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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

The Effectiveness On Adult Learners of

Minimalist Design Theory On Learning, Attitude

Anxiety, and Time—On—Task for Self-Study Learning Enviornments
presented by

James Ward Warner

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for .

Ph.d. Education

degree in

  

Dana December 10, 1987 r//

MSU it an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771

 

 

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§ THE EFFECTIVENESS ON ADULT LEARNERS OF
MINIMALIST DESIGN THEORY ON LEARNING, ATTITUDE, ANXIETY,
AND TlME-ON-TASK FOR SELF-STUDY LEARNING ENVIORNMENT S

By

James Ward Warner

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOROF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Adult and Continuing Education

1987

 

 

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECTIVENESS ON ADULT LEARNERS OF
MINIMALIST DESIGN THEORY ON LEARNING, ATTITUDE, ANXIETY,
AND TIME-ON-TASK FOR SELF-STUDY LEARNING ENVIORNMENTS

By

James Ward Warner

A current problem for adult educators is that many principles
guiding the development and delivery of instruction have not been
adequately validated through research.

Consequently, the purpose of this study was to test the
effectiveness of two design principles from the set of minimalist
design principles identified by Dr. John Carroll of IBM in his
research. Problems related to the design of computer manuals were
identified and a series of principles were identified to deal with
those problems. The principles are: slash the verbiage, force
coordination of the system and the training, expect every possible
error, focus on real tasks and activities, and let the learner lead.
The purpose of this study was to test the effectiveness of the
principles: ”slash the verbiage” and ”force coordination of the
system and the training."

The first variable, amount of verbiage, consisted of (1) low
verbiage versus (2) high verbiage. The second variable, placement of
hands-on activities, consisted of (1) activities throughout the

lesson versus (2) activities at the end of the lesson. The two

independent variables were arranged in a 2 x 2 factorial design. The

 

James Ward Warner
dependent variables were: written achievement, performance
achievement, attitude, state anxiety, and time-on-task.

Subjects were randomly assigned to four experimental groups.
Each group was given a different lesson version applying the two
principles under study. The four versions were: low ver-
biage/activities throughout the lesson, low verbiage/activities at
the end of the lesson, high verbiage/activities throughout the les-
son, and high verbiage/activities at the end of the lesson.

To determine the pre-experiment equivalence of the four
treatment groups, two-way analyses of variance were performed on
all pretest variables. No significant differences were found.

For the verbiage independent variable, main effects were found
for written achievement, performance achievement, attitude, and
time-on-task. There was no main effect found for state anxiety.
For the activities independent variable, main effects were found for
performance achievement, attitude, and time-on-task. There were
no main effects found for written achievement and state anxiety.

It was concluded that reducing the amount of verbiage will fa-
cilitate higher achievement, yield more positive attitudes toward
the learning experience, and decrease the time to completion of
activity. In addition, placing performance activities at appropriate
places throughout the lesson will facilitate higher performance
achievement quiz scores, will lead to more positive participant at-
titudes toward the learning experience, and will decrease the time

to completion of activity.

 

 

DEDICATED

to my Parents, who throughout life have been
my main source of encouragement.

ACKBDWLEDGM ENTS

The author is grateful for the assistance of a number of individ-
uals who helped make this study possible. Special appreciation to
Dr. Norman T. Bell for his assistance in the direction of this
research study. His guidance and encouragement were always
available throughout the writing of this dissertation.

Special appreciation to Dr. Howard Hickey for serving as the
Chairman of the doctoral committee. His guidance, encouragement,
and wit were always available.

The author would also like to thank the other members of the
committee -- Dr. Henry Kennedy and Dr. Dick Gardner -- for their in-
put and support throughout the developmental process.

Special acknowledgement is made to Lynn Snellman for her sug-
gestions and advice in the research design and statistical analysis
of the study. Her patience and careful explanation are appreciated.

The logistical support of Jean Eddy made data collection possi-
ble and her support was most helpful.

The author gives special thanks to Jean Bell for her careful
editorial inspection.

The author thanks James Zelley for making available computer
equipment that made data collection possible.

Finally, the author would like to thank his family and good

friends for their continual support and prayers.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................... i x
LISTOF FIGURES ..................................................................................... x
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 1
Identification of the Problem .............................................. 1
Purpose of the Research Study ............................................ 2
Importance of the Research Study ..................................... 4
Limitations of Study ................................................................ 5
Research Questions .................................................................. 6
Research Hypotheses ............................................................... 6
Definition of Terms .................................................................. 8
Adult ......................................................................................... 8
Self-Study Materials ......................................................... 8
Andragogy ............................................................................... 9
Traditional Training ........................................................... 9
Minimalist Training ............................................................ 9
Hands-On Activities ............................................................ 9
Attitude ................................................................................... 9
Achievement .......................................................................... 1 0
Time-on-Task ....................................................................... 1 0

Anxiety ..................................................................................... 1 0

Age ............................................................................................. 1 0
Previous Computer Experience ...................................... 11
Summary and Order of Presentation ................................. 11
CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................. 1 2
Introduction ................................................................................. 1 2

Adult Learning Theory ............................................................. 12
Assumptions Concerning Adult Learners .................... 16
Minimalist Design Instructional Strategy ..................... 21
Tenants of Minimalist Design ........................................ 22

Results of Previous Studies ............................................ 25

vi

. Page

Attitude ......................................................................................... 25
Conditions of Learning ....................................................... 26
Consequences of Learning ................................................ 27
Human Modeling .................................................................... 28

Anxiety ........................................................................................... 28
Anxiety: A Research Model .............................................. 30

Summary ........................................................................................ 32

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH DESIGN ..................................................... 34

Overview ....................................................................................... 34

Design over Time ........................................................................ ' 34

Design over Variables .............................................................. 37

Experimental Procedures ....................................................... 38
Population and Sample ...................................................... 38
Treatment ............................................................................... 38
Description of Project Materials ................................. 4O
Randomization Process ..................................................... 42
Data Analysis ................................ . ......................................... 4 3

Summary ........................................................................................ 44

CHAPTER IV. RESULTS ........................................................................ 45

Introduction ................................................................................. 45

Descriptive Information Concerning Sample ................ 45

Hypotheses Testing .................................................................. 46

Written Achievement Quiz Scores ...................................... 48

Performance Achievement Quiz Scores ........................... 49

Attitude Scores .......................................................................... 49

State Anxiety Scores ................................................................ 5 O

Time-on-Task Scores .............................................................. 5 5

Summary ........ ' ................................................................................ 5 5

CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION ................................................................... 58

Infloducfion ................................................................................. 58

Conclusions .................................................................................. 58

Limitations of the Generalizability of the Study ....... 61

Implications of the Study ...................................................... 62

Recommendations for Future Research ........................... 63

vii

Page

APPENDIX A .............................................................................................. 64
APPENDIX B ............................................................................................... 69
APPENDIXC ............................................................................................... 101
APPENDIX D ............................................................................................... 1 07
APPENDIX E ............................................................................................... 109
APPENDIX F ............................................................................................... 1 1 0
APPENDIX G ............................................................................................... 1 1 1
APPENDIX H ............................................................................................... 1 1 2
LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................. 113

VI“

 

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1. Distribution of Ages of Subjects .......................................... 46

2. Mean Written Achievement Quiz Scores by
Treatment Group ........................................................................... 51

3. Analysis-of—Variance Table for Written .
Achievement Quiz Scores ......................................................... 51

4. Mean Performance Achievement Quiz Scores by

Treatment Group ........................................................................... 52
5. Analysis-of—Variance Table for Performance

Achievement Quiz Scores ......................................................... 52
6. Mean Attitude Scores by Treatment Group ....................... 53
7. Analysis-of—Variance Table for Attitude Scores .......... 53
8. Mean State Anxiety Scores by Treatment Group ............ 54
9. Analysis-of-Variance Table for State Anxiety

Scores ................................................................................................ 54
10. Mean Time-on-Task Scores by Treatment Group ............ 57

11. Analysis-of-Variance Table for Time-on-Task
Scores ................................................................................................ 57

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
1. Research Design Over Time ....................................................... 35
2. 2X2 Research Design Matrix ...................................................... 37
3. Graph of Interaction: Posttest Written Quiz ..................... 51

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

II |'[' |° III Ell

A current problem for adult educators is that many of the prin-
ciples guiding the development and delivery of instruction have not
been adequately validated through research study. Individuals who
are involved in educating adult learners need to be looking for new,
creative and effective principles for designing and delivering in-
struction, principles that have been properly tested, both through
practice and research inspection. Alan Knox (1986) has said, "There
are many effective ways to help adults learn. The desired result is
that participants will persist in effective learning activities in
pursuit of worthwhile goals. Your willingness to share your content
mastery with adults who seek it is one of the two major ingredients
in your success; the instructional methods that constitute your
teaching style are the other.”

Instructional strategies are actually the application of theory.
The problem seen by many in the field is that it is difficult to derive
a practical developmental approach from current theories of adult

education. Patricia Cross (1981) states this point by saying,

Theory broad enough to cover the spectrum of learning situa-
tions in adult education is necessarily so bread that it offers
little guidance to either researchers or practitioners. What
sort of theory would be useful -- and theory should be useful --
to the disparate learning situations of industrial trainees, YMCA
recreation directors, and extension faculty? With all the em-

To address this problem, this study was used to test the effec-
tiveness of two training development principles with a group of

adult learners.

W

The purpose of this study was to test the effectiveness of two
of the minimalist design principles: slash the verbiage and force co-
ordination of the system and the training. Recently, a team at IBM's
research center at Yorktown Heights, NY identified a series of in-
structional design principles and applied them to the development of
self-study instructional materials. Here is a brief introduction to
each of the minimalist design principles and how they are currently
being applied to the teaching of computer applications. A more de-
tailed description of the principles is included in Chapter 2.

After logging nearly 1000 hours of one-on-one observation of
learning activities and several thousand more hours of less inten-
sive monitored experimental study of new user performance, the IBM
research team developed a list of the problems new computer users
often face. From this list a number of instructional design princi-
ples were proposed as possible solutions to these problems.

Wm - This principle suggests that "less is
better.” Traditionally, computer manuals have been written to be
comprehensive rather than minimal in nature. Therefore, most cur-
rent computer training manuals are long and contain all details nec-
essary for operation of the computer system or program. This first
principle suggests that for procedural training the amount of ver-

biage should be substantially cut.

WWW - One of the

problems that has been identified with many traditional training
manuals is that throughout the training session, the learner is not
required to practice the procedures being learned. This principle
suggests that learners should be requiredto practice procedures
learned as they go through a lesson. Training designers must impel
the learner to attend to the system during the course of training
(Carroll, 1984).

Wu: - A common road block for adult
learners involved in computer training is running into problems
(Carroll, 1984). Because such unexpected problems can discourage
adult learners or even cause them to end the learning experience,
this principle suggests that the designers of training materials
should predict every possible error and build into the system either
a method to recover from errors once they occur or keep them from
happening.

Wigs - Adult learners want to ap-
ply what they learn (Knox, 1986; Knowles, 1985, Cross, 1981). In a
study, 83% said they started a learning project because they wanted
to use the knowledge or skill in order to take action. In the same
study, 94% said they continued in the learning project for the same
reason (Tough, 1968). Therefore, this principle suggests that spe-
cial effort should be made to develop activities participants will
perceive as being useful and practical.

Weed - Most current theories of adult education
suggest that the adult learner should have input into the direction,

development, and implementation of instructional programs

(Knowles, 1984). Based on such theory suggestions, this principle
suggests that training materials should give learners choices con-
cerning direction. More specifically, adult learners should be able
to determine the order in which procedures are learned.

This study was designed to test the effect of two of the mini-
malist design principles: “force coordination of the system and the
training" and “slash the verbiage.” More specifically, this study was
designed to look at how achievement, attitude toward the learning
experience, state anxiety, and time-on-task were affected by the
two minimalist design principles under investigation when applied

to adult learners involved in a self-study learning experience.

W

This study was important for the following reasons. First, it
appears that many adult education principles are being accepted
primarily based on personal experience and on the testimony of oth-
ers and not on empirical evidence. A content analysis of 517 arti-
cles appearing in W showed that over half (54 percent)
described educational programs or personal experience and only 23
percent reported on empirical research (Dickinson and Rusnell,
1971). Cross (1981) strongly advocates going beyond belief based

on personal experience when she says,

The pragmatism of adult education can be easily understood, and
to some extent even commended for its no-nonsense practi-
cality, but the lack of theory is easier to explain than to defend.
Undoubtedly, the novice in the teaching of adults -- and there
are always many in this field, which is heavily populated by
part-time, in-and-out educators -- can benefit from the experi-
ence and accumulated wisdom of those who have worked with
adults in a variety of learning situations. However, the

5

profession of adult education cannot advance beyond its present
stage of development if one generation of adult educators
simply passes on what it has learned through experience to the
next generation. Such an approach results in a static, if not
down-right stagnant, profession, because each new generation
of professionals simply catches up with the preceding
generation rather than forging new frontiers of knowledge. The
systematic accumulation of knowledge is essential for progress
in any profession. In an applied profession, however, theory and
practice must be constantly interactive, Theory without
practice is emPtY. and practice without theory is blind.

This study was designed to empirically test the effectiveness of de-
sign principles being suggested for practice.

Second, as adults pursue learning experiences, they are being
presented with a rich variety of learning options (Tough, 1971).
Among the options available are self-study materials. Testing
training principles applied to self-study materials was the focus of
this study.

Third, computers can be extremely useful in the work environ-
ment and at home. However, many adult learners see computers as
being complex and confusing and therefore often do not attempt to
become proficient computer users.

The intent of this study was to investigate whether two of the
minimalist design principles could be applied to help address these

issues.

|"||' [fill

The generalizability of the findings of this study are limited for
the following reasons. This study used instructional materials that
were computer based, skill oriented, introductory in nature, and the

subject matter was not complex. The treatment was administered

on a single occasion and was relatively short in duration. The popu-
lation was comprised of college students with a relatively low mean
age. The sample was not randomly selected from the population of

all college students at Michigan State University. And finally, there
were no consequences for their actions. Making generalizations be-

yond these boundaries in not warranted by the results of this study.

BeseamLQuestlnns

The following research questions represent the thrust of this
investigative study. Does the placement of hands-on activities dur-
ing a self-study lesson have an effect on learners'

- achievement (both written and performance)?

