equals the angle of

reflectance”, the following diagram details the proper

I

reflectance method:

Reflect... Ai<
\ \ 0

Figure 20. Bounce Illumination

 

Fixture

Illumination quality redirected back to the set area
will have the same characteristics as the reflecting
surface. Mirrors (also called ”rifles“ or ”shotguns")
reflect nearly all of the illumination incident to the
surface plane. Illumination reflected from a mirror surface

will be very specular and highly focused. Matte surface

51
reflectors will create softer and more diffused bounce
illumination. Illumination specularity is therefore
dependent upon the characteristics of the reflecting
surface. The quality of illumination is also dependent upon
the size of the reflector. Reflectors which are larger than
the object produce light energy which has softer, subtle
illumination characteristics. Second, reflected illumination
transmits the same color tonality as the reflecting surface.
If a gold reflector is used, illumination projected onto a
surface plane will have an overall golden tonality. Though
black cards are commonly used to block illumination, they
can also be used to reflect black illumination onto surface
areas. Black reflectors are commonly used to rim the
subject/object with a black highlight, creating visual
separation from a high key (light) background plane. The
videographer will likely find it necessary to place a black
reflector very close to subject/object position. The light
energy reflected from a black card is very low, and
disperses rapidly as the distance between the reflector and

subject/object is increased.

Eli'l' ] H I'E' l' I l .
Several types of modifiers are commonly used to either
Leanne or blggk illumination from striking a surface plane.
Proper usage of these illumination modifiers will allow the
videographer to manipulate incident illumination with

precision.

52
Reducer:

The function of a reducer is to limit illumination
intensity projected from a light fixture. The most common
reducer is diffusion material placed over the lighting
instrument. Diffusion material designed for usage at fixture
position is designated with the prefix ”Tough" (ie. Tough
Spun, Tough Frost, Tough Silk). This designation indicates
that the material is capable of withstanding the intense
heat generated by the illumination instrument. Diffusers can
be purchased with varying densities for reducing
illumination by approximately by 12% to 200%. Diffusion
material can also be layered to achieve a full range of
intensity reduction options. Diffusion material used at
fixture position will reduce illumination intensity without
altering beam shape. Figure six in the previous chapter
details this light modification method.

Scrims (full, half and quarter) are also illumination
reducers attached to the illuminating instrument. A scrim is

a wire mesh surface within a metal frame.

 

Full Scrim Half Scrim Quarter Scrim

Figure 21. Illumination Intensity Modifiers

53

Scrims can also be purchased with varying densities,
for control of fixture output. The function of a scrim is
similar to diffusion material, with the added advantage of
durability. Scrims will not deteriorate with usage.

Finally, a ”Net” provides an additional means for
reducing fixture intensity. Though most commonly used in the
film industry, they can also be applied to the video
production setting. Although similar in design to a scrim,
the material used in a net is cloth, which requires the

modifier be used at a distance from the lighting fixture.

 

 

 

 

Open Net

Figure 22. Illumination Quality Modifiers

The amount of intensity modification is dependent upon
both the density of the material and the distance between
the modifier and the subject. Intensity reduction is
increased by placing the modifier closer to subject
position. A Net is commonly used in portraiture to

artificially create natural light falloff on a subject’s

 

———

54
head and shoulders. By manipulating light falloff on the
facial structure of the subject, the videographer will

subjectively create a slimmer facial appearance.

Blockers

Illumination blockers are commonly called "Gobos", and
their function is to eliminate light from falling onto
specific portions of the image. Generally constructed from a
matte black metallic surface, gobos can be found in many

sizes and shapes to fit the specific lighting need.

     

Flag Target

 

Cutter Blade Dot
Figure 23. Illumination Blockers

In the video production setting, makeshift gobos can be
constructed to fit the requirements of the lighting
situation. Matte board or cloth can be hung or placed to
block illumination from striking specific portions of the
image. Proper ventilation is necessary when using makeshift

gobos to prevent creating a potential fire hazard.

—;—

 

i

55
Finally, a Cuculoris (cookie) is a patterned
illumination blocker used to modify background illumination.
Cookies are commonly used within a illumination projector
(ellipsoidal) but can also be free standing devices through

which illumination is projected.

   
  

Background

Cookie

 

Fixture

 

 

Figure 24. Patterned Illumination

In the video production setting, any device can be used
to break up uniform illumination that strikes a background
surface plane. Objects commonly available to the
videographer (tree branches, lattice, window blinds) will
create interesting light/shadow patterns on a background
surface plane. The density of the projected shadow is
dependent upon the distance between the blocking device and
the background surface. By moving the cookie closer to the
background, the videographer will create an image with

stronger shadow density. Though most commonly used to break;

——__

 

f—

56
up uniform background illumination, cookies can also be
placed between the key light and the subject. This
illumination technique will cause a pattern to be projected
onto the surface plane of the'subject/object, creating an

unusual illumination effect.

Conclusion

This chapter has briefly examined the quality and
characteristics of fixture and light modifiers in the video
production setting. Through experimentation with light
fixtures and lighting modifiers, the videographer will

develop a repertoire of production skills applicable to a

broad range of lighting challenges.

 

 

 

LIGHT MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

A commonly neglected area in the study of video

production is the development of light measurement
techniques. The ability to accurately measure light
intensity, however, is imperative to any study of
illumination control and manipulation. Measurement accuracy
is a crucial step toward the development of creative
lighting skills. To develop light measurement and evaluation
skills, it is necessary to study the techniques used in the
film production industry. In the photographic arts three
methods are commonly used to measure and interpret light
intensity.

1. Reflected Light Metering.

2. Incident Light Metering.

3. Reflected Spot Metering.

Each of these methods have inherent advantages and
disadvantages in the measurement of illumination intensity.
The focus of this chapter will, therefore, be an exploration
of the measurement methods and their application to the

video production setting.

57

 

 

58
Bfllll.ll"l. I].

A reflected light meter is a hand—held device which
provides the videographer with an intensity measurement of
light Inflnntnd from the scene toward camera viewpoint.

The reflected light meter is calibrated to provide exposure
data based on a middle gray reflectance value. In the
photographic arts, this gray value is a scientifically
measured shade which reflects 18% of the illumination energy
incident to the surface. In video, several competing
calibration standards exist, primarily due to differences in
camera reproduction sensitivity. All video standards,
however, closely resemble the photographic gray scale
calibration system. Though it is important to recognize
system differences, reproduction criteria has little bearing
upon the function of reflected light metering techniques.

Having approximately a thirty degree angle of
acceptance, the reflected light meter simply nyerngns scenic
luminance that strikes the target of the photo-electric

cell.

 

 

 

 

 

4: fl

Figure 25. Reflected Light Meter

 

59

The automatic iris built into most video production
cameras operates essentially in the same manner. The primary
difference between an auto iris and a reflected light meter
is that the angle of acceptance on a video camera is
determined by the focal setting of the lens. A lens set in
the wide angle position will have a much greater angle of
acceptance then a lens set in the telephoto position.

The reflected light meter is the least sophisticated of
measurement devices. Measurement is accomplished by pointing
the target of the photo—electric cell toward scenic content.
The meter simply axezngns scenic luminance and provides the
videographer with a recommended f—stop setting. In scenes
with a limited luminance range, the reflected light meter
will provide accurate exposure data. In the video production
setting, however, this is rarely the case. Consider, for
example, a scene in which the subject of interest occupies

only a small portion of the video frame.

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 26. Scenic Reflectance

 

 

 

60

In this example, the primary subject occupies very
little space in the video frame. Subject reflectance will,
therefore, minimally influence the overall exposure reading.
Since the reflected light meter averages scenic reflectance
based on middle gray calibration, the recommended exposure
may be innappropriate to scenic conditions. For example, if
the background in the above illustration is black, the
reflected light meter will average scenic luminance to the
middle gray calibration value. Exposure based on reflected
meter recommendations will lighten the overall scene, and
overexpose the primary subject. The opposite phenonomenon
will occur when the subject is placed in front of a white
background surface. Again, the reflected light meter will
average scenic luminance to a middle gray value, thereby
underexposing both the background and the subject of
interest.

The primary problem with the reflected light meter is
that it averages together all luminance values based on the
calibration point. This is generally not a prOblem under
normal production conditions because most scenes have a
range of reflective densities. Dramatic high or low key
images, however, will not be properly reproduced when
exposure is based upon reflected meter recommendations.

Another implementation problem with an averaging light
meter is that it is insensitive to the reflective
differences between scenic elements. By averaging

reflectance values, the videographer is unable to determine

 

s—————————————e:a-mmmum-IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

61

the intensity of scenic highlights, or density of shadow
areas. Because video is a medium with a limited contrast
range (the difference between highlight and shadow density),
specific measurement of luminance values is crucial for
lighting control. In video production, a highly sensitive
instrument is needed to measure the diffnrgnnn between the
lighting extremes. Scenes which exceed the contrast
limitations of the video reproduction system will suffer a
loss of detail at either, and potentially both, ends of the
contrast range. The reflected light meter is useless to the
videographer for measuring the contrast differences between
lighting extremes.

In order to have full lighting control, the usage of
other measurement devices is recommended. The reflected
light meter does not provide specific information on the

luminance values of scenic content.

I 'I I I' II N I . I l .
The incident light meter is also a hand-held device for
measuring light intensity. The incident meter is commonly
used in film production to measure the illumination
intensity which falls upon (or is incident to) the scene.
Illumination is measured at subject/object position by

pointing the dome of the incident meter toward the

illumination source.

 

 

 

 

62

3.34%:
L

\ W

Figure 27. Incident Metering

The dome of the incident meter is hemi—spherical, and
the meter is sensitive to illumination that strikes the
dome. The incident meter display is calibrated in foot-
candles, providing the videographer with valuable data on
the intensity of incident illumination.

The advantage to using the incident light meter is that
it can be used to determine the:

1) intensity of specific lighting instruments,

2) combined intensity of several illumination
sources, and

3) lighting contrast differences between two or
more illumination points.

When ”roughing in” a lighting setup, the videographer
can use an incident meter to measure illumination intensity.
By using the foot—candle scale, the videographer can

predetermine the lighting ratio between lighting

 

 

 

63

instruments. Illumination measurement and intrepretation

is the subject of further exploration in subsequent chapters
of this thesis. The incident light meter is one of the'
primary measurement tools used to determine an appropriate
balance between light fixtures.

Once fixture positions have been established, the
incident light meter can be used to determine the combined
illumination intensity. Generally referred to as base
illumination, the incident meter provides the videographer
with precise data on the intensity and balance of
illumination throughout the scene.

By placing the incident meter in the shadow zones of an
image, the videographer can also determine the lighting
ratio between illumination extremes. Because video is a
medium with limited contrast latitude, measurement of
illuminated and shadow zones is crucial for adequate scenic
reproduction. When used correctly, the incident meter
provides the videographer with a measurement tool for
precise lighting control.

The videographer should also realize there are inherent
disadvantages with the incident metering technique. The
incident meter is designed to measure illumination that is
projected upon the scene. The incident meter, however,
cannot measure subject/object luminance, or the reflective
qualities of illuminated surfaces. In scenes with a narrow

range of reflectance values, the incident meter will suffice

 

 

 

64
in providing accurate exposure information. Consider,
however, a scene with extreme reflectivity differences

between object and background surface planes.

Chrome Sphere

 

  
 
 

Matte/Textured

Surface Planes //’(

 

 

 

Figure 28. Extreme Reflectance Differential

With this example, if exposure is based on incident
illumination, scenic elements with average reflectance
values will be accurately reproduced in the video image. The
chrome sphere, however, reflects a greater percentage of
illumination than the surface on which is sits. Exposure
based on an incident light reading will overexpose the
chrome sphere. If surface reflectivity differences between
surface planes exceeds the reproduction limits, highlights
on the sphere will be obliterated. Since the incident meter
cannot be used to measure object reflectance, the
videographer is unable to determine the ratio between

luminance values reflected scenic surfaces.

 

___________---uImIllllIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllllllllllliillllll

65

The incident light meter is an extremely valuable
instrument for establishing lighting ratios and base
illumination levels. Creative lighting, however, is based on
both; 1) measurement of incident illumination , and 2) the
measurement of luminance (reflected) values from scenic
content. The videographer should realize that other
intrepretative methods need to be used in conjunction with
incident metering to maintain control over the limited

reproduction latitude of the video imaging system.

B E] I 1 S I H I . I l .

As its name suggests, the reflected spot meter measures
luminance values reflected from surface planes, toward
camera viewpoint. The difference between reflective metering
techniques is that a spot meter has a much narrower range of
acceptance. Hand-held spot meters measure scenic reflectance
at a horizontal angle of one or two degrees. A telescopic
sight is included in the design of the instrument, allowing
precise luminance readings.

Reflected spot meters are primarily used by landscape
photographers for exposure control and manipulative printing
techniques. Reflected spot meters are rarely found in the
video production setting, though the usage of a reflective
spot meter would greatly benefit lighting control and
exposure calibration.

Probably the most sophisticated of all reflected spot

metering devices can generally be found in the video

—

 

66
production setting. Though primarily used for camera setup

and registration procedures, the waveform monitor can also
be used as an extremely sophisticated spot metering device.
The waveform monitor provides the most accurate means
available for analyzing luminance values. Once the
videographer understands the waveform display, this monitor
can be creatively used in the design and manipulation of
illumination patterns. The remainder of this chapter will
examine the function of the waveform monitor, and how it can

be used to determine lighting and exposure information.

WI:

The monitor’s cathode-ray tube (CRT) display is
designed to provide precise reflectance values of scenic
content. The vertical axis on the waveform monitor
represents a precise measure of signal amplitude or
brightness, reflected from the subject or object. The
horizontal axis on the CRT display represents scanning
position (or time) as the electron beam scans the entire
image. Since the waveform monitor measures reflectance
.values for both fields of the video frame, two identical

outputs will be observed on the display.

 

67

120

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

-20 - U -
-40

Figure 29. Waveform Monitor Display

Scenic highlights (or brightest portions of the video
image) will be represented as peaks on the CRT display,
while shadow areas will be represented as valleys on the
video landscape. The difference between the highest peak and
the lowest valley represents the contrast ratio of the video
image.

The vertical axis on the waveform display has several
small hash marks (graticules) which are calibrated in IRE
(Institute of Radio Engineers) units. Each graticule
represents a one percent difference in reflectance
intensity. It is important to note that the wavefrom monitor
is calibrated to reproduce a logarithmic (1.45:1) rather
than a linear (1:1) luminance progression. A logarithmic
progression is used because it closely approximates the way
the eye/brain combination interprets brightness differences.

A luminance reading of 70 (point a) and 50 (point b) IRE

 

 

68
units on the waveform display (figure 29) represents a
reflectance difference of 20 IRE units. Because the waveform
monitor is calibrated to reproduce a logarithmic
progression, a 20% reflectance differential represents an
exposure difference of one f—stop. This difference indicates
that approximately double the amount of light is reflected
from scanning position (a) in comparison to reflected
luminance measured at the second scanning position (b).

The waveform display also provides detailed information
to the videographer with regards to the reproduction
characterisctics of the video camera. To fully understand
how the waveform monitor works, it is first necessary to

closely examine the information displayed by the device.

 

 

 

120 - —
100 Peak White Amplitude-
80 - -
60 - -
40 — -
20 — —
10 Setup/Pedestal—
?.5 ------------------------------------------

0 Blanking-
_20 - _
-40 Sync—

 

Figure 30. Waveform Display Information

69

The videographer will Observe that solid horizontal
lines run across the length of the display at 100, 10, 7.5,
0, and ~40 IRE units. Each of these positions communicates
vital information to the videographer on the reproduction
characteristics of the video camera.

Measured at -40 on the waveform monitor, sync (an
abbreviation for syncronisation) is a timing pulse necessary
for video image reproduction. The sync pulse generated by
the camera is not manipulatable, and should always be
verified before setup and registration procedures are
attempted.

The blanking signal is located at 0 IRE units on the
CRT display. The blanking signal represents the time during
which the electron beam is turned off and returns to the
beginning of the next scanning field. Though blanking is
considered to be absolute black, the video black level is
actually calibrated at a higher level. Luminance separation
between the blanking level and video black level is
necessary to prevent beam retrace patterns from appearing in
the video image.

The solid lines at 7.5% and 10% represent the range
within which the video setup (or pedestal) level is
calibrated. The setup level represents video black, or the
minimum reflectance value of the video imaging system. Any
scenic element with a luminance value that falls within this
range will reproduce as black, thereby lacking surface

detail or texturing. To establish accurate tonal

7O
reproduction, the setup level is usually calibrated
independent of iris adjustments during camera registration
procedures. The existance of this black level, however, does
not mean to imply that every image should have an element
with this reflectance value.

Finally, the solid horizontal line at 100% represents
peak signal amplitude of the video imaging system. Any
signal that exceeds this level will be clipped, resulting in
a loss of highlight detail. One-hundred IRE units represents
the maximum reflectance (white) level that any scenic
element can have for accurate tonal reproduction.

Since 100 and 7.5 IRE units represent the extreme
reproduction limits, the range between these reflectance
extremes represents the reproduction latitude of the video
imaging system. Reflectance values which exceed the
reproduction limits will be either 1) compressed or 2)
clipped, and therefore will suffer from a loss of surface
detail reproduction.

Reproduction of object luminance values can be altered
through lighting nnd through exposure manipulation. As
indicated earlier in this text, a differential of 20 IRE
units represents a reflectance difference equal to one

f-stop in exposure.

71

120

 

(a+1) _
(a)
(a-l)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 31. Effect of Exposure Manipulation

For example, if an exposure stop of f—4 is used to
create luminance values of 70 and 50 IRE units, opening the
iris by one f-stop (f-2.8) will double the amount of light
striking the pickup tube. Luminance reproduction values will
increase and a corresponding gain (+20 IRE) will be
displayed on the waveform monitor. Closing the camera iris
by one exposure stop (f—5.6) will have the opposite effect
on luminance reproduction values. With this knowledge, it is
a simple matter to determine reproduction limits and the
contrast latitude (or ratio) of the video reproduction

system.

72

Table 2. Exposure and Contrast Data

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

IREJIEIIS E25193 W
100 I
1 > 2
80 __J
2 > 4
60 J
3 > 8
40 J
4—-----> 16
20 J
4.5--——> 20

 

10

 

Determination of luminance differences is simply a
matter of locating and comparing luminance points on the CRT
display. For example, if scenic highlights are measured at
80 IRE units on the waveform monitor, and shadow zones
reflect at 20 IRE units, the difference between scenic
extremes represents a three f-stop differential. A
difference of three f—stops can also be expressed as a
contrast ratio of 8:1.

Before concluding this discussion on the waveform
monitor, it is important to note there are several competing

standards used for camera setup and registration procedures.

73
Chip charts designed to measure camera linearity differ, due
primarily to the increased gray scale sensitivity in the
latest camera generation. The following table presents two
of the most commonly used charts for gray scale calibration.
The EIA (USA) gray scale is a nine step chart that has been
used for years in setup and registration procedures. The ITE
(Japan) gray scale is an eleven step chart that was designed
in recognition of the increased tonal reproduction

capabilities of the video imaging system.

Table 3. Standard Reflectance Chart Values

SEER W We:
1 (white) 83.0% -___
2 71.0% 60.0%
3 57.0% 41.3%
4 46.0% 28.4%
5 37.0% 19.5%
6 27.4% 13.4%
7 19.5% 9.2%
8 13.4% 6.3%
9 8.3% 4.4%
10 4.75% 3.0%
11 2.0% -_..

Center White 89.9% ——--

Background 18.0%' 13.0%

74

To determine the contrast ratio represented by the chip
chart being used, simply divide the extreme reflectance
values represented on the chart display. For example, the
ITE and EIA scale represent reflective calibration standards
capable of reproducing either a 45:1 (89.9/2.0) or a 20:1
(60.0/3.0) contrast ratio.

The waveform monitor is an extremely valuable luminance
measurement instrument for precise lighting design and
control. Since the waveform monitor analyzes reflected
illumination at each scanning position, the videographer can
determine the luminance values at precise points in the
video image. The value of understanding the function and
operation of the waveform monitor cannot be overestimated.
The waveform monitor is the primary measurement instrument

on which the development of all creative lighting techniques
should be based.

LIGHTING RATIOS, EXPOSURE CONTROL AND TONAL REPRODUCTION

Measurement accuracy and illumination control provide a
solid foundation on which to build professional production
techniques. Approaching video lighting from a technical
perspective provides a basis on which to develop aesthetic
lighting creativity. The focus of this chapter will,
therefore, be an examination of:

1) the methods used to measure, interpret and
control illumination,

2) the relationship between illumination intensity
and exposure in video production, and

3) how illumination/exposure manipulation can be
creatively used in image design.

Before continuing, it is important to define the
terminology used to express illumination intensity. A
lighting_:atin is a mathematical expression of intensity
differences hntnegn two or more measurement points. Though
generally used to describe intensity differences between a
key and fill illumination source, lighting ratios can also
express the incident differential between 9n! two
illumination planes. Mathematical computation is, therefore,
not strictly limited to comparing key/fill illumination

intensity. For example, combined (base) subject illumination

75

76

can be compared against background illumination intensity.
As a mathematical expression of illumination intensity
differences, computation between nny two illumination points
has validity. Since lighting ratios describe incident
intensity differences, they are determined by using an

incident light meter.

W9

A contrast ratio is a measure of luminance differences
reflected from surface planes. Contrast ratios generally
fall into one of three classification categories.

1) Subject contrast, or the luminance difference
between illumination zones (highlight, lit,
shadow) on an individual subject/object.

2) Subject to subject contrast, or the base
luminance difference between two or more
subjects/objects within the same video frame.

3) Subject to non-subject contrast, or the
luminance difference between a subject and a
separate (i.e. background) image plane.

subject/Object luminance values are primarily dependent
upon:

1) the amount of light striking a subject/object,
and

2) the reflectivity of the surface plane.

77

Control and manipulation of surface contrast should,
therefore, be of primary technical concern to the
videographer. Scenic contrast can be accurately determined
in the video production setting by using a waveform monitor.

Both lighting and contrast ratios provide valuable
information to the videographer with regard to illumination
and exposure control. As indicated, good production
technique requires the use of both an incident light meter
and a waveform monitor in order to have complete

illumination and artistic control.

I. II' B I'
To determine a lighting ratio (Lr), the videographer
first needs to classify the illumination pattern. If the key
and fill fixture have overlapping coverage areas, the
‘Qgezlnpping_figznnln would be used for computation of the
lighting ratio. When the key and fill fixture illuminate

 

separate image planes, the would be
applied.
Overlapping Pattern Non—Overlapping Pattern

\
Vb“ ut/F'o“ b
1 V
’v

Figure 32. Overlapping/Non—Overlapping Illumination

 

 

 

78

Mathematical computation of the lighting ratio is

easily determined by applying the appropriate formula.

Lr=Key+Fill/Fill Lr=Key/Fill

Dividing the numerator by the denominator will yield
the ratio between the highlight (key) and shadow (fill)
zones on the subject. For example, if the key (or key +
fill) intensity measured 250 foot-candles (fc), and the fill
intensity measured 125 fo, the lighting ratio would be 2:1.
If the fill intensity was reduced to 32 fc the lighting
ratio would be 250/32, yielding an approximate lighting
ratio of 8:1.

A brief explanation will illustrate the proper method
for measuring illumination intensity. With an overlapping
illumination pattern, it is first necessary to measure the
combined illumination intensity. To measure the key + fill
intensity, position the incident light meter mid—way between
the illumination sources. With the dome of the meter
pointing toward camera position, take a combined foot-candle
intensity reading. This combined reading becomes the
numerator in the overlapping illumination formula. To
determine fill intensity, return the meter to the same
relative position. Next, block key illumination from
striking the light sensitive dome of the incident meter. By
placing your hand between the meter dome and the key light

source, you will adequately shade off the key light effect.

 

79
The second incident reading provides a fill intensity value,
and therefore, becomes the denominator in the mathematical
formula.

Incident metering with a non-overlapping illumination
pattern is easily accomplished. Simply take an incident
reading on both illumination planes, with the dome of the
meter pointed toward the illumination source.

The following table provides examples of commonly
expressed lighting ratios. In this table, the key intensity
is held constant while the fill intensity has been
manipulated. In actuality, this illustrative scheme
over-simplifies the lighting scenerio. Any key or fill
intensity value has validity, and the lighting ratio can be
determined by applying the appropriate formula. Actual
illumination intensity values used in the production setting

are dependent upon both technical and aesthetic

considerations.

Table 4. Light Ratio Values
K91 Kill mm
200 fc 100 fc 200/100 2:1
200 fc 65 fc 200/65 3:1
200 fc 50 fc 200/50 4:1
200 fc 35 £0 200/35 6:1
200 fc 25 fc ZOO/25 8:1
200 fc 18 fc 200/18 12:1
200 fc 12 fc 200/12 16:1

 

80
Through examination of the proceeding table, two

Observations should become apparent. First, the value of
“one“ in the lighting ratio is always used to express the
fill light intensity. Though fill intensity is manipulated,
the value of the fill fixture in the lighting ratio remains
constant. Fill illumination intensity represents a sliding
base value used for comparison against key illumination
intensity.

Second, as the lighting ratio is increased, the
difference between fill intensity values decrease. For
example, the fill intensity difference between a 2:1 and a
4:1 (one f—stcp) ratio is 50 foot—candles (100 - 50 = 50).
By comparison, fill intensity values between an 8:1 and a
16:1 ratio (also one f-stop) only equals 13 foot-candles.
Therefore, measurement accuracy and illumination control are
crucial in the design and implementation of lighting
patterns.

As the lighting ratio is increased, contrast
differences between the lit and shadow zone of the image
will become more dramatic. Increasing the difference between
key and fill intensity, subjectively influences the way an
audience will preceive an image. How the videographer
defines the quality of illumination associated with each
lighting ratio is dependent upon personal intrepretation.
Low contrast lighting (ie. 2:1) can be either subjectively
defined as ”soft" (positive definition) or "flat" (negative

definition) depending upon the videographer’s personal

 

81
intrepretation. As the lighting ratio is increased,

adjectives like "realistic“ (positive) or “ccntrasty”
(negative) may be used as descriptors. When approached as an
art form, lighting definitions become highly subjective and
personal to the lighting designer. Light ratio methods
provide a standard technical basis on which to build
evaluatory judgements.

