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AA 0.12771 RETURNING MATERIALS: MSU Place in 531 oliharop tof remove th s c eckout rom w ' your record; FINES will be charged if EOE is returned after the date stamped be; ow. t ‘ Jupwefifi . m ., i. 6 ales ”3° 4 '9: . w 3////7) J I E Q 0260 s m . 15,2630“ I "New "may I 35 6“} 1E9 4—3299: , A FIELDNORK STUDY OF PLANNED CHANGE IN A COMMJNITY OQLEGE By Alice Marie Goodrich A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Adnini strati on 1986 Copyright by ALICE MARIE GOODRICH I986 ABSTRACT A FIELDVORK STUDY OF PLANNED o-IANGE IN A (IIWUNITY COLLEGE By Alice Marie Goodrich This study sought to discover how the chief executive officer (the President) of a community college attempted to change the institution and to determine his role in the change process. It also attempted to discover the perceptions of members of the organization who were involved in the change. The intention was to record and understand how the members of the organization interacted with one another in meetings. what the chief executive officer planned or had done to bring about change. and how members of the organization felt about the change. The planned organizational change that was the focus of this study involved an effort to incorporate a greater emphasis on marketing principles in operating the college. Fieldwork research methods were used in conducting the investi- gation. To gather data. participant observation. interviewing. and document examination were used. The analysis of the data was an ongoing process of reading and reflecting on the fiel dnotes to discover patterns and linkages. Alice Marie Goodrich The dissertation includes a description of the site studied. which was a public. comprehensive community college in the Midwest. providing transfer education. occupational education. community services. and developmental education. It was discovered that there were differing perceptions among the organization's members about a number of issues--marketing as well as other personnel and areas of the college. It was also discovered that the President of the community college used a number of strategies to introduce marketing into the organization. In addition to the strategies used by the President. the external environment and inhibitors to the change process (specifically attitudes) were described and examined. Additional variables in the change process were the President's leadership style and the multiple roles he assumed. The findings of differing perceptions may hold the more sig- nificant implications for practice in educational institutions. How- ever. the President's approach to change provides insights for anyone interested in changing a complex organization such as a community college. Further studies which focus on differing perceptions in organizations might provide additional insights than those generated by this study. A study with a significant time span to examine an organi- zation through all the stages of a planned change process would also be useful. Alice Marie Goodrich The dissertation includes a description of the site studied. which was a public. comprehensive community college in the Midwest. providing transfer education. occupational education. community services. and developmental education. It was discovered that there were differing perceptions among the organization's members about a number of issues--marketing as well as other personnel and areas of the college. It was also discovered that the President of the community college used a number of strategies to introduce marketing into the organization. In addition to the strategies used by the President. the external environment and inhibitors to the change process (specifically attitudes) were described and examined. Additional variables in the change process were the President's leadership style and the multiple roles he assuned. The findings of differing perceptions may hold the more sig- nificant implications for practice in educational institutions. How- ever. the President's approach to change provides insights for anyone interested in changing a complex organization such as a community college. Further studies which focus on differing perceptions in organizations might provide additional insights than those generated by this study. A study with a significant time span to‘examine an organi- zation through all the stages of a planned change process would also be useful. ACKNGVLEIISNENTS When one has been a part-time student for 12 years while earning a bachelor's. master's. and doctoral degree at the same time one is a full-time community college employee. it is impossible to acknowledge all the people who have assisted in the process. To my family and friends. a special thank you for always being understanding and giving me your support. To my colleagues in education who have helped in so many ways through the years. I am grateful. To Dr. Max Raines. chairperson; Dr. Douglas Campbell. disserta- tion chairperson; and Drs. Louis Hekhuis. Howard Hickey. and Richard Whitmore. the doctoral committee. I express sincere appreciation for their part in my recent intellectual growth. I would be remiss. how- ever. without extending special appreciation to Dr. Richard Nhitmore. from whom I first learned about the philosophy of community colleges and their administration. Thank you also to Sue Cooley for her expert typing of this dissertation. Finally. thank you to all the individuals at the community college which is the subdect of this dissertation. Your hospitality and openness will always be remenbered. TABLE OF CWTENTS Page LIST OF TELES O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O I O O O 0 Vi ii LIST OF FIGURES O 0 O O O O O C O O O O O O O I O O O O I O O 0 ix Chapter 10 WE ROBLEM O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose Of we StUdy O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 2 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Need for the StUdy O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 3 STgnifTCBnm Of the StUdy C I O O O O C O O I O O O O 4 Researcher's Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Presentation of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 II.LITERATUREREVIEW................... 8 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Planned Change in Organizations . . . . . . . . 8 Strategies. Models. and Interventions . . . . ll Organizational Culture . . . . . . . . . . 18 N N Facilitators of Change and Resisters of Change Social Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Role Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marketing in Educational Institutions . . . . community College Philosophy and Functions . . Sunmary and Implications for the Present Study 0 O o O o O O o o I o o o o o o 0 0 o o N on III. KmomLmY I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O 43 Fieldwork Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Entry Negotiations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 DataGathering.................... 48 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 vi Iv. THE SETTING O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Introduction . Connunity . . Students . . . Faculty . . . Facilities . . Organization . . Marketing Activities Summary . . . . . . V. PRESENTATION OF THE FINDINGS . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marketing in an Educational Institution Marketing Defined by the Personnel . Marketing and the Philosophy of the Community College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Differing Perceptions Among the Organization's Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Negative Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . Positive Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Associated with Differing Perceptions The President and Marketing . . . . . . . . . . Actions and Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . Opinion Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leadership Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Role Enactment of the President as Exhibited byHisSpeech Dynamic Characteristics of the Site . . . . . . Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The External Environment and Its Effect on the Change Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inhibitors of the Change Process . . . . . . . VI. SUWIARY OF THE FINDINGS. IMPLICATIONS. AND REFLECTIONS Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Findings and Conclusions Research Ouestionl . . . . . . . Research Question 2 . . . . . . . Implications for Practice and Research Reflections APPmDIX O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O BELImRWY O O C O C I O O I I O O O O O O O 0 vii Page 57 57 59 6O 60 61 62 67 7O 7O 71 71 77 78 78 81 89 89 99 101 106 118 118 130 135 138 138 138 138 140 143 147 149 ISO LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. NegativePerceptions.................. 88! 2. Positive Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3. Fourteen Roles of the President. by Frequency of Occurrence. and Samples of Speech in Each Category . . 108 4. Comparison of Mintzberg's Roles and the Present Study . . ll6 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page l. Organizational Structure of Midwest Community College . . 63 G-IAPTER I THE PRWLEM Intmductinn We feel that certainly change is no longer a threat. The change we are now experiencing is fundamentally different from what we have gone through in the past. What we have experienced in the past has been incremental change. (Fiel dnotes. 10/16/85. p. 1) At Midwest Community College (a pseudonym).1 the concept of change was frequently mentioned by the chief executive officer. the president. The above quotation is an example of such remarks. which were heard at a meeting of the administrators from Midwest and from several neighboring conmunity colleges. Edmund Gleazer (1980). former president of the American Asso- ciation of Community and Junior Colleges. stated that the community college is a unique educational institution because of its broad mis- sion of responding to the educational needs in the community it serves. This mission has further implications: (1) the community is changing. and (2) there will be changing educational needs among a diverse popu- lation. The mission of the community college has not always been so comprehensive. Twenty years ago (the founding years of many community colleges). the role was described as providing one or two years of ‘Aii names in the site studied are fictitious. postsecondary education to students who wanted to work or transfer to a four-year institution. Gleazer (1980) suggested that a different kind of leadership is required for today's community college. With all due credit to the competence and dedication of the founders. the process of changing an institution is often more difficult to nurture and guide than the process of establishing an institution. (p. T62) Gleazer indicated that what has been established has a strong tendency to "persist in style and content" (p. 162). Midwest Community College. the subject of the current study. was the type of institution to which Gleazer was referring. A mature institution. it no longer faced the kinds of problems associated with the founding of an organization. but had to deal with the process of changing what had already been established. W Using fieldwork methods of inquiry. this study sought to discover how the chief executive officer of a community college (the president) attempted to change the institution. as well as his role in the change process. It also attempted to discover the perceptions of members of the organization who, were involved in the change process. The intention was to record and understand how the members of the organization interacted with one another inineetings. what the chief executive officer planned or had done to bring about change. and how members of the organization felt about the change. The planned organizational change that was the focus of this study involved an effort to incorporate a greater emphasis on marketing postsecondary education to students who wanted to work or transfer to a four-year institution. Gleazer (1980) suggested that a different kind of leadership is required for today's community college. With all due credit to the competence and dedication of the founders. the process of changing an institution is often more difficult to nurture and guide than the process of establishing an institution. (p. 162) Gleazer indicated that what has been established has a strong tendency to "persist in style and content" (p. 162). Midwest Community College. the subject of the current study. was the type of institution to which Gleazer was referring. A mature institution. it no longer faced the kinds of problems associated with the founding of an organization. but had to deal with the process of changing what had already been established. Eumcse_o.f_tbe_fitudx Using fieldwork methods of inquiry. this study sought to discover how the chief executive officer of a community college (the president) attempted to change the institution. as well as his role in the change process. It also attempted to discover the perceptions of members of the organization who were involved in the change process. The intention was to record and understand how the members of the organization interacted with one another in meetings. what the chief executive officer planned or had done to bring about change.iand how members of the organization felt about the change. The planned organizational change that was the focus of this study involved an effort to incorporate a greater emphasis on marketing principles in operating the college. Using participant observation as the primary research strategy. the study adds to the body of litera- ture on planned change in organizations. W The problem is that not enough is known about how planned change occurs in organizations. Huse (1980) discussed the fact that the practice of planned change or organization development has surpassed research in the area. Adding to the problem is the fact that consultants in the field "seldom. if ever. write reports" (p. 29). There is also a need to know more about the role of the chief executive officer in an organization that is experiencing a planned-change effort. as well as the perceptions of individuals in the organization. In addition. the 19805 have been a time of great change for higier education in general and for community colleges in particular. Changes in the external environment in which community colleges operate have occurred; i.e.. changes in demographics (the number of high school graduates has declined) and changes in the economy that affect their financial support. Therefore. there has been a greater need to change the institutions so that they can respond in appropriate ways to the external changes in the enviromient. mum There is a need to understand the effect on an institution and its members of attempts to change the institution. Fullan (1985) suggested that research needs to go beyond theories of change (what factors explain change) to theories of changing (how change occurs and how to use this new knowledge). One of the reasons the study is an important one for educa- tional research concerns the difficulties faced by chief executive officers in administering today's complex organizations. A recent national commission cited many constraints faced by presidents of colleges and universities: more federal and state controls on academic institutions; more faculty influence over appointments. promotions. and academic policy; more student influence in campus governance; more partici- pation by boards of trustees in daily decision making; less chance for institutions to grow and change; and less acceptance of author- ity throughout society. (Jacobson. 1984. p. 26) As stated previously. the planned change studied was an effort to incorporate a greater emphasis on marketing principles in operating the college. The literature suggests that such a strategy is needed in educational institutions that face an uncertain future. A recent Carnegie Council (1980) report predicted such a future for higher education: During the next 20 years. enrollments may fall even as the total population continues to rise; real resources available to and used by colleges and universities also may decline. even if and as the total GNP keeps increasing. (p. 1) Therefore. there is a need to understand more about the process of incorporating a marketing orientation in an organization. mm Data obtained from this study can serve the following purposes: 1. Provide a better understanding of how change affects an organization. 2. Provide an increased awareness of the ways community college personnel interact with one another and how they feel about the change. 3. Provide a better understanding of how an organization moves to a marketing orientation in its operations. 4. Provide a detailed account. based on participant observa- tion. of many of the events that occur in the life of an organization. including how its members behave and interact with each other. We The researcher brought to the study an interest in organiza- tions and administration resulting from 21 years as an employee in different capacities in a number of different organizations. At vari- ous times she has been a secretary in industry and education. as well as a faculty member and an administrator in education. WW 1. An ideal time period for the study would have been longer than the eight months studied as massive change such as changing an institution to a marketing orientation may require a longer time span than eight months. Because of the time factor. only a portion of the change process was studied. More observations occurred during the summer months than other months. 2. The researcher did not have unlimited access to the presi- dent and other members of the organization studied. Because of the confidentiality and sensitivity of many situations that involve a president. many of the observations that involved the president occurred in meetings outside his office. 3. The study was limited to the one site studied. No attempt was made to generalize or compare the findings beyond that site. 4. Because of time constraints. more attention was paid to adninistrators and faculty than to other constituencies of the college. 5. Because it is not possible to observe and count everything that occurred at the site. the frequency counts of certain occurrences cannot be compared or measured against the total possible occurrences of other phenomena. An example concerns the number of times the Presi- dent discussed marketing. That frequency is not compared with the number of times the President discussed other issues. WW By using the methods of fieldwork. this investigation was conducted to discover how the chief executive officer (the President) of a community college attempted to change the institution to one with a marketing orientation. It also attempted to discover the perceptions of manbers of the organization who were involved in the change process. As will be shown in subsequent chapters. the President was using many different strategies to introduce a marketing orientation into the organization. His eclectic approach to change appeared to be moving the organization toward the apparent objective of having all college personnel knowledgeable about marketing principles and able to perform their daily operations in a way that reflected that knowledge. Chapter I has explained the purpose and need for the study as well as presented its limitations. Related literature is reviewed in Chapter II. while the methodology employed is explained in Chapter III. Chapters IV and V describe the site studied and present the findings from the investigation. Finally. Chapter VI summarizes the findings. presents implications for practice and research. and includes reflec- tions about the study. GiAF’TER II LITERATURE REVIEW W In this investigation. a study of planned change in a community college. other areas associated with the change process were also explored. Therefore. in addition to the literature of planned change. other areas of literature relating to the present study were also reviewed--soci a1 perceptions. role theory. marketing in educational institutions. and community college philosophy and functions. However. because the major focus of the project was on planned change. there is more emphasis on that section of the related literature review. WW Savola (1984) concluded that no consistent definitions existed for the terms associated with organizational change. but that in general organizational change has a broader content than organizational development. Michael (1982) defined organizational change as the process of adjusting the organization to the changes in the environment with the objective of a better fit between the organization and the environment. According to Blake. Mouton. and Williams (1982). organization development is an example of applied cultural anthropology that has arisen from research into small groups by social psychologists. It focuses on practices to improve the culture of the organization as contrasted with practices to change individuals. such as management development. While the concept of organization development (00) suffers from lack of a clear. consistent definition. the following definition by Beckhard (1969) seems to have been accepted by many interested in 00: Organization development is an effort (1) planned. (2) organization- wide. and (3) managed from the top. to (4) increase organization effectiveness and health through (5) planned interventions in the organization's processes. using behavioral science knowledge. (p. 9) Beckhard clarified the notion of "processes" as including "decision- making processes. communications patterns and styles. relationships among interfacing groups. the management of conflict. the setting of goals. and planning methods" (p. 26). Another definition proposed by Schmuck and Miles (1971). national leaders of 00 in educational institutions. is "a planned and sustained effort to apply behavioral science for system improvement. using reflexive. sel f-analytic methods" (p. 2). A comparison of the two definitions indicates similarities. Both emphasize planned efforts to improve the organization or system through the use of behavioral-science knowledge. A definition that emphasizes planned change was proposed by Huse (1980): Organization development is concerned with the deliberate. rea- soned. introduction. establishment. reinforcement. and spread of change for the purpose of improving an organization's effectiveness and health. Effectiveness refers to setting and attaining approp- riate goals in a changing environment. Health refers to the IO motivation. utilization. and integration of human resources within the organization. (p. 23) According to Bennis (1966). planned change is a method that "empl oys social technology to solve the problems of society. The method encompasses the application of systematic and appropriate knowledge to human affairs for the purpose of creating intelligent action and choices" (p. 81). Cameron (1984) distinguished organizational adaptation from 00. Adaptation refers to modifications and alterations in the organization or its components in order to adjust to changes in the external envi- ronment. It is a process. not an event. in which changes are insti- tuted in organizations. According to Cameron. adaptation focuses on changes motivated by the external environment. whereas 00 focuses on change in individual attitudes and behaviors and the organization's culture. He quoted Goodman and Kurke (1982) in differentiating between the concepts of planned organizational change and adaptation: Planned organizational change deals with the basis of change; adaptation deals with the conditions or sources of change. Planned organizational change focuses primarily on change within the organ- ization. but the adaptation literature focuses primarily on popul a- tions of organizations. and on organization-environment interfaces. and on changes within an organization that are environmentally dictated. The planned organization literature emphasizes the pro- cess of actually creating change rather than writing about the processes of change (adaptation literature). The planned organiza- tional change literature is devoted to methods and techniques. but the adaptation literature is devoted to theorizing about the change processes or outcomes. (p. 4) Finally. diffusion is also associated with change in organiza- tions. Rogers (1983) defined diffusion as the "process by which (1) an 11 innovation (2) is communicated throug'i certain channels (3) over time (4) among the members of a social system" (p. 5). 51W Chin and Benne (1976) classified strategies for effecting change into three categories: empirical-rational. normative- reeducative. and power-coercive. Fundamental assumptions of the empi rical-rational strategies are that people are rational and that they will follow their rational self-interest once it is revealed to them. Typical strategies might involve basic research and dissemina- tion of knowledge through general education as well as personnel selection and replacement. An underlying assumption of normative-reeducative approaches maintains that action and practice are supported by sociocultural norms and by commitments to these norms. Change will occur only when persons change their normative orientations to old patterns and develop com- mitments to new ones. Typical normative-reeducative strategies may involve improving the problem-solving capabilities of a system and/or releasing and fostering growth in the persons who make up the system to be changed. Chin and Benne suggested that changes in normative orientations involve changes in attitudes. values. skills. and signifi- cant relationships. Change in a power-coercive strategy would be based on the application of power in some form. which may or may not be legitimate. Such strategies attempt to mass political and economic power behind the change goals. Chin and Benne maintained that their use by those in 12 legitimate control of social systems is more widespread than most persons will admit. Similar to the efforts of Chin and Benne. Crowfoot and Chesler (1974) categorized social change efforts into three classifications: 1. Professional-technical. which stresses intellectual expertise of individuals and their ability and right to make decisions and plans for others. 2. Politica1--the organization of mass power. 3. Countercultural. which emphasizes "communal organization as building and rebuilding blocks of a new. unalienating society" (p. 300). Havel ock et a1. (1969) conducted an extensive literature review of diffusion and change and identified three perspectives: (1) research. development. and diffusion; (2) social interaction; and (3) problem solving. As a result. a linkage model of dissemination and use of knowledge was developed which incorporated features of all three perspectives. Considered an act of communication. linkage was defined as a "series of two-way interaction processes which connect user systems with various resource systems. including basic and applied research. development and practice" (p. 11). According to this model. senders and receivers can achieve successful linkage "only if they exchange messages in two-way interaction and continuously make the effort to simulate each other's problem-solving behavior" (p. 14). Maher and Illback (1983) suggested two major classifications in evaluating planned change strategies for schools: 1. tional l. 13 Structural/technological approach--the focus of the program is on changes of organizational variables such as systems of communication. lines of authority. policies. rules. work flow. and the introduction of problem-solving innovations. Functional/behavioral approach-~the focus of changes is on individual or group attitudes. values. knowledge. norms. skills. motivations. and other behaviors of the institution's manbers. (p. 461) Bennis in 1963 proposed three approaches to planned organiza- change: Equilibrium model which claims that the higier the degree of tension. the smaller the fraction of energy available for work. The chief mechanism of change is the reduction of tension. particularly forces which would tend to lower the level of production. e.g.. anxiety. role conflicts. etc. Organic model which postulates that perfecting the communica- tion. control. and decision-making networks within the organi- zation is a problem of improving the work relationships among those responsible for the functioning of the networks. Mutual confidence and trust are considered more vital than authority- obedience relationships. The main mechanisms for change are redistribution of power based on confidence and trust and conflict resolution based on problem-solving activities. Developmental model which emphasizes growth and directional change. a change in values in the organization. In this model the main mechanism for change is valid curmunications. Fullan (1985) proposed a model of successful change processes for schools that involved eight organizational factors: instruction- ally focused leadership at the school level. district support. emphasis on curriculum and instruction. clear goals and high expectations for students. a system for monitoring performance and achievement. ongoing staff development. parental involvement and support. and an orderly and secure climate. These factors must be supported by four process vari- ables: a feel for the improvement process on the part of leadership. a 14 guiding value system. intense interaction and communication. and col- laborative planning and implementation. In addition to classifications of change strategies as well as descriptions of models of organizational change. change has also been analyzed as a process involving distinct stages. A change model for union-management relations was developed by Kochan and Dyer (1976». which involved three stages: (1) the stimuli for union-management change. (2) the initial decision to participate or commit the organiza- tions to a specific change program. and (3) the maintaining of commit- ment to the change program or institutionalizing it over time. Lewin (1951) suggested three steps involving a change in group performance: A change toward a higher level of group performance is frequently short lived; after a "shot in the arhb" group life soon returns to the previous level. This indicates that it does not suffice to define the objective of a planned change in group performance as the reaching of a different level. Permanency of the new level. or permanency for a desired period. should be included in the objec- tive. A successful change includes therefore three aspects: unfreezgng (if necessary) the present level L . moving to the new level L . and freezing group life on the new level. (p. 228) Building on the work of Lewin. Lippitt. Watson. and Westley (1958) identified five general phases of the change process: 1. Development of a need for change ("unfreezing") 2. Establishment of a change relationship 3. Working toward change ("moving") 4. Generalization and stabilization of change ("freezing") 5. Achieving a terminal relationship 15 Noting the large number of variables (102) that represent probable barriers or incentives to innovation. Glover (1980) argued for a contingency approach to planned change in higher education as being preferable to adoption of a single decision-making model. He cited seven factors that affect innovation and effectiveness in organiza- tions: (1) environmental demands. (2) organizational requirements. (3) leadership. (4) participation of members and constituents. (S) change-agent roles. (6) innovation characteristics. and (7) strategies for action. In a similar effort. Grossnickle (1980) identified ten variables that influence innovation in school s--availability of an innovation. quality of the innovation. innovation cost. innovation complexity. ccmmunicability. school environment. availability of a change consultant. training. leadership and sponsorship. and 1 mp1 anentati on strategies. Many strategies or interventions may be used in a pl anned- change effort in an educational institution. Katz and Kahn (1966) identified seven approaches to organizational change and evaluated their effectiveness. 