- attitude toward the learning experience?

- state anxiety?

- time-on-task?

Does the amount of verbiage included in a self-study lesson
have an effect on learners'

- achievement (both written and performance)?

- attitude toward the learning experience?

- state anxiety?

- time-on-task?

Wham:

After being exposed to a self-study procedural lesson,
1. the mean achievement scores on a written multiple-choice test

will be higher for the group completing hands-on activities at

appropriate places throughout the lesson than for the group
completing all hands-on activities at the end of the lesson.

the mean achievement scores on a performance test will be
higher for the group completing hands-on activities at appropri-
ate places throughout the lesson than for the group completing
all hands-on activities at the end of the lesson.

the mean attitude toward the learning experience test scores
will be more positive for the group completing hands-on activi-
ties at appropriate places throughout the lesson than for the
group completing all hands-on activities at the end of the les-
son.

the mean state anxiety scores will be lower for the group com-
pleting hands-on activities at appropriate places throughout the
lesson than for the group completing all hands-on activities at
the end of the lesson.

the mean time-on-task will be less for the group completing
hands-on activities at appropriate places throughout the lesson
than for the group completing all hands-on activities at the end
of the lesson.

the mean achievement scores on a written multiple-choice test
will be higher for the group using low verbiage lessons than for
the group using high verbiage lessons.

the mean achievement scores on a performance test will be
higher for the group using low verbiage lessons than for the

group using high verbiage lessons.

8. the mean attitude toward the learning experience test scores
will be more positive for the group using low verbiage lessons
than for the group using high verbiage lessons.

9. the mean state anxiety scores will be lower for the group using
low verbiage lessons than for the group using high verbiage
lessons.

10. the mean time-on-task will be less for the using low verbiage

lessons than for the group using high verbiage lessons.

[2 I' 'I' I I

Definition of key terms used in the study will follow to provide
a common basis for understanding.
Adult

Adult can be defined from different viewpoints. Biologically, an
adult is able to reproduce. Legally, an adult can do such things as
vote, get married, and get a drivers license. Socially, an adult per-
forms adult roles such as worker, student preparing for career,
spouse, parent, and voting citizen. Psychologically, adults have de-
veloped a self-concept of being responsible for their own lives, of
being self-directing (Knowles 1984). For the purposes of this study,
the psychological and social views of adulthood are most important.
Widen

Self-study materials are defined as training materials that a
participant can use without the aid of an instructor to learn the
information or skill. Specifically, this study will utilize self-study

computer training lessons.

ADSILEM

The term Andragogy was popularized, but not coined, by Malcolm
Knowles who contrasts Andragogy with pedagogy. Knowles (1970)
defines Andragogy as ”the art and science of helping adults learn"
and contrasts it to pedagogy which is the science that is more con-
cerned with teaching young people.

I IT | I . .

For the purposes of this study, traditional training will refer to
instruction that is characterized by a rather lengthy written presen-
tation of information and/or skills followed by an application ac-
tivity and some form of participant evaluation. The specific tradi-
tional lessons in this study will be self-study lessons in computer
training/reference manuals.

II' . I. | I . .

A term coined by researchers at IBM to describe a set of
instructional design principles that have been applied to the devel-
opment of self-study instructional materials. The principles in-
clude: slash the verbiage, force coordination of the system and the
training, expect every possible error, focus on real tasks and activ-
ities, and let the learner lead.

II | _ E I. .I.

For this study, hands-on activities is an event whereby the
adult learner can actually practice the procedures or skills learned
in the lessons.

E||°| |
The main concern of this study in relationship to attitude was

measuring the participant's interest in and willingness to pursue

10

additional learning experiences which utilize a similar self-paced
instructional strategy. A variety of other opinions were collected
concerning the design and appropriateness of the lessons and activ-
ities.

Achiemmem

For this study, achievement was defined as both an actual test
score on a written multiple-choice test and a performance score
measuring the learners' ability to perform key procedures covered in
the lesson.

Time-on-task was the actual number of minutes spent complet-
ing the self-paced instructional lesson. This timing started when
the lesson was given to the subject and stopped when the lesson
was returned.

Amulet!

For many adult learners, computers cause anxiety. An anxiety
measuring instrument were selected to record anxiety level. Both
state and trait anxiety were measured. State anxiety is a measure
of an emotional condition at a given moment in time and trait anxi-
ety is a measure of tendency to perceive stressful situations as
dangerous or threatening and to respond to such situations with ele-
vations in the intensity of state anxiety reactions (Spielberger
1976, 1979).

Age

The actual chronological age of each participant were recorded.

11

E . C I E .
The actual number of months or years each participant has

worked with computers were recorded.

We

Chapter 1 provided an introduction to minimalist design princi-
ples and attempted to establish that many instructional strategies
being used in adult education have not gone through adequate re-
search inspection. The purpose of the study was stated: to test the
effectiveness of two of the minimalist design principles. A dis-
cussion of the importance of the study and the research questions
and hypotheses were also provided.

Chapter 2 will provide a discussion of related research, chapter
3 will provide a description of the design of the research study,
chapter 4 will state the findings of the study, and chapter 5 will
provide a discussion of the results, limitations of the study and fu-

ture implications that can be drawn.

CHAPTER II

UTERATURE REVIEW

IniLQdumjm

The purpose of this study was to test the effectiveness of two
instructional principles applied to adult learners. The principles
tested were two of the minimalist design instructional development
principles: slash the verbiage and force coordination of the system
and the training. From these principles, two independent variable
were formulated: amount of verbiage (low versus high) and place-
ment of hands-on activities (throughout the lesson versus at the end
of the lesson). The dependent variables were achievement, attitude
toward the learning experience, state anxiety, and time-on-task.
This review of literature includes the topics: adult learning, mini-

malist training design, attitude, and anxiety.

AduLLeaminLIhm

While the learning processes of adults have been a subject of
interest since the beginning of man, it is a recent trend that the
process of adult education could be studied and strategies developed
to help adults learn more effectively and efficiently (Brookfleld,
1986). The term andragogy has been adopted by many to refer to the
study and application of adult learning theory. The use of the word
andragogy goes back to 1833, but Malcolm Knowles has brought the
word and what it stands for into popular view. Knowles (1970) de-

fines andragogy as "the art and science of helping adults learn” and

12

13

contrasts it to pedagogy which is the science that is more con-

cerned with teaching young people.

the

Andragogy, as laid out by Knowles (1970), is characterized by
following elements:

W - Adults need to know why they need to learn
something before undertaking to learn it.
Wm - Adults come into an edu-
cational activity with both a greater volume and a different
quality of experiences than youths. It appears that most want
the learning situation to tap into that experience.
Wu - Adults come ready to learn these things
they need to know and be able to do in order to cope effectively
with their real-life situations.

Wm - Adults are motivated to devote energy
to learn something to the extent that they perceive that it will
help them perform tasks or deal with problems that they con-
front in their life situations.

Mmmatjgu - While adults are responsive to some external moti-
vators (e.g., promotions, salary increases) the most potent mo-
tivators are internal pressures (e.g., self-esteem, quality of
life).

While Knowles (1970) draws the distinction between how chil-

dren and adults learn, Kidd (1973) sees a somewhat different dis-

tinction. This different perspective gives us potential direction in

the design of instruction. Kidd (1973) suggests that the appropriate

distinction is not comparing young people and adults (pedagogy

14

versus andragogy) but between teaching and learning (pedagogy
versus mathetics).

Kidd (1973) suggests that pedagogy is the science of teaching
while mathetics is the science of pupil's behavior while learning.
Pedagogy focuses our attention on the teacher's behavior and math-
etics focuses our attention on the participant's behavior. Pedagogy
is concerned primarily with a good teaching performance. Mathetics
concentrates on helping the participant perform the desired behav-
iors correctly as stated in the learning objectives. Kidd's approach
appears to place more emphasis and responsibility on the adult
learner and less on the instructor. In fact, many adult educators
feel uncomfortable with the concept of instruction because they
feel that learning experiences should be guided by the learner and
not by the instructor (Kidd, 1973; Rogers, 1969).

In reacting to Kidd's position on self-directedness, Cross
(1981) comments that it is appropriate to pursue the study of how
adults learn and not how to teach them. The problem arises in that
if adult educators are going to help adults learn (change their be-
havior) they must understand how they should behave in order to fa-
cilitate that change in behavior. Cross (1981) suggests that adult
educators do, therefore, need a theory of teaching or at least a the-
ory of facilitating learning.

The concepts “adult” and ”adult learning" are difficult to define.
Samuel Gould (1973), Chairman of the Commission on Non-tradi-
tional Study puts it this way.

Despite our lack of a completely suitable definition, we always

seemed to sense the areas of education around which our inter-
ests centered. This community of concern was mysterious light

15

in the darkness, yet not at all mysterious in retrospect. Most of
us agreed that non-traditional study is more an attitude than a
system and thus can never be defined except tangentially. This
attitude puts the participant first and the instruction second,
concentrates more on the farmer's need than the latter's conve-
nience, encourages diversity of individual opportunity rather
than uniform prescription, and de-emphasizes time, space, and
even course requirements in favor of competence and, where ap-
plicable, performance. It has concern for the learner of any age
and circumstance, for the degree aspirant as well as the person
who finds sufficient rewards in enriching life through constant,
periodic, or occasional study.

Cross (1981) points out that there is no lack of research on adult
participation in learning activities. The problem is synthesizing the
research findings to present a realistic picture of what is actually
happening. For example, Tough (1971) reports that 98% of all adults
surveyed were ”active learners' while a survey conducted by the US.
Bureau of the Census reported that only 12% of the adults over the
age of 17 were reported to be engaged in organized adult educational
activities (National Center for Education Statistics 1980). This
vast difference in findings does not imply that either is wrong. It
only points to a problem in synthesizing research findings when
there is such a major difference in how terms are defined. The Cen-
sus Bureau is using a much narrower definition of learning activi-
ties. When "learner" is defined as any involvement in the learning
process, virtually all adults participate (Coolican, 1974; Coolican,
1975; Penland, 1977; Tough, 1971). When the more narrow defini-
tion is applied, adults involved in organized learning activities, only
12% to 30% of adults participate (Carp, Peterson, and Roelfs, 1974;
Johnstone‘ and Rivera, 1965; National Center for Education Statis-
tics, 1980). In spite of these definitional differences, the research

findings do show that as a whole, adults are active learners.

16

E I. E . E I II I

The following principles about adult learners have been included
to establish current theories of adult learning. Traditionally, such
theory has been the foundation upon which principles of practice are
derived. It is also suggested in this study that the two design
principles selected for inspection have their roots in adult learning
theory.

WWW - It seems
that adults need to continue learning throughout their entire life-
time (Cross, 1981). In many ways, life demands it! Almost all
adults undertake at least 1 or 2 learning projects per year and some
undertake as many as 15 or 20 (Tough, 1971) A learning project is
defined as a major, highly deliberate effort to gain certain knowl-
edge and skill. The median is 8 learning projects per year involving
8 distinct areas of knowledge and skill (Tough, 1971).

Tough (1971) found that it is common for an adult to spend
700 hours a year on learning projects. Some spend less than 100,
but others spend more than 2000 hours each year in various learning
experiences. The majority of these" learning projects were for
highly practical reasons related to one's job, home, family, sport, or
hobby and were stimulated by curiosity, interest, and enjoyment
(Tough, 1971).

Nearly 70% of these learning projects were planned and carried
out by the adult learners themselves. Help and information were ob-
tained from a variety of sources including acquaintances, experts,

printed resources, and group or private instruction (Tough. 1971).

17

2.1 -0 ' .9‘ o a... o .7: log... I3 z“:

While surveys have shown that adults' involvement in organized
learning activities decreases with age (National Center for Educa-
tion Statistics, 1980) findings do show that older adults retain the
capacity to learn. However, as adults age, learning styles and ap-
proaches to learning do change. Cattell (1968) has drawn a distinc-
tion in the cognitive process to help us understand the change
throughout the aging process. Fluid intelligence, which includes
perceiving abstract relationships, using short-term memory, form-
ing concepts, and being able to reason abstractly, declines from
adolescence throughout adulthood. Conversely, crystallized intelli-
gence, consisting of perceiving relations from accumulated knowl-
edge and experience, formal reasoning, and based primarily on ac-
culturation resulting from formal education pursuits, tends to in-
crease throughout most of the life of adults. Stated another way,
learning performances that draw from knowledge and experiences
that accumulate over time continue to improve over an adult's life-
time. Ability to use vocabulary and general information, to manip-
ulate ideas, and to reason tend to increase over most of adulthood.
In contrast, the ability to use rote memory skills and work with
mathematical relationships tend to decrease from young adulthood
to old age. As adults grow older, they tend to replace brilliance and
mental feats with wisdom and thoughtfulness (Cattell, 1971; Horn,
1970)

Research also indicates that learning styles change throughout
adulthood. Cawley (1976) defines learning style as the "ways in

which an individual selects, organizes, and processes the educative

18

experiences in the environment." Knox (1977) refers to learning
style as ”the individual's typical modes of information processing as
he or she engages in perceiving, remembering, thinking, and problem
solving.” Generally, no particular learning style provides an advan-
tage or disadvantage, learning style simply changes throughout
adulthood (Loveall, 1979).

' ' o
;| -o : a. 0:. : “e : 0“ 0|: 0 e:|o . o:o:.e:l

III I II' ll-I' I. I I. _
Adults become increasingly more self-directed (Knowles, 1984).
Tough's work shows that adults take great responsibility for their
learning. This research shows that adults are highly active learners
and are quite self-directed (Tough, 1971).

In many cases, the concept of self-directedness has been
misunderstood. The assumption that to be a self-directed learner
implies learning alone or always being in control of the learning
situation is not in line with current thinking. An alternative defi-
nition is that a self-directed learner is free to make choices con-
cerning the direction and options available to achieve proficiency or
to accumulate necessary knowledge. Even those who hesitate to
take major responsibility for their learning appreciate the opportu-
nity to select learning activities that fit their background and in-
terests (Brockett, 1985; Kalamas, 1986a; Knowles, 1975). As

quoted in Knowles (1986), Alan Knox provides a good summation:

This preference for active involvement reflects their self-im-
ages as independent people, their natural inclination for infor-
mal learning, the importance of their active involvement for
learning how to learn, and the major contribution of personal
interest to lasting and pervasive learning.