In conclusion, the incident meter is a valuable device
for accurate measurement of illumination intensity. Since
the video reproduction system has a limited contrast range
(20:1), incident light meters are useful for containing
illumination values within the technical reproduction
limits. Light ratio computation provides a means for
mathematically determining the balance between illumination
fixtures. Successful images however, are not created through
”formula lighting". Lighting ratios only provide a technical
foundation on which to build artistic lighting designs. How
the videographer interprets an image is entirely subjective,

and dependent upon the aesthetic considerations of the

program material.

 

Simply stated, illumination intensity and exposure are
interrelated technical considerations. A one f—stop
reduction in camera aperture (ie. f-4 to f—5.6) requires a
doubling of light intensity to maintain an equal exposure

value. Exposure is an artistic production decision. The

82

illumination intensity necessary to maintain the appropriate
exposure should be based on satisfying both the 1) technical
requirements of the reproduction system and 2) the aesthetic
intentions of the videographer.

Through light ratio calculation, the videographer can
determine scenic illumination and exposure differences.
Since a doubling or halving of illumination equals an
exposure difference of one f-stop, the following table
translates light ratios (Lr) into exposure ratio (Er)
differences. The key/fill illumination values are included
to demonstrate the relationship between exposure and
illumination intensity. The videographer should realize that
comparisons between any measurement point or intensity value

has equal validity.

Table 5. Exposure Ratio Values

Ea! Eill EnmlsiLLliEnl

200 fc 100 fc 200/100 2:1 1.0 f—stop
200 fc 65 fc 200/65 3:1 1.5 f-stops
200 fc 50 fc 200/50 4:1 2.0 f—stops
200 fc 35 fc 200/35 6:1 2.5 f—stops
200 fc 25 fc 200/25 8:1 3.0 f—stops
200 fc 18 fc 200/18 12:1 3.5 f-stops
200 fc 12 fc 200/12 16:1 4.0 f—stops

In the preceding example, the calculated exposure ratio
represents the f—stop differential between the key and fill
illumination source. As the lighting ratio is increased,
{exposure calculation becomes increasingly more critical to

maintain accurate tonal reproduction. Reproduction latitude

83
of the video imaging system is limited to a maximum of 4.5
f-stops. Therefore, a lighting ratio of 16:1 requires
extremely precise exposure calibration. Exposure precision
becomes increasingly more critical to prevent: 1)
compressing the black level or 2) clipping the white level
of the video signal. The preceding example was purposely
restricted to an exposure/lighting ratio contained within
maximum reproduction limits. Scenic elements illuminated
and/or exposed at the reproduction extremes, will lack
surface texture and color information. Therefore, it is
recommended that lighting and exposure ratios be limited to
the maximum values represented on this table.

Lighting and exposure ratios help define the technical
parameters of the production medium. These production
techniques, however, do not provide a methodology for
determining a technically appropriate exposure setting. An
optimum exposure setting usually falls somewhere between the
illumination extremes. To accurately determine exposure, a
production technique used by cinematographers working in the
video medium is recommended. Exposure can be determined by
calibrating the light sensitivity of an incident light
meter, to match the sensitivity of the video camera. This
technique requires using an incident light meter which 1)

has both a foot-candle and f-stop scale and 2) accepts ASA

(American Standards Association) calibration slides.

 

 

84

First, under even illumination, register and calibrate
the video camera so that it is reproducing a standard
reflectance chip chart with accuracy. Once the camera is
properly calibrated, make a note of the f—stop reading on
the camera lens. Next, place an incident meter under the
same illumination used to register the camera, with the dome
of the meter pointing toward the camera lens. Finally,
insert the ASA calibration slides into the meter until one
is found which provides the same f-stop value. Once this
procedure has been completed, the incident meter can be used
for determining both light intensity readings and a
recommended (normal) f—stop setting.

Though the relationship between f—stop and depth of
field falls outside the parameters of this manuscript, a
brief explanation is included for highlighting another
important illumination concept. Opening or closing camera
aperture alters the amount of light striking the target of
the pickup tube. A reduction in aperture of one f-stop
(f—4.0 to f-5.6) reduces illumination input by 50%. Opening
camera aperture one f~stop (f4.0 to f—2.8) doubles the
amount of light striking the target of the pickup tube.
Camera aperture and depth of field are linked in a converse
relationship. By opening camera aperture, the videographer
reduces depth of field, or the zone of sharp focus in the
image. Closing, or stopping down camera aperture increases
depth of field reproduction.‘ Based on depth of field

considerations, the videographer may need to calculate

85

intensity differences, without altering tonal reproduction.
By using the following mathematical formula, the difference
between exposure settings will allow the videographer to

accurately calculate intensity changes.
Intensity Change = 2nd f—numberZ/lst f—number2

Based on the need for increasing or decreasing depth of
field reproduction, illumination intensity changes can be
easily calculated. For example, assume the videographer has
determined that a previous exposure setting of f-4 does not
provide enough depth of field for aesthetic reproduction
puroses. To increase depth of field, an exposure setting of
f—8 has been recalculated. The illumination intensity change
needed to accommodate the exposure change, can be determined
by applying the previous formula.

Intensity Change = 82/42
= 64/16
= 4/1

Therefore, the videographer would therefore need to
increase illumination intensity by a factor of four to
maintain an appropriate exposure value. Opening camera
aperture to decrease depth of field also requires a
corresponding reduction in illumination intensity.

Intensity Change = 2.8 2/4- 2

7.84/16
= 1/2

86

In this scenerio, opening camera aperture to f~2.8 from
f—4 requires an intensity reduction of 50%. Based on the
need for increasing or decreasing depth of field without
altering tonal reproduction, illumination intensity changes
will require simple mathematical calculation.

Approached from a traditional engineering perspective,
exposure settings are calibrated to maximize the contrast
latitude of the imaging system. The technical argument for
this engineering practice is based around the contrast
deficiencies of the NTSC imaging system. This imaging system
was created by the National Television Systems Committee
(hence, NTSC) which deyeloped technical standards for
broadcast transmission adopted by America, and other parts
of the world. Since the human eye is capable of reproducing
a far superior contrast range, the engineering perspective
has been to maximize contrast latitude thereby replicating
optical reproduction. Although this argument certainly has
merit, another viewpoint is offered for consideration.
Optical reproduction of scenic contrast is highly
subjective, and visual interpretation probably requires
limited contrast latitude with regards to human reproduction
capabilities. In video, however, lighting and exposure
ratios that push the limits of the reproduction system:

1) run the risk of appearing "harsh", with
excessive or unnatural contrast, and
2) limit the range of exposure options available

to the videographer.

IIIIIIIIIIIIlIIlllmmnnn-----I______________________________

87

By compressing lighting and exposure values, the
videographer minimizes the risk of creating harsh or
contrasty images. Limiting the lighting/exposure ratio also
broadens the range of viable exposure options. Any exposure
setting is valid as long as the contrast range of the image
falls within the reproduction limits of the imaging system.
Film stock manufacturers recsmmemd compressing dramatic
lighting patterns to within an 8:1 (3 f—stop) ratio. This
exposure recommendation is based on an imaging medium with
approximately two more f-stops of reproduction latitude.
Though contrast latitude may exceed these recommendations,
extreme contrast is not a necessary condition for creating
expressive images. By containing and/or reducing scenic
contrast, the videographer broadens the range of viable
exposure options. In the video medium, any exposure has
validity if it satisfies both technical and aesthetic

production conditions.

MW

To evaluate luminance values, the videographer must be
sensitive to the difference between eye and camera
reproduction ofbrightness and tonal contrast. Eyeébrain
processing of color (hue, tint, saturation) values is
non—linear, causing inaccurate brightness interpretation.
Certain colors may, therefore, confuse the videographer in
terms of actual object luminance and contrast values. To

illustrate the point, consider setting up a standard color

88
video camera, and view the output on both a color and

monochrome (black & white) monitor. First, by placing a red
Object in a black background field, the videographer will
observe radical reproduction differences. When viewed on a
color monitor, the eye is very sensitive to the red
wavelength, causing it to appear brighter than other color
values. On a monochrome monitor however, the videographer
will observe that very little illumination reflects from the
red Object. The contrast difference between the object and
background will be radically less than anticipated. Next,
place a yellow object within the same video frame. In color,
both objects will appear to have equal brightness values.
When viewed on a monochrome monitor however, the
videographer will observe far greater contrast differences
between the yellow/black image planes. Subjective
interpretation of reflected light energy (color) is referred
to as a chromatic aberration. The camera, however, is an
objective instrument, reproducing scenic elements according
to reflected luminance energy.

When illuminating an image, the videographer should be
sensitive to difference between subjective and objective
optical reproduction systems. Cinematographers have
developed a luminance evaluation device called a ginning
glass for objective interpreting of scenic contrast
reproduction. A viewing glass is essentially a color filter
that removes primary color (red, green, blue) wavelengths.

When observed through a viewing glass, scenic elements are

89

stripped of color information and reproduce at their actual
luminance value. Cinematographers through experience can
evaluate reflected luminance information to make refined
lighting decisions. These illumination decisions are based
on the technical reproduction latitude of the film emulsion
and the aesthetic design of the production. By using the
monochrome monitor mounted to the production camera, the
videographer could also benefit from using this lighting
evaluation methodology. Although the camera monitor is
commonly used for composition and focusing purposes, it can
also be an indespensible evaluation aid. Critically viewing
an image through the camera monitor will enable the
videographer to determine scenic contrast values during
production set—up. To use the preview monitor as a critical
evaluation tool, proper monitor setup and registration
procedures are essential.

Through using a viewing glass, landscape photographers
have developed an interpretive method for evaluating scenic
luminance. The Zgn§_fiystem is an evaluation method for
determination of an exposure value which contains scenic
contrast within reproduction limits of the photographic
medium. Gray scale values are assigned a specific luminance
density, and exposure is calibrated to transfer these
luminance values throughout the reproduction process. The
Zone System is an interpretative method which details the
relationship between scenic luminance, exposure, and

reproduction characteristics of the photographic medium.

90

Table 6. Zone System Approach to Exposure

Zone WW
9 + 4 Maximum white - no texture
8 + 3 White - some texture prevalent
7 + 2
6 + 1 Caucasian skin tone.
5 = Middle Gray
4 - l
3 - 2 Very dark gray, with texture
2 — 3 Black, some texture detail
1 — 4 Black, no texture
0 - 5 Maximum black

The Zone System approach to exposure calibration is
based on satisfying contrast limitations of the photographic
medium. Zone System photography subjectively correlates
luminance (reflected light) values to gray scale
reproduction characteristics of film emulsion. The Zone
System approach incorporates a ten step exposure scale, with
the difference between steps equal to one f—stop. Since
photographic emulsion is limited to seven f-stops in
exposure latitude, zones 9, 1, and 0 under normal exposure
will reproduce as either pure white or black, without
texture detail. To determine an appropriate exposure, the
photographer must determine the maximum contrast range of
the scene. After luminance extremes have been calculated, an
exposure setting is selected which maximizes reproduction

characteristics. For example, assuming an exposure reading
of f-5.6 reproduces middle gray (18% reflectance) with tonal
accuracy, then the following f-stop settings correspond to

the appropriate zone values:

91

Table 7. Zone System Calibration of F-Stop Values

E

f-22
f-16
f-ll
f-8
f-5.6
f—4
f-2.8
f—2
f—1.4
f-1

Ill ++++
mawmw Hume

OHNthGQQQ
II

To determine luminance (reflected light) differences
between exposure zones, simply apply the exposure ratio
formula. For example, luminance differences between zone 8
(white, with texture) and zone 5 (middle gray) in the

preceeding table would be calculated as follows:

Exposure Ratio 2nd'f numberZ/lst f—number2

= 162/5.6‘2
= 256/31.36
= 8/1

Reflected light energy of zone eight is therefore eight
times the level reflected from the middle gray calibration
point. It is important to remember that this evaluation
method is based on reflected ngt incident light energy. The
Zone System, however, provides a basis for manipulating
tonal reproduction by varying incident illumination
intensity. For example, in the preceding production

scenerio, a middle gray value will reproduce as white when

92

incident illumination is increased by a factor of eight (ie.
from 100 to 800 foot-candles). Incident light manipulation
to alter tonal reproduction must also take into account
surface reflectance characteristics.

The waveform monitor is an ideal production device for
evaluating lighting contrast. Any change in exposure will
cause a corresponding change on the waveform display. The
waveform monitor is a more precise evaluation tool because
contrast values are subjective with other evaluatory
methods. Once calibrated, waveform display information can
be adapted to provide Zone System data. The following table
represents an adaptation of the photographic Zone System

approach to video production.

Table 8. Zone System Approach to Videography

100 10 +2.5 White, no detail

90 9 +2.0 White, w/detail

80 8 +1.5

70 7 +1.0 Causasian Skin Tone
60 6 + .5

50 5 Even Middle Gray

40 4 - .5

30 3 -1.0 Dark Gray

20 2 -1.5 Black, w/detail

10 1 -2.0 Black, no detail

Zone system identification is determined by dropping
the final digit on the waveform display output. For example,
a luminance value of 100 IRE units becomes zone 10, 80 IRE
units equals zone 8 et. cetera. This adaptation of the

photographic Zone System also accounts for the limited

93
latitude of the video reproduction system. Reducing

luminance differences between tonal zones allows the
videographer to control and modify illumination patterns
with detailed precision. Each stepwise progression between
luminance zones equals an exposure difference of one-half
f-stop. Therefore, reflectance values at 70 and 50 IRE units
(zone 7 and zone 5) represent a difference in exposure of
one f-stop. To determine scenic contrast, simply remove the
mathematical sign (+/-) and add the exposure values. For
example, an illumination pattern which creates highlights at
80 IRE units and shadow density at 30 IRE units, represents
a total contrast latitude of 2.5 f—stops (1.5 + 1.0 = 2.5).

The language used to describe gray scale values at each
luminance zone are highly subjective, and dependent upon the
videographer’s impression of contrast. The preceeding
descriptors were included as a reference point on which to
build your own contrast perceptions.

The Zone System approach to videography is an
artificial device, for the interpretation of gray scale
density. In actuality, reflected luminance from any
subject/object will likely possess a range of reflectance
densities. For example, in portraiture, the human head
actually contains several reflectance values. Eyes, lips,
hair and flesh have different reflectance characteristics.
Skin tone classifications are also artificially broad, and
dependent upon the subject. 'African skin may have a

reflectance value ranging from approximately zone 3 to zone

94
6, depending on the heritage of the subject. Although the
Zone System approach is an ideal device for interpretation
of waveform data, it should not be considered as a formula

for exposure control.

Though exposure is a creative production decision, the
videographer will find creative lighting manipulation to
have greater production validity. Exposure manipulation to
alter luminance reproduction does not provide the optimal
means for artistic control. There are several sound
technical reasons for manipulating illumination intensity
(rather than exposure) to achieve desired results. First,
manipulating exposure alters luminance reproduction of the
entire scene. Exposure manipulation does not provide a means
for creatively controlling luminance reproduction of
specific scenic elements. Second, the video camera optimally
performs at the exposure setting which reproduces a
reflectance chart (ITE or EIA) with accuracy. Exposure
manipulation decreases the signal- to—noise ratio of the
reproduction system. Third, an over or under exposed image
will be susceptible to certain image defects like bean
angling or ghzgma_nzanl. Beam pooling is an image defect
common to over—exposed images. When an image is
over—exposed, the pickup tubes cannot completely discharge
image highlights, creating a "ghosting” effect. Chroma-crawl

is an artifact of the NTSC system of color reproduction. In

95
an under-exposed image, the NTSC system becomes increasingly
insensitive to decoding the luminance (brightness) and
chreminance (color) signal with accuracy. Since both signals
are modulated together in recording and transmission, an
under-exposed image will suffer from poor color reproduction
and increased noise in the shadow areas.

By using a waveform monitor, the videographer is
capable of manipulating illumination intensity with
accuracy. Based on our knowledge of lighting contrast and
its relationship to exposure, intensity manipulation is
easily determined. The relationship between exposure and
lighting contrast can also be determined by inserting f-stop
values and applying the exposure ratio (Er) formula. The
following table details reproduction values through light
manipulation. For this example, a standard gray (18%

reflectance) chart is assumed.

Table 9. Zone System Approach to Lighting Control

100 10 +2.5 + 6
90 9 +2.0 + 4
80 8 +1.5 + 3
70 7 +1.0 + 2
60 6 + .5 + 1.5
50 5 Even Even
40 4 - .5 - 1.5
30 3 -1.0 — 2
20 2 -1.5 - 3
10 1 —2.0 — 4

96

The following examples are included to clarify an
important illumination concept. Assuming an incident
illumination intensity of 100 foot—candles produces a middle
gray (zone 5) value at an exposure of f-8, the following
production conditions can be created.

1) Increasing illumination intensity by a factor
of four (400 foot—candles) will cause a
corresponding gray value shift to zone 9
(white).

2) Increasing illumination intensity by a factor
of four and decreasing exposure by two
f—stops (f—16), will cause reflectance chart
reproduction to remain at luminance zone 5.

3) Decreasing illumination intensity by a factor
of three (33 fc) will cause a corresponding
decrease in middle gray reproduction (zone 2,
black—w/texture).

Production variations with the preceeding example are
endless, and manipulative application is dependent on
specific artistic conditions. Approached from this
perspective, the Zone System provides an analytical method
for exposure and illumination control. Again, the
videographer should realize that the examples provided are
artificial, since most images have a range of reflected
luminance values.

A couple of production techniques used in the

photographic arts extend the application of the Zone System

97

approach to videography. Cinematographers developed a
technique called ”pegging the key tone” to ensure
reproduction continuity between photographed images. A
specific scenic element is assigned a gray scale value, and
all other elements are illuminated to reproduce varying
densities based on illumination/exposure of the primary
element. In scenes with human subjects, flesh tones are
usually pegged for consistency in editing. For example, if a
caucasian subject is illuminated and exposed to reproduce a
luminance value of 70 IRE units (zone 7), all other elements
are illuminated around this exposure/illumination value.
This technique was developed in recognition of the limited
reproduction characteristics of the photographic medium, and
to maximize the contrast latitude of the reproduction
system. Once gray scale values have been established, the
videographer can ensure continuity between image frames,
even when locations or shot positions are changed.
Therefore, when images are edited together, flesh tone
values will remain consistent. Any illumination and exposure
combination is valid, as long as there is no significant
change in reproduction value of the ”pegged tone”. For
example, if illumination of 150 foot-candles at an exposure
of f~5.6 is used to “peg” flesh tones at 70 IRE units, any

of the following combinations have equal validity:

98

Illumination Exposure
300 f—8
75 f-4

225 f—6.8*

112 f—4.8¥

*Denotes a .5 f-stop increase/decrease in exposure. Can

also be labeled as either f-8/5.6 or f-5.6/4

respectively.

Photographers have also developed production techniques
for manipulating luminance reproduction values between
scenic planes. In the preceeding example, if our caucasian
subject was placed in front of a white wall, the background
reproduction value would equal Zone 9 when background
illumination equals the intensity striking the subject. By
decreasing the background intensity, the videographer can
manipulate the zone reproduction value. Reducing
illumination intensity by a factor of four (from 150 to 37
foot-candles) will alter the reproduction value of the
'background plane from zone 9 (white) to zone 5 (middle
gray). Through careful illumination control, the
‘videographer can custom design illumination patterns. Based
on the previous production example, the following table
‘Presents a few of the illumination alternatives available to

the videographer:

99

Table 10. Background Lighting Manipulation

WMWWM
150 7 f—5.6 150 9
150 7 f—5.6 37 5
300 7 f—8 300 9

75 7 f—4 75 9
75 7 f—4 l9 5
225 7 f—6.8 225 9
225 7 f-6 8 64 5
112 7 f—4 8 112 9
112 7 f—4.8 28 5

The preceding example details background manipulation
between zone 9 (white) and zone 5 (middle gray) luminance
values. Background values, however, can be manipulated into
any luminance zone. By manipulating background illumination
intensity relative to a predetermined subject exposure, the
videographer can creatively control image design. This
manipulation technique affects not only gray reproduction
values, but also color reproduction. Therefore, a red
background plane can be manipulated to reproduce as either
pink (increased illumination intensity) or burgandy
(decreased intensity) color values. Since the negative NTSC
artifacts based on exposure manipulation (bean pooling,
chroma crawl) are also applicable to illumination
manipulation, the videographer should carefully design
manipulative illumination patterns.

Another production technique used by photographers
involves creatively illuminating background planes, so that

a range of tonal values will be apparent in the final image.

100

Background illumination gradation is based on the natural
phenomenon of light intensity falloff (LIF). The following
diagram illustrates how fixture distance (D) can be used to

create gradation on background surface planes.

Middle Gray BKG. /
Subject - Zone 7

125 fc ’ Zone 3 (3D) /
I.) 64 fc

Zone 5 (2D)
125 fc

 

“\ Zone 9 (1D)
500 fc

 

 

Fixture

 

 

Figure 33. Manipulation of Background Illumination

   

Through fixture placement, illumination falloff can be
incorporated into imaginative lighting designs. When using
this lighting technique, the videographer will observe a
range of luminance value differences on the same

illumination plane. Illumination falloff and control is

dlSpendent upon the:

101

1) angle of incident illumination (Cosine Law),

2) the distance between the fixture and
background distances (Light Intensity
Falloff),

3) the reflective characteristics of the
background surface (Light Reflectivity Law),
and

4) the color of the illuminated surface (Chromatic
Aberration).

As with any scenic element, background intensity
falloff should be monitored on the waveform display. A
potential difficulty with this technique is controlling
fixture intensity to achieve an even balance with the
primary (key) illumination source. The videographer will
likely find it necessary to reduce background illumination
intensity with regards to the key illumination source. To
reduce fixture output, a range of options are viable in the
video production setting;

1) increase the fixture to background distance,

2) use a lamp with a correspondingly lower output,

3) scrim or diffuse illumination intensity at
fixture position.

4) Mechanical/Optical manipulation (flood or spot)
of fixture output.

Reducing fixture intensity by using a silicon
Icontrolled rectifier (SCR) dimmer system provides another

method for illumination control. In color videography,

 

102

however, this method has an inherent production drawback
that must be considered. Illumination intensity control
through a dimmer system alters the flow of electrical
current to the light fixture. As electrical current is
reduced, the color temperature of the lamp will decrease.
The color value on background surface planes will therefore
shift toward the lower (red) end of the light spectrum.
Under some production conditions, color temperature
reduction may creatively support the artistic intentions of
the videographer. Creative light manipulation by restricting
electrical current should be approached with caution because
the results are inconsistent and not easily verifiable. If
used, this lighting technique is gnly recommended for

manipulating background illumination.

Qonoluoion

This chapter has thoroughly examined the interrelated
concepts of illumination intensity, exposure, and tonal
reproduction. Understanding the technical aspects of the
imaging system, provides a methodology for the development
Iof creative lighting techniques. The incident light meter
and the waveform monitor are vital production tools for
measurement and intrepretation of illumination. Development
Iof creative illumination design is based, in part, on
:professional development in the following areas:

1) proper intrepretation of light measurement

devices,

103

2) understanding the relationship between exposure
and illumination intensity,

3) understanding the scientific attributes of
light transmission, and their effect on
illumination modification techniques,

4) training the eye to interprete scenic luminance
and contrast,

5) translating scenic contrast into an exposure
setting which maximizes the limited latitude

of the video reproduction system.

 

The Zone System approach to video production is
presented as a method for interpretation of illumination and
exposure control. The Zone System is an attempt to demystify
the illumination/exposure relationship, with respect to the
limited contrast latitude of the video imaging system. The
videographer, however, should realize that ”formula”
lighting does not provide a means toward reaching creative
development. The Zone System approach is an artificial
device because:

1) object luminance is in most cases a complex,
not simple reflectance value, and

2) illumination/exposure is an interpretative art,
not a repetitious science.

Armed with a thorough understanding of the material
presented in this and previous chapters, it is now time to

examine the application of illumination measurement and

:manipulation to portrait and product videography.

 

 

PORTRAIT LIGHTING TECHNIQUES

Portrait lighting represents one of the greatest
challenges to the lighting director. Every subject is
unique, and the lighting style chosen for portrait
illumination should be based on accentuating the unique and

beautiful attributes of the individual. Portrait lighting

 

decisions also need to satisfy the technical parameters of
the video reproduction system. The combination of artistic
expression and technical expertise will provide a constant
educational challenge to even the most experienced
videographer.

The focus of this chapter will be an examination of the
methods used to create glamourous video portraiture.
Building upon the previously discussed illumination
techniques, this chapter outlines how various production
factors interact in the portrait production session.
Included in this-discussion of portraiture will be an in
depth analysis of four basic lighting designs commonly found
in the cinematographic/photographic arts. These designs are
generally referred to as:

1. Broad Lighting
2. Narrow Lighting -

3. Frontal Lighting
4. Side Lighting

104

105

Though these illumination designs are standard portrait
patterns, the variations on each setup are endless. Specific
application of the lighting techniques are dependent upon
the facial characteristics of the subject, and the aesthetic

intentions of the videographer.

Wares

Before illuminating the subject, the videographer
should first examine the facial characteristics of the
individual. Since every subject will have unique facial
features, the illumination design should be unique to the
individual. The facial area portrait photographers
scrutinize is called the facial “mask“. The facial mask is
defined as the triangular area bordered by the eyebrows,
with the apex at the subject’s chin. By default, the facial
mask encompasses the subject’s eyes, nose, cheeks, lips and
chin. The facial mask is of primary concern to the portrait
videographer because this is the region the viewer directs
attention to when viewing an image. The facial mask reveals
information on the subject’s personality and the aesthetic
intentions of program content.

Through analysis of the facial mask, the videographer
Ioan begin to subdivide the image into separate facial
illumination zones. Illumination zones created within the
:facial mask are classified into three specific illumination
categories. They are: 1) highlight, 2) lit, and 3) shadow

illumination zones .

 

106

Highlight zones created on the subject are apparent on
surface planes parallel to the key light fixture. Light
energy (luminance) reflected from the subject will be
strongest at a point directly proportional to the incident
angle (light reflectance axiom). Therefore, luminance energy
will be strongest at positions directly parallel and
perpendicular to the angle at which illumination strikes the
object. Surface texture, however, also affects the luminance
energy reflected from the subject. Since eyes have a viscous
surface, they reflect a greater amount of light energy than
either skin or hair. Subject reflectivity is also dependent
upon genetic characteristics. Flesh tone reproduction is
dependent upon the heritage of the subject, and the light
energy incident to the facial surface. Caucasian skin tones
are generally highly reflective, and under normal exposure
will meter approximately 60 to 70 IRE units on the waveform
monitor. African flesh tones have a much wider reflectance
range. African flesh tones under normal exposure will
reflect between 35 and 60 IRE units, depending upon the
heritage of the subject. Reflected luminance energy is,
therefore, primarily dependent upon the heritage of the
individual.