1. Information--additional cognitive input has real but limited value as a way of creating organizational change because it is not a source of motivation. 2. Individual counseling and therapy--methods represent attempts. partly successful. to avoid the limitations of information giving and to bring about individual changes in attitudes with tendencies toward altered behavior. 3. Influence of the peer group-~a more potent approach to organi- zational change because peers constitute strong influences on individual behavior. 16 Sensitivity training--while the primary target is the indi- vidual. more recent variations deal with the problems of adapt- ing individual change to the organization. Feedback-procedure which relies on discussions of findings by organization members. Group therapy in organizations--represents a fusion of indi- vidual therapy and the social psychology of organizations. Systemic change--the most powerful approach to changing human organizations and requires the direct manipulation of organiza- tional variables such as decision-making power. (pp. 392-433) Improving organizational health is a key concept in organization-development efforts. Miles (1975) suggested that it is time for us to recognize that successful efforts at planned change must take as a primary target the improvement of organiza- tion heal th--the school system's ability not only to function effectively. but to develop and grow into a more fully functioning system. (p. 225) Miles then described typical interventions to improve organizational health. 1. Five of these are as follows: Team trai ni ng-members of an intact work group examine their effectiveness as a team. the role of group members. and the relation of the group to the organization. Survey feedback--data regarding attitudes. opinions. and beliefs of system members are collected and examined. Role workshop--all the people in a common role complete instruments concerning role expectations. their performance. etc. The data are used as a basis for role playing. discus- sion. etc. Target setting and supporting activities--periodic meetings are held between superiors and individual subordinates to review work as well as establish new targets. Organizational diagnosis and problem-solvingui nvolves a meet- ing of an intact work group or possibly an entire work force. The group identifies problems of the system. reasons. possible solutions. needed system changes. and plans for implementation. (pp. 242-44) 17 Other interventions that might be used in an organizational development effort in educational institutions were described in the WWW: (Schmuck et al.. 1971). Techniques. instruments. and exercises for use in improving the follow- ing functions were provided: clarifying communications. establishing goals. uncovering and working with conflict. improving group meetings. solving problems. and making decisions. However. research on results of such efforts has not always demonstrated cl ear-cut gains. One study of 23 organizations indicated that survey feedback was associated with significant improvement on a majority of measures related to improved organization functioning. while interpersonal-process consultation was associated with improve- ment on a majority of measures. However. laboratory training and no treatment were associated with declines (Bowers. 1973). Another study in a public school district also demonstrated that survey feedback resulted in positive outcomes and was useful in making strategic deci- sions (Rosenbach. Gregory. 8. Taylor. 1983). On the other hand. Bal dridge and Deal (1975) noted that the above peopl e-changing strategies. interventions typical of the human- relations approach. may not be successful. They argued for a perspec- tive based on changing organizational factors. We emphasize that educational change engages all the subsystems that together comprise complex educational organizations. These include the goals. the environment. the formal system or struc- ture. and the technology of the organization. as well as indi- viduals and groups in an informal system of relationships. . . . Any subsysten can pressure another subsystan to change. (p. 12) 18 W The concept of organizational culture is also central to understanding the change process in organizations. Culture has been defined as "those organizationally relevant norms and values that are shared by most employees (or subgroups)" (Huse. 1980. p. 61). Organizational culture also "consists of a set of symbols. ceremonies. and myths that communicate the underlying values and beliefs of that organization to its empl oyees" (Ouchi. 1981. p. 35). Rokeach (1973) defined a value as an "enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence" (p. 345). Values are distinguished from attitudes in that a value refers to a single belief of a very specific kind. whereas an attitude refers to an organization of several beliefs around a specific object or situation (p. 355). While the previous definitions of organizational culture emphasized values. Geertz's (1973) definition of culture emphasized the meanings that people give to events in life. Culture consists of "socially established structures of meanings in terms of which people do such things as signal conspiracies and join them" (pp. 12-13). He continued: "It denotes an historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols. a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate. perpetuate. and develop their knowledge about the attitudes toward life" (p. 89). 19 Spradley and McCurdy (1974) suggested that culture is a cognitive map and also enphasized the concept of meanings. This cognitive map--the categories. pl ans and rules people use to interpret their world and act purposely within it-is called culture. . . . Culture thus becomes the meaning system by which people design their own actions and interpret the behavior of others. (pp. 2-3) In applying the concept of culture to an organization such as a factory. Jaques (1952) suggested that its culture is its "customary and traditional way of thinking and of doing things. which is shared to a greater or lesser degree by all members. and which new members must learn. and at least partially accept. in order to be accepted into service in the firm" (p. 251). More particularly. Culture in this sense covers a wide range of behaviour: the methods of production; job skills and technical knowledge; atti- tudes towards discipline and punishment; the customs and habits of managerial behaviour; the objectives of the concern; its way of doing business; the methods of payment; the values placed on dif- ferent types of work; beliefs in democratic living and joint con- sultation; and the less conscious conventions and taboos. (p. 251) Kanter (1983) concluded that an organization's culture is critical to its receptivity to change; that is. whether it pushes "tradition" or "change." She noted that there will be more impetus to seek change when the organization's norms favor change. While there appears to be a theme among writers of organiza- tional life acknowledging that culture is difficult to change (Business mg. 1980). there appears to be acceptance of the notion that change in organizational culture is possible. In fact. two recent articles in the WWI documented the attempts to effect radical change in the cultures of mai or United States companies (May 20. 1985; 20 December 3. 1985). Adler and Jelinek (1986) noted that viewing organi- zations as changeable is a basic tenet of the organization-culture paradign. They related this philosophy to the history of the United States with its "strongly embedded notion that change is not only possible. but good" (p. 78). Snyder (1985) cited recent research in describing the role of management in any culture-change effort and listed ten "levers" that may be appropriate for management to use in any such effort. Typical levers are superordinate goals (the guiding vision and philosophy of the organization. management style and action. human resource management. organization structure. and administrative and control systems. He cautioned that those forces selected depend on the particular circum- stances of an organization. While noting that it is possible. even though difficult. to change the culture of an organization. Deal and Kennedy (1982) pointed out the lengthy anount of time to bring about such change. Effecting cultural change is a very expensive busi ness--much more expensive than most people realize. . . . The other barrier is the fact that reshaping a culture takes a considerable amount of time. It literally takes years to achieve fundamental change in an organ- ization's culture. (p. 163) Similarly. Jaques (1952) in W pointed out the amount of time required to bring about changes in real behavior. He noted that such changes do not take place as quickly as "changes in professed attitude or administrative arrangements" (pp. 311-12). 21 Implicit in the preceding quotation is the notion that while it is less difficult to make changes in administrative matters. those changes may be ineffectual because of a lack of change in the organiza- tional culture. Schmuck and Miles (1971) noted such a problem. They suggested that many if not most efforts at educational reform have collapsed or have been absorbed without effect precisely because of the limited attention given to the organizational context in which the reforms have been attempted. Any major innovation in curriculum or instructional technique implies a change in the "culture" of the school. (p. 1) Relationships between teachers and principal. and between teachers. principals. and support staff are changed. "In this process. the innovation itself often fails or is restructured (and so invalidated) to conform to the 'old way' of doing things" (p. 1). Sarason (1971) also described a similar problem. He noted that while there may be new content. new activities. and new ways of talking. life in the school or classroom may not have changed much. if at all. Noting that individuals concerned with improving organizations often debate whether changing the structure is sufficient or whether attitudes and perceptions also need to be changed. Schein (1985) argued that structure and attitudes are artifacts of an organization's culture. He maintained that changing the artifacts without confronting underlying assumptions (the culture) will not result in successful change. Levin (1974) examined attempts at educational reform and concluded that the efforts were unsuccessful because the attempts were 22 inconsistent with the values of the larger social system. the United States society. An example given was individualized instruction. which violates the need for conformity in hierarchical organizations that characterize industry and governnent. WW We W. According to March (1981). most changes in organizations are simple responses to demographic. economic. social. and political forces. Kanter (1983) investigated 100 companies in six studies and concluded that five major forces increase an organization's capacity to meet new challenges: (1) departure from tradition (Force A)--activi- ties may occur. typically at the "grass-roots level." that deviate from organizational expectations; (2) a crisis or galvanizing event (Force 8). which has a demand quality and seems to require a response; (3) strategic decisions (Force C)--when leaders emerge and develop strategies to use Force A to solve problems in Force B; (4) individual prime movers (Force D)--someone with power pushing a strategy; (5) action vehicles (Force E)--mechanisms that allow the new action possi- bilities to be expressed. Rather than abstractions. the changes need to be expressed in actual procedures. structures. communication chan- nels. appraisal measures. work methods. or rewards. Emdflmmem; One force of change that has been articulated by a number of authors is the environment. In understanding the effect of the environment on change in an organization. the construct of the 23 organization as an open system is helpful. "A formal organization is a system primarily oriented to the attainment of a specific goal. which constitutes an output of the system and which is an input for some other system" (Parsons. 1962. p. 33). The survival of the system (organization) is dependent on its ability to attain control over the external environment or to modify its internal structures to meet the requirements of the changing external environment. Changed inputs are categorized as (1) new or modified production imports (modifications of quantity or quality in the inflow of materials and messages) and (2) maintenance inputs. values. and motivations of the organizational members (an evolutionary change). These changed inputs are the critical factors in the significant modi- fication of organizations (Katz 5 Kahn. 1966). Other authors have also suggested the importance of the exter- nal environment on change in the organization. Bennis (1966) noted that one of the characteristics of client-systems that seek planned change concerns their environment--al most always rapidly changing. In addition. there is some dissatisfaction. tension. or crisis that seems to activate the program. Chin (1976) noted that the source of change results primarily from structural "stress and strain externally induced or internally created" (p. 100). One report indicated that a "large. complex organization with a changing. heterogeneous environment is likely to be more innovative than a simple organization with a relatively homogeneous environment"(Ba1dridge. 1975. p. 172). The 24 changing environment makes demands on the organization to respond with innovations. In higher education. important components of the external environment are the potential number of students. funding sources. and federal policies. Over the past several years. these areas have created ”conditions of decline" for higher education that require a new set of adninistrative and organizational responses (Cameron. 1983). Behn (1983) also argued that enrollment decline provides an opportunity for management to rethink and change some of its management strategies. mustangs. While noting that experiments to produce change in organizations have typically been directed at individuals rather than at organizations. Katz and Kahn (1966) described the Morse and Reimer experiment. which shifted the locus of control downward in the struc- ture of the organization. The design of the experiment called for two opposed experimental treatments--a program of downward delegation called the Autonomy Program and a program of tighter control from above called the Hierarchically Controlled Program. As might be expected. significant differences were found in the two programs. In the Auton- omy Program there was an increase in sel f-actualization. an improvement in relations between subordinates and superiors. and an increase in attraction to the company. Conversely. in the Hierarchically Con- trolled Program. there was a decrease in sel f-actual ization. a deteri- oration of relations. and a decrease in attraction for the company. At 25 the same time. both programs showed significant increases in produc- tivity. Based on a study of 20 companies. Burns and Stalker (1961) differentiated between mechanistic and organic forms of management. They argued that a mechanistic management system is appropriate for stable conditions. Some of the characteristics of a mechanistic system are as follows: 1. The specialized differentiation of functional tasks. 2. A hierarchical structure of control. authority. and communication. 3. A tendency for communication to be vertical. i.e.. between superiors and subordinates. 4. A tendency for operations and working behavior to be gov- erned by the instructions and decisions issued by superiors. By contrast. the organic form is appropriate to changing con- ditions due to the unforeseen problems and requirements that cannot be "broken down and distributed automatically arising from the functional roles defined within a hierarchical structure" (p. 120). The charac- teristics of an organic form provide a sharp contrast to those of a mechanistiC'system: l. The adjustment and continued redefinition of individual tasks through communication with other individuals. 2. Problems may not be pushed upwards. downwards. and sideways as soneone e1 se's responsibility. 26 3. A network structure of control. authority. and communi- cation. Lorsch (1976) also argued for an organizational design that differs depending on the environment. He described contingency theory. which suggests that in effective organizations there will be congruence between the organization's environment and its design. which in turn affects internal functioning. One of the characteristics of an innovative. excellent company noted by Peters and Waterman (1982) called for a simple form. They pointed out that none of the companies they studied. which were consid- ered excellent companies. had a formal matrix organizational structure. In a matrix organization. a lateral or horizontal structure of a proj- ect coordi nator is superimposed on the standard vertical hierarchical structure (Huse. 1980). Kanter (1983) noted that complex structures have been criti- cized in recent years and suggested that such criticism may be the result of the confusion in a matrix organization where people have not been given support or training to work within it. In a similar vein as Burns and Stalker. her research suggested that under stable conditions. where the emphasis is on incremental improve- ments rather than innovation. simple structures might work best. But to produce innovation. more complexity is essential; more relationships. more sources of information. more angles on the prob- lem. more ways to pull in human and material resources. more free- dom to walk around and across the organization. (p. 148) Kanter suggested that a formal matrix structure is not necessary. Looser boundaries. cross-cutting access. flexible assignments. open communication. and the use of multidisciplinary teams would result in 27 the objective of more complexity. Kanter further stated that innovat- ing organizations may need to be at their loosest--and most complex--in the middle. She determined that a company's productivity depends to a great degree on how innovative its middle managers are (1982. p. 95). Whats. Much of the literature on planned change suggested that the members of the organization may represent barriers to an effective change process. Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) cited four common reasons people resist change: "a desire not to lose some- thing of value. a misunderstanding of the change and its implications. a belief that the change does not make sense for the organization. and a low tolerance for change" (p. 107). To overcome this resistance to change. managers are encouraged to involve people in the probl em- solving and decision processes regarding a proposed change (Beckhard 8. Harris. 1977; Mann a Neff. 1961). Beckhard and Harris also recommended various other alternatives to gaining commitment of individuals: edu- cational activities. treating 'hurting" subsystems. changing rewards. the use of role model 5. and forced-collaborati on mechanisms to require people to work together. As related earlier. Lewin (1951) articulated three steps of the change process to deal with resistance to change. Noting that it is usually easier to change groups than individuals in the group. he recommended that the group standard be changed by a process of unfreez- ing. moving. and freezing of group standards at a new level. Thus the resistance due to the relation between the individual and the group standard is eliminated. 28 As stated previously. Adler and Jelinek (1986) wrote about the value in the United States that change is not only possible. but good. In contrast. Klein (1976)Iargued that opposition to change is desirable in complex social systems. He likened the opposition to the defenses of individuals to ward off threats. maintain integrity. and protect against intrusions. While there seems to be in the literature an assumption that change will be resisted. Powell and Posner (1978)Targued that existence of the assumption has not often been documented. They then described what may be a sel f-fulfilling prophecy: Expectations of resistance to change by employees are apt to generate what is expected" q» 33). Consequently. they argued for more careful evaluation by managers of employees' reactions to change. While the people in the organization may be considered a source of resistance to change. they may also be a facilitator of the change process. Nadl er (1978) documented the impetus for change that involv- ing unions may have in a Quality of Work project. Cole (1985) also documented the role of organized labor in supporting or discouraging changes toward increased "worker" participation in the decision-making processes in industry. Commenting that advice on encouraging innovation in organiza- tions usually describes the appropriate climate and structures to facilitate innovation. Herzberg (1985) implied that innovative people are critical to the process of innovation in organizations and described ten key characteristics of such individuals. 29 W The complexities of how people form impressions of other people is studied and explained by the field of social perception. Perception is not a passive process but one that demands active participation by the perceiver. who "sel acts and categorizes. interprets. and infers to achieve a meaningful world in which action is possi ble" (Schneider et al.. 1979. p. 15). Social perception is distinguished from object perception because the stimulus in person perception is similar to the perceiver in that he/she is a thinking and feeling person capable of intentional action (Shaver. 1975). Schneider et al. also distinguished social perception from object perception for several reasons. People are causal agents; that is. their behavior may be thought of as being caused by themselves. In addition. people are similar to one another in that they possess emotional states. Finally. social interactions are dynamic. Two maj or theoretical perspectives. Gestalt and linear combina- tion. are used to analyze impression formation. In the Gestalt posi- tion. predictions of overall impressions that will be formed are based on the entire set of characteristics that are used to describe people. In the 1inear-combi nation position. the meanings of individual items in descriptions of persons do not change when put together. and an overall impression results from combining reactions to individual items (Penner. 1986). Major theorists in the Gestalt school of social perception are Solomon Asch and Fritz Hei der. Asch (1952) argued that major 30 conditions govern the views held of people: (1) their stimulus proper- ties or what is perceived of them and (2) the needs and claims that rel ate people to one another. Heider coined the term "naive psychol- ogy." which refers to the process a person uses to seek an orderly view of his/her environment. A person tends to look behind surface behavior at the person who produced the behavior. at the person's motives and attitudes. and at the social context in which the behavior occurred (Deutsch 8. Krauss. 1965). As people search for meaning and order in their environment. they are involved in a process of explaining the behavior of others. known as attribution. Heider's work forms the basis for much of the study of the attribution process. Another major theorist of the attribution process is Kelley. He proposed a covariation model of attribution. which claims that an event tends to be attributed to another with which it is consistently associated. Causation is inferred from correlation and is used when a person has decided on an explanation of another person's behavior after observing the behavior a number of times. In explaining the process used when there is only one occurrence for observance. Kelley (1976) stated that a person draws on his/her past experience with combi na- tions of variabl es to select a possible causal explanation. On the other hand. some studies have found that a person's attributions may not be influenced to a great degree by comparisons with other indi- viduals (Nisbet a Borgida. 1975). 31 Because of the role of the perceiver in social perception and his/her range of possible personality characteristics. experience. and personal motives. the same stimulus person and event may produce a different perception in different perceivers (Shaver. 1975). The role enactment of the stimulus person also affects how the person is perceived. Jones et a1. (1966) found that behavior which is approp- riate to a specific role is considered uninformative about personal characteristics. That is. persons who were displaying behavior that was "out-of-rol e" were perceived to be revealing more of their true characteristics than persons who were displaying "in-role" behavior. Merton (1957) used the term "sel f-ful filling prophecy" in describing how perceptions. which may not be accurate. can influence behavior. "The sel f-ful filling prophecy is. in the beginning. a false definition of the situation evoking a new behavior which makes the originally false conception come true" (p. 423). Other researchers have pointed out the influence of prior information on impression formation. Ickes (1980) found that perceiv- ers interacting with an unfamiliar person behave according to prior impressions of the person resulting from information given to the perceivers about the unfamiliar person. The research may explain why a person's perceptions tend to persist. regardless of whether the target person's behavior confirms or disconfirms the perception. One of the problems associated with perceptions is stereotyping (Shaver. 1975). Campbell (1976) discussed the function of perceptions in the formation of stereotypes. He maintained that stereotypes. the 32 images that persons or groups have of each other. reflect the charac- teristics of the group described. as well as the group doing the describing. He suggested that the differences between groups are the areas most likely to appear in stereotypes. At the same time. he pointed out that the degree of contact between groups also influences stereotypes. More contact and opportunities for observation cause more accurate stereotypes. Some researchers have concluded that stereo- types may be the result of the way people process and organize informa- tion (Hamilton et al.. 1985). Stereotyping is one form of perceptual defense. the "tendency to protect oneself against objects or situations that are perceptually threatening" (Hellriegel a Slocum. 1979. p. 155). Other categories of perceptual defense identified by Hellriegel and Slocum with implica- tions for organizational behavior are the halo effect. projection. and attribution. In the halo effect. impressions. either favorable or unfavorable. are used to evaluate individuals on other traits. The tendency to see in other persons traits that one possesses is defined as projection. Finally. attribution theory has implications for per- ceptual defense as it suggests that when one has confidence that an individual's actions are based on free choice. are consequential. and intentional 1y directed to someone. that person will have more confi- dence in making a judgnent about the individual. RcJeJhencx Role theory is a theoretical construct that can be used to examine reality in a social system. such as an organization. Goffman 33 (1961) described a role as the activity a person would engage in if he/she were to act solely in terms of the normative demands upon someone in a particular position. Biddle (1979) also stressed the normative in his definition of role and asserted that it is a behavioral repertoire "characteristic of a person or a position; a set of standards. descriptions. norms or concepts held for the behavior of a person or social position." Likewise. the normative was included in Heiss's (1981) definition of role. who concluded that roles are behav- ioral expectations for what a person "shoul d" do. Kahn et a1. (1966) included the dimension of personality and claimed that it affects roles because the traits of some persons tend to evoke certain responses from others and some persons experience role pressures differently than other persons. Other terms associated with role theory are role conflict and role strain. Role conflict occurs when a person is subjected to two or more contradictory expectations that a person cannot meet simultaneously (Biddle. 1979). In Biddle and Thomas. Parsons (1966) defined role conflict as occurring when a person is exposed to "conflicting sets of legitimized role expectations such that complete fulfillment of both is realistically impossibl e" (p. 275). When a person experiences stress associated‘with positions or roles. he/she is said to experience role strain (Biddle. 1979). Two major theoretical perspectives. structuralist and symbolic interaction. are used to analyze role enactment. The structuralist view asserts that in formal social structures roles are givens. Role 34 enactment is determined by historical factors. power distributions. and cultural values. On the other hand. the symbolic interactionist view asserts that roles "emerge from or are significantly shaped by inter- actions in specific social setting" (Zurcher. 1983. p. 14). In this study. the assumptions of symbolic interaction were important because observations of role enactment occurred in social settings such as meetings. Several assunptions are attributed to symbolic interaction: 1. Roles are consciously and purposefully enacted. 2. People are active role enactors. They not only conform to role expectations; they interpret. organize. modify. and create roles. 3. Humans are unique in their ability to communicate by ”using complex systems of symbols. most notably language." 4. While people develop an understanding of roles in specific social settings involving interaction with other people. the accumulation of role enactments and associated experiences shapes their sel f-concepts. 5. Even though some roles are not very flexible. people usually find ways to enact the most rigid roles in a way that is consistent with their own self-concepts and with their inter- pretation of social settings. 7. The process of interaction with others concerning role enactment shapes the content of the enactment. (Zurcher. pp. 13-14) One study that examined presidential roles. the emphasis of the present investigation. found that presidents and board chairpersons did not differ significantly in their perceptions of the relative impor- tance of 20 possible presidential roles (Cote. 1984). However. presi- dents expressed difficulty in establishing priorities among roles. 