19

a- . u ._ : . o cli- : :A° o :.-::i = r- 0:-
WW - Knowles (1984) makes
the point that by virtue of simply having lived longer, adults accu-
mulate experiences. His contention is that these experiences are of
great value when brought to the learning environment. Dewey
(1938) goes so far as to say that "All genuine education comes about
through experience.” Dewey (1938) goes on to contend that experi-
ences of value are those that lead to personal growth. By this he
means experiences that help solve our problems and meet the chal-
Ienges and needs of our lives. This is very much in line with the
adult's problem-centered orientation toward learning. Therefore, it
is suggested that such experiences can be of great value to adults
involved in learning activities.

.3. :0 ' :.03; o ::| 0:01.“: o:|:,o .g :: In 0
Wales - Adults become ready
to learn based on real-life needs in their lives. Knowles (1984)
contends that

Adults are motivated to devote energy to learn something to the

extent that they perceive that it will help them perform tasks

or deal with problems that they confront in their life situa-
tions. Furthermore, they learn new knowledge, understandings,

skills, values, and attitudes most effectively when they are
presented in the context of application to real-life situations.

Aslanian (1980) agrees in the sense’that the needs presented to
adults when going through life transitions serve as triggers that
drive adults to learn.

Other research indicates that adults pursue learning experi-
ences for pragmatic reasons. Penland (1977), in using a large and

representative sample of American adults, placed their reasons for

20

pursuing learning into three categories. He found that 6.9% pursued
learningto acquire knowledge in formal topics, 75.9 pursued learn-
ing for practical reasons, and 17.2 pursued learning for intraself
reasons.

Adults want to become proficient (Knox, 1985). Adults tend to
assess the difference between their current proficiency level and
the one they wish to attain and then to seek out educational experi-
ences to close the gap. Therefore, by diagnosing these proficiency
gaps an adult educator can assess educational needs, encourage per-
sistence, and bring meaning to the learning situation (Knox, 1980;
Knox, 1985).

Adults are constantly going through life transitions (Aslanian,
1980). Some are major and others are not. However, all such tran-
sitions can drive the adult to learn. Often these transitions are pre-
cipitated by a unique trigger event. Having a baby, getting a promo-
tion, getting a divorce are all examples. These events will usually
drive the adult to learn how to be a better parent, a more able
worker, or a more independent person in order to help him/her more
effectively navigate the transition (Aslanian, 1980).

Adults are going through major life stages throughout their
lifetimes. With these stages come certain roles, responsibilities,
and crises. As adults move from one stage to the next, these roles,
responsibilities, and crises encourage, and in many cases drive them
to learn (Havighurst, 1972; Levinson, 1978; Gould, 1978). They have
arrived at the teachable moment and motivation levels increase

dramatically (Havighurst, 1972).

21

' I I
;| .0 n: o: 0:,” ; I<l03 0“ 0|: e so 001:. .0-

Won - Throughout our
schooling experience as young people, it is in most cases assumed
that the application of our learning will be postponed. This is the
case, although this may not justify the lack of practical application
of learning in schools. Adults, on the other hand. are not as patient.
Adults want to apply what they have learned as quickly as possible
(Knowles, 1984). As has previously been highlighted, adults are in-
terested in becoming proficient. Therefore, most adult learners
want to get involved as users of learning and not merely recipients
of learning (Knox, 1986).

So then, it appears that based on the literature, adults are ac-
tive learners, they want to relate past experiences to present learn-
ing, they are motivated to learn when they perceive the need to
learn, they are self-directed in pursuing learning experiences, they
want their learning experiences to be pragmatic, and they want to

apply their learning immediately.

II" I‘ID' II I. ISII

At the IBM research center in Yorktown Heights, New York, a
team of researchers headed by Dr. John Carroll have been exploring
the effects of various combinations of adult education principles on
achievement, attitude toward the learning experience, and time-on-
task on adult learners who are attempting to learn various computer
applications. Problems related to the design of computer manuals
were identified in light of what is known about how adults learn. It

was found that manuals were lengthy, laden with jargon and pages

22

of descriptive information, and infrequently asked the learner to
perform the operations being learned (Carroll, 1984). Using their
knowledge about learning principles and their observations about the
state of computer training manuals, this group of researchers de-
veloped and tested a self-study developmental strategy they called
minimalist design. The principles used to revise the manuals in-
clude:

Slash the verbiage - less is better

Force coordination of the system and the training

Expect every possible error

Focus on real tasks and activities

Let the learner lead
Each of these principles will be explained and illustrated in the
following paragraphs.

The developers of the minimalist approach to training develop-
ment depend on the research-based conclusions that adult learners
want to move quickly to active involvement focused on a real-life
task or activity and that such successful experiences will build
confidence and motivation to pursue additional and possibly more
complex learning (Knowles, 1980; Brookfield, 1986).

I III!" I'ID'

W - The key phrase for this principle is "Less is
better!” Many assumptions have been made by authors of instruc-

tional and reference documents regarding the user's willingness and
ability to process words and thoughts . Early and traditional com-
puter users were professionals who, it was assumed, were willing

and able to wade through, digest and analyze a large volume of

23

information or attend exhaustive and complicated training classes.
It is suggested that such assumptions are inappropriate for the
computer non-professionals in today's average corporate office.
Applying these early assumptions to non-professionals appears to
exhaust their patience, surpass their technical abilities, and raise
their anxiety levels (Davis, 1984; Scharer, 1983).

A body of psychological literature suggests that manuals get
better as they get longer through the addition of materials designed
to enhance their effectiveness. It has been reported that the addi-
tion of advanced organizers (Foss, Rosson, and Smith, 1982), plus
extra headings and explanations (Smith and Goodman, 1982; Radar
and Anderson, 1980) improves attention and increases achievement.
The minimalist design developers warn that many of these studies
looked at ease of manual use rather than at using manuals to learn
skills per so. Also, the subjects used in these studies are usually
college undergraduates who may be more able to use printed materi-
als in any form than other adults. Finally, many of these studies had
relatively small effects. For the minimalist designer, ”simple and
to the point” is the guideline.

Winn - One of the
primary problems found in most traditional training manuals is that
the training system did not require, or even allow, the learner to
practice the activity being learned. This presents a major problem
because it has been found that when material is encountered that
cannot be executed it is often just skipped (Mack, Lewis, and Car-
roll, 1983). By building hands-on activities into the design of in-

structional materials, learners are forced to interact with the

24

instructional system. For computer training systems, the learner is
forced to practice using the computer.

,ozog:;| coo::o..o.e|eo.::o:gee:e;
- When adults become lost or stranded because of mistakes or er-
rors, they tend to give up (Carroll, 1984). Since we expect adult
learners to make mistakes, training manuals must be designed to
help users recover from errors they have made (Carroll, Ford,
Smith-Kerker, and Mazur, 1984)

Was - Since peeple come to
learning encounters with real needs and tasks in mind, training
tasks should be real tasks, when possible. Let the learners supply
their own numbers, words and ideas when performing tasks during a
lesson (Carroll, Ford, Smith-Kerker, and Mazur, 1984). Other studies
have exposed many problems related to lack of coordination of the
training system and the user's personal goals and expectations. If
the lack of coordination is too severe, users tend to ignore the
training system and either skip to another section of the training
that does address their needs or abandon the training system alto-
gether and depend on the prompts and cues within the computer pro-
gram for guidance (Carroll, 1982; Lewis and Mack, 1982; Mack,
Lewis, and Carroll, 1983).

W - Adult learning theory contends that few
adults pursue learning for the sake of learning but rather to meet a
real-life need or to solve a real-life problem (Knowles, 1984, Cross,
1981). In line with this, research has shown that few computer
users have as their goal to learn a particular computer program per

se (e.g., a specific word processing program) but rather, they want

25

to accomplish specific tasks with that program (e.g., write a report
for the annual board meeting) (Davis, 1984; Eason, 1976).
E II I E . SI I'

It has been suggested that learners should not be forced into a
strictly prescribed series of steps of action or procedures but
rather should be given freedom to chose the order in which items or
procedures are learned (Carroll, Ford, Smith-Kerker, and Mazur,
1984). The results have been positive in that learners with this
freedom of choice spent half as much time learning as did their
more traditional counterparts. They spent a third as much time
reading, committed half as many errors, recovered more often from
those errors, and performed better on posttests. However, it must
be noted that they frequently asked for more structure (Carroll,
Ford, Smith-Kerker, and Mazur, 1984).

So then, it appears that based on the minimalist design re-
search, achievement can be increased and time-on-task can be de-
creased by reducing the amount of verbiage of self-study training
materials, by forcing the learner to interact with the training sys-
tem, by expecting and making provision for possible errors, by fo-
cusing on real-life tasks and activities, and by letting the learner

lead.

Altitude
Attitude is one of the independent variables in this study. A re-
view of relevant literature on affecting learners' attitude follows.
In most cases, instructional developers and instructors want their

students to feel positive about the subject matter being taught and

26

the instructional experience. However, it has been found that ex-
horting, arguing, explaining, and cajoling are usually very in-
efficient means to help someone develop a positive attitude toward
learning (Wlodkowski, 1986). Addressing the issue of changing at-

titudes, Wlodkowski says,

In general, it is probably best not to try to talk adults into
learning. There are far more powerful things we can do in the
presentation of ourselves and our subject matter as well as in
our treatment of adults to help them build positive attitudes
toward their learning and themselves as learners (Wlodkowski,
1986)

Developing positive attitudes in learners can help develop and
maintain motivationto pursue future learning situations. ”The more
strongly they (learners) are attracted to a subject, the more obsta-
cles they will overcome to come into contact with it and stay in
contact with it (Mager, 1968)."

Gagne (1975) calls an attitude an acquired internal state that
influences the choice of personal action towards some class of
things, persons, or events. This definition also ties attitude closely
with the concept of motivation. Ellis (1962) also ties attitude to
behavior when he calls attitude a combination of a perception with a
judgment that often results in an emotion that influences behavior.

It has been suggested that attitudes are affected by conditions
of learning, the consequences of learning, and through human mod—
eling (Mager, 1968).

C 11' l l .

A number of studies have linked conditions of learning to atti-

tude change (Watson and Rayner, 1920; Razran, 1940; Staats, 1967;

27

Staats, Staats, and Crawford, 1962). Described below are examples
of conditions of learning, which can be either positive or negative.
Mager (1968) suggests that to facilitate a positive attitude, any
negative conditions that surround the subject during the learning
experience should be eliminated or minimized. When a person is
presented with a subject and at the same time is in the presence of
negative or unpleasant conditions, that subject becomes a stimulus
for avoidance behavior. Pain, fear, frustration, humiliation, and
boredom are all potential negative conditions (Mager, 1968). A pos-
itive condition is any pleasant event that exists during the time the
student is in the presence of the subject matter (Mager, 1968).
Among the positive conditions given by Mager (1968) are providing
instruction in increments that will allow success most of the time,
providing enough signposts so that the students always know where
they are and where they are expected to go, and providing students
with a statement of instructional objectives. Positive conditions
are especially important early in the learning experience. When
learners are exposed to a new subject, first impressions will affect
their attitude toward that subject. Anytime learners experience
something new or different, they form lasting impressions (Scott.
1969). The first impressions that are formed will strongly influ-
ence attitudes towards future experiences with the subject being
studied (Wlodkowski, 1986).
W

Once the learning experience is over, positive attitudes can be
increased by providing positive consequences (Bloom, 1981; Gagne,

1975; Mager, 1968). Providing an instructional experience where

28

learners can successfully complete activities is an effective
method to create positive attitudes (Gagne, 1975). Also supporting
this statement, Bloom (1981) says, "Perhaps the clearest evidence
of effective change is the interest the student develops for the
subject he has mastered. He begins to 'like' the subject and to de-
sire more of it. To do well in a subject opens up further avenues for
exploration of the subject."
tlIInLMndeln

The effects of human modeling on human attitudes and learning
have been well documented (Mager, 1968; Gagne, 1977; Bandura,
1965; Bandura, 1967). Evidence indicates that human modeling may
be the most powerful and effective method for causing attitude
change in the human learner (Gagne, 1977). Of most importance is
the model's appeal and credibility to the learner, and whether the
model demonstrates a consistent use of or credence to the object of
instruction (Gagne, 1977; Mager, 1968; Rosenhan, Frederick, and
Burrowes, 1968).

So then, it appears that based on the literature on attitudes, the
most effective and powerful methods for facilitating positive atti-
tudes are not words, but rather providing positive learning condi-

tions, consequences, and human models.

Anxlm
While little is known about the processes by which anxiety af-
fects learning, there is ample research evidence that anxiety does
negatively affect learning and motivation. Anxiety is a major vari-

able in education.

29

Anxiety can affect motivation! Of college aged participants
characterized as being highly anxious, 20% dropped out of school be—
cause of academic failure. The drop-out rate of participants in the
low-anxious category was only 6% (Spielberger, 1966). Similar ef-
fects of high anxiety on grade point average have also been reported
(Spielberger, 1962; Spielberger 8 Katzenmeyer, 1959).

Anxiety has also been shown to affect learning in a variety of
settings. It has been documented that anxiety interferes with
participant's achievement across a variety of instructional methods
ranging from the traditional classroom to various forms of individ-
ual instruction (Sieber, O'Neil, and Tobias, 1977).

Frequently, adults complain that they have been able to demon-
strate mastery on formative evaluations but were unable to dupli-
cate the effort on summative evaluations. One of the most common
explanations of this phenomenon is anxiety (Sieber, O'Neil, and To-
bias, 1977). This connection will be explained more fully in the
following research model of anxiety.

Cattell was the first to introduce the concepts of state and
trait anxiety (Cattell, 1966; Cattell and Scheier, 1961; Cattell and
Scheier, 1963). These concepts have since been expanded upon by
Spielberger (1972). In general, anxiety is seen as a personality
state that is a cross-section of the stream of one's life (Thorne,
1966) and emotional reactions as expressions of personality states
(Spielberger, 1972). These emotional reactions can occur at any
given moment in time and can be at any level of intensity. They can
manifest themselves through tension, apprehension, nervousness or

worry. A common thread is that they are all subjective feelings.