The lit zone of the subject is directly next to the
highlight zone. The lit zone reveals information on skin
color and surface texture of the facial mask. The lit some

:is typically the largest illumination zone created by the

107

illuminating fixture(s). The lit zone is created by a
combination of the key and fill illumination source.

Finally, the shadow illumination zone is created on the
facial mask by the key illumination source. Through stylized
portrait design, the shadow zone should fall into a
predetermined facial area. Because the key light supplies
primary illumination, the shadow zones will be projected
onto facial areas directly opposite the key light fixture.
Facial shadowing is created by protrusions (forehead, nose,
lips and chin) which block illumination from striking
opposing facial areas.

The combination of illumination zones 1) conveys
primary illumination directionality, 2) indicates the
quality of illumination, and 3) details the facial
, characteristics (color, size, shape and texture) of the
subject. Illumination patterns must be carefully designed to
highlight the glamorous features, and minimize the genetic
abberations of the subject. Glamorous facial features can be
accentuated through proper instrument placement. Since the
key light has the greatest effect on exposure calculation,
facial features which fall within the key illumination area
‘will be accentuated. Abberations within the facial mask such
Ins birth marks, high foreheads or skin imperfections can be
lminimized through careful lighting control. Placing skin
abberations within the shadow zones created by the key light

fixture, reduces their visual. impact in the final portrait

108

image. Proper fixture placement is dependent upon the
features the videographer wishes to emphasise or

de-emphasize in the final image.

5 l' I H I 1.

Horizontal and vertical fixture placement is the
standard method used to manipulate subject modeling.
Horizontal placement of the key light will determine the
sing of the three illumination zones. For example, when key
illumination strikes the subject from a frontal position
(relative to the subject—camera axis), the videographer will
maximize the size of the highlight and lit illumination
zone. Frontal illumination, however, minimizes the size and
impact of the shadow zone cast by the key illumination
source. By increasing the illumination angle, the
videographer will decrease the size of the highlight and lit
illumination zones. The attached shadows created by the key
light source will become increasingly larger and emphasized.
The following diagram details the impact horizontal

positioning will have on facial modeling.

' ‘0‘
Increased Modeling t\\\\~ ‘///;’ Increased Modeling

Decreased' Modeling

Figure 34. Horizontal Positioning Techniques

109

Vertical placement of the key light fixture affects the
ahapa of the shadows created by the illumination source.
Illumination striking the subject from a high angle will
create long and exaggerated shadows within the facial mask.
By decreasing the vertical angle of the fixture, the length
of facial shadowing will also decrease. The following

diagram details the effect of vertical light placement on
subject modeling.

  
 

Increased Modeling

v \ Increased Modeling

Figure 35. Vertical Positioning Techniques

Correct horizontal and vertical placement is dependent
upon the facial characteristics of the subject. When
illuminating subjects with strong facial features (deep—set
eyes, sharp nose and/or chin), the videographer may find it
necessary to decrease the horizontal and vertical
illumination angle. By decreasing the illumination angle,
facial attributes hidden by shadows projected from strong
facial features will become illuminated by the direct rays

of the illumination source.

110

Decreasing the illumination angle tends to; 1) broaden
the facial structure, 2) increase the illuminated surface
area, and 3) reduce the size of projected shadows. Since
shadows convey information on subject form, texture, and
dimensionality, they are very important in the creation of
video images. Images that lack shadow detail will appear
flat and lifeless. A photographic technique used extensively
by portrait photographers is to position the key
illumination source at the angle which projects the nose
shadow along the smile line of the subject. This positioning
technique preserves facial dimensionality without creating a

distracting hard line to the face.

Woof.

Subject contrast in video portraiture is dependent upon
the intensity differences between the key and fill
illumination instruments. Subject contrast is expressed as a
ratio, or simply the mathematical difference between
key/fill illumination intensity. As detailed in chapters
four and five, subject contrast is dependent upon the
intensity of the illuminating instruments and the design of
the lighting pattern. Mathematical computation of the
contrast ratio can be easily accomplished for both
.oxorlanoing and nonzoxorlaoning lighting patterns. Bearing
in mind that the video reproduction system has limited

contrast latitude (4.5 f—stops), the videographer will

111

likely find illumination intensity differences to be
suprisingly low between the key and fill illumination
fixtures.

The contrast ratio chosen when designing an image
should be based on satisfying both the technical limitations
and aesthetic intentions of program content. Descriptors
used to classify contrast differences are subjective, and
dependent upon individual artistic interpretation.
Documented experimentation is crucial for developing a
repertoire of lighting skills, and a language which
describes portrait contrast differences. Any illumination
pattern has validity as long as it properly creates the
intended lighting effect and the contrast differential can
be contained within the reproduction limits of the video

medium.

E . E I 'l H ll 1
A suggested production method is recommended in the
study of portrait lighting techniques. The videographer will
find it useful to begin portrait design by first placing the

key illumination source. Exact key positioning should be
determined prior to the addition of other illumination
instruments. Shadows created by the key light will indicate
proper fixture position, and visually establish the
illumination quality produced by the fixture. Small
(specular) illumination sources create a hard line at the

transfer edge between highlight, lit and shadow illumination

112

zones. Larger key illumination sources wrap around surface
contours, creating subtle gradation at the transfer edge.

Either key illumination technique has applicability and
is dependent upon the aesthetic intentions of the
videographer. Once the key light has been positioned, the
fill light can then be added. Fill light positioning is
based on illuminating the shadow zone created by the key
light source. The primary purpose of the fill light is to
reduce subject contrast created by the key light fixture.
Increasing fill (secondary) illumination intensity relative
to the key (primary) light source, reduces the lighting
ratio between fixtures. For example, a subject contrast
ratio of 1.5:1 will create a portrait with minimal shadow
density. Reducing fill intensity increases both shadow
density and the contrast ratio. Several techniques are used
in the production setting to manipulate fixture intensity.
The standard operating procedures used in the photographic
industry to control the key/fill contrast ratio are
presented below:

1. Diffuse or Scrim fixture output to reduce fixture

intensity.
2. Project illumination through cloth netting or a
translucent (soft box) surface plane.
3. Reflect illumination off a larger surface plane.
4. Alter the subject to fixture distance (Light Falloff

Axiom) to increase or decrease fixture intensity.

113

Fill light intensity is typically manipulated to
establish the proper contrast ratio. If the fill light is
too strong, additional distracting shadows will form on the
subject’s face. The contrast ratio between illumination
fixtures controls shadow density, but does not alter the
quality of the transfer edge produced by the key light. The
transfer edge is dependent upon the size and distance of the
primary light source to the subject.

Finally, back and background lights may be added to the
final image. These fixtures should complement the aesthetic
design of the primary and secondary illumination source.
Though lighting ratios are commonly used to express the
intensity difference between the key and fill light,
computation can also be determined between frontal and back
illumination sources. Once an approximate back light
intensity has been calculated, the waveform monitor should
be used to measure reflected luminance differences. The
waveform monitor displays the luminance differential between
the calibrated facial exposure, and the intensity of the
back light source. Luminance energy reflected from a back
light source is dependent upon the position of the fixture
(horizontal and vertical), and the reflective caracteristics
(color/texture) of the subject’s hair. Waveform monitoring
is crucial for consistent portrait results.

This thesis has primarily focused on the placement and
measurement of the frontal illumination sources. The usage

of back lighting has been excluded from this discussion for

 

114

several reasons. First, back lighting generally has little
effect on the overall exposure of the video image. In
addition, back light illumination has traditionally been
used for technical production reasons. To enhance visual
separation, back light was used to rim the subject with
light creating artificial space between scenic elements.
This illumination technique was particularly necessary in
monochrome imaging mediums which had technically limited
contrast reproduction characteristics. Lighting patterns
that developed were highly stylized and theatrical. Recent
generations of video reproduction equipment have vastly
superior contrast reproduction capabilities. Partially due
to technical advances, aesthetic illumination techniques
have evolved into an era of ”realistic“ or “natural“
illumination design. Because stylized backlight illumination
has an element of theatricality, it may conflict with
realistic illumination design. With improved contrast
reproduction, back lighting is no longer a necessary
illumination requirement. Back light usage is, therefore,
dependent upon creative illumination interpretation.
Background illumination provides an additional method
for separating subjects from background surface planes.
Through creative background illumination patterns, the
videographer can force the perspective of depth in the final
image. By "painting" background surfaces with light and
:shadows, the videographer can add visual interest to the

image. Background illumination can also be used to separate

115

the subject from similiar tone backgrounds. Fixture
placement will emphasize or minimize surface texture on the
background plane. The following diagram is included to

illustrate the illumination technique.

Emu-1° — Elma-i=0

Minimize exture
Figure 36. Background Texture Reproduction

The advantage to using background over back light
illumination is that this illumination technique allows
subject movement over a larger set area. Back lighting
patterns have a tendency to force subject rigidity in the
scene. An incident meter and a waveform monitor should
always be used to establish an appropriate working
intensity. Background reproduction is dependent upon; 1) the
intensity of illumination, 2) the angle of illumination, and
3) the reflectivity of the background surface plane. Through
careful illumination control, the videographer can
subjectively alter reproductiOn of the background surface.

For example, background surfaces will reproduce as white

116

(with texture) at 90 IRE units on the waveform monitor.
Reducing illumination intensity to 50 IRE units will
manipulate background surface reproduction to a middle gray
value. Any background luminace value has validity as long as
it satisfies technical and creative design criteria.
Background illumination intensity should be established
based upon the luminance and exposure value assigned to the
subject. The videographer should carefully control
background intensity and illumination patterns to prevent
conflict with portraiture design. Caution should be
exercised when over-illuminating background surface planes.
If background intensity is too strong relative to subject
illumination, the face of the subject will appear
unnaturally dark.

Through working with fixtures individually, the
videographer can study the effects each light will have on

the design of the final image.

lil'l' 1 E I 'l 1]] . l' I l .

“Feathering“ is another production technique used
extensively to control illumination intensity. This
technique is particularly applicable with remote lighting
fixtures due to fixture transmission characteristics. With
lensless illumination sources, light energy is not uniformly
projected from the fixture. The following graph represents
the light transmission characteristics of a small

illumination fixture. The data represented on this graph is

117

hypothetical. Actual intensity dispersion is dependent upon
the design of the fixture, and the distance between the

fixture and the measurement point.

Intensity
100%!
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%

0 10 2O 3O 40 50 60 70 80 90

Degrees Off Axis

Figure 37. Illumination Dispersion Characteristics

Rotating the fixture off-axis relative to the subject
position will illuminate the individual with the less direct
and intense rays from the illumination source. The following
diagram illustrates a standard method for ”feathering“

portrait illumination.

118

50%

100%

30 degrees

b

Figure 38. Feathering Portrait Illumination

By rotating the fixture 30 degrees off the subject
axis, light intensity projected onto the facial mask will be
reduced approximately 50% (1 f-stop). When an illumination
source is feathered, the fixture is typically rotated toward
camera (foreground) position. Foreground positioning reduces
illumination spill onto background surface planes.
Feathering is an extremely useful technique for quickly
manipulating fixture intensity and the lighting contrast
created between the key and fill illumination source.

Although a contrast ratio is usually computed between
illumination fixtures, it can also be computed between an
instrument and a reflective surface plane. Bounce
(illumination is a common technique for redirecting primary
illumination onto the shadow zone of the facial mask. The
following diagram details the technique which applies the

light reflectivity axiom.

 

119

Reflector / I Fixture

\//;

Figure 39. Bounce Illumination Technique

 

Light redirected from a bounce illumination plane will
have the same quality (specular or diffused) and color
characteristics as the reflecting surface. Since light
energy reflected from an adjacent surface falls off rapidly,
the videographer will likely find this technique applicable
to highly controlled production situations. Bounce lighting
is best applied to static production setups in which the
subject performs limited body movements.

In conclusion, of primary concern to the videographer
should always be the safety and comfort of the subject. To
secure a natural performance, the subject must be
comfortable in the working environment. The illumination
pattern should accommodate the safety and comfort of the
individual. Specular illumination sources may distract or

discomfort the subject, especially when used at a close

120

working position. The videographer may find it necessary to
diffuse, scrim, or manipulate illumination to prevent the
intense specularity produced by the fixture from
discomforting the subject. Soft boxes and umbrellas create
ideal portrait illumination because the manipulated light
energy has softer, diffused illumination characteristics.
Another useful production technique is to illuminate a
surface plane behind camera position at an intensity greater
than subject illumination. The combined key/fill
illumination intensity will therefore appear to be less than
a distant visual plane. The subject will easily adjust to
the key/fill illumination value since it is of less
intensity that an off-camera visual plane. Through subject
consideration, the videographer can obtain a unique,

glamourous and natural human performance.

B 1 1° ll'
Broad lighting is one of the most frequently used
lighting patterns in video portraiture. This portrait
technique can be applied when the subject is positioned at
an angle, relative to the subject-camera axis. As the name
suggests, the broadest portion of the subjects face is
illuminated by the key light.The following diagram indicates

approximate fixture positioning for broad light portraiture.

121

v
a

 

Figure 40. Broad Light Portraiture

Either specular or diffused illumination sources may be
used to provide key illumination coverage. Large source
illumination creates a softer key illumination quality with
subtle shadow density. Large source illumination is commonly
used in broad lighting to emulate interior illumination
conditions. Hard illumination sources create specular
highlights, and dense shadows on the facial mask. Hard
illumination is commonly used to imply motivational light
coming from a scenic illumination source. Also useful in
dramatic presentations, broad lighting can emulate low key
(dark) scenes. The illumination quality of broad lighting
can imply point source illumination (ie. street lights) in
dramatic presentations. subject contrast created by the key
illumination source can be cOntrolled through placement and

intensity of the fill (secondary) illumination source.

122

Since the key fixture is placed on the camera side of
the subject, shadows created by the fixture will fall away
from the subject. and be hidden from camera view. Vertical
and horizontal placement of the fixture is dependent upon
genetic attributes of the facial mask. Most lighting
designers, however, position the fixture so that
illumination passes over the bridge of the nose, and
illuminates the cheek bone on the opposite side of the
subject’s face. Highlighting the opposing cheekbone
partially illuminates the shadow zone created by the key,
and adds pictorial interest to the image.

Because the fill fixture is used to reduce shadow
density, it is typically positioned on the opposite side of
the camera relative to subject position. Vertical placement
of the fill fixture is dependent upon the desired
illumination pattern. Fill light positioning is typically
lower than subject eye level, illuminating the shadow zone
created by the key light source. When broad lighting is used
to imply interior illumination, the intensity of the fill
fixture should be nearly equal to the intensity of the key
light source.

Broad lighting patterns are designed so that key and
fill fixture have overlapping coverage areas. The fill
fixture is typically larger (more diffused) than the key
illumination instrument. Either soft boxes, umbrellas, or
reflector boards can be used to provide secondary

illumination. When properly positioned, fill illumination

Ifi—g

123

should partially overlap the lit zone created by the key
light. This feathering technique creates a subtle
illumination transition between the key and fill source. To
measure intensity differences, the overlapping formula

(key + fill/fill) should be used. Once an appropriate ratio
has been established, the videographer can determine
exposure by examining the waveform monitor.

Back lighting is highly subjective, and dependent upon
personal creative interpretation. When illuminating an
interior scene, back light intensity (if used) should be
very low to prevent conflicting with key light
directionality. The intensity of the back light can be
determined by examining the waveform monitor. Back light
intensity should be compared against the calibrated exposure
of the facial mask. For natural interior scenes, back light
luminance values should not exceed the reflective intensity
of the facial mask. As back light intensity is increased
relative to facial exposure, the videographer subjectively
influences dramatic interpretation of the portrait.

Horizontal placement of the back light is also
dependent upon visual interpretation. Back light fixtures
are typically positioned anywhere in an are from 180 degrees
opposite the key light, to approximately forty-five degrees
behind the key (figure 40). With moving subjects, the
videographer may find it helpful to use multiple back light
sources. Multiple back lighting helps maintain illumination

continuity throughout the scene.

124
Vertical placement is also highly subjective, and can
be used as a creative illumination tool. Back light striking
the subject from overhead, indicates a naturalistic lighting
pattern. When back light strikes the subject from below eye

level, the videographer will manipulate dramatic

I Natural

interpretation.

 

Dramatic

 

Figure 41. Vertical Back Light Positioning

Low back light placement is commonly used by
photographers to create glamourous portrait images. The
usage of back lighting is highly subjective, and dependent
upon personal interpretation. The key to understanding back
light illumination is through experimentation with fixtures
and fixture positions.

There are several advantages to using broad lighting in
the video production setting. First, since the broadest
portion of the face is illuminated by the key light, subject
mobility is possible within the video frame. When a low

key/fill ratio is used, shadow placement and density does

125
not create unattractive shadows within the facial mask.
Primarily used to emulate natural interior illumination,
this lighting pattern has common applicability. Fixture
setup can be quickly and easily accomplished, allowing the
videographer to concentrate on other production matters.

The primary disadvantage with this illumination pattern
is that it tends to broaden the facial structure. With the
broadest portion of the face illuminated by the key light,
the subject will take on a heftier appearance. If the
subject has a naturally wide face, the videographer may find
this illumination pattern inappropriate. In addition, when a
low key/fill lighting ratio is used, the video image has the

tendency to appear flat and lack three—dimensionality.

fl 1' Il'
Narrow lighting basically reverses the design of the
broad lighting pattern. With the subject positioned at an
angle relative to the subject-camera axis, the narrow (far
side) portion of the subject’s face is illuminated by the
key light. The following diagram plots fixture postioning.

commonly used in narrow light portraiture.

126

 

Figure 42. Narrow Light Portraiture

With the key illuminating a narrow facial area opposite
camera position, the majority of the facial mask will fall
into the attached shadow region. The density of the facial
Shadow is dependent upon the specularity of the key light
fixture. Either small or large light sources can be used for
key illumination coverage. Small key light sources create
highly dramatic video images, by emphasizing heavy shadow
density on the broadest portion of the facial mask. Maximum
care must be used when applying this illumination pattern to
prevent creating an image with too much subject contrast. If
large source illumination is used, the transfer edge between
the highlight, lit and shadow zones will have softer
gradation characteristics. The challenge to using large

source illumination in narrow lighting is that illumination

 

—:

127

tends to spread over the broadest portion of the facial
mask. When uncontrolled, large source illumination can
damage the intended illumination effect. To reduce
illumination spread, the videographer will likely find it
necessary to block spill illumination from striking the
broadest portion of the facial mask. Stand mounted gobos are
typically used to direct illumination coverage. The transfer
edge created through blocking techniques is dependent upon
the distance between the subject and the blocking device.
Modifiers placed close to subject position will createe a
harder transfer edge within the facial mask. The following
figure diagrams the method for blocking large source

/
A/ ///\

illumination.

 

Figure 43. Narrow Key Light Modification

Horizontal placement of the key light is critical, and
dependent upon the intended lighting effect. Vertically, the

key light should be positioned to provide optimum subject

128

modeling. Narrow lighting patterns create an inherently
large nose shadow on the near side of the facial mask. To
reduce the impact of the nose shadow, vertical placement is
typically positioned lower than in other lighting setups.
Most portrait photographers do not allow the nose shadow to
extend beyond the smile line or to touch the upper lip. The
shadow is commonly positioned midway between the nose and
upper lip, creating separation between the two facial
features.

Horizontal and vertical fill light positioning is
dependent upon aesthetic interpretation. The fill fixture
should partially illuminate the shadow zone created by the
key light source. The fill fixture is typically positioned
on the opposite side of the camera, illuminating the near
side of the facial mask. When placed at camera position, the
overlapping formula should be used to determine the lighting
ratio. At a position ninety degrees opposite camera
:position, the videographer should apply the non-overlapping
formula to determine subject contrast. Fill positioning
‘between the two extremes requires careful examination of the
lighting effect to determine the appropriate formula.

Narrow portrait lighting is commonly used to create
dramatic illumination patterns. Narrow lighting is also used
in glamour portraiture to visually create a slimmer
appearance with a wide facial structure. Therefore, the
lighting ratio between the key and fill fixture is typically
higher than with broad portrait lighting. The intensity of

129

the fill fixture must be carefully controlled to prevent
over-illumination on the near side of the facial mask. When
fill intensity is increased relative to key light intensity,
the videographer will observe a broadening of the facial
structure. Since narrow lighting is commonly used to create
a slimmer facial appearance, the addition of strong fill
illumination may be undesirable.

Vertical fill light positioning should provide
illumination to the unlit zone created by the key light
source. Many times, the fill fixture will be positioned at,
or slightly below, the subject’s eye level. The specularity
of the fill light fixture should always be less than that
used for key illumination coverage. By using a waveform
monitor, the intensity of the fill fixture can be
determined. Though narrow lighting is commonly used to
create high contrast images, fill intensity should be
sufficient to contain shadow density within the contrast
limits of the reproduction system.

Back light positioning is extremely critical with
narrow lighting patterns. Back light positioning is
typically biased toward the key light side of the subject.
When used on the key side, back light intensity typically
matches the intensity used for key illumination coverage.
When the key and back light intensity is equal, the
videographer will create lighting continuity on the far side
of the subject. Back light intensity is typically decreased,

as the angle between the key and back light fixture is

 

 

130
increased. When the back light is positioned closer to the
fill light, extreme care must be taken to prevent
illumination spill. Back light illumination striking the
fill side of the subject may create unattractive streaks of
light on the shadow zone of the facial mask. .

The advantage to narrow illumination is that it can be
used to create portrait images with high dramatic impact.
Through contrast separation, narrow lighting maximizes the
dimensionality of the portrait. Narrow lighting can be
creatively used to narrow the facial structure. Since the
broadest portion of the facial mask falls within the -
attached shadow region, skin imperfections on this surface
plane can be minimized. Narrow lighting must be used with
extreme care and consideration of the subject’s facial
features. Strong facial features (like a sharp nose) and
surface texture (wrinkles) will be accentuated. This
lighting pattern can have harsh reproduction characteristics
that may prove unflattering to the subject. Narrow lighting
is typically reserved for male subjects when you want to
emphasis facial ruggedness. Narrow lighting can also be used
for female subjects, however, it may be necessary to reduce
lighting contrast, thereby softening facial features.

The primary disadvantage with narrow lighting is the
lack of mobility it affords the subject. Shadow positioning
is crucial to maintain proper shadow placement. Due to
subject juxtaposition, the shadow region of the facial mask

is accentuated. Subject movement within the video frame can

 

 

131

cause radical shadow shifts on the camera side of the
subject. Narrow lighting is also subject specific, which
requires the model be used to establish the lighting
pattern. Finally, narrow lighting is time consuming, which
the videographer must allow for when attempting narrow light

pattern designs.

E I J I' ll'
As the name suggests, frontal lighting strikes the

subject from the frontal position relative to the

subject-camera axis. With the subject facing forward, both

sides of the facial mask are illuminated by the key light.

 

Figure 44. Frontal Light Portraiture

For a normal lighting pattern, vertical placement of
'the key light should strike the subject from above eye
level. Shadows created by the key light will be cast
Idownward from protrusions on the subject’s face, and will

fall away from the subject’s forehead, nose, lips and chin.

132
The length of facial shadowing is dependent upon the angle
at which key illumination strikes the subject. Vertically
position the key light at a height which prevents the nose
shadow from crossing the upper lip. In this position, the
key light will create adequate subject modeling, while
maintaining separation between the two facial features.

Either hard or soft light sources can be used for key
illumination coverage. Hard key illumination, however, may
prove uncomfortable to the subject, especially when used at
a close working position. With the key light positioned
slightly above eye level, fixture specularity may prove to
be too direct for natural subject performance. Most
photographers that use direct frontal lighting either
reflect or project key illumination off another surface
plane. Soft illumination techniques (umbrella, soft box
illumination) reduce lighting specularity while modifying
the quality of key illumination.

Though eye light reflections (catch lights) are common
to most portrait patterns, they are most prominent with
frontal illumination. Catch lights add a touch of glamour to
the photographic image, and are commonly placed slightly
above the pupil of the eye. Catch lights reveal the size,
shape and specularity of the illuminating instrument. When
large source illumination is used, the catch lights will be
large, with soft gradation at the transfer edge. When
possible, catch lights should be incorporated in the

compositional design of the portrait.

 

133

Fill light positioning is again based on illuminating
the shadow zone created by the key light source. If a
specular illumination source is used, the fill light is
typically placed below eye level on the opposite side of the
camera. With large source portrait illumination, a technique
called “butterfly lighting” can be applied. Butterfly
lighting uses large source fill illumination directly below
the camera lens. This illumination technique provides soft

illumination to the shadow zone on the facial mask.

4

       

 

K§t\\ Figure 45. Butterfly Illumination
When using butterfly illumination, the intensity of the
fill light must be carefully controlled. If fill
illumination is too strong, multiple shadows will form on
the facial mask. The easiest method for controlling fill

illumination is to select a fill source that produces less

134
illumination intensity. Fill illumination should lighten the
sshadow created by the key light, but should never eliminate
key shadowing or create additional facial shadow patterns.

The ratio between key and fill illumination is
typically low in frontal lighting design. The difference
between key and fill sources is typically expressed at a
ratio of 2:1 or less. Though any lighting ratio has
applicability, frontal lighting is commonly used to create
glamorous, youthful images. Frontal lighting de—emphasizes
surface texture created by wrinkles and facial protrusions.
Since the key and fill light strikes the subject from the
frontal position, the overlapping fixture ratio should
always be applied.

With frontal lighting, high intensity back light is
commonly used to provide depth and roundness to the image.
High intensity backlight also implies different key light
directionality, especially when the key/fill lighting ratio
is low. The intensity of the back light should be carefully
controlled to prevent over illumination of the subject’s
head and shoulders. By using a waveform monitor, back light
intensity can be manipulated to prevent the frontal facial
Plane from appearing unnatural ly dark. Most photographers
contain back light illumination to within one f-stop (20 IRE
units) of the key illumination source. Back light
illumination that exceeds this limit, may over-illuminate

the back of the subject, radically altering hair

135

reproduction. High intensity back light is commonly used
with blond haired subjects, though it has applicability with
any individual.

With frontal lighting patterns, the videographer may
find background light manipulation advantageous for creating
the illusion of spatial depth. Creative shadows cast onto a
background surface plane helps enhance the dimensionality
lacking on the frontal plane of the facial mask. By
under-illuminating or ”painting” the background plane with
light and shadows, the videographer can enhance the illusion
of depth in the portrait image.