35 which would increase the likelihood of role conflict or role strain. There were. however. preferences by presidents and chairpersons of the importance of roles related to internal responsibilities as compared with those relating to outside constituencies. This finding is interesting in light of the present study. which focused on the "inside" dimension of presidential roles. Also related to this investigation is Mintzberg's (1973) study of managers. which identified ten managerial roles and is described in the section titled "Role Enactment of the President as Exhibited by His Speech" in the Presentation of the Findings. WWW Historically. marketing has been associated with business. In recent years the techniques of marketing have been adapted for use in educational institutions. Philip Kotler is widely regarded as an expert in marketing for nonprofit organizations. His definition of marketing suggests the process relates to management of an organiza- tion: Marketing is the analysis. planning. implementation. and control of carefully formulated programs designed to bring about voluntary exchanges of values with target markets for the purpose of achiev- ing organizational objectives. It relies heavily on designing the organization's offering in terms of the target markets' needs and desires. and on using effective pricing. communication. and distri- bution to inform. motivate. and service the markets. (Kotl er. 1982. p. 6) Another concept relative to the current study is "marketing orientation." Early on. it seemed evident that the president was 36 attempting to change the organization to one with such an orientation. Kotler also defined the concept: A marketing orientation holds that the main task of the organiza- tion is to determine the needs and wants of target markets and to satisfy them through the design. communication. pricing. and deliv- egy 3;)appropriate and competitively viable products and services. The term "marketing" may not appear to be an appropriate one of concern for an educational institution. For some. it may bring images of him-pressure selling tactics. However. certain benefits have been suggested to accrue to an educational organization that understands marketing principles: 1. Greater success in ful filling the institution's mission. 2. Improved satisfaction of the institution's publics. 3. Improved attraction of marketing resources. 4. Improved efficiency in marketing activities (Kotler a Fox. 1985. pp. 12-13). Other authors have also suggested that marketing is an approp- riate activity for a nonprofit organization. While directing his work to private. nonprofit organizations. Shapiro (1973) concluded that there is a definite marketing function in nonprofit organizations and that "managers of such organizations should attempt to improve their understanding of the exchange process and their ability to define their product" (p. 132). In educational institutions. the educational serv- ices provided are considered the product of the organization. However. community colleges are also cautioned about the negative effects of a poorly planned or coordinated marketing effort. 37 For example. faculty may not be prepared to deal with students with severe learning problems who may be attracted to the college as a result of marketing. Students may resent the changes that occur in an institution as a result of new students. Facilities. curriculum. and student services may also cane under stress (Gollattscheck. 1981). Traditionally. marketing has involved four "P's": product. price. place. and promotion. Johnson (1986) added presidents as the fifth 'P" in the marketing mix. He suggested that presidents of community colleges must be the "catalyst for institutional change that reflects marketplace change" (p. 28). Wines Many writers have articulated the philosophy of the community college. Vaughan (1986). who studied the role of the community college president. concluded that there was a similar community college phi- losophy influencing the actions of presidents in community colleges throughout the United States. Vaughan suggested the philosophy is evident in the belief that "all individuals have the right and respon- sibility to develop their talents to the fullest" (p. 230). The commu- nity college's commitment to open access for students is an indication of the belief. Thornton (1972) articulated seven basic premises of community college philosophy: 1. A democratic society cannot exist without a well-educated citi- zenry. 2. 3. ing the tutions 38 Recognizing the worth of the individual. community colleges attempt to provide for the 'education of all citizens who desire and can profit by further study." Community colleges have multiple educational functions. which implies a diversified curriculun. The admissions policy is typically an "open door" one; that is. "any high school graduate. or any person over 18 years of age who seems capable of profiting by the instruction offered. is eligible for adnission." Because of the admissions policy and diverse curriculum. there is a need for guidance counseling. The community college places emphasis on excellent teaching. Finally. the community college encourages the highest levels of achievement of its students. (pp. 33-43) Many of the above statements share a common quality concern- philosophy of the community college. That is. they are insti- for all of the people. not just the academically capable. Monroe (1976) described three cl aims about the community college that were generally advanced by governmental commissions and educational organizations that supported pro-community-college legis- lation: 1. 2. 3. 'National income increases in proportion to the increase in educational investments." Educated citizens are less likely to be disruptive to the public welfare. Extendi ng educational opportunities is the best means of pur- suit of freedom for the individual and the attainment of the good life. (p. 13) Gleazer (1980) succinctly described three qualities associated with "viable" community colleges. "They have the capacity to be 39 adaptable. they maintain a continuing relationship with learners. and they are community-oriented" (p. 7). Many of the above statements suggest an emphasis on the worth of the individual and his/her right to develop to his/her fullest potential. The philosophy of the community college provides the foun- dation for the various functions performed intentionally or uni nten- tionally by comprehensive community colleges: 1. Transfer curricula. 2. Citizenship and general education (courses desi gned to meet "the humanistic and citizenship needs which all persons living in a society have in common"). 3. Occupational training. 4. General studies ("similar in content to standard courses offered under both the transfer and general educational labels." with less rigorous standards of academic achievement). 5. Adult and continuing education. 6. Remedial programs. 7. COunseling and guidance. 8. Screening (sorting out those students who go on to senior colleges and universities or those who begin work or other activities not requiring a four-year degree). 9. Salvage (aiding low-level students and guiding the unmoti- vated. but intellectually able students). 4O 10. Goal-finding (providing students more freedom to choose future vocational careers and to explore different educational programs). 11. Custodial function (for students who are "killing time" until they decide their future). 12. Co-curricul ar or student activities (Monroe. 1976). How are community colleges different from other institutions of higher education? Dale Parnell (1985). president of the American Association of Junior and Community Colleges. alluded to the difference in his discussion of the problems of defining excellence in educational institutions. In some institutions of higher education the definition of excellence begins and ends with the admissions process. Who gets in? . . . . There is nothing inherently wrong with tough admissions standards as long as we do not allow college-entrance requirements . to be viewed as the only key to excellence in a universal education system. The comprehensive high school and the comprehensive community college work on the basis of a not-so-visi ble or dramatic defini- tion of excellence. They seek the development of a higily diverse potential in all students. Certainly those schools and colleges want a well-prepared entering student. However. there are many kinds of talents and many kinds of excellence. These institutions focus on progress in learning and in value added: "where was the student upon entry and did he or she make progress?" (pp. 5-6) While the preceding two paragraphs explain how community col- leges are different from other institutions of higher education. two important basic premises of community colleges. which have been artic- ulated by other writers. are also evident: (1) an open admissions process to the institution. and (2) the "development of a higily diverse potential in all students." 41 W In this investigation. the various theoretical perspectives used in analyzing the data suggested the enormous complexities that inembers of organizations face in dealing with the day-to-day inter- actions in a comprehensive community college. as well as the compl exi- ties afforded by a planned change effort. From the area of planned change. it was evident from the review of related literature that much of the research regarding planned change was conducted at a higher level of abstraction than that provided by the opportunity of fiel dwork. Theorists in the area of planned change also tend to avoid providing detailed. specific informa- tion and instead to write in generalities. The complexities of planned change may account for the apparent tendency in the literature for authors to categorize strategies and interventions. Nevertheless. as asserted by Huse (1980). in addition to the interaction of individuals there is increasing attention being paid in planned-change strategies to the concept of structure of the organiza- tion. Likewise. as Snyder (1985) asserted. the concept of organiza- tional culture is receiving increased attention in the organizational change literature. as is the concept of the environment. Finally. although often implicit. much of the writing on planned change in organizations has suggested the process is the concern of administra- tors. The field of social psychology provides insights concerning the perceptions held by organization members regarding a number of issues. iSl 42 As Schneider et a1. (1979) stated. perception is not a passive process but one that demands active participation by the perceiver. who "selects and categorizes. interprets. and infers to achieve a meaning- ful world in which action is possible" (p. 15). In examining the role of the president. role theory is useful in analyzing that role as it exists in the social system studied. The assumptions of symbolic interaction are important because observations of role enactment occurred in social settings such as meetings. As stated previously. establishing a marketing orientation in the institution was the purpose of the planned change effort studied. For that reason. marketing as defined in the literature as being appropriate for a nonprofit institution like a community college was important to the current study. The philosophy and functions of community colleges as described in the literature were useful in understanding the purposes and values of the specific institution studied. As Vaughan (1986) claimed. that philosophy. which is evident in the actions of community college presi- dents throughout the United States. can be succinctly worded as "all individuals have the right and responsibility to develop their talents to the fullest" (p. 230). CHAPTER III hETHODQCEY Wands This study used qualitative research methods. Bogdan and Biklen (1982) described the characteristics of qualitative research: The data collected has been termed soft. that is. rich in descrip- tion of people. places. and conversations. and not easily handled by statistical procedures. Research questions are not framed by operational izing variables; rather. they are formulated to investi- gate in all their complexity. in context. While people conducting qualitative research may develop a focus as they collect data. they do not approach the research with specific questions to answer or hypotheses to test. They are concerned as well with understand- ing behavior from the subject's own frame of reference. External causes are of secondary importance. They tend to collect their data through sustained contact with people in settings where sub- jects normally spend their time. (p. 2) Similarly. the research questions for the present investigation were developed after the study began and were subsequently revised (see pp. 54-56). The present study also involved "sustained contact in settings where subjects normally spend their time." It was conducted primarily from January 1985 to October 1985 at the community college. During that period. 35 visits (typically all-day visits) were made to the site. Additionally. contacts with employees of the community college at subsequent conferences and meetings provided further infor- mation. ’43 3|»! to: 4 .65! I01? AA- 1‘— 44 Other terms sometimes used synonymously with qualitative research are field research. so called because the data are collected in the field as opposed to laboratories or other researcher-controlled sites. and ethnographic research. a phrase some use in a formal sense to refer to the type of research anthropologists engage in and which describes culture (Bogdan 8. Bi klen. 1982). Schatzman and Strauss (1973) also stressed the importance of location in doing field research. "The researcher must get close to the people whom he studies; he understands that their actions are best comprehended when observed on the spot--in the natural. ongoing envi- ronment where they live and work" (p. 5). In addition. various other terms are associated with quali- tative research. i.e.. a phenomenological approach. Phenomenologists suggest that for humans there are multiple ways of interpreting expe- riences through interacting with others. and "it is the meaning of our experiences that constitutes reality" (Greene. 1978). The symbolic interaction approach assumes that human experience is mediated by interpretation (Bl umer. 1969). Finally. researchers using the ethno- methodology approach try to understand how people go about seeing. explaining. and describing order in the world in which they live (Bogdan & Biklen. 1982). Unlike more traditional. quantitative research. the approach is somewhat "open-ended." The researcher does not necessarily begin with a well-defined problem. The field method process of discovery may lead the researcher to his problem after it has led him through much of the substance in sin: ‘1 ‘- «35 45 his field. Problem statements are not prerequisite to field research. they may emerge at any point in the research process. even toward the very end. (Schatzman 8. Strauss. 1973. p. 3) While the present study began with the general problem of studying change in an organization. the problem statement became more well defined as the study progressed (see p. 3). In fact. the final statement was not evident until near the end of the study. as Schatzman and Strauss suggested may occur in some research. A variety of data-gathering techniques are typically used-- participant observation. interviews. examination of documents. and so on. A major characteristic of the primary data-gathering strategies of fieldwork. observation and interviewing. is nonstandardization. The nonstandardization frequently permits "redirecting the inquiry on the basis of data coming in from the field to ever more fruitful areas of investigation" (Dean et al.. 1969. p. 20). In this study. participant observation. interviewing. and document examination were used to gather data. While quantitative research methods could have been employed to assess how a chief executive officer (CEO--in this study. the presi- dent) leads an educational institution so that it responds to changing needs in the community. observation of a (£0 as he/she leads an insti- tution would provide for more valid data than could be obtained from survey research. Leading an institution so that it is effective and responds to change is such a complex process that it would be diffi- cult. if not impossible. to ascertain reality via a simple question- nai re or interview. 46 Moreover. while some information might be obtained through traditional research methods. the participant observation approach enables data to be obtained that may not be possible using other research methods. Many of the actions that facilitate or impede change occur outside the consciousness of those involved. A participant observer is able to record the data. whereas research that depends on sel f-reporting would not obtain such data. In addition. some respond- ents in survey research might give "politically acceptable" responses rather than reveal information they believe others in the organization would not wish them to reveal. Bogdan and Bikl en (1982) argued that the qualitative orienta- tion to research allows the researcher to find out how people involved in a change process think. Change is serious because the goal is to improve life for people. Change is complex because beliefs. lifestyles. and behavior come into conflict. People who try to change education. be it in a particular classroom or for the whole system. seldom understand how people involved in the changes think. Consequently. they are unable to accurately anticipate how the participants will react. Since it is the people in the setting that must live with the change. it is their definitions of the situation that are crucial if change is going to work. These human aspects of the change process are what qualitative research strategies . . . study best. Their emphasis on the perspectives that people hold and _ their concern with process enable the researcher to sort out the complications of change" (p. 193) Mehan (1979) explained why correlation studies and other traditional research methods are lacking in helping to understand the nature of schooling. 'Because education facts are constituted in interaction. we need to study interaction in educational contexts. both 47 in and out of school. in order to understand the nature of schooling" (p. 7). One area of schooling is adninistration or leadership. whose facts are also "constituted in interaction." As a result. the methods of fieldwork are effective in understanding the nature'of admini stra- tion in an educational institution. Wanna: The then-current president of the institution where I am employed assisted in gaining entry to a site. The site was selected because of several factors. First. I had a professional interest in change in organizations and wanted to study that area. Additionally. faculty members of the community college studied. whom I knew through graduate cl asses. had mentioned the change in presidents that occurred several years before the study; I had heard an administrator make a presentation on the institution in a graduate c1 ass five years earlier; more recently a vice-presi dent where I am employed suggested changes were occurring at the community college selected; and finally the president of my institution expressed admiration for the leadership of the community college chosen as the research site. My president contacted the president of the community college studied and arranged a meeting to discuss the proposed project. The president of the community college selected seemed interested and suggested that I return to meet with his administrators to discuss the project and gain their acceptance. The president suggested that I attend the next meeting of the President's Cabinet. At that meeting. If! (0' '9: ,‘n \ (I'D 48 following a brief description of fieldwork methods and a statement that I was interested in change in organizations. the president asked the group how they felt. There was silence for a moment. and the adrninis- trator whom I had heard make a presentation several years earlier indicated that he thought the project could provide useful information to the college. Several other administrators agreed. and the president invited me to begin the study that day. Datafiatbenim A variety of research strategies were used to gather data-- participant observation. interviews. and an examination and analysis of documents. This use of multiple methods applied to the same phenome- non. called triangulation. is necessary for a number of reasons. The various methods may produce different information that can supplement each other. To interpret some information. it may be necessary to link it with other information. Finally. triangulation allows cross- checking of data (Gorden. 1980). However. in this investigation participant observation was the primary strategy used. When compared to interviewing. participant observation has several strengths. It is more useful in understanding the language of a group as some terms may never be used in interview- ing. In addition. many events take place in a social group so regu- larly that people no longer pay attention to them and so would not mention them in an interview. whereas other events are not sufficiently familiar for people to report them in an interview. The participant use." Trier :erti $13.. on. 1. ‘3: 1") EW- "Mil “A. ”we 1913 ‘I Q o |. .. Vw 49 observer also can follow up on vague hints that are mentioned in an interview and can check facts against what has been reported. Finally. participant observation is superior to interviewing in studying change because people involved in change are not likely to be able to report an accurate account of events (Becker 8 Gear. 1969). Schatzman and Strauss (1973) identified six options involving varying levels of involvement in participant observation available to a research er: 1. The field researcher remains physically outside the situation as behind a one-way mirror. 2. The field researcher is present in the situation. but observes passively. perhaps fron a corner of the room. 3. The researcher engages in clarifying interaction. i.e.. seeking clarification and the meaning of events. 4. The researcher controls interaction so as to gather par- ticular information. 5. The researcher is a full participant in activities although her identity as a researcher is known. 6. The researcher is a full participant in activities although her identity is not known as a researcher. In this study most of the participant observation could have been categorized as being similar to options 2 or 3. During meetings I typically sat with the group that was meeting but did not enter into the discussion. However. I sought clarification many times from individuals seated beside me. I attended routine and special events AM in i: J «49- - ta. 50 that took place on campus. i.e.. President's Cabinet meetings. Adninistrative Council meetings. an administrative retreat. board of trustee meetings. and marketing leadership training sessions. There was certainly more observation than participation in the research. which was an attempt to observe the CEO and other members of the organization as they went about their daily activities. Interviews were held with administrators and faculty. In qualitative research. interviews are used to gather data "in the subject's own words so that the researcher can develop insights on how subjects interpret some piece of the world" (Bogdan 8 Biklen. 1982. p. 135). In addition. participant observation may not be an efficient way to obtain certain information. such as norms. It may require long periods of participant observation to learn what a respondent can tell rather quickly. Garden (1980) also suggested that interviewing is important in learning "people's beliefs. attitudes. values. knowledge. or any other subjective orientation or mental content" (p. 11). Initially. it was planned that a structured interview would be used. (See Appendix A for initial questions.) However. after two interview sessions. I was not satisfied with the responses given. The respondents seemed reluctant to reveal much information. and the responses to the questions were brief. However. changing the research strategy to a more open-ended means of questioning produced much better results. 7&5" *FflnnO—Q 51 I began the interview sessions with the following general renar ks : I am interested in change in organizations and particularly the change at Midwest Community College concerning marketing. What changes have you observed as a result of the marketing effort of the current president? What do you see as facilitating the mar- keting process? What do you see as hindering that effort? And finally what does marketing mean to you? Allowing the respondents to answer the questions in an unstructured format provided far more information than the structured interview format. Dexter (1970) suggested that more information can be obtained from an "elite" interview than a standardized interview. In elite interviewing. the interviewee is allowed to structure the account of a situation and reveal what he feels is relevant. Documents were also examined and analyzed. These included organizational charts. documents prepared for meetings. documents relating to the marketing plan. and college catalogs and other publica- tions. In all of the data-gathering activities. my ability to take shorthand was both an advantage and a disadvantage to the study. Being able to record much of the speech that occurred almost verbatim was a definite advantage. However. that ability probably caused me to focus more on the verbal behavior than the nonverbal behavior of the indi- viduals being studied. Nonetheless. the detailed accounts of what was being said in the site proved to be a rich source of data for the study. 3”." \‘p 'n -\I OI. I a no 52 W Preliminary analysis began as soon as the “study was undertaken. Initially. I was interested in any change that the CEO was trying to bring about. However. discussions with my dissertation director helped me realize that would probably be too ambitious an undertaking. After several visits to the site. it was evident that the CEO was attempting to implement a college-wide marketing plan that would affect the way the college was operated. Therefore. the study was focused on that effort. Thereafter. the analysis of the data was an ongoing process of reading and reflecting on the fiel dnotes to discover patterns and linkages. To be able to describe the cultural behavior. cultural artifacts. and cultural knowledge. patterns that exist in the data must be discovered because culture refers to the "patterns of behavior. artifacts. and knowledge that people have learned or created" (Spradl ey. 1980. pp. 85-86). According to Schatzman and Strauss (1973). discovering "sig- nificant classes of things. persons. and events and the properties which characterize them" is a fundamental part of analysis. Naming classes and linking one with another continues until a general scheme is discovered in the data. Discovering patterns and linkages was aided by the process of coding the data. The fiel dnotes were read and reread to determine words and phrases that represented linkages and patterns. (brtain coding categories were suggested by the research questions. me F: "St .14 a... $.57? 53 Whyte (1955) described the process in 'On the Evolution of Street Corner Society": The ideas that we have in research are only in part a logical product growing out of a careful weighing of evidence. We do not generally think problems through in a straight line. Often we have the experience of being immersed in a mass of confusing data. We study the data carefully. bringing all our powers of logical analy- sis to bear upon them. We come up with an idea or two. But still the data do not fall in any coherent pattern. Then we go on living with the data--and with the peopl e--until perhaps some chance occurrence casts a totally different light upon the data. and we begin to see a pattern that we have not seen before. This pattern is not purely an artistic creation. Once we think we see it. we must reexamine our notes and perhaps set out to gather new data in order to determine whether the pattern adequately represents the life we are observing or is simply a product of our imagination. (pp. 279-80) In addition to reading and reflecting on the fieldnotes as well as coding and categorizing the data. reading the related literature also helped in the data analysis. Often the data would suggest a pattern that would be supported by a theory or statement found in the literature. One example of that occurring involved the analysis of the role enactment of the President as exhibited by his speech. As indi- cated on p. 106. I had recorded much of the President's speech. Reading and rereading his statements suggested 14 categories or 14 different roles he assumed. I then analyzed his statements to count the frequency with which he assumed those various roles. After study- ing and analyzing the speech and role enactment of this particular President. I wanted to know if this study might be similar to a related study in the literature and compared the findings with Mintzberg's (1973) study of the nature of managerial work (see pp. 106-118). Mov- 1'19 back and forth from the literature to the fiel dnotes was an 54 important component of the data analysis. Finally. discussions with my dissertation director aided in the process of analyzing the data and reporting the findings. Bessancbflesticns Initially. it was planned that the following general research questions would be addressed in this study: 1. How does the chief executive officer of a community college attempt to change an institution? 2. How does this change affect the organization culture? While one of the broad research questions focused on the CEO. attention was also paid to other people in the organization because what the CEO does or does not do has an effect on those people who make up an organization. In fact. community colleges comprise many constituencies--students. faculty. adninistrators. support staff. governing board. and external agencies. Any change process will. of course. affect and be affected by all six groups. However. this study was necessarily limited to observations of and/or interviews with primarily adninistrators. faculty. and menbers of the governing board. Originally. it was planned that the project would also attempt to document the culture of the community college being studied. How is it similar to other community colleges as described in the literature? How is it unique? Culture has been defined as "those organizationally relevant norms and values that are shared by most employees (or subgroups)" (Huse. 1980. p. 61). Organization culture also "consists of a set 55 of symbols. ceremonies. and myths that communicate the underlying values and beliefs of that organization to its employees" (Ouchi. 1981. p. 35). Other questions the study attempted to address were: What are the activities the CEO and other administrators engaged in to create change? How are these activities perceived by faculty? What do the various constituencies do to encourage or discourage the change process? How are the constituencies (faculty. governing board. and adninistration) perceived by one another? What is the plan for change? The preceding questions were developed as the study began. However. after I entered the field site. other questions were suggested by the data. As Campbell. Erickson. and Florio (1983) suggested. revising questions may be necessary as the study progresses so that what is actually happening in the site can be studied. In other words. research questions should be the result of what is happening in the field site. As the study progressed. it was apparent that it had developed into a two-part problem. In addition to the problem of how one goes about changing an institution. there was also the problem of the differing perceptions about a number of issues that existed among the individuals involved in the change process. The research questions were revised as follows: 1. What are the perceptions and/or definitions of the indi- viduals in the organization concerning marketing? the organization's operations and personnel? marketing and the community college philosophy? 