'30

While these emotional states could be classified as somewhat tran-
sitory, there seems to be genuine individual differences between
individuals in tendency to perceive situations in certain ways. In-
terpretations of circumstance can vary greatly. At any given time a
circumstance can cause an anxiety state in one person and not in an-
other. Therefore, trait anxiety refers to relatively stable individual
differences in anxiety proneness, that is, to differences between
people in the tendency to perceive stressful situations as dangerous
or threatening and to respond to such situations with elevations in
the intensity of their state anxiety reactions. State anxiety refers
to a reaction or process taking place at a given time and level of
intensity (Spielberger, 1972).

W

It is hypothesized that there are three possible points where
anxiety can have an effect on learning from instruction: (a) during
preprocessing, (b) during processing, and (0) right after processing
and just before output (Tobias, 1977; Tobias, in press).

The first element of the research model is preprocessing. At
this point, anxiety can interfere with the learning process in the de-
gree in which learning is registered or recorded. The primary prob-
lem is that anxiety acts to divide the attention of the learner
"...between the demands of the task and preoccupations with somatic
concerns and negative self-references." Therefore, less anxious
participants outperform more anxious participants because more of
their attention can be directed on the learning task demands and

less on "irrelevant preoccupations.” Preprocessing interference is

31

damaging to the learning process because it restricts the input that
is available for later processing.

The second element of the research model is processing. Once
the input process has been competed, anxiety can affect the actual
processing of information which could include recording, organizing,
storing, and retrieving. These are often referred to as cognitive op-
erations of the brain. It is suggested that three variables have the
greatest effect on learning: difficulty, reliance on memory, organi-
zation of the task.

W11. As difficulty level increases, anxious participants
will progressively score poorer than their low-anxious peers
(Tobias, 1977a; Tobias, 1977b).

W. When required to rely on short-term mem-
ory or immediate memory, anxious participants had more difficulty
than their low-anxious peers (Kreitzberg, 1978). Two forms of
memory interference are retroactive inhibition and proactive in-
hibition (Biggs, 1968; Houston, Bee, and Rimm, 1983) Retroactive
inhibition occurs when new learning interferes with our ability to
remember the old learning. Proactive inhibition occurs when the
previous learning impairs our ability to remember new learning. It
is suggested that everything we have previously learned is a poten-
tial source of this type of interference (Houston, Bee, and Rimm,
1983).

W. The performance of anxious partici-
pants is more dramatically improved when materials are well orga-
nized compared to less anxious participants (Tobias, 1977a; Tobias,
1977b).

32

The final element of the research model is postprocessing.
Anxiety has greatest effect during postprocessing by decreasing the
ability of participants to retrieve information during a testing situ-
ation (Tobias, 1977; Tobias, in press).

So then, it appears that based on the literature, anxiety can
negatively affect learning and motivation, there appears to be two
forms of anxiety, state and trait, and anxiety can negatively affect
the learner's capacity to receive incoming data, mentally process

these data, and recall and relate these data.

Summary

This chapter has summarized the literature on adult learning
theory, minimalist design principles, attitude, and anxiety. The re-
view of literature on adult learning theory indicates that adults are
active learners, they want to relate past experiences to present
learning, they are motivated to Ieam when they perceive the need to
learn, they are self-directed in pursuing learning experiences, they
want their learning experiences to be pragmatic, and they want to
apply their learning immediately. The review of literature on mini-
malist design research indicates that achievement can be increased
and time-on-task can be decreased by reducing the amount of ver-
biage of self-study training materials, by forcing the learning to
interact with the training system, by expecting and making pro-
vision for possible errors, by focusing on real-life tasks and activ-
ities, and by letting the learner lead. A review of the literature on
attitudes indicates that the most effective and powerful methods

for facilitating positive attitudes are not words, but rather

33

providing positive learning conditions, consequences, and human
models. A review of the literature on anxiety indicates that anxiety
can negatively affect learning and motivation, that there appear to
be two forms of anxiety, state and trait, and that anxiety can
negatively affect the learner's capacity to receive incoming data,
mentally process these data, and recall and relate these data.

Based on the findings of this review, the hypotheses for this re-
search study were developed. Chapter 3 describes the research de-

‘sign used for the study.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH DESIGN

Gladden

The purpose of this research study was to test two of the mini-
malist design principles in a self-study learning situation with
adult learners. The following is a description of the experiment
conducted for this study, the procedure used to collect and process
data, and the variables that were considered in the design. Included
in the chapter are the following tepics: design over time, design
over variables, and procedures used to conduct the experience and to

collect and process data.

D . I'
Design over time is a description of the order of events and
precautions that were taken to avoid various forms of experimental
bias. This study took the form of an experimental, pretest-posttest

design with a single treatment.

In Figure 1, the X's represent exposure to one of the four
treatments (self-study training packages) and the O's represent the
pretest (O1) and posttest (02). As indicated by the line, subjects
were randomly assigned to one of the four treatment groups.

Concerns for internal validity arose from multiple testing, the
John Henry Effect, the Hawthorne Effect, the Pygmalion Effect, and

certain demand characteristics.

34

35

Lesson Versionl 01 X1 02

 

Lesson Version 2 01 X2 02

 

Lesson Version 3 01 X3 02

 

Lesson Version 4 ’01 X4 02

Figure 1
Research Design Over Time

With respect to multiple testing, because all groups took the
same pretest, all effects of the pretest on the dependent variables
were assumed to be the same for all groups and therefore did not
affect the validity of the analysis-of-variance comparisons of the
posttest scores.

The John Henry Effect refers to a situation in which a control
group performs above Its usual average when placed in competition
with an experimental group (Berg and Gall, 1983). Such a competi-
tion effect was avoided by not informing any of the subjects of any
group treatment differences. They were unaware of which group
they were assigned to and in fact, they were unaware that there was
more than one group.

The Hawthorne Effect refers to the situation in which the per-
formance of all experimental subjects may be altered by their
awareness of being involved in an experiment (Berg and Gall, 1983).
Subjects were informed that they were taking part in a research
study. However, special caution was taken to treat all subjects
equally as to avoid any negative effects. A later section of this

chapter will deal with these procedures.

36

The Pygmalion Effect refers to changes in subject's behavior
that are brought about by the experimenters expectations (Berg and
Gall, 1983). While the researcher did introduce and monitor the data
collection sessions, special care was taken to standardize all in-
structions for all participants across lab sessions. Also, the man-
ner in which instructions were given was kept clinical, trying not to
encourage or discourage any of the groups. Again, a later section of
this chapter will discuss the procedures used to administer the data
collection sessions.

M. T. Ome (1969) has used the term demand effect to describe
the cues available to the subjects regarding the nature of the re-
search. lnstructor bias, rumors about research, setting, in-
structions given, and procedure are all possible cues. To minimize
the effects of such cues, the subjects involved in this study were
told: they were involved In a research study but had no previous
knowledge concerning the nature of the study, they were given no
cues as to the design of the study or to what effects were expected.
They were not aware of which group they have been assigned or even
of the existence of more than one group.

It must be noted that all instructional materials used in this
study were written by the researcher. This could add an element of
bias to the experiment. Because subjects were randomly assigned to
the four treatment groups, the effect of this potential source of

bias was controlled.

37

D . I! . II

Design over variables is a description of the independent and
dependent variables of the research study. There were two inde-
pendent and five dependent variables. The independent variables
were: placement of activities (throughout the lesson versus at the
end of the lesson) and amount of verbiage (low versus high). The de-
pendent variables were: written achievement, performance achieve-
ment, attitude toward the learning experience, state anxiety, and
time-on-task. For both written and performance achievement, high
scores are best. For attitude, anxiety, and time-on-task, low scores
are best.

The two independent variables were arranged in a 2 x 2 facto-

rial design. Figure 2 graphically shows the design matrix.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Verbiage

Low High
ca Throughout X X
a) 1 2
E
3

End X 3 X 4
Figure 2

2 X 2 Research Design Matrix

38

The two independent variables, amount of verbiage and placement of
activities, were chosen from the minimalist list because of their
potential widespread application and because they were relatively
easy to control. Individuals writing instructional materials often
have little control over many environmental conditions. Factors re-
lated to the other minimalist principles are also more difficult to
control. However, instructional designers and writers are often able
to control the two variables investigated in this study. Instruc-
tional designers usually have control over where activities are
placed in an instructional experience and instructional writers usu-

ally have editorial control over how many and which words are used.

EmdnntaLJlnedures
W
The population under investigation was comprised of under-

graduate and graduate college students at Michigan State University.
The sample consisted of students enrolled in educational computer
courses and a general psychology course at Michigan State Univer-
sity. Two of the education computer classes were learning the BA-
SIC programming language and a third class was learning computer
applications. Participation In the study was voluntary. The sample
size was 84.
Innatmnni

This study involved a single instructional session. The infor-
mation was presented using four versions of the same self-study
lesson written for the study. Each self-study lesson, including

pretest and posttest, took approximately one hour to complete. All

39

groups used lesson materials written and produced by the re-
searcher. The lessons covered introductory information on how to
create and use subdirectories while running the Microsoft Disk Op-
erating System.

The project was administered in a computer lab located in room
132, Erickson Hall, on the campus of Michigan State University. Each
participant had sole use of a computer system during the session.
Participants were aware that they were taking part in a research
study and had given prior consent to be involved. Subjects were
completely unaware of the design of the study. They did not know
into which experimental group they had been placed or even that
there was more than one group. However, it should be noted that be-
cause the subjects were working in the same room, they may have
noticed procedural differences. For example, they may have noticed
other subjects doing hand-on activities while they were not. The
experiment was introduced as an exposure to information and proce-
dures related to but not specifically covered in the course materi-
als.

The proctors were aware of‘the study design but were unaware
of which subjects were assigned to each treatment group. During
each session, a proctor was present to administer the sessions, and
to ensure that no communication occurred between the participants
during the session. A standardized set of instructions was read to
each group (see Appendix F). *

During Phase 1, participants took the pretest in the lab just

prior to going through the self-study lesson. The pretest consisted

40

of a demographics questionnaire, a 10-item multiple-choice quiz,
and a trait anxiety evaluation.

During Phase 2, participants went through a self-study lesson.
Each computer was preset with the A prompt on the screen and with
a diskette entitled, ”Work Disk" partially inserted into drive B. A
proctor recorded the Phase 2 time-on-task for each participant
(participants were not aware that this timing was being recorded).

During Phase 3, participants took the posttest in the lab. The
posttest consisted of a state anxiety evaluation, a reactionnaire,
and a 10-item multiple-choice quiz.

During phase 4, the performance quiz was administered immedi-
ately after the written posttest. The performance quiz was admin-
istered in an area isolated from the computer lab to avoid premature
cueing and to avoid interrupting subjects still working on previous
phases. Also, to ensure testing objectivity, the proctors adminis-
tering the performance quiz were unaware of which treatment group
each subject had been placed. A standardized script was used to
administer the performance quiz (see Appendix H). Each subject was
given two opportunities to perform each procedure on the quiz and
was given approximately 15 seconds to make each attempt. If the
subject was unable to perform a procedure, the testing proctor was
instructed to perform the procedure, without explanation, and ask
the subject to perform the next procedure on the performance quiz.
D . I. I E . I II I . I

As previously described, each lesson was divided into four
phases. Phase One was the pretest and consisted of a trait anxiety

measure, a demographic questionnaire, and a written achievement

41

quiz (see Appendix A). The achievement quiz was a multiple-choice
test written by the researcher. The Trait Anxiety inventory devel-
oped by Dr. Charles D. Spielberger was used. This measure was se-
lected because of its widespread use and well established reliabil-
ity and validity (Spielberger, 1983). The demographic questionnaire
was written by the researcher. Phase Two was the actual lesson.
Four different versions of the same lesson were written by the re-
searcher (see Appendix B). An equal number of each of the four
lessons was produced. Phase Three was the posttest and consisted
of a state anxiety measure, a written achievement quiz, and an at-
titude reactionnaire (see Appendix C). The State Anxiety inventory
developed by Dr. Charles D. Spielberger was used. This measure was
selected because of its widespread use and well established relia-
bility and validity (Spielberger, 1983). The attitude measure was an
adaptation of a program evaluation form written by Dr. Alan Abedor,
formerly of Michigan State University. This measure was selected
because it contained the type of questions the researcher was inter-
ested in asking. The achievement quiz was a multiple-choice test
written by the researcher. Phase Four was the performance quiz
which was also written by the researcher (see Appendix D).

Content validity is related to how adequately the content of, and
responses to, the test samples the domain about which inferences
are to be made (Lennon, 1956). There is no commonly used numerical
expression for content validity. It is typically determined by a
thorough inspection of the items. Each item Is judged on whether or
not it represents the specified domain (Mehrens and Lehmann, 1978).

The items on the multiple-choice quiz written for this study were

42

written to be a representative sample of the universe of possible
actionsthat could be taken while performing the skill under investi-
gation. Because the universe of possible actions for creating and
using subdirectories is both limited and definable, content validity
was established by a number of individuals considered "experts” on
the topic. On two occasions, drafts of the tests were shown to two
instructional designers to determine that the questions were ade-
quately representative of the content of the lesson.

The Kudar-Richardson 20 formula was selected to measure the
reliability of the written quiz. This formula was chosen because it
requires only a single administration and is considered by many
specialists in educational and psychological measurement to be the
most satisfactory method of determining reliability (Berg and Gall,
1983). The reliability coefficient for the quiz used in the study
posttest was .64.

B I . I. E

Twenty four copies of each lesson were created for the study.
Six copies of each lesson were placed in four groups Each group was
then thoroughly shuffled. The four groups of lessons were then
placed end to end. . In order, the lessons were placed in manila fold-
ers along with a set of Phase One (pretest), Phase Three (written
posttest), and Phase Four (performance posttest) materials. The
manila folders and each of the four phases contained in each folder
were then sequentially numbered.