There are several advantages to using frontal
illumination in video portraiture. First, frontal lighting
is an extensively used photographic technique for glamour
portraiture. Frontal lighting is commonly recognized as a
glamorous technique among consumers of photographic
material. Since the key and fill light strikes the frontal
facial plane, facial modeling is minimal. By reducing facial
modeling, frontal lighting creates youthful images even when
applied to older subjects. When large source illumination is
used, subject movement within the video frame can be
accommodated. Shadow placement remains constant regardless
of subject position. Frontal lighting is also very
applicable to both male and female subjects. Finally,
frontal lighting can be quickly and easily accomplished,
allowing the videographer to concentrate on other production

matters .

136

The primary disadvantage with frontal lighting is that
subject modeling is minimal, especially when a low lighting
ratio is used. Careful control of key/fill illumination
intensity is critical to prevent creating images which lack
facial dimensionality. Some photographers criticize frontal
illumination because it tends to be generically applied.
Though a glamourous illumination technique, frontal lighting
has an inherent lack of lighting dramatics associated with

other illumination patterns.

5'} I' ll°

Side lighting heightens the sense of drama and
moodiness to a scene. By skimming the facial mask with
light, side lighting creates the strongest sense of texture
and contrast separation within the portrait image. Though
applicable to both sexes, side lighting is best applied to
male subjects, when the videographer wishes to emphasize
character ruggedness.

With side lighting, the horizontal position of the key
light strikes the subject from ninety degrees off the
subject-camera axis. With the subject facing forward, only

one-half of the facial mask is illuminated by the key light.

i 3/

Figure 46. Side Light Portraiture

 

Vertical positioning of the key light is less important
in side lighting patterns. Vertically, the key light should
be positioned to maximize facial modeling. A photographic
technique commonly used is to position the key light at a
height slightly above eye level. In this position, key
illumination will pass over the bridge of the nose and
illuminate the cheekbone on the opposite side of the face.
Highlighting the opposite cheekbone adds pictorial interest
to the image. Vertical positioning of the key light is
primarily dependent upon the facial characteristics of the
subject.

Either hard or soft key illumination sources can be
used for side lighting patterns. Hard key lights create
dense shadows and a hard transitional line between lit and
shadow facial zones. Though side lighting maximizes facial
modeling, it can also appear flat and lack dimensionality.
With a hard key light striking the subject from such an

extreme angle, the facial mask is divided equally in half.

138

Without modification to the shadow zone of the face, the
contrast ratio typically extends beyond reproduction limits.
Fill light manipulation, however, tends to dilute the
dramatic impact created by the key illumination source.
Unless extremely dramatic facial contrast is needed, the use
of soft key illumination is recommended. Soft illumination
will slightly bend around surface contours and partially
illuminate the shadow side of the facial mask. With soft
illumination, the transfer edge will change gradually from
lit to shadow facial zones. Large source lighting will
partially illuminate the shadow side of the facial mask,
without reducing the dramatic impact of the lighting design.

If fill illumination is needed, horizontal and vertical
positioning is dependent upon the intended lighting effect.
The fill light can be positioned in an are from camera
position to approximately 180 degrees opposite the key
light. Since side lighting is commonly used for dramatic
lighting impact, the videographer will likely find the ratio
between illumination fixtures to be higher than with other
portrait designs. Determination of the proper ratio formula
is dependent upon the horizontal position of the fill
illumination source. Once fixture positions and the lighting
ratio have been established, contrast reproduction should be
verified on the waveform monitor. If detail reproduction is
desired in the shadow zone of the facial mask, then the
lighting ratio should be contained to within a 6:1 ratio.

For example, under normal exposure caucasian skin tones

139

reproduce at approximately 60-70 IRE units on the waveform
monitor. For reproduction of shadow detail, maximum density
cannot fall below 20 IRE units (black, with detail).
Subtracting the two IRE values yields a difference of
approximately 4:1 (2 f~stops) or 6:1 (2.5 f—stops),
dependent upon the lit zone luminance value. Though shadow
density can certainly exceed this range, the cost to the
videographer will be a loss of detail within either the
highlight or shadow zone of the facial mask.

Probably the greatest challenge with side lighting is
selecting an appropriate fill light position and intensity.
Fill illumination striking the subject from the frontal
position reduces subject contrast and the dramatic impact of
the lighting design. If fill illumination is positioned
directly opposite the key illumination source, fill
intensity must be very carefully controlled. If the fill
intensity is too strong, a shadowing rim will form down the
center of the subject’s face. Called ”badger lighting“ it is
an interesting, albeit unglamourous lighting design.

A photographic technique used estensively in head and
shoulder portraiture is to eliminate the fill light
altogether. In the fill light position, a free standing
reflector board is used. Key illumination that passes by the
subject’s face will be redirected back onto the shadow zone
of the facial mask. The intensity of redirected illumination
is dependent upon the size, distance and reflectivity of the

bounce illumination surface.

140

 

 

Figure 47. Bounce Fill Illumination

Back light positioning is very crucial in side light
portraiture. Since side lighting is typically used for low
key (dark tonality) scenes, the subject’s head tends to
merge into background surface planes. Back light positioning
should create appropriate separation between visual planes.
Either single or double back light sources can be used with
this portrait design. Horizontal and vertical positioning,
as always, is dependent upon the intended lighting effect.
When establishing back light positioning the videographer
should carefully consider the size and shape of the
subject’s head. With side lighting, the videographer should
carefully prevent back light from spilling onto the shadow
zone of the subject’s face. If back light strikes the shadow
zone, the intended lighting effect may be damaged.

141

Background manipulation provides an illumination
alternative for separating the subject from similiar tone
backgrounds. With low key scenes, a lighting instrument
placed directly behind the subject, and projected onto a
background surface area will artificially separate the
subject from the background. The lighting effect created by
this technique separates the subject from the background by
creating a halo of light on the background surface. Through
careful positioning, the light pattern can be focused to
extend just beyond the head and shoulders of the subject.
This portrait technique allows the subject limited head

movement without altering facial mask reproduction.

Conolnoion

The focus of this chapter has been an examination of
lighting and exposure theory as it applies to video
portraiture. Because lighting for a visual medium is an
objective art form, specific illumination methodology is
best left to the hands of the individual videographer. This
thorough instructional presentation should provide a solid
foundation on which to build specific and glamourous
portrait lighting techniques.

Broad, Narrow, Frontal and Side lighting patterns are
commonly used portrait techniques found in the photographic
arts. Application of portrait illumination techniques in the

video production session is primarily dependent upon the

142
facial characteristics of the subject. As with any art form,
the key to success is through experimentation and

deveIOpment of a personal lighting style.

PRODUCT LIGHTING TECHNIQUES

Product lighting presents the greatest technical
challenge to the videographer. In product videography,
specifics on lighting design are difficult to detail due to
differences in Object reflectivity and surface texture. The
illumination technique appropriate to the production
circumstance is dependent upon object reflectivity and
creative interpretation.

An appropriate illumination pattern, however, must
contain object reflectance within the limited contrast
reproduction latitude of the video imaging system.
Manipulative photographic techniques commonly used in
jphotographic image production (multiple exposure,
manipulative printing, color separation, etc) are not
:possible in the video medium. The illumination challenge
‘will, therefore, be to create striking product images solely
'through creative illumination techniques.

Product lighting is very similiar to portrait
illumination techniques. The primary difference between
:production categories is that commercial products generally
have far greater reflectance latitude. Lighting contrast
'between illumination zones (highlight, lit, shadow) is
'typically far greater than subject contrast encountered in

143

I‘IIIIII-—__________________________________________________________.

144

portraiture. Since maximum contrast reproduction for
broadcast images is limited to 20:1 (4.5 f—stops), the
challenge to the videographer will be precise control of the
illumination pattern. Through careful lighting and luminance
control, the videographer can contain scenic elements within
reproduction limits of the imaging system.

The focus of this chapter will be an examination of the
lighting techniques applied in the professional film
industry. The techniques presented in this chapter can be
applied to the video production setting. Product
illumination craftsmanship is predicated on proper
application of the theories and techniques presented
throughout this text. Through experimentation with
manipulative illumination techniques, the videographer can

create beautiful and striking product images.

1]] . I' Q l . I'
As with portraiture, product images can be subdivided

into three categories of illumination. The combination of
illumination zones (highlight, lit, and shadow) communicates
descriptive information to the viewer on the size, shape,
color, form, and texture of the object. The illumination
design should complement the object by accentuating it’ 8
unique visual characteristics.

Highlights will form along the surface plane
leerpendicular to the illumination source. Since highlights

Ireproduce illumination intensity with the greatest

145

specularity, Object color and surface texture will be
minimal within the highlight zone. Highlights convey visual
information to the viewer on the quality of primary
illumination. Small light sources will create small surface
reflections, and commmunicates a different illumination
quality than large source illumination techniques. Small key
illumination indicates the quality of illumination produced
by the sun or a theatrical spot light. Large source
illumination communicates the illumination quality
associated with an overcast sky, window light, or overhead
interior lighting. Object shape and dimensionality will
interact with highlight reflections altering the shape (but
not the size) of the highlight reflection. For example, with
spherical objects, the highlight shape will wrap around the
surface contour. Highlights are commonly positioned to
visually reinforce the shape of the illuminated object.

The lit zone is generally between the highlight and
shadow illumination zones. The lit zone is typically the
largest illumination zone in the image. Lit zones visually
communicate object color and surface texture in the image.
ILit zone reproduction is also dependent upon the specularity
of the primary illumination instrument. Lit zone
:reproduction, however, can also be clarified through
Secondary illumination placement. The lit zone of the object

is typically positioned visually prominent relative to

146

camera position. Illumination uniformity which accentuates
lit zone reproduction, visually deemphasizes object size,
shape, and form in the video image.

Shadow zone placement is the primary method for
visually communicating object size, shape, and form in the
photographic image. The shadows projected from the key light
should be of primary concern to the videographer. First, the
density of the shadows must be carefully controlled to
prevent creating images with excessive contrast density.
Restricting luminance differences between illumination zones
is a standard production methodology for limiting object
contrast. Since the video medium has an entire contrast
latitude of 4.5 f-stops, object highlight and shadow density
differences will be minimal. Second, shadows projected from
the key fixture communicate essential descriptive
information on object form and dimensionality. Shadows
created by the key light will fall onto two specific visual
planes. Shadows incident to (or part of) the surface of the
object are called attached shadows. Attached shadows reveal
object shape and form within the image. Shadows created by
the object which fall onto adjacent surface planes are
called past shadows. Cast shadows reveal object size and the
directionality of the key illumination source. Drawing a
.line from the edge of the shadow to the corresponding edge

(an the object reveals the incident illumination angle.

Key Light

  
   

Attached

’\

 

Cast

 

Figure 48. Shadow Classification

The waveform monitor is an ideal graphic device for
analyzing the product image. By subdividing the graphic
display into illumination zones, the videographer can
determine illumination needs and lighting problems with the
creative light design. By vertically subdividing the
waveform display, the approximate position of the three

illumination zones become apparent.

120 — -
Highlights 100 ———__

 

Lit 60 — -
40 — -

Shadows 20 — -
10 l J— —

7.5
0 II!
-20 _. _.
-40

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 49. Zone Reproduction on the Waveform Monitor.

148

By analyzing the waveform monitor, the videographer can
verify object reproduction. Because surface highlights
return the maximum amount of light, they should be
positioned between 90 and 100 IRE units (zone 9, 10) on the
waveform monitor. Maximum shadow density is limited to
within 10 IRE units (between zone 2 and zone 1) on the
waveform display. Object color (zone 8 through some 3) will
be reproduced between the two illumination extremes.
Waveform data is particularly useful because it indicates
the luminosity of the object. The waveform monitor indicates
object reproduction characteristics under specific lighting
conditions. By adjusting camera exposure to maximize lit
zone reproduction, highlight and shadow contrast latitude
will become apparent. If highlight and/or shadow contrast
exceeds reproduction limits, either illumination intensity
or the lighting pattern must be modified. This arguement
does not presuppose that all product images will have
reproduction density within all three illumination zones.
The waveform monitor, however, provides the most accurate
method for analyzing lighting and exposure manipulation.

The waveform display can also be subdivided according
the relative size of the illumination zone. The horizontal
axis represents position within the video frame. Analyzing
‘the width of the illumination zone, the videographer can

determine the visual emphasis of each illumination zone.

 

149

Highlight Lit Shadow
120
100

 

80

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 50. Zone Size/Position on the Waveform Monitor

In the preceeding example, each of the illumination
zones are equal in size on the waveform display. The
resultant image will therefore have equal emphasis between
the illumination zones. The videographer can therefore use
the waveform monitor as an evaluatory device for controlling
illumination zone reproduction.

The combination of highlight, lit and shadow zones
communicates essential descriptive information to the
viewer. The lighting pattern chosen for product illumination
should maximize visual communication and the aesthetic

considerations of visual design.

 

 

150

E. | E .l. . I l .
The language used to describe key light positioning is
very similiar between portrait and product videography. The
following list outlines the descriptive language used to
label the lighting patterns in both portrait and product

production settings.

Portraiture Eroduot
Frontal Frontal
Broad, Narrow Quarter
Side Side, Top
Back Back

The descriptors used to define the visual qualities of
the object are; size, shape, color, form and texture. Size,
shape and form define the dimensionality of the object.
Object size is visually communicated by the length of the
object shadow cast onto adjacent surface planes. By
manipulating the vertical position of the key light relative
to subject position, the videographer can manipulate
subjective size interpretation. Creating large cast shadows
indicates volume and object weight in the image. Object
shape is a descriptor which is defined by the
two—dimensional (height, width) qualities of the object.
Object shape is clarified through both key light
:positioning, and through visual separation from a background
:surface plane. Stronger object-background contrast creates
stronger clarity of object shape. Object form defines the

'third-dimensionality (depth) of the object. Through attached

151
shadow clarity, object form and dimensionality is visually
communicated. Object color and texture are visual
descriptors of surface quality. The color of the object is
manipulated through placement of the lit illumination zone.
Color saturation is dependent upon the intensity of the
instrument, the reflectivity of the surface, and the ratio
between illumination zones. Finally, object texture is
dependent upon key light placement. To emphasize surface
texture, place the illumination source parallel to the
illumination plane. On planes where the key source is
perpendicular to the object, surface texture will be
minimized.

A brief examination is included on how key light
positioning effects visual reproduction of the object.
Though the illumination effect is identical between portrait
and product production sectors, in product videography the
illumination pattern will generally have greater clarity.

‘Eznntal lighting strikes the object directly along the
object—lens axis. Dependent upon surface reflectivity,
frontal illumination maximizes the size of the highlight and
lit illumination zones. Both attached and cast shadows
created by the key illumination source fall behind the

object, hidden from camera view.

152

 

I

 

Figure 51. Frontal Lighting

Frontal illumination creates the largest possible lit
illumination zone, therefore maximizing color reproduction
of the object. Since shadows projected by the key light fall
out of camera view, object size, form and surface texture
are minimized. Like portrait illumination, frontal lighting
minimizes the impact of surface modeling by flooding the
surface plane with even illumination.

Quanta: lighting strikes the object from approximately
45 degrees off the object—lens axis. With quarter lighting,
each of the three illumination zones are given equal
lighting emphasis. Therefore, quarter lighting is commonly
Iased in product lighting because this position represents
the best compromise between key light positions. With
tauarter lighting, object size, shape, color form and texture.

are give equal illumination emphasis.

153

x

Figure 52. Quarter Lighing

The problem with quarter lighting is that it tends to
be generically applied. Though adequately representing the
object, quarter lighting might not accentuate the unique
features of the object. Quarter lighting patterns are
typically applied to the video production setting based on
tradition, not lighting creativity. Quarter lighting is an
extremely valuable illumination pattern, but, should only be
applied when the illumination pattern is most appropriate to
the visual design of the image.

Side and Inn lighting strikes the object from
approximately 90 degrees off of the object—lens axis. Side
and top lighting are essentially the same lighting pattern.
The primary difference between illumination patterns is the
vertical angle at which key illumination strikes the object.
The shadows cast by the key light will fall onto different
surface planes on/around the object. Subjectively, this

alters audience perception of the video image.

 

154

/

\

 

 

Figure 53. Side Lighting

Side/Top light positioning visually minimizes the size
of the highlight on the surface plane. Highlights created by
the key light will form along the rim of the object closest
to the fixture position. With an incident angle of 90
degrees, visual emphasis of highlight reflections will be
minimized. The opposing side of the object will fall within
the attached shadow region. Side/Top lighting patterns are
interesting because they subdivide object shape into
opposing illumination zones. Therefore, object
dimensionality (size, shape, form) is typically accentuated
with side/top illumination patterns. Side/Top lighting also
maximizes object texture skimming the surface plane with
light. Side lighting creates the strongest illumination
contrast between raised and indented surface elements.

Bank lighting strikes the object at a horizontal angle
180 degrees opposite the object-lens axis. Back lighting is
typically used as a separatiOn light, providing depth

between the object and a background surface plane. As with

155

portraiture, back lighting is subjective and it’s usage is
dependent upon the intended lighting effect. Back lighting

is only necessary if it adds to the aesthetic design of the

m- \-

/

Figure 54. Back Lighting

composition.

Back illumination will rim the entire object with
light. Therefore, object shape is emphasized with back
illumination patterns. Because back light skims the object
rim, texture detail will be emphasized at the object edge.
Size emphasis is dependent upon compositional design of the
image. When the cast shadow projected by the back light is
included within the visual frame, object size will be
accentuated.

With back light illumination, the frontal plane of the
object falls into the attached shadow region. Therefore,
back lighting minimizes reproduction of surface color and
object form. The lit zone of the object will fall on the

opposite side of the object, hidden from camera view.

156

E I I I1] . I. I I .

As with portrait lighting, the videographer should
begin every setup by first examining the product and props
to be used. Through critically analyzing object shape, size,
color, form and texture, the videographer can determine the
unique features and the illumination pattern which will
accentuate object features. Appropriate key light
positioning is based on determining where the highlight, lit
and shadow (attached/cast) illumination zones should fall
within the compositional design.

The following table represents how key light
positioning will effect visual representation of the object.
Each of the descriptors used to classify object reproduction
(size, shape, color, form and texture) are coded (+, =, -)

according to accentuated attributes of the illumination

pattern.

Table 11. Illumination Pattern Attributes
Frontal = = + _ -
Quarter 2 = = = :
Side/Top = = = + +
Back + + _ _ z

Because video is a two-dimensional medium, the illusion of
depth must be enhanced through creative illumination
'techniques. The illusion of depth can be enhanced through

several different production techniques. First, through

157

Object/camera positioning, visual information can be
conveyed to the audience on object dimensionality. For
example, a cube is a six-sided object. A cube can be
positioned so that one, two, or three sides of the object
can be visualized in the photographic image. Through object
positioning, the videographer communicates spatial
dimensionality. Second, through manipulative illumination
techniques, object dimensionality can also be enhanced. The
illumination angle should accentuate the object by creating
separate illumination zones at appropriate positions on, and
around the object surface. Shadow density created by the key
illumination source is dependent upon the specularity of the
instrument. Shadow positioning incorporated into the
compositional design communicates essential visual
information on object dimensionality. Finally, through
manipulative background illumination patterns, the illusion
of depth can be enhanced. For example, manipulative
background illumination may imply different key light
directionality. Manipulating background intensity to a value
less than the key illumination source will create light
falloff between the frontal and background visual plane. The
transition between spatial illumination zones will enhance
the illusion of depth, even between visual elements only
inches apart. By approaching the commercial setup as a still
life, the videographer can creatively design illumination

Patterns which enhance visual dimensionality.

158

E I I 1]] . I. H 1'! I C I ]

Objects are generally classfied according to the
reflective qualities of object surface. The categories most
commonly used to describe surface reflectivity are:

1. Reflective, or
2. Matte surface objects.

Raflantiya objects have highly specular surfaces.
Reflective objects like glass, shiny metal or plastic create
a unique lighting challenge to the videographer. Reflective
objects may redirect luminance energy at a proportion nearly
equal to the intensity incident to the surface. Highlight
positioning on a reflective object is dependent upon the
incident angle of illumination and the shape of the
reflective surface. Through key light positioning, the
videographer can manipulate placement of the highlight
reflection.

With reflective objects, the problem will be
controlling the specularity of the illumination highlight.
If a small illumination source is used, an intense hotspot
generally referred to as “glare" will form. Glare reveals
the size, shape, and specularity of the illumination
instrument. Glare seriously damages visual rendition by
Obliterating object color and surface texture within the
specular reflection. The luminance value of the highlight
‘will most likely exceed reproduction limits of the video

'medium. When exposure is manipulated to bring this intense

159
highlight spike to within a technically acceptable
reproduction limit, then lit and shadow zone reproduction
will deteriorate.

To control reflective highlights, the videographer will
need to reduce the specularity of the key illumination
instrument. Professional photographers have found the usage
of large source lighting highly applicable to reflective
object illumination. By increasing the size of the
illumination source (soft box, umbrella), two observations
will become apparent. First, the size of the highlight will
increase prOportional to the distance between the source and
the object. Instead of a creating a small, specular
reflection, large source illumination creates a large,
diffused highlight that follows the contour of the object.
Since the highlight outlines object contour it painfnzges
the illusion of form and dimensionality. Object form will
also be communicated through shadows attached to, and cast
from the object. Second, by manipulating illumination
specularity through projection/reflection techniques, the
videographer decreases both the specularity and intensity of
the illumination instrument. The intensity of the highlight
reflection decreases relative to the luminance value of the
lit and shadow illumination zones. By increasing the size of
key illumination, the videographer can decrease the lighting
contrast differential between illumination zones.

A couple of techniques are commonly applied to create

large source illumination patterns. The first technique is

160
called light “tenting”. By placing a reflective object in a
space surrounded by translucent diffusion material,
highlights will form along the contour of the object closest

to the key light position.

I \

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 55. Light Tent Illumination

The advantage to tent illumination is that opposing
diffusion surfaces act like a matte reflector which
surrounds the object. Light energy passing by the object
will reflect off an adjacent surface plane. The reflected
illumination strikes opposing surface areas, providing
secondary illumination to the lit and shadow zones. With
tent lighting, contrast difference between illumination
zones will be controllable in the final image.

Bounce illumination is a technique which has particular
applicability when lighting glassware. Instead of projecting
light energy through a translucent surface, illumination is

redirected onto the object from an adjacent surface plane.

 

 

/\

Figure 56. Bounce Illumination Technique

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bounce positioning is also dependent on the intended
illumination effect. When bounce illumination is placed on
the camera side of the object, a highlight will form along
the surface contour closest to the bounce illumination
source. The quality of bounce illumination is dependent upon
the specularity of the reflecting surface, and the size of
the bounce illumination plane relative to subject position.

To eliminate highlight reflections on transparent,
glass surfaces, place the bounce plane at a standard back
light position. Object dimensionality is conveyed by
differences in light transmission through various surface
planes of the object. Surfaces parallel to the bounce plane
will photograph translucent. Planes perpendicular to the
bounce illumination source will photograph opaque. Object
contours between the two extremes will exhibit varying

degrees of opaqueness.

162

The secret to using large source illumination is to
keep the lighting pattern unidirootionol and angled relative
to the object-lens axis. When additional illumination
sources are used, additional surface highlights will be
created. Additional surface highlights may confuse visual
interpretation of the object. Angling the illumination
pattern will cause the formation of subtle modeling on the
surface of the object. Large source illumination wraps
around surface contours, providing diffused illumination to
the lit and shadow zone. The transition between highlight,
lit and shadow illumination zones will display soft subtle
gradation at the transfer edge.

The most common placement of large source illumination
is above the object. In this position, the instrument acts
as both a key and a back light source. Rimming the top of
the object with light, helps create product separation from
adjacent background planes. Also by placing the key source
above the object, illumination intensity gradually decreases
on the frontal surface plane. The gradual illumination
transition creates a large lit area on the frontal surface.
Through careful positioning, the videographer can create
highlight, back light separation, and maximize color
reproduction with only one illumination instrument.

With compressed product setups, large source
illumination will likely spill onto background surface
areas. In some production circumstances this may be

advantageous to creating lighting uniformity. To selectively

 

 

163

control illumination between visual planes, the following
production technique is recommended. Whenever possible,
sandwich the illumination source between two gobos that are
wider than the illumination source. This "shuttering”

techniques is diagramed in the following figure.

I: j

//5'
X/él/
‘ /

Figure 57. "Shuttering" Large Source Illumination

 

 

 

The gobo on the camera side of the illumination source
is used to prevent lens flare, or excessive light
contamination from the illumination source. The gobo on the
opposite side of the soft box provides a mechanism for
controlling background spill. With this method, the
videographer can create artifical separation and depth to
the video image. Spatial brightness gradations create visual
interest by artifically creating separation between visual
planes. Through brightness differences, the videographer can
emphasize the visual importance of an object against a

darker background surface. When viewing an image, the eye is

164
always drawn to the brightest point within the frame. By
illuminating the object brighter than other visual elements,
the videographer forces an implied visual response to the
image.

The transfer edge created by the gobo can be controlled
through perpendicular placement of the modifier relative to
the illumination source. When the gobo is placed near the
illumination plane, the lighting transition on background
surfaces will display extremely soft gradation. If a harder
transitional line is needed, extend the perpendicular
postion of the gobo and use it as an extended "barn door“
device.

Subtle modeling created by large illumination source is
highly effective in product videography. Large source
illumination techniques represent the best technical method
for illuminating reflective surface objects.

With matte surface objects, highlight specularity will
be minimal. Matte objects have rough, textured surfaces
which break up the specularity produced by an illumination
instrument. Matte surface objects absorb, diffract and
scatter light energy incident to the surface plane. Intense
highlight reflections (glare) will rarely be encountered
with matte object illumination. Objects such as natural
wood, stone and textured fabric fall within a matte
reflectance classification.

Because matte objects break up key light specularity,

color rendition is generally very strong on the frontal

165
surface plane. Color reproduction is always dependent upon
the size of the lit illumination zone. By manipulating the
size of the lit zone (through key light positioning), color
reproduction can be controlled. To maximize color rendition,
choose a large illumination source. Large source
illumination is highly applicable to colorful matte surface
objects. Texture detail, however, will be very weak with
large source illumination techniques. Illumination design is
dependent upon the object quality(s) the videographer wishes
to emphasize. Large source illumination minimizes texture
detail by creating subtle modeling at the transfer edge
between lit and shadow illumination zones.