56 2. How does the CEO of a community college change the institu- tion? In this particular case. how does a CEO change a community college to an institution with more of an empha- sis on marketing than it had previously? A. What is the president's leadership style and role and how is the change process affected? B. How does the CEO use values to change the organization? C. How does the external environment affect the marketing process? 0. What are inhibitors to the change process? Sum In this investigation participant observation. interviewing. and document examination were used to gather data. The analysis of the data was an ongoing process of reading and reflecting on the fiel dnotes to discover patterns and linkages. Coding the fieldnotes was also useful in discovering patterns and linkages. Finally. discussions with my dissertation director and reading related literature also aided in the process of analyzing the data and reporting the findings. GiAPTER IV THE SETTING Intrudmticn Midwest Community College is a public. comprehensive community college in the Midwest. providing transfer education. occupational education. community services. and developmental education. The Mission and Philosophy Statement and related Objectives. adopted on June 14. 1982. reflect these functions: MISSION AND PHILOSOPHY STATEMENT Midwest Community College shall promote the educational. economic and cultural advancement of the total community within the College service area. The College shall offer educational experience designed to promote the optimum development of potential throughout each student's lifetime; further the College shall provide career education that reflects both individual aspirations and community needs. The College welcomes people of all ages from various racial. national. language. religious. economic. and social backgrounds. The College shall actively involve individuals and groups in its programs of instruction. cultural activities. guidance. library services and student activities. Through the free and open exchange of ideas. the College shall provide intellectual experiences which add meaning. scope. richness and interest to the life of the community. The College shall provide educational opportunity. services and- facilities to accomplish the mission of the College through the responsible management of its financial and personnel resources. 57 58 (BJECTIVES Objectives related to the mission of Midwest Community College have been developed and recognized over the years. Those objectives with the highest priority are: 1. 7. Providing the first two years of instruction for students who wish to transfer college credit and pursue their education in other institutions. Providing instruction in a variety of careers to the level required for responsible employment. OTHER OBJECTIVES OF THE COLLEGE Providing instruction toward. and encouragement of. individual growth in reading. writing. listening and speaking. to the end that students of Midwest Community College contribute their best to society as fully literate men and women. Centributing to and developing the cultural and intellectual life of the community. Providing support and assistance in the econonic development of the community. Developing each student's better understanding of human nature. the history and principles of human society. responsible citi- zenship and decent personal. family. and civic life. Maintaining a program of preparatory and developmental courses to enable students to continue successfully in general. occupa- tional or transfer curricula. Offering services in academic advising. career counseling and financial aid to assist students to determine and reach their highest educational goals. Integrating each student's personal. social. aesthetic. ethi- cal. technical. economic and other reasonable goals. into a lifelong quest for intellectual stimulation and growth. Offering activities which provide students with experience in working together. developing leadership and creative skills. to enable students to serve themselves. the college and the community. 59 9. Acquiring and maintaining physical facilities. both buildings and equipment. necessary to acconplish the other objectives of the college. 10. Encouraging. supporting and cooperating with other educational units. civic groups. foundations. individuals. government agencies and businesses in endeavors likely to benefit the conmunity. 11. Providing means for input by college staff. students and others. where appropriate. in the decision-making processes of the college. 12. Providing instruction for the development of avocational interests by residents of the conmunity. 13. Providing an opportunity for and assisting in documenting non- traditional credits applicable toward degrees. including life- work and testing. 14. Classroom instruction and other services offered by the college shall be of the highest quality. Conmunitx Because Midwest is a community college. attempting to serve the needs of the community. the community in which it is located affects the institution. Recently. several economic events drastically affected the conmunity. Two major industrial employers closed their factories in one year. resulting in a loss of 1.700 jobs. Other industrial employers are related to the autonobile industry. which has experienced problems in recent years. As a result. the community has experienced one of the nation's highest unenployment rates. Not only has the community experienced higi unemployment rates. but it has also experienced a major outmigration of population. As might be expected. these changes in the community have been the impetus for change in the coimunity college. 60 Students Midwest Community College attracts students primarily fron three counties. with the greatest proportion coning from the county in which it is located. A document prepared for a recent accreditation visit reported that 60 percent of Midwest Community College's enroll- ment is "below the age of 35. with an overrepresentation of the popul a- tion demographics in the 18-34 year age range. and an underrepresente- tion in the 34-65 year age range." The same document reported a significant decline in enrollment. After several decades of growth in numbers of students served. the college has experienced a fall semester student headcount decrease of 4.246 between 1980 and 1984. The reduction fron 10.935 students to 6.689 students has reflected the general economy and changing demographic characteristics of the district served by the community college. . . . While overall student enrollments have decreased in the last few years. the ratio of men students to women students has renained at about 1.1 men students for each wonan student. Eaqun As is typical in many community colleges. the faculty at Midwest Community College have been a fairly stable body. Information gathered for an accreditation visit revealed that almost 70 percent of the full-time faculty have been empl oyed in their current work more than ten years. Likewise. almost 40 percent of the part-time faculty have been employed in the area in which they are currently assigned more than ten years. While many benefits may accrue to an institution with a stable work force. such a situation may also present disadvan- tages. 61 Another situation that is typical in many community colleges concerns the number of full-time faculty in relation to the part-time faculty. At Midwest Community College. part-time faculty outnumber full-time faculty by approximately 3 to 1. (There are between 280 and 320 part-time faculty and 113 full-time faculty.) The 15 academic departments or programs are typically chaired by a faculty member. However. a few programs are directed by administrators. The faculty are organized for collective-bargaining purposes and are represented by the Midwest Faculty Association. which is affiliated with the state education association. Win: The campus is located on the edge of town in an almost rural area. While four main buildings comprise the campus. the most impres- sive structure is one built recently and named after the long-time chairman of the board of trustees. The building houses administrative offices. student services. the bookstore. a dining facility and cafe- teria. meeting rooms. and three theatres with a combined seating capac- ity of more than 1.500 persons. Looking across the expansive carpeted lounge area on the second floor to the glass front of the building seems similar to looking into an empty cathedral. The other three buildings are somewhat typical of community college classroons built during the past 20 years. In addition to classrooms. one building includes the library and media center. as well as offices of the Community and Business Services Division. while another is used primarily for occupational programming. 62 Organization Midwest Community College is organized formally as shown in Figure 1. As can be seen fron the chart. three vice-presidents. an assistant. and one director report to the President. whereas four deans and a director report to the Vice-President for Academic Affairs. Among the top administrative positions. two are held by females. a vice-president and a dean. The administrative positions reflected in Figure 1 conprise the President's Cabinet. a body that meets almost weekly. That same group. along with all other employees who have administrative status. meets monthly as the Administrative Council. During the time observations were made. the President's Cabinet seemed .to meet for decision making and information sharing. whereas the Administrative Council appeared to meet for the purpose of information sharing. Significant in the life of any organization is the organiza- tion's leadership. The current President. Dr. Terry Daeke. was appointed in 1981. A college document summarized the changes in lead- ership that occurred as a result of a new President: The new leadership style was one of delegation with trust; adminis- trators enjoyed more freedon to deal with issues confronting them. and to risk and fail at times. The administrative group began to form a real team. with individuals devoting effort to helping in joint enterprises. Part of this growth resulted fron a series of administrative retreats. which were devoted to team-building and mutual understanding. The practice of holding semi-annual retreats continues to the present. and evaluations of them have been uniformly positive. It was interesting that only two current members of the President's Cabinet held such a position under the previous President. .omo__oQ >uwc:EEOu um03u_z mo ocsuoscum _mco_um~_cmmcoii._ ocsm_u >u_:omu 63 mac out. chmLoamezu u .o ucosucmooo _ L mou_>com Emcmocm mEmcmcLa moo_>eom . co_uoacumc. acouaum ccmmcm .mcc_uma:ooo mmoc_m:m can .0 coo mo cmoo mo Ecuooc.o mo coo: >uwcaeeoU mo coon m o A _ _ H I _ mammmm< mo_um__umd mc_mmm< comumcummc_Eo< mmoc_m:m so» umeuumu< Lem Leo mo Ecuuoc_o ucoo_mocaioo_> accommoemioo_> ucoo_moemioo_> _ fl _ , _ accommotm ogy cu ucmum_mm< ucovmmoca mucumach mo uence 64 Apparently. none of the position changes was the result of a dismissal. One administrator suggested that the personnel changes were the result of some administrators' being unable to adjust to the new President's leadership style. so they voluntarily sought and were successful in securing new positions. either within or outside the organization. Manketinchtmnes While descriptions of the community. students. faculty. organization of the college. and missions and objectives provide a glimpse of Midwest Community College. certain activities had occurred or were presently underway that served to provide a clearer under- standing of what the institution was like when I was conducting the research. The information also presents a picture of what activities had taken place to support the p1 anned-change effort of moving to a marketing orientation. The current President. who was appointed in 1981. had appar- ently cone fron another community college that had a strong marketing orientation and appears to have been committed to implementing the concept at Midwest. While the President made sone early attempts to educate the top administrative staff in marketing principles. the major thrust was planned just as I began a study of the organization. In the interim. several activities had taken place that are related to marketing. A consultant was brought on campus to present information regarding marketing to the faculty and other groups in 1981 and again in 1985. A conprehensive study of the conmunity's educa- tional needs was also conducted. In 1981 a Marketing Committee 65 comprising administrators and faculty was established and was given the following charge by the President: The Committee should review existing literature on marketing higher education. review existing data relative to [Midwest Cemmunity College]... . . and develop a means of sensitizing the staff as to the need for and understanding of the rationale of a marketing plan for MCC. The Committee should also develop a marketing plan that embraces specific proposals toiimprove our ability to assess new markets. trends. and community needs. while simultaneously main- taining or improving the quality of the institution. its programs and course offerings. Although not fully implemented. a marketing plan was developed. The committee chairperson. an administrator. subsequently left the college and another committee. comprising some of the original members as well as other individuals from the administration and faculty. was formed in 1982. That committee was chaired by the Dean of Community and Business Services and was responsible for planning and developing the three-and-one-half-day Marketing Leadership Training. which was planned for all college employees. The college had also established 16 goals to be achieved over a three-year period..and marketing was the specific topic of one goal. which was stated as follows: By 1985-86. all individuals and committees responsible for review- ing or planning programs and services will use appropriate market- ing strategies and techniques in order to assure our responsiveness to the needs of the individuals and institutions of our service area. In a report to the board of trustees in 1985. the following acconplishments to date as well as objectives for 1985-86 were reported: A. A. 66 Established a comprehensive and easy-to-implement marketing process to follow in developing a Midwest Conmunity College marketing plan. 1. Outreach to adult groups for campus visit and information followup with special services and meetings for adults. 2. Field trips for 9th and 10th graders. 3. Cooperative efforts with other conmunity colleges to present college nights for residents in "border" locations. 4. Special presentations for business and industry for adnissions. 5. Special recruitment efforts for black residents. a. Financial aid nights at cormunity centers. b. Black Student Association tour for Midwest High students. 6. Implementation of the first phases of a Personalized Admissions program. a system to communicate in a systematic. organized and consistent fashion with prospective students. Trained ten Midwest Community College staff members who created their own marketing plans. On March 1. 1985. expanded the marketing leadership group to 30. representing a cross section of faculty. administrators. technicians. classified and board members. Thirty more staff menbers are scheduled for training in August. Currently reviewing all aspects of our marketing effort through a series of Cabinet meetings. with specific proposals for improvement emerging. W Restructure administratively to assure increased attention to this area. 1. To continue refinement and enhancement of the Personalized Adnissions Program. 2. To develop specific marketing plans for new populations including minorities. wonen. underempl oyed. unemployed. upgraders. traditional higi school terminal students. C. D. E. 67 3. To use student organizations/cl ubs as an outreach method to prospective students. 4. To continue development of research/data collection methods. To continue training in marketing for the next two years. This will provide an opportunity for every staff member to develop a marketing plan consistent with Midwest Community College's long-range goals. To continue inservice training for other phases of marketing. Identify specific target markets and develop programs. services and conmunication techniques unique to the identified group. Review all pronotional materials and revise as appropriate. The training of the first 30 employees in marketing principles did occur in March. However. plans for training additional groups were delayed fron the August target date. One of the 1985-86 objectives concerned restructuring adminis- tratively. Such a restructuring did occur as the responsibilities for the Dean of Community and Busi ness Services were modified so that he had a hal f-time responsibility for marketing. Included in his plans were the employment of additional personnel to be responsible for marketing activities. Subsequently. employing the personnel was approved by the board of trustees. but the hiring had not taken place by the time I concluded regular visits to the site in early fall of 1985. Smarty Located on the edge of the community in an almost rural area. Midwest Community College is a public. conprehensive conmunity college 68 in the Midwest. providing transfer education. occupational education. conmunity services. and developmental education. As is typical in many community colleges. part-time faculty at Midwest outnumber full-time faculty by approximately 3 to l. The 113 full-time faculty can be described as a fairly stable body as most have been employed in their current work for more than ten years. According to the formal organization of the college. faculty report to department chairpersons. who report to a Dean of Instruction. who is responsible to the Vice-Presi dent for Academic Affairs. Also reporting to that position are three other deans and a director. The Vice-Presi dent for Academic Affairs reports to the President. as do two other vice- presidents and a director. The community in which Midwest is located has experienced the loss of two major industrial employers. as well as one of the nation's higiest unemployment rates. These two major economic events with an acconpanying enrollment decline at the conmunity college provided an impetus for change and supported the move to a marketing orientation. Several events in connection with marketing occurred before my visits to Midwest. A marketing consultant had made presentations to the faculty and staff. a study of the conmunity's educational needs was conducted. and a Marketing committee comprising faculty and admini stra- tors was formed in 1981. After the chairperson of that conmittee left the employment of the college. a subsequent committee was formed in 1982. The second committee had hel ped to plan the three-and-one-hal f- day Marketing Leadership Training planned for all employees. 69 During the time of my regular visits to Midwest. one session of the Marketing Leadership Training was held for approximately 30 employees. Another significant event in support of marketing was an administrative restructuring. which provided that the Dean of Conmunity and Business Services would have hal f-time responsibility for marketing and the employment of additional personnel who would be responsible for marketing activities. CHAPTER V PRESENTAle OF THE FINDIhBS Intmduction This chapter presents and analyzes the data of the investiga- tion. The chapter also rel ates the findings. where appropriate. to associated literature. The descriptions and analyses that follow are in response to the following research questions: 1. What are the perceptions and/or definitions of the indi- viduals in the organization concerning marketing? the organization's operations and personnel? marketing and the conmunity college philosophy? 2. How does the $0 of a community college change the institu- tion? In this particular case. how does a $0 change a community college to an institution with more of an empha- sis on marketing than it had previously? A. What is the president's ($O's) leadership style and role and how is the change process affected? 8. How does the $0 use values to change the organization? C. How does the external environment affect the marketing process? 0. What are inhibitors to the change process? As is evident in the above research questions. this investiga- tion explored two areas: (1) how one goes about changing an institu- tion (in this case. introduce a marketing orientation) and (2) the 70. 71 differing perceptions about a number of issues that exist among the individuals involved in the change process. The descriptions that follow are an account of what was occur- ring at Midwest Community College as the President and other admini s- trators encouraged marketing to be accepted as a way of operating the institution. Thus the process is an example of a deliberate attempt to introduce change into an organization. W W The pl anned-change strategy at Midwest Community College is an example involving many participants in a change process--admini stra- tors. support personnel. and faculty. Talking with the participants revealed how those participants held varying definitions of marketing and what they thoug'it about it. Faculty tended to see marketing in terms of a pronotional activity. which is understandable as most had not yet been scheduled to go through the marketing training for staff members. One faculty member commented: As far as marketing is concerned. we need to get the public aware of what we're doing on campus. Even though the college is 50 plus years old. there are still a lot of people in Midwest who are unaware of what we represent. Sone of them don't even know how to get out to the campus. Granted the roads are terrible. We have an image problem. One of the things. we have beautiful facilities. but there are a lot of bad feelings and I don't know how they developed. I think we need to be more visible. We used to go out and visit the various high schools. (fieldnotes. 8/9/85. p. 1) In another interview with a faculty member. the man being interviewed was responding to a general question concerning how he 72 viewed marketing at Midwest Conmunity College. He conmented that television and radio usage could be improved. 'Have you heard Piedmont College's radio ads?" He was conparing Midwest's pronotion activities with those of another nearby community college (fiel dnotes. 7/17/85. p. 2). Perceiving marketing as public relations was indicated by a third faculty member. who had not yet gone through the marketing training. The faculty member's comments may suggest a concern about how well she would function in an organization with a strong marketing orientation: 'Perhaps it is just my perception of marketing. but to me it is just public relations. going outside the college. I see my strength as working within the organization" (fiel dnotes. 2/25/86. p. 1). On the other hand. administrators viewed marketing in different ways and defined it differently. Three administrators viewed marketing as a staff-devel opment organizational-devel opment activity. One of those administrators made the following corments: Marketing is a pronise for making manifest the inherent excellence that the institution has. Strengthening areas where we're weak. I see it as offering some pronise of increasing enrollment and there- fore bringing us a sense of stability that we haven't had for eight or nine years. I guess I believe we have a better willingness to examine our programs than we have had in the past. Better sense of openness. less a feeling of vulnerability. I think when you are talking to people about what they are doing in the classroom. the responses you get are less defensive and more positive than they were. If we had tried to do this. three or four years ago. it would have been perceived as a major threat. Marketing was a dirty word. and it's becoming less so. (fieldnotes. 7/29/85. p. 6) 73 Several administrators commented that marketing was a tool for improving quality. which is a concept related to staff development or organizational development. One adninistrator said: Marketing has just now started to work its way into our thinking. . . . [referring to an earlier period] I had bought into it intel- lectually. I hadn't at a gut level said this is the way to qual- ity. I was not obstructive. . . . Coming to understand it as a quality issue. Starting to change sone values. That is genuine change when it occurs. . . . Discovering that marketing can be a tool for improving the quality of the program. If you get into it. you can start to sense how you can use it. If we have 10 to 15 people buying into that. they can be good teachers. . . . Marketing is not the only way to quality. . . . If I can get faculty members excited about learning. Marketing does give people a tool. (field- notes. 7/2/85. p. 4) Another adni ni strator conmented: What we are trying to accomplish in the marketing process. what is it. is understanding what your custoner needs. Because they served their custoner well. they improved their profitability in the store [referring to a portion of a videotape entitled W lance]. What we can do in our own area. we are going to have an interdependence. It is amazing how we depend on each other. Improve the quality of what we give to our clients. (fiel dnotes. 5/24/85. p. 5) Another administrator commented in an interview that the focus on marketing had changed the way people at Midwest Community College speak. "People talk more about customers. talking. language has changed. People talk about custoners. I see a change in the way people communicate with each other" (fiel dnotes. 7/16/85. p. 4). She also indicated that marketing was a way to improve the institution and made the following conment later in the interview: Marketing is simply a way of doing what we do better. All pulling together with some common goals in doing some planning. My own choice of framework would be quality. Quality is very directly related to marketing. . . . What we do is try to get people to realize that everyone is a custoner. Even if it is the person in the next office. Provide them a product or service. in terms of 74 cost and efficiency and all those other issues. But they are a custoner. (fiel dnotes. 7/29/85). A technician who was interviewed talked about marketing in terms of being sensitive to and responding to the needs of students and potential students. I commented in an interview that. in her division of the college. they had had sone exposure to marketing. Her response to my renarks was as follows: I think we do that type of thing all the time because of the types of people we work with. I think our division does a great job of that. They usually go that extra step. Most everyone in our office goes that extra step. We try to be careful with the unemployed. We try to be sensitive to their needs not to place long distance calls because of the expense. If we need to talk to them later in the day.we tell them we will call them back. If they call up with a question. we say that we need to find their file and can we call them back rather than having them hold. I think you just becone sensitive to these things. They make you aware of the problem. Many people in the tri-county area that we serve don't have any money. They don't have a penny to place long distance calls. That little extra step doesn't cost the college that much. (fieldnotes. 6/28/85) Another administrator viewed marketing as a communications process: Marketing is a way of bringing together your product or service and the people you wish to bring the product or service to. Marketing is a process in which you bring together your product or service and your current or prospective clientele. In other words. it is a communications process. Telling people what you have. Also get- ting feedback fron people. What image they have of you. It is not only a delivery and selling process. It is also a feedback process. (fieldnotes. 5/30/85) The President made the following observation concerning mar- keting: My concept of marketing is very broad. Marketing is basically. it's how you run an organization. And it is your focus on the consumer. if you're truly a marketing organization. You have to be concerned about the quality of your marketing structure. The entire academic structure is part. You have to look at your 75 delivery system. Getting your courses to people in terms of a timely fashion when they want it. at the price they can afford. Finally. you pronote based upon the quality of what you provide. Very broad perspective. all the activities we are pursuing. There are marketing components in many of them. The target market. we have to focus more specifically on groups. (fiel dnotes. 5/28/85. pp. 8-9) While the President's definition of marketing was more comprehensive than that of other administrators. he also used the word "quality" in his comments. Even though administrators defined marketing in different ways. one theme that seemed to underlie their comments was the idea of providing a quality educational service to their clientele (whether they were referred to as students or custoners). Their views seemed to be similar to those found in a currently popular book on management In W (Peters 8. Waterman. 1982). The fact that the theme ran througi their comments may not be surprising as videotapes about the book's content had been viewed and discussed in staff- development sessions as well as meetings of administrators. Perhaps the book itself had been read by many. One chapter emphasized that an organization with a market orientation would be "close to their custoners." In other words. the conpany would be externally focused. Peters and Waterman wrote. In observing the excellent companies. and specifically the way they interact with custoners. what we found most striking was the con- sistent presence of obsession. This characteristically occurred as a seemingly unjustifiable overcommitment to sone form of quality. reliability. or service. (p. 157) As evidenced by the preceding comments. faculty interviewed viewed marketing as a pronotional activity. whereas sone administrators 76 perceived marketing as relating to staff- or organizational-devel opment activities. a way to improve the community college. As stated earlier. the fact that faculty viewed marketing as being related to promotion is not surprising as those making the conments had not been through the marketing training planned for all employees. whereas most of the administrators had been exposed to the literature and concepts of educational marketing. One recent study in education also suggested that most people think of marketing as being synonymous with selling and pronotion (Murphy 8. McGarrity. 