Using these coded materials and the following procedure, data
collection was accomplished and anonymity maintained. All proc-

tors were required to read and adhere to a set of standardized

43

instructions (see Appendix E). To further ensure equal treatment of
all groups, a proctor read a standardized set of introductory in-
structions to each group (see Appendix F). The consent form was
then distributed to all subjects (see Appendix G). Each subject was
required to read, sign, and date the consent form in order to partici-
pate in the study. Each subject was asked to bring the consent form
to the lesson proctor to receive Phase One of the study. After com-
pleting Phase One, each subject returned to the lesson proctor for
Phase Two. The lesson proctor recorded the start time of Phase Two
for each subject. After completing Phase Two, each subject re-
turned to the lesson proctor to receive Phase Three. The lesson
proctor recorded the stop time of Phase Two for each subject. After
completing Phase Three each subject was given Phase Four and was
asked to wait to see a lesson proctor. Subjects were not informed
that Phase Four was a performance quiz. They were only told that
they would be talking with a proctor for approximately one minute.
The performance quiz was given in an area isolated from the com-
puter lab. The proctors administering Phase Four all used a
standardized script (see Appendix H). After completing the perfor-
mance quiz, the subjects were free to leave.
QaILAnalxiis

All scores were entered into a microcomputer for statistical
analysis. The program Statview 512+ was used on the Macintosh
computer. To give a broad picture of the sample makeup, general de-
scriptive statistics were performed. To test the study hypotheses,
two-way analyses-of-variance were performed. All statistical

tests were done at the alpha =- .05 level. This alpha level was

44

chosen because it is the traditional alpha level for experimental re-

search of this nature.

Summanr

This chapter has discussed the design of the research study in-
cluding the design over both time and variables, the population and
sample, the treatment used, a description of the project materials,
the randomization process, and a description of the data analysis

process used. Chapter 4 will discuss the results obtained from the
study.

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

Lntmduntlnn
This chapter presents descriptive information concerning the
study sample and the statistical analyses results of the hypotheses

testing.

D . I. I I I. C . S I
Demographic data were collected on all subjects. One purpose

for collecting these data was to get a broad picture of the demo-
graphic makeup of the total sample. The second purpose for col-
lecting these data was to confirm that the four treatment groups did
not differ on these variables. Demographic data were collected on
gender (male or female), age (actual number of years), and previous
computer experience (actual number of years).

The total sample size was 84. The sample included 18 males
(21%) and 66 females (79%). The mean age of the sample was 27.2
years. The minimum age was 19 and the maximum was 46 yielding a
range of 27 years. The distribution of subjects by age is shown in
Table 1. The mean previous computer experience was 1.1 years. 5

individuals declined to be involved in the study.

45

46

Table 1
Distrubution of Ages of Subjects
89.9.3 Hum: Ages LEW:
15-20 2 21-25 40
26-30 13 31-35 12
36-40 12 41-45 4

46-50 1

Two-way analyses-of-variance were performed across group-
ings on the pretest variables: (1) age (2) gender (3) previous com-
puter experience (4) trait anxiety and (5) a written achievement
quiz. No significant differences were found on any of the variables

between the four treatment groups.

BMW

Two independent variables were arranged in a 2 X 2 factorial
design. The first variable, amount of verbiage, consisted of (1) low
verbiage and (2) high verbiage. The second variable, placement of
activities, consisted of (1) activities throughout the lesson and (2)
activities at the end of the lesson. Considering these variables, the
following hypotheses were written for this study. After being ex-
posed to a self-study procedural lesson,
1. the mean achievement scores on a written multiple-choice test

will be higher for the group completing hands-on activities at

appropriate places throughout the lesson than for the group

completing all hands-on activities at the end of the lesson.

47

the mean achievement scores on a performance test will be
higher for the group completing hands-on activities at appropri-
ate places throughout the lesson than for the group completing
all hands-on activities at the end of the lesson.

the mean attitude toward the learning experience test scores
will be more positive for the group completing hands-on activi-
ties at appropriate places throughout the lesson than for the
group completing all hands-on activities at the end of the les-
son.

the mean state anxiety scores will be lower for the group com-
pleting hands-on activities at appropriate places throughout the
lesson than for the group completing all hands-on activities at
the end of the lesson.

the mean time-on-task will be less for the group completing
hands-on activities at appropriate places throughout the lesson
than for the group completing all hands-on activities at the end
of the lesson.

the mean achievement scores on a written multiple-choice test
will be higher for the group using low verbiage lessons than for
the group using high verbiage lessons.

the mean achievement scores on a performance test will be
higher for the group using low verbiage lessons than for the
group using high verbiage lessons.

the mean attitude toward the learning experience test scores
will be more positive for the group using low verbiage lessons

than for the group using high verbiage lessons.

48

9. the mean state anxiety scores will be lower for the group using
low verbiage lessons than for the group using high verbiage
lessons.

10. the mean time-on-task will be less for the group using low ver-
biage lessons than for the group using high verbiage lessons.
The remainder of this chapter will present the statistical analyses

performed to test the hypotheses stated above.

III °|| E I' I D . 3
Table 2 presents the mean written achievement quiz scores for

each of the four treatment groups along with the combined mean

written achievement quiz scores for all subjects in the low verbiage
group, high verbiage group, activities throughout lesson group, and
activities at the end of the lesson group. As can be seen, the low
verbiage/activities throughout the lesson group had the highest
mean score and the high verbiage/activities throughout the lesson
group had the lowest mean score. The minimum score was 2 the
maximum score was 10, and the range was 8. Table 3 presents the
summary of the two-way analysis-of-variance on this dependent
variable. As can be seen, a significant main effect for Verbiage was
found for written achievement quiz scores. That is, the mean writ-
ten achievement quiz score for the low verbiage group is signifi-
cantly higher than for the high verbiage group. A significant main
effect for the Activities variable was not found. A significant in-
teraction between activities and verbiage was found for written

achievement quiz score (Figure 3).

49

E I E I. I D . 5

Table 4 presents the mean performance achievement quiz scores
for each of the four treatment groups along with the combined mean
performance achievement quiz scores for all subjects in the low
verbiage group, high verbiage group, activities throughout lesson
group,-and activities at the end of the lesson group. As can be seen,
the low verbiage/activities throughout lesson group had the highest
score and the high verbiage/activities at end of lesson group had the
lowest score. The minimum score was 0 the maximum score was 5,
and the range was 5. Table 5 presents the summary of the two-way
analysis-of-variance on this dependent variable. As can be seen, a
significant main effect for Activities and a significant main effect
for Verbiage were found for performance achievement quiz scores.
That is, the mean performance achievement quiz score for the ac-
tivities throughout the lesson group was significantly higher than
for the activities at the end of the lesson group. Also, the mean
performance achievement quiz score for the low verbiage group was
significantly higher than for the high verbiage group.
AttitudLScQLes

Table 6 presents the mean attitude scores for each of the four-
treatment groups along with the combined mean attitude scores for
all subjects in the low verbiage group, high verbiage group, activi-
ties throughout lesson group, and activities at the end of the lesson
group. As can. be seen, the low verbiage/activities throughout lesson
group had the lowest score and the high verbiage/activities at end of
lesson group had the highest score. The minimum score was 1.2 the

maximum score was 4.85, and the range was 3.65. Table 7 presents

50

the summary of the two-way analysis-of-variance on this dependent
variable. As can be seen, a significant main effect for Activities
and a significant main effect for Verbiage were found for attitude
scores. That is, the mean attitude score for the activities through-
out the Iesson group was significantly lower than for the activities
at the end of the lesson group. Also, the mean attitude score for the
low verbiage group was significantly lower than for the high ver-
biage group.
Wm

Table 8 presents the mean anxiety scores for each of the four
treatment groups along with the combined mean anxiety scores for
all subjects in the low verbiage group, high verbiage group, activi-
ties throughout lesson group, and activities at the end of the lesson
group. As can be seen, the low verbiage/activities throughout lesson
group had the lowest score and the high verbiage/activities at end of
lesson group had the highest score. The minimum score was 20 the
maximum score was 74, and the range was 54. Table 9 presents the
summary of the two-way analysis-of-variance on this dependent
variable. As can be seen, there were no significant main effects

found for state anxiety score.

51

Table 2

Mean Written Achievement Quiz Scores by Treatment Group

Range of possible scores - 0 to 10

 

 

___ILeLb.ian.e._
Actixities Low High.
End 7.4 7.4
Throughout 8.4 6.4
Table 3

Analysis-of-Variance Table for Written Achievement Quiz Scores

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source df MS F
Activities 1 0.00 0.00
Verbiage 1 21.51 5.94"
Activities x Verbiage 1 20.32 5.61"
Error 79 3.62
' p, < .05
10 Th/roughout
(I) 8 f 7
t . | x.
2
4 Erd
2
Low High

Graph of Interaction: Posttest Written Quiz

Verbiage

Figure 3

52

Table 4

Mean Performance Achievement Quiz Scores by Treatment Group

Range of possible scores - 0 to 5

 

__¥9.Lb.ian.e_
Actixitiee Low High.
End 3.5 2.9
Throughout 4.1 3.3
Table 5

Analysis-of-Varlance Table for Performance Achievement Quiz Scores

 

 

Source df MS F
Activities 1 6.86 4.06*
Verbiage 1 10.71 6.35"
Activities x Verbiage 1 .16 .10
Error 80 1.69

 

*n<.05

53

Table 6
Mean Attitude Scores by Treatment Group

Range of possible scores - 1 to 5

 

_19.lel.an§__
Actiyities Low ngjL
End 3.1 3.6
Throughout 2.5 3.0
Table 7

Analysis-of-Variance Table for Attitude Scores

 

 

Source df MS F
Activities 1 7.08 13.60*
Verbiage 1 5.56 10 .69"
Activities X Verbiage 1 .08 .16
Error 80 .52

 

*p,<.05

54

Table 8
Mean State Anxiety Scores by Treatment Group

Range of possible scores - 20 to 80

 

 

__¥e.Lb.ian.e__

Agtiyjtjes ng High_

End 39.3 44.3

Throughout 37.5 38.3
Table 9

Analysis-of-Variance Table for State Anxiety Scores

 

 

Source df MS F

Activities 1 308.42 2.59
Verbiage 1 179.28 1.51
Activities X Verbiage 1 92.09 .77

Error 79 118.91

55

Table 10 presents the mean time-on-task scores for each of the
four treatment groups along with the combined mean time-on-task
scores for all subjects in the low verbiage group, high verbiage
group, activities throughout lesson group, and activities at the end
of the lesson group. As can be seen, the low verbiage/activities
throughout lesson group had the lowest score and the high ver-
biage/activities at end of lesson group had the highest score. The
minimum score was 4 the maximum score was 41, and the range was
37. Table 11 presents the summary of the two-way analysis-of-
variance on this dependent variable. As can be seen, a significant
main effect for Activities and a significant main effect for Verbiage
were found for time-on-task. That is, the mean time-on-task score
for the activities throughout the lesson group was significantly
lower than for the activities at the end of the lesson group. Also,
the mean time-on-task score for the low verbiage group was sig-

nificantly lower than for the high verbiage group.

Sumner

This chapter has presented both descriptive information con-
cerning the sample and the results of the statistical analyses. In
summary, the sample size was 84, including 21% male and 79% fe-
male. The mean age of the sample was 27.2. For the dependent vari-
able, written achievement, a significant main effect for Verbiage
was found as well as a significant interaction between activities
and verbiage. For the dependent variable, performance achievement,

significant main effects for both Activities and Verbiage were

56

found. For the dependent variable, attitude, significant main effects
for both Activities and Verbiage were found. For the dependent vari-
able, anxiety, there were no significant main effects found. For the
dependent variable, time-on-task, significant main effects for both
Activities and Verbiage were found. Chapter 5 will discuss the
findings of this study as well as the limitations and implications of

the study, and give recommendations for future research.

57

Table 10
Mean TIme-on-task Scores by Treatment Group

Range of possible scores - NA

 

 

name—

Actixitics Low High.

End 14.4 22.4

Throughout 10.5 18.8
Table 11

Analysis-of-Variance Table for Time-on-task Scores

 

 

Source df MS F
Activities 1 293.40 9.25*
Verbiage 1 1370.12 43 .21 *
Activities X Verbiage 1 .55 .08
Error 79 31.71

 

*n<.05

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

introduction

The future need to develop instructional materials for adult
learners is great. To guide designers and writers of instructional
materials, the minimalist design principles have been set forth.

The purpose of this study was to test the effect of two mini-
malist design principles: (1) amount of verbiage (low versus high)
and (2) placement of hands-on activities (throughout lesson versus
at the end of the lesson) on five outcome measures: (1) written
achievement, (2) performance achievement, (3) state anxiety, (4)
attitude toward the learning experience and (5) time-on-task. As
previously stated, the hypotheses of this study predicted that both
low verbiage and activities placed throughout the lesson would re-
sult in higher written and performance achievement, lower state
anxiety, a more positive attitude score, and shorter time-on-task.
The hypotheses are stated in the alternative form. Therefore, if
main effects are found, the null hypotheses are rejected and the hy-
potheses, as stated in the alternative form, are accepted. For this
study, a main effect indicates that there exists a significant differ-

ence in the mean scores between groups (Keppel, 1973).

Conclusions
For the independent variable, amount of verbiage, main effects

were found for written achievement, performance achievement,

58

59

attitude toward the learning experience, and time-on-task. That is,
significant differences were found between the mean scores of the
low verbiage and high verbiage groups on these variables. The low '
verbiage group had significantly higher written and achievement
quiz scores and significantly lower attitude toward the learning ex-
perience and time-on-task scores. There was no main effect found
for state anxiety. For the independent variable, placement of activ-
ities, main effects were found for performance achievement, atti-
tude toward the learning experience, and time-on-task. That is, a
significant difference was found between the mean scores of the
activities throughout the lesson and activities at the end of the les-
son groups on these variables. The "activities throughout the lesson”
group had significantly higher performance quiz scores and signifi-
cantly lower attitude scores toward the learning experience and
lower time-on-task scores. There was no main effect found for
written achievement and state anxiety. Also, a significant inter-
action between placement of activities and amount of verbiage was
found for written achievement. That is, the main effects of activity
placement are not the same at all levels of amount of verbiage. The
presence of this interaction indicates that conclusions based on the
two main effects will not fully describe the data. Each of the vari-
ables must be interpreted with the levels of the other variable in
mind. The interaction found was disordinal. The group using low
verbiage lessons, the group with activities placed throughout the
lesson achieved higher scores than did the group with activities
placed at the end of the lesson. The opposite result is found for the

group using high verbiage lessons.

60

Based on such findings, it can be concluded that, for the type of
materials tested and the timespan used for the experimental inter-
vention, reducing the amount of verbiage of introductory procedural
self-study instructional lessons will help facilitate higher written
and performance achievement quiz scores (Hypotheses 6 and 7), will
lead to more positive participant attitudes toward learning experi-
ences (Hypothesis 8), and will decrease the time-on-task
(Hypothesis 10). It also appears that placing hands-on activities at
appropriate places throughout the lesson will help facilitate higher
performance achievement quiz scores (Hypothesis 2), will lead to
more positive participant attitudes toward learning experiences
(Hypothesis 3), and will decrease the time-on-task (Hypothesis 5).