To maximize surface texture, choose a small
illumination source. Correct positioning is dependent upon
the surface plane that requires emphasis. By positioning the
illumination source parallel to the object plane,
illumination will skim the surface with light. Modeling will
be most prominent on surface planes directly parallel to the
illumination source. Surface texture will have maximum
emphasis at the transfer edge between lit and shadow
illumination zones. To emphasize object texture, position
the fixture so that the transfer edge is prominent, relative
to camera viewpoint. Texture detail, however, decreases on
the surface plane within the attached shadow region. If
texture detail is prominent in the attached shadow zone, it
is generally due to the application of a secondary

illumination source.

166

Though large source techniques are applicable to matte
surface lighting, multiple source illumination patterns may
prove more advantageous. With multiple source lighting, the
videographer can selectively illuminate the object(s) with
highly controlled specular instruments. The advantage to
multiple source illumination is that the videographer can
selectively illuminate various surface planes within the
image, emphasizing the unique visual qualities of the
object. Large source illumination may then be applied to the
lighting pattern to reduce lighting contrast. Application of
this technique allows for both surface texture and object
color to be emphasized. When applying large source
illumination to a multiple lighting pattern, the diffused
source essentially becomes a fill (secondary) illumination
instrument. As always, the intensity of the fill
illumination source must be carefully controlled to prevent
damaging the illumination effect. The fill light should
never eliminate shadows created by the key light, or create
additional shadows within the scene. If lighting contrast is
difficult to contain, position fill illumination at camera
position. Frontal fill illumination will create shadows
behind the object, therefore hiding them from camera view.

In conclusion, matte surface objects present a
different lighting challenge to the videographer. Matte
objects will typically have reduced luminance differences
between the highlight, lit and shadow illumination zone. The

challenge to the videographer will be artifical manipulation

167

to create lighting dimensionality in the commercial image.
The lighting pattern should accentuate the size, shape,
color, form, and texture of the product. With matte objects,
the criteria which define object quality is accentuated
through entirely different illumination techniques. For
example, diffused illumination accentuates object color and
deemphasizes object texture. To emphasize texture the
videographer will need to use specular illumination, a
pattern which reduces color intensity. To creatively
illuminate a matte surface object, the videographer will
likely find it necessary to use a variety of illumination
techniques. The key to creative development is through
documented experimentation with product illumination

techniques.

II] . I. II I
Before concluding this chapter on product lighting, it
is important to discuss illumination measurement as it
relates to exposure control. Though the incident light meter
is a valuable instrument in most production situations, its
usage in product videography is minimal. There are several
valid production considerations which make the use of an
incident meter an inappropriate measurement choice. First,
the hemispherical dome of the incident meter collects light
from 180 degrees around instrument placement. In product
videography, setup is usually very compressed between

frontal and background surface planes. The incident meter is

168

sensitive to all illumination striking the dome’s surface,
making precise intensity calculation between multiple
fixtures difficult. Second, the area of most concern in
product videography is the luminanee (reflected) value of
the object. Since luminance is dependent upon reflectivity
characteristics of the object’s surface, the usage of a
waveform monitor is essential. The waveform monitor will
provide precise data on the luminance values and contrast
ratio of the image. The area of concern in product lighting
is object luminance, not the light intensity which produces
that luminance value.

Through zone system analyzation, the videographer can
determine the contrast difference githin and betgeen scenic
elements. Differences between reflected values will be due
to either: 1) the amount of light cast onto surface planes
within the image, 2) the position of an illumination
instrument relative to object position, or 3) surface
reflectivity of the object. The waveform monitor provides
reflected spot readings of scenic content. The illumination
effect any manipulative technique will have on final
exposure can be determined through waveform display
analyzation. The waveform monitor provides data at a
precision level not possible through incident metering.

Illumination intensity and exposure control is
dependent upon the reflective characteristics of the
Object(s) within the scene. Through application of the

techniques presented in this manuscript, the videographer

169

can creatively manipulate illumination patterns to precisely
fit the illumination need. Exposure calibration is dependent
upon creative interpretation of the object and the image.
Any exposure has validity as long as it contains scenic
contrast within reproduction limits. Product videography
represents the greatest technical challenge, as well as

boundless latitude in aesthetic lighting design.

 

PROGRAM DESIGN AND EVALUATION

The information contained within this thesis was
discovered through research and experimentation with
contemporary photographic lighting techniques. To accompany
this text, an instructional video program was designed.
Creating an instructional program provided a means for
visually demonstrating the illumination techniques. The
program that accompanies this text provided; 1) a vehicle
for testing the lighting techniques outlined in the text,
while 2) creating a unique instructional package that
demonstrates the application of the techniques. The product
of this design effort is an instructional video program

entitled "Video Lighting: A Photographic Approach”.

W

This program was targeted to reach both a student and
professional media audience. First, the instructional
material was directed toward students in a formal
educational environment. Designed into self-paced
instructional modules, the program is intended to be used as
a supplement to other instructional material. The written
material contained within the thesis can be redesigned to
provide an instructional package with both a written and

170

171

visual instructional component. Due to the complexity of
program material, this instructional package was designed
for adyaneed production students. Advanced production
students are those individuals with several course hours of
classroom and laboratory instruction. The content contained
within the program demonstrates contemporary lighting
techniques applicable to the commercial video production
setting. Therefore, a natural extension of the primary
audience included industry professionals currently employed
within this production setting. The professional group
represents individuals with a higher level of production
experience and expertise. Therefore, program content
included production challenges commonly recognized by the
professional audience. "Video Lighting: A Photographic
Approach“ was designed to be used as reference material, for
demonstrating common illumination challenges and techniques
for overcoming the challenges.

To stimulate viewer interest, the program was produced
using professional industry standards. The goal was to
create an instructional program that contained contemporary
program elements. Several program areas were targeted for
specific attention. These included; programming, lighting,

visual and audio production techniques.

Woo
As outlined in chapter one, ”Video Lighting: A

Photographic Approach" is a three-part instructional video

 

172
program. The program is designed as an instructional manual
which demonstrates contemporary lighting techniques. Each
module within the program is a separate chapter, and the
sequence of chapters carefully presents lighting concepts in
a systematic, logical order.

Each module within the program was designed similiar to
an instructional textbook. Module content was subdivided
into headings, subheadings, and illustrative examples that
address specific content areas. The first three program
modules, ”The Scoop on Scopes", “The Beauty of Glamour
Lighting" and ”Hot Shots for Hot Products“ address unique
instructional content areas.

Each module was carefully designed to expand upon the
illumination techniques presented in earlier instructional
segments. Of primary concern was maintaining a systematic
approach when presenting program content. The information
contained within each module is unique to the module, and
builds upon previously demonstrated techniques.

To facilitate location of instructional segments, a
Table of Contents was included at the beginning and end of
the program series. In addition, an instructional review was
included at the conclusion of each module segment. The
design goal was to maximize instructional efficiency by
providing the viewer with ample reference material.

Major instructional sections were treated as
subheadings within the program module. To facilitate

location of content areas, each concept was introduced via

173

graphic title boards. Graphic boards were used consistently
throughout the instructional series. Title graphics were of
sufficient duration to facilitate location of specific
content during high—speed tape shuttling.

A special segment titled ”Tricks of the Trade" was
designed into each program module. This segment included
specific instruction on advanced illumination techniques
applicable to the video arts. The purpose for creating
"Tricks of the Trade” was two-fold. First, the instructional
segment was designed as a stand—alone miniature program.
This segment presented information that directly related to
the lighting concepts contained within the module. The
program segment, however, was ”technique“ not "concept"
oriented. Second, ”Tricks of the Trade” provided an
additional presentation channel without the potential of
creating informational overload among the audience. This
segment was separated from other instructional material
through a different audio/visual production treatment. This
program segment provided the viewer with a period of
relaxation, and could be located for content review at a

later time.

I' II. I l .
To reinforce the applicability of the illumination

concepts, exceptional lighting challenges were created for

demonstrating the production techniques. For example,

lighting glassware or metallic objects is a difficult

174

illumination challenge commonly recognized by the target
audience. Incorporating these illumination challenges into
the design of the program lends credibility to the
technique, and potentially to program content. Several
illumination challenges were designed into each
instructional module for creation and maintenence of
audience interest.

To create the illusion of three—dimensionality (height,
width, depth) in a two-dimensional medium, the illumination
pattern must be carefully controlled. “Video Lighting: A
Photographic Approach” built upon this production premise by
thoroughly examining:

1) Fixtures, and the characteristics of
illumination produced by different lighting
instruments.

2) Modifiers, and the techniques commonly used to
modify illumination intensity and/or quality.

3) Measurement devices, and the methods used to
evaluate the illumination pattern.

Within a portrait and product production setting, the
preceding criteria were examined in detail. An instructional
goal of this program was to clarify the technical process of
illumination. Approaching the production process from a
'technical perspective provides a means to develop personal

artistic techniques .

175

Because lighting styles are highly personal,
interpretative differences in illumination design were
encouraged. First, several lighting styles were presented,
and the artistic effect of the illumination and/or
modification technique was demonstrated. Second, audio and
video messages were emphasized that encouraged
experimentatign with the illumination techniques. Though
on-screen examples emphasized a specific technical approach,
the audience was encouraged to develop video lighting into a

personal artistic form of expression.

M' J E I I. I I .

To increase the educational value of the program,
several advanced production techniques were demonstrated.
The production techniques were included to demonstrate
illumination concepts, but were not intrinsic to the
lighting technique. The techniques were included to enhance
compositonal design, visual creativity, and the educational
value of the program. Some of the techniques demonstrated
within the program included:

1) transitional mechanisms between visual frames,

2) creating the illusion of depth in a
two—dimensional image,

3) visual design techniques to alter perception,

4) the usage and effect of lens diffusion.

176

Some of these techniques were discovered through
research and development of the instructional program.
Incorporating advanced production techniques into the design
of the program potentially increases the instructional value
of the package. The program was designed to demonstrate
lighting techniques within a programming framework which
allowed demonstration of other production concepts.

The graphic elements within the program were created
based on contemporary designs found in the print medium. The
primary challenge in graphic design was to interrelate
visual concepts within, and between instructional modules.
Each graphic needed to represent the instructional concept,
and relate to the visual design of the entire instructional
package. To enhance the graphic interrelationship between
modules, a couple of production techniques were used. First,
the color(s) used throughout the program were contained
within a limited palette selection. The basic color
selection used in the program were shades of blue and gray.
Limiting the color palette is based on several important
production considerations. First, many accent color
combinations can be used against a blue/gray backdrop, and
virtually any color combination would harmonize. Using gray
as a primary background color limited the potential for
color discontinuity between program elements created over
aseveral months of production. Second, both color accents and
white lettering are projected with equal clarity over a gray

‘backdrop. Third, reproduction clarity of this color palette

 

177

is superior to other color combinations. With industrial
grade video production formats, some colors (red, magenta)
have a tendency to ”band“ or "desaturate" during the
record/playback process. Finally, contrast build-up, an
additional production anomoly encountered in program

replication is not as noticable with this palette selection.

1 1' I l .
To prevent program monotony, several audio production
techniques were incorporated into the design of the program.
First, different narrators (two male, one female) were used
within each module to create aural variety within each
segment. The first narrator (male) was used exclusively for
introductions and conclusions to module heading/subheading
material. A second narrator (male) was used for basic module
content. Finally, a third narrator (female) was used
exclusively for the "Tricks of the Trade“ sequence. Using a
variety of narrators for specific program content provided
continuity, variety, and separation between module material.
Another production technique called “audio
paragraphing“ was used to maintain audience attention.
”Paragraphing“ redirects audience attention to program
content by creating separate audio events which are distinct
from the narration sound track. Audio events commonly used
for paragraphing include both music and sound effects. By
creating aural variety within a video soundtrack, listener

attention is redirected to program content. To maintain

178

audience attention several different music beds were
created, each linked to specific program transitions. Stereo
sound effects specifically keyed to visual events (through
SMPTE time code editing) were also included to give the
program aural dimensionality. Sound effects were included
within the stereo soundtrack to:
1) redirect audience attention to the visual
content,
2) provide an aural transition between visual
elements, and
3) reinforce special visual effects.
The usage of music and sound effects were carefully
timed to prevent redundancy, which would reduce the effect

or impact of the production technique on the viewing

audience.

D . C J .
In conclusion, the goal was to create contemporary
images within the framework of an instructional video
package. Design criteria incorporated into development of
'the program was based on: 1) instructional and
jpresentational clarity, 2) enhancing the instructional
experience by presenting advanced instruction in both
lighting and production techniques, 3) creating an
exhucational program that was applicable to an audience with
(diverse production expertise, and 4) creating a program

which met or exceeded contempory program design standards.

179

W

To evaluate program effectiveness, a sample audience
was selected from the targeted research groups. A brief
description of these groups is included for reference to
program evaluation results.

First, student volunteers were solicited from Michigan
State University. To qualify as an advanced production
student, each participant had completed their basic academic
requirements which included TC 302, an introductory course
in basic video (studio) production. These students were
solicited for program evaluation from four specific advanced
production courses. A group of eleven students was secured
from TC 350, an advanced audio production course. Each of
these students had previously completed TC 302, and this
group was selected to test questionnaire language and
design. Testing results and evaluatory comments are included
from this selected group, even though their interest/
motivational level scored statistically lower throughout
every testing category.

Student reponses were also collected from other
instructional courses. Twelve students from TC 421
(Electronic Field Production) participated in evaluation of
the program. The evaluation process was completed during a
regular course session, and the collected data has also been

combined with the evaluation from other production groups.

 

180

Finally, separate evaluatory sessions were conducted
for students in TC 351 (Advanced Television Production), TC
361 (Intermediate Television Directing) and TC 451 (Advanced
Television Directing). A total of fourteen students from
these three production courses volunteered to participate in
the evaluatory process. The total number of advanced
production students participating in program evaluation
totaled thirty-seven (n = 37) individuals.

Evaluatory comments were also collected from an
assembled panel of media professionals working in the film
and video production industry. The professional panel was
asked to critique the program on the same criteria used by
advanced production students at Michigan State University.
The results of this professional review are compared against
the data collected from the participating production
students. The following is a brief production biography for
each of the professional panel members.

Richard Mitchell is a Video Unit Manager for A.A.A. of
Michigan. Mr. Mitchell has been a Producer in corporate
video for eight years, creating programs that are primarily
informational, educational or instructional in nature.

Dennis Mills, David Love, and Don Burke are employed by
Marita Communications Company, a high-tech independent
production company in Detroit, Michigan. Mr. Mills is the
Senior Video Engineer, primarily responsible for overseeing
camera setup, operation and maintaining technical

reproduction standards. Mr. Love is the Manager of Film and

 

181

Video Production operations for both studio and remote
location production. Mr. Burke is the Stage Manager for
Marita Communications, in charge of lighting, scenery, and
Draperty setup.

Thomas Wait, Robert Moore, Scott Rubens, Mark Cridland,
Jeff Dudley, and Lee Johnson are all employed by WTLV—TVlZ
in Jacksonville, Florida. All of these individuals provide a
commercial broadcasting perspective to the evaluatory
process. Mr. Wait is the Director of Creative Services,
primarily responsible for production staffing and
advertising production at WTLV-TV. Mr. Moore is employed as
a Studio Supervisor, and has specialized in Studio/EFF
lighting and staging for over 9 years. In addition to his
professional television credits, Mr. Moore has also
freelanced in both film and concert lighting/staging design.
'Mr. Rubens is employed as a Director at WTLV—TV. His
directoral assignments include college football, parades,
and special event production, as well as regular
entertainment and news oriented programming. Mr. Cridland is
employed primarily as a Newscast Director at WTLV—TV, with
six years of directing experience in various production
positions. Mr. Dudley is a Producer/Director in the
Jacksonville market, with approximately two years of
professional experience. Finally, Mr. Johnson works within
‘the studio production staff, in various production

capacities.

182
MW

Subjective analysis of program content and stylistics
will not yield meaningful statistical results on the
instructional design process. How an individual evaluates
and utilizes a subjective technique is dependent upon the
artistic perspective of the individual. Statistically
testing the application of illumination techniques would
have little validity, due to the subjective nature of the
art form.

Evaluatory information useful to the program designer
is based on the clarity of instructional content. Objective
analysis of testable instructional concepts (ie. program
pacing, clarity of language, program attentiveness, etc.)
provides vital data to the designer of video programming.
Information collected through summative evaluation provides
a foundation on which to build future programming decisions.
Particularly with subjective topics, the issue is not
whether the evaluatory group agrees with the program
concept, but rather, do they clearly understand and
comprehend the presentation of those concepts. Program
effectiveness is based, in part, on the ability to
communicate concepts in a clear and concise manner.

Evaluation of program design criteria provides a
methodology for analyzing the effectiveness of theoretical
and.pmactical production techniques. To test the design
concepts outlined at the beginning of this chapter, an

evaluatory form was designed. The testing instrument

183

solicited ordinal level data from the evaluatory audience.
Using a standard Likert scale for evaluation, the
respondents were questioned on several theoretical and
practical design concepts. These concepts were incorporated
into the instructional and communicative design of: "Video
Lighting: A Photographic Approach“

The testing instrument (appendix E) was a survey
research questionnaire containing twenty-four evaluatory
questions. Twenty-two of the questions were closed-ended,
requiring a single response from a group of appropriate
options. Sixteen of these questions were presented in the
form of a semantic differential Likert Scale. Each response
was assigned numerical value between one (1) and five (5).
The numerical ranking for all questions was assigned based
on a: high (1), above average (2), average (3), below
average (4), or low (5) level of instructional
applicability. Six of the twenty-four questions only asked
for a Yes, No, or Don’t Know response. Finally, two of the
twenty—four questions were open-ended, prompting the
evaluatory audience for a written response. The open-ended
questions were included to collect additional information
not specifically addressed in the evaluatory instrument.

The following results were collected through evaluation
of data collected from the survey questionnaire (appendix
E.) Where appropriate, the scores between the evaluatory

groups have been compared. This comparison was not included

 

184

to measure intellectual or professional differences between
production groups, but rather, to measure the applicability

of the instructional design across audience groups.

WM

Question one and two were designed to measure
participant interest in the subject matter. Participants
were asked to rank their personal interest in the subject
material hefgze and after program exposure. By comparing the
two data sets, conjectures can be made on the motivational
effectiveness of the instructional program. Within both
evaluatory groups the mode (most frequently selected
ranking), was "average“ before program exposure. After
exposure, mode scores within both evaluatory groups shifted
positive. Both production groups shifted to an ”above
average“ mode level after program exposure. The numerical
mean score (computed by summing the responses and then
dividing total value by number of respondents) also changed
between measurement questions one and two. Within the
advanced student group, a mean pre-exposure interest level
of 2.54 was calculated. After exposure, the interest level
in the same group changed to a mean value of 1.94. The
numerical change within the professional evaluatory group
was similiar. Pre-program exposure interest ranked 2.4 among
the 10 professional respondents. After program exposure, the

mean score value changed to a group value of 2.0. Both

185

sectors, therefore, demonstrated positive numerical changes
with respect to general motivational interest.

Question three asked the respondents to rank their
general interest level during viewing of the instructional
program. Testing results indicate little difference between
evaluatory groups with respect to their general interest
when viewing the instructional program. Mean rankings from
both evaluatory groups were tightly clustered around a 2.0
(above average) score. The dispersion of scores was equal
across the top three (high, above average, average) response
categories. As expected, there was a high correlation
between motivational change (numerical difference between
question one and two) and program attentiveness. Those
participants indicating an increased interest in the subject
matter, also indicated above normal attentiveness during
program viewing.

Different group responses were collected between
evaluatory sectors in response to survey question number
four. When asked if the program presented unique production
concepts based on their prior lighting knowledge, thirty-six
of the student evaluators indicated "yes" (97%). Within the
professional evaluation group response was divided between
panel members. Six of the ten professional respondents
indicated the information was unique to their prior
knowledge, while four of the respondents indicated prior

exposure to the illumination techniques.

 

186

Question five asked the respondents to rate the
applicability of the demonstrated techniques to a
single-camera video production setting. This question was
included to ascertain perceived viability of the concepts
within a commercial production setting. Ninety percent of
the respondents from both evaluatory groups indicated that
the demonstrated concepts had "above average" or ”high”
applicability to a standard single-camera video production
session.

Question six asked the respondents to rank their
motixatign level toward exploring/developing the lighting
concepts contained within the instructional program.

Response to this question was mixed as the following data

indicates:
Students Professional
QQEEEQI! (n) (X) (n) (X)
HiGh 8 22 1 10
Above Average 19 51 5 50
Average 9 24 2 20
Below Average 1 3 2 20
Low 0 0 0 0

Both evaluatory sectors indicated a wide range of
motivational responses with regards to personal development
of the illumination concepts contained within the program.
In general, both evaluatory groups indicated a ”high” or

”above average” personal motivation toward development of

187

program techniques. Seventy—two percent of the student, and
sixty percent of the professional responses fell within the
two highest motivational categories. A nearly equal
percentage of student an professional panel members also
indicated an " average " or "below average“ motivation toward
developing the instructional techniques.

Question seven was open—ended, requesting subjective
(attitudinal) information on program design. The respondents
were asked to supply a word or phrase which they felt best
described the lighting/production techniques used in "Video
Lighting: A Photographic Approach". Any classification
methodology used to categorize informational responses is
arbitrarly dependent upon how the data is evaluated.
Subjective response to the program and production
techniques, however, appears to be overwhelmingly positive
from both evaluatory groups. The first set of responses have
been categorized according to the evaluatory group.
Duplicate responses were tabulated numerically, following

the response category.

WW
Informative (3) Interesting (2) Creative (2)
‘Time Consuming (2) Concise Perceptive

Bas ic Highly Useful

Informative (4)
Interesting (3)
Innovative (2)
Modern

Dynamic
Phenomenal
Basic
Insightful
Intricate
Involving
Comprehensive
Unique

Time Consuming.

188

Student_Exnluatnrz_Grnup
Professional (4) Creative (4)
Structured (2) Helpful (2)
Useful Exciting
Appropriate Enticing

A great sense of depth impression.
Very Adaptable to Daily Use.

Good Looking.

Top of the Line.

Gets your attention.

A technically specific approach.
Graphically aesthetic.

Diversity at its finest.

The adjectives used to describe program content and

design appear to be very positive within both evaluatory

groups. Suprisingly, there was a high frequency of response

consistency between evaluatbry panel members. The following

list categorizes the most common responses, and the response

frequency between evaluatory groups.

189

Common Evaluatory Descriptors

Response

Informative

E

Creative
Interesting
Professional
Time Consuming
Structured
Innovative
Useful

Helpful

NNNNNQ’hO‘Q‘Q

Basic

Many of the descriptors used are open to semantical
interpretation. For example, the response "time consuming“
appeared within both evaluatory groups. This descriptor
could be interpreted to mean that the techniques required a
greater amount of production time to execute, or as a phrase
which described a negative reaction to the program
presentation. Lacking further information, interpretation of
the descriptive language is left to conjecture.

Question eight asked the respondents to rank the
instructional clarity of the program. Over 80% of the
respondents from both evaluatory groups indicated that the
instructional clarity was “above average“ or "high” within

this demonstrational program.'

190

Question nine followed-up on the previous question, by
asking respondents to rank the eentnihutien of the
demomstrational examples toward learning the related
lighting concepts. Thirty-one students (83%) and 9 out of 10
professional respondents indicated that instructional
examples were ”above average“ or "high” in relation to
learning the illumination concepts.

Question ten was included to determine the complexity
of the instructional material. Because the program was
intentionally designed on several different production
levels, the anticipated response should indicate a need for
repetitious viewing.

Evaluatory Group

Setegerx Student Enefeeeiennl
One viewing only 0 0
Two viewings 14 3
Three viewings 15 3
Four viewings 4 2
Five or more viewings 4 2

Question eleven was included to determine whether the
“module" concept was beneficial or detrimental to the
instructional process. Overwhelming response indicated that
the design concept was henefieiel to the instructional
Process. Thiry-six out of thirty-seven students, and nine
out of ten professionals indicated program module design was

beneficial to the instructional process.

191

Question twelve was used to evaluate the organization
of instructional material. Respondents were asked whether
the information contained within each module was presented
in a systematic and logical manner. Again, overwhelming
response from both evaluatory groups indicated that ”Video
Lighting: A Photographic Approach“ was designed with high
instructional clarity. Eighty-four percent of the students,
and one—hundred percent of the professional evaluators
positively indicated there was good organizational clarity
within, and between instructional modules.

Question thirteen asked the respondents to assign a
difficulty factor to the instructional material. Response
between evaluation groups varied greatly, but some
consistencies were noted. The majority of respondents in
both groups indicated that instructional difficulty ranked
an “average“ or higher (above average, high) difficulty
factor. Ninety-five percent of the student, and 80% of the
professional responses were contained within one of the

three highest evaluation categories.

Evaluatory Group

Meant! Student Emfeeeienel
High Difficulty 3 1
Above Average 24 3
Average 8 4
Below Average ‘2 0
Low Difficulty 0 2

192

This program may have presented a greater intellectual
challenge to the student population based on lack of
exposure to the instructional concepts (question four). From
the evaluatory data it appears that the intellectual
challenge did not extend beyond the capabilities of the
student audience, while maintaining interest among the
professional evaluatory panel. Those professional evaluators
which rated the program as having a low difficulty factor,
also ranked attentiveness (question 3) and general enjoyment
(question 23) as either "high", or "above average“.
Therefore, although program concepts posed a greater
intellectual challenge to the student audience, both groups
assigned diffieultx. nttentixeness. and W
satisfactory evaluation scores.

Question fourteen asked the evaluatory panel to rate
the program with respect to the emennt of instructional
material within each module. Eight out of ten professionals,
and twenty—four out of thirty-seven students assigned an
“above average” ranking to this program.

Question fifteen was included to measure the
appropriateness of instructional material. This question was
included to determine if the information within each module
seemed appropriate to the content area. Evaluatory response

frequencies were tabulated as follows:

 

193

Evaluatory Group

W Student Erefessienal
Highly Appropriate 10 1
Above Average 19 5
Average 7 2
Below Average 1 2
Low Appropriatness 0 0

The “above average“ category had the largest response
frequency across both evaluatory groups. Student evaluation
members tended to skew toward a higher appropriateness
factor, while professional evaluators skewed toward the
middle of the Likert scale. Approximately 78% of the student
group indicated that the material presented had a “high“ or
“above average“ appropriateness ranking.