1978). One technician saw marketing as being sensitive to and responding to the needs of students and potential students. And yet another administrator viewed marketing as a conmunications process. Finally. the President related it to the management of the organization and used the word "quality" several times in his definition. as did other adninistrators. These definitions and differing perceptions about marketing are similar in some ways to differing perceptions concerning other issues. which seemed to be prevalent in the site studied and are described and elaborated on in subsequent sections of this study. What accounts for the differing views held by the different groups within the organization? No doubt whom the different groups interacted with influenced their thinking; that is. faculty members probably interacted more often with other faculty. whereas administra- tors were likely to interact more ofteniwith other adninistrators. Another contributing factor could be the requirements of the different 77 roles and interests of the groups. For example. faculty were inter- ested in pronotion which would likely attract additional students to classes. Having sufficient students to warrant their individual classes running would likely be of interest to faculty in a period when enrollment had been declining overall in the institution. On the other hand. administrators generally held a broader definition of marketing as they primarily saw the process in terms of institutional improve- ment. However. within the aonini strative group there were differences in their perceptions toward marketing. ranging fron a staff- or organizational-devel opment activity to a communications process. Even though there were differences in how the administrators defined the term "marketing." many used the word "quality" in explaining what the term meant to them. which suggests that marketing was related to the attempt to clarify and communicate to members of the organization what the institutional values were. That process is also described in another section. WW As detailed on pages 37 through ‘00. the philosophy of the community college. which seems to be evident in community colleges throughout the United States. places a strong emphasis on individual worth and the rigit of individuals to develop to their fullest potential. Interestingly. three persons interviewed. all adminis- trators. made incidental comments stating that marketing was consistent with the community college philosophy. These comments were made in 78 response to a general question concerning "What does marketing mean to you?" One adninistrator said: My definition of marketing is getting the products delivered to the consumer who desires them in the most efficient way. A marketing concept is asking them what they want. Hig'ier education. marketing is just that. Fulfilling the need of the conmunity with the most efficient way in a quality method. developing a program just for those people. If we're going to serve soneone. let's serve them well and with quality. Give them what they need. We sometimes develop curriculum without any regard to the people to be served [referring to education as a whole]. Marketing is right in line with the cormunity college concept. (fieldnotes. 2/26/85. p. 9) Another administrator responded. "Yes. community college philosophy is consistent with the marketing orientation" (fiel dnotes. 7/15/85. p. 4). A third administrator also made a comment suggesting that community colleges were conpatible with a marketing orientation: "Conmunity colleges need to be comprehensive. flexible. and community centered. That is what marketing is about" (fiel dnotes. 7/15/85. p. 6). WWW While there were clearly differences in how administrators and faculty perceived and defined marketing as it related to the community college studied. there were also differences in perceptions among the members of the organization regarding other personnel or areas of the college. Negatimflancepticns Even though I indicated to those individuals interviewed that I was studying planned change in the organization in general and the move toward an increased marketing orientation in the institution in 79 particular. many of the personnel seemed to view me as someone who would evaluate the operation of the community college. Many indi- viduals used the opportunity to express a vague sense of dissatisfac- tion or negative perception about some area of the college. Those personnel tended to be faculty or administrators expressing what they thought faculty perceptions about the organization were. An example of such a statement by a faculty member is as follows: Where I see fault with both the planned and unplanned change is that coordination between administration and faculty is minimal or doesn't exist. An administrator can sit back and say. 'Oh. yeah. we can do that." Then he finds out fron an instructional point of view that the idea is in conflict or doesn't fit in with how the department is functioning. (fiel dnotes. 7/29/85. p. 2) An interview with one adninistrator reveal ed the following statements about perceptions of other personnel at the college: The teachers feel powerless. It's easy not to have the responsibility. but it's difficult not to have the power. They perceive that adninistrators have all the authority. to be in on the decision making. They tend to look at administrators. "They have got is so easy." . . . The outlook would range fron hopeful optimism to total despair. Nobody doubts the college will survive. Most people are not hopeful about getting increased community support in the future or about reversing the enrollment trends. I would say that unfor- tunately that for your middle and lower echelons of management and for many of your faculty and staff that there is not a very opti- mistic feeling about the college leadership and where it is going. . . . I think the college has a fine President right now. We're continuing to pay the price for the past administration. (fiel d- notes. 5/30/851 p. 4) In ten other interviews or meetings. similar statements were made by personnel expressing vague dissatisfaction or negative perceptions concerning some operation of the college. One faculty member expressed concern regarding the number of personnel being empl oyed in some areas of the college: "I see an awful lot of pe0ple 80 being hired in the aonini stration and job training institute" (fiel d- notes. 7/17/85. p. 2). Another faculty member expressed concern about the amount of time she perceived had elapsed in preparation for the marketing program: It has been three or four years and I just can't imagine that it would take this long to identify what areas of the college need to be marketed. I think educators have a tendency to do a lot of busy. unnecessary work. They take too long to make decisions. Part of the problem is these committees are made up of faculty and administrators. It seems like it takes too long to resolve anything) [The last statement was said with emphasis; her eyes were open wide.] Meetings are spread too far apart. Faculty are busy doing other things. (fieldnotes. 8/9/85. p. 3) The conments reflecting negative perceptions could be classi- fied into three categories. In the first category were comments con- cerning the faculty questioning decisions made by administrators or some aspect of the college operation (the excerpt fron the fieldnotes of 7/29/85 on p. 79 is an example of such conments). The second cate- gory of negative perceptions comprised comments reflecting a general sense of uneasiness by the faculty. and the excerpt fron the fiel dnotes of 8/9/85 on p. 80 is an example of those comments. Finally. a third category reflected an expression of a general feeling of uneasiness by the secretarial staff. Table 1 depicts the frequency of such comments. A few of the negative conments were made by individuals who. on the whole. appeared pleased with how the college was being operated. Their conments seemed to reflect an attempt to determine where improvements could be made. For example. both a faculty member and an administrator commented that the institution did not fully use the 81 expertise of faculty members. There may be varying reasons for the sense of uneasiness that existed among some personnel. as well as for the positive perceptions held by many others. Table l.--Negative perceptions. Type of Perception Nunber of Occurrences Conments reflecting faculty questioning decisions or operations 5 Connents reflecting faculty uneasiness (i.e.. disgruntled. not wanting to 6 participate in all activities. feeling of powerlessness) Caninents reflecting secretaries' uneasi ness 2 Total 13 We Although positive comments were not specifically asked for. many of those people whon I talked with used the opportunity to make statements that were positive in nature. Sixteen especially positive statements were made regarding various topics or personnel associated with the college. i.e.. the chairman of the board. the President. a vice-president. and a dean. as well as the college in general. Exam- pl es of positive comments were as follows. Two faculty members made the following observations: 82 There are some bright lights. Most people seem to admire and respect the new vice-president. She seems to have her facts together. If you have sound arguments. she will support you. (fieldnotes. 2/26/85. p. 13) Really have great respect for the new vice-president. We're really turning the corner in the right direction. . . . I have found that if you have something that is good and is good for students. it will take place. (fieldnotes. 7/16/85. p. 3) Two adninistrators stated: Have a very knowledgeable and strong chairman. His job is to have cohesiveness among that board. Give the authority to the Presi- dent. Allow the President to act. (fieldnotes. 7/15/85. p. 4) [Referring to the current President]: He's the greatest conmunity college president in the world. (fieldnotes. 7/16/85. p. 5) Another example of an individual volunteering a positive comment occurred at the conclusion of an interview. An aonini strator whom I had been interviewing made the following statement as the interview was concluding: '0n the whole Terry [the current President] has done a good job" (fiel dnotes. 8/10/85. p. 10). The conment was made in a thoughtful voice as the person looked away fron me toward the rest of the building. It was as though the conments were not being addressed to me. Another incident occurred at the President's hone when a group of administrators fron Midwest and other nearby conmunity colleges were meeting. One administrator showed me the renovated kitchen in the President's hone as though she were showing off her own hone. As we were talking. she made a comment about "what an honor it has been to 83 have been associated with Midwest Community College" (fiel dnotes. 10/16/85. p. 4). and she talked about the President in very positive terms. Table 2 depicts the frequency of positive comments being expressed by faculty as well as administrators. The conments have also been classified into two categories: (1) those expressing positive perceptions toward the President. other administrators. or the chairman of the board; and (2) those expressing positive perceptions toward the college in general. its operations. or a specific conponent of its operations. Table 2.--Positive perceptions. Counents by Connents by Type of Perception Faculty Adninistrators Total Conments expressing positive perceptions toward the President. other adnini stra- 4 8 12 tors. or the chairman of the board Conments expressing positive perceptions toward the college in general. its 1 3 4 operations. or a specific component of its operations Total 5 11 16 As evident in Table 2. there were more occurrences of positive comments being made by administrators than faculty. Moreover. most of 84 the administrators were those whose positions were near the top of the hierarchy in the organization as they were members of the President's Cabinet. EactcnstsociatedJitb W In general. a positive attitude toward the way in which the institution was operated seemed to be related to time of service. either in the institution or in a particular position because of a pronotion. Shorter-tenure employees (those employed most recently) tended to hold more positive perceptions. One person even commented that "the people who have been here the longest don't have the pride in the institution . . . when people get locked into positions" (fiel d- notes. 7/2/85. p. 2). Of the 16 persons making incidental positive comments. five had been enpl oyed. and six pronoted. during the current President's tenure. Near the beginning stages of the study. I suspected that tenure in the institution influenced a person's perception of the institu- tion's Operations in a positive way. However. reflecting on a discrep- ant case of one long-tenure admini strator who. in general. was positive toward the institution's operations helped me realize that more than one variable was influencing how these individuals viewed the organiza- tion and caused me to expand the original assertion to include recent tenure in a position because of a pronotion as well as recent tenure in the organization. 85 Positive perceptions also tended to be a reflection of where a person was employed. For example. technicians and administrators in Community and Business Services (CBS) tended to be more positive in their perceptions toward the institution's administration than faculty in other academic areas. Interestingly. the CBS employees were reported to be on a lower salary schedule than faculty. and yet they were still positive. However. most of the (BS employees had been hired within the past few years as most of the programs of that division were relatively new. In addition to length of service and location in the organiza- tion. another factor that seemed to influence perceptions was the person's present position in the formal hierarchy of the organization. All of the members of the President's Cabinet interviewed were positive in their perceptions toward the institution's operations (individuals whose positions were near the top of the hierarchy). whereas sone faculty who were at the botton of the hierarchy tended to have negative perceptions. Many of the negative perceptions identified related to faculty. either administrators reporting what they believed to be faculty perceptions or individual faculty reporting how other faculty viewed the organization's operations. The conments could be inter- preted as reflecting a vague feeling of dissatisfaction. No doubt the fact that the board and faculty had been unable to reach agreement on a collective-bargaining contract until late in the academic year 86 contributed to the dissatisfaction of some faculty members concerning the way the college was operated. Some of the negative perceptions by faculty toward the administration or the way the college was operated may have been the lack of contact with administrators as compared with interaction with other faculty members. One dean who was perceived positively had just been promoted from a faculty position and made an effort to eat lunch in a different faculty lounge every day. Therefore. he would be an adninistrator who had had more contact with faculty. In a previous study in an organization. I had observed the apparent phenonenon that the more opportunities there are for interac- tion and association between groups or individuals. the greater the possibility that perceptions of the groups or individuals will be more positive toward one another (Frost 8 Goodrich. 1984). In that study a series of regularly scheduled meetings as well as the role of one particular individual studied provided many opportunities for him to interact with certain groups. among whon he was higily regarded. Honans (1950) made the following generalization based on field studies: "The more frequently persons interact with one another. the stronger their sentiments of friendship for another are apt to be" p. 110). Of course. there is somewhat of a similarity between "posi- tive perceptions" and Honans's wording of "sentiments of friendship." It would seem likely that when there are feelings of friendship between persons. positive perceptions would also exist. 87 Another reason for negative perceptions may have resulted f ron newspaper coverage of board meetings and unfavorable editorials that appeared in the local paper several years ago as the result of certain buildings being constructed on the campus. That situation appears to have changed as a particularly positive editorial about the college appeared in the local newspaper in August. In addition. when faculty were making negative comments they frequently alluded to events that actually occurred before the tenure of the current President. It was as though no distinction was made by the faculty in the decisions that occurred. that is. whether the person responsible was still at the institution. One exception was a faculty member who had more contact than some faculty with adninistrators as a result of committee work and who was engaged in research outside the organization and was respected for his work. Perhaps his research provided opportunities for professional growth. which caused him to feel that he had more opportunities and to feel less powerless in conparison with other faculty. Kanter (1977) discussed how an employee's ability to acquire power is influenced by the place his job occupies in the organization. Those at the top of the hierarchy (administrators) are seen as having the potential for more power (the capacity to mobilize resources) than those at the botton of the hierarchy (faculty). Another variable is opportunity (expectations and future prospects). Kanter hypothesized that people low in opportunity would tend. among other things. to be critical of higi-power people (management) or at least not identify 88 with them. Likewise. people low in organizational power would tend to be "more insecure and thus more controlling. critical" (p. 248). Moving fron an authoritarian leadership style to a more demo— cratic form of leadership may also have contributed to the feeling of uneasiness. Experiments have demonstrated that when management moves toward participative management. the initial response of organization members may be somewhat negative. White and Lippitt (1960) reported aggressive action as well as apathy or open hostility against supe- riors. "Causes of this aggressive reaction seem to be the need to release bottled-up animosity and the need to test the superior's sin- cerity" (p. 245). While the new President. who favored a more participatory form of management. had been in office for four years. the move to a more participatory form of management did not occur immediately. Lower- 1evel administrators occasionally expressed concern at not being included in decision making. The move fron an authoritarian style of leadership to a more participatory form has evolved slowly. and thus some faculty are just beginning to experience a more democratic form of management. It is reasonable to assume that the style of leadership throughout the organization when it was led by the previous President was more authoritarian than that experienced currently. Not only did members of the organization report that the leadership style was more authoritarian throughout the organization. but the literature on leadership has also suggested that subordinates replicate the supervisor's pattern of leadership. Therefore. a president with an 89 authoritarian style of leadership would have administrators in his organization who'would rel ate to personnel in authoritarian ways as they modeled after the president. Bowers and Seashore (in Likert. 1967) stated. "Subordinates tend to provide leadership in much the same way as does the formal leader" (p. 72). WNW W5 The literature on change has pointed out the importance of the influence of a principal in bringing about innovation in a school (Berman 8 McLaughlin. 1978; Chester. Schmuck. 8. Lippitt. 1975; Sarason. 1971). Fullan (1985) suggested that the principal interacting regu- larly with teachers concerning an innovation has a strong positive effect on the innovation. The role of a president of a community college is similar in many ways to the role of the principal of a school. In the formal structure of each organization. both are the leaders responsible for the total organization. As the documentation on the following pages demonstrates. the President of Midwest Conmunity College frequently talked about marketing and related issues. The following record is an excerpt fron fiel dnotes of January 22. 1985. a President's Cabinet meeting. in which the President solicited opinions fron other administrators about a consultant's presentation and indicated that the Cabinet in one-hour weekly meetings would focus on marketing fron a broad perspective. He 90 also encouraged the Cabinet to begin thinking about identifying target markets. The President stated: All of us had a chance to listen to Dan Smith [an external consultant on marketing]. I thougit that Fri day thing was good. How about Thursday? . . . I did sone thinking about that presen- tation. I guess I have sone concerns. I think we need to spend some time and really focus on what we are doing in marketing. Pat's committee [the Marketing Conmittee] has really moved forward in many. many ways. . . . There could be areas of discussion where we look at marketing from a broad perspective. I have been thinking about a special weekly meeting to focus on each of these major issues. From 9:30 to 10:30. we are going to focus on marketing. Think through these issues and come together with a broad . . . a hal f-hour or lS-minute presentation on what the Marketing Committee is doing. Then we will move into some discussion to make sure we understand the marketing approach in this institution. Also the personalized admissions process. One of those statements said by Dan [the consultant] was very clear. Pat indicates the conmittee is saying we need to identify targets. We as an administrative team need to determine targets. We need to focus on major targets. Would like you to think through the major targets. . . . What kinds of things we could start doing. In a brief meeting with the President on February 12. 1985. he related his plans for future Cabinet meetings. which corresponded with what he indicated to the cabinet on January 22. He stated: We are starting a series of Cabinet meetings in which we will be focusing on one conponent of marketing. Some of those will be action oriented. Here's what we are all trying to do. Normally. when we have Administrative Council. we don't have Cabinet. However. we had a Cabinet meeting to look at marketing today. We're getting ready to implement [marketing] with several test areas of the marketing plan . . . so we had an update of that. Fiel dnotes of February 19. 1985. record the following exchange between the President and his adninistrators in a President's Cabinet meeting. The conversation followed a report by an administrator con- cerning the new personalized admissions process. As is evident by the following transcript of the conversation. the President pointed out what some other institutions were doing to recruit and retain 91 students. He concluded the discussion by relating a conversation on a plane with a businessperson who predicted that colleges and universi- ties would be marketing leaders by the mid-19905. The President related that at sone private colleges 51200 is spent on the average per student to recruit. "College we were talking about was concerned because they were spending 5400. Think about where we are. Better start focusing on something you can do and do well. Can't afford to spend those anounts of money." Adninistrator: The retention figure was startling. President: They had. Kleveland Conmunity College. implemented a program where every professional on the campus became an advisor to all new students coming in. Reduced attrition from 14% to 65 in one year. Kind of thinking that. Jean. we have talked. How do we get the institution coilnitted? Administrator: We don't want to require this of everybody. . . . Try to make this voluntary. An administrator across the table fron me made a negative comment about so much mail fron other colleges coning to the hones of potential students. He indicated that a problem was not getting the things you asked for and the mail not stopping. President: Any parent I have ever talked with is just overwhelmed with what they get. Then the President related a conversation he had had on a plane with a businessman who thought that colleges and universities by the mid-19905 will be the best marketers in the nation. "The leader- ship in terms of how you market will not be in the private sector but will be in education. . . . Coming from a guy that sells sau- sages. a Vice-President of Marketing." (fieldnotes. 2/9/85. p. 4). In addition to the three incidents just reported in which the President talked about marketing. there were numerous other times recorded of his discussing marketing or marketing-rel ated issues. In fact. at the following meetings where observations were made. marketing or marketi ng-rel ated issues such as a "personalized. caring atmosphere" were discussed by the President. He discussed marketing at every 92 meeting I observed except one. and that was the Board of Trustees meeting at which the faculty union contract was ratified. INmUIIQmILJkEfldnsfi_Qh§finxfid Marketing Training--3/l/85 Board of Trustees meeting--3/11/85 President's Cabinet--3/12/85 President's Cabinet--3/26/85 President's Cabinet--4/2/85 Board of Trustees Planning Session--4/3/85 President's Cabinet--4/30/85 President's Cabinet--5/7/85 Marketing Training--5/17/85 Administrative Retreat--5/24/85 President's Cabinet--5/28/85 Marketing Training--6/l4/85 Marketing Training-6/28/85 Administrative Council--7/9/85 Board of Trustees Meeting-7/8/85 President's Cabinet--7/30/85 President's Cabinet--8/5/85 Board of Trustees Meeting--8/12/85 Adninistrative Workshop--lO/16/85 Interviews with the President in May and September also pro- vided opportunities to hear his thinking concerning marketing and its importance to the institution. Fi e1 dnotes of 5/28/85: I [researcher] indicated to the President that I had formed sone opinions from the many meetings I had attended and also from talking with people. but that I would like to hear him describe his plan for implonenting a marketing plan. President: Early on I made a decision concerning marketing. primarily fron my experience at Henderson [another conmunity col- legel. It was difficult to get into any kind of activity with the financial situation as it was. It was a conbination of having to deal with the budget. make cuts. get things in balance. What that did to the institution. There really was little opportunity for people to start thinking in a mind set about marketing. Climate was very. very bad. You couldn't do a whole lot. Started looking at marketing. Arthur DeHaan was the Dean of Students. He had to learn what marketing was. He started trying to develop a marketing concept for the institution. He left 1-1/2 years after I arrived. Pat started to pick it up. Pat has a very good background in 93 marketing. We formed a marketing committee. faculty. admini s- trators. clericals. That took about a year. for the planning. We have had a long period of time where pl anning has gone on. Not much has occurred other than an awareness. Don't want to minimize that. As much as anything. I have to believe that many of those ideas were applied within the institution without any marketing plan in effect. That process is now culminated in the Pat and Dick show [Marketing Leadership Training] that you saw last. a couple of weeks ago. which is a fairly extensive process. We have selected 30-40 key people. and we're taking them through 20-25 hours of learning experiences which includes a pro- ject for their own area. The entire process has been simplified. Any group can establish a marketing plan for its own unit. We're going to take it in waves. We will commit 30-40 people. Will use many of the people who went through as resource people to the point where we can get a critical mass who now understand it and are committed to it. In establishing that. there are many things fron a marketing perspective that the institution has to make a decision on. Who our target markets are. What kinds of promotionals we will pursue. [Then the President referred to a series of Presi- dent's Cabinet meetings concerning components of marketing] That is why when you were sitting in Cabinet. what I was attempting to do. I wanted to review each of those areas so that we understood where we were. Next. the next step over the summer. what are our targets? We will then in effect develop the pl ans off those tar- gets. Not as critical to be ri git about your targets as to pick some. Who we define . . . not as concerned that we define our targets as I am that we do define sone and go after them. Fron that point. we can. . . . In an interview in September. the President indicated that he felt an improvement in the numbers of students enrolling for the fall semester was attributable to one component of the emphasis on market- ing. the personalized admissions process. Fieldnotes of 9/3/85: I asked the President about the fall enrollment and he smiled and said. "We're up 6 or 7% but these are very preliminary figures. Up significantly in full-time. up significantly in head count. but down in the number of hours part- timers are taking. The President indicated that he attributed the increase to the personalized admissions process. 'Probably is the reason for the increase. want to do sonething to celebrate that turnaround." In addition to the meetings attended as an observer and the interviews with the President. a review of minutes of meetings of the 94 President's Cabinet and Administrative Council held before I began the project revealed numerous occasions of the President's discussing marketing and related issues. The following are excerpts from those minutes. 3/26/81--Dr. Daeke asked that Mr. . Mr. and Mr. [3 administrators] prepare a time line for presentation to the board on April 13. which includes a 5-year plan for the college. a marketing plan. and a plan for a millage campaign. 4/9/81--Dr. Daeke presented the four "P's" of marketing: 1. Product. top quality 2. Place. location is critical 3. Price within the range of client's ability to pay 4. Pronotion. final step to pronote the quality product. at the right location. and at the right price. 4/14/81--Dr. Daeke reviewed marketing concepts involving a student Flow Model. 1. Developing interest and awareness 2. Adnission/entry procedures 3. Program of study/college experience 4. Exit of student/eval uation of experience. 5/5/81--Dr. Daeke presented a conceptual framework for marketing of a course of instruction moving fron the traditional method toward expanded opportunities for product. place. price and pronotion. 6/23/81--Dr. Daeke and Mr. [an administrator] presented a philosophical basis and plan for relocation of certain operations in the Community Services Division to provide outreach activities for credit and noncredit offerings in the community. The shifting of responsibilities will occur gradually over the next 60 days. General responsibilities will be as follows: 1. Director of Continuing Education--Adult. leisure-time courses. day-time offerings. etc. 2. Coordinator of Continuing Education--workshops. seminars. short courses offered to the general public. 3. Coordinator of Adult Re-entry--posi ti on to be retitled. Out- reach activities to business and industrial employees. 6/30/81--Dr. Daeke also announced that a consultant on marketing will be the speaker for the opening fall meeting for professional staff on September 8. 95 9/29/81--The President distributed a report stating that State University is down in enrollment and that it is very important for us to analyze where Midwest Community College students are coming fron and why we are at least holding our own. He requested a report fron Mr. [an adnini strator]. 11/17/8l—The President shared sone ideas on logo styles for the college developed by Mr. Gordon. Mr. [an adninistrator] will ask the marketing connittee to react to the ideas. While recording discussions of other administrators concerning marketing. the President's Cabinet and Administrative Council minutes of 1982 record only one occasion when the President was involved in a discussion about a marketing-related issue. No doubt the topics being discussed were influenced by the college's being in a millage canpaign. 