This study predicted that state anxiety would be affected by
amount of verbiage and placement of activities, but it was not.
Therefore, the findings do not support the hypotheses that either de-
ceasing the verbiage or placing the activities throughout the lesson
will decrease state anxiety (Hypotheses 4 and 9).

It was also predicted that written achievement would be higher
if activities were placed at appropriate places throughout the les-
son. However, the mean written achievement quiz scores for the
two activity placement groups were virtually the same. Therefore,
this study does not support the hypothesis that placing activities
throughout the lesson will help to increase written achievement
quiz scores (Hypothesis 1).

The findings of this study revealed only one statistically sig-
nificant interaction, that between activity and verbiage for the

written quiz score. An examination of the mean written quiz scores

61

for the four groups reveals that amount of verbiage has virtually no
effect on the mean-scores of the groups who received activities at

the end of the lesson but does have an effect on the mean scores of

the groups who received activities placed throughout the lesson. As
was depicted in figure 3, the effect is a lower mean score for the

group receiving high verbiage.

I' 'II' III E I. III III SII

Strong generalizations of the results of this study are not war-
ranted. lnstructional materials that were computer based, skill ori-
ented, introductory in nature, and the subject matter was not com-
plex were used for this study. The treatment was administered on a
single occasion and was relatively short in duration. The population
was comprised of college students with a relatively low mean age.
And finally, there were no consequences for their actions. Making
generalizations beyond these boundaries in not warranted by the re-
sults of this study. There were differences between the study pop-
ulation and the general adult population. The sample consisted of
college students at Michigan State University who have been pre-
conditioned to the classroom setting and who generally lack the ex-
periences of work life. This dissimilarity to the general population
is acknowledged. Finally, the purpose of the study focused on short
term recall. General acceptance and widespread application of the
principles tested should not be made without further and adequate
testing of the long-term effects of amount of verbiage and activity
placement on learning achievement, state anxiety, attitude toward

learning experiences, and time-on-task.

62

I I. I. I II S! I

The specific instructional topic for this study was procedural In
nature and focused specifically on a computer application. Develop-
ment and usage of procedural computer lessons is widespread. As
previously stated, instructional designers and writers are often able
to control the two variables investigated in this study. Instruc-
tional designers usually have control over where hands-on activities
are placed in an instructional experience and have editorial control
over how many and which words are used. The findings of this study
would therefore suggest that designers consider placing hands-on
activities at appropriate places throughout a self-study instruc-
tional experience and that instructional writers consider exercising
self-discipline in the usage of words, keeping lessons “short and to
the point.“ The application of these principles also has the advan-
tage of requiring less time-on-task and resulting in more positive
learner attitudes toward the learning experience.

These suggestions are made for all training materials, but the
importance of their application becomes magnified in introductory
learning experiences. This suggestion appears logical due to the
theory previously reviewed, that once adult learners have mastered
the basics of any skill, their confidence and ability to process will

build which will lead to their ability to take on larger challenges.

63
W

The focus of this study was on only two of the minimalist de-
sign principles. It is recommended that similar research studies be
conducted to test the effectiveness of the other principles.

The focus of this study was on self-study instructional materi-
als. It is recommended that studies be conducted to test the effects
of these principles on instructor taught instructional modules.

The focus of this study was a computer based tepic. It is rec-
ommended that studies be conducted to test the effects of these
principles on additional, non-computer based topics.

The focus of this study was also on short-term retention and
application. It is recommended that studies be conducted to test the
long-term effects of the minimalist design principles. Such studies
should focus on the testing of retention and application capabilities
of subjects after a period of time as well as their future attitude
toward the subject and ability to continue learning using more tradi-
tionally design self-study materials. This final aspect is important
because while initial learning experiences could take place using
minimalist materials, most reference and self-learning materials
currently available do not follow the minimalist conventions. Even
if minimalist materials are more effective for initial learning,
which the findings of this study support, it would be important to
know whether or not such experiences may have a negative impact on

future learning experiences in more traditional environments.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
PHASE ONE

64

APPENDIX A

PHASE ONE

 

Please answer an of the following questions! Be completely

honest and open. AlLoonuLansnnniLijemJnonxnus.

When you are finished with Phase One, return It to the proctor
to receive Phase Two.

65

SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE

DIRECTIONS: A number of statements which people have used to
describe themselves are given below. Read each statement and then
blacken In the appropriate circle to the right of the statement to

Indicate how you generally feel. There are no right or wrong “’0 , 5.
answers. Do not spend too much time on any one statement but give 4; a; 04:9 4"!-
the answer which seems to describe how you generally feel. 0'1}, 4‘22, 173:3; 4’06}?
' ’o ‘9» e. e.
I. I feel calm ................................ ' ...... '.. ........... ' o o o e
2.1feelsecure ......... O O O O
3. lam tense ................................................... O O O O .
4.1fee15trained ............................ O O O O
5.1feelatens'e' ................................................. c c o 'e
6.1-feelupset ........................................ O O O O
'7. I am presently worrying over possible misfortunes .............. O (D O (.3
8. I feel satisfied ......................................... _ ....... O O O O
9. I feel frightened ............................................. O O O O
IO. I feel comfortable ............................................ O O O O
11. I feel self-confident ........................................... (D G) (3) ©
12. I feel nervous ......................... , ....................... O O O O
13. I am jittery .................................................. O O O O
14. I feel indecisive .............................................. O O O O
15. I am relaxed ................................................. O O O O
16. I feel content ................................................ O O O O
17. I am worried ................................................ O O O O
18. I feel confused ............................................... O O O O
l9. I feel stead}: ................................................. O O O O
‘20. I feel pleasant ............................... ‘ ................. O O O O

General Information

Please answer the following questions. Remember that your answers are completely anonymous.

1. Sex Male Female—

2- A99_

3. Previous computer experience (3 years) ___,

4. Type of computer experience

CI Word Processing
Spreadsheet
Data Base
DOS Operations

Programming

00000

Other

 

 

 

67

Creating and Using Subdlrectorles

Quick Quiz Circle one answer tor‘ each question

1. When you see A> on the screen, you are able to:

A. boot the system

B. enter your data

C. return to DOS

D enter and run DOS commands

2. The A> is called a:

A. . status Line

B directory

C. command Line
D. prompt

3. When you see A> on the screen, the "A" tells you:

A. to place a data diskette in drive A

B. that drive A is active

C that drive A is ready to become active
D To place the program disk in drive A

4. To change the active drive from "A" to "B", type:

A. A: and press <ENTER>
B A: B: and press <ENTER>
C B: and press <ENTER>
D. B: A: and press <ENTER>

5. To display the directory of the active drive (A), type:

A: DIR and press <ENTER>
DIRECTORY and press <ENTER>
DIR and press <ENTER>

Any of the above options

DOW.)

68

6. A directory listing of the active drive will display:

the number of files in the directory
the names of the files in the directory

the amount of tree storage space on the diskette
All of the above

DOS”?

7. A subdirectory is used to:

A. visually display imbedded commands
B list all directories on the disk

C organize your files

D. all of the above

8. The DOS command used to create a subdirectory called NOTES is:

A. CD NOTES
B. CDIR NOTES
0. MD NOTES
D. DIR NOTES

9. The DOS command used to move into a subdirectory called NOTES is:

A. CD NOTES
3. CDIR NOTES
C. MD NOTES
D. DIR NOTES

10. The DOS command used to return to the root directory is:

CD \
CDIR \
MD \
DIR \

pow?

APPENDIX B

PHASE TWO

APPENDIX 8
PHASE TWO
LOW VERBIAGEIACTIVITIES THROUGHOUT LESSON

PHASE TWO

 

Go through this lesson at your normal pace. There is no time
limit. During Phase Two, use the computer only for the
designated activities.

When you are tinlshed with Phase Two, return it to the proctor
table to receive Phase Three.

7O

CREATING AND USING SUBDIRECTORIES

OVERVIEW

In this lesson you will learn how to create and move between
subdirectories.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

. change the active disk drive
. display active directory on the screen

. explain what subdirectories are and why they are
important

. create a subdirectory
. move trom one subdirectory to another

(lb ”IND-l

71

CHANGING THE ACTIVE DISK DRIVE
Description

When the computer Is on and no program is running you will see
the prompt. The prompt tells you which drive ls active (the
one It is ready to use) and that the computer is ready to
proceed. When the prompt is displayed on the screen you can
enter and run DOS commands or programs. The prompt looks
like this:

A)

After turning on the computer and seeing A>, you are
automatically In what is called the "root directory" of the
active disk drive. Certain system tiles, most of which you
will never use, must be In the root directory. However, as you
create various files it is recommended that you put them into
separate "electronic iile drawers" call ”subdirectories."

This lesson will teach you how to create subdirectories and
move in and out of them.

Mm

if you want to work with a disk drive other than the one shown
in the prompt, you must change the active disk drive.

To change the active disk drive:

1 . Type the letter of the disk drive you want to make
active followed by a colon. Example B:

2. Press the <ENTER> key

Result: Prompt will Indicate the drive that is new active.

mm

1. insert floppy diskette entitled, Work Disk, in drive B
2. Change active drive to B and note computer response
3. Change active drive back to A

 

 

 

 

72

To DISPLAY THE ACTIVE DIRECTORY ON THE SCREEN
Description

It is often necessary to display on the screen what ls stored on
the diskette In the current drive. This Is called a directory. A
directory will also display the number of files on the directory
and the free storage space available on the disk.

W

To display the directory of the active drive on the screen:

1 . Type DIR
2. Press the <ENTER> key

 

Arman

1. Display the directory of the active disk drive on
the screen

 

 

 

73

MAKING SUBDIRECTORIES
Damnation

To help organize documents In an office file drawer, hanging

folders are often used to sort the documents In logical
groupings.

In our example the documents in the drawer are sorted by
client.

‘ Client!

 

 

Client 2

 

 

GMII

 

 

 

 

 

 

To more fully organize the documents within each hanging
folder, manila folders can be used to sort the documents.

In our example the documents in each client folder are sorted
by type of document (letters, contracts, and minutes).

— “I'm“
Contracts I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

74

MAKING SUBDIRECTORIES (con't)

As files are created on a disk, the same procedure can be

accomplished electronically by creating subdirectories. Files

can be stored on the disk In the subdirectories to make It
easier to find them at a later time. Subdlrectorles help you

organize your files.
_ Root
[ Directory 1

I , . I ,
Letters I l Contracts ]

EMILE

To create a subdirectory:

 

 

 

 

1. Make active the disk to contain the subdirectories
2. Type MD (name of subdirectory) Put a space between
the MD and the subdirectory name. Example: MD

Contracts
(The MD stands for Make Directory)
3. Press the <ENTER> key

 

 

 

mm

1. Make the drive containing the Work Disk active

2. Make three subdirectories called Letters, Contracts,
and Minutes

3. Display the directory of the disk to confirm that the
three new subdirectories exist

 

 

 

75

MOVING BETWEEN SUBDIRECTORIES
Dandelion

Just as you can move from one disk drive to the other, you can
move from one subdirectory to another. if you want to see the
directory of a subdirectory to determine what ls stored In it
you must first move to that subdirectory. Once In a
subdirectory, you can use the DIR command to display the
contents of the subdirectory. The directory of an empty
subdirectory will look like this:

 

Volume in drive A hss no lsbsl
Directory of s:\CONTRACTS

«DIR» 4.1447 3:22p
«DIR» 4-14-s7 3:22p
2 Flls(s) ssssss bytss free E

 

 

 

 

76

MOVING BETWEEN SUBDIRECTORIES (con't)

EMILE:

To move to a subdirectory:

1.

2.

3.

Make active the disk drive containing the
subdirectories.

Type CD (Subdlrectory name) Put a space between the
CD and the subdirectory name. Example: CD Contracts
(The CD stands for Call Directory)

Press the <ENTER> key

To return to the root directory:

1.
2.

Type CD\
Press the <ENTER> key

 

scum

bflN-l

 

Make the drive containing the Work Disk active
Move Into one of your subdirectories

Display lts directory

Move out of the subdirectory (return to root
directory)

Note: You must return to the root directory before
moving Into a different subdirectory

 

 

 

77

APPENDIX B

PHASE TWO
LOW VERBIAGEIACTIVITIES AT END OF LESSON

PHASE TWO

 

Go through this lesson at your normal pace. There Is no time
limit. During Phase Two, use the computer only for the
designated activities.

When you are finished with Phase Two, return It to the proctor
table to receive Phase Three.

78

CREATING AND USING SUBDIRECTORIES

OVERVIEW

In this lesson you will learn how to create and move between
subdirectories.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

. change the active disk drive
. display active directory on the screen

. explain what subdirectories are and why they are
Important

. create a subdirectory
. move from one subdirectory to another

“NI-A

ours

79

CHANGING THE ACTIVE DISK DRIVE
Description

When the computer Is on and no program ls running you will see
the prompt. The prompt tells you which drive Is active (the
one It Is ready to use) and that the computer is ready to
proceed. When the prompt Is displayed on the screen you can

enter and run DOS commands or programs. The prompt looks
like this:

A>

After turning on the computer and seeing A>, you are
automatically in what is called the "root directory" of the
active disk drive. Certain system files, most of which you
will never use, must be in the root directory. However, as you
create various files It is recommended that you put them Into
separate "electronic file drawers" call ”subdirectories."

This lesson will teach you how to create subdirectories and
move in and out of them.

EMILE

If you want to work with a disk drive other than the one shown
in the prompt, you must change the active disk drive.

To change the active disk drive:

1 . Type the letter of the disk drive you want to make
active followed by a colon. Example B:
2. Press the <ENTER> key

Result: Prompt will Indicate the drive that Is now active.

80

TO DISPLAY THE ACTIVE DIRECTORY ON THE SCREEN
Malian

It is often necessary to display on the screen what is stored on
the diskette in the current drive. This is called a directory. A
directory will also display the number of tiles on the directory
and the free storage space available on the disk.

EMAIL:
To display the directory of the active drive on the screen:

1 . Type DIR
2. Press the <ENTER> key

81

MAKING SUBDIRECTORIES
Inscription

To help organize documents In an office tile drawer, hanging

folders are often used to sort the documents In logical
groupings.