Question sixteen was included to determine the
appropriateness of instructional pacing. Response ratings to
question sixteen were diverse, with an average rating score
of 2.62 collected from the evaluatory panel.

Evaluatory Group

Sate-gen! Student Emfeseienal
Highly Appropriate Pacing 4 1
Above Average 13 5
Average 14 3
Below Average 5 1
ILow Pacing Appropriatness '1 O

194

Across both production sectors, the program was rated
slightly above “average” in terms of pacing the
instructional material. Response to question sixteen ranged
- across the entire Likert scale, making generalizations on
program pacing difficult to determine. With self-paced
programming, instructional pacing may be a moot point, as
long as content pacing does not distract viewer attention.
Data results from question three indicate that the program
did maintain viewer attentiveness and, therefore,
instructional pacing was conducive to the program design.

Question seventeen asked the respondents to rate "Video
Lighting: A Photographic Approach” against other programs
with respect to instructional clarity. Of the thirty—seven
students, twenty-five indicated that the program ranked
higher in terms of instructional clarity than other programs
they had seen. Twelve of the students indicated that they
“didn’t know“ how this program would rate against other
instructional programming. None of the students ranked the
program lower in terms of instructional clarity. Response
from the professional evaluation panel was nearly identical.
Seven of the ten professional respondents indicated that the
program had higher instructional clarity than other
instructional programming. Two of the professional
respondents indicated "don’t know” with respect to clarity
of instruction. Finally, one of the professional panel

members ranked the program lower in terms of instructional

clarity.

195

The next question asked the respondents to rank the
program based on the instructional value of the content.
Response to question eighteen was very consistent between
evaluation groups. All of the respondents indicated that, at
minimum, the program had an "average” instructional value
and frequently assigned an “above average” or "high“ value
to the instructional content.

Evaluatory Group

Qategem Student Enefessienal
High Instructional Value 11 4
Above Average 23 4
Average 3 1
Below Average 0 0
Low Instructional Value 0 0

Eight out of ten (with an abstaining member) assigned
an instructional value of "above average“ or "high” to the
program content. Within the student group, approximately 30%
of the respondents gave the program the highest possible
value rating. An additional 62% of the student responses
indicated that the instructional value of the program was
“above average”.

Question nineteen asked the respondents to assign a
difficulty factor to the learning of the featured
illumination techniques. The overwhelming response from both
groups indicated that the demenstrated concepts were of

"average difficulty“. Within the professional evaluation

196

group, this was the only selected response category. Over
62% of the student participants also indicated the program
was of average difficulty. Thirty-two percent of the
students indicated that the concepts demonstrated within the
program were ”very difficult". None of the respondents
indicated that the concepts were “extremely difficult“ or
”extremely easy”, semantic differential extremes on the
Likert scale. Therefore, response from both evaluatory
groups was clustered around an “average difficulty” ranking.
Question twenty asked the participants to rank their

improvement in skill level based on a single exposure to the

program.
Evaluatory Group

Qategerx Student Enzfessiennl
Greatly Improved 3 0
Above Average Improvement 10 2
Average Improvement 18 7
Little Improvement 6 0
No Improvement ' 0 1

Most of the respondents indicated an ”average”
improvement level based on one exposure to the program
material. Since the program is a self—paced instructional
package, improvement ratings, in actuality, should be based
over several exposures to program content. The fact that

several students and two of the ten professional reviewers

 

197
perceived "above average" improvement based on a single
exposure, speaks strongly to the clarity of instructional
design.

Question twenty—one asked both evaluatory groups if
they would enroll in a formal course of study (or production
seminar) which included the lighting concepts demonstrated
within the program. This question was included to determine:
1) a preceived need for improving video lighting techniques,
2) motivation to satisfy the preceived need, and 3)
acceptance and/or rejection of the program concept and the
expertise of the program designer. Nearly 82% of the student
group and 70% of the professional panel indicated they wenld
enrell in a professional course if one was conveniently
offered. Approximately 5% of the student group, and 20% of
the professional panel indicated that they would not be
interested in further instruction on the lighting concepts.
One professional, and five student evaluators indicated that
they didn’t know if the would be interested in further
lighting study.

Question twenty—two posed the following: "If this
program and an accompanying instructional manual was
available for purchase at a price comparable to other
instructional packages, would you buy this program? This
question was designed to determine: 1) the acceptance of
this program as a commercial product, and 2) the marketing
potential for the program concept. Response to the question

was mixed, especially among the student evaluatory group.

198

Response from student evaluators was equally divided between
"yes“ (35%), ”no” (27%) and ”don’t know” (38%) categories.
In the professional sector, however, eight of the ten
respondents indicated positive interest in purchasing an
instructional package. The remaining professional
respondents (2) were uncertain whether they would be
interested in an instructional lighting package.

Question twenty-three was a concluding close-ended
question which asked the respondent to indicate on a Likert
scale their general viewing enjoyment of “Video Lighting: A
Photographic Approach“.

Evaluatory Group

Qategerx Student Erefeesienel
High General Enjoyment 6 1
Above Average 21 3
Average 8 6
Below Average 2 0
Low General Enjoyment 0 0

“Enjoyment“ may be as much a part of the instructional
process as other program design components. The audience
brings to the video screen a set of expectations built up
from exposure to entertainment program formats. Though the
ultimate goal of this program was the instruction of a
complex lighting process, the instructional success of the
project may be due in part to the entertaining manner

through which instructional concepts were presented.

199

Question twenty-four was open-ended, asking both
evaluatory bodies for additional comments, criticisms, or
critique of the instructional package. Responses generated
from question twenty-four have been packaged according to
the evaluatory group, and according to the relationship
'between the comments.

Of primary concern within the professional group was
the language and/or terms used within the program was too
technical for rapid comprehension. The program assumes a
certain level of technical expertise, and builds from that
point. One of the professional evaluators indicated that the
information was very detailed and moved at a rapid pace
which sometimes made it (the instructional point) difficult
to understand. Though designed as a self-paced instructional
program, a glossary of terms should probably be included
within the written instructional text.

Within module one, light measurement and computation of
a lighting ratio is fully detailed. Professional criticism
from one panel member was based on the intended purpose for
computing the lighting ratio. The evaluator criticised the
segment based on the implied manner with which the
information was presented. In retrospect, the connection
between light ratio computation and the information on
maximum reproduction latitude might need stronger
instructional and visual emphasis.

The sole respondent that indicated the module concept

was detrimental to the instructional process (question

200

eleven), qualified the response by indicating that the
instructional modules should have been enerter in length and
breadth of information. At issue, therefore, is not based on
the module concept, but rather the execution of the concept
within the instructional package. Due to the positive
response collected from other evaluatory members on program
design, this criticism is not seen as being a significant
programming problem.

Finally, production criticism on the lack of camera or
subject movement within the scene was noted. Critical
response collected under this category include:

"Information seemed limited to lighting singular

subjects“.

”Our shots usually have moving cameras, talent“.

However, as the literature in chapter one of this
thesis indicates, any study of lighting design is most
effective in single subject portraiture, and product
still-life videography. To maximize instructional clarity,
visual complexity was purposely limited to focus viewer
attention on the instructional material. By directing
attention onto specific visual areas, the instructional
point would be visually emphasized. The visual intention of
the designer was to clarify/instruct the audience on he!
lighting can be used as a creative production tool, not on
designing complex commercial images. For the most part, the

instructional scheme worked. Criticism on program design was

 

201

minimal, and many positive comments were collected on the
design and implementation of the program concept. Some of

the professional panel members indicated that:

"...the program looks great visually“

“I’d recommend this tape to my past professors at
the University of Florida".

Instructional interest was also expressed by
professional panel members for additional instructional
modules. Suggestions for further development include modules
on exterior lighting, remote lighting, large object (ie.
automobile) illumination, and additional creative
information on how different instruments and attachments can
be used to effect/manipulate illumination.

Student critiques of “Video Lighting: A Photographic
Approach” indicate that as an instructional tool, the
program was highly successful in explaining advanced
illumination concepts. Many advanced students offered
positive suggestions on further development of the
instructional process. Several of the responses have been

included to give the reader a flavor of instructional

evaluation.

"In approximately one hour (this program) managed
to raise my interest, taught me, and let us enjoy
different aspects of lighting. Nothing I’ve
encountered so far has been able to do that.“

“...it was very informative.”

 

202

“Personally (the program) raises many questions
and things that I would like to try. I think this
is very good. ”

”I liked the use of examples because they applied
to what was being said.”

This (program) would be excellent as a
supplemental video for a lighting course or
seminar. "

”It includes a lot of information in such a short
program.”

’...a manual would be a great asset.“

”A very informative and well organized program.
Excellent use of lighting examples.”

”I would like to see an additional video which
emphasizes dramatic studio lighting techniques.“

“I learned a great deal about lighting.“

"I was very impressed, I would probably refer to
it (the program) several times for specific
reference.”

The instructional module approach met with overwhelming
approval in student sector evaluation. The pacing of module
content, however, received mixed evaluatory results. Though
the program was never intended to be consumed within a
single viewing session, the evaluation process may have
misled audience interpretation of the program design goals.
“Video Lighting: A Photographic Approach” was always
intended to be an advanced, self-paced series, which

contained intensive condensation of lighting and advanced

production techniques. Evaluating the following comments

 

203

within the intended instructional framework, may provide

insight on the dimensionality of the program. Comments

included:

"It just appeared to be too much information being
tossed at you at one time...split it in half and

it would be easier to follow and remember when the
shows done.”

"The module dealing with the use of meters and
calibration of meter/camera went by very quickly.

Less technical areas were paced at an appropriate
speed.“

“...some new concepts were brushed over very
quickly."

“Confused about lighting ratios — once you figure
it out, what do you do with it?”

"First module requires more clarity...hands on
experience would be helpful.“

”The pace was swift”

”If one were to learn and be tested on this
material, additional viewings would be needed.”

”Sometimes the pacing was too fast, particularly
on the waveform monitor and it’s connection to
determining proper contrast.”

”There was quite a bit of material covered and
although the concepts were clearly portrayed,
practice and hands—on experience is needed. "

”I feel some of the concepts in this program were
complex, and at some points I had difficulty
understanding...Maybe what’s best for me is to
learn by doing, and then consult this program when
I have greater knowledge.”

204

Finally, some of the advanced production students at
Michigan State University took the opportunity to interject
personal subjective reaction to the techniques demonstrated

within the program.

"I think the program is very professional...”

”Technically it was very good and had a very
professional appearance. ”

“Use and types of examples and actual explanation
was very clear and informative.“

“Great Visuals...Great Sound."

”Exceptional Quality - Very Professional.”
"Graphics and Audio helped create an interest
level above what the audience would expect from

the material.

”...the use of graphics and audio...very well
done. "

"I thought the program was phenomenal in all
areas, including production technique.

"I did enjoy the program, and am sure to use some
of the suggestions.
W
The following list of conclusions is based on the data
results collected from the survey questionnaire. The simple
descriptive statistics applied to the evaluatory data,
highlights several of the design strengths of the
instructional program. Results collected through a summative

evaluation process provide an excellent foundation on which

 

205

to build future instructional modules. The design of
additional lighting modules will benefit from the objective
data collected through the initial evaluation process.

First, according to survey results the information
contained within "Video Lighting: A Photographic Approach“
was new the target audience. Ninety—seven percent of the
student and 60 percent of the professional evaluatory panel
indicated that the illumination concepts were unique to
their prior professional exposure. Ninety percent of both
evaluatory audiences indicated that the techniques
demonstrated within the program were highly applicable to
the single camera production setting.

Second, between sixty and seventy percent of the target
audience indicated a ”high" or “above average" motivation
toward developing the illumination techniques contained
within the instructional program. Motivational interest in
exploring contemporary lighting techniques increased
slightly after program exposure. Average group scores
changed from 2.54 to 1.94 in the student population, and
from 2.4 to 2.0 in the professional evaluatory panel.
Statistical results indicate an increased interest in the
topic material.

Third, several subjective words were supplied by the
evaluatory audience to describe the lighting and production
techniques contained within the program. Adjectives used to
describe the instructional pregram include: Informative,

Creative, Interesting, and Professional.

 

206

Fourth, eighty percent of both evaluatory groups ranked
the instruction program either ”High” or "Above Average”
with respect to clarity of instructional presentation.
Similiar scores were also received for clarity and
contribution of visual examples for demonstrating key
illumination techniques.

Fifth, nearly all of the evaluatory members indicated
that the “module“ concept proved beneficial to the
instruction of the illumination concepts. One-hundred
percent of the professional and eighty-four percent of the
students indicated that organization of instructional
content within, and between modules was presented in a
logical progression.

Sixth. the ammnt. W, and ending of
instructional content was ranked ”above average" by both
evaluatory groups. According to evaluatory data, both
audiences assigned a "high“ or “above average” rating to
“Video Lighting: A Photographic Approach” with respect to:
1) the value of instructional content, and 2) the value of
this program compared against other instructional programs.

Finally, survey data indicates overwhelming acceptance
of the concept, process, and product of the instructional
project. Based on survey findings, there appears to be a
strong need and high audience motivation toward adapting the

illumination techniques demonstrated within the program.

207

Future options include program marketing, and seminar
instruction on the application of photographic lighting
techniques in the video production setting.

Evaluation is generally considered the concluding act
or chapter in the creative design process. A common
evaluatory goal is testing the instructional effectiveness
of the project on a perceived target audience. However, the
process of summative evaluation marks the passage from one,
to the beginning of another program design challenge.
Information and techniques collected in the development of a
previous project, create a foundation on which to beginning
anew. The success of this project is due, in part, to prior
success and failure in the creative act of designing video
programming. What was once the ceiling of one’s personal
capabilities, becomes the floor in future creative

endeavors.

APPENDICES

 

APPENDIX A

Video Lighting:

208

A Photographic Approach

Title: The Scoop on Scopes Producer/Director: Haggadone
Page Number: 1 of 24 Program Number: 1 of 3
VIDEO AUDIO

Open Graphic
KEY: Video Lighting:

“The Scoop on Scopes“

Single frame photos

over background

Animation: "Distant
Horizons“
Dissolve: "Eye model

over animation seq.

KEY: (Characteristics)

MUSIC UP/UNDER

Light...probably the most important
and least understood element in
video production. Through
understanding the qualities and
potential of light, the power of

creativity will be at your

fingertips.

MUSIC X-FADE T0 WIND SFX

To expand your visual horizons, it
is first necessary to understand
the differenee between how the eye,
and the video camera react to
light.

The eye is highly sensitive, and
subjective in its intrepretation of
light. Capable of adjusting to
intensity variations in

milliseconds, the eye—brain

Video Lighting:

209

A Photographic Approach

The Scoop on Scopes Producer/Director: Haggadone

Page Number: 2 of 24

Dissolve out Eye model

Dissolve:

Dissolve out camera

”The Challenge“

Program Number: 1 of 3

AUDI!)
combination can preceive scenic
detail over a very wide contrast
range. The eye can easily adapt to
light intensity variations in which
the highlights are are l-thousand
times brighter than the darkest

areas .

The camera however, is an objective
instrument which can reproduce only
a limited contrast range. Maximum
system latitude, is limited to a 20
to 1 ratio. This means that when
attempting to record an image, the
brightest areas are limited to 20
times greater intensity than the
darkest areas. In video, it is
necessary to limit scenic contrast
in order to retain subtle detail

throughout the entire image.

The challenge to the working
professional is therefore to

translate what the eye sees, with

Video Lighting:
Title: The Scoop on Scopes

Page Number: 3 of 24

XIDEQ

Diss. “B” roll/studio

Diss: Studio Setup

Key: (Elements)

Hand takes meter
Overhead CU. meter

moves into frame

Subject profile
arrow animation
Subject frontal
reflected animation

Dissolve FS graphic

210

A Photographic Approach
Producer/Director: Haggadone
Program Number: 1 of 3

what the medium is capable of

reproducing.

MUSIC SOUNDER
To measure light intensity, three
objective testing instruments have
been developed for the film and
video arts. They are:

The Reflected Light Meter

The Incident Light Meter

and The Reflected Spot Meter
Let’s take a look at each of these
instruments, starting with the

reflected light meter.

The reflective light meter analyzes
light that is reflected from the

scene toward camera viewpoint

Having approximately a 30 degree
angle of acceptance, the reflected
light meter simply averages scenic
content and provides the operator

with a recommended f-stop setting.

 

Video Lighting:

211

A Photographic Approach

Title: The Scoop on Scopes Producer/Director: Haggadone

Page Number: 4 of 24

HDEQ

CU Auto iris

(Highlight)

Dissolve FS Graphic

Key: (Disadvantages)

Diss. Gray Scale

over graphic bkg.

Program Number: 1 of 3

AUDIO

APITURE "WHIRRING" SFX

The auto iris built into most video
cameras operates essentially in the
same manner. The primary difference
between an auto iris and a
reflected hand-held meter is that
the angle of acceptance is
determined on a video camera by the

focal setting of the lens.

There are several disadvantages to
using either a reflected meter or
the cameras auto iris when making

exposure decisions.

The reflected meter is calibrated
to provide an exposure, based on
average scenic content. Because
most natural scenes have a range of
reflective densities between light
and dark, a mid-tone or middle gray

value is chosen for calibration.

Video Lighting:
The Scoop on Scopes

Title:
Page Number:

5 of 24
YIDEQ
Dissolve: LS Studio

High Key portrait

Cut: CU Portrait

close aperture to
middle gray value
Dissolve: CU portrait

Low Key setup

raise aperture to

middle gray value

Animation: Setshots

Portraits & Products

 

212

A Photographic Approach
(Producer/Director: Haggadone
Program Number: 1 of 3

AflDlQ
A studio setup in which light or
dark tones predominate, will fool
the reflected light meter into

providing inappropriate exposure

data.

A scene in which light tones
predominate, will fool the
reflected meter into selecting an
aperture setting that averages the
scene to middle gray. A similar
problem will also be encountered in
predominantly dark tone scenes. The
meter will compensate for the low
illumination level, and supply
exposure information which would

destroy the intended lighting
effect.

PROGRAMMED SFX SEQUENCE
In order to have full control of
the video image, the videographer

should never rely on an auto iris

to provide exposure information. To

 

Video Lighting:

213

A Photographic Approach

Title: The Scoop on Scopes Producer/Director: Haggadone

Page Number: 6 of 24

EIDEO

Take Black

Fade: Grid Graphic Bkg.
KEY: Incident Light
Metering
Dissolve:
Meter setup
Hand grabs meter
Overhead CU

Hand placing meter

Animation: “Arrows"

Diss. FS Graphic Bkg-

Program Number: 1 of 3
AUDIO
surrender exposure control to an
auto iris, is to surrender your
artistic creativity.

MOTOR DRIVE SFX

MUSIC SOUNDER
An incident light meter is a
valuable instrument for making
accurate lighting decisions.
Calibrated in foot-candles, an
incident meter can be used to
establish lighting ratios on an
individual subject... or an entire

set.

The primary difference between an
incident and a reflective meter is
that an incident meter measures

illumination intensity which falls

upon...or is incident to the scene.

Basically two methods are use to

determine lighting ratios. They are

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KEY: (methods)

Dissolve: MS Portrait

fixtures visible

KEY: (formula)

CU Models face

Meter positioned

Meter removed

Program Number: 1 of 3
AUDIO

for:
— Overlapping Fixtures and

- Non—Overlapping Fixtures

In a lighting setup where the fill
light overlaps the coverage area of
the key, measurement accuracy is
crucial in order to determine the
lighting ratio. The ratio
between overlapping fixtures can
be mathmatically expressed as the:
Key intensity plus the Fill
intensity divided by the Fill

intensity alone.

To determine the key plus fill
intensity, simply position the dome
of the light meter midway between
the two illumination sources. The
meter’s white dome acts as a
collector for the photo-electric
cell inside the meter, and is
sensitive to light from a

one-hundred and eighty degree.

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hemisphere.

Hand places meter down Once you have determined the
record FC intensity foot-candle intensity of the key
light combined with the fill, it is
generally a good idea to write it
down. This is particularly

important in complex lighting

arrangements.
Meter placed Q fill Next, to determine the fill light
position intensity, place the meter in the

same position. Then, take your
hand, and shade off the meter dome

Shade off key from the direct rays of the key
illumination light source. Make a note of the

fill light’s foot—candle intensity.

Dissolve: FS Graphic To determine the lighting ratio,
simply divide the key plus fill
intensity by the fill light
intensity alone. For example, in
this setup a key plus fill

intensity of 125 foot candles,

 

 

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Graphic Animation

Dissolve

KEY: (example)

Dissolve: LS Portrait

non-overlap set

KEY: (formula)

CU Head w/meter
separate meter

readings

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divided by the fill intensity of 64
foot candles, yields a lighting

ratio of approximately 2 to 1.

If, for example, our fill light
intensity had only been 32 foot
candles, our lighting ratio would
have been 125 divided by 32, or a

four to one lighting ratio.

Now lets look at a setup where the
key and fill lights do not'overlap.
The lighting ratio for non-
overlapping fixture’s is
mathmatically expressed as:
The key light intensity
divided by the fill light

intensity.

To determine the lighting ratio on
this setup, simply take seperate
readings from both light

with the dome pointed

directions...

toward the illumination source.

 

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VIDEO

Diss: Graphic

KEY: (example)

Diss: Graphic (2 boxes)
KEY: Formulas
Overlapping

Non-Overlapping

Diss: Overhead Setshot

Program Number: 1 of 3

AUDIO

As before, simply divide the
numerator by the denominator, to
determine the lighting ratio. For
example, if our key light measured
100 foot candles, and the
non—overlapping fill light measured
35 foot candles, the result would
be approximately a three to one

lighting ratio.

To get consistent results, it is
important to remember the formula
applicable to the lighting setup.
The overlapping fixture formula
should only be used when the key
and the fill light have an
overlapping coverage area. The
non—overlapping formula is used
when the key and fill light
illuminate different planes on the

subject.

Finally, illumination intensity

 

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IIDEO

Freeze Frame
Animation:

Double X’s

Dissolve: FS Bkg.
KEY: (elements)

Fade to Black

Fade: Grid Bkg.

KEY: (elements)

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should not be altered between
measurement and final exposure. All
lamps should be burning at maximum
intensity. Do not turn off any
lighting instrument... or
accidently block a fixtures
illumination with your body when
taking a specific light meter

readings.

An objective measuring tool, the
incident meter can also be used to
determine back light, kicker light,
background and base illumination
levels. An important instrument,
that should be standard equipment

in every videographers kit.

The final method for light
measurement is with a reflected
spot meter. A hand-held spot meter
can provide the videographer with

highly specific reflected light

 

 

Video Lighting:
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Dissolve: Meter setup

KEY: Waveform

monitor

Diss. Waveform setup

CU Waveform Display

Arrow animation
KEY: Amplitude
KEY: Position

CU Waveform w/output
animate waveform

output

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readings of scenic content. A
handrheld spot meter however, is
not necessary, as the most accurate
and specific of all reflected spot
meters can generally be found in
most video production settings. It

is the waveform monitor.

 

To use the waveform monitor as a
reflected spot meter, it is first
important to understand the data

represented on the CRT display.

The waveform display is a graphic
representation of the signal being
generated by the camera. The
vertical axis displays signal
amplitude or image brightness
against position which is

represented on the horizontal axis.

As a line of the image is scanned
by the camera’s pickup tube, the

amplitude of the signal generated

 

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will vary... according to the

reflective brightness of the
subject at any given point in the
frame. Therefore, scenic highlights
will be represented by peaks on our
video landscape, while shadow areas

will look like valleys.

Wipe in Picture By plotting image brightness
over display against scanning position, the
waveform monitor substitutes as a
highly accurate spot metering
device. Intrepretation of the
waveform display will provide
precise data on the tonal

relationships within the scene.

.Dissolve wipe out Returning to the Vertical axis you
waveform monitor will notice small hash marks or
w/no output graticules on the display. The

KEY: Institute of Radio graticules are calibrated in IRE
Engineers units, with each unit representing

a one-percent difference between

peak white and peak black

 

 

 

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reflectance levels. The vertical

KEY: Bargraph axis runs from -40 at the bottom,
to 120 percent at the uppermost
part of the scale. Solid horizontal
lines running across the entire

KEY: Arrow Animiation display can be found at 100%, 10%,
7.5%, zero, and negative 40. Each
of these lines is very important,

so let’s look at them individually.

KEY: Arrow The portion of the signal which
KEY: Sync Pulse rests at -40 on the waveform
KEY: (description) monitor is the sync pulse for the

system. This is a timing pulse
necessary for recording and playing
back video images. Though sync is
not manipulatable, it should be
checked to verify correct system
operation. If not at the
appropriate level, consult an
engineer or a diagnostic manual
before attempting to do any

recording.

 

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VIDEO AUDIO

KEY: Arrow Animation The zero line on the scale

KEY: Blanking Level represents the blanking level.

KEY: (description) Blanking is the point at which the
video signal is turned off while
the scanning beam returns from
right to left. Although blanking is
considered "dead black”, TV black
is actually set somewhat higher.
This is necessary in order to
seperate beam retrace patterns from

the video image.

KEY: Arrow Animation The solid lines at 7.5 and 10
KEY: Setup Level percent represent the range in
KEY: (description which TV black or pedestal is set.

This setting represents the minimum
reflectance value that any shadow
area in the image can have. The
existence of this setting however,
does not mean to imply that all
images will have an element with

this reflectance value.

KEY: Arrow Animation Finally, the solid line at 100%

 

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KEY: Peak Amplitude represents maximum signal
KEY: Description amplitude, or the peak white signal
level of the video reproduction

system.

KEY: Bar graph Because 100 % is the highest
amplitude the video system is
capable of reproducing, and 7.5% is

CU portrait setup the lowest... the range between
these points on the waveform
monitor represents maximum system

Raise aperture to latitude. If scenic highlights are

clipping level jammed against 100% so that the
peaks of the waveform display have
plateaus, you will be clipping the
video signal, resulting in a loss

Lower aperture to of highlight detail. Compressing

compression level shadow zones against the 7.5%
pedestal level, will cause a loss

of shadow detailing.

Animation Sequence: The vertical scale on the waveform
“Cards" monitor can also be used to

determine lighting contrast. For

 

Title:

Page Number: 17 of 24
YIDEQ

KEY: "Zone system

Video Lighting:

approach to

reproduction"

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example, a properly exposed middle
gray tone will register 50 IRE
units on the waveform monitor.
Opening camera aperture by one
f—stop, doubles the amount of light
striking the pickup tube. The
waveform display now registers
camera output at 70 IRE units.
Going back to our middle—gray
starting point, if the camera
aperture is closed by one f-stop,
only one-half the original light
level will strike the target of the
pickup tube. Waveform display now
register camera output to be 30 IRE

units.