9/7/82--Dean Jenkins reported that enrollment is down by about 2.000 credit hours conpared to last year. which is just about in line with fiscal year projections. The President requested that the deans develop a proactive plan to better the enrollment picture this winter and in future enrollment periods. The President requested that student names be taken when classes are closed during second semester enrollment. Dean Jenkins will develop a system of name collecting which can serve as a basis for program development. The 1983 and 1984 minutes recorded several incidents of the President's discussing marketing or marketi ng-rel ated issues. 7/7/83--President Daeke discussed the possibility of establishing a weekly talk show for local radio stations which would highlight the college. L. Highland gave an historical overview of similar programs offered in the past. General discussion followed. President Daeke will follow up on this idea. 5/24/83--Presi dent Daeke reviewed demographics which will affect the future of the college. Topics included the changing market place. population. employment trends. and barriers to development for the county. 5/24/83--President Daeke expressed the need for the college to always be out front in new directions which are responsive to the needs of the community. 96 1/lO/84--President Daeke informed the group that Dick Satterwhite will be bringing a group together regarding public relations and marketing for the college. General discussion followed. 1/31/84-President Daeke covered the meeting scheduled for Thursday. February 20 between the marketing committee. public relations office. and admissions. The intent of the meeting is for all groups to share information and develop a pl an to maximize the institution's efforts. ll/6/84--President Daeke reviewed two articles that recently appeared in the WW One dealt with the serious enrollment decline that is currently facing colleges. The other addressed the need to hire approximately 500.000 professors over the next 25 years. President Daeke discussed tentative plans to hold an all-day marketing plan session on campus in the spring. It would primarily be for Midwest staff members; however. participants from several other community colleges would be invited to attend. Agenda items for the session were discussed. As is evident in the preceding pages. I recorded 39 incidents of the President's discussing marketing or related issues. The 39 incidents could generally be classified in the following three categories: (1) providing an opportunity for discussion about marketing. (2) teaching about marketing principles and/or providing information relating to marketing. and (3) stating what future plans were for establishing directions regarding marketing. An analysis of the fieldnotes relating to his discussing marketing or related issues led me to the following assertion: The President is committed to moving the institution toward a marketing orientation. and he uses meetings as a means of communicating that commitment to other adni ni strators. Stating his expectations for marketing is similar to what Bennis and Nanus (1985) described as creating a new vision for an 97 organization and is similar to what the President was engaged in when he described what the values of the organization should be (pp. 119-124). He was also apparently using meetings to develop com- mitment in other administrators for the new vision and was being suc- cessful. However. communicating his expectations for the organization was just one aspect of the change strategy that was being employed. Education in marketing principles for all employees and changing the formal structure to facilitate marketing being implemented were also taking place. Moreover. the President was perceived by many employees as being supportive of marketing. When asked what they saw in the institution as facilitating the marketing process. most employees interviewed indicated the President's commitment and support. One way of demonstrating that support involved the three-and-one-hal f-day Marketing Leadership Training. Not only did he participate in a skit that was part of the training. but he was in attendance during the entire first series. Further. he had indicated to the individuals presenting the training that he would attend all future sessions when the training was scheduled for the rest of the employees. Because only 30 to 40 employees were in attendance at one time. it will be necessary to schedule several different sessions of the three-and-one-half-day training series. which suggests the possibility of future major time connitments on the part of the President. 98 In addition to the President's often discussing marketing and related issues. he was responsible for a number of other activities that supported the institution's moving to a marketing orientation. For example. the President seemed to recognize that changing the formal structure of the organization is an effective means of bringing about change as he revised the responsibilities of the Dean of Business and Community Services to focus hal f-time on marketing. In addition. he expressed the need to change the reward structure to focus on "ability and willingness to obtain skills and risk" (fieldnotes. 6/28/85. p. 3). Bal dridge and Deal (1975) argued that the formal structure is important when considering change because "in managing innovation. organizational structure is most directly controlled or manipulated by the administrator." They defined the formal structure as the 'hier- archy of conmand. systematic decision processes. and reward processes" (p. 12). Not only was the one position changed. but authorization was gained fron the board of trustees to hire a Director of Marketing Services. A comment by the President at the August 12. 1985. board meeting summarized sone of the activity that transpired at the insti- tution before the board's authorizing the position: Because we have constricting budgets. as the Cabinet meets repre- senting all the different segnents of the college. there are many discussions as each segnent tries to get budget dollars for its own area. We do get in some budget battles among us. In terms of marketing there is absolute unanimity on the part of the Cabinet. I proposed to drop this [referring to the marketing position]. 99 When we were all done. the Cabinet came back and said. 'Can we reopen that? This is critical if we are going to try to offset the decl ining enrollment." The President then made a statement about the problem of declining enrollments--"The effect will be reduced size and increased inefficiencies." He discussed the problem of running smaller classes. "I agree with Tom we have to do sonething to try to head that off." W The President also attempted to use the influence of opinion leaders in encouraging the change to be adopted. An excerpt fron fiel dnotes of May 17. 1985. reflects the use of opinion leaders. I [researcher] spoke to the President. who indicated that the people selected for the Marketing Leadership Training Session were chosen on the basis of their leadership ability and their openness to change. I indicated to him that I planned to focus on the marketing plan. He indicated that would be a good area to study as it affects the whole institution. . . . The President indicated that the administrators presenting the seminar had made presentations to other community colleges. and "we thought we should have them present to us. We are planning to run this series with another group who we think will be receptive in the fall. and we will continue the process until we have reached the whole col- lege community." (fieldnotes. 5/17/85. p. 1) As the notes indicate. apparently the first participants in the Marketing Leadership Training Session were selected on the basis of their leadership and willingness to try new ideas. In addition. they were encouraged to return to their work group and articulate what the experience at the Training Session had been like to gain support fron others. Fiel dnotes of June 14. 1985. which recorded the activity of the third session and what was planned originally to be the final session in the Marketing Leadership Training Series. included a transcript of conments the President was making to the group. His 100 comments were consistent with those he had made earlier to me con- cerni ng selecting leaders in the various groups. Also. his comments alluded to the fact that an additional half day had been added to the series so that participants could. in small groups. select a target market. write a marketing plan. and present the plan to the larger group of participants in the Training Session. He stated: First of all. I think I speak for all of us. A good time and a lot of learning [thanked the presenters]. As I thought about what I wanted to say. I mentioned to you that you were the avant garde of the college. I hope that through this experience you are all starting to get a sense of the kind of change that is necessary at the college. Our intent is to take this kind of activity and take what you have learned and have you start talking about it. You were selected because in each of your areas you were leaders. you are respected. I really hope that if you feel good about this. you tell others about it. Second thing I want to do is restate the importance of what this activity will do for the college. We have had five years of declining enrollment. For the next nine years the numbers of those coming out of mm schools will also decline. Our conmunity was ranked fifth in the state in terms of outmigration. If this institution is going to be recognizable. it isn't going to be that way if we continue to do things the way we have always done. The marketing activities will make all the difference as to whether the college succeeds or not. Understand why we as a college have to get into marketing and do it in a big way. Not sonething that you can say the Aonissions Office is going to do. Your assignment. I want to encourage you to spend time doing it. It is in effect the final exam. You now have an opportunity to take what you have learned and apply it. If you start talking to others about it. . . . Having gone through the experience of writing out a marketing plan. . . . You have gone through three full days of it. Now comes the time when you take all that you have learned and apply it. Invite the people who you think ought to see your presentation of your marketing plan. Supervisor. employee. colleagues. It is a marvelous opportunity for us to make sure others understand what we are trying to do. Thank you. (fiel dnotes. 6/14/85. p. 9) In addition to the President's stating that he expected the participants to influence others. a sheet describing Rogers's (1983) theory of change was included in the materials presented to the 101 participants. Rogers classified individuals in a social system accord- ing to how early they were willing to adopt an innovation. i.e.. inno- vators. 2.5% of the system's popul ation; early adopters. 13.5%; early majority. 34%; late majority. 34%; and laggards. 16$. Rogers identified opinion leaders as those individuals in a social system who provide "information and advice about innovations to many in the system." He defined opinion leadership as the degree to which an individual is able to influence other individu- a1 5' attitudes or overt behavior informally in a desired way with relative frequency. It is a type of informal leadership. rather than a function of the individual's formal position or status in the system. (p. 27) Although I identified the use of opinion leaders as a change strategy. no data were obtained to determine if the participants actually did assist in introducing or influencing others in the organization about the concepts of marketing. LeadenshJLStxle Because the leadership style of the President is one variable that affects any systemwide planned-change effort such as moving an organization to one with a marketing orientation. the present investigation also focused on President Daeke's style of leadership. The quotation on pp. 98-99 illustrated the kind of leader administra- tors who were members of the Presi dent's Cabinet perceived the Presi- dent to be. He was viewed as being much more participative in his management style than his predecessor. His statement concerning his proposal to drop the marketing position and his comment that the Cabi- net asked that the position be reconsidered exemplified his allowing 102 aoninistrators to come to group decisions rather than making decisions unilaterally. Several comments by administrators and faculty in interviews indicated that they viewed the current President as having a more participatory management style than his predecessor. One administrator noted: Harry [the former President] would address the two inservice sessions a year. state of the college. Beyond that. virtually he stayed in his office and dealt with problem solving. Would bring a group of 10 people in. Very little contact with faculty. Terry. on the other hand. has a great deal of faith in committees. Great deal of faith in the belief that people will do what is right. But even more so. he listens to what people tell him. Every so often he walks around campus. He provides througi committee struc- ture some meaningful opportunities for people to have a say in the direction of the institution. (fieldnotes. 2/26/85. p. 21) Another adnini strator conmented: Tremendous changes. This place is really different. . . . Terry has an entirely different approach to higher education and to management than did his predecessor. I guess fron a management standpoint he is much less authoritarian. Much less top-down oriented than his predecessor. . . . He certainly has come a long way. He is much more into participation. collegiality. management styles. And the people that he has chosen have reflected that. Very collegiality-oriented individuals. . . . The whole orienta- tion. Really working hard to open up communication lines. Lessen the amount of top-down. closed-door meetings. Really where things were decided. Extremely significant. Been a big change in that respect. . . . It's been hard to get people to really believe that he is very democratic. collegiality oriented. (fiel dnotes. 5/30/85. p. 3) In an interview with a third administrator. the following comments were made concerning the difference in management style between the current President and his predecessor: I attribute all the progress in marketing to Terry's support. Terry's leadership and commitment to it. His entrepreneurial soul. His style and that kind of leadership. His continually 103 wanting to be on the front end of change and front end of community colleges. Very well lends itself to all of that. Without it none of those things would happen. Those kinds of things would not have happened in the days of Harry Edwards [the previous President]. I grew to have some respect for what he did [referring to the previous President]. Would never have built Reynolds Center [named for the chairperson of the board]. He was the rigit President for the times. Just as Terry is the right President for now. He was the world's greatest character [referring to the previous President]. The interesting thing to do with change which has nothing to do with marketing. watching that change from when Harry was President until Terry became President. The people who worked for Harry were very comfortable with Harry's style. Extreme opposite of Terry. Harry was do it. damn it. or get the hell out. As people stay in an organization. you adapt to it. It's been interesting watching people get used to Terry. He's very participative. allows auton- omy. risk. allows for failure. Theory X. Theory Y. Harry was over here. Theory X and Terry is over here. Theory Y. Real interesting for the people around the President to adapt to that. When you think about it. there are only two administrators who are at the cabinet level who are left fron Edwards' days [previous President]. (fiel dnotes. 7/16/85. p. 5) Later in the same interview. the administrator made further comments concerning the current President and his interest in a more participatory management style. The administrator was commenting concerning effective managers: Doesn't have to be in control. Can allow people to spread their wings and fly. All those things are attributes of people I would define as heal thy. Some are too damn insecure to let anybody else look good. Got to have continual control because they're scared of what will happen. All those things I see in Terry are really very good. He certainly has done those things for me. All cabinet-level members feel that way. The Administrative Council feels a little bit less than that. When you get further down in the ranks. there are people who have been here longer. here when Harry was here. But the people who have had more opportunities to work closely with Terry. they begin to change. too. I think the others will change. too. People are beginning to see that Terry is sincerely interested in making it a more participative environment. (fieldnotes. 7/16/85. p. 6) 104 In addition to the comments made by other administrators. the following excerpt fron an interview with the President records his stating he feels it is important to involve personnel in the decision- making process and how he used two administrative retreats to develop a participatory decision-making process in the institution. The first retreat I felt we needed to mend sone fences and to create a sense that we are a team. That we want to work with the administration. They are part of the decision-making process. First session was one to break down barriers. We did things differently that second time around. At the first session we had a talk about how decisions are made. . . . I shared with them the importance of a shared commitment to this institution by its administrative team. I shared with them my sense of what issues we as a college face. The financial problems. how we need to operate. What was interesting. it was new to the group. Because I think I say it all the time. but I say it a lot in bits and pieces. which gave me the conceptual framework. 50 there was a chance of better understanding of where I'm trying to take us. a shared vision. That was an attempt to try to coalesce our administrative team. If we have improved our relationship (in a way. that is not complete). how do we take it in the next step and try to involve them in the deci sion-making process? If you can involve people so they really feel they are part of the decision- making process. . . . This second one [retreat] was an attempt to pursue that a little bit further. One of the things covered some of the same ground we had covered before. Mostly what I tried to focus on was values. Picked this up fron a tape by Mike Vance. People don't commit to objectives; they commit to values which are consistent with their internal sense of what is right. As an institution. we can portray those values. So I tried to focus on what are our values as an institution that would carry us no matter how much things change. The President continued with comments that compared decision making at the college now with how it had been under the previous President: I inherited a group of people where the President said. this is what you are going to do. You implement it. Usually very specific. Their frustration with me was I don't give specific directions. I give them sonething we want to acconplish. They will be deve10ping plans. procedures. whatever. What they would tend to do. was take a concept and try to make a program. I can't 105 tell you the number of times I heard. I would be talking in cabi- net. realize sonething was going on in implementation. What is that? "That is what you told us to do." I could sort of vaguely see some resemblance in what I had suggested. It was all screwed up. My great frustration was to have people go out and speak in my name. [Terry was smiling broadly as he was relating these com- ments.] I think with cabinet we are at a point where I can debate and not have them leap and carry it out. Terry pointed out how an administrator had disagreed with him that morning. "I think you were wrong." That is very positive. I can't have people who will simply say. "Yes." In the final analysis. the best decisions we will make are our decisions. (fieldnotes. 5/28/85. pp. 10-12) Rogers's (1983) review of research concerning innovation in organizations suggests that control over decisions affects change in organizations. "The more power is concentrated in an organization. the less innovative that organization tends to be" (p. 359). On the other hand. although there are fewer innovations in a centralized operation. the "centralization may actually encourage the impl ernenta- tion of innovations. once the innovation decision is made" (p. 360). The organization's move toward a more participatory form of decision making may affect the change to a marketing orientation in a negative way. Because of their sense of autonomy. individuals and subsystems in the organization may be more rel uctant to change their way of operating in the organization than would individuals in a more centralized organization. However. changing the institution to one that has a strong marketing orientation involves a change in the institution's culture. a process that may be sonewhat different than hnplementing an innovation such as a product or specific practice into an organization. 106 W W Much of the literature on change has pointed to the importance of the $0 and other managers in the process of bringing about change. Mintzberg's (1973) study of managers identified ten managerial roles. one of which was entrepreneur. "As entrepreneur the manager initiates and designs much of the controlled change in his organization. He continually searches for problens and opportunities" (p. 98). Because of the importance of the roles played by managers in organizations involved in change and because of the importance of the office of president. possibly I paid more attention to the actions and comments of fire President than to others in fire conmunity college studied. In fact. most of the speech of the President that occurred in meetings I attended was recorded. In addition. documents that recorded minutes of the President's Cabinet meetings after fire current President assumed office were also examined. Studying the President's speech in meetings. as well as records of minutes of meetings. suggested 14 categories. The categories are listed and defined in order of the frequency of their occurrence. with the role fiie President assumed most often listed first. 1. Conmunicator of The President transmitted information information fron one group to another and dis- seminated information through the organization. 2. Seeker of ideas/infor- The President asked questions to gain mation or stimulator information or to stimulate critical of thinking thinking about issues. 4. 5. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Expeditor/task assigner/ monitor of tasks Arti cul ator of direction/expectations Supporter Initiator Drawer of attention to itens or ideas Explainer Decision maker Importer of ideas into the organization Evaluator/articulator of problems or posi- tive signs of the organization Professor Hunori st Mediator of confl ict 107 In this role the President assigned tasks to subordinates. suggested time lines. or followed up on activities. The President stated his views regarding the future direction of the organization or expectations of organizational members. In this role the President praised ideas or actions of the organiza- tion's members. The President directed activities by suggesting starting times. In this role the President served to remind individuals of additional variables in situations. as well as calling attention to items or ideas. The President explained concepts or situations. This role was similar to the Professor role; however. speech items were classified as being in the Professor role when they involved a more formal presentation of concepts. The President stated what his deci- sions were concerning issues. Speech was classified in this cate- gory when the President brought external ideas into the organization. The President evaluated and commented on positive events occurring in the organization as well as what he viewed as problems for the organiza- tion. In this role the President was teach- ing organization members about a particular concept. The President was observed teasing or kidding. The President mediated conflict among subordinates. 108 Table 3 lists the 14 roles in order by their frequency of occur- rence and includes samples of the speech that suggest fiie different categories. Table 3.--Fourteen roles of the President. by frequency of occurrence. and sanples of speech in each category. Frequency We 43 President: President: . . . particularly in the area of marketing and public relations. Our Cabinet has had many discussions over the last several months concerning marketing. Unless we get sonebody to coordinate it. it will start to fall apart. We have relieved Pat of sone of his responsi- bilities in Conmunity and Business Services and added marketing. Pat is now working on developing target markets. pulling that together. We'll be coming back to you [the Board] as early as next month. (fiel dnotes of 7/8/85 Board of Trustees meeting. p. 2) One of the things I have tried to emphasize to Cabinet. Communications will never be perfect. We are all busy people. However. they have more responsibilities than sit in that meeting and interact. Equally important part of that communication is bringing that information to you. One way a good conmunication-system can work. To the extent that happens . . . I think Cabinet is trying to do that. I am hoping you are noticing that there are more opportunities for interaction. (fiel d- notes of 5/24/$ administrative retreat. p. 6) WW £51.1an 40 President: President: How much did we spend? (fieldnotes of President's Cabinet meeting of 4/2/85. p. 3) Should we as an institution as we are moving toward word processing be buying any more typewriters? (fiel dnotes of President's Cabinet meeting of 4/2/85. p. 5) 109 Table 3.--Continued. Role Frequency Expeditnnliaslussionené Weiss 35 President: Let us take about 15 or 20 minutes to go through your notes and problems. (fiel dnotes of President's Cabinet meeting of 4/2/85. p. 2) President: I would like to move rigit away with this. (fiel dnotes of President's Cabinet meeting of 3/26/85. p. 5) AnticulatnLctAinectinnL expectations 30 President: . . . I mentioned to you that you were the avant garde of the college. I hope that through this experience you are all starting to get a sense of the kind of change that is necessary at the college. Our intent is for you to take this kind of activity. take what you have learned and start being sales people for this concept for all of your colleagues. Part of the way we will get their commitment to it is when you start talking about it. You were selected. that in each of your areas you were leaders. you are respected. I really hope that if you feel good about this. you tell others about it. The second thing I want to do is restate the importance of what this activity will do for the college. We have had five years of declining enrollment. The next nine years for those people coning out of high schools. their number will also decline. Our community was ranked fifth in the state in terms of outmigration. If this institution is going to be recognizable. it isn't going to be that way if we continue to do things the way we have always done. The marketing activities will make all the difference as to whether fiie college succeeds or not. (fiel dnotes of Marketing Leadership Training Ses- sion of 6/14/85. p. 9) President: What I am trying to get to here is that because of the financial difficulties we face that we have to be more careful about how we spend money than most institutions. Doesn't mean that we pinch every penny. (fiel dnotes of 5/24/85 adninistrative retreat. p. 4) 110 Table 3.--Continued. Frequency Sumerian 30 President: Your point is a good one. and we need to keep that in account. (fieldnotes of 4/2/85 President's Cabinet meeting. p. 3) President: [to a Dean] Good idea. Have those [posters] available when we meet with Council. (fiel dnotes of 3/26/85 President's Cabinet meeting. p. 4) Initiator 20 President: Why don't we go ahead and get started? (fiel dnotes of 5/7/85 President's Cabinet meeting. p. 1) President: If you want to take a seat. we will get started. (fiel dnotes of 3/12/85 President's Cabinet meeting. p. l) Winn Wears 22 President: Sonething crossed my mind. We send a lot of pieces of information out. We send grades. We could have some stuffers. . . . Sign up and mail in to us. (fieldnotes of 6/14/85 Marketing Leadership Training Session. p. 5) President: I would suggest that if you drop sone of these [refer- ring to items in the mission statement]. you might get an altogether different message. These have been with the institution since it became a community college. The public may think you no longer believe in them. (fieldnotes of 4/3/85 Board Planning Session. p. 2) 111 Table 3.--Continued. Freq uency Emma: 18 [In a Board Planning Session. one board member commented that he believed the college was losing students because of tuition increases.] Presi dent: President: Decisinmmake: One of the reasons for losing students is that we are going through what the K-12 went through. I don't agree with you; a combination of outmigration and fewer stu- dents is the reason we are losing students. (fiel dnotes of 4/3/85 Board Planning Session. p. 9) Let me just give you a few notions about budget. There may be some in the business office who wish I wouldn't say this. Once a budget is established. we just ignore it. A budget should be our best estimate of what we are going to spend at the time we make it. We should pursue budgeting as thoughtfully as we can. Particularly in times of change there are a lot of things that occur within a year. Normally. you build those kind of changes into the next budget cycle. Changes we want to make are built into the budget. The budget process should be a very important thing that we spend time on. Within that. however. it doesn't make any sense to me that when opportunities for change occur to say that the budget doesn't allow it. I am open to that kind of change. (fieldnotes of 5/24/85 administrative retreat. p. 3) 16 [The President talked about a conputer equipment proposal.] President: The more I have considered it and considered it. I am going to consider it with the Board. Gives us an oppor- tunity to move significantly forward as an administra- tive group. How to deal with the mainframe and how to deal with adninistrative computer needs. Buying all of the micros at one time. Gets us the interaction we need. the training we need. I am going to support that. (fiel dnotes of 8/85/85 President's (hbi net meeting. p. 3) 112 Table 3.