In our example the documents in the drawer are sorted by
client.

CIIOMS

 

Client2 I

 

GIIOIIQT

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To more fully organize the documents within each hanging
folder, manila folders can be used to sort the documents.

In our example the documents In each client folder are sorted
by type of document (letters, contracts, and minutes).

_ "W”
Contracts I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

82

MAKING SUBDIRECTORIES (con't)

As files are created on a disk, the same procedure can be
accomplished electronically by creating subdirectories. Files
can be stored on the disk In the subdirectories to make it
easier to find them at a later time. Subdlrectorles help you
organize your files.

 

Root
Directory

J

L

EMILE

To create a subdirectory:

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. Make active the disk to contain the subdirectories
2. Type MD (name of subdirectory) Put s space between
the MD and the subdirectory name. Example: MD

Contracts
(The MD stands for Make Directory)
3. Press the <ENTER> key

83

MOVING BETWEEN SUBDIRECTORIES

new

Just as you can move from one disk drive to the other, you can
move from one subdirectory to another. If you want to see the
directory of a subdirectory to determine what is stored In it
you must first move to that subdirectory. Once in a
subdirectory, you can use the DIR command to display the
contents of the subdirectory. The directory of an empty
subdirectory will look like this:

 

Volume In drive A has no lebel
Directory of s:\COIlTRACT8

 

«DIR» 4-14-87 3:22p
«DIR, 4-14-37 3:22p
2 File(s) 356553 bytes tree

 

 

Emsduu
To move to a subdirectory:

1 . Make active the disk drive containing the
subdirectories.

2. Type CD (Subdlrectory name) Put a space between the
CD and the subdirectory name. Example: CD Contracts
(The CD stands for Dell Directory)

3. Press the <ENTER> key

To return to the root directory:

1 . Type CD\
2. Press the <ENTER> key

84

 

[CREATING AND USING SUBDIRECTORIES -- ACTIVITIESJ

 

At this time, proceed to complete the following practice
actlvles.

CHANGING THE ACTIVE DISK DRIVE

1. Insert floppy diskette entitled, Work Disk, In drive B
2. Change active drive to B and note computer response
3. Change active drive back to A

TO DISPLAY THE ACTIVE DIRECTORY ON THE SCREEN

1 . Display the directory of the active disk drive on the
screen

MAKING SUBDIRECTORIES

1. Make the drive containing the Work Disk active

2. Make three subdirectories called Letters, Contracts,
and Minutes

3. Display the directory of the disk to confirm that the
three new subdirectories exist

MOVING BETWEEN SUBDIRECTORIES

Make the drive containing the Work Disk active

Move Into one of your subdirectories

Display Its directory

Move out of the subdirectory (return to root directory)

bUN-l

Note: You must return to the root directory before
moving Into a different subdirectory

APPENDIX B

PHASE TWO
HIGH VERBIAGE/ACTIVITIES THROUGHOUT LESSON

PHASE TWO

 

Go through this lesson at your normal pace. There Is no time
limit. During Phase Two, use the computer only for the
designated activities.

When you are finished with Phase Two, return it to the proctor
table to receive Phase Three.

When DOS formats a disk, one thing it does is create a directory that
describes each of the files on the disk. The directory holds a fixed
number of entries: 64 on a Single-Sided diskette, 112 on a double-Sided
diskette, 224 on a high-capacity diskette, and 512 or more on a fixed
disk (the number varies with the size of the disk).

To make your computer filing system more flexible, DOS lets you
create additional directories, called subdirectories, on a disk. The
subdirectories divide the disk into different storage areas, each of which
you can use as if it were a different disk.

To distinguish the main directory that DOS creates from the
subdirectories that you create, the main directory is known as the root
directory because, as you will see, a multi-Ievel directory structure can
grow from it.

As you add levels to your file structure, a block diagram would show
it spreading from the root directory and branching to other directories,
like a tree branches from its root. This type of file structure is often
called a tree-structure file system, and is the reason for the name root
directory.

Defining a Subdlrectory

A subdirectory is simply a file that contains directory entries; these
entries are identical in form to the entries in the main directory, but
there Is no limit to the number of entries there can be in a subdirectory.

You name a subdirectory as you name any other file, but because the
subdirectory defines other files, you cannot use the normal file
commands to copy or erase a subdirectory. This chapter shows you how
to use several commands that enable you to do the following:

Change the current disk drive

Create a subdirectory with the Make Directory command

Change the current directory with the Change Directory command
Display the current directory with the Directory command

Using these features of the DOS filing system, you can create and
manage a computer filing system that is tailored to the way you work.

87

Changing the Active Disk Drive

The active disk drive is the drive the computer is currently “looking
at“ and will use when commands are issued or programs are loaded by the
operator. The prompt on the screen should display the letter of the
current or active disk drive. It Should look like either A:\Ready or A:>.
When you see the prompt, you can enter and run DOS commands.

To change the active disk drive simply type the letter of the new
disk drive followed by a colon and press <ENTER>. The prompt should
change and display the letter of the new disk drive.

To proceed with the activities of this lesson, you must make a disk
drive “active“ before creating subdirectories on a disk in that drive.

 

. —. -.-v-m

Practice Activity
CHANGING THE ACTIVE DISK DRIVE

1. Insert floppy diskette entitled, Work Disk, in drive B
2. Change active drive to B and note computer response
3. Change active drive back to A

 

 

 

 

Creating a Multl-Level File Structure

Suppose you work at a small company and provide services to two
departments: Marketing and Engineering. You keep all your papers in a
file drawer. You keep miscellaneous items in the front of the drawer,
the dividers labeled MKT and ENG separate the parts where you store
papers that relate to each department. Figure 9-1 shows how the file
drawer might look.

Now suppose you start using a computer. You can set up your
computer filing system to match your paper files by creating two
subdirectories named MKT and ENG. You can store all your miscellaneous
files -- such as DOS files -- in the main, or root, directory of the disk,
and you can store the files relating to each department in separate
subdirectories. Subdlrectories can be used to organize your files. Figure
9-2 shows the filing cabinet and a block diagram of this corresponding
DOS file structure.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 94. File drawer with divider:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MKT ENG

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 9-2. Taro-Irwifiie systems

Creating a Subdlrectory

The Make Directory (mkdir or md) command creates a subdirectory.
The only parameter you must include is the subdirectory name. The
command is described later in more detail; for now here is how you
would create two subdirectories named MKT and ENG: B>md mkt
B>md eng. Put a space between the MD and the subdirectory name.

 

Displaying the Active Directory

It Is often necessary to display on the screen what IS stored on the
diskette in the current drive. This is called a directory. A directory will
display the names of the files in the directory, the number of files on the
directory and the free storage space available on the disk. You can see
the subdirectories just created by displaying the entries in the root
directory. You would do this by typing: DIR. DOS shows two files,
named MKT and ENG:

 

 

Volume in drive 8 has no label
Directory of B:l

M<T <DIFI> 10-16-86 8:14a
BIL-i <0in 10-16-86 8:15a
2 file(s) 360448 bytes free

 

 

Note that the directory identifies the files as subdirectories by
displaying <DIR> alter their names.

The backslash N in the second line of the display is what DOS uses
to refer to the root directory of a disk. You've seen the backslash in
earlier directory displays; you'll see more of it and its uses in later
examples.

 

Practice Activity
DISPLAYING THE ACTIVE DIRECTORY ON THE SCREEN
1. Display the directory of the active disk on the screen
MAKING SUBDIRECTORIES
1. Make the drive containing the Work Disk active
g. Make three subdirectories called Letters, Contracts, and Minutes

. Display the directory of the disk to confirm that the three new
subdirectories exist

 

 

 

90

The Current Directory

Just as DOS keeps track of the current drive, it also keeps track of
the current directory. When you start DOS, the current drive is the drive
from which the DOS programs were loaded; the current directory is the
root directory of the current drive.

Just as you can change the current drive, you can change the current
directory, so that you don't have to type the path name each time you
want to work with a directory other than the current directory.

The Change Directory (Cd) command displays the name of, or changes,
the current directory. If you enter the command with no parameters, It
displays the name of the current directory. To see what the current
directory is, you would type: B>cd. The current directory is the root
directory, so the response is short: B:I.

It tells you that any command you enter will apply to the root
directory of the diskette In drive B. You can change the current directory
to the subdirectory named MKT by typing: B>Cd mkt. Put a space between
the CD and the subdirectory name.

DOS acknowledges merely by displaying the system prompt, but the
current directory could be displayed again by typing: B>cd. DOS responds:
B:lMKT.

Note: The current directory name is often automatically displayed in
the screen prompt.

 

91

Now any command you enter applies to the subdirectory MKT in the
root directory. To display the subdirectory MKT you would type the
Directory command again and press enter: B>dir. DOS displays the
entries in the subdirectory \MKT:

 

Volume in drive 8 has no label
Directory of B:IMKT

<DIR> 10-16-86 8:14a
<DIR> 10-16-86 8:15a
2 file(s) 360448 bytes free

 

 

 

Your diskette now has the directory Structure shown in Figure 92.
You can use each of these directories as if it were a separate disk.

To return to the root directory (to make the root directory the
current directory) you would simply type: B>cdl.

 

Practice Activity
MOVING BETWEEN SUBDIRECTORIES

Make the drive containing the Work Disk active

Move into one of your subdirectories

Display Its directory

Move out of the subdirectory (return to root directory)

99°F?

Note: You Must return to the root directory before moving into a
different subdirectory.

 

 

 

92

Making a Subdlrectory --
The MD Command

AS you saw earlier, the Make Directory (md) command creates a
subdirectory. The Make Directory command has two parameters:
md <drive><name>.

<drive> is the letter, followed by a colon, of the drive that contains
the disk on which the subdirectory is to be created (such as B:) If you
omit <drive>, DOS creates the subdirectory on the disk in the current
drive.

<name> is the name of the subdirectory to be created.

Changing the Current Directory --
The CD Command

You have already used the Change Directory (Cd) command to change
and display the current directory. The Change Directory command has
two parameters: cd <drive><name>.

<drive> is the letter, followed by a colon, of the drive that contains
the disk on which the current directory is to be changed (such as B:). If
you omit <drive>, DOS changes the current directory on the disk in the
current drive.

<name> is the name of the directory that is to become the current
directory. If you omit <name>, DOS displays the current directory on
<dnve>.

If you omit both <drive> and <name> (enter the command with no
parameters), DOS displays the current directory of the disk In the
current drive.

run- v'r - _.

 

regal...

93

APPENDIX B

PHASE TWO
HIGH VERBIAGEIACTIVITIES AT END OF LESSON

 

PHASE TWO

 

 

Go through this lesson at your normal pace. There Is no time
limit. During Phase Two, use the computer only for the
designated activities.

When you are finished with Phase Two, return It to the proctor
table to receive Phase Three.

 

94

When DOS formats a disk, one thing it does is create a directory that
describes each of the files on the disk. The directory holds a fixed
number of entries: 64 on a single-sided diskette, 112 on a double-sided
diskette, 224 on a high-capacity diskette, and 512 or more on a fixed
disk (the number varies with the size of the disk).

To make your computer filing system more flexible, DOS lets you
create additional directories, called subdirectories, on a disk. The
subdirectories divide the disk Into different Storage areas, each of which
you can use as if It were a different disk.

To distinguish the main directory that DOS creates from the
subdirectories that you create, the main directory is known. as the root
directory because, as you will see, a multi-level directory Structure can
grow from it.

As you add levels to your file structure, a block diagram would show
it spreading from the root directory and branching to other directories,
like a tree branches from Its root. This type of file structure is often
called a tree-structure file system, and is the reason for the name root
directory.

Defining a Subdlrectory

A subdirectory is simply a file that contains directory entries; these
entries are identical in form to the entries in the main directory, but
there is no limit to the number of entries there can be in a subdirectory.

You name a subdirectory as you name any other file, but because the
subdirectory defines other files, you cannot use the normal file
commands to copy or erase a subdirectory. This chapter shows you how
to use several commands that enable you to do the following:

Change the current disk drive

Create a subdirectory with the Make Directory command

Change the current directory with the Change Directory command
Display the current directory with the Directory command

Using these features of the DOS filing system, you can create and
manage a computer filing system that is tailored to the way you work.

95

Changing the Active Disk Drive

The active disk drive is the drive the computer is currently ”looking
at“ and will use when commands are issued or programs are loaded by the
operator. The prompt on the screen should display the letter of the
current or active disk drive. It Should look like either A:\Ready or A:>.
When you see the prompt, you can enter and run DOS commands.

To change the active disk drive simply type the letter of the new
disk drive followed by a colon and press <ENTER>. The prompt should
change and display the letter of the new disk drive.

To proceed with the activities of this lesson, you must make a disk
drive “active“ before creating subdirectories on a disk in that drive.

Creating a MultI-Level File Structure

Suppose you work at a small company and provide services to two
departments: Marketing and Engineering. You keep all your papers in a
file drawer. You keep miscellaneous items in the front of the drawer,
the dividers labeled MKT and ENG separate the parts where you store
papers that relate to each department. Figure 9-1 shows how the file
drawer might look.

Now suppose you Start using a computer. You can set up your
computer filing system to match your paper files by creating two
subdirectories named MKT and ENG. You can Store all your miscellaneous
files -- such as DOS files -- in the main, or root, directory of the disk,
and you can Store the files relating to each department in separate
subdirectories. Subdirectories can be used to organize your files. Figure
9-2 shows the filing cabinet and a block diagram of this corresponding
DOS file structure.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 94. File drawer with dividers

 

96

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 94. File drawer with dividers

Creating a Subdirectory

The Make Directory (mkdir or md) command creates a subdirectory.
The only parameter you must include is the subdirectory name. The
command is described later in more detail; for now here is how you
would create two subdirectories named MKT and ENG: B>md mkt
B>md eng. Put a space between the MD and the subdirectory name.

Displaying the Active Directory

It is often necessary to display on the screen what is stored on the
diskette in the current drive. This is called a directory. A directory will
display the names of the files in the directory, the number of flies on the
directory and the free storage space available on the disk. You can see
the subdirectories just created by displaying the entries in the root
directory.

 

97

You would do this by typing: DIR. DOS shows two files, named MKT and
ENG:

 

Volume in drive 8 has no label
Directory of B:l

MOT <DIFI> 10-16-88 8:148
EVE <DIFI> 10-16-86 8:158
2 file(s) 360448 bytes free

 

 

 

Note that the directory identifies the files as subdirectories by
displaying <DIR> after their names.