Reflective values can therefore be
used to compare scenic elements,
and determine lighting ratios. Any
element with a reflectance value 20.
IRE units different from another
element, will reproduce either one

stop brighter or darker depending

 

 

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on the directionality.

Dissolve: FS Graphic Because the range between peak
white and peak black falls between
100 and 7.5 IRE units, maximum
system latitude is limited to
approximately four and one-half
f—stops. Any scene which exceeds
this range will suffer from a loss
of detail in either the highlight
area, the shadow area, and

potentially both areas.

MUSIC SOUNDER

Dissolve: FS Portrait By using a waveform monitor, the
animated portrait videographer can custom design
sequence lighting patterns for each video

image. The waveform monitor
provides the most accurate means
for analyzing and manipulating

creative lighting effects.

CU Waveform Monitor While adjusting camera aperture,

observe the reflectivity changes on

 

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Dissolve: FS Graphic
KEY: Exposure is a

Creative Adjustment

KEY: Pegging the

Key tone

Wipe/dissolve Gray
Scale over Portrait

Line Animation

Program Number: 1 of 3

AUDIO
the waveform monitor. Since the
waveform display is analyzing
camera output, opening the aperture
until scenic reflectivity falls
within the four and one-half f—stop
range will provide a ballpark

exposure .

It is important to remember
however, that exposure is a
‘ereetiye, not strictly a technical
adjustment. Correct exposure is
dependent upon the intended
lighting effect. A production trick
used extensively by cinema-
tographers is called “Pegging the
Key Tone“. A scenic element is
selected to be reproduced at a
specific gray scale density. All
other elements within the scene are
then lit to reproduce varying
densities in relationship to the
primary element. In a scene with

human subjects, flesh tones are

 

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FS Graphic
KEY: Reflectance

values

CU Portrait Setup
Wipe/dissolve
waveform monitor

Arrow animation

Adjust Camera aperture

Program Number: 1 of 3

AUDIO
usually pegged, for consistency in

editing.

In a normally lit and exposed
scene, reflectance values for
caucasian skin tones will fall
between 60 and 70 IRE units on the
waveform monitor. African skin
tone, has a much wider reflectance
range. African skin tones will
generally reflect between 35 and 60
IRE units, depending upon the

subject.

To determine exposure, it is first
necessary to locate the tone which
will be normally reproduced in the
video image. Then, locate it’s
scanning position on the waveform
monitor. Next, simply adjust camera
aperture until that skin tone falls
within the desired range. Finally,
analyze the tonal relationships

between the “pegged" tone with the

 

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Light manipulation

F8 Graphic
KEY: Tricks of the
Trade

KEY: Calibrating

your incident meter

CU: Meter/Slide

setup

MS Studio w/camera

setup

Program Number: 1 of 3

AUDIO
rest of the image. Additional light
manipulation may be necessary in
order to contain scenic contrast
within reproduction limits of the

video medium.

MUSIC UP/UNDER
One of the most useful tricks of
the video profession is to
calibrate your incident meter’s
sensitivity... with the
sensitivity of the video camera.
This will allow you to determine
f-stop settings directly from your
incident light meter. In order to
use this trick, you must have a
light meter which excepts ASA
calibration slides, and provides

f—stop exposure information.

First, setup a standard gray scale
chip chart under even illumination.
An incident illumination level of

at least 125 foot—candles is

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YIDEO

Zoom/Pan to W.Monitor

Profile of P.A. C CCU

CU Aperture Highlighted

Meter Foreground

Chip Chart in Bkg.

Insert slides

‘Meter Setup w/slide

Program Number: 1 of 3

AUDIO
recommended.

Next, complete registration and
setup procedures to assure that the
camera is reproducing the entire
tonal scale with accuracy. Consult
with an engineer or the cameras
diagnostic manual if you have any

questions.

Once the camera is set up properly,
note the aperture reading on the

camera lens.

Finally, place the incident meter
under the same light as used to
register the camera. With the dome
facing toward the camera lens,
insert the slides until you find
the one which provides exactly the

same f-stop value.

Now, whenever you use this

particular camera, simply insert

 

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AUDIO
the appropriate slide into the
meter to determine the calibrated
Dissolve FS Graphic f—stop.

KEY: Title MUSIC STING CLOSE
Fade to Black

Fade FS Animated Graphic CLOSE MUSIC IN

KEY: "The Wrap-up" There you have it, the basic mental
framework for measuring and
intrepretating light. The tools in

KEY: appropriate our kit are the incident light

elements meter and the waveform monitor.

Good exposure practice requires the
use of both instruments in order to
measure and manipulate lighting
control. The incident meter is used
to rough—in the image, by
establishing the lighting ratio,
and balancing set illumination. The
waveform monitor is used for the
finish work, supplying spot
reflectance readings and real—time

exposure information. After the

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AUDIO

lighting pattern has been
roughed—in, the waveform display
will allow the videographer to
refine scenic illumination with
craftsmanship precision. By
understanding lighting control and
manipulation, you can expand your
visual horizons and creative
potential.
Wipe in bkg & graphic
KEY: Video Lighting: MUSIC UP FULL

A Photographic Approach
KEY: "The Scoop on Scopes"
Key (lower 1/3): Copyright 1988

Golden One Productions

Fade to Black MUSIC OUT

APPENDIX B

 

Video Lighting:
Title: Glamour Lighting
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YIDEO
Open Graphic
KEY: “The Beauty of

Glamour Lighting"

Single frame portraits

over background.

Three Light Setup
KEY: Fixtures and

their Characteristics

Dissolve : Spot Fixture
animation to center

KEY: Spot Lights

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MUSIC UP/UNDER

Our stars are not the kind you see
midnight sky, but rather
people...our subjects and clients
focused on the camera lens.
Everyone wants to look their best,
and sees their own image in a very
special way. The challenge to the
working pro is to accentuate the

beautiful aspects of people

...through lighting.

Before exploring portrait lighting,
let’s first look at the

characteristics of light, and the
quality of illumination produced by

different lighting fixtures.

Spot Lights are typically used to
provide the primary source of
illumination. When used as the main
light source, they are called key

lights. However, the

 

Video Lighting:
Title: Glamour Lighting
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YIDEO

Wipe in white flash

Dissolve to F5 Graphic
KEY : Advantages
- directional
- Specualar
- Emphasize texture

and contour

KEY: Disadvantages

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refers to the relationship of light
intensity between fixtures, and is
not a function of fixture design.
It is the key source of
illumination. Scoops and
softlights, can also be used as a
key light if their illumination
intensity is greater than that used
to fill shadow area.

SWITCH SFX

Illumination produced by a spot
fixture is generally associated
with the intense rays from the sun,
or a theatrical spotlight. Due to
its directionality, spot
illumination can be localized and
easily controlled. Spotlights
produce highlights that are hard,
sharp and well directed. They also
reveal surface texture and object

contour with the greatest clarity.

A spot fixture’s highly directional

 

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YIDEO
- Hard/Dense shadows

- High contrast

Dissolve: Scoop Fixture

slow zoom to F8

wipe to white

Dissolve: FS graphic

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and iggggge beam, will create the
hardest and densest shadows. If
uncontrolled, spotlights will
produce course picture quality of
undesirably high contrast.
Therefore, spotlight positioning
and adequate fill illumination is
necessary in order to prevent
unattractively flat or contrasty

images.

Scoops provide diffused
illumination... the quality of
light associated with an overcast
sky. The larger the light source is
relative to the subject position,
the more diffused and shadowless
the illumination quality will be.
Because scoops are primarily used
for supplemental illumination, they
are also called fill lights.

SWITCH SFX

In portraiture, soft fill

Video Lighting:
Title: Glamour Lighting
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YIDEO

KEY: Advantages

- Reduce subject
contrast

— Flex.application

- Subtle key light

KEY: Disadvantages

- Uncontrollable

- Rapid Intensity
falloff

- Flat lighting

effect

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illumination is used to reduce
subject contrast... by illuminating
shadow areas created by the key.
Scoops are also very flexible
instruments, and when properly
applied can be used as the primary
source of illumination. When used
as the key illumination source,
soft fill lighting is capable of
producing very subtle and beautiful

lighting effects.

The primary disadvantage of fill
illumination is that beam spread is
not very controllable. Illumination
from a soft light source will
likely spread to adjacent set
areas. The effective illumination
strength of a fill light also
decreases rapidly as the distance
from the source to the subject is
increased. Finally, soft lighting
can result in flat, characterless

pictures, especially when multiple

Video Lighting:
Title: Glamour Lighting
Page Number: 5 of 29

YIDEO

Dissolve: Umbrella setup

Wipe to white

Dissolve: FS Graphic
KEY: Advantages
- Change effective

size of illumin.

KEY: Disadvantages

- Uncontrollable

~ Rapid intensity
falloff

- Reduced fixture

efficiency

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fixtures are used.

Additional methods for illuminating
your subject include Umbrella
lighting.

SWITCH SFX
Umbrellas provide soft and evenly
diffused illumination, and are
typically used in remote lighting
kits. By bouncing illumination off
a larger surface area, umbrellas
change the effective size of a

small light source.

The disadvantages of umbrella
lighting are similiar to other soft
fill sources. An additional problem
can be measured in terms of light
transmission efficiency. Umbrella’s
only reflect approximately 50
percent of a fixtures potential
intensity, when compared against

direct illumination.

Video Lighting:
Title: Glamour Lighting
Page Number: 6 of 29

Dissolve: Softbox Setup

Wipe to white

Dissolve: FS Graphic
KEY: Advantages
- Change effective
size of illumin.
- Inexpensive
- Flexible

application

KEY: Disadvantages

- Uncontrollable

- Rapid Intensity
falloff

- Reduced fixture

efficiency

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Soft illumination can also be
obtained by using a soft box.
Instead of bouncing light off a
larger surface area, a small light
source is projected through

translucent diffusion material.

Soft box illumination also changes
the effective size of the light
source by dispersing the rays of
light. Providing soft, shadowless
illumination, material such as
white rip—stop nylon works
extremely well. Nylon is relatively
inexpensive, and can be sewn into
panels to fit the specific lighting
need.

The disadvantages are similiar to
other soft illumination sources
Additional problems include fixture
efficiency, which is considerably
reduced, and dependent on the

density of the diffusion material

 

Video Lighting:
Title: Glamour Lighting
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YIDEO
- Large and Bulky

- Fire Hazard

Dissolve: FS Graphic
KEY: General

Lighting Guidelines

CU Portrait Setup

Key illumination

Add Fill illumin.
Dissolve to white

Ti 113/ Zoom from

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used. Soft boxes are large, bulky,
and require additional stands for
support. Proper ventilation is also

necessary to prevent creating a

fire hazard.

MUSIC SOUNDER
Before continuing onto specific
lighting setups, lets conclude this
exploration with some general

guidelines on lighting control.

First, the more concentrated the
illumination, the harder the light
will appear to be. Hard light is
defined as the quality of
illumination which produces
brilliant highlights and dense,
sharp, well defined shadows. In
order to reduce lighting contrast,
secondary fill illumination will

most likely be needed.

When the light is larger than the

 

Video Lighting:
Title: Glamour Lighting
Page Number: 8 of 29

XIDEO
Soft box.

Double portrait setup

on single frame

Dissolve: FS Graphic
KEY: Creative
Lighting through

Experimentation

Fade to Black

Dissolve: FS Graphic

KEY: Portrait Lighting

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subject, illumination quality
changes. Large source lighting
diffracts around surface contours,
softening shadow edges. Therefore,
subject contrast decreases as the
effective size of the light source
increases. Large source
illumination creates softer images,
by reducing subject contrast.
Because illumination intensity
falls off rapidly, soft lights must
be positioned fairly close to the

subject.

The Key to understanding lighting
control and manipulation is through
experimentation with light fixtures

and lighting modifiers.

MUSIC SOUNDER
Four basic lighting setups are

commonly used in portraiture.

 

Video Lighting:
Title: Glamour Lighting
Page Number: 9 of 29

1mm

KEY: 4 TYPES

HIGHLIGHT KEY:
— Broad Lighting

Technique

Dissolve: Light setup

Highlight: Key position

CU Portrait

Arrow animation

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Though standard lighting designs,
the variations on each setup are
endless. Lighting designs commonly
used are:

Broad Lighting

Narrow Lighting

Frontal Lighting

and Side Lighting

Let’s take a closer look at each of
these lighting designs, starting
with the Broad Lighting technique

MUSIC SOUNDER OUT

Broad lighting is used when the
subject is positioned at an angle,
relative to the camera axis. As its
name suggests, the broadest portion
of the subjects face is illuminated

by the key light.

The horizontal positioning of the
key light should cast a triangular

patch of light onto the dark side

Video Lighting:
Title: Glamour Lighting
Page Number: 10 of 29

YIDEO

LS Studio Setup
manipulate key

light position

CU Portrait Setup

Overhead Shot

On-camera key light

manipulation

Movement: Long to short

shadows

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AIDIIO
of the face. This triangular patch
should highlight the cheekbone...

providing pictorial interest to the

image.

Next, vertically position the key
light to reduce the impact of the
nose shadow. A photographic trick
commomly used is to vertically
position the key at a height where
the edge of the nose shadow falls
along the smile line. The shadow
will therefore convey subject
dimensionality, without creating a

distracting hard line to the face.

Since the key is rigged to the
camera side of the subject, cast
shadows will fall away from the
camera, at a downward angle. Cast
shadows will be either long or
short depending upon the angle of
illumination. Illumination angle

also affects the attached shadows,

 

Video Lighting:
Title: Glamour Lighting
Page Number: 11 of 29

llDEO
Dissolve: CU Portrait
highlight key

manipulation efx.

FS Graphic Light Setup

Highlight: Fill position

Dissolve: CU Portrait

Fill light added

Arrow animation

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those shadows that are created by
the subject’s forehead, nose, lips

and chin.

After the key light has been
positioned, the fill light can then
be added. The primary purpose of
the fill light is to reduce
lighting contrast. Usually fill
coverage will partially overlap the
area illuminated by the key, while

filling in the shadow areas.

Many times diffused fill light is
positioned at, or even below eye
level on the opposite side of the
camera. In this position, the fill
light will reduce subject contrast,
by filling the shadows in the eye
sockets, and under the nose, lips
and chin. An important point to
remember is that fill illumination
should always be used to reduce

subject contrast withent adding

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Title: Glamour Lighting
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YIDEO

LS Set Back lights

Positioned

CU Portrait
Back Light

manipulation

Dissolve: FS Graphic
Highlight Backlight

Position

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additional facial shadowing.
Therefore, fill light intensity

must always be less than that used

for key illumination.

The usage of back and kicker lights
is really dependent upon your
personal lighting style. Some
professionals use back lights only
with problem sets...in order to
seperate subjects from similiar
tone backgrounds. Other pros,
particularly glamour photographers,
use high intensity backlights as
part of their personal lighting

trademark.

If you have determined that
backlighting is necessary, any
position from directly opposite the
key light, to approximately 45
degrees behind the key, will
provide interesting lighting

patterns. Vertical placement of the

Video Lighting:
Title: Glamour Lighting
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YIDEO

High and low

backlight setup efx

CU Portrait setup

088 Back of Subject
Back Light Meter
positioned then
removed

Dissolve: FS Graph
KEY: Exposure is a

Creative adjustment.

Animation sequence .

video portraits

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back light is also subject to
creative interpretation. Backlight
can strike the subject from either
a high or low angle. Experiment
with either single or double
backlight positions to determine
the lighting pattern which models

your subjects features to the best

advantage.

Once fixture positions have been
established, the videographer can
then determine the proper lighting
ratio. If a back light is being
used, its ratio can also be
determined simply by pointing the
dome of the meter toward the back
light source. Remember, lighting
ratios and exposure are creative,

not strictly technical adjustments.

Broad lighting produces images
whiCh are flatter in appearance

than other portrait setups. The

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videographer may find it necessary
to enhance the illusion of depth
through creative background
lighting patterns.

Broad lighting is frequently used
for high key scenes, or when
lighting locations to resemble
daylight interiors. However, by
manipulating the key/fill lighting
ratio, it can also be used to

create dramatic low key images.

Since the Broad Lighting setup
emphasizes the broad side of the
subjects face, it is generally more
appropriate on subjects who have a

naturally narrow facial structure.

When selecting a fixture for key
illumination, the videographer has
a range of options. Spot lights,
umbrellas and softboxes can all be

used with different results.

Video Lighting:
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YIDEO

Fade to Black

Dissolve: FS Graphic

KEY: Tricks of the Trade

LS Portrait Setup

Position Manipulation

CU Portrait w/ratio

being manipulated

OSS Fixture foreground

Fixture manipulation

CU Portrait w/ratio

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Experiment, to develop your own

lighting style.

MUSIC UP/UNDER
A couple of methods are commonly
used to adjust the lighting ratio.
To manipulate illumination
intensity, simply move the fixtures
either closer to... or farther away
from the subject. For example, if
the ratio between the key and the
fill light is too low, simply move
the key closer, or the fill light

farther away from the subject.

Turning the key light away from the
subject, will also reduce the
lighting ratio. This technique is
called ”feathering“. By using the

outer boundries of the light beam,

manipulated on-screen the subject will be illuminated by

the less direct and intense rays

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from the fixture.

MS Tech/Diffusion screen Diffusion material can also be used
to reduce fixture output. When the
ratio between fixtures is too high,

Attached to fixture place heat—resistant diffusion
material such as Rosco Tough Spun

CU portrait efx. over the key light. This material
will reduce fixture output, without

altering beam shape.

Dissolve: FS Graphic Manipulation of fixture intensity
KEY: Tricks of the is just one of the "Tricks of the
Trade Trade“ that should be part of every

videographers lighting repetoire.

lFade to Black MUSIC STING CLOSE
Fade: FS Graphic MUSIC SOUNDER
KEY: Narrow Lighting Narrow lighting basically reverses

the design of the Broad Lighting
setup. The key light is positioned
I)Iissolve: Light Setup to illuminate the narrow portion of

the face relative to the

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YIDEO

LS Portrait setup

CU Portrait
Key manipulation

on-screen

MS Tech Placing
Key Light

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subject—camera axis. Let’s take a
closer look to understand why this
pattern is more flattering for

close up portraiture work.

First of all, the key light should
be positioned to strike the narrow
side of the subjects face. By
manipulating the vertical and
horizontal position of the key
light, you will notice that the
length of the facial shadows and
the amount of darkness on the unlit
side of the face will vary greatly.
Key position is therefore extremely
critical because facial modeling is

highly visible from camera

viewpoint.

In order to reduce the large nose
shadow inherent with this setup,
you will most likely find it
necessary to place the key light

high, and angled toward the front

Video Lighting:
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VIDEO
CU Positioned Key

Dissolve: Light Diagram

KEY: Hard/Soft

FS Graphic
Highlight Fill Position

CU Portrait

w/fill added

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of the subject. The key position
chosen should minimize the impact

of the nose shadow.

Either hard or soft illumination
sources can be used with this

lighting pattern. Soft lights
however, can potentially
Illumination destroy facial
modeling, especially when used at a

close range.

Placement of the fill light is also
very crucial. Fill illumination
should overlap the coverage area of
the key light, and be vertically
positioned at the subjects eye
level. The fill fixture will likely
need to be placed very close to
camera position. As before, fill
light intensity should not create
additional shadows on the subjects
face. If needed, diffuse the fill

light with scrimming material to

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XIDEO

FS Graphic
Highlight Back Light

Positions

CU Portrait w/back
light added

Dissolve: Portrait

Animation seq.

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reduce fixture output.

Backlighting is again subject to
the creative intentions of the
videographer. Try several different
positions to determine which works
best for the intended lighting

effect.

The visual effect of Narrow
lighting is that it gives a slimmer
appearance to a wide face. Light
falloff on the nearside of the
subjects face, narrows it, by
emphasizing only a small portion of

the subjects features.

Modeling is very prominent in
narrow lighting, but can be altered
through manipulation of the
lighting ratio. As fill intensity
is increased, facial modeling will
decrease. Stong fill illumination

however, tends to broaden the

 

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Title: Glamour Lighting
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VIDEO

Fade to Black

Fade: FS Graphic
KEY: Frontal
Dissolve: Light Setup

Highlight Key Position

‘Dissolve: CU Portrait

Manipulate Key light

position on—screen

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facial structure.

Narrow lighting provides perfect
illumination for low—key scenes.
Through controlling fill
illumination, subtle shadow detail
can be retained, without destroying

facial modeling.

MUSIC SOUNDER
As its name suggests, frontal
lighting illuminates the subject
from the frontal position, relative
to the subject—camera axis. With
the subject facing forward, both
sides of the subjects face are

illuminated by the key.

For a normal lighting pattern, key
illumination should strike the
subject from above. Vertical
placement of the key light, will
determine the length of facial

shadowing. Shadow placement is a

 

 

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YIDEO

LS Set

Soft Box positioned

CU Portrait

Diss to Lighting Design

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creative lighting decision.
However, most professionals do not
allow the tip of the nose shadow to
touch the upper lip, therefore

creating seperation between the two

facial features.

Glamourous frontal lighting can be
achieved by using softer, diffused
illumination. Umbrella’s and
Softboxes are excellent frontal
illumination sources. Attached
facial shadows will be soft, with
very subtle shadow gradiation at

the transfer edge.

With large source frontal lighting,
you may find additional fill light
unnecessary. If needed, the fill
should be positioned to reduce
subject contrast in the lower
facial areas. A technique called

Butterfly lighting positions the

fill illumination directly under

Video Lighting:
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YIDEO

Dissolve: Light Setup
Highlight Back Light

position

Dissolve: LS Set
— waveform foreground

- subject bkg.

Portrait Animation seq.

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the camera lens. Facial shadows are
illuminated, but should remain
apparent. Remember, shadow detail
creates the illusion of

three—dimensionality.

When using soft frontal lighting,
you may want to experiment with
high intensity backlight. High
intensity backlighting will not
only help seperate the subject from
the background, but also
subjectively indicates different
key light directionality. This
technique is used extensively in
glamour portraiture. Adjust
backlight intensity with a waveform
monitor to prevent over
illumination, making the face of
your subject appear unnaturally

dark.

Frontal Lighting is an extremely

versatile method for lighting both

Video Lighting:
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YIDEO

Fade to Black

Fade: FS Graphic

KEY: Side Lighting

Dissolve: Light Graphic

Highlight Key Pos.

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closeups and longer shots. Frontal
illumination allows the subject a
great deal of freedom in movement.
By deemphasizing facial modeling,
frontal lighting conveys an image
of youth and beauty, and is
therefore used extensively for

portraiture work.

Frontal lighting can also be used
for both high and low key images.
Setup time is minimal, allowing the
videographer to concentrate on

other production matters.

MUSIC SOUNDER
With Side lighting, the key light
strikes the subject at a 90 degree
angle relative to the
subject—camera axis. Side lighting
heightens the impression of subject
form, depth and texture. Long and

exaggerated shadows are cast onto

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YIDEO

LS w/Tech placing

CU

key fixture

CU Portrait

w/Key manipulation

Subject profile

zoom to L8

Tech Placing

soft light key

CU Portrait

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the opposite side of the subjects
face. These sharp shadows heighten
the illusion of subject

dimensionality.

The height of the key light is less
important in the side lighting
setup. Vertically, the key light
can be positioned to strike your
subject from an angle which
provides optimum modelling. Subject
positioning however, is crucial in

order to maintain shadow placement

With side lighting, the key source
of illumination can be either hard
or soft. A hard key light produces
dramatic images, with dark, hard
edged shadows. Softlight, will also
emphasize the general contour of
the face. Shadows created by a
softlight are still pronounced, but
the transfer edge between lit and

shaded facial areas, has softer

Video Lighting:
Title: Glamour Lighting
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YIDEO

MS Studio Setup

CU Portrait

Arrow animation

Fill Light added

Fill light removed

Dissolve: Light Graphic

Highlight Fill position

CU Portrait

KEY: Badger Lighting

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gradation characteristics.

With the key light striking the
subject from such an extreme angle,
substantial portions of the
subject’s face is left in shadow.
Texture will be emphasized on
surfaces parallel to the lighting
plane. Side lighting creates the
strongest contrast between raised
and indented surface elements. By
applying fill illumination, shadow
density will be controllable. For
dramatic images however, the
videographer may find the addition

of fill illumination undesirable.

If fill illumination is necessary,
positioning should be based on your
intended lighting effect. If used
at an opposite 90 degree angle,
care must be taken to control fill
intensity. If the fill illumination

is too strong, a shadowing rim will

Video Lighting:
Title: Glamour Lighting
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XIDEO

Dissolve: Light Graphic
Highlight Back light

position

CU Portrait
w/single and
double back lights

Portrait Animation seq.

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form down the center of the
subjects face. Called Badger
Lighting, it is an interesting,
albeit unglamourous lighting

design.

Unlit portions of the subjects head
tend to merge into background
areas. If this is undesirable,
either single... or double
backlights will provide seperation
and define the contour of the
subjects head and shoulders. Care
must be taken to prevent backlight
from spilling onto the shadow zones
of the subjects face.

Sidelighting, emphasizes the drama
moodiness of a scene. Therefore,
this lighting design is generally
only useful for low key images.
Because Sidelighting emphasizes
it is generally

surface texture,

best applied to male subjects when

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YIDEO

Fade to Black

Fade: FS Graphic

KEY: The Wrap-up

KEY: Appropriate

information

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you want to emphasize character

ruggedness.

A basic problem with Sidelighting
is that it may create too much
subject contrast. The shadows
created, may be too dark for detail
reproduction in the video medium.
By using a waveform monitor, the
videographer can manipulate fill
intensity to retain scenic mood,
yet provide subtle detail in the

unlit areas of the subjects face.

MUSIC UP/UNDER
As we have discovered, illumination
quality is dependent upon the
design of the fixture. Lighting
patterns however, can be
manipulated in several different
ways. Through placement, height,
reflection, projection and

diffusion, the videographer can

Video Lighting:
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YIDEO

Wipe in Bkg & Graphic

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AUDIO

custom design each and every image.

Lighting and exposure ratios can
also be controlled through fixture
placement. Simply by changing the
subject to fixture distance,
incident illumination will be
altered. Diffusion provides another
method for controlling fixture

output.