--Continued. Role Frequency DecisiQLmaket (cont'd) President: When something breaks. we will find the funds. We can't have people wifii no place to sit. (fiel dnotes of 7/30/$ President's Cabinet meeting. p. 3) W010 iburcanizatinn 14 [The President held up a book in a President's Cabinet meeting and indicated that it was Kotl er's new book. Winnie]: EducatiQnaJJnstiiuticns President: I feel I'm enough along to know that it is something I want you to read. I'm willing to buy you a copy with two provisos. One. that you read it. and two. that you share it with another administrator. The concepts are all there. If we all have a shared knowledge base. we will be able to focus on the issues and discussions more precisely. (fiel dnotes of 7/30/85 President's Cabinet meeting. p. 6) [In another President's Cabinet meeting. the President related a conversation he had had on a plane with a businessperson who thought that colleges and universities by the mid-19905 would be the best marketers in the nation.] President: He thought that leadership in terms of how you market will not be in the private sector. but will be in education. Coming from a guy that sells sausages. a Vice-Presi dent of Marketing. (fiel dnotes of 2/19/85 President's Cabinet meeting. p. 4) Exaluatnzlarzticulatcnmnlens cmsitistisantbenmanizatinn 10 President: If our applications are up and if the concept of per- sonal ized admissions works. we should look at the fall as being pretty good. I think the early signs are very positive. (fiel dnotes of 7/30/85 President's Cabinet meeting. p. 4) 113 Table 3.--Continued. Role Frequency ExaluatonlariioulatoLoLomems oooosiMsionsJLtboomanization (cont'd) [A letter of invitation to members of the first Marketing Conmittee contains the following paragraph concerning problems of the organization]: President: We are faced with declining enrollments. a fluctuating financial base and a changing student population. These trends underlie the need for new and creative thinking. (docunent dated 12/10/84) Emiassor: 7 [The minutes of an April 9. 1981. President's Cabinet meeting contain the following]: Dr. Daeke also presented the four P's of marketing: 1. Product. top quality 2. Place. location is critical 3. Price within the range of client's ability to pay 4. Pronotion. final step to pronote the quality ability. at the right location. and at the right price. [Minutes of another President's Cabinet meeting that same month record the President in a professori a1 role]: Dr. Daeke reviewed marketing concepts involving a student Flow Model. 1. Developing interest and awareness 2. Adni ssi on/entry procedures 3. Program of study/college experience 4. Exit of student/eval uation of experience (President's Cabinet minutes dated 4/14/81) humorist 4 In a Marketing Leadership Training Session as the President walked to the front of the roon to make a presentation. there was applause. He sniled and said. "Thank you. fans." (fiel dnotes. 6/28/85) 114 Table 3.--Continued. Role Frequency Humorist (cont'd) Another incident of the President's joking was recorded in a Presi- dent's Cabinet meeting as he kiddingly asked fiie person who was respon- si ble for leading a review of the proposed budget. He asked. 'Have you lost control of your meeting yet?" (fiel dnotes. 4/2/85) MediatoLofJonfliot 4 [Two vice-presi dents were discussing an item that had been agreed to in negotiations. One felt that what had been agreed to caused inequity in the way sone faculty supplementals were treated. The President mediated the conflict with the following statement]: President: If you have an agreement whether it's written or understood. that is how we are going to live with it. Secondly. I am concerned with the inequity among supplementals. At least we want to get that into the notes for the next time [referring to negotiations]. (fiel dnotes of 7/30/85 President's Cabinet meeting) Mintzberg's (1973) study of the nature of managerial work identified ten roles of managers: figurehead. liaison. and leader (interpersonal roles); monitor. disseminator. and spokesman (informa- tion-roles); and entrepreneur. disturbance handler. resource allocator. and negotiator (decisional roles). Mintzberg's definition of the ten roles was as follows (pp. 96-99): 1. 9. 10. Figurehead Leader Liaison Monitor Di ssemi nator Spokesman Entrepreneur Di sturbance handl er Resource allocator Negoti ator 115 Identifies the manager as a symbol. obliged to carry out a number of social. inspira- tional. legal. and ceremonial duties. Identifies the manager's rel ationship with his subordinates. He defines the milieu in which they work. motivates them. probes into their activities to keep them alert. and takes responsibility for hiring. training. and pronoting them. The manager develops a network of contacts outside of his organization. in which infor- mation and favors are traded for mutual bene- fit. The manager continually seeks and receives information fron a variety of sources in order to develop a thorough understanding of the organization and its environnent. The manager sends external information into his organization and internal information fran one subordinate to another. The manager must transmit information to various external groups. The manager initiates and designs much of the controlled change in his organization. He continually searches for problems and oppor- tunities. The manager must take charge when his organi- zation meets with an unexpected stimulus for which there is no cl ear programmed response. The manager oversees the allocation of forms of organizational resources (such as money. manpower. reputation). The manager takes charge when his organiza- tion must engage in important negotiation activity with other organizations. Conparing Mintzberg's ten roles with the present study suggests similarities. as shown in Table 4. Table 4.--Comparison of Mintzberg's roles and the present study. 116 Mintzberg's Fre- Role Present Study quency Figurehead Many of fire meetings were chaired by the President. Leader Initiator. In addition to the role of ini- 26 tiator. many of the other roles identified concern subordinates and thus relate to the leader role. Liaison Mintzberg's definition of liaison involves contacts outside the organization; since the current study focused on internal meet- ings. it would not provide opportunities to observe the President in this role. Monitor Seeker of ideas or infonnation/stimulator 40 of thinking. Disseminator Articul ator of direction/expectations 30 Articulator of problems/positive signs of the system 8 Cormunicator of information 43 Evaluator 2 Explainer 18 Drawer of attention to items and ideas 22 Professor 7 Importer of ideas into the organization 11 Total 144 Spokesman Again. internal meetings would not provide an opportunity to observe the President transnitting information to outside groups Entrepreneur Expeditor/task assignerImonitor of tasks 35 Disturbance Mediator of conflict 4 handler Humorist 4 Supporter 39. Total 38 Resource Decision maker 16 allocator Negotiator Minzberg also saw the negotiator role as involving outside organizations and the present study was primarily limited to internal activities. 117 Reviewing the data of the President's speech suggests that he assumed multiple roles in his day-to-day interactions with members of the college community. Of course. at times sone of these roles over- lapped. For example. he may have been stating expectations as he was communicating information. Studying the President's speech in meetings reveal ed a somewhat low number of incidents (16) in which he assumed the role of decision maker. That observation tended to be compatible with the perceptions of administrators at the cabinet level who believed that he allowed for much more participation in decision making than did his predecessor. Moreover. although decisions were made in the meetings observed. much of the time was spent in exchanging information. Therefore. actual decisions may have been made by the President when he was alone or in more private meetings. Another role the President did not assume often in meetings was that of a mediator of conflict. Only four incidences were observed. No doubt the fact that the observations were conducted in meetings attended by many people affected the number of times the President assumed the role of mediator of conflict. a role he would more likely assume in private meetings. I asked him if conflict was typically handled in private meetings between the parties. and he agreed that it was. However. using Mintzberg's categories. more incidents of the President's speech could be classified as being similar to the role of di sseminator--l44 in total. This total is not surprising when 118 considering the literature concerning the functions of management. which has pointed out the importance of communications. i.e.. dissemi- nation of information being part of that function. Barnard (1938) identified three essential executive functions. and one of the three involved conmunications: "They are. first. to provide the system of communication; second. to promote the securing of essential efforts; and. third. to formulate and define purpose" (p. 215). Other studies have also emphasized the importance of communica- tions in the manager's role. In Kanter (1977). one Harvard Business School report estimated that more than 50 percent of a department head's time was spent interacting with men other than his immediate subordinates (Ulrich et al.. 1950). Also in Kanter. another study emphasized that as little as 28 percent down to 6.3 percent of an executive's time was spent making decisions as compared with more social activities (Dubin. 1962). W A recent book on leadership suggested the concept of "social architecture." a term that can be used synonymously with culture. Social architecture is that which provides context (or meaning) and commitment to its membership and stakeholders. So. first and foremost. social architecture presents a shared interpretation of organizational events. so that members know how they are expected to behave. It also generates a commitment to the primary organiza- tional values and philosophy--that is. the vision fiiat employees feel they are working for and can believe in. Finally. an organi- zation's social architecture serves as a controlling mechanism. sanctioning or proscribing particular kinds of behavior. (Bennis 8 Nanus. 1985. p. 112) 119 Bennis and Nanus interviewed 90 leaders. 60 $05 of companies and 30 leaders fron the public sector. They concluded that the following must occur to change the social architecture of an organization: 1. Create a new and compelling vision capable of bringing the work force to a new place. 2. Devel op commi‘bnent for the new vision. 3. Institutional ize the new vision. At various public occasions. the President articulated what he felt should be the values of the institution; thus he was creating a new vision for the organization. He identified four in a Marketing Training Session for staff (a series of three one-day sessions con- cl uded by a hal f-day session). The President made the following com- ments at the end of a session on March 1. 1985: There are some observations that I would like to share with you. One of the things that is becoming increasingly clear. that is what we ought to have agreement on. That we ought to commit ourselves to. What is exciting to me is the fact that as we talk throughout the day. we focus on our college. on our students. on our commu- nity. And it is very typical of institutions in general and in higher education in particular that the focus is then on internal needs. What we want for ourselves. what is comfortable for us. what is of interest for us. Just look at higher education and why courses are developed. Based upon a particular faculty member's interest. We tend to go narrower and narrower. Perfect example. a friend of mine. person who is a geographer who enjoys rocks. Had a course developed and approved. [The title was very specific and narrow.] There wasn't a single student over who determined that there was something they needed. Determined on the basis of that faculty member's interest. What I am saying; we need to focus on our student. community needs and then provide that kind of service. It is really sonething as you get into it. It really is fulfilling. You start understanding that when we do the kinds of things that provide service to others. Kind of things most of us went into education for. Start to recognize the basis of it is outside our- selves. Very important. CC of QU man 120 As the President made introductory remarks about the values of the institution. his comments reflected the mission or philosophy of community colleges in general as reflected in the literature; that is. community colleges are charged with focusing on the educational needs of the communities they serve. The President continued with comments concerning the importance of organizational values. Good organizations and the best example I think is in the book In W Talks about the organizations in our society that are most effective. and they have commonly shared values. Organization knows what it is. what it is trying to accomplish. They vary fron organization to organization. Certainly no one value. Good example in the conputer world is the difference between Apple and IBM. Apple perceives itself as being in the front end of the conputer industry. the mavericks. Commonly held values that support the institution. Always coming out with things that are different. Microconputer. McIntosh. IBM. on the other hand. doesn't perceive itself as being the leader. but when it cones out as being the best there is. Two different thrusts. Part of what we need to look at. what values do we hold? What are the things that we want to have said about us? And we talk about image. What should we be focusing on? What are our own values? What are important to us in this conmunity? If we do it well. the image and the values will be consistent. What we want to be and what we perceive it to be will be the same. Start discussion. Not today. Think about it. Four values which I think are representa- tive of our institution. which I think that we as an organization should strive for and pursue. I want to emphasize that it is most inappropriate to say that here are values. We need to modify. add to. subtract. delete. whatever. Starts us at least thinking about sone things. Descriptions of the four val ues--quality; a caring. person- al ized approach; being on the front end of change; and defining educa- tion broadly to focus institutional resources on the needs of the conmunity-were then presented by fire President. The first value was quality and could be related to the recent emphasis in educational and management writings on excellence. However. the current emphasis in 121 the institution on quality seemed to be credited generally by adminis- trators to the leadership of fire current President. The President stated: The first I want to mention is quality. First. last. and always if we do not have quality we have nothing. Quality aspect has to be viewed first of all fron the eyes of the consumer. Whoever we are trying to serve has to perceive that what we are providing is of value to them. So in large measure. our determination of whether or not we are providing quality service should cone from the feed- back of the people we serve. Really results in value to them. Is there value received fron payment made? Quality becones a determi- nation of the people who are receiving it more than the people who are giving it. But secondly. because we are a college. we have certain higrer education standards to uphold. Just because we are part of the higrer education enterprise in this country. So we have to recognize quality also fron the quality of what others in hig‘rer education believe quality to be. A tradition established by other higier education institutions. And finally we have to make our own judgnents in terms of quality. As professionals we are experts in our field. Certainly one aspect of what we are about that everybody can ascribe to. In everything we do. if we can't do it well. we won't do it. That will put a lot of limitations on us as we move into the next decade or so because of our limited resources. There will be a lot of things we can't do well because of our limited resources. Shift priorities. If we can't do it well. let's not do it half way. Just not do it. Shift priorities. The second value the President commented on was a personal- ized. caring atmosphere. That was a value which was evident in the actions of many of the organization's members. Evidence of such a value was elaborated on in pp. 124-27. The President continued: The second thing I would like to focus on in this institution and that is personalized service. We need to create an institution of a personalized. caring atmosphere. We need to show those that we serve that individually they are important. We do that in many. many ways. About a month or so ago. many of the administrators had the chance to meet the President of Kleveland Community College. and he said a very interesting thing at a cabinet meeting just prior to leaving. He said he would like them to think about when was fire last time you hugged a student. He was not talking about physically going out and hugging a student. When was the last time you went out of your way for students? When was the last time you showed them fiiat you as an individual representing this institution 122 that you cared about them? He wasn't being critical. He was Just asking a question. It was a very important one to ask. One of the things that we really need to look at is how do we as an organiza- tion release the ability of the institution to show that? To encourage that kind of caring atmosphere. Make sure that it is real and genuine. Next the President articulated his perceptions regarding the importance of change: The third one that is important to develop. as a college we are on the front end of change. We can get the message out that we know where the world is going and we're at the front end of that. We're going to be the kind of institution that is in the front end of that change. Very important concept to get out. so that the image we have of ourselves and the image we portray to others is one of the ability to change as needs change. Commenting that it was important to be on the front end of change appeared to be one way that the President suggested to the organization's members that it was important for the organization to change as educational needs changed. This particular value is con- sistent with the literature on community colleges. which has suggested that the broad mission of the college is to respond to educational needs in the community. The fact that the community is changing pre- sents implications of the necessity for community colleges to change (Gleazer. 1980). The final value the President articulated reflected the recent emphasis of the college on economic development in the community and the leadership role that the college had taken in this effort. The emphasis on economic development may not have been understood by all the organization's members as a few occupational faculty questioned the activities of the Community and Business Services Division. which had 18 been the most active college division in responding to the immediate needs of area employers. The President stated: The fourth area is one I think which moves us beyond the traditional goal of higmer education. We must define ourselves broadly to focus institutional resources on the important needs of our community. For example. when we go through difficult economic times. we focus on how we can assist this community through those economic times. As we focus now on reestablishing an economic base. what can the institution do to assist in that effort? If at some future time. we have problems of pollution. what can we as an institution do to assist? We as an institution have tremendous resources that can be applied to community problems. community concerns. Part of what we need to do is to build how important the institution is to the community. At least for starters. there are four general concepts that I think that if we could put into more specific terms. Get us all to buy into that. Then as you start working on specific programs. you start having to apply those standards. starting. having a continu- ity of image helps with that. These four values were also discussed by the entire acininistra- tive staff at a retreat held on May 23 and 24. Then at an October l6. l985. adninistrative workshop that involved administrators from Midwest Community College and three other nearby community colleges. the President again described the values Midwest was "starting to work on." The values we focused on were four: l. Quality--first. last and always. (2n we do it well? We will turn things down rather than doing then poorly. 2. Credit to one of our faculty members. My perception at that time was we were too big. I think what we have to do is work at it. We want to be a personalized. caring institution. to students and in relationships with each other. 3. We want to be in the forefront of change. We want to accept the challenges of change as they occur and move forward. 4. Broadened vision of what education is. How do you begin? We start to look at. by looking at things from a different perspective. What could you do to change student perspective? If you are talking about change. we all need to be able to accept risk. You cannot risk without failure. When a 124 failure occurs. we learn from it. Try to improve and change so that next time we do it better. Althougi presented in a much shorter form. the above four values are consistent with statements made by the President on March l. 1985. and at the adninistrative retreat in May. The President's frequent articulating of what he believed should be the values of the organization appeared to be similar to what Bennis and Nanus (1985) suggested as necessary for a ”transformation in the social architecture" to occur. They. however. used the phrase "creating a new vision capable of bringing the work force to a new place." Stating what the values of the organization should be is one way of "creating a new vision" for the organization. As stated ear lier. one of the values articulated by the President emphasized the importance of being in the "forefront of change." which is one way of communicating to the organization's members the value of changing the organization. Not only did the President formally state what he felt should be the values of the institution. he also used meetings to comment on values. For example. in a January 22. l985. President's Cabinet meeting. he stated a need for administrators to show students they were cared about: Have to build a commitment to regularly spend time with students. To go out of your way. sit and talk with them. Anything that you can think of to show that we really care about students. I think it's an important enough area. Look at how we might go about making that happen. In addition. a discussion at the third Marketing Training Session involved ideas relating to a caring atmosphere: 125 Facilitator: What can we do as clerical s. technicians. adninistra- tors. faculty? Responses from the group: Personalized attention. smiles. kindness. adapt to their needs [referring to students]. utilize resources beyond the college and at the college. Dean: Just as students and potential students talk about where they can get the best service in education. Facilitator: If someone has a bad experience. they tell l25 people. Saneone fran the group: It is one-on-one people contact. Dean: When you meet people. you demonstrate a sense of caring and listening. Facilitator: It is so easy for us to get caught up in our own problems. (fieldnotes. 5/l7/85. p. 6) The value concerning a caring atmosphere at Midwest Community College was consistent with what a national community college leader stated in a recent publication about conmunity colleges. They are community based. they are cost effective. they offer a nurturing and caring environment. they pride themselves on having a competent faculty. and they offer a comprehensive program to meet an assortment of educational needs. (Parnell. l985. p. 99) The value is also compatible with the philosophy of the community college movement detailed on pp. 37-40. One of the concepts of the community college philosophy concerns the "right of all individuals to develop their talents to the fullest" (see p. 37). Obviously. a caring aimosphere would facilitate that happening. While I observed incidents of personnel displaying a caring attitude. one large poster that was displayed outside a faculty office spoke to the value of a caring atmosphere for all individuals: 126 The best minute I spend is the one I invest in people. Everyone is a potential winner. Sane people are disguised as losers. Don't let their appearance fool you. There were incidents of faculty displaying a caring attitude. I witnessed one department chairperson busily helping students as I arrived for an interview a few minutes ahead of schedule. Fiel dnotes of July 17. 1985. recorded the following activities: A student is in the department chairperson's office. Another student is apparently waiting in the hall to see the department chairperson. The telephone rings. The chairperson was apparently helping the student in his office with work she had missed. The student waiting to see him asked questions concerning cl asses he should take in the fall. The chairperson suggested the student come back about 11:15 a.m. There was a tone of concern in his voice as he asked. "Can you come back then?" He indicated to the student that he had another student scheduled to come at 10:00 a.m. (p. l) In an interview with another faculty member. he credited this same department chairperson as being the reason he chose to attend Midwest Community College as a student in the l9605. "I didn't know anything about the college and came to talk with Jim. Because of his taking the time to talk with me. I enrolled at Mi dwest" (fiel dnotes. 7/29/85. p. 6). An example of adninistrators displaying a caring attitude occurred when one administrator was hospitalized. Fiel dnotes of 7/30/85 recorded the following incident in a President's Cabinet meeting: Larry. a vice-president. described an adninistrator's illness and suggested that he would appreciate a card althougi he was too ill for visitors. Nearly every cabinet member made a notation as thong: they were planning to send cards to the adninistrator. 127 I also recorded incidents of other staff members displaying a caring attitude to me personally. I went down to the library and asked for a dissertation that had been written on Midwest Community College. A young man helped me who I assume was a student. He was very helpful and polite. even though I was asking for something that he couldn't find. The librarian came and found the dissertation. She asked if I was a student. She also was very helpful. I explained that I was doing a research study on Midwest Community College. She came over to the table where I was reading the dissertation and suggested that I probably would want to apply for a nonstudent library card. Before she helped me. she was working with a man. probably in his forties. and helping him locate a magazine. When she talked to him. she had that same helpful tone in her voice as when she talked with me. She explained the procedures in a thoughtful voice. I am sure she must have said the same thing many times before. but it was not evident in her voice. After I had read through the dissertation. I decided that I wanted to photocopy some of it. I asked the young man behind the counter where the photocopy machine was and if I needed change. He said no. I wondered if it meant that I should pay him. But he explained that he had change. He walked with me over to the machine and showed me how to use it. (fieldnotes. 6/25/85. p. l) Although there were incidents that occurred which seemed to reflect that a caring atmosphere was a value held by many faculty. adnini strators. and staff members. one staff member's behavior was an example of the val ue's not being demonstrated. I recorded the follow- ing incident. which was an attempt to secure a video tape player. I asked the staff member if Susan had called him about a video tape player. He frowned and said. 'Who is Susan?" I replied. "Maybe I don't have her name right. but Susan. the secretary. upstairs." He said. "There's probably only 40 of them around." There was a pause. Then he asked. "The secretary in Community and Business Services?" I replied. "Yes." and he responded. "It's already up there. [referring to the video tape player]. (fiel dnotes. 6/25/85. p. 1) His behavior seemed much different from that of the other staff members in the library. fa: fel at: not the till 128 Once a person in the organization (either an administrator or a faculty member) commented that a media technician had indicated that he felt underempl oyed (possibly the same staff member involved in the above incident). Obviously. feeling that one is underemployed would not contribute to one's overall self-esteem and could account for a person's not feeling the need to provide ”personal ized. caring serv- ice." In addition. a media technician would not be considered at the top of the organizational hierarchy and thus may be low in organiza- ti onal power. Kanter (1977) found that such people tend to be more insecure and critical. While there was evidence of the values being accepted by the organization's members. conversations with one adnini strator suggested that the current emphasis on quality had not always been a value. The administrator related that. several years before. a dean had acted as thougi he felt quality was not important and that generating additional credit hours was more important. An incident regarding grades was related as an example of a lack of concern about quality (fiel dnotes of 7/2/85). An earlier conversation with this same administrator resulted in the following statement in fiel dnotes dated 2/l2/85: "We had a whole set of values. No matter what. we are going to generate credit hours." When questioned about change in the institution. another administrator as well as a faculty member also commented on the shift in values that had seemed to occur. The adnini strator stated: 129 During Harry Edwards' [the previous President] ten years here. we were "the bigger. the better." The more buildings. the more services . . . primarily related on a funding basis. Terry's [the current President] first statement that I recall when he found out some of the things we were doing. 'We cannot do that with integrity: therefore. we should not do that." (fiel dnotes. 2/26/85. p. T7) The faculty menber commented: Lots of things have changed. His focus has been on curriculum. I think he is a little more involved in curriculun than his predeces- sor was. partly because of the times. partly because of his empha- sis. I think we're a lot more quality oriented. even though we may not have defined quality yet. (fiel dnotes. S/30/85. p. 6) In addition. there were other incidences of personnel discuss- ing 'iquality" as a concern of the President and the institution. Pat. an administrator. talked about Terry's [the President] leadership and emphasis on business and industry and how he had set up a division to serve business and industry. He also empha- sized quality. "That to me has really changed the institution." [Pat said]: I know that before the perceptions of business and industry of the college was horrible and now it's great. (field- notes. 2/26/85. p. 7) At the administrative retreat held in the spri ng. a vice- president made the following statement in a discussion that occurred with most of the college's adninistrators present: Quality. that was the first word after Terry said hello. He demonstrates by example. If we don't believe that those are inviolate [referring to values which were being discussed]. it doesn't make a lot of difference what Terry means. I believe that Terry should be as dictatorial as he can be about the values knowing his personality [many people in the room laughed]. He tends to be democratic. We need to implement in the best way that we can. Not a single person in this room who deals with students directly. We're all service people. We need to work with the direct providers of our clientele as service representatives [referring to the faculty]. In doing so. we need to follow those four concepts [the four values]. (fiel dnotes. 