The backslash N in the second line of the display Is what DOS uses
to refer to the root directory of a disk. You've seen the backslash in
earlier directory displays: you'll see more of it and its uses in later
examples.

The Current Directory

Just as DOS keeps track of the current drive, it also keeps track of
the current directory. When you start DOS, the current drive is the drive
from which the DOS programs were loaded; the current directory is the
root directory of the current drive.

Just as you can change the current drive, you can change the current
directory, so that you don't have to type the path name each time you
want to work with a directory other than the current directory.

The Change Directory (Cd) command displays the name of, or changes,
the current directory. If you enter the command with no parameters, it
displays the name of the current directory. To see what the current
directory Is, you would type: B>cd. The current directory is the root
directory, so the response is short: B:I.

It tells you that any command you enter will apply to the root
directory of the diskette in drive B. You can change the current directory
to the subdirectory named MKT by typing: B>cd mkt. Put a space between
the CD and the subdirectory name.

DOS acknowledges merely by displaying the system prompt, but the
current directory could be displayed again by typing: B>cd. DOS responds:
B:IMKT.

Note: The current directory name is often automatically displayed in
the screen prompt.

 

Now any command you enter applies to the subdirectory MKT in the
root directory. To display the subdirectory MKT you would type the
Directory command again and press enter: B>dir. DOS displays the
entries In the subdirectory \MKT:

 

Volume in drive 8 has no label
Directory of B:IMKT

<DlR> 10-16-86 8:14a
<DlR> 10-16-86 8:15a
2 file (3) 360448 bytes free

 

 

 

Your diskette now has the directory Structure shown in Figure 9-2.
You can use each of these directories as if it were a separate disk.

To return to the root directory (to make the root directory the
current directory) you would simply type: B>cdl.

 

Making a Subdirectory --
The MD Command

AS you saw earlier, the Make Directory (md) command creates a
subdirectory. The Make Directory command has two parameters:
md <drive><name>.

<drive> is the letter, followed by a colon, of the drive that contains
the disk on which the subdirectory is to be created (such as B:) If you
omit <drive>, DOS creates the subdirectory on the disk in the current
drive.

<name> is the name of the subdirectory to be created.

Changing the Current Directory --
The CD Command

You have already used the Change Directory (cd) command to change
and display the current directory. The Change Directory command has
two parameters: cd <drive><name>.

<drive> is the letter, followed by a colon, of the drive that contains
the disk on which the current directory is to be changed (such as B:). If
you omit <drive>, DOS changes the current directory on the disk in the
current drive.

<name> is the name of the directory that is to become the current
directory. If you omit <name>, DOS displays the current directory on
<dnve>.

If you omit both <drive> and <name> (enter the command with no
parameters), DOS displays the current directory of the disk in the
current drive.

100

 

l CREATING AND USING SUBDIRECTORIES -- ACTIVITIESJ

At this time, use the computer to complete the following practice
activities.

CHANGING THE ACTIVE DISK DRIVE
1. insert floppy diskette entitled, Work Disk, in drive B
2. Change active drive to B and note computer response
3. Change active drive back to A

DISPLAYING THE ACTIVE DIRECTORY ON THE SCREEN E

1. Display the directory of the active disk on the screen

MAKING SUBDIRECTORIES

 

1. Make the drive containing the Work Disk active L
2. Make three subdirectories called Letters, Contracts, and Minutes
3. Display the directory of the disk to confirm that the three new

subdirectories exist

MOVING BETWEEN SUBDIRECTORIES

Make the drive containing the Work Disk active

Move into one of your subdirectories

Display its directory

Move out of the subdirectory (return to root directory)

PPP.‘

Note: You Must return to the root directory before moving into a
different subdirectory.

APPENDIX C
PHASE THREE

 

 

101

APPENDIX C

PHASE THREE

 

Please answer all of the following questions! Again, be
completely honest and open. Remember, all of your answers
will be kept anonymous.

When you are finished with Phase Three, return it to the
proctor table to receive Phase Four and return to your
computer.

 

 

102

SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE

DIRECTIONS: A number of statements which people have used to
describe themselves are given below. Read each statement and then
blacken in the appropriate circle to the right of the statement to
Indicate how you feel right now, that is, at this moment.
Specifically, how do you feel after having gone through the ’49

computer lesson. There are no right or wrong answers. Do not 06). ‘54,

spend too much time on any one statement but give the answer 4:9,, '5 .

which seems to describe your present feelings best. '59
21.. I feel-pleasant ................................................ {D
22. I feel nervous and restless. ...................................... (D
23. I feel satisfied with myself ..................................... O
24. I wish I could be as happy as Others seem to be ................. (D
25. I feel like a failure ...................... ' ..................... (D
26. Ifeel rested ..... - ....................... ' ..................... CD
27. I am “calm, cool. and collected” ............................... (D

28. I feel that difficulties are piling up so that I cannOt Overcome them 0

29. I worry too much over something that really doesn't matter ...... O
30. Iam happy ....... CD
3 l. I have dismrbing thoughts .................................... (D
32. I lack self-confidence ......................................... CD
33. I feel secure ................................................. O
34. I make decisions easily ........................................ O
35. I feel inadequate ‘ ............................................. CD
36. I am content ................................................. Q?
37. Some unimportant thought runs through my mind and bothers me O
38. I take disappointments so keenly that I can't put them out of my
mind ........................................................ O
39. I am a Steady person ......................................... O

40. 1 get in a state oftension or turmoil as I think over my recent concerns

and interests ................................................. (D

@OOOOOO

@OOOO

@689899899899969
(DOG)

@099999999999999

O (2)

63)
(e)

(:3)
@-

(2*)

('9)
(93)
IE)

(3)

103

Participant Reactionnaire

Please be frank and honest in answering the following questions. Remember, you are our prime
source of information regarding what needs to be revised.

Key: SA means you strongly agree; A means you agree; U means you are uncertain; D means you

disagree; and SD means you strongly disagree.

 

d
a

OWVGUI-hwh)

_e
O

A
d

12.
13.

14.

15.
18.

17.

I had sufficient prerequisites to prepare me for this lesson.

I was often unsure of what, exactly, I was supposed to be Ieaming.
The materials were often boring.

The learning activities were appropriate.

This lesson was well organized.

There was too much information in this lesson.

Parts of the lesson were unclear. I often needed to reread the material.

lwasoftenlost,anddld notknowhowtoproceed.

The Ieaming activities did not come early enough in the session.

. The materials were well designed. I could easily follow the

instructions and perform the activities.

. i would like to use this self-study learning format again to learn

more about this subject.
i had difficulty successfully completing the practice activities.

The vocabulary used contained many unfamiliar words. I often did
not understand what was going on.

The quiz questions after the lesson did a good job of testing my
knowledge of the main points in the lesson.

There were too few learning activities.

At the end of the lesson I was uncertain about a lot of things and had
to guess on many of the quiz questions.

I believe I learned a lot, considering the time spent on this lesson.

SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA

SA

SA
SA

SA

SA

>>>>>>>>>

SAA

SA

SAA

CCCCCCCCC

000000000

SD
SD
SD
SD
SD
SD
SD
SD
SD

SD

SD
SD

SD

SD
SD

SD
SD

 

104

18. I would recommend extensive modifications to the lesson before
using it again. SA A U D SD

19. After completing the lesson, I was more interested in and/or
favorably impressed with the general subject matter than I

was before the lesson. SA A U D SD

20. The objectives of the lesson were of great interest to me personally. SA A U D SD

 

105

Creating and Using Subdirectories

Quick Quiz Circle m answer for each question

'1. When you see A> on the screen, you are able to:

A. boot the system

B enter your data

C return to DOS

D. enter and run DOS commands

2. The A> is called a:

A. status Line

B directory

C command Line
D. prompt

3. When you see A> on the screen, the "A" tells you:

A. to place a data diskette in drive A

B that drive A is active

C that drive A is ready to become active
D. To place the program disk in drive A

4. To change the active drive from "A" to "B", type:

A. A: and press <ENTER>
B A: B: and press <ENTER>
C B: and press <ENTER>
D. B: A: and press <ENTER>

5. To display the directory of the active drive (A), type:

A. A: DIR and press <ENTER>

B DIRECTORY and press <ENTER>
C DIR and press <ENTER>

D. Any of the above Options

106

6. A directory listing of the active drive will display:

the number of files in the directory

the names of the files in the directory

the amount of free storage space on the diskette
All of the above

pom?

7. A subdirectory is used to:

A. visually display imbedded commands
B list all directories on the disk

C organize your files

D all of the above

8. The DOS command used to create a subdirectory called NOTES is:

A. CD NOTES
B. CDIR NOTES
C. MD NOTES
D. DIR NOTES

9. The DOS command used to move into a subdirectory called NOTES is:

A. CD NOTES
B. CDIR NOTES
O. NO NOTES
D. DIR NOTES

10. The DOS command used to return to the root directory is:

CD \
CDIR \
MD \
DIR \

pom?

APPENDIX D

 

PHASE FOUR

 

107

APPENDIX D

PHASE FOUR

 

Raise your hand to let a proctor know you are ready to proceed.
The proctor will help you with Phase Four of the lesson.

When you are finished with Phase Four, quietly leave the room.

CREATING AND USING SUBDIRECTORIES

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

. Yes

108

NO
No
No
No

NO

.7!

v—.v--
.. .-

 

APPENDIX E

PROCTOR INSTRUCTIONS

 

109

APPENDIX E

PROCTOR INSTRUCTIONS

General Information

1. Be sure to welcome all participate and thank them for taking part In the study.
2. Distribute the packets In chronological order.

3. Never use the word anxiety when interacting with participants.

4. All materials for a participant are In manllla folders. As materials are returned to you, place
them back In the approriate manllla folder.

5. Make sure thm there Is no Interaction between participants during the session.

6. Do not offer participants content assistance. If they have questions, politely tell them that they
should do what they think Is right and move on. If they are having equipment difficulties, feel
free to help them.

Specific Instructions

1. Explain to each participant that this experiment ls testing self-study training materials. It is
therefore very important that you do not talk to other putlcipants during the session.

2. Have the participants read and sign the consent form.

3. Give the participant the pretest. lnforrn them that all responses will be completely anonymous.
Askthemtocompletethefonnsthoroughlyandhonestlyandreturnthe pretesttoyouwhen
they are finished.

4. When the pretest is returned, place It In the manllla folder and give the participant their lesson.
Also, record their Start Lesson timing next to their code number on the Summary Sheet.

5. When the lesson is returned to you, place it In the manllla folder and record their End Lesson
timing next to their code number on the Summary Sheet.

6. Give the participant a posttest. Again, remind them that all responses are completely
anonymous and ask them to complete the forms thoroughly and honestly and return them to you.

7. When the posttest ls returned. ask another proctor to conduct the performance evaluation.
Give the Performance Evaluation Form to the proctor who will do the evaluation.

8. When the performance evaluation ls finished, the proctor should return the Performance
Evaluation Form and place it In the manllla folder.

Performance Evaluation

Ask the participant to perform each procedure on the evaluation form In the order listed. If they
cannot do the procedure reassure them, perform the procedure for them and move on to the next
procedure. Simply record a Yes or a No for each procedure to indicate whether they could perform
the procedure.

It Is very important that you do not give them hints or prompts as they attempt the procedures and
that you do not make any comments as to their ability or Inability. Be friendly but as 201821119. and

film as possible.

 

APPENDIX F

INSTRUCTIONS

 

a lumen-94.1“. . 22M -*- £41.41; :
a I

 

110

APPENDIX F

Instructions

We are testing a training lesson for the microcomputer.
The lesson ls self-paced and self-study. Work at your
normal rate.

Your performance during this session will not affect
your course grade. Your answers and responses will be
completely anonymous.

if you have problems with equipment - ask for help.
However, If you have questions about lesson content,
we can not help you. Just continue on with the lesson
and do your best.

 

Please answer all questions. Be honest and open.
Remember, all answers are completely anonymous.

Start by readying the release form. This form ls
required by Michigan State University. Sign and date
the form and return It to the lesson proctor. She will
then give you Phase 1 of the lesson.

The lesson will be In 4 Phases. When you are done with
a phase, simply return It to the lesson proctor and
receive the next phase. During the lesson, use the
computer only when Instructed to do so by lesson
activities.

When you are finished with Phase 3, get Phase 4 and
wait by the exit door. I need to meet with each of you
for approximately 1 minute, after which you are free to
leave for the evening.

APPENDIX G

CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH STUDY

 

111

APPENDIX G

CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH STUDY

I volunteer to participate in this experimental research study about
creating and using subdirectories on a microcomputer. I understand that
this study is being conducted by Jim Warner, a graduate student at
Michigan State University. The purpose of this study is to determine the
effectiveness of different methods of teaching computer skills to adult
learners through self-study techniques. The experiment will be
conducted in a computer lab on the campus of Michigan State University.
I understand that participation in this experimental exercise is not a
part of a MSU course, is completely voluntary and that participation will
in no way effect my grade. I understand that the information i give is
completely confidential and complete anonymity will be maintained
throughout the experiment. I understand that I am free to discontinue
the experiment at any time during the process and that there are no
guaranteed achievement results because of my involvement in the study.
I understand that I will not be penalized for non-participation or for
discontinuing my participation in the study. I understand that the
estimated time required to complete the experimental exercise is
approximately 2 hours.

 

 

Signature of Participant Signature of Researcher

 

 

Printed Name of Participant Printed Name of Researcher

 

Date

 

APPENDIX H

PERFORMANCE QUIZ SCRIPT

 

112

APPENDIX H

PERFORMANCE QUIZ SCRIPT

Phase 4 of the lesson is a brief performance quiz. I'm going to ask you to

do 5 things that you learned in the lesson. If you don't remember, just
let me know and we'll move on.

1.

2.

Can you change the active drive from A to B?
Can you display the directory of B on the screen?
Can you gm a subdirectory called NOTES?
Can you man into the subdirectory called NOTES?

Can you mm out of the subdirectory called NOTES, back to the root
directory?

That's itl Thank's for helping us out this afternoon.

 

Give each participant 2 chances to perform each procedure.

Wait approximately 15 seconds for each attempt.

Run the batch file GO before the next participant.

 

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