Finally, the four basic lighting
setups, Broad Lighting, Narrow
Lighting. Frontal Lighting, and
Side Lighting convey unique
subjective moods, and are
applicable to different scenic
conditions. Though standard
lighting designs, they can, and
should be altered to achieve unique

and beautiful video portraits

Now its time to go back to the

studio to develop your own lighting

Video Lighting:
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YIDEO
KEY: Video Lighting:

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styleéunége of the greatest
challenges to the working
professional...discovering the
beautiful attributes of people...

through glamour Lighting.

A Photographic Approach

KEY: "The Beauty of Glamour
Lighting"
KEY: (lower 1/3) Copyright 1988

Golden One Productions

Fade to Black

MUSIC OUT

APPENDIX C

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YIDEO AUDIO
Open Graphic MUSIC UP/UNDER

Key: Video Lighting: Hot

Shots for Hot Products PrObably the greatest challenge in
commercial production, is creating

Single frame product product images that radiate with

images over bkg. imagination. Lighting that spark of

ingenuity, requires an
understanding of lighting
techniques which create Hot Shots
for Hot Products.

Product lighting is very similiar
to portrait lighting. In product
lighting however, Object
refleetanee and gentlest is
sometimes far greater than you will
ever encounter in portraiture.
Remember, video is a medium with
limited contrast range... therefore
lighting manipulation and control
is crucial in order to create

striking product images.

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YIDEO
Dissolve: Studio “B“
roll.

CU Rack from Object

to face.

CU Profile of Tech
Pan to follow

placement

Dissolve: FS Graphic

flfl:mes
— Highlight
~ Lit

- Shadow

Program Number: 3 of 3
You saggIg approach every
commercial setup, by first
examining the product and the props
to be used. Critically analyzing
object texture, shape, sise and
color, will enable cut to you to
determine the lighting needs and
problems. Only after you have
previsualized the lighting design,
can you then procede to build the
image.

MUSIC SOUNDER
When building a commercial image,
it is important to remember that
the object can be subdivided into
three primary zones of
illumination. They are:

- Highlight Zones

- Lit Zones

- and Shadow Zones
These zones of illumination convey
important information about the
dimensions, texture, form and color

of an object.

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YIDEO

Dissolve: Studio LS
Tech place key

light frontal

CU Object w/Key

illumination

Arrow Animation

KEY: “Glare“

Dissolve/Wipe in WM.

on-screen aperture

manipulation

Program Number: 3 of 3

AUDIO

Highlight zones on an object
reflect the maximum amount of
light. Remembering that “The angle
of incidence equals the angle of
ref lectance“ conveys important
lighting information. Hard light
striking a reflective object from
the frontal position, will reflect
back to the camera an intense
hotspot, generally referred to as

glare.

Glare, when uncontrolled, will
negatively affect exposure and
errode image quality. For example,
waveform monitoring of camera
output shows an intense highlight
spike. When exposure is manipulated
to bring this spike within an
acceptable video range, the lit and
shadow zone rendtition

deteriorates.

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3

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YIDEO
Bring level to 100%

Dissolve: Same setup

soft key illumin.

Key: Lit Zone

Arrow Animation

KEY: Transfer Edge

Hold setup
KEY: Lit Zones

maximize color.

Program Number: 3 of

Highliggtg obliterate surface
detail on an object, and reveal the
size and shape of the light source.
By increasing the effective size of
the illumination, you will notice
that the size of the highlight also

increases.

The lit zone of an object is
generally next to the highlight
zone. The transition between
illumination zones, is called the
transfer edge. The transfer edge
will be either rapid or gradual,
depending upon the quality of

illumination.

Lit zones emphasize object color.
Diffused illumination that strikes
the object from either the finentel
or thpeezgnezter position, will
emphasize surface color, by
maximizing the size of the lit

zone.

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YIDEO

Double slow reveal
KEY: Transfer Edge
Arrow Animation
Attached Shadows

Cast Shadows

Remove Keys

Line Art Animation

LS Product Setup
CU Tech placing

object

Program Number: 3 of 3
AUDIO

The transfer edge between lit and
shadow zones is also dependent upon
the size and direction of key
illumination. Shadow areas that are
part of the object, are called
"attached shadows“. Attached
shadows reveal information on
object form and surface texture.
Shadows falling onto adjacent
planes of the image are called
"cast shadows“. Cast shadows reveal
key light directionality. Drawing a
line from the edge of the shadow to
the top of the object, will point
out the angle at which key

illumination strikes the object.

As long as we are on the subject of
angles, lets look at the optimum
angle for subject composition.
Because video is a two dimensional
medium, the illusion of depth is

enhanced by shooting an object from

 

 

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1mm

KEY:

- HIghlight Zone
- Lit Zone

- Shadow Zone

Slow zoom to full

product setup.

Fade to Black

Fade: FS Graphic

KEY: Lighting Angles

KEY: Terminology

Dissolve: Light Diagram
Highlight Position
KEY: Frontal

Program Number: 3 of 3

AUDIO
an angle. The lighting design
should compliment the shooting
angle, by creating seperate
lighting zones. Object shadows
create the illusion of depth, and
when possible should be
incorporated as part of the
compositional design. Remember,
attached and cast shadows reinforce
the illusion of object

dimensionality.

MUSIC SOUNDER
Let’s take a look at lighting
angles and their effect on product
videography. All of the standard
portrait lighting positions can be
used for product lighting. The
terminology however, is slightly

different.

Frontal illumination strikes the
subject from a position directly

along the object-lens axis. Frontal

Video Lighting:
Title: Hot Shots/Hot Products Producer/Director:

Page Number: 7 of 18

SLIDE!

CU Product Setup

KEY: (information)

Dissolve: Light Diagram
Highlight 1/4 Position
KEY: Quarter

CU Product Setup

Arrow Animation

0:: Cam animation

fixture placement

267

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Haggadone
3 of 3

Program Number:
illumiggtgon emphasizes surface
color, while deemphasizing object
texture and modelling. Shadows cast
by frontal illumination will fall
directly behind the object, out of
camera view. Therefore, object
shape and dimensionality are also
difficult to determine.
With Quarter lighting, illumination
strikes the object from
approximately 45 degrees off the
object—lens axis. Quarter lighting
is commonly used because each of
the three lighting zones, are given
equal lighting emphasis. Quarter
lighting reveals the maximum amount
of information to the viewer on
size and

surface shape, color,

texture.

You will notice that as key
illumination is moved farther from

the object-lens axis, attached and

 

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YIDEO
Dissolve: Light Diagram
Highlight position

KEY: Side Lighting

CU Product Setup
Arrow Animation

KEY: Highlights

Dissolve: Light Diagram
Highlight: Position

KEY: Top Lighting

CU Product Setup
Arrow animation

KEY: Highlights

Program Number: 3 of 3

AUDIO
cast shadows begin to grow. Once
you have moved primary illumination
to a position 90 degrees opposite
the object-lens axis, you will have

created a side lighting pattern.

Side lighting emphasizes surface
texture while deemphasizing object
color. On reflective surfaces,
highlights will form along the rim
of the object, closest to the key
light position. By emphasizing both
highlights and shadows, side
lighting heightens the sense of

object dimensionality.

When the key light is moved from
the side, to above the object, a
top lighting pattern is created.
Top and side lighting are
essentially the same lighting
pattern. The only difference
between the setups, is a change in

highlight and shadow positioning.

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YIDEO AUDIO
Subjectively, this will alter the
way your audience perceives the

image.

Dissolve: Light Diagram Finally, when key illumination
Highlight: Position strikes the object from behind, a

KEY: Side Lighting back lighting pattern is created.
With back lighting, top and side
edges of the object are rimmed with

CU Product Setup light, while the Object’s frontal
plane will fall into the cast
shadow region. Therefore,

Arrow Animation backlighting minimizes surface
texture and color. Backlighting is
especially useful with translucent
objects, because it outlines object

form.
Fade to black

F ade: FS Graphic MUSIC SOUNDER
KEY : Product Lighting Basically, two types of surfaces
- Reflective will be encountered in product

- Matte Surfaces videography. They are:

 

 

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YIDEO AUDIO
- Reflective surfaces, found
on metal or glass ...and
- Matte surfaces, like wood,
stone, and textured fabric
Let’s take a closer lock, starting

with reflective surface lighting.

LS Setup w/Light Tent A light tent provides ideal

Tech placing object illumination for highly reflective
Objects. A light tent is
constructed by simply placing an
object in a space surrounded by
translucent diffusion material.

KEY: Projection White rip—stop nylon works

- Reflection extremely well, both diffusing
projected illumination, and
reflecting light back into the

unlit portions of the Object.

CU Product shot When using a light tent,
reflections will appear on an
Arrow Animation object as a large highlight that
KEY: Highlight follows the contour of the subject.

Placement of the reflection is

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YIDEO
KEY: Placement

controlled by key

light position

Dissolve: Product Setup

Glassware Setup

Dissolve: Light Diagram

KEY: Arrows
KEY: Arrows
Lose KEYS

Program Number: 3 of 3

AUDIO
controlled by the position of the
key illumination source. The
transfer edge between highlight...
lit... and shadow zones will

display soft, subtle gradation.

When lighting glassware, effective
images can be created by
illuminating the object indirectly.
This can be accomplished by simply
bouncing key illumination off an
adjacent surface. Bounce
illumination is particularly useful
when you want to avoid highlight
reflections. Glass, when shielded
from direct illumination will be
defined by differences in light
transmission through various
surface planes. Planes of the
glassware parallel to the camera,
will photograph translucent. Planes
that are perpendicular to the lens,
will photograph opaque. Portions of

the glassware between the two

   

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YIDEO

Fade to Black

Fade: FS Bkg

Key: Tricks of the Trade

Dissolve: Light Tent

Setup

KEY: Subtractive

Lighting

Tech placing cutouts

CU Product Shot

LS "B" Roll
KEY: Additive
Lighting
Tech Placing

Reflector

Program Number: 3 of 3

AUDIO
extremes, will exhibit varying

degrees of opaqueness.

MUSIC UP/UNDER
To feature an object to its best
advantage, the videographer may
find it necessary to modify
incident illumination. One
technique frequently utilized is
called "Subtractive Lighting". By
placing small black cutouts outside
the shot boundries, illumination
will be blocked from specific
portions of the image. Blocking
illumination from specific setup
areas artificially creates the

illusion of spatial depth.

"Additive Lighting" is another
modifying technique, with the
opposite intention. By placing
highly reflective surfaces such as

mirrors, reflectors, and bounce

273

Video Lighting: A Photographic Approach
Title: Hot Shots/Hot Products Producer/Director: Haggadone
3

Page Number: 13 of 18 Program Number: 3 of
YIDEO
cards just out of camera view,
redirected light can be punched
into specific image areas. Just
CU Product Setup like lighting fixtures,
illumination quality and intensity
control is dependent upon the size
and distance from the object to the
reflector. Just another one of
FS Graphic Bkg those creative tricks which will
KEY: Tricks of the make your images sizzle with
Trade excitement.
Fade to Black MUSIC STING CLOSE
Diss FS BKG MUSIC SOUNDER
KEY: Matte Surface Matte surfaces require a different
Lighting lighting approach. Due to surface

texturing, highlights tend to be
weak. Matte surfaces break up the

lDissolve: Matte Object parallel rays of light, creating a

Product Setup large lit area on the object.
Arrow Animation Therefore, matte objects exhibit
KEY: (highlights) strong color rendition. Attached

shadows which define surface

texture, will be either hard or

Video Lighting:

274

A Photographic Approach

Title: Hot Shots/Hot Products Producer/Director: Haggadone

Page Number: 14 of 18

2mm

Tech placing key

CU of Product Setup

Add Soft Fill illum.

Dissolve: Product Setup

w/light tent

CU Product Setup

Program Number: 3 of 3
AUDIO
soft, dependent on the quality of

key illuminatiem.

To emphasize surface texture, chose
a small or medium light source.
Position the fixture so that the
illumination is parallel to the
object, and skins the surface plane
with light. The transfer edge
between lit and shadow areas should
be prominent, relative to camera
viewpoint. If this lighting pattern
creates an image with too much
contrast, density apply soft fill
illumination to reduce shadow

density.

A light tent can also be used for
lighting Matte surface Objects.
Large source illumination however,
reduces surface texture, by filling
shadow areas with light. Texture
detail will therefore be very week

with softlight illumination.

 

   

Video Lighting:

275

A Photographic Approach

Title: Hot Shots/Hot Products Producer/Director: Haggadone

Page Number: 15 of 18
YIDEQ

LS tech placing add.

Light Instrument

CU Product Setup
Turn on Lighting

effect on—screen

KEY: Multiple

Source Lighting

Dissolve: Product Setup

w/secondary shadow

Program Number: 3 of 3
AUDIO

With matte surface objects, you may
want to experiment with multiple
source lighting. The advantage to
multiple source lighting is the
ability to selectively illuminate
portions of the object. Multiple
source lighting is most easily
accomplished on subjects having a
limited reflectance range. Through
lighting, you can attractively
represent objects without severely

increasing tonal differences.

A potential problem with multiple
lighting, that secondary
illumination may conflict with the

key light effect. As with

MS Tech Placing scrim portraiture, secondary illumination

CU Product Setup

LS set w/ product

should never eliminate the key
light effect... or create

additional shadows in the scene.

If strong fill illumination is

Video Lighting:

276

A Photographic Approach

Title: Hot Shots/Hot Products Producer/Director: Haggadone

Page Number: 16 of 18

YIDEO

Fill placement 0

Camera position

CU Product setup

Fade to Black

Fade: FS Graphic
KEY: The Wrap-up

KEY: highlight

information

Program Number: 3 of 3

needegugggreduce lighting contrast,
place the fill fixture at camera
position. Care must be taken to
control its intensity in relation
to the key illumination source. Any
cast shadows created by the fill
fixture, will fall away from the
object, and be hidden from camera

view.

MUSIC IN/UNDEI
As we have discovered, illumination
quality is as important in product
videography as in portraiture. Hard
light sources, produce intense,
pinpoint reflections called glare.
Glare should be controlled to
prevent it from negatively
affecting exposure. Soft light
sources, produce large, diffused
highlights. Illumination from a
soft light source, produces

wrap—around lighting, with subtle

Video Lighting:

277

A Photographic Approach

Title: Hot Shots/Hot Products Producer/Director: Haggadone

Page Number:

LIDEO

Program Number: 3 of 3

modelIg£§? Tent lighting, a soft
illumination technique, is
especially useful in product setups
which have highly reflective

surfaces.

In product videography, three
primary zones of illumination are
apparent. The combination of
highlight, lit and shadow zones
define the size, shape color, form
and texture of an object. Each of
these lighting zones can be
creatively manipulated by the

videographer.

Commercial products generally fall
into two lighting categories. Both
reflective and and matte surface
objects require specific lighting
tricks. Reflective objects
generally require soft illumination
techniques. Matte objects can also

use soft illumination, however,

278

Video Lighting: A Photographic Approach
Title: Hot Shots/Hot Products Producer/Director: Haggadone
Page Number: 18 of 18 Program Number: 3 of 3

YIDEO AUDIO
they may benefit from multiple

source lighting patterns.

Wipe in Bkg & Graphic Now its time to return to the
studio, to explore and develop your
own commercial lighting style. Let
your imagination run free, for you
now have the technical basis for
creating "Hot Shots for Hot
Products".

KEY: Video Lighting: MUSIC UP

A Photographic Approach
KEY: Hot Shots for Hot Products
KEY: (lower 1/3) Copyright 1988

Golden One Productions

Fade to Black MUSIC OUT

 

APPENDIX D

279

W

For production of a television program entitled.!idee
Lighting—thntngranhiunnreaeh I hereby consent to the
reproduction, publication, or other use by Dexid_Li
Heggedene, his associates and assigns, for programming
purposes, of my name, photograph, statements, performance,
and/or personal data, given, photographed, and/or recorded
on or about innta) at Studio E, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, Michigan.

I hereby release Dexid_Li_Hnggednne, his employers,
associates, and assigns from any and all claims which I
might have in connection with any use of my name,
photographs, statements, performance and/or personal data
for purposes including, but not limited to 1) presentation,
2) promotion, 3) distribution and/or 4) publication of this

program, WWW

fid-

 

Authorized Signature

 

Witness

 

If Model is a Minor, Parent Or Guardian Must Sign Below:

I, the undersigned, being parent or guardian of the minor
whose name appears above, hereby consent to the foregoing
conditions and warrant that I have the authority to give

such consent.

 

Parent or Guardian

 

 

Address

APPENDIX E

 

 

_ as. L. ‘
‘.__._‘m__,_,_._ 1.2..

280

Video Lighting: A Photographic Approach
Program Questionnaire

Instmetiensz

Please answer each of the following questions based on your
perceptions from viewing this instructional program. Unless
indicated, each question requires only one response. Your
time and thoughtful answers are sincerely appreciated.

1.

Which of the following categories best describes your
general interest in video lighting design BEEQRE you
saw this program.

High Above Average Average Below Average Low
1 2 3 4 5

Which of the following categories best describes your
general interest in video lighting design AEIEB you saw
this program.

High Above Average Average Below Average Low
1 2 3 4 5

How would you rank your general attentiveness during
the viewing of this program?

High Above Average Average Below Average Low
1 2 3 4 5

Did the program ”Video Lighting: A Photographic
Approach“ present unique production concepts with
regards to your prior knowledge of video lighting?

__ Yes __ No Don’t Know
How would you rate the epplieehility of the lighting
techniques demonstrated in this program, to a

single—camera video production setting?

High Above Average Average Below Average Low
1 2 3 4 5

 

10.

11.

281

After viewing this program, please indicate your level
of netixntien toward exploring and developing some of
the lighting concepts contained within the program?

High Above Average Average Below Average Low
1 2 3 4 5

In the space provided, please write the word or phrase
you feel best describes the lighting and production
techniques used in "Video Lighting: A Photographic
Approach“.

 

Overall, how would you rank the use of examples within
the program for demonstrating key lighting concepts.

High Above Average Average Below Average Low
1 2 3 4 5

How would you rank the contribution of lighting
examples in this program, toward learning the related
lighting concepts?

High Above Average Average Below Average Low
1 2 3 4 5

How many viewings of this program do you feel would be
necessary before you could fully apply the demonstrated
lighting techniques. (please check only one)

One viewing only

Two viewings

Three viewings

Four viewings

Five or more viewings

"Video Lighting: A Photographic Approach“, was designed
as separate instructional modules. Did you find this
programming concept beneficial or detrimental to the
instructional process?

__ Beneficial Detrimental

 

 

 

 

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

282

Was the organization of program modules, and the
information contained within each module, presented in
a systematic and logical manner?

Yes No Don’t Know

How much of an intellectual challenge did you feel this
instructional program was, based on your current level
of lighting expertise?

High Above Average Average Below Average Low
1 2 3 4 5

Please rate this program in terms of the emennt of
material covered.

High Above Average Average Below Average Low
1 2 3 4

Please rate this program in terms of the
of material covered.

High Above Average Average Below Average Low
1 2 3 4

Please rate this program with regards to the
appropriateness of instructional pacing.

High Above Average Average Below Average Low
1 2 3 4 5

Based on other instructional programs that you have
seen, would you rate this program higher or lower in
terms of instructional clarity?

__ Higher __ Lower ___ Don't Know
On a five point scale, how would you rank this program

in terms of its' instructional value?

High Above Average Average Below Average Low
1 2 3 4 5

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

 

 

283

Please check the following category which best
describes the difficulty factor you would assign to the
learning of related lighting concepts.

Extremely difficult
Very difficult
Average Difficulty
Low Difficulty
Extremely Easy

Which of the following categories best describes your
improvement in lighting skills based on watching this
video program.

Greatly Improved

Above Average Improvement
Average Improvement
Little Improvement

No Improvement

If the concepts in this program were to be offered as a
formal course of study, would you enroll?

__ Yes __ No ___ Don’t Know

If this program and an accompanying instructional
manual was available for purchase at a price comparable
to other instructional packages, would you buy this
program?

Yes No ‘___ Don’t Know

Which of the following categories best describes your
general enjoyment of the program?

High Above Average Average Below Average Low
1 2 3 4 5

If you have any additional comments you would like to
add, please feel free to use the space provided below
and the back of this questionnaire.

M

 

LIST OF REFERENCES

LIST OF REFERENCES

Oited.Referenees

Fuller, B. J., Kanaba, S. & Brisch-Kanaba, J. (1982).
.Single:eamera_xidee_nreduetien Englewood Cliffs. NJ:

Prentice-Hall.

Mathias, H. & Patterson, R. (1985).E1eetzenie
‘einenetegrephy. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.

Millerson. G. (1982). Lighting_fer_tele!isien_and_metien
pietuzee. (2nd ed.). London: Focal Press.

Millerson. G. (1982). I!_lighting_metheds. (20d ed.)-
London: Focal Press.

Ritsko, A. J. (1979). Lighting_fer1leeatinn_metien_nietures.
New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Wurtzel. A. (1983). Ielexisien_nreduetien. New York. NY:
McGraw-Hill.
Qeneral.Referenees

Adams, A. (1963). Exposure meters: how to use them.
Enezelenedin_ef_£hetngranhx. 8. 1367-1371.

Adams, A. (1963). Exposure with the zone system.
Enezelnnedie_ef_2hetegranhL 8. 1372-1381.

Alton, J. (1959). Eeinting_gith_1ight. (5th ed.). New York,
NY: Macmillan.

Anderson, G. C. (1963). Incident light measurement.
Enexelenedia_ef_£hetegranhL 19. 1803-1805.

Arismendi, L. V. (1986, July). The five qualities of light.
Petersen_s_2hetegranhie pp. 74.

Bernstein, G. (1983, May). Light and the lady. EOIOISODLS
Ebetngranhie. pp. 40-41.

284

285

References (continued) .

Bernstein, G. (1984, November). How to attain the softer
image. .Eetersen_s_2hetngranhie pp. 16-18.

Bernstein. 6. (1985). Breuteehni9ues_ef_heautx_and_glamnur
phetegnephy. Tucson, AZ: HP Books.

Bernstein, G. (1986, April). Pro talk: beauty and the
background .Eetereen_s_2hetegraphie pp 20.

Brooke. D. (1982) Henutn_eentrel_nnd_use_phetngranhie
lighting. Tucson, AZ: HP Books.

Brooks, D. (1986, May). One-source lighting. Peteznenie
Photographic pp. 40-41.

Brown, S.L. (1983, May). Shooting Beauty. Rennie:
Photogranhx. pp.48-55+.

Caiati, C. (1986, OctOber). Low-key vs. high-key: ventures

in black-and—white aesthetics. Reteneen_e_2hetegraphie,
pp. 32-33.

Carlson. V. & Carlson, S. (1985). Professional_lighting
handbook. Boston, MA: Focal Press.

Carroll, J. & Sherriffs, R. (1977). I!_1ighting_hendhnnk.
Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Tab Books.

Collins, D. (1983, October). Collins on basics: the

versatility of "sweet light“. Betersenis_£hetegrnnhie.
pp. 58.

Collins, D. (1983, November). Collins on basics: making a
formal portrait with glamour lighting. Peteneenie
Photographie. pp. 72.

Collins, D. (1983, December). Collins on basics: raising the
“key by lighting through the background. Eetereen_e
Photographie pp. 90

Collins, D. (1984, August). Collins on basics: time is
money Petersen_e_2hetngrnphie pp 24-25

Collins, D. (1984, November). Collins on basics: making
black more beautiful - in seconds. Eetezeenie
Photographie. pp. 45-

Collins, D. (1985, December). -Collins on basics: utilizing
the total diffusion return—white. Eetezeenie
Photographie. pp. 52.

 

286

References ( continued) .

Collins, D. (1986, August). Collins on basics: solving
specularity. Petersenie_2hotogranhio. pp. 58-

Collins, D. (1986, December). Collins on basics: key
shifting Petersen_s_2hotographie pp 50

Grundbeng, C. (1985, September). Better portraits by
subtraction. ,Modern_2hotographx. PP-48+

Halsman, P. (1963). Psychological portraiture. Enexeinpedin
of_Ehotographx. 11. 3077-3101.

Keller, M. & Drukker, L. (1980, January). Basic lighting:
open up the shadows. Bonular.£hotogranh1. pp. 82-8?-

Keller, M. & Drukker, L. (1980, May). Basic portrait
lighting: one lamp and what it does. Bennie:
Photography. pp. 100—103.

Keller, M. & Drukker, L. (1980, August). Basic portrait

lighting: how to use two lamps. Bonular.£hotogranhz.
pp. 124—127.

Keller, M. & Drukker, L. (1981, June). Advanced lighting:

try this bag of tricks. Popular_2hotogranhx. pp.
102—109.

Keller, M. (1985, March). Learn what one light can do.
Popular_£hotograph1. pp.50-51.

Keller, M. (1985, April). Varying one lights quality.
Eonular.£hotogranhx. pp. 58—59.

Kelly, N. (1985, October). The scoop on scopes. EzIIY: pp.
34—39.

Krupa, G. F. (1984, JanuaryL Table-top photography.
Betersen.s.£hotographie pp. 52-56.

Leslie, B. (1984, January). The finer points of portraiture.
Betereen.s_2hotogranhie pp. 60—66.

:0 0; 0:00000‘1 0 ; a”.0)0 0;: .00 o 010:

phetegzephy. (1984). Danvers, MA: GTE Products
Corporation.

Maag, R. (1986, January). Studio solutions: metal lit, and
otherwise glorified, to perfection. Betezeenis
Photographic. pp. 28.

McClendon, G. (1987, January). Video lighting: making it
easy. Yideo_sttens pp 32-36

287

References (continued).

Perveiler. G. (1984). ,Seorets_of_studio_still_life
phetegzephy. New York, NY: Amphoto, Watson—Guptill
Publications.

° ' ' . (1980). Rochester, NY:
Eastman Kodak Publications.

Schwarz. T. & Stoppee. B. (1986). Theuphotogranheris_guide
I . 1' II

New York, NY: Amphoto, Watson-Guptill
Publications.

Shipmen, C., DiSante, T. & Silverman, D. (Eds.). (1981). He!
.to_use_light_oreatixelx Tucson. AZ: HP Books

Stensvold, M. (1986, September). Available-light portraits.
Betersen.e_2hotogrnnhie. pp.41-48.

Stone, A. (1987, March). Quick and easy studio portraiture.
Petersen_e_2hotogranhio. pp 50-53.

Zettl. H. (1973). Sight1_sound1_motion. Belmont. CA:
Wadsworth Publishing.

Zett1.H (1976) Ielexision_produotion_hondhook- (3rd ed.).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.

 

HICHIGQN STRTE UNIV.

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12930005 2597