5/24/85. p. 6) Another administrator also commented on quality at the same meeting: 130 An adninistrator made a statement about how she attempts to see that quality is provided in what she does. "It involves talking to many people in an organization [business and industrial organiza- tions] and revisiting after the training is underway to determine that the training needs are being met." (fiel dnotes. 5/24/85. p. 7) WW WW5 As noted in Chapter II. the literature on organizational change has suggested the effect the external environment will have on any pl anned-change effort. At Midwest Community College. changes were occurring in the external environment that should cause the organiza- tion to be more receptive in moving to a marketing orientation. There has been a reduced number of my. school graduates. thus reducing the number of potential students who have historically attended Midwest. An outmigration of residents of the service area of the college has also occurred. another external event that reduced the number of poten- tial students who would attend Midwest. In addition. other colleges and universities have increased their marketing activities. which means all colleges and universities are competing more aggressively than in the past for a shrinking pool of traditional students (Kotler & Fox. l985). Paralleling the external events cited. the college experienced a significant enrollment decline of 4.246 students between T980 and l984. Thus there was a significant change in the environment. which seemed to result in a significant change in inputs. It would seem likely. therefore. that the significant change in inputs could 131 facilitate the change to a marketing orientation being accepted by personnel. Just as there appeared to be differing perceptions about a definition of marketing (pp. 71-77) as well as differing perceptions (both positive and negative) (pp. 78—89) regarding the operation of the college. the organization's members also seemed to hold differing views regarding a need for marketing. One adninistrator felt that the enrollment decline had not really affected most faculty in a signifi- cant way. However. most organization members interviewed and observed seemed positive toward the concept of marketing. I counted l6 positive statements concerning marketi ng and events related to marketing that were made during interviews. Only one faculty member seemed negative as he reported that many people had 'had it up to here with marketing" (as he gestured with his hand to his forehead). His dissatisfaction and negative perceptions may have stemmed from other reasons. Perhaps he was one of the persons unable to adjust to the new President's leadership style. Another person expressed dissatisfaction with how slowly anything was being implemented but adnitted that she was ”not a committee person and became impatient easily." Examples of positive comments are as follows. One adninistra- tor stated: Certainly hope there is more faculty involvement. It can't succeed without it. Our best ambassadors are the people who work here. At the moment because of the union. they are not good ambassadors. I think marketing can lead to that change. . . . I think it [market- ing] will work in identifying target markets. It will be hard to measure because if the economy stays the way it is. if we continue to have outmigration. But if we can retain at least the level we're at. I think we can retain it with marketing. Will it be 132 cost effective? I think there is a mind set that says it has to be cost effective. . . . I do think there has to be effort somewhere that will bring the faculty into that process. . . . Really feel it is essential. It will succeed. See no reason why not. (field- notes. 7/2/85. p. l) A board manber cannented: I did go through the marketing seminar and it was very well done. And I thank Pat and Allen [the seminar presenters]. I would like to have a report back to the Board as to what we accomplished. what our goals were. (fieldnotes. 7/8/85. p. 2) Two faculty manbers made the following observations: Our. I think. really. our department has always had somewhat of a marketing point of view. We have offered things that we think will appeal to students. Open access type of thing. We have tried to select our courses to what is happening in the market pl ace. We work through advisory committees. We try to target our course offerings to them. From that standpoint I don't think it is going to change. Due to the overall thrust of the institution. the way some things that the institution is going to do. They are going to create a framework that will allow more marketing things to happen. (fiel dnotes. 5/30/85. p. 5) I look at a higher education institution as being run as a business. marketed as a business. (fiel dnotes. 7/17/85. p. 2) One faculty member expressed a lack of understanding about the marketing philosophy. which is understandable as only the initial 30 or so organization members had been througi the training at that point. The President often reminded the members of the organization that there had been a change in inputs. There were eight incidents recorded of his explaining or commenting about the enrollment decline or college-age-popul ati on decline. outmigration from the community. and other college marketing efforts. These comments were made before a number of audiences: President's Cabinet. board meetings. an adninis- trative retreat. and in correspondence. 133 One example of his reminding individuals of his concern occurred at a board meeting. At the meeting. a presentation was being made by the Dean for Community and Business Services. The presentation concerned a marketing plan that included hiring additional staff who would be responsible for marketing. One board member suggested that it might not be necessary to increase marketing efforts because she had read that two-year colleges were going to become larger because of the h‘lgl cost of four-year colleges. The dean responded with comments supporting the pl an because of the competitiveness of other colleges and universities. He added that the plan would not only increase the numbers of students but would help the college better serve the stu- dents it attempted to attract. The Chairman of the Board also responded with supporting remarks: I don't know if this will work. but I do know that doing nothing isn't going to allow us to hold our own. I am concerned about our declining enrollment. Now that we are on an enrollment-driven [state appropriations] formula . . . the state hasn't fully implemented that formula. If the formula had been fully in effect. our state appropriations increase would have been almost 6% instead of being almost 9%. I don't know whether this is going to do any good. I do know that if we don't make some change. . . . The state has benefited by an improved economy. . . . I don't think this economic boom is going to last more than a year or two. I am frigitened to death of our at least holding our own. The President then interjected his concern over declining enrollments. as well as comments expressing the support of Cabinet manbers for the plan: Because we have constricting budgets. as the Cabinet meets repre- senting all the different segnents of the college. there are many discussions as each segnent tries to get budget dollars for its own area. We do get in some budget battles among us. In terms of marketing there is absolute unanimity on the part of the Cabinet. I proposed to drop this. When we were all done. the Cabinet came 134 back and said. "Can we reopen that?" [referring to adding staff to be responsible for marketing]. This is critical if we are going to offset the declining enrollment. If we don't. the effect will be reduced size and increased inefficiencies. As indicated by the above vignette. there was an awareness among other organization members as well as the President of the change in inputs (numbers of students) as a result of changes in the external environment. Seven incidents were recorded of faculty and administra- tors expressing comments such as "The days of the student knocking on our door are gone" (fiel dnotes. 8/9/85. p. 2). While some comments reflected an awareness that change had occurred. others seemed to reflect that the change had not yet been significant enough to cause an immediate shift in the actions of faculty toward marketing. Two faculty manbers stated: Two Not real sure I understand what the marketing philosophy of the school is. If you were to ask me. I wouldn't be able to tell you. Being extremely student oriented. I sometimes wonder what we're trying to market. Doesn't seem to me that we are marketing the No. l thing. (fieldnotes. 7/l6/85. p. 1) Most of the programs-~retention. developmental education. market- ing kinds of programs--are sort of ongoing. without a great deal of faculty involvement. Success of programs is going to be dependent upon the willingness of faculty to buy in. Don't know that this is going to happen. (fieldnotes. 2/26/85. p. l2) adninistrators made the following comments: There is a good-sized group of faculty who believe it is the adninistrator's role to get students in here. 'Don't hold any responsibility if my enrollments drop." There is a grain of that that is true. We haven't done a good Job of marketing our prime service. which is instruction. One of the things we're going to do is market individual faculty members. both on and off campus. (fiel dnotes. 7/29/85. p. 7) The only thing that will help bring it [marketing] into reality is what happened in the automotive industry. They saw the drop in sales. They saw the demographic change. They chose not to respond 135 to it in earnest. A significant emotional event happened: they needed to change their ways. I don't know if that will ever happen to current faculty. I don't think they really believe that their job is in danger or could be eliminated because of lack of enroll- ment. What incentive is there to change? They realize. I am sure. that this may be a momentary thing because of the current CEO. (fieldnotes. 7/l5/BS. p. 3) Althougi the comments did not suggest that a majority of the faculty had changed significantly in their behavior as a result of the marketing effort. the comments did suggest that the personnel were not opposed to marketing. The external environment (i.e.. a reduced number of hlgl school graduates. outmigration of residents. increased market- ing activities of other colleges) which results in changed inputs (reduced numbers of students) is a facilitator of the marketing plan's being accepted by personnel. WW Attitudes were perceived as the greatest inhibitors of change. In interviews with personnel. comments concerning negative attitudes about marketing were sometimes made by the interviewees. One of the research questions asked in interviews related to the interviewees' perceptions regarding barriers or inhibitors to the marketing process. The following quotations illustrate the above statement. Three admin- istrators commented as follows: The traditional academic attitude impacts marketing. even at the community college. That marketing somehow involves a compromise of academic integrity-~that impacts these efforts. I think it impacts participation by some segnents of faculty. (fiel dnotes. 5/30/85. p. 3) 136 One of the biggest barriers to change is people's attitudes--doing things different in a different way. Convincing people to try something new. Just convincing the top layer is not enougi. (fiel dnotes. 6/2l/85. p. 3) Faculty is a concern. One thing to turn around the adninistrators. especially those of us who can see the relevance of doing market- ing. It is quite another to diange people who think more tradi- tionally about the mission and purpose of community colleges. "Tacky to think of marketing." We need to be sensitive to that. Pat's design is sensitive to that. Doing it over time. Getting people to change over time. Slow strategy for change. (fiel dnotes. 7/l6/85. p. 5) A faculty manber stated: Attitude. I think that can be broken down. You are always going. . . . I know some people in our department who are kind of on the fence and I think they can be won over. I think more curriculum development will occur. May be faculty will be a little bit more aware of what is going on in the workplace and the need to gear their activities. I think it will result in their giving lots of advice to adninistration. . . . We're concerned about day care service--that goes with taking care of the students. We have lots of good advice [said with a smile on his face]. (fiel dnotes. 5/39/85. p. 5) When asked the same question. one administrator. however. saw lack of involvement by faculty as a barrier or inhibitor of the market- ing process. His comments were not worded as thougw he blamed faculty for not being involved. He was. incidentally. an administrator whom faculty perceived in a positive way. He stated: One of the mistakes we have made has been the issue of getting the faculty involved. My preference would have been to get them involved earlier than we did. Terry really tried to do that. The problem with the contract negotiations put a damper on that. We still have an adversarial relationship during the next year with the change in the association leadership. (fiel dnotes. 7/29/85. p. 6) In contrast. two faculty members responded with comments that reflected a differing view of what impeded marketing efforts. 137 The faculty member talked about assessment testing: If I had had to take an assessment test my first day. I would have told them where to get off." He was concerned about remedial courses as students would have many more hours in earning a degree. 'Not good marketing skills--those people being tested as they are enrolling. We have just raised tuition." He commented on tuition. fees. general education core requirements. and day of registration assessment as being negative issues in attracting students. (fieldnotes. 7/l7/85. p. 2) Another faculty manber said: It has been three or four years and I just can't imagine that it would take this long to identify what areas of the college need to be marketed. I think educators have a tendency to do a lot of busy. unnecessary work. Takes too long to make decisions. Part of the problem is these committees are made up of faculty and administrators. It seems like it takes too long to resolve anything! [said with emphasis. her eyes open wide]. Meetings are spread too far apart. Faculty are busy doing other things. (fiel d- notes. 8/9/85. p. 3) Three of we four personnel who cited negative faculty atti- tudes were classified as administrators. On the other hand. two of the faculty who responded to the question viewed other factors as impeding the marketing effort. These responses were just one example of com- ments that indicated differences in how faculty and administration perceived what was happening. 5, CE ten: 32:1 inst :‘L‘f CHAPTER VI SUMMARY OF THE FINDIMSS. IMF'LICATICNS. PND REFLECTICNS mm This chapter summarizes the findings derived from an analysis of the data. Each research question is restated and followed with findings derived from the study. Also included are implications for practice and research as well as reflections regarding the research project. We: W What are the perceptions and/or definitions of the individuals in the organization concerning marketing? the organization's operations and personnel? marketing and the community college philosophy? In this institution there were differing perceptions among the organization's members about a number of issues. Faculty interviewed tended to view marketing as a promotional activity. whereas most administrators tended to view the concept as a means of improving the institution. However. within the adnini strative group there were also differences in their perceptions toward marketing. ranging from a staff- or organizational-development activity to a communications Process. These perceptions could be compared to the literature on 138 narke orgar Iarke orgar some We class 139 marketing. which has suggested the process rel ates to management of an organization (Kotler. l982). A few administrators made incidental comments stating that marketing was consistent with the philosophy of the ccmnunity college. In addition to the differing perceptions about marketing. organizational members held differing perceptions. some positive and some negative. regarding other personnel or areas of the college. While there were more positive comments than those that could be classified as negative. there were more positive comments made by administrators than faculty. Moreover. most of those administrators were those whose positions were near the top of the organizational hierarchy as they were members of the President's Cabinet. Addition- ally. many had been in their positions only since the current President was appointed in l98l. Factors that were discussed as being associated with the differing perceptions were length of service in a position--i.e.. shorter-tenure employees tended to hold more positive perceptions: location of empl oyment; position in the formal hierarchy of the organization: relative lack of contact between individuals and groups; and newspaper coverage of college activities. The fact that there did exist such differing perceptions among the organization's members may not be surprising in light of the theory of the field of social perception. Of particular significance is the influence of prior information on impression formation (Ickes. l980). stereotyping. and "sel f-ful filling prophecy" of Merton (l957). and my 5: about be: I ciscus CW8! may 5! 140 forms of perceptual defense. As elaborated in the review of related literature. all of these areas help to explain why one group in the organization (i.e.. faculty) may have differing perceptions from another group (in this case. administrators). For example. stereotypes may serve to explain why some individuals hold negative perceptions about other organization members when there does not readily appear to be a basis for the negative perception. Role theory. which was also discussed in the literature review. provides insights regarding differing perceptions. The norms and expectations of the faculty role may sometimes be in conflict with the norms and expectations of an adni ni strator's or support person's role. W How does the CEO of a community college change the institution? In this particular case. how does a (20 change a community college to an institution with more of an emphasis on marketing than it had previously? A. What is the president's leadership style and role and how is the change process affected? B. How does the CEO use values to change the organization? C. How does the external environment affect the marketing process? D. What are inhibitors to the change process? The President of Midwest Community College used a number of strategies to introduce a marketing orientation into the organization. First. he encouraged personnel to discuss marketing and related issues by including the topic on the agenda of a series of President's Cabinet meetings during the time I was visiting the site. He had also devoted portions current discusse amen to other tion I8! responsi responsi heinfl enoourag Afimv focused odthe E'seazer ’iqui re Iher. 11 ' parti king 0' the “'05 tc 141 portions of meetings to marketing issues in the years preceding the current investigation. The frequency with which the topic was discussed suggested that the President was indeed committed to the concept and used meetings as a means of communicating that commitment to other administrators. Second. the formal structure of the organiza- tion was changed so that one dean could focus hal f-time on marketing responsibilities. In addition. several new positions with marketing responsibilities were authorized. The President also attempted to use the influence of opinion leaders as described by Rogers (1983) in encouraging the change to be adopted. Because a president's leadership style is important in a systemwide pl anned-change effort such as marketing. the present study focused on President Daeke's style of leadership. It was determined that he was much more participatory than his predecessor. However. as Gleazer (l980) asserted. the founding years of a community college require a different style of leadership than is required in the years when it is necessary to change the institution. As discussed earlier. a participatory style of management may have a mixed effect on a mar- keting orientation's being implemented in the institution. While one of the strategies recommended by change theorists in overcoming resist- ance to change is participation in decision making by organizational members. any innovations associated with the process may have been implemented at a faster pace in an organization with a relatively more central ized mode of operation. of nin rariou inform of tee (raver import Ems o rec'i' at (MSG U me 1 sions: 142 Studying the President's speech in meetings. as well as records of minutes of meetings. suggested l4 different roles that he assumed at various times: communicator of information. seeker of ideas/ information or stimulator of thinking. expeditor/task assigner/monitor of tasks. articulator of direction/expectations. supporter. initiator. drawer of attention to items or ideas. expl ainer. decision maker. importer of ideas into the organization. evaluator/articulator of prob- lems or positive signs of the organization. professor. humorist. and mediator of conflict. Several characteristics of the organization also affected the change process. The first concerned values of the organization. which were identified and articulated by the President on a number of occa- sions: quality; a caring. personalized approach; being on the front end of change: and defining education broadly to focus institutional resources on the needs of the community. Not only was there evidence that. in general. commitment to the values existed in the organization. the President's articulating the values appeared to be another strategy to prepare the institution for change. Nevertheless. the external environment (i.e.. a reduced nunber of high school graduates. outmigration of residents. and increased marketing activities of other colleges) had resulted in a reduced number of students. Thus the external environment was a facilitator of marketing's being accepted by personnel. On the other hand. attitudes were perceived as the greatest inhibitors of change resulting from a marketing orientation. concluc as a re or: r‘EZ fast as ing. as oilege regardi Dresi :‘e ate no. ofs st Iganiz some] 35ny c 143 Although there is little evidence that. at the time the study concluded. there had been significant change in the behavior of faculty as a result of a marketing orientation's being introduced into the organization. there was generally support for the concept. However. just as there were differing perceptions about a definition of market- ing. as well as differing perceptions regarding the operation of the college. the organization's members seemed to hold differing views regarding a need for marketing. As is evident in the preceding summary of the findings. the President was using many different strategies to introduce a marketing orientation into the organization. Although it is too early to eval u- ate how successful the effort will be (it was also not the purpose of this study). his ecl ectic approach to change appeared to be moving the organization toward the apparent objective of having all college per- sonnel knowledgeable about marketing principles and to perform their daily operations in a way that reflected that knowledge. Wm]: The findings of differing perceptions may hold the more sig- nificant implications for practice in educational institutions. While the realities of organizational life such as differing roles among the members. differences in status in the formal hierarchy. relative infre- quency of contact among individuals. and so on. may encourage a ten- dency for organizational members to form different perceptions about issues. to the extent possible. operations should be conducted to minimize the effects of those factors. One way is to encourage more 144 collaboration. team work. joint decision making. and open communication among organization members. Strategies employed could be meaningful committee work. as well as the seeking of input from all organization members. This recommendation is not intended to suggest that those strategies were not being employed in the site studied. It is intended. however. to underscore their importance in view of the seem- ingly inherent characteristics of organizations. which create condi- tions under which differing perceptions are formed. The findings regarding differing perceptions may also be useful to individuals who are employed in similar organizations to the one studied. The findings may provide insights to those who are faced with situations in which one group tends to hold certain views about an issue at the same time another group holds contradictory or contrast- ing views (i.e.. negative perceptions versus positive perceptions). President Daeke's approach to change provided insights for anyone interested in changing a complex organization such as a community college. Of particular interest were the different strategies he was employing. He appeared to be using education or knowledge. peer pressure. a change in the organization's structure. praise. objectives and statements regarding the importance of marketing. retreats. meetings. as well as establishing a new "Vision" for the organization to prepare it for the change toward a marketing orientation. In fact. because of the many strategies being employed. it is difficult to classify the model into one of the three categories 14S proposed by Chin and Benne (l976): empirical-rational. normative- reeducative. and power-coercive. As noted on p. ll. empi rical- rational may involve education whereas normative-reeducative involves a change in norms. Power-coercive is based on the appl ication of power. For example. in this particular study. changing the structure could be classified as power-coercive whereas utilizing peers to change the norms in the organization could be classified as normative-reeducative. The use of education or knowledge could be classified as empi rical- rational. President Daeke's strategies may not be appropriate for all situations; however. they appeared to be having the desired effect in this instance as the organization seemed to be in what Lewin 0951) described as being in the "unfreezing" stage of change (see p. l4). This stage may al so have contributed to the differing perceptions among the organization's members. Schein (1985) also stressed the importance of "unfreezing" a mature organization before change is possible and described several change mechanisms appropriate for such an organization with an established culture: coercive persuasion. reorganization and rebirth. and turnaround. Through coercive persuasion. old assumptions are challenged whereas evidence of movement in the direction of new assump- tions is rewarded. Because reorganization and rebirth are traumatic. the process is not typically used as a strategy. "Turnaround" is described as a process of cognitive redefinition through "teaching. coaching.‘changing the structure and processes where necessary. 146 consistently paying attention to and rewarding evidence of learning the new ways. creating new slogans. stories. myths. and rituals. and in other ways coercing people into at least new behavior" (p. 295). Schei n's description of "turnaround" is similar to the change strate- gies being employed by the President of Midwest Community College. who was also using several change mechanisms in a mature organization. One strategy which was not employed by President Daeke was the training of intact work groups. That strategy may have been more effective in changing group norms rather than seemingly relying on informal and formal leaders in the organization to influence other members. In fact. further research migst address that question. A study of an organization attempting to encourage change by providing educational experiences for intact work groups could be compared to an organization with the same objective which concentrated on providing educational experiences for formal and informal leaders with the expec- tation that those individuals would influence other members of the organization. Finally. while the research question concerning differing perceptions evolved during the study. a project that attempted to focus on that issue might provide further insigwts than those generated by the current investigation. One limitation of the study concerned the relatively short time period of the current investigation (less than a year). A further investigation would be a study with a sufficient time span to examine an organization throngs all the stages of a planned change process. 147 Reflections After deciding on a topic and negotiating entry to a site. I began the study with a great deal of enthusiasm. I felt confident that I knew what to expect as I had been involved in an investigation in industry using fieldwork methods. However. as the study progressed. I realized there was a significant difference between the study in industry and the investigation in a community college. Obviously. there were differences in the organizations. The major difference. though. concerned my working alone as a researcher in the community college. whereas in fire industrial study I had been part of a two- member team. Working alone presented some slight disadvantage when conducting interviews as I had to elicit responses from interviewees at the same time I was concentrating on recording their comments in shorthand. In the industrial study. the other investigator primarily handled the questioning while I recorded the interview. However. analyzing fire data proved to be fire greatest challenge as it required much discipline on my part to spend long hours alone reading and rereading fiel dnotes. In fire industrial study. I had the opportunity of interesting intellectual conversations with my research partner. While my dissertation director helped to fill that void in this investigation by his stimulating questions and helpful comments. working alone in the data-analysis stage was much more difficult for me than when engaged in that task with another person. Reading the literature on change and discovering the statement by Adler and Jelinek (1986) concerning the value which exists in the 148 United States that change is not only possible. but good (see p. 20) helped me to realize that I have a bias toward change for the sake of improvement. In fact. that bias is no doubt the reason for my select- ing planned change as a topic for investigation. In reflecting on the process. I am pleased with what has been accomplished. I have increased my understanding of the characteristics of organizations and how to effect change within them. In addition. I believe I have dis- covered information that can be useful to others. APPENDIX 6. 1149 INITIAL STRICTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS What does the marketing plan mean to you? How will it affect you? What do you think about it? What do you know about the marketing plan? Has the marketing pl an changed the way you carry out your responsi- bilities? Do you anticipate that it will? If so. how? In what ways do you see the President supporting the marketing plan? What do you see in the institution as facilitating or not facili- tating the plan? Do you see changes in this institution since President Daeke became President? If so. what are firey? How do you perceive ofirers view the institution? 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